# PsychTerms

Public review preview; human review pending, not a finished dictionary release.

## 2-AG
<a id="2-ag"></a>

2-AG is an endogenous molecule called 2-arachidonoylglycerol that is normally broken down by the enzyme MGLL. When its levels rise, it increases cannabinoid receptor signaling in the central nervous system, which helps modulate neurotransmission and can reduce overactive neural signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ad4f998f99cc6295e36e6ef720cccc6dfed85e29b2dd431218aae903009bad2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Elcubragistat” (C148538).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## 2-arachidonoylglycerol
<a id="2-arachidonoylglycerol"></a>

2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) is an endogenous endocannabinoid that helps activate cannabinoid receptors, especially CB1 in the central nervous system. Its levels are normally reduced by the enzyme MGLL, and when 2-AG increases, endocannabinoid signaling is strengthened, which can dampen excessive neurotransmitter release and neural activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 57ad5b0aed5bdbbdd1775797aba7a4460603ceffa655c7d4ab907640fd7d143b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Elcubragistat” (C148538).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## 22q11.2 deletion syndrome
<a id="22q11-2-deletion-syndrome"></a>

22q11.2 deletion syndrome is a neurogenetic disorder linked to a markedly increased risk of schizophrenia and other psychosis-related symptoms. In psychology and psychiatry, it is often studied as a condition that can help identify cognitive, clinical, and brain-based markers of psychosis risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b1bec79ee11e75d1451e45038acec05b12e76efade5019fa714608697a1e454

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Padula Maria C.; Scariati Elisa; Schaer Marie; Eliez Stephan. A Mini Review on the Contribution of the Anterior Cingulate Cortex in the Risk of Psychosis in 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00372; article XML SHA-256 f7f79af1718902d1fedf97ef54176e7eb07bde58787e9ef470480462d17a8968. “A Mini Review on the Contribution of the Anterior Cingulate Cortex in the Risk of Psychosis in 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome” (10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00372).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00372). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine
<a id="3-4-dihydroxyphenylalanine"></a>

3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, also called DOPA, is a precursor chemical to dopamine. In this honey bee study, higher dietary tyrosine or royal jelly was linked with higher DOPA levels in the hemolymph and higher dopamine levels in venom.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4b0363a133f24ecf16a64fee797b94a09122b16db5a59470b6b2738b288f16c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hamano Motoharu; Niki Kazuya; Imamura Keiki; Sasaki Ken. Caste- and age-specific venom composition of biogenic amines and the influence of diet in honey bees. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338795; article XML SHA-256 5cee54887a6c8848b276f0ecfbed4c885a0e86e60daad981b099e08160ac2de3. “Caste- and age-specific venom composition of biogenic amines and the influence of diet in honey bees” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338795).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338795). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine
<a id="3-4-methylenedioxyamphetamine"></a>

3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine is an amphetamine-related hallucinogen that blocks the reuptake of catecholamine neurotransmitters. At high doses it can damage serotonin-producing neurons and has been used experimentally for that effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f5879f5faa588758f42c01141e8c0a0f452bdbaf1c82b649b0aabf55051c2cc6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine” (D015104).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015104). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## 5-HT
<a id="5-ht"></a>

5-HT, also called serotonin, is a biochemical messenger made from the essential amino acid tryptophan. In humans it is found mainly in the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and blood platelets, where it helps regulate functions such as neurotransmission, gut movement, blood clotting, and cardiovascular stability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90e106533f2e00309ed82ff8ca679513dd788e0df402f55629828dee8b4d40b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Serotonin” (D012701).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012701). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## 5-HTP
<a id="5-htp"></a>

5-HTP, or 5-hydroxytryptophan, is a biological substance made from tryptophan and is the immediate precursor the body uses to produce serotonin. It has also been used as an antiepileptic and antidepressant.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 480bf1885677258990a822a0349bca24dfdb8ae1086e1ceca2a561d8977c04a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “5-Hydroxytryptophan” (D006916).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006916). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## 5-hydroxytryptamine
<a id="5-hydroxytryptamine"></a>

5-hydroxytryptamine, or serotonin, is a chemical signaling substance made from the essential amino acid tryptophan. In people it is concentrated mainly in the brain and other parts of the central nervous system, the digestive tract, and platelets, where it helps regulate nerve signaling, movement of the gut, blood clotting, and the stability of the cardiovascular system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6bc681c01218298f9bd12e99a1e3eb3608be603e82b77dc9060df252c37771c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Serotonin” (D012701).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012701). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## 5-hydroxytryptophan
<a id="5-hydroxytryptophan"></a>

5-hydroxytryptophan is a biological substance made from tryptophan that directly precedes serotonin in the body’s serotonin production pathway. It has also been used for antidepressant and antiepileptic purposes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ffd01648f36eabc0c2a04290834df4b06d2478a0ebda6623ce402f05d369f95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “5-Hydroxytryptophan” (D006916).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006916). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## 6-hydroxydopamine
<a id="6-hydroxydopamine"></a>

6-hydroxydopamine is a neurotransmitter-like chemical that lowers noradrenaline stored in nerve endings and reduces dopamine levels in the brain. It does this through a mechanism linked to the formation of cell-damaging free radicals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e25a572ffc63b50212dd6f3ecb4bf17eba9dbd99044c0a16533d1baadf478a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oxidopamine” (D016627).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016627). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## 6-OHDA
<a id="6-ohda"></a>

6-OHDA is a neurotransmitter-like chemical that lowers noradrenaline in nerve endings and reduces dopamine in the brain. It does this through free-radical effects that damage cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84ed5b2d9af5131b983d21c993ee7807c623b4c8dd31680795ddd2c1a703bb98

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oxidopamine” (D016627).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016627). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## a-
<a id="a"></a>

In logic, A is the symbol for a universal affirmative statement, meaning that something is said to be true of all members of a group. An example is a statement like “all men are mortal.”

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c02e9e5b8a06d76ee0c4229a9ee8cbc79cd59acab33bce3f43d49c9ab811e977

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “A” (A).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#A). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## A-B design
<a id="a-b-design"></a>

An A-B design is a study approach used when a new policy or intervention is introduced and its effects are examined by comparing what happened before the change with what happened after it. In the source context, it is presented as a practical option when randomization, delaying the intervention, or blinding are not ethically or legally feasible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 84e1ee3ff164a2cb29db6c3f0b09010ba456358b41f3cbcd08b642e6cc054a08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Simpson Alexander I F; Penney Stephanie R; Fernane Stephanie; Wilkie Treena. The impact of structured decision making on absconding by forensic psychiatric patients: results from an A-B design study. 2015; DOI 10.1186/s12888-015-0474-1; article XML SHA-256 cc24a0d8c4d7b04c82365426827cd235c8988855469f542e45b59594096eb64e. “The impact of structured decision making on absconding by forensic psychiatric patients: results from an A-B design study” (10.1186/s12888-015-0474-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-015-0474-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## a posteriori
<a id="a-posteriori"></a>

A posteriori refers to ideas or reasoning that depend on experience. In this contrast, it is opposed to a priori thought and is associated with inductive reasoning rather than deduction from what is taken to be already given in the mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35f50db69a05fc47faffe5e9987baeaae10bdb9ab0b9a32b46704358988e463d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “A priori and A posteriori” (A priori and A posteriori).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#A priori and A posteriori). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## A1
<a id="a1"></a>

A1 refers to a very early beginner stage in language learning. In this packet, A1 learners are described as novice learners who especially benefit from carefully chosen vocabulary and strong visual support.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d678ebca0bdedb19c33a857ca0917f2cb92a69d304b782a1aab6333fa731f3b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ayhan Erçin. AI-supported visual-semantic word teaching from the perspective of educational psychology: instant gains in Turkish acquisition, computational choice, and learners’ psychological experience. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1906982; article XML SHA-256 53293d064c2c4292035c5bb40c45061ca678f75b5405c1ed0dcf529b313b436c. “AI-supported visual-semantic word teaching from the perspective of educational psychology: instant gains in Turkish acquisition, computational choice, and learners’ psychological experience” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1906982).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1906982). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AAI
<a id="aai"></a>

AAI stands for animal-assisted intervention, an intervention that includes an animal or interaction with an animal as part of the activity. In research on AAIs, effects may reflect both animal-specific influences and broader contextual factors such as therapeutic contact, social interaction, or novelty.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f4cf065a86fa1530026cd8db4282215d322786e4a7a1ead23b9146a89056b3de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wagner Cora; Grob Carmina; Hediger Karin. Specific and Non-specific Factors of Animal-Assisted Interventions Considered in Research: A Systematic Review. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.931347; article XML SHA-256 bdf99ba6453334bbf933af046b52654f6a3b7d7c6862443913dca8dce722db74. “Specific and Non-specific Factors of Animal-Assisted Interventions Considered in Research: A Systematic Review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.931347).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.931347). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ABA
<a id="aba"></a>

ABA stands for Applied Behavior Analysis. In this packet, it refers to comprehensive intervention approaches based on applied behavior analysis that are used in the treatment of children with autism spectrum disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1362518d1e79f07c1c80c8bcc625aa36b6780f4a777def16d64ad66fe486f739

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eckes Theresa; Buhlmann Ulrike; Holling Heinz-Dieter; Möllmann Anne. Comprehensive ABA-based interventions in the treatment of children with autism spectrum disorder – a meta-analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-04412-1; article XML SHA-256 c98701915afc8522b5b890465210a6fdbb19a05a5e50f6d0461cf8c08d6ddfa6. “Comprehensive ABA-based interventions in the treatment of children with autism spectrum disorder – a meta-analysis” (10.1186/s12888-022-04412-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-04412-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ABC theory
<a id="abc-theory"></a>

ABC theory here refers to the Attitude-Behavior-Context theory, a framework for understanding behavior by linking people’s attitudes with their actions in relation to contextual influences. In this source, it is used to study pro-environmental behavior and is extended by adding trust and identity as factors that can predict or modify how attitudes relate to behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d2cbbfe2f453c1d51ce43dfe64418a0d98dbaaaef7f123ee1208e28fb61c81fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xing Yunfeng; Li Mengqi; Liao Yuanhong. Trust, Identity, and Public-Sphere Pro-environmental Behavior in China: An Extended Attitude-Behavior-Context Theory. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.919578; article XML SHA-256 986d7a4f0663423c21d068fd0945e47743df4d1572188ca187c6ec9e823aca42. “Trust, Identity, and Public-Sphere Pro-environmental Behavior in China: An Extended Attitude-Behavior-Context Theory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.919578).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.919578). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ABCL
<a id="abcl"></a>

ABCL refers to the Adult Behavior Checklist, an assessment form for adults aged 18 to 59 that gathers information from people who know the adult well. It is used alongside the Adult Self-Report to evaluate adult behavioral and emotional problems across settings, with scores compared to age- and sex-based norms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5dbf489fbfc616d73514ff3cc77e77f65d8375732d910f314c0aec7184863bf1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment-Adult Self-Report and Adult Behavior Checklist” (C165713).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## abducens nerve
<a id="abducens-nerve"></a>

The abducens nerve is the sixth cranial nerve. It begins in the pons and carries motor signals to the eye’s lateral rectus muscle, helping control side-to-side eye movement; injury to the nerve or its nucleus can impair horizontal eye movements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bfbc04a0a33ab99ba2bb64e352579923d735ed3cbf4bdd9cb6f36556c389be06

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Abducens Nerve” (D000010).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000010). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## abducens nucleus
<a id="abducens-nucleus"></a>

The abducens nucleus is a group of nerve cells in the pontine tegmentum that serves as the nucleus of the abducens nerve.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a99a8067f8be237fe3d2067491b6a00fbdfa9f27061bd869658afd95f7f6201

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Abducens Nucleus” (D065827).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065827). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ability
<a id="ability"></a>

Ability is the quality of being able to do something. It refers to a capacity that makes achievement or accomplishment possible or easier.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c6ed5d7c1f32fc6d651961cd3f899da84c6a83c5bf75a67d50d37ad4ae66bb5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ability” (C78209).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ability level
<a id="ability-level"></a>

Ability level is a person’s degree of performance on the ability a test is measuring. In testing research, it is often used to divide examinees into groups, such as higher-ability groups, to compare scores or check whether items function similarly across those groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2809c5823d9fcb2df6d5012a0d02159cb68b82a9addfead3ecfd24959b6cf66e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Darandari Eqbal Z; Almeri Muna A. Performance differences with and without differential item functioning in the post graduate admission test in Saudi Arabia based on gender and ability level. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1515316; article XML SHA-256 24bf809d626131d9355d73f8d89d2db14924c1c0980a09f0a13f7b8ad537b599. “Performance differences with and without differential item functioning in the post graduate admission test in Saudi Arabia based on gender and ability level” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1515316).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1515316). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ability trait
<a id="ability-trait"></a>

An ability trait is an underlying, not directly observed capacity that is inferred from related measures or behaviors. In this source, it refers to a latent physical ability that is estimated indirectly from step-count data and self-reported physical activity measures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0bbce2b61cc7756c35ed86e84c35ef88c7f049845b45a96462ab7b100f41fe6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Turner Simon; Chen Chen; Acosta Rolando; Chon Rachell; Daza Eric J; Floden Lysbeth; Langford Joss; Simmatis Leif; Terluin Berend; Vandendriessche Benjamin; Fromy Piper. Methods for analytical validation of novel digital clinical measures: A simulation study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308190; article XML SHA-256 7cf4b233680a543b92f70a819471d230a52263832c59d7fd182fb4ae266b241c. “Methods for analytical validation of novel digital clinical measures: A simulation study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308190).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308190). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ableism
<a id="ableism"></a>

Ableism is a pattern of beliefs and actions that devalue, exclude, or mistreat people with disabilities by judging them against able-bodied norms. It can show up as stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination, social exclusion, oppression, or abusive and exploitative behavior at individual, organizational, or societal levels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e96263b0507fea45b38c4ec5bd4d934cb8c431e911e6c8b48bebc77376e92c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lindsay Sally; Phonepraseuth Janice; Slothouber Van; Lo Jaden; Stinson Jennifer N; Smile Sharon. Perspectives of racially minoritized youth with disabilities on addressing ableism and other forms of discrimination. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338179; article XML SHA-256 b339a4f54fa5c355330cf02df182ba05a12618e7529f4b1e8cdaf6084579aa26. “Perspectives of racially minoritized youth with disabilities on addressing ableism and other forms of discrimination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338179).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338179). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ablution
<a id="ablution"></a>

Ablution is a washing rite performed before prayer. In the source, it is described as the act that precedes prayer at the five set times of day in orthodox Sunni Islamic practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b5f49a82cba2345841d973c075515d6545e4acd901a9d1b7db48e599a7d3ffda

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mohammedanism” (Mohammedanism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M4defs.htm#Mohammedanism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## abnormal
<a id="abnormal"></a>

Abnormal describes something that differs from what is considered the usual or expected norm. It can refer to a departure in state, position, structure, condition, behavior, or rules.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3ce9c7c48401ce232d477043dc0970ea4c282f0de84b53860f805deba77b0850

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Abnormal” (C25401).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## abnormal psychology
<a id="abnormal-psychology"></a>

Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with mental processes and experiences that differ from what is considered usual or normal. In a broad sense, it covers unusual mental phenomena as well as disturbances, impairments, and forms of mental disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5d96feca603dbdc05a9bc9cf505d9fee2efa2430a1eb078336f7cc894b55792f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Abnormal Psychology” (Abnormal Psychology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Abnormal Psychology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## abortion laws
<a id="abortion-laws"></a>

Abortion laws are the legal rules that determine when and under what conditions a pregnancy may be terminated. In the source material, they are described as changing over time from restrictive, indication-based rules to more liberal access, including abortion on request within set gestational limits and reporting requirements for hospitals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 10b21db692e52ee0f9bbb33fa205fbebcd57198b78cb7fdb674f9e5414b3358d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Skjeldestad Finn Egil; Gissler Mika; Geirsson Reynir Tómas; Heino Anna; Sigbjörnsdottir Hildur Björk; Akerkar Rupali; Gemzell-Danielsson Kristina; Heikinheimo Oskari; Løkeland Mette. Trends over 50 years with liberal abortion laws in the Nordic countries. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305701; article XML SHA-256 e5417bad5fa66eaeb9c81ca917838956d6db25ab328fa9ec1ed77fc619bbc603. “Trends over 50 years with liberal abortion laws in the Nordic countries” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305701).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305701). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aboulia
<a id="aboulia"></a>

Aboulia is a loss or marked lack of the ability to use or exercise one’s will. It refers to a weakness of volition that can appear in different forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7acf6f6f666ac114857d871ed66fb0559fa381a3864a0b1aeea43cda088dc590

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aboulia” (Aboulia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Aboulia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ABPP
<a id="abpp"></a>

ABPP refers to amyloid-beta precursor protein, a human protein made from the APP gene. It helps with receptor-related signaling at the cell surface and can be cut into several smaller products, including soluble peptides, membrane-bound fragments, components of amyloid plaques, regulatory molecules, and neurotoxic fragments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a30d3762c4f28bcd1db1c0b59a8871a8217a4e853cd15e6f79ba77530829b32f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Amyloid Beta A4 Protein” (C16285).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ABR
<a id="abr"></a>

ABR, or auditory brainstem response, is an objective neurological test that measures how the auditory nerve and brainstem pathways respond to sound. It is used to assess hearing-related nerve pathways and to help identify suspected abnormalities involving the eighth cranial nerve and related auditory pathways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5f9be09464d61f2145b0240e48639d279f753c8fc1bd9f3e8a777930f3c9db7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Auditory Brainstem Response” (C184949).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## abreaction
<a id="abreaction"></a>

Abreaction is a psychotherapy process in which a person becomes less sensitive to emotionally painful memories, often ones that have been forgotten or repressed, by bringing them back to mind and expressing their reactions to them in a safe therapeutic setting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 400b11fe5444a140d6170fd91ae52295b5b2871d3eea0443ea91f3693cd7b6f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Abreaction” (D000035).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000035). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## absence
<a id="absence"></a>

Absence means that something is not present or not occurring in a given situation, such as when no training effects are found. In psychology writing, it is used to indicate the lack of a specific influence, condition, or result.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3f6c0adbc433d7d1f8a5657b647c18d3d8b5fb21c28687ea51ac5cd83007d704

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Klöbl M.; Robinson S. D.; Silberbauer L. R.; Reed M. B.; Sahl A.; Gomola D.; Hahn A.; Lanzenberger R.. Subjective regulation success mediates the influence of neurofeedback performance on mood in the absence of training effects. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1743425; article XML SHA-256 855b3cac524c8e3906f571796de8dda0f907180aa1b7adc976ac8e09e645ce11. “Subjective regulation success mediates the influence of neurofeedback performance on mood in the absence of training effects” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1743425).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1743425). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## absence seizure
<a id="absence-seizure"></a>

An absence seizure is a type of generalized seizure marked by a brief period of reduced awareness or impaired consciousness. It may happen with or without movement-related signs such as clonic-tonic activity, automatisms, or autonomic changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2caaeaeba7e7a113d7504ddddada994b9e2dd92ed6cacd7f3197b4f22acb6e9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Absence Seizure” (C50436).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## absent-mindedness
<a id="absent-mindedness"></a>

Absent-mindedness is a state in which attention is so strongly focused on one thought or part of experience that other things in awareness are overlooked. In a more persistent or abnormal form, it involves habitual preoccupation, reduced awareness of surroundings, and difficulty shifting attention from one focus to another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3d31d988c161f3d39de6e02a974d4d227e6e725fe0429b656a325d0bf097fa3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Absent-mindedness” (Absent-mindedness).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Absent-mindedness). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## absolute difference
<a id="absolute-difference"></a>

Absolute difference is the distance between two numbers without regard to which one is larger. It is found by taking the absolute value of their difference, so reversing the numbers gives the same result.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab9f311f3d58755d2b25414bdf09b672571869f074bb2190eedd330a34935592

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Absolute Deviation” (absolute_deviation.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/absolute_deviation.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## absolute idealism
<a id="absolute-idealism"></a>

Absolute idealism is a metaphysical view, especially associated here with Hegel, that reality is fully the expression of reason or mind, so that what is real and what is rational ultimately coincide. More broadly, it includes theories that explain the universe and its development as the realization of reason, self-consciousness, or spirit rather than as mere material or mechanical fact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b9a4ff317d502a9ba1bfc50c4ddd6ff1a0f6d1f4f97b47d104a22b06d890c5c3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Idealism” (Idealism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Idealism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## absolute pitch
<a id="absolute-pitch"></a>

Absolute pitch is the ability to identify a musical note directly from the sound itself, without relying on its relationship to other notes or a tonal context. In the source, it is described as an automatic, stimulus-driven way of coding pitch and is presented as uncommon.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3a3313b22eba2ade8b458e353686e3a74b80815938516f43f3c6855dd9a383a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shibayama Karen; Shimada Hitoshi; Itoh Kosuke. Cognitive control in music: adaptive strategies for relative pitch across the absolute-pitch proficiency continuum. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1723224; article XML SHA-256 6abd78a7d396e01c7df2cf5df1e0e57cac62992f3ee0736a9043167a6bdeba93. “Cognitive control in music: adaptive strategies for relative pitch across the absolute-pitch proficiency continuum” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1723224).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1723224). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## absolute reality
<a id="absolute-reality"></a>

Absolute reality refers to an ultimate unity in which the knower and what is known are not separate, but form one whole. In this historical usage, it means the total reality that includes the universe and human thought and action, especially as the source of what is most universal and valuable in human experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 909addf4c21cab10d840f96082c152dfa2c4b4d76c75dceb65f8ba9c6b839a8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Oversoul” (Oversoul).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O2defs.htm#Oversoul). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## absolute refractory period
<a id="absolute-refractory-period"></a>

The absolute refractory period is the brief time after an action potential when a cell membrane is temporarily unable to respond to any new stimulus. During this phase, no stimulus can trigger another response as the membrane returns toward its resting, excitable state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e04aa4216d6ba25d424e92b80ead31dc632e7fce8b9aad365ce58f4ba2a00b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Refractory Period, Electrophysiological” (D012032).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012032). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## absolute value
<a id="absolute-value"></a>

In this study, absolute value means taking a number without regard to whether it is positive or negative, so only its size matters. Here, an orienting-response score with an absolute value above 2 was treated as showing that a response was present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2085b3a92576cf148fda95f0e5b0683187039694eec3bdb0e0e8e93b01f0b403

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Katagiri Mako; Nakamoto Isuzu; Uiji Sayaka; Wakamura Tomoko. A new experimental method for evaluating the effectiveness of auditory signals under realistic background noise conditions: A randomized controlled pilot study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344350; article XML SHA-256 25d6621c8d4c68fb2f8b9ee236d1530e7435162d3d94e5a6809faab5ecfaf921. “A new experimental method for evaluating the effectiveness of auditory signals under realistic background noise conditions: A randomized controlled pilot study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344350).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344350). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## absolutism
<a id="absolutism"></a>

Absolutism, in aesthetics, is the view that beauty is objective rather than dependent on the observer, so there can be a fixed standard for judging what is beautiful. In this view, differences in taste reflect differences in people’s ability to recognize or appreciate that objective beauty.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 23c4fb30e4d69c659adeb1faabea04bcba79849e957ef06e46bc93da67fb5dfc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Absolutism (aesthetic)” (Absolutism (aesthetic)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Absolutism (aesthetic)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## abstinence rule
<a id="abstinence-rule"></a>

In this context, the abstinence rule is a requirement that patients with alcohol-related liver disease show a period of not drinking alcohol, often six months, before they can be accepted onto a liver transplant waiting list. The article presents it as an access rule that creates an ethical tension for clinicians who must both care for patients and monitor whether this requirement has been met.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c020920cb73a110f7784199b9401d0043ed4f7d4c07eb2371532ddd4a4d2b6c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Binder Annette; Fenchel Julia; Lang Immanuel; Batra Anil. The dual role dilemma of liver transplantation health care professionals. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12910-023-00923-y; article XML SHA-256 8fe29bac96314917d3932f66cfff3b682a83a7361e287318461ee2dbc98653da. “The dual role dilemma of liver transplantation health care professionals” (10.1186/s12910-023-00923-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-023-00923-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## abstinence syndrome
<a id="abstinence-syndrome"></a>

Abstinence syndrome is a group of symptoms that can appear after stopping an abused substance. The signs differ by substance and can include irritability, shaking, and vomiting, and the course depends on how well the withdrawal symptoms are managed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6e7f936cf51eb807edb2c4a290b4e26c4cc92d251b6f40a57b3bb6a4f5dde6a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Abstinence Syndrome” (C35808).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## abstract ability
<a id="abstract-ability"></a>

Abstract ability is a part of cognitive functioning that is assessed as one of the domains in the Montreal Cognitive Assessment. In this source, it is treated as a cognitive dimension alongside areas such as attention, language, delayed recall, and orientation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: faf8695d3f416c6c46e7b4e6a6728480f7423191bef36e98219f6bd2b06acb85

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Xueyan; Zhang Jiesong; Chen Chen; Lu Zhonghai; Zhang Dongfeng; Li Suyun. The association between physical activity and cognitive function in the elderly in rural areas of northern China. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnagi.2023.1168892; article XML SHA-256 fef130164fcc98de866a34af991eaa512e8f3fb01e6f2a3fc8eef88ca0222f1c. “The association between physical activity and cognitive function in the elderly in rural areas of northern China” (10.3389/fnagi.2023.1168892).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1168892). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## abstract idea
<a id="abstract-idea"></a>

An abstract idea is a mental grasp of the shared qualities or attributes of something, considered on their own rather than as they appear in many separate examples. It goes beyond a general idea by setting aside the different instances and focusing only on the common character, such as thinking of humanity rather than particular people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7423f881f99726e6f12e705f13f0acb4bbd32f6bd7afdaebe9dd2366af6220a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Abstract Idea” (Abstract Idea).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Abstract Idea). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## abstract word
<a id="abstract-word"></a>

An abstract word is a word whose meaning is tied more to events, mental states, or context than to a specific, clearly bounded object. In this account, abstract words are understood as depending less on direct sensorimotor experience and more on situational and introspective information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd2b7a833739a8db000f8b31715e3949d8e55beb64115c9d27a2f778bf93faa1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Ying; Zhang Zurui. The effect of emotional valence on concrete and abstract words in L2 lexical processing among Chinese–English learners. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766572; article XML SHA-256 c6251f9a09d1c6ff47ff1ef067b095c2b5fcb7485f1ab8a75cf731be6a2577dd. “The effect of emotional valence on concrete and abstract words in L2 lexical processing among Chinese–English learners” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766572).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766572). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## abstraction
<a id="abstraction"></a>

Abstraction is the mental process of focusing attention on features of something that matter for a current purpose while recognizing and setting aside features that do not. In thought, it helps a person connect a part or quality of one experience with similar parts or qualities in other experiences, rather than staying with the whole original context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 573d5758baee41f01854de52c6c9ce62cb5ff08ac233e747c324da71dad287bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Abstraction” (Abstraction).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Abstraction). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## abulia
<a id="abulia"></a>

Abulia is a loss or marked lack of the ability to exercise will. It refers to weakened or absent volition and may appear in different forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 41b93840234d8bc38504cbb995f0c5999df0f66ab006349aa21cf028895eb0fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aboulia” (Aboulia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Aboulia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ACA
<a id="aca"></a>

ACA refers to the anterior cerebral artery, one of two arteries that branch from the internal carotid artery and form part of the Circle of Willis. The left and right anterior cerebral arteries are linked by the anterior communicating artery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5eaa4e13bb4080d4a671fa41770d37bf9740911df4fc358913cd71221164aac9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Anterior Cerebral Artery” (C12829).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## academic
<a id="academic"></a>

Academic refers to the college, university, or institute setting associated with study and scholarly life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47fbeaaf64e0f9f424a566c49013d1dacf0e233a70c70453d1b0dc424f52ecae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Academia” (C18240).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## academic achievement
<a id="academic-achievement"></a>

Academic achievement is the extent to which a person engages in meaningful educational activities, gains the intended knowledge and skills, and is satisfied with that progress. It also includes persistence in education and reaching desired educational outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d89dc27c7fa72a11e38585534ffd0b703fff142fb3cf6d11e0614cb601e60e22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Academic Success” (D000076363).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000076363). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## academic failure
<a id="academic-failure"></a>

Academic failure is a student’s unsuccessful effort to achieve academically, or a clear inadequacy in scholarship or study. It is different from underachievement, which means performing below what would be expected based on measured aptitude or intelligence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59a7d306aba799655c3603c8661198675f1e7ba7000ad08c8b1acf4eebf56a07

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Academic Failure” (D000075022).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000075022). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## academic intervention
<a id="academic-intervention"></a>

Academic intervention is added educational support or changes in the learning environment used to reduce barriers and help students manage academic challenges. In this source, it refers to support needed before entry into medical school and during training for first-generation students.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c42ecac4b6561cf0ff3b7d869dd08940bda092401a79a43a824abe0fce60543a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Romero Bethsabe; Burbage Amanda K.. First-generation medical school applicants: A quantitative study designed to identify areas of educational support. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342616; article XML SHA-256 3a329cc9cdcb22b30b639095fe984e7a4797588ecc3867d918ec30d8a5fbf204. “First-generation medical school applicants: A quantitative study designed to identify areas of educational support” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342616).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342616). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## academic self-concept
<a id="academic-self-concept"></a>

Academic self-concept is a student’s self-evaluation of their academic abilities. It is a self-related academic belief linked to confidence, motivation, cognitive development, and engagement in learning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d880e8baebd40507f9817d0c7a13ae39f7245e9318003b8628d673f56c058d92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Yuzhen; Jiang Runjie; Zhang Keshun; Song Shuang. Dynamic relationships among first-year university students’ critical thinking, academic self-concept, and student engagement: a cross-lagged study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1846917; article XML SHA-256 0ee21f9c66bb24f902b57d353b2996f82730e63a69d8a770a8ca06dcfa84bc99. “Dynamic relationships among first-year university students’ critical thinking, academic self-concept, and student engagement: a cross-lagged study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1846917).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1846917). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acalculia
<a id="acalculia"></a>

Acalculia is a loss or reduction of the ability to do simple mathematical tasks that develops after the skill was previously present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a91e6b3cb122c08faec37beaba64bf0aa3bfa6b489d0ba23a26a1e2834238d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Acalculia” (C219773).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acamprosate
<a id="acamprosate"></a>

Acamprosate is a substance related in structure to taurine that is used to help prevent relapse in people with alcoholism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2a2fc76ee8031a2d72a1d13e9a140d99205d2a8db2fcc03a8defe53a936519f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Acamprosate” (D000077443).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077443). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acatamathesia
<a id="acatamathesia"></a>

Acatamathesia is an inability to understand ordinary conversation, along with dulled perception. In this historical source, it is described as a degenerative sign seen in some chronic forms of insanity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9a48d593996a58fbb2065630cbdf79dc8288f7dfaeb2b43aa6aef46fe8a80b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Acatamathesia” (Acatamathesia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Acatamathesia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acataphasia
<a id="acataphasia"></a>

Acataphasia is a speech disorder in which a person can understand and say words, but cannot put them together properly in a sentence. It is an aphasic problem affecting the syntactic, or sentence-order, relationships among words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 896af663e61d3757698a10d1462a0f1a6d92f78143205ef2f37912fcb7fee437

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Acataphasia” (Acataphasia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Acataphasia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acceleration
<a id="acceleration"></a>

Acceleration is the historical idea that new traits or changes in a developmental line first appear in later stages of growth and, over generations, come to show up at progressively earlier stages, sometimes even in the embryo. In this sense, it refers to an earlier appearance in development of characteristics that were originally seen later.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: edabeb5471a468229938aa36643307e046047bb4edd994c22f05e6cb0346f15f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Acceleration” (Acceleration).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Acceleration). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acceleration forces
<a id="acceleration-forces"></a>

Acceleration forces are the biomechanical forces produced when the head is rapidly sped up or its motion is changed. In this context, they refer to the head-movement forces used to model the kind of mechanical impact seen in human mild traumatic brain injury.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1f4a7f1f72a2ce65e20de8b9e0d472a08389494bc21d14d87987a2d6e47a4529

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hiskens Matthew I; Schneiders Anthony G; Vella Rebecca K; Fenning Andrew S. Repetitive mild traumatic brain injury affects inflammation and excitotoxic mRNA expression at acute and chronic time-points. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0251315; article XML SHA-256 b98450a5b08f3eb31fae175dad1e013caf3ce933e6008819597c495088363e1d. “Repetitive mild traumatic brain injury affects inflammation and excitotoxic mRNA expression at acute and chronic time-points” (10.1371/journal.pone.0251315).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251315). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## accent
<a id="accent"></a>

Accent is a term in phonology for differences in the quality, pitch, or stress of vowel sounds, and it can also refer to the written marks used to show those pronunciation differences. The word is also used more loosely for the characteristic coloring of pronunciation in a person’s or community’s speech.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2a5234cb7df849390e3f9ef0933155be2336c1dd35d2ab038d3f203b2546cfc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Accent” (Accent).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Accent). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acceptance and commitment therapy
<a id="acceptance-and-commitment-therapy"></a>

Acceptance and commitment therapy is a context-focused form of cognitive behavioral psychotherapy. It uses mindfulness and behavioral activation to help people become more psychologically flexible, so they can keep acting in ways that fit their values even when difficult thoughts, feelings, or bodily sensations are present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35222fadab3e5db44268ed83004dac0e4d84c978908fe5ec8ac92b4e28935eef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Acceptance and Commitment Therapy” (D064869).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D064869). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acceptance sampling
<a id="acceptance-sampling"></a>

Acceptance sampling is a method for deciding whether to accept or reject a lot by examining sample data and estimating the probability of acceptance. In the described approach, the decision can depend not only on the current lot’s quality but also on the quality of previous lots.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae401c86a3e4ad1e23aa23026de7c476d02aef89ea83c55fb7fa439f537559a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kolli Nagasaritha; Rosaiah Kanaparthi; Rao Gadde Srinivasa; Kirigiti Peter Josephat. Application of the multiple dependent state sampling strategy to late adolescent suicide rates. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12874-023-02007-2; article XML SHA-256 af2a4e99523b5bdfd08ebdbf1d3366c73710b792795ca2a8cd7bb12f598e085d. “Application of the multiple dependent state sampling strategy to late adolescent suicide rates” (10.1186/s12874-023-02007-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-023-02007-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## accessible
<a id="accessible"></a>

In this context, accessible means easy for people to obtain, take part in, or use. It describes an option, such as exercise, that is readily available as a practical approach.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4045b66d0f0a163713c7ca5624cbf1a2e4194e4e6f0719d014d1b631d2114ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Jianglin; Lyu Chen; Niu Jiayu; Lin Zhaocheng; Shi Yanhua; Ma Zhili. Effects of different exercise types on body image in females: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1942447; article XML SHA-256 2b57876bff420a9f4f01b919f4a8cd7087ebf7fb1c996559ab5a3951ecd7654f. “Effects of different exercise types on body image in females: a systematic review and network meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1942447).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1942447). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## accessory nerve
<a id="accessory-nerve"></a>

The accessory nerve is the 11th cranial nerve. It arises from neurons in the medulla and cervical spinal cord, with one part joining the vagus nerve to supply motor fibers to the larynx and another part supplying motor fibers to the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0350e28dcf9f4c85d6150301450b64f2ec9289e20eccc2e0ca907e2a5e968117

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Accessory Nerve” (D000055).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000055). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## accessory symptoms
<a id="accessory-symptoms"></a>

Accessory symptoms are additional symptoms that count alongside the core separation-distress symptoms when determining whether prolonged grief disorder is present. In the source, they are the accompanying grief-related symptoms that must be present to a functionally impairing degree, with the required number differing between ICD-11 and DSM-5-TR approaches.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dac12393a024c1654ea2baa584625c3e14f13bb80288c11f0c322749edfad87d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Treml Julia; Linde Katja; Brähler Elmar; Kersting Anette. Prolonged grief disorder in ICD-11 and DSM-5-TR: differences in prevalence and diagnostic criteria. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1266132; article XML SHA-256 35a9ae156e75104e9733e1f848e69ed74ad6799e41d6a2f40b8457be4c7c48d5. “Prolonged grief disorder in ICD-11 and DSM-5-TR: differences in prevalence and diagnostic criteria” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1266132).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1266132). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## accident analysis
<a id="accident-analysis"></a>

Accident analysis is the process of examining past accidents to organize knowledge about how they happened and the factors involved, so that responses to new accidents can be better informed. In this source, it is described as representing accident information and relationships among contributing elements in a structured way to help retrieve and compare similar cases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: dfe824de8e1052baf716f525f5eba9ab1cb9cd348eea1248cca45152de663b37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Hui; Wei Yuxi; Cai Yonggang; Xing Bin. Knowledge graph and CBR-based approach for automated analysis of bridge operational accidents: Case representation and retrieval. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0294130; article XML SHA-256 b46788280459accb6443c69a890fababc78e58a7cd5044bd94694500f66c5c9a. “Knowledge graph and CBR-based approach for automated analysis of bridge operational accidents: Case representation and retrieval” (10.1371/journal.pone.0294130).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294130). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## accident proneness
<a id="accident-proneness"></a>

Accident proneness is a tendency to be involved in accidents repeatedly. The term suggests that certain personality characteristics may make some people more likely to have accidents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f6fcf23f32242d77366fd024d3fe898fd1528b2459d25f9f010fe60725071027

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Accident Proneness” (D000057).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000057). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## accidental sampling
<a id="accidental-sampling"></a>

Accidental sampling is a non-probabilistic way of selecting participants for a study. It means the sample is gathered without using random selection methods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 238098d7f737ff2cbef8f96247dc00e9b3c9a63a2aafa20f01dd11b21b2c2ecd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Colasanti Elena Lucía; Castellano Estanislao; Lapuente Lucas; Moretti Luciana Sofía; Medrano Leonardo Adrián. Psychometric properties of the survey work-home interaction nijmegen in Argentinian population. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.876025; article XML SHA-256 7c0a896157c01807955c6c16c3a019ec5f63523ae7a7879f10c6c46ba2984a85. “Psychometric properties of the survey work-home interaction nijmegen in Argentinian population” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.876025).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.876025). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## accommodation
<a id="accommodation"></a>

Accommodation, in this context, means changing parts of one’s speech to become more like or less like the person one is talking with. It can involve features such as speaking rate, pronunciation, or prosody, and may reflect social aims, automatic alignment processes, or both.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 546665c09248e80dc8a0407bebca94b119553d7eec66668c4dac59b972104d78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sabev Mitko; Yuen Ivan; Andreeva Bistra; Möbius Bernd. Phonetic accommodation depends on processing conditions: evidence for task-dependent frequency effects. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885387; article XML SHA-256 f478db2df4c1e67eae9683417174e7404bb23093f903a7b3427601ba4b106b7c. “Phonetic accommodation depends on processing conditions: evidence for task-dependent frequency effects” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885387).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885387). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acculturation
<a id="acculturation"></a>

Acculturation is the process in which a person or group takes on traits or social patterns from a different population group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 222d35757ebe18669cc927cef8d6fb3e7ec00984a24c194c590dd818dc0424c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Acculturation” (C93211).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acculturation strategies
<a id="acculturation-strategies"></a>

Acculturation strategies are the main ways people adapt when living between a home culture and a receiving culture. They describe whether a person mainly keeps their culture of origin, mainly adopts the host culture, does both, or does neither.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f893ec36a31616e06d58d3a12f45a025f09a53e07000fba681222f0da1a650e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Garbade Maike; Eglinsky Jenny; Kindler Heinz; Rosner Rita; Sachser Cedric; Pfeiffer Elisa. Factors affecting the acculturation strategies of unaccompanied refugee minors in Germany. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1149437; article XML SHA-256 8ee762b0895ed89bdd8657e0e2aba724ca2dfc28de26f2b9d364735bc31fa427. “Factors affecting the acculturation strategies of unaccompanied refugee minors in Germany” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1149437).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1149437). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## accuracy
<a id="accuracy"></a>

Accuracy is the degree to which a result or reconstruction matches a known reference or ground truth. In evaluation, higher accuracy means the output is closer to the true structure or value and therefore reflects performance more precisely.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 09231db769efd058dc99f2e89e6742893e021c44d7dfbc05439bf2d5f4eddeb2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gurbanli Yusif; Mohammed Jaron; Travascio Francesco. Two-dimensional to three-dimensional knee reconstruction from radiographs and fluoroscopy: A systematic review of methods and accuracy (1995–2025). 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356987; article XML SHA-256 4b06541ed8f7e64145d59ca56a793fe23d1e0b9d4b6bfe40a684e299a401d342. “Two-dimensional to three-dimensional knee reconstruction from radiographs and fluoroscopy: A systematic review of methods and accuracy (1995–2025)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356987).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356987). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## accusative
<a id="accusative"></a>

In historical grammar, the accusative is the case form that complements a verb by marking the direction of its action or the point to which the action applies. It is one of the oblique case relations discussed within systems of declension.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6fe1313b02c8a4dfeaf51fe70d3654923153427a0e2d985e87fcb884126a7a42

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Declension” (Declension).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Declension). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acetaldehyde
<a id="acetaldehyde"></a>

Acetaldehyde is a colorless, flammable liquid used in making acetic acid, perfumes, and flavorings. In mental health contexts, it is relevant as a substance formed during alcohol metabolism that has general narcotic effects and can irritate mucous membranes; very large amounts can stop breathing and cause death.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 78efbc2aed73d634ce467ad1758bcee933d4798cb169bc29fab69cd780576bd1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Acetaldehyde” (D000079).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000079). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acetaminophen
<a id="acetaminophen"></a>

Acetaminophen is a drug derived from p-aminophenol that reduces pain and fever. Its exact action is not fully known, but it may raise the pain threshold by affecting nitric oxide-related pathways linked to several neurotransmitter receptors, and it may lower fever by reducing prostaglandin activity in the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bfa0ad7fc7be3d058cb2557d0fbb32033415f428f76a9dfe57bbe02df16dd15b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Acetaminophen” (C198).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acetazolamide
<a id="acetazolamide"></a>

Acetazolamide is a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor that can help reduce some kinds of seizures, including absence seizures, though its benefit may be temporary because tolerance can develop quickly. Its antiseizure action is linked to blocking carbonic anhydrase in the brain, which increases inhibitory nerve signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 231076c79655efaaf0682ce6cfe0b02534c511bae95194240933c7b897d455e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Acetazolamide” (D000086).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000086). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acetylcholine
<a id="acetylcholine"></a>

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter, a chemical messenger used by nerve cells. It is found where nerves communicate with muscles, in parts of the autonomic nervous system, and in many areas of the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 87abd32227a0c205e57ffc9bc435c38d5b1a2ff050c7f235db7cc17c08e64488

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Acetylcholine” (D000109).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000109). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acetylcholine receptor
<a id="acetylcholine-receptor"></a>

An acetylcholine receptor is a group of receptor proteins that span the cell membrane, bind the chemical messenger acetylcholine, and start signaling pathways that depend on acetylcholine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82e1213dcc7e424c7aa63436cea8c895765eaad5bb689487a23b5bdcbafaec27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Acetylcholine Receptor” (C201418).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acetylcholinesterase
<a id="acetylcholinesterase"></a>

Acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine into choline and acetate. In the nervous system, it helps support signaling at peripheral neuromuscular junctions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4589f8be3cf468572cf79690c9291d0b226de00c9e60ecf5f0c5e787b0186810

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Acetylcholinesterase” (D000110).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000110). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acetylcholinesterase inhibitor
<a id="acetylcholinesterase-inhibitor"></a>

An acetylcholinesterase inhibitor is a substance that blocks the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which normally breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft. This causes acetylcholine to remain active longer and at higher levels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39f6649cc384fc60bf73267b3ebc4f31effd0a0c12cce21aed7da90c79f4de75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor” (C47792).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acetylsalicylic acid
<a id="acetylsalicylic-acid"></a>

Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA, or aspirin) is a drug compound studied here for its effects on cancer progression and blood-platelet biology. In this mouse breast cancer model, long-term low-dose ASA changed platelet-related, inflammatory, and oxidative stress measures, but it did not reduce lung metastases and was associated with a less favorable disease pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80c7812d38379b5c83d813bad5ce761682454f2c0dec4fc8700dfd88ec2a6a2b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Smeda Marta; Kij Agnieszka; Proniewski Bartosz; Matyjaszczyk-Gwarda Karolina; Przyborowski Kamil; Jasztal Agnieszka; Derszniak Katarzyna; Berkowicz Piotr; Kieronska-Rudek Anna; Stojak Marta; Sternak Magdalena; Chlopicki Stefan. Unexpected effects of long-term treatment with acetylsalicylic acid on late phase of pulmonary metastasis in murine model of orthotopic breast cancer. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0230520; article XML SHA-256 a43786226234f79bcf62c2aeae50eeb16f7cb5a4df9c92853b57555afb2499af. “Unexpected effects of long-term treatment with acetylsalicylic acid on late phase of pulmonary metastasis in murine model of orthotopic breast cancer” (10.1371/journal.pone.0230520).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230520). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AChE
<a id="ache"></a>

AChE, or acetylcholinesterase, is an enzyme made from the human ACHE gene. It helps break down acetylcholine and is also involved in neuronal apoptosis and in the structure of the Cartwright (Yt) blood group antigen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5694f8c4ed28a3b620002d70261ed986baba91f37018738bce4e19b0a619c4cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Acetylcholinesterase” (C201243).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AChEI
<a id="achei"></a>

AChEI stands for acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, a type of drug used as a main treatment option for Alzheimer’s disease. In this context, it refers to medication treatment whose clinical response can be studied in relation to brain imaging findings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3934b3cace010934d2ae5c3307f5aa629a06cc822dd83ad032a5b998773c3c7e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Li-Hua; Wu Shu-Ching; Ho Cheng-Feng; Liang Wan-Lin; Liu Yi-Chien; Chou Chia-Ju. White matter hyperintensities in cholinergic pathways may predict poorer responsiveness to acetylcholinesterase inhibitor treatment for Alzheimer’s disease. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0283790; article XML SHA-256 8533c19ba8e20127a60d9154fa5247367382e0eeb7ac26a567e53169a46df2b7. “White matter hyperintensities in cholinergic pathways may predict poorer responsiveness to acetylcholinesterase inhibitor treatment for Alzheimer’s disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0283790).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283790). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## achievement
<a id="achievement"></a>

Achievement is success in reaching a desired goal or outcome. It can also mean the amount or level of success a person attains in a particular area, especially in school, or more generally.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6225b289037d76159c862ead8ad30b2803137764ce29abfd5544c55e2b70a43d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Achievement” (D000124).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000124). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## achievement measures
<a id="achievement-measures"></a>

Achievement measures are ways of assessing academic performance or school success. In this packet, they refer to academic outcomes such as grade point average, including exam-based and teacher-evaluated GPA.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a7fb6c268a02cab2c390e83344136fd31f81576cb6422dc89dd3b1913e285bfa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Keilow Maria; Holm Anders; Fallesen Peter. Medical treatment of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and children’s academic performance. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0207905; article XML SHA-256 c98cf0292301130f0885edf012bab70289e3a0632f280591d8eaa957e2adc3d3. “Medical treatment of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and children’s academic performance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0207905).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207905). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## achievement motivation
<a id="achievement-motivation"></a>

Achievement motivation is the drive to succeed in academic and career-related pursuits. In educational psychology, it is understood as being influenced by positive psychological resources and by contextual factors such as satisfaction with one’s academic major.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f8990e6f9ab47225c61c4a5b15f04977c3227d12aeb440c95d6d4b672a62a97

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alismail Abdulaziz Mohammed; Almulla Mazen Omar; Albohnayh Abdullah Saleh Mohammed; Abdou Ahmed Hassan. The psychological resources of success: satisfaction with academic majors, psychological capital, and achievement motivation among future tourism and hospitality leaders. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1501861; article XML SHA-256 7db5801415a775eabc657eae359906b8d62e4825d4ca0e7a9be0e0411b88d2b1. “The psychological resources of success: satisfaction with academic majors, psychological capital, and achievement motivation among future tourism and hospitality leaders” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1501861).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1501861). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## achondroplasia
<a id="achondroplasia"></a>

Achondroplasia is a common disorder of bone growth in which a person has disproportionately short stature. In the packet, it is the condition being studied in children in relation to medication safety and effects on bone growth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9152d558f9e7c09d5daa88497c9fbe1084472c050fce20fd179682323aa6d13a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Matsushita Masaki; Kitoh Hiroshi; Mishima Kenichi; Kamiya Yasunari; Kato Daisaku; Takemoto Genta; Sawamura Kenta; Ueno Shinji; Yasuhiro Nakai; Nishida Kazuki; Imagama Shiro. Phase 1b study on the repurposing of meclizine hydrochloride for children with achondroplasia. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0283425; article XML SHA-256 04951c34adb333201033cc44a255671d1cc07e7e51c54c0aefce0a2b6000fd90. “Phase 1b study on the repurposing of meclizine hydrochloride for children with achondroplasia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0283425).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283425). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AChR
<a id="achr"></a>

AChR refers to acetylcholine receptors, a family of receptor proteins that span cell membranes. They bind acetylcholine and start signaling pathways that depend on this chemical messenger.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb675831e128a278ba57c7f024f11b741f9aa3909566c3096a0efe449698aa50

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Acetylcholine Receptor” (C201418).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ACoA
<a id="acoa"></a>

ACoA stands for the American College of Oncology Administrators, a US nonprofit professional association for people who manage and administer cancer care services. It supports oncology administrators through education, funding, and peer networking resources.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8da34d1d9bd700807bf22b0cf391f024578e433fadb03b92595b93750392ecfb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “American College of Oncology Administrators” (C39311).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AComA
<a id="acoma"></a>

AComA stands for the anterior communicating artery complex, a brain blood vessel region described here as one of the most common sites where intracranial aneurysms occur. In this assessment context, it is discussed in relation to estimating aneurysm rupture risk by considering blood flow and vessel wall mechanics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d7e4dde73000c81cb27f411a1970fcf18772a2ea6ee4bdd77d952781aec36c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nagy Jozsef; Stroh-Holly Nico; Fenz Wolfgang; Thumfart Stefan; Maier Julia; Major Zoltan; Stefanits Harald; Gollwitzer Maria; Oberndorfer Johannes; Mazanec Vanessa; Giretzlehner Michael; Sonnberger Michael; Rauch Philip; Gruber Andreas; Gmeiner Matthias. Rupture risk assessment for AComA aneurysms with morphological, hemodynamic and structural mechanical analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331297; article XML SHA-256 04a58e772fde1ae024e5ccb5d06869fce12222f0d8180dca7cee37cde09da794. “Rupture risk assessment for AComA aneurysms with morphological, hemodynamic and structural mechanical analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331297).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331297). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acoustic
<a id="acoustic"></a>

In this speech-assessment context, acoustic refers to the measurable sound properties of speech, such as vowel frequencies, duration, and variability. These sound-based measures can help describe speech patterns in some autistic subgroups, but they are not established as a single universal marker across autism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67587160627b749fa1982e8ba91effd48672c81644f5ec1f990251f6d11463a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Yu; Chen Dongfan. Vowel acoustic parameters in speech assessment and rehabilitation of minimally verbal and speech-motor-impaired autistic children: a narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1752706; article XML SHA-256 7cd23245267e9641a223f0558e963f38feaf36031529b895fb95af10a3dfb8da. “Vowel acoustic parameters in speech assessment and rehabilitation of minimally verbal and speech-motor-impaired autistic children: a narrative review” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1752706).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1752706). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acoustic cue
<a id="acoustic-cue"></a>

An acoustic cue is a sound used as a signal in a learning task. In the study described, it was a neutral sound presented before an aversive event, allowing researchers to test whether the animal had formed an association between the two.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9ef8d9af9624f2e25570901fc60393f6bcc9d3adf2723b0fdc508b58c8080b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Radostova Dominika; Kuncicka Daniela; Krajcovic Branislav; Hejtmanek Lukas; Petrasek Tomas; Svoboda Jan; Stuchlik Ales; Brozka Hana. Incidental temporal binding in rats: A novel behavioral task. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0274437; article XML SHA-256 db3021eef569e5bd17e1fa981024ad4499f1e29f086d51113da670896ffedfe7. “Incidental temporal binding in rats: A novel behavioral task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0274437).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0274437). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acoustic filter
<a id="acoustic-filter"></a>

An acoustic filter is a structure designed to control how sound waves pass through a system by selectively reflecting, absorbing, or reducing certain wave components. In the source material, it refers to a multilayer duct arrangement that uses porous material and flexible membranes to tune sound attenuation, especially at low frequencies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66308c0992a06b62fc3bc4acc27d03e0bf026723eff704a2fbb6673e1412996d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alahmadi Hani; Afzal Muhammad; Javeed Usman; Nawaz Tayyab. Analytical study of mode filtering in a duct with resistive layers. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339192; article XML SHA-256 e0fb288de2c2eb961036b253158edde8bd19cdf46efd49492d8d15ba1a9814fa. “Analytical study of mode filtering in a duct with resistive layers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339192).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339192). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acoustic neuroma
<a id="acoustic-neuroma"></a>

Acoustic neuroma is a noncancerous tumor of Schwann cells on the eighth cranial nerve, usually arising from its vestibular branch. It most often appears in mid to later adulthood and can cause hearing loss, vertigo, tinnitus, headache, and facial pain; tumors on both sides are associated with neurofibromatosis 2.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4dc9a7e7aa3d496777c793f3487dcbd9ac51332a529fad267e2dd2f73df4fb6b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuroma, Acoustic” (D009464).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009464). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acoustic pressure
<a id="acoustic-pressure"></a>

In this historical hearing theory, acoustic pressure means the pressure patterns produced in the inner ear when the basilar membrane is set into motion by sound. These patterns were proposed to arise between the tectorial structures and the underlying hair-cell region and to carry the sound onward without detailed analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3128d7a0a27e3882ebc120b47dc98f310a84298ca79dfdf0b7f329ee58dbe41a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hearing” (Hearing).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Hearing). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acoustic trauma
<a id="acoustic-trauma"></a>

Acoustic trauma is damage to the inner ear’s hearing system caused by very loud noise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3eafbca7246ccfe2253d641812383d7c9702ce51cdb0d259f69b818cda551ee2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Acoustic Trauma” (C50453).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acoustics
<a id="acoustics"></a>

In this psychology context, acoustics refers to the sound qualities or features of a voice, such as the combination of cues listeners hear in speech. These vocal features can shape social judgments, including how trustworthy a human or machine speaker seems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 68da56f1d179ee7de5c176eee2cb1cd414474789e5c3d5ca9876b24a5a7268b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maltezou-Papastylianou Constantina; Scherer Reinhold; Paulmann Silke. How do voice acoustics affect the perceived trustworthiness of a speaker? A systematic review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1495456; article XML SHA-256 9c54fca373a98c11919945dc8d25b5823f19cc23c2f794128a237dc0405b8aa7. “How do voice acoustics affect the perceived trustworthiness of a speaker? A systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1495456).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1495456). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ACPT
<a id="acpt"></a>

ACPT, or the Auditory Continuous Performance Test, is a test used to check for problems with auditory attention by having a person listen to single words and respond to a specific target word. It can help support the diagnosis of ADD or ADHD in children ages 6 to 11.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0134a1dc7ec390943c44db112914d380e3728b902651907ebafeb5e55c331e68

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Auditory Continuous Performance Test” (C131529).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acquaintance rape
<a id="acquaintance-rape"></a>

Acquaintance rape is rape or sexual assault in which the victim and perpetrator are acquainted, rather than strangers. In psychology and social research, it is often discussed separately from stranger rape, especially in studies of victim blaming.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 13340bfeab6854c4c3bb896f4303b8056fc84c7bcce98d87e67c475d978243f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gravelin Claire R.; Biernat Monica; Bucher Caroline E.. Blaming the Victim of Acquaintance Rape: Individual, Situational, and Sociocultural Factors. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02422; article XML SHA-256 cdcbbdaccc8f74533db1895982b8636fa9e5ca9012dd64e1f7a9834b74e43bd1. “Blaming the Victim of Acquaintance Rape: Individual, Situational, and Sociocultural Factors” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02422).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02422). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acquiescence
<a id="acquiescence"></a>

Acquiescence is a person’s relatively willing acceptance or going along with another person’s or a group’s direction or control over actions or attitudes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ca5f00e2d64bb1c487abbf810283e5878802f30ab98120fbedc42cfc09210d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Leadership” (D007857).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007857). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acquired response
<a id="acquired-response"></a>

An acquired response is a pattern of responding that has been learned through recent task experience, such as a choice or strategy that previously led to good outcomes. In psychology, the term is often used when describing the need to overcome that learned response after task demands change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34f518839f090c322cb151d6e1537b91e3224a722b2efb5e9bb140a07f2af57d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wilson Cristina G; Nusbaum Amy T; Whitney Paul; Hinson John M. Trait anxiety impairs cognitive flexibility when overcoming a task acquired response and a preexisting bias. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0204694; article XML SHA-256 8d6e8203270c8ea9d8ff3feff70f3303bba54bf968e331b5dfe2e5163c7d348e. “Trait anxiety impairs cognitive flexibility when overcoming a task acquired response and a preexisting bias” (10.1371/journal.pone.0204694).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204694). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acquired visual impairment
<a id="acquired-visual-impairment"></a>

Acquired visual impairment is reduced vision that develops after birth, and when it occurs early in life it can affect more than sight alone. In childhood, it may influence the development of motor, cognitive, social-emotional, and everyday functioning skills, with possible effects on autonomy, participation, and quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97d7f3cc3307c4f5bbf6f51773b231c046945b603cef7b384f5c75a1a08bc781

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Catalano Guido; Morelli Federica; Grumi Serena; Paini Daria; Decortes Francesco; Scognamillo Ilaria; Reffo Maria Eleonora; Zumiani Roberta; Strazzer Sandra; Cocchi Elena; Provenzi Livio; Signorini Sabrina; The VIDA Group. Functional vision promotes quality of life and socio-emotional functioning in visually impaired children and adolescents. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342443; article XML SHA-256 fe14d1bac95d3d0b21589e61cf44b2c81a44dee7dadc271fce3d820311f19c18. “Functional vision promotes quality of life and socio-emotional functioning in visually impaired children and adolescents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342443).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342443). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acquisition
<a id="acquisition"></a>

Acquisition is the process of gaining a skill or knowledge through repeated practice, often shown as gradual improvement in performance over time. In this context, it refers to learners becoming more accurate as they continue practicing a task.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f52a1753ec3792716862eef236422060c236b84a595f42180d39908b9f5c1e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wei Jianyun; Wang Boda; Dong Song. Cognitive and skill acquisition trajectories in school-based music education: evidence from Chinese classrooms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905847; article XML SHA-256 aebd978c45cf4d18720a4e051a0f3e2d995dae6d0d4e2e8c86374e2d793e88ae. “Cognitive and skill acquisition trajectories in school-based music education: evidence from Chinese classrooms” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905847).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905847). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acquisition curve
<a id="acquisition-curve"></a>

An acquisition curve is the pattern showing how performance changes as practice is repeated, reflecting a learner’s skill-building over time. In this source, it refers to the rise in note-level singing accuracy across repeated attempts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47d751b3774afb34efee198678e15f839c15b1b4264d31277150a0b3e4ee446c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wei Jianyun; Wang Boda; Dong Song. Cognitive and skill acquisition trajectories in school-based music education: evidence from Chinese classrooms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905847; article XML SHA-256 aebd978c45cf4d18720a4e051a0f3e2d995dae6d0d4e2e8c86374e2d793e88ae. “Cognitive and skill acquisition trajectories in school-based music education: evidence from Chinese classrooms” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905847).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905847). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acquisitiveness
<a id="acquisitiveness"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, acquisitiveness can mean either a tendency to take possession of things and treat them as one’s own, or an inborn ease in gaining new knowledge or learning. The term was used for both ownership-seeking and natural learnability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9bf03fc49a3564b142c17bf7566444daf4834ee7a874ae284fe1b9a34e2b5384

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Acquisitiveness” (Acquisitiveness).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Acquisitiveness). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acro-
<a id="acro"></a>

Acro- is a prefix used to mean an extreme degree of a condition in psychological and medical terms. It can also keep its original sense of “high,” as in words referring to height or great elevation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c1ab9737e8df9272f23d003dcbb7243fbacb89b9e872df695bcbe9313282638

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Acro-” (Acro-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Acro-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acromegaly
<a id="acromegaly"></a>

Acromegaly is a condition in adults caused by long-term excess growth hormone. It leads to enlargement of bones and body parts, especially the face, lower jaw, hands, feet, head, and chest, and is most often linked to a pituitary adenoma that produces growth hormone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 967bbf4473a17a403a17ad4dc3f6fb63b46faf39d3d5d3afcb34bb27785c2276

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Acromegaly” (D000172).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000172). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acrophobia
<a id="acrophobia"></a>

Acrophobia is a morbid or extreme fear of being at a great height, accompanied by strong uneasiness when in such places. In this historical usage, the prefix acro- carries the sense of something high or extreme.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 20d50568a5a4b6c79d13869d6a7d28b1aa9f312326d37a36d310d0ec2964ba6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Acro-” (Acro-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Acro-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ACSI
<a id="acsi"></a>

ACSI usually refers to the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory, here used in its 28-item form (ACSI-28). In sport psychology, it is a questionnaire athletes complete to assess coping-related psychological skills.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 66f0dfa7cca4e021271b3564545f2899ef1fd94476814130bc75bc242f61db15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Jiarong; Omar Dev Roxana Dev; Yaakop Nurhidayah. Trait mindfulness, psychological skills, and mental toughness in paddleboard athletes: A correlational study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354427; article XML SHA-256 82e98e40b29df4e83b113f8f0909de96c75f838689bb101738d8931011b497c7. “Trait mindfulness, psychological skills, and mental toughness in paddleboard athletes: A correlational study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354427).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354427). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## act
<a id="act"></a>

An act is a deed done with some degree of foresight and deliberation, whether or not it involves visible bodily movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44df0b9f2738f770be91dd1b59899aefd27cce84cb121a811bed9f21d3abb5e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Act” (Act).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Act). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ACTH
<a id="acth"></a>

ACTH, or adrenocorticotropic hormone, is a pituitary hormone that signals the adrenal cortex to release adrenal steroids, especially cortisone, as part of the body’s stress response. The packet describes recombinant corticotropin as a lab-made form that is identical or similar to human ACTH.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3bdaa30a795cbd14ef431e639e56eabbebc4571f8d40d68ca5ae5322bef0e8d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Recombinant Corticotropin” (C212).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ACTH-releasing factor
<a id="acth-releasing-factor"></a>

ACTH-releasing factor, also called corticotropin-releasing hormone, is a small peptide that triggers the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone. It is mainly produced by neurons in the hypothalamus and can also be made in other tissues such as the placenta, adrenal medulla, and testis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c85ee7b8aede6a6b8254c5bd027aea20353f5704a302ff80b4f241ba7342cf9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone” (D003346).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003346). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acting out
<a id="acting-out"></a>

Acting out is showing inner emotional conflict or feelings through noticeable behavior instead of expressing them directly. It often involves emotions such as hostility or love being played out in actions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1f989030f5f739b34e9115d79924401ad73c4fd6cedf1db9e66132ae4bac6604

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Acting Out” (D000184).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000184). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## action
<a id="action"></a>

In this mental health context, action means doing something in response to direct-to-consumer genetic test results, especially making changes related to your care such as medications. The source says such steps should wait until the results have been discussed with a health care provider or genetic counselor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 256075b33a366e571d14297eb5ec87bf886db03a031a5320010c1bef3f4803ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Looking at My Genes: What Can They Tell Me About My Mental Health?. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 e0a8e68cb501d46c5f874a27c2d5a30a84750d1a2237f7aef870195d127e7c4e. “Looking at My Genes: What Can They Tell Me About My Mental Health?” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/looking-at-my-genes).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/looking-at-my-genes). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## action-based model
<a id="action-based-model"></a>

The action-based model is an explanation of cognitive dissonance that says people compare their thoughts, attitudes, and actions, and inconsistency among them creates arousal and unpleasant feelings. That discomfort is experienced as dissonance and motivates people to reduce it by changing their thoughts, attitudes, or behavior, especially when they have enough freedom to act.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e6997f74e481472a689cb2aaed03a4d4290c085bc0a19a8e6bf68de67a6f4e25

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bentler Dominik; Kadi Gizem; Maier Günter W.. Increasing pro-environmental behavior in the home and work contexts through cognitive dissonance and autonomy. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1199363; article XML SHA-256 21bbb162c8935d5ce78a79852b8ad231e9ecdbfc7efb4a05035cde32efd838ba. “Increasing pro-environmental behavior in the home and work contexts through cognitive dissonance and autonomy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1199363).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1199363). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## action disorganization syndrome
<a id="action-disorganization-syndrome"></a>

Action disorganization syndrome is an impaired ability to carry out multi-step actions. It affects everyday activities by disrupting the sequencing and organization of action steps, especially in tasks that involve using objects or tools.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 61b6eafbb88878495f090f4e75aa822e521a4334b19baa63d53fcf539c56a1e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bieńkiewicz Marta M. N.; Brandi Marie-Luise; Goldenberg Georg; Hughes Charmayne M. L.; Hermsdörfer Joachim. The tool in the brain: apraxia in ADL. Behavioral and neurological correlates of apraxia in daily living. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00353; article XML SHA-256 a40c610807d39dfe23071bd6d3b4a8affefb5c9fb4c579d0b6318b95a2d70aec. “The tool in the brain: apraxia in ADL. Behavioral and neurological correlates of apraxia in daily living” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00353).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00353). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## action identification
<a id="action-identification"></a>

Action identification is the process of deciding what action another person is performing from what is observed. In the source context, it refers to judging whether an actor is engaging with or withdrawing from an object, and this judgment can be shaped by prior experience and explicit expectations about that person’s usual behaviour.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 330fa75b326967cf3646a6822ab81003d7e13dc100e3c7c1b3460282b6b82d5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schenke Kimberley C; Wyer Natalie A; Bach Patric. The Things You Do: Internal Models of Others’ Expected Behaviour Guide Action Observation. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0158910; article XML SHA-256 d77c5cb150e897d496234017cb3556e16079eb054c7e557b453414ff8986fe4e. “The Things You Do: Internal Models of Others’ Expected Behaviour Guide Action Observation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0158910).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158910). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## action orientation
<a id="action-orientation"></a>

Action orientation is the flexible ability to bring control resources into use in situations that are mentally demanding. In this context, it is described as a cognitive and behavioral mechanism linked to stronger self-control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a488bf36f1e2738f0ab3608029b38576ae6993cd8069d5ed785895f9d09b2be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Colling Jonne; Wollschläger Rachel; Keller Ulrich; Grass Julia; Strobel Anja; Preckel Franzis; Fischbach Antoine. The relation between Self-Control, Need for Cognition and Action Orientation in secondary school students: A conceptual replication study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0286714; article XML SHA-256 5585364501407a5981261ec07acf809dfb31256db8427cba60319504d5a1d64a. “The relation between Self-Control, Need for Cognition and Action Orientation in secondary school students: A conceptual replication study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0286714).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286714). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## action pattern
<a id="action-pattern"></a>

An action pattern is an organized way of acting that can be identified across situations. In this source, it refers to the flexible pattern in teachers’ pedagogical actions, shaped by factors such as school space and playful learning strategies, and expressed through varied actions at different times and places.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d3b3c6f6b6276b2d49b3a63d1d30edf934c96ad3876ccee7410974f0d961fe0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Violant-Holz Verónica; Rodríguez-Silva Carlota; Rodríguez Manuel J.. Preschool teachers display a flexible pattern of pedagogical actions in promoting healthy habits in children. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1172460; article XML SHA-256 2a3884e46b9f80f27d0524077a41b90940ad6c790c0256e3149f885d19d64fb7. “Preschool teachers display a flexible pattern of pedagogical actions in promoting healthy habits in children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1172460).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1172460). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## action readiness
<a id="action-readiness"></a>

Action readiness is how prepared a person or group feels to take action, including both a sense of being able to act and a willingness to do so. In this source, it refers specifically to faculty members’ readiness to act to support fairer workload allocation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e050e109c9e156151d54a82f319ddb789b2f05ec9330066057e9cef26256f176

Sources:
- Drafting source: [O’Meara KerryAnn; Jaeger Audrey; Misra Joya; Lennartz Courtney; Kuvaeva Alexandra. Undoing disparities in faculty workloads: A randomized trial experiment. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0207316; article XML SHA-256 41b32dbe580654ebbbc96992e9fe35ddaa65e99a053d2129bb6f75eee0fe2ca7. “Undoing disparities in faculty workloads: A randomized trial experiment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0207316).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207316). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## action theory
<a id="action-theory"></a>

Action theory is an approach in sociology that examines how people act as agents and express individuality in social life. In this source, it is used to understand contradictions in behavior as signs that individuals are socially shaped rather than purely separate from others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98a96e87fa353045e1f2fa85ae8842171bc11e3bf3d3f9e79e38db715c29f30a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shim Jae-Mahn. Mask sociology as a way of action theory: Voices of the face mask among social individuals in the COVID-19 masquerade in South Korea. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293758; article XML SHA-256 4a3507abfa71d069f273fa53bf7dd5cf2490159ee517246fe0637bedb7dfe5a7. “Mask sociology as a way of action theory: Voices of the face mask among social individuals in the COVID-19 masquerade in South Korea” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293758).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293758). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## activation pattern
<a id="activation-pattern"></a>

An activation pattern is the way muscles are recruited and coordinated during a task, such as playing the violin. In this source, it refers to the electromyography-recorded pattern of activity across shoulder and forearm muscles before, during, or after exercises.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4f0df601d47f27956093e743512dd7ee845555f0f831f997e96d2ffe705a3f6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rousseau Céleste; Zalpour Christoff; Chi Ju-Yang; Ackermann Bronwen J. Immediate effect of exercises of scapular stabilization on shoulder and forearm muscle activation patterns while playing the violin (New exercises to strengthen musicians—Part II). 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1825818; article XML SHA-256 f0ecca27709f4b7fdb8572bd059bc773502e39a4dadbfcd65cb040bd1645892e. “Immediate effect of exercises of scapular stabilization on shoulder and forearm muscle activation patterns while playing the violin (New exercises to strengthen musicians—Part II)” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1825818).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1825818). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## active
<a id="active"></a>

In this mental health context, active means showing a higher or lower level of activity than is usual for the person. It is used to describe how someone may be much more energetic and active during a manic episode, or much less active during a depressive episode.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac75dc88e0f1568f2c855cc716a5874167dc234b383b57c7ee7868efcf3a4af2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar Disorder in Children and Teens. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0efc8ed70ccbb4dbf61d1606b9718eb7a26d1ec80d6bdf3718206b4ad79262dc. “Bipolar Disorder in Children and Teens” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder-in-children-and-teens).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder-in-children-and-teens). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## active attention
<a id="active-attention"></a>

In this historical usage, active attention is the mind’s effort to keep certain ideas before it by selecting, emphasizing, and holding them a little longer. Rather than producing thoughts from nothing, it guides what comes next in thinking and action by favoring some ideas over others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b74b3813cace734de3e48a9d3487e3fa4f266213e546ea177eea30f055c7615

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## active listening
<a id="active-listening"></a>

Active listening is a communication skill in which a person shows careful attention and interest to a speaker through responsive, empathic verbal and nonverbal behavior. It commonly involves asking fitting questions and restating or briefly summarizing what the speaker has said to support understanding and a warm, accepting relationship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3228a28915e21046de4510d976a2ad4fd4123d71c2091f6bdfb62484f960c793

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Asai Keigo; Hiraizumi Taku; Hanzawa Reino. Reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the active-emphatic listening scale. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s40359-020-00422-4; article XML SHA-256 56c11210a961b2faf3b27cd22d9b6cb58d574c19b6da0d105cd266618ac271ed. “Reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the active-emphatic listening scale” (10.1186/s40359-020-00422-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-020-00422-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## active memory
<a id="active-memory"></a>

Active memory is the ability to bring to mind, without prompting, the relevant facts of a matter, keep them in mind long enough to grasp how they relate to one another, and form a rational judgment about them. In this historical source, the term is used in discussing mental capacity for making a will.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c02d4200871a6ebe2355afa191069e1a40c31a40c5c0197c56a2217241f8286f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3234000-3246000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## active performance
<a id="active-performance"></a>

Active performance is a student behavior pattern marked by being proactive while mainly aiming for visible achievement, credentials, or other measurable results rather than knowledge for its own sake. In this pattern, students actively use strategies to meet or maximize institutional performance demands within audit- or metric-focused educational settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6ec630e6c1e36962509aec871c877c278753ecaf17d7b6f0196121189c7ae060

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Su Wenjun; Li Haisheng. From constraints to innovations: a student agency typology and its implications for pedagogical change. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1710342; article XML SHA-256 751c21af7fd18a826b134be04fa5c5e8b9e7606973ba00ae147a8677876d8d4a. “From constraints to innovations: a student agency typology and its implications for pedagogical change” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1710342).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1710342). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## active transport
<a id="active-transport"></a>

Active transport means getting from place to place in ways that involve physical activity rather than motorized travel. In this context, it is treated as a behavior influenced by factors such as intention, perceived benefits and barriers, social norms, self-efficacy, habit, and awareness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a9b586e6d340e1495b383f3ec9ab5bbbe5b95501c71dc34b38d04c1f07bfdb77

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Verhoeven Hannah; Simons Dorien; Van Cauwenberg Jelle; Van Dyck Delfien; Vandelanotte Corneel; de Geus Bas; De Bourdeaudhuij Ilse; Clarys Peter; Deforche Benedicte. Promoting Active Transport in Older Adolescents Before They Obtain Their Driving Licence: A Matched Control Intervention Study. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0168594; article XML SHA-256 5dde4d02a2aa82ca378f5580ace72203612ee7f4065704d5c15b0685311fcae1. “Promoting Active Transport in Older Adolescents Before They Obtain Their Driving Licence: A Matched Control Intervention Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0168594).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0168594). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## active voice
<a id="active-voice"></a>

In grammar, the active voice is the verb form used when the subject is presented as performing the action, whether or not the object is also named. For example, it is the form used in statements like a man strikes or a man strikes a dog.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: afe86877edad4023e6eca7d9273d1902af90cc31d38c5d2c6e3da809d6c8ade9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: C4defs.htm” (ffd1bbd428b354054301).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## activism
<a id="activism"></a>

Activism is active involvement in promoting social change, often by advocacy alongside direct service. In this context, it means working for social justice, such as helping marginalized groups be heard and pushing for broader societal improvement beyond clinical practice alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1fabc1b63ad52b3aa17dd921ae6c07384be293cf3fc8bde87fb435d9745c21b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jin Junling; Tang Sai; Liu Yifu; Luo Xiaoyu. “Stay committed on the frontlines”: sustainability of the activism of social workers in Guiyang, China. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324828; article XML SHA-256 2768295a0fb9c250202f410e214aa2541e12e29ae5d7334735872ac495d96098. ““Stay committed on the frontlines”: sustainability of the activism of social workers in Guiyang, China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324828).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324828). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## activities of daily living
<a id="activities-of-daily-living"></a>

In this source, activities of daily living refers to a rating scale used in the Behavior Assessment System for Children to assess how well a person can carry out or finish simple everyday tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da90cc0bb3a426d60ff38cd285699548f6671351014bff32fbc5ea70596049ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Activities of Daily Living Scale” (C121298).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## activity cycle
<a id="activity-cycle"></a>

Activity cycle, in this context, refers to the full 24-hour pattern of how a person’s day is divided among physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep. The idea emphasizes that time spent in these behaviors is interconnected, so changing one part of the day affects the others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61983ed8b3dfb8ed64b2e6f1cf8bbec206bb1caf2f39a65008a5cce70189b34e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Yinxiang; Rosenberg Dori E.; Greenwood-Hickman Mikael Anne; McCurry Susan M.; Proust-Lima Cécile; Nelson Jennifer C.; Crane Paul K.; LaCroix Andrea Z.; Larson Eric B.; Shaw Pamela A.. Analysis of the 24-h activity cycle: An illustration examining the association with cognitive function in the Adult Changes in Thought study. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1083344; article XML SHA-256 9e515b45868b1ac9133a1de937b37116ab0cff19d5741cf7506ebe5628d37114. “Analysis of the 24-h activity cycle: An illustration examining the association with cognitive function in the Adult Changes in Thought study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1083344).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1083344). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## activity deprivation
<a id="activity-deprivation"></a>

Activity deprivation is the loss or experimental blocking of neurons’ normal spontaneous activity. In the supplied source, it refers to prolonged blockade of neuronal activity, which is linked to slow neurodegeneration and cell death.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac317e33a046b65b4b7b55a0db7601f9e8ee66edcd3bbe1054067ac167b7cda2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schonfeld-Dado Eldi; Segal Menahem. Activity Deprivation Induces Neuronal Cell Death: Mediation by Tissue-Type Plasminogen Activator. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0025919; article XML SHA-256 9ebd438edb6345881470be78c0b5b8f0b76280fab18c977aa4a06330497aac0d. “Activity Deprivation Induces Neuronal Cell Death: Mediation by Tissue-Type Plasminogen Activator” (10.1371/journal.pone.0025919).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0025919). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## activity record
<a id="activity-record"></a>

An activity record is a log used to assess how much time a person spends in different activities over a set period, such as 24 hours. In this source, a 24-hour physical activity record was used to measure preschool children’s sedentary time, screen time, indoor play, outdoor play, and time spent going out.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8e0394ff106c7d30506b2478505e6e78d9348b29f41510d7d75e5eb5f5cdfb1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [YAMAGUCHI NAOKI; FUKUMOTO TAKAHIKO; IMAGITA HIDETAKA. Relationship between physical activity and neighborhood environment in preschool children during COVID-19.—A cross-sectional study using 24-hour activity records-. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304848; article XML SHA-256 5c1be5a2f6f374115169c88ee6785065c9b5d048c1f1eda88e9c0f50bf651940. “Relationship between physical activity and neighborhood environment in preschool children during COVID-19.—A cross-sectional study using 24-hour activity records-” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304848).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304848). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## activity rhythm
<a id="activity-rhythm"></a>

Activity rhythm, in this context, refers to the daily pattern of movement and rest across a 24-hour period, including times of physical activity, inactivity, and sleep. It can also describe how fragmented this pattern is within a day and how consistent it is from one day to the next.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35bf52d1e57a36b9804334d9498be49bcf630fbf33a1f886ee203201799d762c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wendt Andrea; Bielemann Renata Moraes; Wehrmeister Fernando C; Ricardo Luiza I C; Müller Werner de Andrade; Machado Adriana Kramer Fiala; da Cruz Maurício Feijó; Bertoldi Andréa D; Brage Soren; Ekelund Ulf; Tovo-Rodrigues Luciana; Crochemore-Silva Inácio. Is rest-activity rhythm prospectively associated with all-cause mortality in older people regardless of sleep and physical activity level? The ‘Como Vai?’ Cohort study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298031; article XML SHA-256 e29afce96114f5d3a8818d3244a941e74255018506ebbd9651710b8a13156eef. “Is rest-activity rhythm prospectively associated with all-cause mortality in older people regardless of sleep and physical activity level? The ‘Como Vai?’ Cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298031).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298031). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## activity theory
<a id="activity-theory"></a>

Activity theory is a framework for examining a goal-directed activity by looking at how its parts work together, including the person or group involved, the tools or technology used, the target goal, the rules, the community, the division of roles, and the resulting outcomes. In this source, it is used to analyse game-based learning for learners with disabilities by organising findings around these interacting components.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46426d62569eeccb44f0ebfcc952de1e5b559356df0f4cdd3f20b9135944ef56

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tlili Ahmed; Denden Mouna; Duan Anqi; Padilla-Zea Natalia; Huang Ronghuai; Sun Tianyue; Burgos Daniel. Game-Based Learning for Learners With Disabilities—What Is Next? A Systematic Literature Review From the Activity Theory Perspective. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.814691; article XML SHA-256 6872efaa4c4a2f3f3ebb99b4373318457fa9829a439b15bc6874e30b67a05052. “Game-Based Learning for Learners With Disabilities—What Is Next? A Systematic Literature Review From the Activity Theory Perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.814691).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.814691). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## actual self
<a id="actual-self"></a>

The actual self is the way a person sees who they are at present, in contrast to who they ideally want to be or feel they should be. In self-discrepancy theory, a gap between the actual self and these other self-views can shape behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d1dc0026fc28809832f9afff9ed527205e6f5de1c75df3a915f5d9e55a17daf1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Chuan; Cao Rui; Huang Jiao; Wei Ying. The Effect of Self-Discrepancy on Online Behavior: A Literature Review. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.883736; article XML SHA-256 b4883b0fca048b4ecb4bd919f1b1639b2f71d27349eca59ebffcb4074cbb515d. “The Effect of Self-Discrepancy on Online Behavior: A Literature Review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.883736).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.883736). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## actualization
<a id="actualization"></a>

In person-centered counselling, actualization refers to the person’s natural tendency to grow toward fuller self-development. It is understood as being supported by facilitative conditions that help increase congruence, self-awareness, and self-acceptance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b08ca980f9bd20a30f8c0093e2c2e99d6b66e79d8b9f2f8108486431e3dbd1f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Person-Centered Psychotherapy” (D009629).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009629). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## actuarial risk assessment
<a id="actuarial-risk-assessment"></a>

Actuarial risk assessment is the use of structured risk assessment tools to estimate how likely an outcome such as violence is. These tools are judged by how well they distinguish higher-risk from lower-risk people and how closely their predicted risk matches what actually happens.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f311998fe2f1c4660df4866b9bb53675eae9f8fd71e63a4575f9dc3b8d9102c3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rossegger Astrid; Endrass Jérôme; Gerth Juliane; Singh Jay P.. Replicating the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide: A Total Forensic Cohort Study. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0091845; article XML SHA-256 ee19bb20a38ae318cf35db0d3b31f647cfce8c19a5880302c4792f69118d1252. “Replicating the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide: A Total Forensic Cohort Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0091845).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0091845). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## acuity
<a id="acuity"></a>

Acuity, in this context, means visual acuity: how well a person can resolve fine spatial detail. It is used as part of standardized vision scoring and is linked to resolution-dependent aspects of reading.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a3100c292788a3d1583d18a13e887514549e9dd43c5749ea57a1df25cc6610d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tsuruoka Mieko; Inoue Kenji. Functional acuity score as a surrogate of reading performance in low vision: A Japanese disability evaluation cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358323; article XML SHA-256 afc952b6e96ac34fb65bcf2b7a0dccbfc51b71fdd694cecf84a8e929db45fa9e. “Functional acuity score as a surrogate of reading performance in low vision: A Japanese disability evaluation cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358323).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358323). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acupressure
<a id="acupressure"></a>

Acupressure is a noninvasive therapy that uses finger pressure on specific points on the body. It is intended to relieve pain and promote a sense of well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e21500c8890e798444f1d78d2c612dd04b800324d45b35d67c1157d8bcd8b47f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Acupressure Therapy” (C15606).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acute
<a id="acute"></a>

In this context, acute means beginning suddenly and with marked severity. It describes symptoms such as OCD or restrictive eating disorder that appear abruptly in a child.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a559b1bf1650584beb02397daea0248bbdfa0cd0641a290d741509ee61a516d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. PANS and PANDAS: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 492b8d282e63ff7c47c9c126c6ee286e5bcb517442c5e4a8f3a668f35e391832. “PANS and PANDAS: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acute alcoholism
<a id="acute-alcoholism"></a>

Acute alcoholism is a historical term for a distinctive severe state caused by alcohol, especially after heavy drinking, during chronic alcoholism, or in susceptible people under marked strain. In this source it is identified with delirium tremens and described as an acute outbreak with intense excitement, fear, disturbed sleep, sensory misperceptions, and progressing delirium.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f7989a011157ad892fc21be3d91a55eff6b87fc4919dbae339787796aecfcc97

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Alcoholism” (Alcoholism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Alcoholism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acute anxiety
<a id="acute-anxiety"></a>

Acute anxiety is a short-term experience of anxiety that can occur across many psychiatric disorders. It may make it harder for a person to engage with treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80892605bffe0d199189be398bdfb944c8212d18a788e959365292f8823cee6e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Perunova Sandra; Kokina Inese; Krams Indrikis A. Therapeutic exercise is associated with dose-dependent reductions in acute anxiety across psychiatric diagnoses. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1805126; article XML SHA-256 520247855a71088302fb40ba9348931de62cc32e0b9a5c976fd6bf9b8ff8a101. “Therapeutic exercise is associated with dose-dependent reductions in acute anxiety across psychiatric diagnoses” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1805126).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1805126). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acute cerebrovascular accident
<a id="acute-cerebrovascular-accident"></a>

An acute cerebrovascular accident is the sudden or severe start of neurological problems caused by a sudden, localized injury to blood vessels in the central nervous system. It refers to an acute stroke.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b909e10dc77e8b87815b14e82d185e8b5c33620c6a8f91f3f5579764246c4ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Acute Stroke” (C191433).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acute delirium
<a id="acute-delirium"></a>

Acute delirium is a historical term for a rapidly developing mental disorder marked by a delirium-like state along with fever, extreme weakness, and swift physical exhaustion. In many cases it was described as progressing to coma and death.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9d64206bd229eb56b60321d3cfde7a6611b2f2d3317be761d8dbdc227ee45349

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-283500-295500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acute mania
<a id="acute-mania"></a>

Acute mania is a current manic condition considered in diagnosis. Standard classifications treat mania as a single overall disorder, but research on acute mania suggests it may include distinct subtypes that differ in prognosis and treatment response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fdda1ff2e421ec08f4930c31361b4d235b055eef6a6aa193bb1bb3f2526729d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hanwella Raveen; de Silva Varuni A. Signs and symptoms of acute mania: a factor analysis. 2011; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-11-137; article XML SHA-256 bdb0079972afc145629214e1e5f9ec554d6b356be4688953493793ff84bace74. “Signs and symptoms of acute mania: a factor analysis” (10.1186/1471-244x-11-137).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-11-137). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acute onset
<a id="acute-onset"></a>

Acute onset means symptoms begin suddenly and are severe from the start. In this packet, it refers to an abrupt appearance of problems such as obsessive-compulsive symptoms or restrictive eating, often along with clear changes in mood, behavior, and sensory or motor function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9fa6b36c5374c3e1f315c7ee47b999aa59ab284695eb3f45f108755377e23e28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. PANS and PANDAS: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 492b8d282e63ff7c47c9c126c6ee286e5bcb517442c5e4a8f3a668f35e391832. “PANS and PANDAS: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acute stress disorder
<a id="acute-stress-disorder"></a>

Acute stress disorder is a mental health condition that develops after a traumatic, often life-threatening event that causes intense fear or horror. It involves dissociation, intrusive memories of the event, avoidance of reminders, and persistent hyperarousal, and it lasts no longer than one month.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93cd91ab58be6a27cd76ff1ac0a8dd0b2a7169aca25073849f6e6afaa5680a50

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Acute Stress Disorder” (C92621).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## acute tolerance
<a id="acute-tolerance"></a>

Acute tolerance is a rapid, within-session reduction in a drug’s intoxicating effect as the nervous system adjusts while the drug is still present. With alcohol, it means impairment is greater early in a drinking episode than later at a similar blood alcohol level, reflecting adaptation rather than faster metabolism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5cf4e0ad19ec1624dcec02c8e361774689660b99ca6f6b484403faf592b06f75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bettinger Jill C.; Leung Kapo; Bolling Mia H.; Goldsmith Andrew D.; Davies Andrew G.. Lipid Environment Modulates the Development of Acute Tolerance to Ethanol in Caenorhabditis elegans. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0035192; article XML SHA-256 85efc2f0bf3af588c714483f206a982c88a7e66d3cf5588887348aeed50cd791. “Lipid Environment Modulates the Development of Acute Tolerance to Ethanol in Caenorhabditis elegans” (10.1371/journal.pone.0035192).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035192). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ad-
<a id="ad"></a>

In this packet, AD is used as an abbreviation for anxiety disorders, one of the diagnostic groups examined in relation to social media addiction and symptoms of anxiety and depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76dfce1c813c38a441a72cc8a22bd9858022a9750836286008232877a4310bcb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Korkmaz Ulaş; Şimşek Meltem Hazel. Social media addiction in five major mental disorders: a cross-sectional comparative study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07741-z; article XML SHA-256 8259399c3ffb43621da9703eb785e35d8e41df6ffa68f2c2da16833d90d4cf23. “Social media addiction in five major mental disorders: a cross-sectional comparative study” (10.1186/s12888-025-07741-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07741-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ad hoc category
<a id="ad-hoc-category"></a>

An ad hoc category is a context-dependent grouping, formed around a particular situation or purpose rather than a more stable category structure. In the source material, improper weapons are described as an example of this kind of category.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b08d14691a81529c71a774acc1eba63a76ff1d0a5626b309c23f4fd046366eec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frugarello Paolo; Rusconi Elena; Job Remo. The label-feedback effect is influenced by target category in visual search. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0306736; article XML SHA-256 8688323c34b06dc388ce499b00037a811905be6a8fe82cc6112c78028a9b71fb. “The label-feedback effect is influenced by target category in visual search” (10.1371/journal.pone.0306736).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306736). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ADA
<a id="ada"></a>

ADA here means an anti-drug antibody: an antibody that attaches to a drug or other therapeutic agent given to a person. These antibodies are thought to develop after repeated exposure to the administered treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 42687db213d6afdafb30ccda780c059fe464599cad5f119b8dcfe4d91d9724a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Anti-Drug Antibody” (C107495).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Adam
<a id="adam"></a>

In this historical source, Adam is presented as a doctrinal figure central to theological views of humanity’s relation to God. The entry links Adam to teachings about the Fall, inherited guilt, sin, condemnation, and the need for reconciliation or conversion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a1a393f103ff399f1c66ec6b9fd5574caaacf0086dfed1abffe017702dc08b85

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Adam” (Adam).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Adam). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ADAMHA
<a id="adamha"></a>

ADAMHA was the former United States Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration, a Public Health Service agency responsible for planning, promoting, and administering programs related to substance abuse and mental health. In 1992, it became SAMHSA.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2055dea697977420ca675fa4b62e59cf30a7429ba6f6fde5306ff79e801867ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “United States Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration” (D014482).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014482). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Adapin
<a id="adapin"></a>

Adapin is doxepin hydrochloride, a tricyclic antidepressant. It increases the availability of norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse and also blocks histamine and several other receptors, which is associated with sedative and anti-itch effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4dfa2440ea43625169795e4c26ce0ec4a650a079128135161c5d1cde7082a7f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Doxepin Hydrochloride” (C29006).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adaptation
<a id="adaptation"></a>

Adaptation means adjustment or fitness, such as how a structure, function, or means suits an end. In the historical biological sense, it refers to how an organism or its organs fit the environment, including both inherited and acquired forms, though some writers used the term more narrowly for hereditary structural adjustments and contrasted acquired individual adjustment with accommodation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a7f197362167f2d36702b2c0d3df1bb539cdc29704942920b62d99c7a11db199

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Adaptation” (Adaptation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Adaptation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adaptation period
<a id="adaptation-period"></a>

An adaptation period is the initial phase after a person is exposed to a continuous, predictable disturbance, before their behavior settles into a more stable pattern. In this source, it refers to the early stage of balancing during repeated platform movements, when responses change over time before reaching steadier performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b5fceaf8aa02dfea8f87f6ca3679390ab58fe6441f707e4618be56dfc1cb88ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sozzi Stefania; Nardone Antonio; Schieppati Marco. Adaptation of balancing behaviour during continuous perturbations of stance. Supra-postural visual tasks and platform translation frequency modulate adaptation rate. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0236702; article XML SHA-256 02bc17c0cadfdb67d5bfba03a51596f3b0f1f4a0f2ba2b56425bea8d785c626d. “Adaptation of balancing behaviour during continuous perturbations of stance. Supra-postural visual tasks and platform translation frequency modulate adaptation rate” (10.1371/journal.pone.0236702).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236702). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adaptation time
<a id="adaptation-time"></a>

Adaptation time is the period allowed for the visual system to adjust before testing. In this source, it refers to the pre-test adjustment time needed for rod- and cone-based flicker measurements, which is described as minimal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 318e0355f6902add074258505475bcbf0731b8117fd52946ed66e82ffd562fd6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hathibelagal Amithavikram R.; Bharadwaj Shrikant R.; Yadav Anil R.; Subramanian Ahalya; Sadler James R. E.; Barbur John L.. Age-related change in flicker thresholds with rod- and cone-enhanced stimuli. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0232784; article XML SHA-256 61c143b53b97a42b608d88d1102e8e7bc85ced84c475f9d3dcaaa9ecf61a5b9d. “Age-related change in flicker thresholds with rod- and cone-enhanced stimuli” (10.1371/journal.pone.0232784).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232784). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adaptive behavior
<a id="adaptive-behavior"></a>

Adaptive behavior means the practical skills and actions needed for independent living, such as daily living abilities, self-care, and work-related skills. In this source, stronger adaptive behavior is linked with better adult outcomes, while weaker adaptive behavior can be a barrier to employment even when cognitive ability is average or high.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c1341a401c8fc3e1049af1d0342bc286947a25d79903dce3ed1ed638e830bfa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lousky Yael; Selanikyo Efrat; Tubul-Lavy Gila; Ben-Itzchak Esther. Toward workforce integration: enhancements in adaptive behaviors and social communication skills among autistic young adults following vocational training course. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1392672; article XML SHA-256 fb3f6dd27839386cbc91705da8ba918a419452af68aa8eb4fef14bbd7a27ca1a. “Toward workforce integration: enhancements in adaptive behaviors and social communication skills among autistic young adults following vocational training course” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1392672).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1392672). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adaptive task allocation
<a id="adaptive-task-allocation"></a>

Adaptive task allocation is a way of dividing work flexibly between people and robots as conditions change. In the source, it refers to dynamic labor sharing within a human–robot system that can improve efficiency and reduce operator workload.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7856fb2ae18e0b34b1f61ddda0ee3d2a74812cfc6caa5b95e08b6b47f804ea87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yalcinkaya Beril; Couceiro Micael S.; Soares Salviano; Valente António. FORMIGA: a fleet management framework for sustainable human–robot collaboration in field robotics. 2026; DOI 10.3389/frobt.2025.1706910; article XML SHA-256 944ef87e0e4420467a53443ba9b3165e674eddd1a5f9449504b5993c067a57ae. “FORMIGA: a fleet management framework for sustainable human–robot collaboration in field robotics” (10.3389/frobt.2025.1706910).](https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2025.1706910). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adaptive testing
<a id="adaptive-testing"></a>

Adaptive testing is a computer-based way of giving a series of rigorously reviewed questions that can be adjusted as the assessment proceeds rather than only using a fixed short form. In this context, it is used to collect precise patient-reported information about physical, mental, and social well-being and to generate reports about quality of life and treatment effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc02c954789dc3cc3ee9d69af8eb017201624debac58f434d963549ec9c19825

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Patient Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System” (C102988).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ADD
<a id="add"></a>

ADD refers to a mental disorder marked by trouble sustaining attention, being easily distracted, making careless mistakes, and avoiding tasks that require prolonged mental focus. These patterns can cause problems in daily life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c9567d56ff5a7de9d5bff43d4485071b43ff4c65f0f04c888908047d4c190ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Inattentive Type” (C35092).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## addiction
<a id="addiction"></a>

In this packet, addiction refers to drug addiction: a serious health condition in which a person compulsively seeks drugs and experiences major disturbances in mental and brain-related functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 720ac85e2784f43bb82c20bcbe6610c13c2ec06dbfa365657ac05b4b3e44ca4a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao HuiYan; Jang Jung-Hee; Ryu Yeon-Hee; Han Chang-Hyun. Acupuncture-related therapies for drug addiction: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1800440; article XML SHA-256 5a4bd6edee85698a14dc819aa33268e76f79f090da860cda095196a344afe371. “Acupuncture-related therapies for drug addiction: a systematic review and network meta-analysis” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1800440).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1800440). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## addictive behavior
<a id="addictive-behavior"></a>

Addictive behavior is observable behavior showing difficulty stopping a habit despite strong, persistent urges for a substance or a repeated act. It involves growing emotional and physical dependence, often with increasing amount or frequency over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a2c7f360a009d8f101a49af0c8b73ed5f1d155b5038544b651cc1704a5d9ef3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Behavior, Addictive” (D016739).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016739). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## addition test
<a id="addition-test"></a>

An addition test here refers to the total-correct score from the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test, a measure based on how many answers are correct on that task.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82078f39b8b21d46984eda430bf57f72ca1a6c26a2f712eb68c644acf993ce7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “PASAT - Total Correct” (C115809).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## additive model
<a id="additive-model"></a>

An additive model is a predictive approach that represents the effect of each input variable with its own separate function and combines those effects to produce an overall result. In this context, it is used to make machine-learning predictions more interpretable by showing how individual features contribute positively or negatively.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 359f1c4646745341549414753245170852073087299b6fb539944d1e34f9cd71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Chiyoung; Kim Yeri; Kim Seoyoung; Whooley Mary; Kim Heewon. DeepGAM: An interpretable deep neural network using generalized additive model for depression diagnosis: Data from the heart and soul study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324169; article XML SHA-256 e74775063a3d260f5892b321bc2d99e99ead52e057afd1c4e7b49999459b0ae5. “DeepGAM: An interpretable deep neural network using generalized additive model for depression diagnosis: Data from the heart and soul study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324169).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324169). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## additive scale
<a id="additive-scale"></a>

An additive scale is a way of examining how two factors work together by comparing their combined effect with the sum of their separate effects. On this scale, an interaction is present when the joint effect is greater than what would be expected by simply adding the individual effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 430ea5f7c4b3498d5363e29f71606eb2dfa8bcf08c32c1edf9a06c8d0217a502

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Oh Hans; Jacob Louis; Soffer-Dudek Nirit; Shin Jae Il; Smith Lee; Besecker Megan; Leaune Edouard; Pickering Trevor A. The synergy of depression and flourishing/languishing on suicidal thoughts and behaviors: Findings from a national sample of emerging adult students in higher education in the United States. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0309020; article XML SHA-256 a63469c9a570120eec7c0e6e0204de1d2addd7d9eb9f21c9d2900c19692cc224. “The synergy of depression and flourishing/languishing on suicidal thoughts and behaviors: Findings from a national sample of emerging adult students in higher education in the United States” (10.1371/journal.pone.0309020).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309020). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ADE
<a id="ade"></a>

ADE stands for adverse drug event: an unwanted harmful effect or safety problem linked to a medication. In this context, ADEs are tracked through post-marketing safety reports to monitor drug safety, including serious or rare events.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d3f7de4ec0ea88a1239a595e851751a1993672f33a4bd72f7743123c7a316443

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lou Siyu; Cui Zhiwei; Ou Yingyong; Chen Junyou; Zhou Linmei; Zhao Ruizhen; Zhu Chengyu; Wang Li; Wu Zhu; Zou Fan. A multidimensional assessment of adverse events associated with paliperidone palmitate: a real-world pharmacovigilance study using the FAERS and JADER databases. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-06493-0; article XML SHA-256 bd4488335a989f23555b2617add03ba73e526945f235a854835e242ff7742182. “A multidimensional assessment of adverse events associated with paliperidone palmitate: a real-world pharmacovigilance study using the FAERS and JADER databases” (10.1186/s12888-025-06493-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-06493-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adendritic
<a id="adendritic"></a>

Adendritic describes a nerve cell that lacks dendrites or other protoplasmic branches, having only a neurite or axis-cylinder process. The term is used in historical descriptions of embryonic nerve cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 446c58a30794de121feb853110bec98d157a5fc09c27c516a47f9ee72073c4f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Adendritic” (Adendritic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Adendritic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adenohypophysis
<a id="adenohypophysis"></a>

The adenohypophysis is the front, glandular part of the pituitary gland. It releases hormones that help control important body functions including growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7a96ba8ff19fb1c6f177d87ff8b07c1b90e2dc40b7860dfbae4116d0dc3c52a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pituitary Gland, Anterior” (D010903).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010903). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adenoma
<a id="adenoma"></a>

An adenoma is a tumor that develops from gland-forming epithelial tissue. Most adenomas are benign, though they can vary in features such as whether they are enclosed and whether the cells show abnormal changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3a15f017f8ceb18f01d0c2598630675a7f880cb4a8d1baab0eae66c156f904a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Adenoma” (C2855).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adenosine
<a id="adenosine"></a>

Adenosine is a nucleoside made of adenine and D-ribose. It is part of DNA and RNA and also acts as a neurotransmitter in the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5569194e8ffce139d5d4bddc82d58ebf5d58a83c16d780cb4b247ac08b305c39

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Adenosine” (D000241).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000241). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adenosine 3’,5’-monophosphate
<a id="adenosine-3-5-monophosphate"></a>

Adenosine 3’,5’-monophosphate, also called cyclic adenosine 3’,5’-monophosphate or cAMP, is a cellular second messenger made by adenylate cyclase. In the source, it is described as part of downstream dopamine-related signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2068b88ea4ff3aa3d91ad6d76617cd9e3f3d145a5b5da74b756503f65b0c4e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cho Jin A.; Zhang Xuan; Miller Gregory M.; Lencer Wayne I.; Nery Flavia C.. 4-Phenylbutyrate Attenuates the ER Stress Response and Cyclic AMP Accumulation in DYT1 Dystonia Cell Models. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0110086; article XML SHA-256 cebd7f4e65076dbca161ab903e2ee56c564bc0655ec5244f46119b9defbb7d8d. “4-Phenylbutyrate Attenuates the ER Stress Response and Cyclic AMP Accumulation in DYT1 Dystonia Cell Models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0110086).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0110086). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adenosine triphosphate
<a id="adenosine-triphosphate"></a>

Adenosine triphosphate is a molecule made from adenine and a sugar linked to three phosphate groups. It has essential roles in metabolism and also acts as a neurotransmitter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f1a3f30c1d20cb92e2e62711625fa0732226b81836cbb633add3c3bdc7268a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Adenosine Triphosphate” (D000255).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000255). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adequate stimulus
<a id="adequate-stimulus"></a>

In this historical usage, an adequate stimulus is the kind of event that properly gives rise to a particular sensation. For organic sensations, it means a change in the condition of a bodily organ—a physiological process rather than an external physical one.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea48e1e7a7a69d50d8a09959af29c374ccf727f92449c8f8c713f97d8deb3181

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Organic Sensation” (Organic Sensation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O2defs.htm#Organic Sensation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ADH
<a id="adh"></a>

ADH refers to alcohol dehydrogenase, a family of enzymes that helps break down alcohols and several other substances in the body, including ethanol, retinol, certain steroid-related compounds, and products of lipid oxidation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 32dd83ab2aa5a0f11c348fac2eb24f274863b68df821dc30b254da389dfd2411

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alcohol Dehydrogenase” (C16272).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ADHD
<a id="adhd"></a>

ADHD is a childhood-onset behavior disorder marked by developmentally inappropriate inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Some people mainly show inattention or mainly hyperactivity-impulsivity, and while symptoms often lessen by late adolescence, some continue into adulthood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e533b341dfc8a7cc21384d58536f3581ae24a7d5757591f4526dc5a582255c45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity” (D001289).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001289). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adherence
<a id="adherence"></a>

Adherence is the extent to which a person consistently keeps up with a prescribed treatment, such as taking medication and following related care routines over time. In this context, it can be affected by everyday self-perceived cognitive difficulties and by the amount of practical and emotional support a person feels they have.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86a43c8eb0b93bd52095b05eff3ddb6901ab1d4b6d3d5d97cd78cd420b090c0b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hussein Ramadan Atta Mohamed; El-Monshed Ahmed Hashem; Elzohairy Nadia Waheed; El-Sayed Ahmed Abdelwahab Ibrahim; Abdalla Darelglal Ahmed Gassmelseed; Abdellatif Mohamed Sayed; Elgameel Magda Mahmoud Mohammad. Associations among subjective cognitive complaints, perceived social support, and medication adherence in patients with psychotic disorders. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1762058; article XML SHA-256 08ce5a6a1e2e456ef5ae1ff72cd24a6489775242a7d0a03ae64fc8ea94c864ee. “Associations among subjective cognitive complaints, perceived social support, and medication adherence in patients with psychotic disorders” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1762058).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1762058). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adipsia
<a id="adipsia"></a>

Adipsia is an absence or marked reduction of thirst. In this historical source it is described as a symptom noted in neurasthenia, alongside reduced drinking tendency (hypodipsia).

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8febe82af7bd69634ee07a934ab157a119d4b5ab113e9c422c9555f0fbfa42e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-693000-705000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adjudication
<a id="adjudication"></a>

Adjudication is the final judgment or sentence of a court. In the British and U.S. legal tradition described here, such rulings can also help establish law by settling previously uncertain points and giving existing law a definite meaning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7729671e7a12e9971d2706db7dd97ce027dccf866ec6dd9f4f57be853055e10a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Adjudication” (Adjudication).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Adjudication). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adjunct
<a id="adjunct"></a>

In this context, an adjunct is an added intervention used alongside a main treatment rather than as a replacement for it. It is used to improve a person’s ability to engage with and complete the primary therapy, such as increasing readiness or capacity for ERP.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca0849555a5c3aa715f9f2e2b82071df67c6c6b32ef6c8f26541cadb172570ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Laurent Nicole. Enhancing readiness for exposure and response prevention in obsessive compulsive disorder: ketogenic metabolic therapy as a candidate readiness adjunct. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770306; article XML SHA-256 049ea1e9757407eac14592943352ec5d60b800c108d2ab75cf592035e050f3cd. “Enhancing readiness for exposure and response prevention in obsessive compulsive disorder: ketogenic metabolic therapy as a candidate readiness adjunct” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770306).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770306). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adjunctive therapy
<a id="adjunctive-therapy"></a>

Adjunctive therapy is a treatment added to a main treatment rather than used by itself. In this context, it refers to using another medication alongside an antidepressant to try to improve depression symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 21facf91938ea07ebc792c91291e838e2cfa443c00b6ffcf37c9061f1703bbbb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zandifar Atefeh; Panahi Maryam; Badrfam Rahim; Qorbani Mostafa. Efficacy of empagliflozin as adjunctive therapy to citalopram in major depressive disorder: a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05627-0; article XML SHA-256 40c35847a94a57bd47c978b7dbc39269d31722fff1207d54552cd06e43903b36. “Efficacy of empagliflozin as adjunctive therapy to citalopram in major depressive disorder: a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial” (10.1186/s12888-024-05627-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05627-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adjustment
<a id="adjustment"></a>

Adjustment is the later process of revising one’s understanding and responses after recognizing that earlier information or beliefs may be inaccurate. In this study, it is described as a flexible, non-fixed pattern shaped by cognitive, emotional, and social influences, along with developing self-efficacy and self-regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 41d61606defeb802d161ca93cf0dc10166f515f1387dd4225abb0c4ef676a367

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lin Kuo-Sung; Zhang Ling-yu; Xie Qingxiao. From initial acceptance to reflective adjustment: psychological adjustment patterns among Taiwanese adolescents encountering misinformation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823402; article XML SHA-256 f199f0a1ce2eab04e99b62d7575de61d8b05623d6e0d8793c9f3db8b57f5ff15. “From initial acceptance to reflective adjustment: psychological adjustment patterns among Taiwanese adolescents encountering misinformation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823402).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823402). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adjustment disorder
<a id="adjustment-disorder"></a>

Adjustment disorder is a group of psychiatric conditions marked by emotional or behavioral symptoms that begin within 3 months of a stressor and usually end within 6 months after the stressor has ended.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e932869ea7072e741181edf8cbe763386b9657e36088cf5e99b023291621805

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Adjustment Disorder” (C92191).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Adjustment Disorders
<a id="adjustment-disorders"></a>

Adjustment disorders are maladaptive reactions to identifiable psychosocial stressors that begin within a short time after the stressor starts. They involve either problems in social or work functioning or symptoms such as depression or anxiety that are greater than would normally be expected in response to the stressor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 58df9007b0b3dbce06c42c493db3b84c30944184234382c5aa0d9007b89845d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Adjustment Disorders” (D000275).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000275). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adjustment method
<a id="adjustment-method"></a>

In this context, an adjustment method is a statistical way of correcting results when many analysis strategies are tried for the same question, so the chance of false positive findings is reduced. The packet specifically describes the minP adjustment method, which uses the pattern of dependence among tests and a permutation-based estimate of the smallest p-value’s null distribution to control error better than simpler corrections.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 469662b0bbcc3b328131785c08c2126072d068142b0d38c9d44da5067db044ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mandl Maximilian M; Becker-Pennrich Andrea S; Hinske Ludwig C; Hoffmann Sabine; Boulesteix Anne-Laure. Addressing researcher degrees of freedom through minP adjustment. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12874-024-02279-2; article XML SHA-256 29e70e0a6434dc226a4df865ca04c2d7e2d2023872fac4fcbe7b6c239b5ddb26. “Addressing researcher degrees of freedom through minP adjustment” (10.1186/s12874-024-02279-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-024-02279-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adjustment process
<a id="adjustment-process"></a>

The adjustment process is the way a person adapts over time to a new setting, such as a different culture or school environment. In this source, it refers to cross-cultural adaptation and includes within-person changes in behavior tendencies, which are linked to outcomes like satisfaction, thoughts of leaving, and how well someone settles in.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 57c32d5804a2e586dbd42a6e73ff2ebc122d8a4d817976a75b78ec9bd6d47940

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Mengqiao; Huang Jason L.. Cross-cultural adjustment to the United States: the role of contextualized extraversion change. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01650; article XML SHA-256 f8203e75222707928af2fba9498a9e67c2e8382059dfa20e5b088b45ab4c8fbf. “Cross-cultural adjustment to the United States: the role of contextualized extraversion change” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01650).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01650). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ADLs
<a id="adls"></a>

ADLs are activities of daily living, meaning a person’s ability to carry out basic everyday functioning. In this source, lower ADL ability refers to reduced capacity to perform these daily activities, such as at hospital discharge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 63c4b5006714d58045c1488c941b92619b45cfa04cc527ad38b5c8b165708050

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nakamura Misaki; Yamamoto Kanako; Nozaki Shinichi; Saeki Takahiro; Omi Wataru; Kato Chieko; Inoue Masaru; Harada Tomoya; Sakagami Satoru. Decline in oral function contributes to decreased activities of daily living at discharge in elderly patients with heart failure. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323806; article XML SHA-256 c40a25f742bf9155b23b316d2356c39d20318c42ea69becb3bc8738b3be47c57. “Decline in oral function contributes to decreased activities of daily living at discharge in elderly patients with heart failure” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323806).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323806). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## admission
<a id="admission"></a>

In mental health care, admission is the process of entering a psychiatric inpatient stay. In patient-controlled admission, this entry is initiated by the patient rather than requiring physician assessment or staff gatekeeping.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c2f1cd58e8a375243eec77a72b28f39ddc2a8de9b92d5440a6bf16fc63dc828e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Smitmanis Lyle Maria; Björkdahl Anna; Hellner Clara; Salomonsson Sigrid; Rozental Alexander. The development and evaluation of the Patient-Controlled Admission Fidelity Checklist. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1774052; article XML SHA-256 0811261c876766e1ffd4d3bbc69cf503620acdbcc29cec2f7028f5833df2aadd. “The development and evaluation of the Patient-Controlled Admission Fidelity Checklist” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1774052).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1774052). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## admission criteria
<a id="admission-criteria"></a>

Admission criteria are the standards used to decide whether a person should be accepted for a service such as intensive care. In this context, they are meant to identify who is likely to benefit from admission so resources are used appropriately and unnecessarily burdensome interventions are avoided.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 94c84d17a0b1330003e125352446b42a21fd80c5f9f86092946270c1b17da0c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ceruti Samuele; Glotta Andrea; Biggiogero Maira; Maida Pier Andrea; Marzano Martino; Urso Patrizia; Bona Giovanni; Garzoni Christian; Molnar Zsolt. Admission criteria in critically ill COVID-19 patients: A physiology-based approach. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0260318; article XML SHA-256 fcd2c212be96d39b46043d9f2995f2083dd58b412bbe037829d8c90e2f2c2c91. “Admission criteria in critically ill COVID-19 patients: A physiology-based approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0260318).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260318). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## admission procedures
<a id="admission-procedures"></a>

Admission procedures are the methods a program uses to decide who is accepted, such as considering prior grades and admission tests. In this context, they can also be designed to help predict later academic performance and to support self-selection by applicants.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cff29165abe42eaf3b97932b6b7bc24b7b3ec8d46c17c6accc513e6ba8c33baa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Niessen A Susan M; Meijer Rob R; Tendeiro Jorge N. Admission testing for higher education: A multi-cohort study on the validity of high-fidelity curriculum-sampling tests. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0198746; article XML SHA-256 fe409f9261f1938acbf23bfc3b6863b9633ee90f0769f89ef600a5948a1bf487. “Admission testing for higher education: A multi-cohort study on the validity of high-fidelity curriculum-sampling tests” (10.1371/journal.pone.0198746).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0198746). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adolescence
<a id="adolescence"></a>

Adolescence is the developmental period leading from the onset of puberty toward maturity, usually understood as the stage between puberty and adult maturity. In this historical psychology source, it is described as a time of marked bodily change and heightened, changeable emotional and mental life, often with stronger ideals, passions, friendships, and independence-seeking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b37a66ff9db76f072ac35b1536b77c344fd2b2c007e7ef644dc103752c3f5a5b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Adolescence” (Adolescence).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Adolescence). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adolescent pregnancy
<a id="adolescent-pregnancy"></a>

Adolescent pregnancy is pregnancy that occurs during adolescence. In the source material, it is described as a major public health concern because it can harm the health of both mother and child and can contribute to ongoing poverty.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4319900764ba8cda2dfb9e111f7724a69b516704c8cfd3a6ec9d5c0eee5cb043

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pant Smriti; Koirala Saugat; Acharya Anand Prasad; Pradhan Pranil Man Singh. Factors associated with adolescent pregnancy among Chepang women and their health-seeking behavior in Ichchhakamana rural municipality of Chitwan district. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0301261; article XML SHA-256 e6e967154a2c60e77783cb658f69b0c32290a2e1a769e2f051ab5d2853bc0744. “Factors associated with adolescent pregnancy among Chepang women and their health-seeking behavior in Ichchhakamana rural municipality of Chitwan district” (10.1371/journal.pone.0301261).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301261). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adolescent psychology
<a id="adolescent-psychology"></a>

Adolescent psychology is the branch of psychology that studies adolescents’ behavior, including both typical and atypical patterns. It looks at mental processes as well as actions that can be observed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c78a12e244722f39cd0b46c2f18f5ac08e53e76425f16326e952e470e759f20a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychology, Adolescent” (D000297).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000297). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adolescent psychotherapy
<a id="adolescent-psychotherapy"></a>

Adolescent psychotherapy is psychotherapy for young people in their teenage years, used to address mental health problems that often begin early in life. In this setting, building engagement and a good therapist-client relationship can be especially difficult because adolescents may be balancing a need for autonomy with needing help, and some begin therapy at other people’s urging rather than their own.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc38986ac778015b4e56a36bd61d498c48bed44071726c419f23ff983ae396cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stige Signe Hjelen; Eik Ingrid; Oddli Hanne Weie; Moltu Christian. Negotiating System Requirements to Secure Client Engagement – Therapist Strategies in Adolescent Psychotherapy Initiated by Others. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.704136; article XML SHA-256 0f2fd8d19c677173a4dbe4cc5be2e1bb6fe5f108a80156c263f7eed39a6041ba. “Negotiating System Requirements to Secure Client Engagement – Therapist Strategies in Adolescent Psychotherapy Initiated by Others” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.704136).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.704136). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adrenal gland
<a id="adrenal-gland"></a>

The adrenal glands are two roughly triangular glands that sit on top of the kidneys. They release hormones into the body, including epinephrine and norepinephrine from the inner part and steroid hormones from the outer part.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 786145e1fb1f39ccc7a5d5ef566df04f89bc69476ca3f8e22e1715dcdb40616d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Adrenal Gland” (C12666).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adrenaline
<a id="adrenaline"></a>

Adrenaline is an active hormone made by the adrenal medulla that stimulates both major adrenergic signaling systems. It increases heart activity, narrows blood vessels throughout the body, relaxes the gastrointestinal tract, and widens the bronchi and cerebral blood vessels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c784d6ba6b5d6577ace402bfb07d5d24e6e629b960fe1636ed7b38e37acc0f9c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Epinephrine” (D004837).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004837). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adrenergic receptor
<a id="adrenergic-receptor"></a>

An adrenergic receptor is a protein on the cell surface that strongly binds epinephrine or norepinephrine and starts changes inside the cell. These receptors are commonly grouped into alpha and beta types, and they can also be classified by the kinds of G-proteins they connect with.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14948a661d1610e156686c66b124d24b911a38b0a82f9c05ba8ee0432e2d2a6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Receptors, Adrenergic” (D011941).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011941). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adrenoceptor
<a id="adrenoceptor"></a>

An adrenoceptor is a receptor protein found on the cell membrane that responds strongly to epinephrine or norepinephrine and starts processes within the cell. These receptors are commonly grouped as alpha or beta, and they can also be organized by the G-proteins they couple with.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b07de20742b50e9838b42f4d5443a6f0386846477c717ded2958c35a281f968

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Receptors, Adrenergic” (D011941).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011941). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adrenocorticotropic hormone
<a id="adrenocorticotropic-hormone"></a>

Adrenocorticotropic hormone, or ACTH, is a hormone made by the anterior pituitary, also called corticotropin. It travels in the bloodstream to prompt the adrenal cortex to release adrenal steroids, particularly cortisone, helping raise blood pressure during stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02df41cab1bca1f35e76a5158312317df284a62e2ce261f028737fe77f559a44

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Recombinant Corticotropin” (C212).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adrenoleukodystrophy
<a id="adrenoleukodystrophy"></a>

Adrenoleukodystrophy is an X-linked inherited disorder in which very long chain saturated fatty acids build up in the adrenal cortex and the brain's white matter. It occurs mainly in males and can lead from childhood onward to problems such as poor coordination, behavioral and other neurologic changes, adrenal failure, seizures, muscle stiffness, and dementia; a slower adult form is called adrenomyeloneuropathy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5d58bce685a47c6aa7f1cc8116a4304af578377afe6ad4d4a82d1709181b163

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Adrenoleukodystrophy” (D000326).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000326). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ADS
<a id="ads"></a>

ADS refers to advertisements that can appear on a computer screen without the person clicking anything. They may be triggered by websites visited earlier or by other software on the computer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fdfc4310f875ca13730760ba892063021f9be93eb5c03b6d5061c8d49cada82e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Website Policies. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 1a399709d182fd35c8604c702a33cbd97e54058d3de6946a8ad9da2f3b14157b. “Website Policies” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/reprinting-and-reusing-nimh-publications).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/reprinting-and-reusing-nimh-publications). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adult attachment
<a id="adult-attachment"></a>

Adult attachment is a person’s pattern of relating in close adult relationships, which can be understood on a range from secure to insecure. Insecure adult attachment may include dismissive and preoccupied patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0ca7f620b76c5778591d32ef8e4911d6c572f6a3148a69e5ea12705b19b67a3f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kurbatfinski Stefan; Dosani Aliyah; Hayes Andrew F.; Dewey Deborah; Letourneau Nicole. Maternal adverse childhood experiences and preschool children’s behavioral problems: exploring mediation via an adapted measure of adult attachment pattern. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1596613; article XML SHA-256 a65ac3e52e6b34a688d52c83ca0c6e13a2a1a67679883ca8547203b025289f76. “Maternal adverse childhood experiences and preschool children’s behavioral problems: exploring mediation via an adapted measure of adult attachment pattern” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1596613).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1596613). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Adult Attachment Interview
<a id="adult-attachment-interview"></a>

The Adult Attachment Interview is a research interview used in developmental attachment work to assess an adult’s attachment representation, especially how early attachment experiences are processed and expressed. It focuses mainly on unconscious aspects of attachment and examines them through the person’s spoken account, including signs of defensiveness or idealization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 60bb1ecb1a32cceaa50143f1188bb0a4bbf33397d47b9165ed586cdeb4cbe3d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Petrowski Katja; Imhoff Roland; Schmalbach Bjarne; Strauß Bernhard; Banse Rainer. Testing convergence among attachment methods: Adult Attachment Interview, Relationship-Specific Attachment Scale, and Implicit Association Test. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1487056; article XML SHA-256 b272a2f8fda81fd75b2e2cee78de7d803df8aaa444301f86447c0005782f7158. “Testing convergence among attachment methods: Adult Attachment Interview, Relationship-Specific Attachment Scale, and Implicit Association Test” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1487056).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1487056). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adult day care
<a id="adult-day-care"></a>

Adult day care is a community-based service that provides older adults, including people living with dementia, with coordinated health, social, educational, and rehabilitative support during the day. It is intended to promote participants’ physical, emotional, mental, and social well-being while also giving care partners respite.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a3541c3009bc792211f8f42a02f9a944c08f13227d2b7f6e0d47c74fe40158e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuohy Dympna; Kingston Liz; Carey Eileen; Graham Margaret; Dore Liz; Doody Owen. A scoping review on the psychosocial interventions used in day care service for people living with dementia. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0295507; article XML SHA-256 7d7425c12626dc689a7f5c5a401fc7f3df8a1d0cbff48ac888c730164beb5da3. “A scoping review on the psychosocial interventions used in day care service for people living with dementia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0295507).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295507). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adult education
<a id="adult-education"></a>

Adult education is planned learning for adults that may address skill gaps, but is not mainly limited to correcting deficiencies. It more broadly focuses on the goals adults set for themselves and on how they want to use and develop their existing resources, including support for adults at risk of exclusion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 403d746d667e222dd9a937ce5e981d6303ecace060190fee4d758e6b1d3e29ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ślósarz Luba; Błaszczyński Kamil; Švecová Magdaléna; Kobylarek Aleksander. Adult education needs inventory: Construction and application. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1035283; article XML SHA-256 9594a022a3b81ce576ae1e5dcc1922791c077aec467a9384dbcc042f8cef1d1a. “Adult education needs inventory: Construction and application” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1035283).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1035283). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adultery
<a id="adultery"></a>

Adultery is voluntary sexual intercourse involving a married person and someone who is not that person’s spouse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7caa2612d215d7c6c8477faf4c5fc40cbdc13854c30b29e960676387643a7ffa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Extramarital Relations” (D005114).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005114). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## advance directive
<a id="advance-directive"></a>

An advance directive is a way for a person to state treatment preferences in advance, usually outside an acute emergency, so decisions can be more carefully considered. In the context described here, it can include refusing treatment ahead of time, and such refusals may be treated as binding in some settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1dc298e40ab2f01ea3426aa996be01bc1b62bf8a41f78ae627617119c4ca1c3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gloeckler Sophie; Scholten Matthé; Biller-Andorno Nikola. Differential treatment of individuals with mental health conditions in high-consequence decision-making: a comparison of policy on advance directives and assisted suicide in three European countries. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1616011; article XML SHA-256 392e791d1ad17364012cc57a546bdf096728c1374b500aa0bc071d89058837ba. “Differential treatment of individuals with mental health conditions in high-consequence decision-making: a comparison of policy on advance directives and assisted suicide in three European countries” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1616011).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1616011). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adverse drug reaction
<a id="adverse-drug-reaction"></a>

An adverse drug reaction is a harmful or unpleasant response caused by using a medicine. It suggests risk if the medicine is given again and may call for prevention, treatment, changing the dose, or stopping the medicine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e95af7f1daedf060fa881146362b8167d7be99eb1996124c1e2d416c256631d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Logan Vera; Hughes David; Turner Adam; Carter Neil; Jordan Sue. Methods for identifying adverse drug reactions in primary care: A systematic review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317660; article XML SHA-256 05f09d4e08f5784adbd72630c87589d5acfd4e963992de91e332e8166a752220. “Methods for identifying adverse drug reactions in primary care: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317660).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317660). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## adverse event
<a id="adverse-event"></a>

An adverse event is an unwanted event associated with a drug or treatment that is tracked to assess safety. In this context, it refers to drug-related events reported in a safety reporting system to look for possible safety concerns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3108b09e68bd51a2e5a7dea814d0add32891e97f0ef8ca9000af11a2255856b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Huajie; Ma Shiyu; Lai Jun; Huang Yubin. Signal mining of botulinum toxin type A adverse events based on FAERS database and its implications for the treatment of cerebral palsy. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1676051; article XML SHA-256 7f97413d9d288ed1d65021dd5e6d8e76f02f780f2063d9236d1e415c73560b18. “Signal mining of botulinum toxin type A adverse events based on FAERS database and its implications for the treatment of cerebral palsy” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1676051).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1676051). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## advocacy
<a id="advocacy"></a>

In this context, advocacy means acting to protect a patient and support their safety and quality of care. It is described as an important ethical duty for nurses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a64e8022bab9a59f408c5c0123e58443b93c8bd4dfa7de9d1803e208cf95c6fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shang Li; Wang Na; Qin Liping; Song Ling; Yan Suyao; Zhang Jin. The hidden cost of patient advocacy: moral courage mediating clinical advocacy behaviors and workplace ostracism among Chinese nurses. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1835394; article XML SHA-256 8255ffe46cea5f710188dcf5b8af72996c63173c02eb575e493a65ef75e79888. “The hidden cost of patient advocacy: moral courage mediating clinical advocacy behaviors and workplace ostracism among Chinese nurses” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1835394).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1835394). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AEA
<a id="aea"></a>

AEA stands for anandamide, one of the body’s endocannabinoids. It is part of the endocannabinoid system, which includes cannabinoid receptors and related enzymes and helps influence brain signaling and behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5af4309a6e67c64965beefaa279220dc09925af147e8c7fa25a2ec7cedd2dc7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rao Jagadeesh S.; Alejandra Tangarife Maria; Venegas Maria Margarita; Forero Barbara; González Tamayo Laura Lucía; Escobar-Gallego Juan Pablo; Rodríguez-Soacha Diego A.; Ferreiros Alexandra; Mukunda Ram. The role of the endocannabinoid system in managing neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1709266; article XML SHA-256 026089343dcb01b79d8d6c4029ec9c344ee7918f2702e345a83b45468e90d755. “The role of the endocannabinoid system in managing neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1709266).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1709266). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AED
<a id="aed"></a>

AED stands for automated external defibrillator, a device placed in public settings to allow early defibrillation during cardiac arrest outside the hospital. In practice, its use is often limited by poor access, lack of public awareness about where it is or how to use it, and negative perceptions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ee64c472a67a16afe05d83798f88b88e669b37033b94a51a6310260b719eeeb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eiri Giovanna Natsumi; Júnior Hudson Rogerio Proença; Massago Miyoko; Giacomin Vinicius Lopes; Moriya Karoline Harummy Romero; de Amorim Aboboreira Mateus; Ueda Felipe Hideaki; Machado Aline Cardoso; Gabella Júlia Loverde; Bitencour Marcos Rogério; Tavares Gurgel Sanderland José; Vissoci João Ricardo Nickenig; Paris Teixeira Heloise Manica; de Andrade Luciano. Local DEA app: Saving lives with accessible and well-located automated external defibrillators. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318065; article XML SHA-256 9b04faa6ada9f343d7a7eebeed86652448f1f1298fef06e5a95b938a7a6f6827. “Local DEA app: Saving lives with accessible and well-located automated external defibrillators” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318065).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318065). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AEq
<a id="aeq"></a>

AEq refers to the Aesthetic Experience Questionnaire, a 22-item psychometric measure of aesthetic experience. It assesses emotional, cultural, perceptual, and understanding aspects of response to art, along with two flow-related aspects: conditions that support flow and the flow experience itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d10c4257a3a59e78a529ea035a8d9d60330323ca42cd15b0468a2dc48aa4032a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Świątek Agata Hiacynta; Szcześniak Małgorzata; Wojtkowiak Karolina; Stempień Michał; Chmiel Marianna. Polish version of the Aesthetic Experience Questionnaire: validation and psychometric characteristics. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1214928; article XML SHA-256 1a0f767bac35cb081121e55507f047c767cfe4c9b333990a403546ee524b6c9e. “Polish version of the Aesthetic Experience Questionnaire: validation and psychometric characteristics” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1214928).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1214928). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aesthesiometry
<a id="aesthesiometry"></a>

Aesthesiometry is the measurement of sensory sensitivity or threshold. In this context, von Frey aesthesiometry is a mechanical form of quantitative sensory testing used to obtain an objective sensory threshold and help quantify neuropathic pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddc12ee186fc14b5fa7be8e75b1de07c63871e6e9cdab168eea0fe7a47a617e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hechler Ashley C.; Hostnik Eric T.; Cook Laurie B.; Cole Lynette K.; Moore Sarah A.. Mechanical quantitative sensory testing in cavalier King Charles spaniels with and without syringomyelia. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12917-020-02313-7; article XML SHA-256 3b4c8e2159ec456ba07a6b1eb97241e5a849b3780168c0bc512c40794f9c27d0. “Mechanical quantitative sensory testing in cavalier King Charles spaniels with and without syringomyelia” (10.1186/s12917-020-02313-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-020-02313-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aesthetic emotion
<a id="aesthetic-emotion"></a>

Aesthetic emotion is the mental excitement connected with aesthetic experience, which may feel pleasant, unpleasant, or mixed. It refers to more intellectual and spiritual aspects of response rather than simple sensory pleasure or pain, and in this older usage it is close in meaning to sentiment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d80ad466a5e7cd4118db38213411211f97ae0501f43f9becf9c93c9104b611ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Emotion (aesthetic)” (Emotion (aesthetic)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Emotion (aesthetic)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aesthetic preference
<a id="aesthetic-preference"></a>

Aesthetic preference is a person’s tendency to favor certain visual stimuli because they produce a sense of aesthetic pleasure. This attraction can happen automatically or without clear awareness of why the object feels appealing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cffa11716acb1f8da7f7f5acf87a66828ad3c5e1c31615808fa71fed17ea39c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Yi; Lyu Jinyun; Xue Xiaodi; Peng Kaiping. Cognitive basis for the development of aesthetic preference: Findings from symmetry preference. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0239973; article XML SHA-256 59a39785689f4f3b3562e8295e2e875f88d3b13b127b8e604bf81a9ead186591. “Cognitive basis for the development of aesthetic preference: Findings from symmetry preference” (10.1371/journal.pone.0239973).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239973). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aesthetic value
<a id="aesthetic-value"></a>

Aesthetic value is the pleasing or displeasing quality assigned to something as beautiful, sublime, or ugly. In the associationist view described here, that value comes wholly or partly from earlier pleasures or displeasures that the object, or something related to it, brings back to mind rather than from the object’s form alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 513d6dfc2583ff6270b9f22e1c0eba39d92bc326ae0904690eb946361f63b640

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Association (in aesthetics)” (Association (in aesthetics)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Association (in aesthetics)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aesthetics
<a id="aesthetics"></a>

Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of beauty. It also covers experiences and judgments about what is beautiful, including aesthetic aspects of medicine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b977464e776aa14b8ed527bae8ec68274d04dd83827055fa93a9227abc59776

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Esthetics” (D004954).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004954). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## affect
<a id="affect"></a>

Affect is the feeling quality that accompanies an idea or mental image. It is the most immediate psychological expression of instinct and reflects the bodily changes through which instinct shows itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 145f99c2280966f15b47927756fbf6496091c7a11f179b9b1b0ecb41b9e3910d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Affect” (D000339).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000339). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## affect intensity
<a id="affect-intensity"></a>

Affect intensity is the strength or degree of an emotion as it is experienced. In this packet, it refers especially to how intense negative emotions are, used as an outcome related to emotion dysregulation and instability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 04f0dda925496d4f724d6abcc4f63c4e16116f07824e8d67d33fd76e6bd1cf7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Paret Christian; Jindrová Miroslava; Kleindienst Nikolaus; Eck Judith; Breman Hester; Lührs Michael; Barth Beatrix; Ethofer Thomas; Fallgatter Andreas J; Goebel Rainer; Hoell Andreas; Lockhofen Denise; Reinhold Annika S; Maier Simon; Matthies Swantje; Mulert Christoph; Schönholz Christian; van Elst Ludger Tebartz; Schmahl Christian. A randomised controlled trial of amygdala fMRI-neurofeedback versus sham-feedback in borderline-personality disorder – systematic literature review and introduction to the BrainSTEADy trial. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07000-1; article XML SHA-256 b029224c39cf18186510ec5700dd7a2c64523003e0856726f5cb85ebff4401a2. “A randomised controlled trial of amygdala fMRI-neurofeedback versus sham-feedback in borderline-personality disorder – systematic literature review and introduction to the BrainSTEADy trial” (10.1186/s12888-025-07000-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07000-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## affect misattribution procedure
<a id="affect-misattribution-procedure"></a>

An affect misattribution procedure is a computer-administered sequential priming assessment used to estimate implicit attitudes or stigma. In this packet, it is described as an alternative to deliberate self-report for measuring implicit internalized sexual orientation stigma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f660dccc3a4745e7a5a8717e94464ff7eafaf4145a917e8552412947b9956d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hall William J.; Dawes Hayden C.; Hannay Jason W.; Williams Denise Yookong; Frey Joseph J.; Srivastava Ankur; Chapman Mimi V.; Chen Ding-Geng; Wilson Amy Blank; Ramon Magdelene E.; Payne B. Keith. Development and initial validation of the implicit internalized sexual orientation stigma affect misattribution procedure. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1385410; article XML SHA-256 a5fcb00b5f95fdfea70c02a0bb6ac018228f0d0c1e928bcab710cf944a5f2df6. “Development and initial validation of the implicit internalized sexual orientation stigma affect misattribution procedure” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1385410).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1385410). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## affect regulation
<a id="affect-regulation"></a>

Affect regulation means managing and responding to emotions. In this packet, it refers to emotion regulation and coping in the context of stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1366e6dcffd79abd6c678a74c5be39bfd63b477dead47e62beb55b5faacba304

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Daphne Y; Swerdlow Benjamin A; Chong Shao Yuan; Kako Nadia; Rubin Alex; Perry Nicholas S. Affect regulation in the context of sexual and gender minority stress: A scoping review protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329531; article XML SHA-256 45fbbf132a922ee426ab22d8c94e54ab2430c25037d144041575646390d582fd. “Affect regulation in the context of sexual and gender minority stress: A scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329531).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329531). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## affect scale
<a id="affect-scale"></a>

An affect scale is an assessment measure used to rate a person’s emotional state, such as levels of positive and negative affect. In this packet, affect was measured with the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS).

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e97ef2c9ef3f47d1afa4bfa9c5e243d0559b9530f6f54a52ad3ec3769d7cba2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rachanioti Eleni; Magkavila Dimitra; Fragkomichelaki Olga; Dinou Magda; Katsadima Effie; Foti Theodora; Tzalla Anastasia; Dougali Anna; Bourmpou Christina; Staikopoulou Maria; Papantoniou Aphrodite; Varlami Fotini; Dinaki Irene; Tsiountala Maria; Staikopoulos Konstantinos; Mavropalias Tryfon; Efthymiou Efthymia; Tomprou Demetra; Georgiadi Maria; Katsarou Dimitra; Kougioumtzis Georgios; Katsouri Ioanna Giannoula; Zaragas Harilaos; Moraitou Despina; Sofologi Maria; Papantoniou Georgia. The screening tool of behavioral self-regulation “Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders” task: a preliminary adaptation to Greek older adults. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1891008; article XML SHA-256 9dbcce4a1581838fc83457280a040c758f851a25de4af94821bc02b6f01cd7ac. “The screening tool of behavioral self-regulation “Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders” task: a preliminary adaptation to Greek older adults” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1891008).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1891008). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## affective ambivalence
<a id="affective-ambivalence"></a>

Affective ambivalence is a decision-making state in which emotional responses pull preference in a different direction from more deliberate or cognitive evaluation. It refers to conflict between affect and thought when choosing, especially under complex conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b02a18da0a53cf52d6d9e80116916cdf09ddf9d408ca98cba0e7e76c9b6b375

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Trujillo Carlos Andres. The complementary role of affect-based and cognitive heuristics to make decisions under conditions of ambivalence and complexity. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0206724; article XML SHA-256 e9a76a8ce55be5159b8c7d6eed599fdbd2fdbac12703ec0aa8866483a690ce53. “The complementary role of affect-based and cognitive heuristics to make decisions under conditions of ambivalence and complexity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0206724).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206724). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## affective assessment
<a id="affective-assessment"></a>

Affective assessment is the evaluation of a person’s emotional state or changes in emotion during an interaction. In this context, it refers to judging a child’s feelings during a forensic interview by using cues such as nonverbal behavior or vocal emotion patterns, sometimes with AI as a supplementary aid rather than a replacement for professional judgment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a1971b37cfcb5f50c5f02d39b0e30cc58007797376bd127fa056977ee8b70789

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Yoonseo; Maeng Seho; Kim Yujin; Hong Mirae; Kang Seohyun; Park Jinyoung; Chu Haeun; Lee Jooyoung. AI-assisted vocal emotion analysis in forensic interview with children: an exploratory study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1818889; article XML SHA-256 3047ddfcf904c0c83505924b280cac525242b43188ece0bd2da62d91a7a314cb. “AI-assisted vocal emotion analysis in forensic interview with children: an exploratory study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1818889).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1818889). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## affective concordance
<a id="affective-concordance"></a>

Affective concordance is the tendency for partners to share or mirror emotional states, so that influences on one person’s feelings can affect the other’s mental state. In couples, this emotional linkage may support positive behaviours but can also be associated with problems such as depression or anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1b977367b1e7720047f133a746cf40e7a5b35b7c03b3989c0a7d38eb32c45442

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Walker J.; Liddle J.; Jordan K. P.; Campbell P.. Affective concordance in couples: a cross-sectional analysis of depression and anxiety consultations within a population of 13,507 couples in primary care. 2017; DOI 10.1186/s12888-017-1354-7; article XML SHA-256 d07638ef1d11a1c7847402c06ea36d43b3f0ccd15f4012526c46fbcd59f5efad. “Affective concordance in couples: a cross-sectional analysis of depression and anxiety consultations within a population of 13,507 couples in primary care” (10.1186/s12888-017-1354-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1354-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## affective development
<a id="affective-development"></a>

In learning contexts, affective development means growth in the emotional and motivational side of learning. In this source, it refers to changes in affective outcomes such as motivation and self-efficacy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d745f3d680345ab1194138885dfb09fce675c66d486f1bbcdbb5584469d2e45e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiao Fangju; Bian Jiasheng; Zhang Rui; Zhou Tong. Collaboration scripts in computer-supported collaborative learning: a systematic review from 2011 to 2024. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1717440; article XML SHA-256 4625d0c7dc4e0dc72141e5fbcdfcaf57169ff3611e5ca47370cf5f31d6185c98. “Collaboration scripts in computer-supported collaborative learning: a systematic review from 2011 to 2024” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1717440).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1717440). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## affective interaction
<a id="affective-interaction"></a>

Affective interaction is the emotional side of interaction that helps build a positive relationship base and encourages people’s energy and willingness to engage. It involves creating a warm, low-distance atmosphere, openly expressing feelings such as trust and commitment, and fostering mutual recognition of the relationship and each side’s abilities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 67fc1a3817001a2d74d36223d17261d249fe8bb237de016620d05a4e0b36d5c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fan Mengjuan; Huang Wu; Xiong Shengxu. How enterprise interactions in innovation networks affect technological innovation performance: The role of technological innovation capacity and absorptive capacity. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0282540; article XML SHA-256 63c8352ce69949e1752762f0c21d864e60f7a598b32b78240bab2139e8601173. “How enterprise interactions in innovation networks affect technological innovation performance: The role of technological innovation capacity and absorptive capacity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0282540).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282540). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## affective meaning
<a id="affective-meaning"></a>

Affective meaning is the emotional significance a person perceives in what they observe, such as movement. In this source, it refers to the valence and arousal qualities people infer from the spatiotemporal pattern of movement, even when other emotion cues are limited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1cfab1a80a7f463a9577d0d945dc2b998f4d105ac048a1ff8cf547cfca117630

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jaime Mark; daSilva Elizabeth B. Affective meaning from unlabeled biological motion: Associations with social–perceptual sensitivity. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352873; article XML SHA-256 c1ff97bb76e7126285d1a54238b701f7e2af7843f43ac0c4c92fe7ec52bd4239. “Affective meaning from unlabeled biological motion: Associations with social–perceptual sensitivity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352873).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352873). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## affective psychosis
<a id="affective-psychosis"></a>

Affective psychosis is a condition in which psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations or delusions occur along with a mood disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16aa8404e233177b70a9b7f848ab9cf26052d1429412614e979e8f8497022504

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Affective Psychosis” (C34361).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## affective tone
<a id="affective-tone"></a>

Affective tone, or feeling tone, is the feeling element that accompanies a mental state. In historical psychology, the term was used for qualitative differences in feeling, while pleasure and pain were better treated separately as hedonic tone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: deb53268a74e56b3d024d74fe780125b75ea797a8f8a08749aaf2a2ee415e01d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Affective Tone or Feeling Tone” (Affective Tone or Feeling Tone).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Affective Tone or Feeling Tone). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## afferent
<a id="afferent"></a>

In this context, afferent refers to signals traveling from facial muscle activity toward the limbic system. These incoming body-to-brain signals are described as one way facial expressions could shape emotional experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22be2785a28c8a2d74e4c8e496989c4538f53be027246fba29d68ad1ca980f01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Loewen Álvaro; Aranda-Guerrero Sabina; Tajima-Pozo Kazuhiro. Beyond aesthetic outcomes: psychodermatological benefits of botulinum toxin treatment in the upper facial third. A narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1822916; article XML SHA-256 81ff9b48ae9dc70f306b12e4024079eb85108a9ac9bd2f0d86e7bcb9380d8057. “Beyond aesthetic outcomes: psychodermatological benefits of botulinum toxin treatment in the upper facial third. A narrative review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1822916).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1822916). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## affirmative
<a id="affirmative"></a>

In this historical logic usage, affirmative refers to the symbol A, which stands for a universal affirmative judgment: a statement asserting that all members of a class have a given property.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e248114746c5069a31ec42767b67de43a0942a33112e530cf5c1c6c62466a1b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “A” (A).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#A). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## affirmative action
<a id="affirmative-action"></a>

Affirmative action is a policy intended to reduce inequalities by widening access to opportunities such as professional training. In this source, it refers to an admissions pathway designed to help ensure comparable professional qualification to the regular route.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 10d201fe3408d93cccf412f34f17d5bbf64df08f18247478bbdf930c0d9ada09

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Biazotto Marize Lima de Sousa Holanda; Donato Göttems Leila Bernarda; Bittencourt Fernanda Viana; de Araújo Gilson Roberto; Soares Fernandes Sérgio Eduardo; Lopes Rodrigues Carlos Manoel; de Assis Rocha Neves Francisco; Amorim Fábio Ferreira. Nursing students admitted through the affirmative action system display similar performance in professional and academic trajectories to those from the regular path in a public school in Brazil. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0264506; article XML SHA-256 c960322918dd8da7025b6916ffc3dfb2ce91c1349c0d889d6905062815dc35a7. “Nursing students admitted through the affirmative action system display similar performance in professional and academic trajectories to those from the regular path in a public school in Brazil” (10.1371/journal.pone.0264506).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264506). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## African trypanosomiasis
<a id="african-trypanosomiasis"></a>

African trypanosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by Trypanosoma brucei and spread by flies in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa. In addition to fever, pain, and swollen lymph nodes, it can harm the brain and later cause confusion, disturbed sleep-wake patterns, and mental decline, with possible progression to coma and death if untreated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1d95c2d36c20ca1e88448dc63eef4050d689f5328cd00067b812c8025313d570

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “African Trypanosomiasis” (C84541).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## after-nystagmus
<a id="after-nystagmus"></a>

After-nystagmus, specifically optokinetic after-nystagmus, is the continued rhythmic eye movement that gradually fades after a moving visual stimulus is suddenly stopped. It reflects a slow discharge of the neural system involved in integrating motion signals, and its time constant is described as shorter in people with vestibular disorders than in healthy controls.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1af9523dc38fe2770e348626062be721b556607491ee481103eb56475fc4493

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reynders Marie; Van der Sypt Lynn; Bos Jelte; Cools Wilfried; Topsakal Vedat. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the diagnostic value of optokinetic after-nystagmus in vestibular disorders. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fneur.2024.1367735; article XML SHA-256 e0979354a1ea1f8b12ba3b6e1b9eac66f31d1d540d9db3523e1e903a7433a9c1. “Systematic review and meta-analysis of the diagnostic value of optokinetic after-nystagmus in vestibular disorders” (10.3389/fneur.2024.1367735).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2024.1367735). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aftercare
<a id="aftercare"></a>

Aftercare is follow-up support provided after treatment to help maintain recovery and reduce the risk of relapse. In this mental health context, it can include help for people moving from psychiatric treatment back into work so their return is more sustainable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 90d926d28a8babb75416c83808782c588d4bffe53bd68a96d4cbbc93cf05e0e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Starke Fiona; Zimmermann Johannes; Sikora Alexandra; Houkes Inge; Schulz Anika; Stegmann Ralf; Seufert Laura; Schmitz Eva; Buntrock Claudia; Szycik Gregor R; Borgolte Anna; Unger Hans-Peter; Schumacher Jan Ole; Stark Heiko; Schneller Carlotta; Unterschemmann Sarah-Louise; de Rijk Angelique; Wegewitz Uta. Intensified return to work clinical aftercare for sick-listed employees with diagnosed mental disorders in Germany: effects of a multicentre randomized controlled trial. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08639-0; article XML SHA-256 5b3e14d51e823ae5512763911e5326ea22f1868360c2a68e5c31d12ce5c80962. “Intensified return to work clinical aftercare for sick-listed employees with diagnosed mental disorders in Germany: effects of a multicentre randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-026-08639-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08639-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Afterimage
<a id="afterimage"></a>

An afterimage is a visual impression that continues after the stimulus that produced the original image has stopped.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9d34e685a5562d432a91182ca44196fd0d72c421c85f8455350d153d3bb319f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Afterimage” (D000360).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000360). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## age discrimination
<a id="age-discrimination"></a>

Age discrimination is unfair attitudes or behavior toward people because of their age, including treating them differently or limiting their access to opportunities and social participation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae2b18cf5c33ffbf0bc49db1feb27017a237f05128a6ea61c60d3d70b13a0912

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ageism” (D063506).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063506). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## age ratio
<a id="age-ratio"></a>

Age ratio, in this packet, refers to the pack-year to age ratio used to assess smoking exposure by relating a person’s cumulative smoking history to their age. It is presented as a refined measure intended to give a more interpretable estimate of smoking-related mortality risk than broad smoking-status categories alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c3d921ecf7fc7527f8e39e641e6e61ef8825d96deafd1ec19402e92efcd1fbba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Bora; Im Soojin; Won Sungho. Refined obesity, smoking exposure, and lipid metrics in mortality risk assessment: a nationwide cohort analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348128; article XML SHA-256 43c3fab3c446f3fd9d568a6b719562fb43ebce24250d462575ef9b08f86655ce. “Refined obesity, smoking exposure, and lipid metrics in mortality risk assessment: a nationwide cohort analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348128).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348128). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ageism
<a id="ageism"></a>

Ageism is prejudice or unfair behavior toward people because of their age. It includes unequal treatment and reduced access to opportunities or social participation based on age.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 011441aacc34952c31f512e594f95631f9c87fe81834d6ee353b54d732f17da9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ageism” (D063506).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063506). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## agency
<a id="agency"></a>

Agency is a legal relationship in which one person is authorized to act for another so that the other person gains rights or takes on obligations through that action. In historical accounts, it is described as developing from family-based authority into a mainly contractual arrangement, with the acting person called the agent and the represented person the principal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c33271c926bac80060d13c02a0a947b9c8427c88ab80c53d83d6ad41fcd48c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Agency” (Agency).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Agency). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## agency theory
<a id="agency-theory"></a>

Agency theory is a way of explaining relationships in organizations by focusing on how leaders monitor and direct others to reduce self-serving or opportunistic behavior. In this source, it is used to suggest that CEOs supervise subordinates so their efforts better serve the organization’s goals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 296da0db03ea9cf8255f076ee51b6f90c2d9a917998c67dadfed742b81b73589

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Jianxiu; You Yuntian; Dong Yuanxiang; Guo Rongwang. The impact of tournament incentives on corporate credit repair: Evidence from China. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340063; article XML SHA-256 3f8373370603937d133acea67a7b7c796d997ed86125d448bc4626a2fb61cc44. “The impact of tournament incentives on corporate credit repair: Evidence from China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340063).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340063). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## agent
<a id="agent"></a>

In this historical psychology source, an agent is whatever shows or carries out activity in any of the senses meant by that term.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4544cb5f9e5f14ff4d762d92f1f45636eb9e40c77851286f1736eb9f8c4e060

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Agent” (Agent).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Agent). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## agentic state
<a id="agentic-state"></a>

Agentic state is a proposed condition used to explain obedience in which, when faced with an authority figure, a person focuses on that authority’s demands and becomes less responsive to the suffering of the person affected by their actions. In the packet, this idea is presented as a traditional explanation of behavior in Milgram’s obedience studies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e24c6eba1b2f902a51103fa38db50459be62ecdaaa03ebcf037877eb6baeb69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gonzalez-Franco Mar; Slater Mel; Birney Megan E; Swapp David; Haslam S Alexander; Reicher Stephen D. Participant concerns for the Learner in a Virtual Reality replication of the Milgram obedience study. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209704; article XML SHA-256 4e99dc9dd86607b7b61d90df06b9f72129c4854a8ce4c7b128876978eb7df95f. “Participant concerns for the Learner in a Virtual Reality replication of the Milgram obedience study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209704).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209704). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ageusia
<a id="ageusia"></a>

Ageusia is a complete or marked loss of the sense of taste. It often occurs along with problems with the sense of smell.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76eb942558596cfbe9e70dfa962ac3dfc8d9e5341567c30a567ec0b551156fbd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ageusia” (D000370).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000370). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aggravating factor
<a id="aggravating-factor"></a>

An aggravating factor is something that makes an existing symptom or condition worse or more intense. In the source, social isolation and related emotional states are described as aggravating factors because they may increase pain and other symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e8bc9bd97ad7243eea4414a564653fa0c16278b0c577ba0bec3344870c2fa475

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Galhardo Alessandra Pucci Mantelli; Andrade Pâmela Ramos; de Andrade Luciana Paes; Cury Mariluce Anache Anbar; Mukai Marcio Katsuyoshi; Baracat Edmund Chada; Soares Jr José Maria. Cross-sectional study of self-reported pain related to temporomandibular disorders and emotional state of medical school faculty and students: Post-COVID-19 pandemic. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308988; article XML SHA-256 dfea818ac1813c9f6fa5f7803da60d3c81f1f2371e63cf8fbacf7de0811e19ec. “Cross-sectional study of self-reported pain related to temporomandibular disorders and emotional state of medical school faculty and students: Post-COVID-19 pandemic” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308988).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308988). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aggregate idea
<a id="aggregate-idea"></a>

An aggregate idea is a general idea of a class or group understood as a collection taken together, with the separate members still mentally present rather than stripped away into an abstraction. It refers to the idea of an aggregate, not to an idea that is merely made up of combined or complex parts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: beaba81860977064a25048a906535118e23b85065610e985869cca77ab47188c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aggregate” (Aggregate).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Aggregate). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aggregation
<a id="aggregation"></a>

In this historical sociological sense, aggregation means a collection of beings regarded together as one whole or as made up of separate units. In demography or population statistics, it can also mean the grouping of individuals within one place or territory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22ef463ff13985e6d88ff36627a48245f442a7e079991e55253f182c92080ad1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aggregation” (Aggregation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Aggregation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aggregation problems
<a id="aggregation-problems"></a>

Aggregation problems are distortions or errors that can arise when researchers group information into larger contextual units, such as communities or neighborhoods, because different ways of drawing those boundaries can change the results. In this sense, the problem comes from the subjective choice of how separate observations are combined into a single area.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 157d49577a6448fb01d72c5dad3c684c0546a57728942085f3b7c3782bccd777

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tatalovich Zaria; Wilson John P; Milam Joel E; Jerrett Michael; McConnell Rob. Competing definitions of contextual environments. 2006; DOI 10.1186/1476-072x-5-55; article XML SHA-256 efd728f915c61cd8f1ece208f14998f11eb6270c6c004c5238a1dd908101adf7. “Competing definitions of contextual environments” (10.1186/1476-072x-5-55).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-072x-5-55). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aggression
<a id="aggression"></a>

Aggression is behavior that shows itself in attacking or destructive actions, whether verbal or physical. It can also appear in less direct forms such as hostile attitudes or deliberate obstruction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44a25213b14badebd9330dbdb014e3e7da8875126b95ed802068ade813a566de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aggression” (D000374).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000374). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aggressive mimicry
<a id="aggressive-mimicry"></a>

In this historical source, aggressive mimicry is a form of mimicry in which an organism resembles something its prey is drawn to or seeks, helping it attract the prey rather than avoid detection. It is grouped with alluring colours as a type of pseudepisematic coloration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c201963dcd048adc6b7a376c6a1b3fbb5ca504367b28fc27945d35fd5d8241a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mimicry (in biology)” (Mimicry).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Mimicry). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aggressiveness
<a id="aggressiveness"></a>

Aggressiveness is the degree to which a tumor shows more serious disease behavior and is used in risk assessment to sort patients into lower or higher risk groups. In this packet, it refers to prostate cancer severity as estimated from Gleason score and molecular patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4954b27c6621fd659d97ac57c96f24b0cf1c47ba2e757b69a02e01377c80d5a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pirmoradi Saeed; Vaghefi Moghaddam Sevil; Ardalan Mohammadreza; Sharifi Bonab Mir Mohsen; Teshnehlab Mohammad; Zununi Vahed Sepideh. Graph neural network-based risk stratification of prostate cancer using gene expression and SHAP interpretability. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356727; article XML SHA-256 7014b450d56a63dcc8c38c6fc25276c7c8e9051c27c034f6dac9c6bcfe2ba03d. “Graph neural network-based risk stratification of prostate cancer using gene expression and SHAP interpretability” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356727).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356727). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aging
<a id="aging"></a>

Aging is the later-life process in which people’s abilities and opportunities change over time, leading them to adjust goals, sense of control, and what feels emotionally important. In psychology and social contexts, healthy aging is understood as functional ability shaped by both a person’s own capacities and the supportiveness of their environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2646b567eb519c7c8e34e1e4b6423a880648c25faedc2b8152778bbd9ca4f082

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cai Jiaxin; Yu Lei; Huang Huixia; Guo Yanlan; Shi Fengxue. Self-worth systems in aging societies: a narrative review and conceptual framework from self-esteem to healthy longevity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1879051; article XML SHA-256 56d2a7e9844332dcef8825fabef2829ab17cc3861d2bdf519e0562709a20a714. “Self-worth systems in aging societies: a narrative review and conceptual framework from self-esteem to healthy longevity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1879051).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1879051). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aging in place
<a id="aging-in-place"></a>

Aging in place means continuing to live at home in later life while receiving the social care and support needed there. In this context, it emphasizes adapting home-based services to the preferences and needs of older people, including those living with dementia, so they can maintain equality, participation, and dignity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b0b14e8ca83bb307c4a2436d073d81300aaf8f49f2a6ee7e1fd0290032ea1d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Larsson Annika Taghizadeh; Olaison Anna; Hydén Lars-Christer; Antar Mattias; Heijkants Ceciel; Lindberg Jimmy; Nordmark Sofia; Wallroth Veronika; Kelfve Susanne. Aging in Place - A mixed methods study protocol of how care providers in Sweden organise and adapt granted home care services to the preferences and needs of people living with dementia. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349278; article XML SHA-256 033f820b1b648c56ecee69eaba132b7fceb6d03e6b1b69324ca563479d8db0d8. “Aging in Place - A mixed methods study protocol of how care providers in Sweden organise and adapt granted home care services to the preferences and needs of people living with dementia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349278).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349278). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## agitated depression
<a id="agitated-depression"></a>

Agitated depression is a subtype of major depressive disorder marked by psychomotor agitation, meaning restless or unusually increased activity. It is associated with elevated suicide risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1603cfca2212ddd798cd4bd0f560c8096e0ba9af098809e378fa693042aa2ed8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bautista-Carro Mario Alberto; Sánchez-Teoyotl Patricia; Juárez-Serrano Daniel; Iannitti Tommaso; Díaz Alfonso; Flores Gonzalo; Morales-Medina Julio César. Olfactory bulbectomy induces neurobiological alterations in the prefrontal cortex and hyperlocomotion in male rats. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339028; article XML SHA-256 6e91b2105cd379ad41490743b0ea64f7225ee1ed56392ad2f8ae2b4f852fa24c. “Olfactory bulbectomy induces neurobiological alterations in the prefrontal cortex and hyperlocomotion in male rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339028).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339028). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## agnosia
<a id="agnosia"></a>

Agnosia is a loss of the ability to recognize or understand the meaning of sensory information even though the basic senses themselves are still working. For example, a person with tactile agnosia cannot identify an object by touch alone despite normal basic touch and position sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40a29c30689de9b16faf0252ff60f337fe75510b566f8a93146ec6643458f639

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Agnosia” (D000377).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000377). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## agnosticism
<a id="agnosticism"></a>

Agnosticism is a historical term for philosophical or scientific views that hold some reality to be inherently unknowable. It has also been used for a mindset, associated with Huxley, that treats metaphysical speculation as unproductive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b090cdafc94efcd14b4f89f63887b06094db8c6b1a6e9b96953cb14fc5fcebf1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Agnosticism” (Agnosticism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Agnosticism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## agnus castus
<a id="agnus-castus"></a>

Agnus castus is an herbal supplement made from dried fruit of the chaste tree, Vitex agnus-castus. It has been used for several women’s health conditions and may reduce prolactin secretion through dopaminergic effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48ef9103853af5cafc151b64b7549ce7758c10d287272a63ba67da8139fc0f8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Vitex agnus-castus Fruit Extract” (C178324).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## agonistic behavior
<a id="agonistic-behavior"></a>

Agonistic behavior is behavior linked to conflict between two individuals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4acd07fba4d4375732371c1ffb178f3817316f28f18cc0162dc74afdc797a29a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Agonistic Behavior” (D000378).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000378). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## agrammatic comprehension
<a id="agrammatic-comprehension"></a>

Agrammatic comprehension is impaired understanding of sentence grammar or syntax. In this packet, it refers to a comprehension problem seen when a glioma affects specific left frontal brain regions and is accompanied by abnormal activity in syntax-related areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d80e07cd33497cae1c3e84ed6cd67fff5cf3e465a1649b45eecce1cf970e2723

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kinno Ryuta; Ohta Shinri; Muragaki Yoshihiro; Maruyama Takashi; Sakai Kuniyoshi L. Left frontal glioma induces functional connectivity changes in syntax-related networks. 2015; DOI 10.1186/s40064-015-1104-6; article XML SHA-256 e4cead2bc303f2f9e7b9a21c6cda73e6547b3d101be31fa35f8c096fc31c1fa2. “Left frontal glioma induces functional connectivity changes in syntax-related networks” (10.1186/s40064-015-1104-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-015-1104-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Agraphia
<a id="agraphia"></a>

Agraphia is a loss or reduction in the ability to write letters, syllables, words, or phrases. It is usually linked to injury in a specific area of the brain, though it can sometimes be related to emotional factors, and it often occurs along with aphasia rather than by itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac05dfdf04a630e9f0341bf34e5c32e438ac64e7fee6b87aabd0a5307152c3f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Agraphia” (D000381).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000381). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## agreeableness
<a id="agreeableness"></a>

Agreeableness is a personality trait describing how naturally or easily a person acts in an agreeable way. In this packet, higher trait agreeableness is linked with feeling better and less stressed after behaving agreeably, suggesting that agreeable behavior may feel easier or more rewarding for those higher in this trait.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 34e29cbc1805425f39c6ff0e237acf53294549901b67a566ea32c7d8152c4d96

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Leikas Sointu. Trait agreeableness moderates the relationship between induced state agreeableness and feeling states. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1646442; article XML SHA-256 761a49f542c0156899cf4d16466110b34feb87ea57fa426c204936ebdf4cef53. “Trait agreeableness moderates the relationship between induced state agreeableness and feeling states” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1646442).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1646442). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## agreement
<a id="agreement"></a>

Agreement is a historical term for concord or harmony, and also for similarity or sameness, including a meaningful connection between ideas. In logic and older theories of knowledge, it can also mean the consistency of judgments or the way ideas are seen as connected, alike, coexisting, or matching real existence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e4bd954c69e36a96730768de4a288d15503d671d4e72bd996cd5fb9d4c90fb3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Agreement” (Agreement).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Agreement). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## agreement coefficient
<a id="agreement-coefficient"></a>

An agreement coefficient is a numerical measure of how closely different raters or coders give the same classifications to the same material. In this context, it is used to judge the accuracy or reliability of coding by showing the level of agreement between reports and assigned codes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a243efdf32056d2ef35c1577ae66ebbabb28bb793c2288b73feb3c78fe2b69d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jahani Mohammad-Ali; Mahmoudi Ghahraman; Nikbakht Hossein-Ali; Farhadi Zeinab; Mousavi Raziehsadat. Qualitative analysis of the coding of pathological data of cancer registry centers: A study in North of Iran. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0291139; article XML SHA-256 91ab7836957114335ec90b8c38e40ce8a0a4d5a0d931edad41e370af78f24c21. “Qualitative analysis of the coding of pathological data of cancer registry centers: A study in North of Iran” (10.1371/journal.pone.0291139).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291139). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## agyria
<a id="agyria"></a>

Agyria is a brain malformation in which the surface of the cerebral cortex is smooth because the normal folds and grooves do not develop. It results from abnormal placement of developing neurons during formation of the cortex and is associated with a thickened cortex that has fewer layers than usual.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4bcce7de8d48c60595393e4fb35d57f5cf168802d3cd608d6ad6ec0ef24267e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lissencephaly” (D054082).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D054082). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AH
<a id="ah"></a>

AH stands for auditory hallucinations, meaning hearing sounds when there is no external sound present. In psychiatry and neurology, they are a clinically important and often distressing symptom seen not only in schizophrenia spectrum disorders but also in several other mental and neurological conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b13d9d5282870d5510cbdadb867365865d36edb33dbaa86bd948a36d5b633d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Jiejun. Assessing the efficacy and safety of rTMS, tDCS, and DBS in treating auditory hallucinations: a scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1769095; article XML SHA-256 d2a9b5432cc94ef345ad108b1e8943f68b81d9b65ea374605cb9deb9c68dc36e. “Assessing the efficacy and safety of rTMS, tDCS, and DBS in treating auditory hallucinations: a scoping review” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1769095).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1769095). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AHP
<a id="ahp"></a>

AHP refers to the Analytic Hierarchy Process, a structured method used here to evaluate and compare factors within a competency framework. In this context, it supported the empirical assessment of safety directors’ competencies under traditional versus AI-empowered approaches.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0df3f96e3c9510aa48bd946a36c2bbcaa787d5e77a567e8aa7fc5d088e77e94e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guan Jing; Yang Zhen chao; Wang Congcong. Research on strategies for enhancing the competency of safety directors in EPC projects empowered by AI. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348868; article XML SHA-256 46ef7e381793e51795f22799432464e180eb570234adbc4d1462786acaf22cd6. “Research on strategies for enhancing the competency of safety directors in EPC projects empowered by AI” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348868).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348868). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AI
<a id="ai"></a>

In this learning context, AI refers to computer-based support systems that assist students during complex bilingual tasks, such as tools that use automatic speech recognition and machine translation. Students may rely on these systems in different ways across stages of a task, and those interaction patterns can relate to training and performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec03d70ee41618348f283de73d1c545e463455652417b98cc6f99b27d1f18e11

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kuang Huolingxiao; Li Jingyi; Weng Yu. Student-AI interaction in computer-assisted consecutive interpreting: patterns and performance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1890808; article XML SHA-256 32b96a5a09bd2357e239d3a8a866b22c7da0ce715f6c3b33f7f0f4e07b8eab2f. “Student-AI interaction in computer-assisted consecutive interpreting: patterns and performance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1890808).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1890808). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AIC
<a id="aic"></a>

AIC refers to 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide, a compound formed when the active breakdown product of temozolomide is further hydrolyzed in the body. In this source, it is described as part of temozolomide metabolism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9cc3217d5656271bf695e175b63af524d682bccc734ca15514dc0b3e66ced572

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Carbon C11 Temozolomide” (C113806).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AIDS dementia complex
<a id="aids-dementia-complex"></a>

AIDS dementia complex is a neurologic disorder linked to AIDS in which HIV-1 affects the central nervous system, leading to problems such as poor concentration and memory, slowed hand movements, unsteady coordination, apathy, incontinence, and difficulty walking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 81b6acb9af3c7d95b341b52154a6bf5b4e50291f1fd7d26d6b25d42c6b8cb7ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “AIDS Dementia Complex” (D015526).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015526). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aim
<a id="aim"></a>

In historical psychology, an aim is a relatively distant or broad goal within voluntary action. It is close in meaning to purpose, but less precise than terms like end or motive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7ec4113f9686166f767eb693dfb09e25704bcda4e2ee88883630e3fce26b9ae6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aim” (Aim).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Aim). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## air conduction
<a id="air-conduction"></a>

Air conduction is the usual way sound reaches the inner ear, with sound traveling through the ear canal and eardrum. It contrasts with bone conduction, which sends vibration through the skull instead of the outer and middle ear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 104a0d33a3da3548ad53065f025fe8ddb6e17878ec8d565eabdb38f0657565d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bone Conduction” (D001844).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001844). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## air–bone gap
<a id="airbone-gap"></a>

Air–bone gap is a hearing-related measure that, along with bone-conduction threshold, can be used before tympanoplasty to help predict hearing by air conduction after surgery. In counselling, it can support more realistic discussion of likely hearing outcomes and expectations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee713f5aa802bb06b33ecfbeb4477bf7dc3e3411e2727a3cf0bfbeb4bde58d63

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Ethan I; Wu Yu-Chieh; Chuang Hsiu-Mei; Huang Tzu-Chi. Bone-conduction threshold and air-bone gap may predict frequency-specific air-conduction threshold after tympanoplasty. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248421; article XML SHA-256 ae8ef20a015813f68dd8e5616b96073db43e5e1e069172146156283b76eb4668. “Bone-conduction threshold and air-bone gap may predict frequency-specific air-conduction threshold after tympanoplasty” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248421).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248421). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AIS
<a id="ais"></a>

AIS stands for Automatic Identification System, a source of vessel trajectory data used to study and predict ship movement. In this context, AIS data can be simplified to reduce repeated route information while preserving movement continuity, which can improve learning tasks such as trajectory prediction and anomaly detection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7ad765f40a8bb2fe4f24220dd08f618348ed73e49317ae69372f2dfa7339194

Sources:
- Drafting source: [He Jin; Ruan Jinjia; Tong Yao. Improved AIS data simplification algorithm for extracting typical routes considering motion continuity. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340021; article XML SHA-256 2f2403619bcb062c87467613bf55fd043895540877a585dc5ad7103b3ab2b197. “Improved AIS data simplification algorithm for extracting typical routes considering motion continuity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340021).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340021). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## akataphasia
<a id="akataphasia"></a>

Akataphasia is a disturbance of speech in which a person cannot put together a complete sentence. It refers to problems in the flow, grammar, or ordering of words in a sentence rather than simply using the wrong words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d524105051621c4a53119803f310b8504e87477d5e0a863d912e587a3ecbf1d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-336000-348000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## akinetic mutism
<a id="akinetic-mutism"></a>

Akinetic mutism is a syndrome in which a person is awake but remains silent and largely motionless, even though the basic pathways for movement and sensation are still intact. It is associated with damage or dysfunction in both frontal lobes, especially the anterior cingulate region, and can severely reduce the ability to start movement or communicate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6813655b3ea7f2b5b1abc6cdbec7ad4689126b72bbb9d8d7f47b46e61fbcbb08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Akinetic Mutism” (D000405).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000405). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AL
<a id="al"></a>

AL refers to allostatic load. In this packet, it is used as a numerical research indicator in which higher AL is associated with more depressive symptoms, greater odds of major depressive disorder, cognitive decline, and poorer psychosocial functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c1d8dbfd01f0c38d83dbb151b980947231efb872295b39f62ac4c258667a1bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Koo Se Jun; Park Jung Woo; Min Jee Eun; Lee Eun; An Suk Kyoon. Allostatic load profiles, resilience, and psychosocial adaptation in young adults. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1860265; article XML SHA-256 42f0b48f123f260198f32e101e7a79b731626e92d9625d46741d387744f1cea0. “Allostatic load profiles, resilience, and psychosocial adaptation in young adults” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1860265).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1860265). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alalia
<a id="alalia"></a>

Alalia is a historical term for partial or complete loss of the ability to articulate speech, or for imperfect articulation, usually linked to paralysis affecting the speech muscles such as the lips, tongue, or larynx. The source also notes a less preferred historical use for loss of speech elements due to cerebral disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f0b41dba426dec225ffeab2670361594a72c2c1f99658f022a8feb3f02df98f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Alalia and Dyslalia” (Alalia and Dyslalia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Alalia and Dyslalia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alanine
<a id="alanine"></a>

Alanine is a non-essential amino acid found in relatively high free levels in blood plasma. It is made from pyruvate and helps with sugar and acid metabolism while supplying energy to muscles, the brain, and the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a3ad724d9b23f7b5bbedfa251d9fca13eeae75fb1a01047e4b6553f27251f3c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alanine” (D000409).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000409). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alarm reaction
<a id="alarm-reaction"></a>

An alarm reaction is an antipredator response triggered when an animal detects chemical danger cues from members of its own species, such as substances from skin cells or blood. In the source, the term refers to this defensive reaction in fish.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9db89b9c591b917c7ec50b6686e7469226d72a25a1b96eb2205a6f368eccbc25

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barreto Rodrigo Egydio; Miyai Caio Akira; Sanches Fabio Henrique Carretero; Giaquinto Percília Cardoso; Delicio Helton Carlos; Volpato Gilson Luiz. Blood Cues Induce Antipredator Behavior in Nile Tilapia Conspecifics. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0054642; article XML SHA-256 1c1535d93b394c17eef0cad229074485b7b8445f90cd201e2e73c377e12b4eb4. “Blood Cues Induce Antipredator Behavior in Nile Tilapia Conspecifics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0054642).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0054642). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alaryngeal
<a id="alaryngeal"></a>

Alaryngeal refers to voice or speech produced without the natural larynx, usually after its loss through treatments such as laryngectomy. In this context, it describes recovered ways of communicating following voice loss.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c23cb87240e9ad7f5cab616ce9c98b379c1cb0b740b000e49cbcceeb8537e3ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moors Thomas; Himonides Evangelos. From silence into song: an art–science collaboration with survivor trees and laryngectomy singers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1747218; article XML SHA-256 4efd33e3b0cbbad70344273b27b44ee622f8419db1c89c644794ec36242d140d. “From silence into song: an art–science collaboration with survivor trees and laryngectomy singers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1747218).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1747218). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## albinism
<a id="albinism"></a>

Albinism, specifically oculocutaneous albinism, is an inherited condition in which melanin pigment is partly or completely absent from the skin, hair, and eyes. It is described here as an autosomal recessive disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd3f04ed98390b792bae743e64ca66cb19c420950f7b64f488f98d63c10be204

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yahalom Claudia; Navarrete Ana; Juster Atara; Galbinur Ayan; Blumenfeld Anat; Hendler Karen. Visual acuity improvement in children with albinism beyond the first decade of life. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296744; article XML SHA-256 1dfe830339ce06c6c79f5d919ff01851170d2687148990a2279a2c561ac24739. “Visual acuity improvement in children with albinism beyond the first decade of life” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296744).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296744). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alcohol
<a id="alcohol"></a>

Alcohol is a volatile liquid made by fermenting certain carbohydrates. In the body, it acts as a central nervous system depressant and a diuretic, and it can also be used as a disinfectant because it destroys organisms by denaturing their proteins.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 20f553defa3ac7f1ecff1c86c37af51a8bc4ddefa401ffdf042de9839f9db4e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alcohol” (C2190).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alcohol abuse
<a id="alcohol-abuse"></a>

Alcohol abuse is drinking alcoholic beverages in excessive amounts, either during single episodes such as binge drinking or as an ongoing pattern. It refers to alcohol use that goes beyond moderate consumption.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5518cfc62cc6017fa9cc9cfb73383dd48b0881e63b3d632d359743a39da3fc6e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alcohol Abuse” (C20701).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Alcohol Amnestic Disorder
<a id="alcohol-amnestic-disorder"></a>

Alcohol amnestic disorder is a mental health condition linked to long-term alcohol misuse and poor nutrition. It mainly involves short-term memory loss, along with made-up or distorted memories and problems with attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 975f5ca3c4ab58fffd4eea83334caabadda7382466b027bf50ad07c26b3bcf88

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Alcohol Amnestic Disorder” (D000425).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000425). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## alcohol dependence
<a id="alcohol-dependence"></a>

Alcohol dependence is a chronic primary disease shaped by genetic, psychosocial, and environmental influences. It involves impaired control over drinking, preoccupation with alcohol, continued use despite harmful consequences, and distorted thinking such as denial, and it may be ongoing or occur in periods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 58bca85c69604f21b4322c9d4e289a5ff5998623b1342e21a4ebbca3e91dfd44

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alcoholism” (D000437).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000437). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration
<a id="alcohol-drug-abuse-and-mental-health-administration"></a>

The Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration was a U.S. Public Health Service agency that oversaw the planning, support, and management of substance use and mental health programs. After October 1, 1992, it became known as SAMHSA.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 083ac7349e94335ca171d70ffadde5da6e08c49f4ee54145c021371384693314

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “United States Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration” (D014482).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014482). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alcohol-induced persisting amnestic disorder
<a id="alcohol-induced-persisting-amnestic-disorder"></a>

Alcohol-induced persisting amnestic disorder is a long-lasting memory disorder linked to chronic alcohol misuse and related nutritional deficiency. It mainly involves short-term memory loss, often with made-up memories used to fill gaps, along with problems with attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dcb7b9c8523d21ef857f8772423748bbbf510d30d01fa554c36b3fb256244d99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alcohol Amnestic Disorder” (D000425).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000425). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## alcohol-induced persisting dementia
<a id="alcohol-induced-persisting-dementia"></a>

A mental health finding indicating alcohol dependence together with a persistent dementia caused by alcohol use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70bc105545be975471d26f27a6f15d39ed268ca7e5255ca7615ab437dde44514

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alcohol Dependence with Alcohol-Induced Persisting Dementia” (C195564).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alcohol-induced psychotic disorder
<a id="alcohol-induced-psychotic-disorder"></a>

A mental health condition in which alcohol use is linked to psychotic symptoms. In this packet, it is specifically described as involving delusions alongside alcohol abuse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eaa45edcad284f7b6ddce09e43c1780c135a290f1aced2882b8667e3ed450139

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alcohol Abuse with Alcohol-Induced Psychotic Disorder with Delusions” (C195542).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alcohol intoxication
<a id="alcohol-intoxication"></a>

Alcohol intoxication is a state in which drinking an ethanol-containing alcoholic beverage disrupts normal psychological and bodily functioning and responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 94b4d3f9ade8fc480c64049d14dcb02abdadd53cab68ac4477adc3a5a8e0e458

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alcohol Intoxication” (C34367).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alcohol use disorder
<a id="alcohol-use-disorder"></a>

Alcohol use disorder is a psychiatric disorder involving alcohol-related symptoms such as craving and problematic patterns of alcohol use. It is a major contributor to the global burden of mental illness and often occurs together with post-traumatic stress disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 78a3add2b7dcb1c46cf99d7980a7874151d2f4e5c1db3983869ff4dd5cec6cb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ahmed Mohamed Awad E.; Amin Mufreh; Abdalla Yomna Emad; Abdelghani Amr; Eid Nourhan; Samy Aya; Kassar Omar; Alsaadany Khalid Radwan; Mansour Mohamed Ezzat M.. N-acetylcysteine for patients with alcohol use disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and their co-occurrence: a systematic review of placebo-controlled randomized trials. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08124-8; article XML SHA-256 dd74a800dc2e831debe535b82c978be32d87d9c86d5487a89e464d1f219670f6. “N-acetylcysteine for patients with alcohol use disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and their co-occurrence: a systematic review of placebo-controlled randomized trials” (10.1186/s12888-026-08124-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08124-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alcohol withdrawal
<a id="alcohol-withdrawal"></a>

Alcohol withdrawal is a set of physical and psychiatric problems that can occur in people with alcohol dependence. It is a distinct alcohol-related condition that may present with medical complications and needs to be distinguished from alcohol dependence itself and from alcohol dependence with anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f31f4d5bb3db65721fc8e694d9683fdbdee7f7595542604de72fb54d79500a45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kumar M Suresh; Vaishnav Mrugesh; Saha Gautam; Raheja Deepak. Management algorithm for alcohol withdrawal syndrome, alcohol dependence (AD) and AD with anxiety in the Indian population: a narrative review with expert opinion. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1758995; article XML SHA-256 1f27d24c1d6713c60c0104686c14838d82ab98d6b13a92c03af9f907cbc50f39. “Management algorithm for alcohol withdrawal syndrome, alcohol dependence (AD) and AD with anxiety in the Indian population: a narrative review with expert opinion” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1758995).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1758995). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Alcohol Withdrawal Delirium
<a id="alcohol-withdrawal-delirium"></a>

Alcohol withdrawal delirium is a sudden severe mental disturbance that can happen when a person who has been drinking alcohol heavily over time stops or sharply reduces use. It commonly involves confusion, delusions, vivid hallucinations, tremor, agitation, insomnia, and overactivation of the body's automatic functions such as fast heart rate, high blood pressure, sweating, and enlarged pupils; it was formerly called delirium tremens.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7fff463f064b2d5ec70cff71652cfe9304f6ba1c275ed6bbcf3d7dae1aa898f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Alcohol Withdrawal Delirium” (D000430).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000430). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## alcoholic neuropathy
<a id="alcoholic-neuropathy"></a>

Alcoholic neuropathy is damage to the peripheral nerves, including autonomic nerves, linked to long-term alcohol use. It may result from alcohol’s direct effects, nutrition-related deficiency, or both, and can cause weakness, muscle wasting, abnormal sensations, pain, reduced reflexes, sensory loss, sweating changes, and dizziness from low blood pressure when standing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 37fec2058d034c0796ef78f73a14b0fdecbe9006e3a3d6657a5368ce8e714ad0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alcoholic Neuropathy” (D020269).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020269). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Alcoholics Anonymous
<a id="alcoholics-anonymous"></a>

Alcoholics Anonymous is a mutual-support organization made up of people who identify themselves as alcoholics and meet regularly to help one another maintain abstinence from alcohol.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 572c0fbbb41c31723ba1c4b0f35e9ca5823c287b2af73c90aefa07bb2b5ff09d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alcoholics Anonymous” (D000436).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000436). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alcoholism
<a id="alcoholism"></a>

Alcoholism is a long-lasting disease shaped by inherited, psychological, social, and environmental influences. It commonly worsens over time and can be life-threatening, marked by loss of control over alcohol use, persistent focus on drinking, continued drinking despite harm, and impaired judgment such as denial; these problems may be ongoing or recur in periods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 32cbfb1b179bef70b99bd9bcf36ff57d2726ddfc7bec54827d4c15067876a7f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alcoholism” (D000437).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000437). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aldolase
<a id="aldolase"></a>

Aldolase is a family of enzymes that make or break down aldols, which are aldehyde alcohol compounds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8d649c0cd09daccbd6dcf5b7a2bbc9b1d6ae2e7bd61bebdd9a45c9922261abb6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Aldolase” (C129393).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aldosterone
<a id="aldosterone"></a>

Aldosterone is a biological substance found in the blood that, in this source, is linked to motion sickness. Higher aldosterone levels and aldosterone administration were associated with motion sickness-like responses and increased inner-ear endolymph volume, effects that were reduced by atrial natriuretic peptide.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 79df9ee204fd7600add095a7a48ab94925a81f36e6487421e479b8a786612be6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Qian-Cheng; Ji Wei; Li Xia; Ge Jian-Gang; Xu Li-Hua; Jiang Zheng-Lin. Atrial natriuretic peptide may inhibit motion sickness through reducing aldosterone-induced increase in endolymph volume of the inner ear. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359426; article XML SHA-256 45cefe967ff1e9642c2b921859b225bb5707519a2412138e84e6c7a3157c0eed. “Atrial natriuretic peptide may inhibit motion sickness through reducing aldosterone-induced increase in endolymph volume of the inner ear” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359426).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359426). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alexia
<a id="alexia"></a>

Alexia is a loss or weakening of the ability to read, especially to grasp the meaning of written or printed words seen with the eyes. In historical psychology and medicine, it was grouped with speech-related disorders and was also called word-blindness or text-blindness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f362ba0545ae68e4c609f4830cece9dcd879027fa92354210dabb83a822339c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Alexia” (Alexia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Alexia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alexithymia
<a id="alexithymia"></a>

Alexithymia is a pattern of difficulty recognizing, making sense of, and putting feelings into words. It is often discussed as involving both problems with the thinking side of emotion and with emotional processing, and it can affect relationships and empathy while occurring either with or without other mental health conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d106aa1a431f394ebf441b1c0d994ff45dab6080f09a5e65e2a3c7b978180bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [De Zorzi Lucas; Martínez-Velázquez Eduardo S; Honoré Jacques; Sequeira Henrique. Differentiated impact of social and non-social content in Alexithymia: A facial thermal infrared imaging study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341921; article XML SHA-256 14fd78a143d162f59acafc7cf593aae9f3ef72a7490c138e4e5176229825bf4d. “Differentiated impact of social and non-social content in Alexithymia: A facial thermal infrared imaging study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341921).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341921). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Alfenta
<a id="alfenta"></a>

Alfenta is the hydrochloride form of alfentanil, a synthetic short-acting opioid. It mainly acts at mu-opioid receptors to produce pain-relieving effects similar to morphine and can reduce the release of several neurotransmitters and hormones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e4ecfb2b5579190d488c494ce0a02a72aeea89e4aa2955657c290981dbb9397

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alfentanil Hydrochloride” (C220).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alfentanil
<a id="alfentanil"></a>

Alfentanil is a short-acting opioid pain-relieving and anesthetic drug related to fentanyl. It is known for producing rapid pain relief with a quick return of consciousness, and is used during surgical procedures and to manage pain in critically ill patients.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2c88a6eff226ad66228b068a87d709fe39bd4c37bc221bf756c2cfa5694bcb6b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alfentanil” (D015760).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015760). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## algebraic summation
<a id="algebraic-summation"></a>

Algebraic summation is the total response expected by adding together the effects produced by two stimulations when each is given separately. In this study, it served as the comparison baseline for judging whether combined stimulation produced extra facilitation beyond simple addition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1becd8f599b2122e69956597d4de73a23cb39233a470db51bc88f44c25665bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Suzuki Shinya; Nakajima Tsuyoshi; Irie Shun; Ariyasu Ryohei; Komiyama Tomoyoshi; Ohki Yukari. Vestibular stimulation-induced facilitation of cervical premotoneuronal systems in humans. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0175131; article XML SHA-256 451856ca5c6fd72e275ff08306e3344fd25349c25c2e60a2314c0ff9eaea83ff. “Vestibular stimulation-induced facilitation of cervical premotoneuronal systems in humans” (10.1371/journal.pone.0175131).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175131). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## algedonic
<a id="algedonic"></a>

Algedonic refers to pleasure-and-pain aspects of experience. In this historical usage, it describes an approach to aesthetics that treats beauty and related feelings as part of the broader study of pleasure and pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ff7a4e89f87e2f6391b0b3610d31f5b6df72c7c5e612f6081acdb2dc72242ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Algedonic Aesthetics” (Algedonic Aesthetics).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Algedonic Aesthetics). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## algesia
<a id="algesia"></a>

Algesia is the capacity to feel pain, meaning the normal presence of pain sensation rather than its absence. In historical usage, it was also sometimes used as another term for hyperaesthesia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e0c9264de87d7d70b92311c9b6977b4e8d3ddbdf8db079374a4fe40e4c1b289a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Algesia” (Algesia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Algesia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alien limb syndrome
<a id="alien-limb-syndrome"></a>

Alien limb syndrome is a form of apraxia in which an affected arm or leg makes involuntary, seemingly purposeful movements that the person experiences as if controlled by an external force. The affected limb may interfere with the actions of the unaffected limb, and it is associated with lesions in the corpus callosum or medial frontal cortex from causes such as stroke, infarction, or neurodegenerative disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7ee7507d18a15945476fadfde0326b85798ea6f5be582a0dc980e861bda10fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alien Limb Phenomenon” (D055964).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055964). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alienation
<a id="alienation"></a>

Alienation is a historical term in psychology for a broad and somewhat imprecise state of disturbed mental functioning, meaning a noticeable loss of normal soundness of mind. It was also used generally for mental disorder or insanity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ad7cc2f1ce787d567ca6009082c89ac1ab9859d44044d3016913e82877c0887

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aberration (mental)” (Aberration (mental)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Aberration (mental)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## all-
<a id="all"></a>

In this historical logic and philosophy usage, all can name the whole of something, even the entire universe. It also marks a universal statement about every member of a class, or a collective reading in which several things are taken together as one whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d807dc96fa0c321c914de9df330d89459a1c153722cdedbe3354b46d173d3e33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “All” (All).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#All). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## allachesthesia
<a id="allachesthesia"></a>

Allachesthesia is a neurological disorder in which a sensory input, most often touch, is felt as if it occurred at a different body location than where it was actually applied. Less commonly, this mislocalization can involve other senses as well.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3a1e6f4e465ed1762cda681cfe59c785adc22e24dfb34dca8897fe29b154b45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Allesthesia” (D066190).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066190). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## allesthesia
<a id="allesthesia"></a>

Allesthesia is a neurological disorder in which a sensation, most often touch, is felt at a different body location from where the stimulus actually occurred. Less commonly, this misplaced perception can involve other senses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38f946425a124ff48ecb0f8252e469ffb96e31516c9495760385f9460c63ae00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Allesthesia” (D066190).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066190). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alliance
<a id="alliance"></a>

Alliance is the working relationship between a counsellor or therapist and a client, built on shared goals, cooperation on the work of counselling, and an emotional bond. A stronger alliance is closely linked with better client outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c0ac2ec125060bc0dc365f55ce41f3f75b21971195896056bbd6207769bf936d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Therapeutic Alliance” (D000078462).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000078462). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## allocentric
<a id="allocentric"></a>

Allocentric refers to representing or finding locations in relation to stable features of the environment rather than to one’s own body position. In spatial learning, it describes viewpoint-independent cognitive maps that allow a place to be located from different starting points.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a755c99687f1628d79cba47c1d8340295b26587278c0362610fa15969d7152a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Webb Jordan A; Paquette Sebastien; Fournier Neil M; Reynolds Michael G; Brown Liana E; Lehmann Hugo. Evidence of allocentric spatial learning in male rats with large lesions of the hippocampus. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344593; article XML SHA-256 a7f54f7ffb6211915e020624e5c18761fc9f50262cef475d894c3222129c8693. “Evidence of allocentric spatial learning in male rats with large lesions of the hippocampus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344593).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344593). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## allocheiria
<a id="allocheiria"></a>

Allocheiria is a sensory disturbance in which touch on one side of the body is experienced and identified as if it were on the opposite side. In historical usage, it is also called allaesthesia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b9b918a87cfa1e7f26c0daacab60060aa7148b5ee15f0bed4c3afe858ee4d33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Allochiria or Allocheiria” (Allochiria or Allocheiria).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Allochiria or Allocheiria). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alloesthesia
<a id="alloesthesia"></a>

Alloesthesia is a neurological disorder in which a sensory input, most often touch, is perceived as occurring in a different place from where the stimulus was actually applied. Other senses can be affected more rarely.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2c81b4ff8a5cfe431119d717a6151d7d2581a67857387e5d5834b35169224b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Allesthesia” (D066190).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066190). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## allogrooming
<a id="allogrooming"></a>

Allogrooming is an affiliative social behavior in which one individual grooms another. In the source packet, it is described as a positive interaction observed between female bats in harem groups, especially around times of leaving and returning to the roost.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 403d719967e290d23d319a95a073dc53d27cc7a1c3ebc230cea30448ff6ae622

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hex Severine B.S.W.; Wilkinson Gerald S.. Affiliative and agonistic interactions distinguish sex-biased social groups of greater spear-nosed bats, Phyllostomus hastatus. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356790; article XML SHA-256 34be33a380901bd6a79af09039088a5b76d56a32bc8fa7954a4351aea8c1268b. “Affiliative and agonistic interactions distinguish sex-biased social groups of greater spear-nosed bats, Phyllostomus hastatus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356790).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356790). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alloparenting
<a id="alloparenting"></a>

Alloparenting is caregiving in which an individual other than a young animal’s biological parent takes on parental functions. These functions can include feeding or otherwise providing for the young, protecting them, or both.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 551c019a1d5b93b34046cea0f343b27825758083dd534c9de4e30c5a9107523d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Garner Joseph P.; Gaskill Brianna N.; Pritchett-Corning Kathleen R.. Two of a Kind or a Full House? Reproductive Suppression and Alloparenting in Laboratory Mice. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0154966; article XML SHA-256 e282832a1cf569cb7144d02965a6124bf1599163304b273047b54f0ff088750c. “Two of a Kind or a Full House? Reproductive Suppression and Alloparenting in Laboratory Mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0154966).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154966). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## allostasis
<a id="allostasis"></a>

Allostasis is the body’s way of maintaining stability by adjusting its internal systems to meet demands, such as increasing epinephrine during stress, exercise, or perceived danger and lowering it during relaxation. It involves switching bodily response systems on and off, including the immune, autonomic nervous, and neuroendocrine systems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 496876ebe90cac2bea0dd25f2c13def71ee76c54378b44b360158bccda536bd5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Allostasis” (D052636).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D052636). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## allosteric modulation
<a id="allosteric-modulation"></a>

Allosteric modulation is a change in how a protein complex works after a substance binds to it. In this packet, negative allosteric modulation means the serotonin transporter’s activity is reduced, so it takes up less serotonin.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1bdfaa29a31ec48ea997c9568761c71967ac24228a67edc2ea10e7d9b01e2ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Paroxetine Mesylate” (C47653).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alogia
<a id="alogia"></a>

Alogia is an inability to speak that is linked to an intellectual disturbance in forming thought, so speech is not learned or later becomes impossible. In this historical sense, it is described as a mental difficulty rather than an aphasic language disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61b2f1d093b43f1bdd7072c70cf35426bbc8036c9ef9b0a50198e214aaa4f12f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Alogia” (Alogia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Alogia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alpha
<a id="alpha"></a>

In this context, alpha refers to the alpha rhythm seen on an EEG, a pattern of brain activity that typically becomes weaker when the eyes are opened. Changes in this alpha response, called alpha reactivity, have been studied as a possible marker of cognitive aging and some dementias.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 518a0a8cb8eb5444df401b2814144a998a79b3aec41ece36c32223de882ca13f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baek Kwangyeol. EEG alpha reactivity in cognitive aging and dementia: clinical implications and cholinergic mechanisms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1665301; article XML SHA-256 2df09f1d8fe6d84f8974d36ff12ea52bcfe41f8529796631e05cc85eab55301c. “EEG alpha reactivity in cognitive aging and dementia: clinical implications and cholinergic mechanisms” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1665301).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1665301). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alpha-adrenergic receptor
<a id="alpha-adrenergic-receptor"></a>

An alpha-adrenergic receptor is a receptor found in body tissues supplied by postganglionic sympathetic adrenergic nerve fibers. It is one of the two main adrenergic receptor classes, responding to norepinephrine and epinephrine, and in some cases its activation through Gi protein lowers intracellular cyclic AMP.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c2767379e95294bc9914af6d91fe7c8ab7d3916376d04eb2146daf5ee373ab1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alpha Adrenergic Receptor” (C20932).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alpha blocker
<a id="alpha-blocker"></a>

An alpha blocker is a natural or synthetic substance that prevents alpha-adrenergic receptors in the sympathetic nervous system from being activated by the body’s usual chemical messengers. By blocking these signals, it can produce effects such as widening blood vessels, slowing heart rate, and constricting the pupils.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7bf9dc43a1c7002f4520851f8cf93b34595d4f72abc3d09e174ac78bf7f4a65a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alpha-Adrenergic Antagonist” (C29713).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alpha coefficient
<a id="alpha-coefficient"></a>

An alpha coefficient is a numerical indicator used to show how reliably a questionnaire or similar instrument performs. In this packet, Cronbach’s alpha of 0.879 is presented as evidence that the study instrument had high reliability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1331b83404d54180bf211de6ee4a33a236520d5746ec105f4ffbca7fd24e4b3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Al-Hamami Talib bin Ahmed. Role of Najran University Scholarship Students in the United Kingdom in cultural bridging and civilizational dialog. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350745; article XML SHA-256 bc670df651df5c0dffe9329d39d597757fc76effb06dc9c141f6f289b1a8b89b. “Role of Najran University Scholarship Students in the United Kingdom in cultural bridging and civilizational dialog” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350745).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350745). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone
<a id="alpha-melanocyte-stimulating-hormone"></a>

Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone is a neuropeptide that helps regulate immune cell activity, especially in the eye’s immunosuppressive environment. In the supplied source, it suppresses inflammatory activity in macrophages and supports their survival by reducing part of the apoptosis pathway after caspase 3 activation but before DNA fragmentation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ff4937f9e0a6bf7a329aa1b664fe23faee7c2ed7b1449247d9186c18a9040090

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Taylor Andrew W.. Alpha-Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (α-MSH) Is a Post-Caspase Suppressor of Apoptosis in RAW 264.7 Macrophages. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0074488; article XML SHA-256 7cfb68d99aad0b0f494b35bf798f31ff43dd772c8c5edba7e2ad2243e371b06c. “Alpha-Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (α-MSH) Is a Post-Caspase Suppressor of Apoptosis in RAW 264.7 Macrophages” (10.1371/journal.pone.0074488).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0074488). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alpha neurofeedback
<a id="alpha-neurofeedback"></a>

Alpha neurofeedback is a form of neurofeedback training that uses EEG signals related to alpha brain-wave activity, especially the upper alpha range, to try to increase a person’s alpha amplitude. It has been studied as a possible way to influence cognitive abilities such as short-term memory, although the provided source notes mixed findings about effects on cognitive performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c72069c6b226abcf97f8fefbd1b5771aa13ea11ea7bf7ccb3d68ff0f14438914

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Naas Adrian; Rodrigues João; Knirsch Jan-Philip; Sonderegger Andreas. Neurofeedback training with a low-priced EEG device leads to faster alpha enhancement but shows no effect on cognitive performance: A single-blind, sham-feedback study. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0211668; article XML SHA-256 87add606aaf70ff11c3c9655e392ff2c9a1e3da6006930795adab3c8f6ba3ba4. “Neurofeedback training with a low-priced EEG device leads to faster alpha enhancement but shows no effect on cognitive performance: A single-blind, sham-feedback study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0211668).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211668). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alpha rhythm
<a id="alpha-rhythm"></a>

Alpha rhythm is a pattern of brain-wave activity with relatively high amplitude and a frequency of 8 to 13 hertz. It is commonly seen on an EEG over the parietal and occipital areas when a person is awake, relaxed, and has their eyes closed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f575a460c7c942543cee5e828e61655a0535d2c853b68f62b80ce866eb16d32e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alpha Rhythm” (D000513).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000513). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alpha wave
<a id="alpha-wave"></a>

An alpha wave is a type of brain rhythm measured with EEG and classified as one of the main frequency bands linked to mental states. It is described as the primary human brain oscillation, and changes in its activity are commonly used to track effects in meditation research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fde0c1d685774084db95f3f395f1bbe665b9c71bff31938e63a0f34a912da7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Junling; Sun Rui; Leung Hang Kin; Roberts Adam; Wu Bonnie Wai Yan; Tsang Eric W.; Tang Andrew C. W.; Sik Hin Hung. Increased neurocardiological interplay after mindfulness meditation: a brain oscillation-based approach. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1008490; article XML SHA-256 eb16b8f44921dab4ec46b57241292c027f49dbd1c00da3c86295d1575670b4ec. “Increased neurocardiological interplay after mindfulness meditation: a brain oscillation-based approach” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1008490).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1008490). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alphabet
<a id="alphabet"></a>

An alphabet is a set of written symbols used to represent the sounds of a language, though the word is sometimes used more loosely for symbol systems that also stand for things rather than sounds. The term originally referred to the Greek series of letters named from alpha and beta, and was later extended to similar writing systems in other languages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 301c5e84932218b71a234da4ed9122ea759ff976cf192bcb8e676c68eea11ac4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Alphabet” (Alphabet).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Alphabet). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Alport syndrome
<a id="alport-syndrome"></a>

Alport syndrome is an inherited condition caused by changes in type IV collagen that impair the kidney’s filtering structures. It also affects the inner ear, leading to progressive hearing loss that tends to begin later.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 087ce4720254d1488c9931554982cfa196cfb9e93f4c148775067dddb5511400

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nam Yoon Seok; Gi Eun-Ji; Ko Yoo-Seung; Lee Sungsu; Cho Hyong-Ho. Trichostatin A suppresses hearing loss by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation in an Alport syndrome model. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316033; article XML SHA-256 8a7d4a36e1b07a1e8d9793e5cbd8b871295d8112ec38d2ab3b2cf49902b7f2fb. “Trichostatin A suppresses hearing loss by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation in an Alport syndrome model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316033).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alprazolam
<a id="alprazolam"></a>

Alprazolam is a triazolobenzodiazepine medication with anxiety-reducing and sedative-hypnotic effects. It is used in mental health care for panic disorder, including when agoraphobia is present, and for generalized anxiety disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7dfc5800365bc77575c55e46bd897a7c85f3f42e41e4e6cd44c6207e39576850

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alprazolam” (D000525).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000525). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ALS
<a id="als"></a>

ALS, or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, is a neurodegenerative disorder in which motor neurons in the central nervous system progressively break down. This causes muscle weakness and wasting, leading to increasing difficulty starting and controlling voluntary movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6381c9d765e0035ced6aaab4b5979158854b1217a5ed63b89ee95816bb7cbf25

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis” (C34373).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Alström–Hallgren syndrome
<a id="alstromhallgren-syndrome"></a>

Alström–Hallgren syndrome is a rare inherited disorder that affects multiple organs. It is marked by progressive vision loss, hearing loss, childhood obesity, and later endocrine, kidney, and liver problems, while mental development is typically normal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f1ff457b1b506cbe1945c68c94e0c29c3db5a978ec0baefdef7ace5a77c25f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alstrom Syndrome” (D056769).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D056769). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alter ego
<a id="alter-ego"></a>

An alter ego is another version of oneself, such as a digital avatar, that a person may come to experience from the inside as if they were in its place. In psychology, this idea is studied through perspective taking, sense of agency, and body ownership in interactions with avatars.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b44e798c536dd48082dd7a3d8ba1517db9e9d6e8ed7520f8f180c0e7dd3d6e2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Böffel Christian; Müsseler Jochen. Action effect consistency and body ownership in the avatar-Simon task. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0220817; article XML SHA-256 53b4859e7ea4043e36cc9fe10e2cc14cddd13307d0b2e5a9180843f6fb91f64b. “Action effect consistency and body ownership in the avatar-Simon task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0220817).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220817). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alteration hypothesis
<a id="alteration-hypothesis"></a>

The alteration hypothesis is the idea that, in focal epilepsy, hippocampal structural abnormalities may develop or worsen over time rather than being fully present at the start of the disorder. In this view, longer disease duration and recurrent seizures are linked to progressive hippocampal change, which may contribute to hippocampal sclerosis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f368e6e8736a298bdbb26cac1dd42dcdd44d0c7a552634e457946368743269a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Yuxin; Zhang Zaiyu; Yang Baohui; Tan Junyi; Qin Yue; Li Chenyang; Zhu Yujie; Luan Xinping; Han Hongmei; Yang Yasi; Yang Zi; Chen Shihang; Gan Hui; Zhao Jing; Zhai Xuan. Duration-dependent hippocampal structural changes in focal epilepsy: multicenter neuroimaging evidence. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12967-026-08230-x; article XML SHA-256 5d745585de2ea4a9631520f589bc04656780cdb461f378e1650f172f06513d17. “Duration-dependent hippocampal structural changes in focal epilepsy: multicenter neuroimaging evidence” (10.1186/s12967-026-08230-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-026-08230-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## altered state of consciousness
<a id="altered-state-of-consciousness"></a>

An altered state of consciousness is a condition in which a person's awareness and level of alertness are different from what is considered normal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e6a8fa454b93c11f12bb51a72b3a4952d0e565e3793607a313b8d98b190d494

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Altered Level of Consciousness” (C121627).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alternating personality
<a id="alternating-personality"></a>

Alternating personality is a historical term for cases in which a person seems to shift between distinct states of self, usually because of abrupt gaps in memory. One state may remember the other while the reverse does not, so the person can appear markedly changed in character, knowledge, habits, and sense of personal identity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a11701fbe668ad4992b9cb721f78c32ad8b08dea7f0180f62a2f28a60e02e48

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alternating treatments design
<a id="alternating-treatments-design"></a>

An alternating treatments design is a single-subject research design used to compare the effects of different instructional approaches by applying them within the same study and tracking performance across sessions. In this packet, it refers to an adapted form used to evaluate which teaching method was more effective for specific learning skills.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2627ca033fc7844954008f0d0466602d139617ed3e1daeba172fb69934a6874a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kaya Nurcan; Akçamete Gönül; Sakallı Demirok Mukaddes. A comparative analysis of traditional and technology-supported stepped teaching for clock and fraction reading skills in students with dyscalculia. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850481; article XML SHA-256 759ced8649305b8388f6317b56ba67b8a6a3756bdd40faac69d92a772c5db067. “A comparative analysis of traditional and technology-supported stepped teaching for clock and fraction reading skills in students with dyscalculia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850481).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850481). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## alternative hypothesis
<a id="alternative-hypothesis"></a>

In hypothesis testing, the alternative hypothesis is the statement considered in contrast to the null hypothesis. When the evidence is strong enough to reject the null hypothesis, the result is taken as support for the alternative hypothesis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 955d601d84c122e79a3e9cabe496186f5256c13dc057591ecbcadb74d323a7ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Alternative Hypothesis” (alternative_hypothesis.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/alternative_hypothesis.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## altricial
<a id="altricial"></a>

Altricial describes very immature young birds, especially nestlings, that are still limited by early developmental constraints such as not yet regulating their own body temperature and relying heavily on parental care. In this state, they may be especially sensitive to temperature changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 83f41dc4cb2f00c83af251ed7fef4eef8e82b4928091fc316cedbf0548132129

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Madden Sage A.; Safran Rebecca J.; Patricelli Gail L.; Garcia Sara R.; Laubach Zachary M.. The effects of temperature on nestling growth in a songbird depend on developmental constraints. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334815; article XML SHA-256 5e237418f819eeabe75e37dde43b320bbc987d5d7ef730e47c4f916c856fd18e. “The effects of temperature on nestling growth in a songbird depend on developmental constraints” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334815).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334815). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Altruism
<a id="altruism"></a>

Altruism is the belief or practice of showing selfless concern for other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2611687228cece496bc6450543a521d40f57c2879a11c3586eaada4999d23952

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Altruism” (D000533).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000533). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Alzheimer’s disease
<a id="alzheimers-disease"></a>

Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive brain disorder in which nerve cells in several parts of the brain lose function and die. This leads to a decline in cognitive abilities, including memory and language.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9ca357230cbdc76ff033c3ad9a74e98e998882ff3731069865a7ea70575ab13

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alzheimer's Disease” (C2866).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amacrine cell
<a id="amacrine-cell"></a>

An amacrine cell is a neuron in the retina that does not have large axons and instead has only branching processes that look like dendrites.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e0213ada7182a83c3e672eabfb5496764d4a21dab4d6912b27844cff7823b78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Amacrine Cell” (C12626).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amantadine
<a id="amantadine"></a>

Amantadine is a drug used to help prevent or relieve influenza A and is also used in movement-related conditions such as Parkinsonian symptoms, extrapyramidal reactions, and postherpetic neuralgia. Its effects on movement problems are not fully understood, but they may involve increasing dopamine production and release and possibly reducing dopamine uptake.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97b1d9b61cb8920acb19763ddd058a68de2872d88a0afe61bab3f675e4222b27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Amantadine” (D000547).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000547). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amaurosis
<a id="amaurosis"></a>

Amaurosis is a historical term for complete loss of sight when the eyes show no visible damage or defect on examination. In typical cases, it was understood as arising from abnormal functioning of the central nervous system rather than an obvious eye lesion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8bf494ab69eaffe7952b4144926c0514ca1355260efbbf65e14e2a451b8a2532

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Amaurosis” (Amaurosis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Amaurosis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amaurosis fugax
<a id="amaurosis-fugax"></a>

Amaurosis fugax is a brief episode of complete or partial vision loss in one eye caused by reduced blood flow to the retina. It is often linked to material such as emboli traveling into the central retinal artery, commonly from the carotid artery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5ebd0cf974cb9848d1ab01987f8723c2a970082924b6cc67c2e9ed642004b160

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Amaurosis Fugax” (D020757).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020757). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ambenonium
<a id="ambenonium"></a>

Ambenonium is a pharmacologic substance that increases cholinergic activity by blocking acetylcholinesterase, which slows the breakdown of acetylcholine. This indirectly stimulates both nicotinic and muscarinic receptors, and it also directly activates nicotinic receptors at the neuromuscular junction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7bcb76d1dca70caabc16595959d6e620a319f297c3c317dd2237feed622cdd89

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ambenonium” (C76136).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ambi-
<a id="ambi"></a>

Ambi- is a prefix meaning “both.” In this historical usage, it appears in ambidextrous to indicate equal or nearly equal skill in using either hand.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b139500f2d921667b1291c55060cc9532d93332a8c90eeb1dd404cc4838f415e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ambidextrous” (Ambidextrous).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Ambidextrous). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ambidextrous
<a id="ambidextrous"></a>

Ambidextrous means having equal or nearly equal skill in using either hand. In this historical psychology source, it is contrasted with the usual dominance of the right hand or, less commonly, the left.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac91c02cd78d6bedc7c5cfbab4a988d840b38cc0dcf091ffbe77237c63556302

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ambidextrous” (Ambidextrous).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Ambidextrous). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ambiguity scale
<a id="ambiguity-scale"></a>

An ambiguity scale is a questionnaire measure used to assess tolerance of ambiguity, meaning how much a person can handle unclear or uncertain situations. In this study context, it was used as a personality-related measure linked to how people respond when their expectations are contradicted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 23bf405d5509f6f50f1d7c5a04e2a1c2efb8bdf534417607d43a3c565e65dc7e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Orphal Lara; Pinquart Martin. Coping with failures: how emotions, individual traits, expectation-importance and prior experience affect reactions to violated achievement expectations. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1506051; article XML SHA-256 a37147b899f3db65fc3eb4f5d20a606d031da02f7ee9069382a6b6c545f76425. “Coping with failures: how emotions, individual traits, expectation-importance and prior experience affect reactions to violated achievement expectations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1506051).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1506051). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ambiguous figure
<a id="ambiguous-figure"></a>

An ambiguous figure is a visual stimulus that stays physically the same while perception switches back and forth between different, mutually exclusive interpretations. It is used to study internally driven changes in perception because the reversals come from endogenous brain processes rather than from changes in the stimulus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50b1c94d83d5ed6107ccba76f33e23c86ddecbcb97aa5750ff476d8fdf6d39b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kornmeier Jürgen; Friedel Evelyn.; Hecker Lukas; Schmidt Stefan; Wittmann Marc. What happens in the brain of meditators when perception changes but not the stimulus?. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0223843; article XML SHA-256 526d60442214729adf0b8c72660743d79b98449c395b0ed988259b4fdfd43d99. “What happens in the brain of meditators when perception changes but not the stimulus?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0223843).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223843). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ambivalent attachment
<a id="ambivalent-attachment"></a>

Ambivalent attachment, described here as an anxiety-ambivalent attachment style, is a form of insecure attachment. In this source, higher levels of this style in mothers are linked with using food to manage emotions and with lower nutrition knowledge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1b542186c5c18eb015fea5e6e11410c2e1d539326cf4b63cb27216db9d897c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pasztak-Opiłka Agnieszka; de Jonge Romana; Zachurzok Agnieszka; Górnik-Durose Małgorzata E.. Adult attachment styles and mothers’ life satisfaction in relation to eating behaviors in the families with overweight and obese children. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243448; article XML SHA-256 2fb7a9a6d58bbca4f6c212569f26721bec779f7dae1fa8e368184709a3cf727c. “Adult attachment styles and mothers’ life satisfaction in relation to eating behaviors in the families with overweight and obese children” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243448).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243448). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ambivalent sexism
<a id="ambivalent-sexism"></a>

Ambivalent sexism is a form of sexism that combines openly negative views of women with seemingly positive attitudes that still place women below men. It includes both hostile reactions toward women and protective or idealizing attitudes that help justify male dominance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3c87edc284d81434544a04e1316ce99b3181fe28e53ccd9f0ce1f4b51625fd9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Çelik Eyüp; Dombak Kübra; Kaya Mehmet; Sahranç Ümit; Makas Samet; Koçak Lokman; Takunyacı Mithat; Bekir Seyhan. Examining the attitudes of sexually abused and non-abused individuals towards marriage in terms of ambivalent sexism. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288110; article XML SHA-256 85647874142522d711ac1cea4114e8ea99a615630d714482529b47811a49d7f5. “Examining the attitudes of sexually abused and non-abused individuals towards marriage in terms of ambivalent sexism” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288110).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288110). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amblyopia
<a id="amblyopia"></a>

Amblyopia is a general term for impaired vision. It can refer to reduced vision linked to abnormal development in the visual cortex when the two eyes send mismatched input, or to vision loss related to optic nerve damage from toxins such as alcohol, tobacco, or some medications.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 007c0f55b29608bb63161a00c7eeacb64ab475e987324a8a2fe5b3c9f06f6eb9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Amblyopia” (D000550).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000550). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ambulatory treatment
<a id="ambulatory-treatment"></a>

Ambulatory treatment is care provided in a non-hospital setting rather than through admission, and it is described as a less intensive approach than hospitalization. In the source, it is presented as an option for medically stable patients with eating disorders and, in some guidelines, as the preferred setting for many patients.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 00cb4c26345c75f392d365164e310a9c134f2f91978b96c390a6a754c6f29f48

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schopf Kathrin; Schneider Silvia; Meyer Andrea Hans; Lennertz Julia; Humbel Nadine; Bürgy Nadine-Messerli; Wyssen Andrea; Biedert Esther; Isenschmid Bettina; Milos Gabriella; Claussen Malte; Trier Stephan; Whinyates Katherina; Adolph Dirk; Teismann Tobias; Margraf Jürgen; Assion Hans-Jörg; Überberg Bianca; Juckel Georg; Müller Judith; Klauke Benedikt; Munsch Simone. Eating disorder treatment in routine clinical care: A descriptive study examining treatment characteristics and short-term treatment outcomes among patients with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in Germany and Switzerland. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0280402; article XML SHA-256 f827e033f2a80c7dd16af8b1a83e933a54884134a3e17b05969d597711c8f902. “Eating disorder treatment in routine clinical care: A descriptive study examining treatment characteristics and short-term treatment outcomes among patients with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in Germany and Switzerland” (10.1371/journal.pone.0280402).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280402). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amelioration
<a id="amelioration"></a>

Amelioration means an improvement in a condition or a lessening of its symptoms. In this context, it refers to depressive symptoms becoming reduced.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 559ea7c8bc8def16fb59633bc797cb0f54bb157bf3ca0325cd1e1a30fac5d5a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yaoyao; Liu Xiaoyan. Efficacy and safety of non-invasive brain stimulation in combination with antidepressants in adolescents with depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1288338; article XML SHA-256 437ca3ce0601ce2cfee4bd87b2ccc354f9fc35ad281fd6c951ee637a9c259c63. “Efficacy and safety of non-invasive brain stimulation in combination with antidepressants in adolescents with depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1288338).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1288338). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## American Indian
<a id="american-indian"></a>

American Indian refers to a racial or ethnic population in the United States; in this source it is discussed together with Alaska Native people as AI/AN. The term is used here in a public health and social context concerning adolescents and young adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70fab1ffe8c2045681a66da800f86d13a5dcd8543cccdc287a8bb34b38fadd77

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sadath Anvar; Zhang Yiwei; Rudra Praveen Kumar; Farooq Omer; Draft Darian; Reay Susan. Risk factors and methods of NSSI and suicide attempts among American Indian and Alaska native adolescents and young adults: A systematic review protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358536; article XML SHA-256 9bcaccc9937682159e28213eda1e2949284ca138ff552d610210a46cee1c7938. “Risk factors and methods of NSSI and suicide attempts among American Indian and Alaska native adolescents and young adults: A systematic review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358536).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358536). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## American Psychiatric Association
<a id="american-psychiatric-association"></a>

The American Psychiatric Association is a major professional organization in psychiatry. In the source, it is described as a prominent group that promotes equity and has stated an intention to increase the representation of women in psychiatric leadership.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 032b86477525875e7522a04036eb614963f23727c62a168fe83814e32deb8f73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sebbane Sabrina; Bailly Sophie; Lambert Wayne-Corentin; Sanchez Stéphane; Hingray Coraline; El-Hage Wissam. Representation of women at American Psychiatric Association annual meetings over 10 years (between 2009 and 2019). 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0261058; article XML SHA-256 a4236534416741fcfa0725d425b5106a4f4d55e9ca1f0d424715c8562c84bb25. “Representation of women at American Psychiatric Association annual meetings over 10 years (between 2009 and 2019)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0261058).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261058). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Americans With Disabilities Act
<a id="americans-with-disabilities-act"></a>

The Americans with Disabilities Act is a 1990 U.S. law that requires higher education to be accessible to people with disabilities. In this context, it is presented as a legal standard for accessibility, though the article argues that true inclusion should go beyond simply meeting its requirements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e292b4bb1430482489fb4de8d2d7ae184a0f5b020f60e83e3ca285356f2b3067

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Castro Franz; Cerilli Caroline; Hu Luanjiao; Iezzoni Lisa I.; Varadaraj Varshini; Swenor Bonnielin K.. Experiences of researchers with disabilities at academic institutions in the United States. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299612; article XML SHA-256 5dba2809255b83eddb0a4cdb514ff4e27edc352fe85b97214ef1694c91612d5a. “Experiences of researchers with disabilities at academic institutions in the United States” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299612).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299612). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ametropia
<a id="ametropia"></a>

Ametropia is an eye condition in which light does not focus correctly on the retina because of a refractive error.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e10ae55238387f0b355c9920144bb1ca1663bd98cdb3814625c74949e732516e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ametropia” (C34371).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AMH
<a id="amh"></a>

AMH stands for Adaptive Market Hypothesis, the idea that investors are not fully rational but adjust their behavior over time. In this view, biases such as herding and overconfidence can continue and change as people respond to social and personal learning factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8dc71fe14eed9ee2dc302251677c68bf075026b7bc1eaf60f937a65ac32d9470

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jannatunnesa Jannatunnesa; Mahdzan Nurul Shahnaz; Md Noman Abu Hanifa. Adaptability factors and behavioral biases of investors in frontier markets: An adaptive market hypothesis perspective. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345883; article XML SHA-256 8a2c770327d145a7c794e595bb4b8a0726f2335ed416d618f1dcf0ed7afda08f. “Adaptability factors and behavioral biases of investors in frontier markets: An adaptive market hypothesis perspective” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345883).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345883). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AMI
<a id="ami"></a>

AMI stands for acute myocardial infarction, a serious heart condition that begins suddenly, can worsen quickly, and carries major risks of death and disability. In this context, it is discussed as a medical event whose hospital course and recovery may be linked with psychological and social factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3cf2c3f6f83041da531cb2f3aae90c5dd84c269882649ff4a3b28713472dcb91

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Yuemei; Zhu Xiao; Zhou Yingying. Relationships between anxiety–depression, perceived social support, and in-hospital outcomes among patients with acute myocardial infarction. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1793611; article XML SHA-256 6512191f3230f681f0582bf311be6cf028352c6d433d68f578c59b2dd93e8668. “Relationships between anxiety–depression, perceived social support, and in-hospital outcomes among patients with acute myocardial infarction” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1793611).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1793611). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amimia
<a id="amimia"></a>

Amimia is a historical term for an aphasic symptom in which a person loses the ability to express thought through gestures, signs, or other pantomimic movements. It refers especially to the loss of communicative gestures that may remain when spoken language is impaired.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5145ccb33f26f13920860eb5172daa8f1a167a9022e5e496db0adabd4f0313f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Amimia” (Amimia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Amimia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aminotransferase
<a id="aminotransferase"></a>

Aminotransferases are enzymes that include AST and ALT, measured in relation to liver and other tissue function. ALT is mainly associated with liver cell problems, while AST is found in several organs and may also reflect broader tissue stress such as oxidative or mitochondrial dysfunction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 20a57befe9115227c88f786ff86f9c855cd63c0934c37e38a858490d6893103e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Hua; Meng Limin; Xin Shuanli; Chang Chao; Zhao Xiufeng; Guo Bingyan. Non-linear association between aspartate aminotransferase to alanine aminotransferase ratio and mortality in critically ill older patients: A retrospective cohort study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293749; article XML SHA-256 9d46e6b57266f7e4060d93e6a9d738847b9b3f7c0898642300db6a1985c43f3e. “Non-linear association between aspartate aminotransferase to alanine aminotransferase ratio and mortality in critically ill older patients: A retrospective cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293749).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293749). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amitriptyline
<a id="amitriptyline"></a>

Amitriptyline is a tricyclic antidepressant with sedating and anticholinergic effects. It appears to work by reducing the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin at nerve endings, which increases their activity, and it also seems to block some cholinergic and alpha-1 adrenergic responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9c06e4c5b9da837418b42a739806e1ff6ffeaa04aef4340075a2c88fa6a4b41

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Amitriptyline” (D000639).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000639). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Ammon’s horn
<a id="ammons-horn"></a>

Ammon’s horn is another name for the hippocampus, a curved ridge of gray matter that runs along the floor of the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle. The hippocampal formation includes the hippocampus proper, subiculum, and dentate gyrus, and some authors also include the entorhinal cortex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b88a81767786de263f14ea01f48c7edd87ac1e60d0cc1b755922cd3c58790f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hippocampus” (D006624).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006624). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amnesia
<a id="amnesia"></a>

Amnesia is a partial or complete, pathologic loss of memory that can affect remembering past experiences or forming new memories. It can arise from psychological or physical causes, and organic forms are often linked to problems in the hippocampus or diencephalon.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1eef3bb6603bbaaeaa4e8210ceee49f178978f435ed6e1d32c582d55c28b44e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Amnesia” (D000647).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000647). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amobarbital
<a id="amobarbital"></a>

Amobarbital is a barbiturate that acts as a sedative and sleep-inducing drug, rather than an antianxiety medication. Its main harms come from dose-related slowing of central nervous system activity, and ongoing use carries a high risk of dependence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e93887d6a20c3a4b81577e35d67f75b7af7d0bdcb8640a7b8b2ef7b6c5b800ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Amobarbital” (D000654).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000654). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amount of masking
<a id="amount-of-masking"></a>

Amount of masking is the degree to which sounds from one source make a signal from another source harder to hear. It varies with the properties of the signal and masker and with their spatial relationship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 540f2109c0234226e83bb96c25f55baa19436223240a8a5b34b432cd1e700dc9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Klinge Astrid; Beutelmann Rainer; Klump Georg M.. Effect of Harmonicity on the Detection of a Signal in a Complex Masker and on Spatial Release from Masking. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0026124; article XML SHA-256 55df550d4fb168022b847361122dfc0f91dce8701dcf903487b260590dc38560. “Effect of Harmonicity on the Detection of a Signal in a Complex Masker and on Spatial Release from Masking” (10.1371/journal.pone.0026124).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0026124). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amoxapine
<a id="amoxapine"></a>

Amoxapine is a medication used to treat depression. It affects brain signaling by reducing the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin and also blocks dopamine receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7adb65c44e2ec749e7662c23ae4252d6d0b6bba0e31b55abc211f3aead8b694d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Amoxapine” (D000657).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000657). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AMPA receptor
<a id="ampa-receptor"></a>

An AMPA receptor is a glutamate-activated ion channel complex in nerve cells that allows mainly sodium and calcium ions to pass across the cell membrane. These receptors are important for synaptic signaling and neuronal plasticity at many postsynaptic sites.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b9a760a71c93566fbc1f9acd25983b631fccd2d1035561bf9bc0a3fae7c17140

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “AMPA Receptor Complex” (C207252).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amphetamine
<a id="amphetamine"></a>

Amphetamine is a strong stimulant that acts on the central nervous system and the sympathetic nervous system. It affects monoamine signaling in several ways, including changing the uptake, release, and breakdown of chemicals such as dopamine, and it is also recognized as a substance of abuse that can produce psychosis-like effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aae920b4abcefed13c589b541d1b30dd086f0e71e5fc2cc3a911db51399f089f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Amphetamine” (D000661).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000661). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amplification effect
<a id="amplification-effect"></a>

The amplification effect is the strengthening of a message’s framing effect when the information is presented in a more innovative form, such as visual graphics rather than plain text. In this study, that stronger impact was seen in people’s risk perception, positive emotion, and willingness to help, especially when the information was encountered in real time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b14bc1c77f0ec837903452996b756cc60699810091cb1c19e7381b7195c0333

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wen Fangfang; Ye Hanxue; Wang Yang; Xu Yian; Zuo Bin. Icing on the Cake: “Amplification Effect” of Innovative Information Form in News Reports About COVID-19. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.600523; article XML SHA-256 5476d8fcf1cd01e4c8624ff0d8c44c9bb4dde16752d7dca45bd61e7ee04ffa39. “Icing on the Cake: “Amplification Effect” of Innovative Information Form in News Reports About COVID-19” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.600523).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.600523). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amplitude modulation
<a id="amplitude-modulation"></a>

Amplitude modulation is a change in a sound’s strength over time, creating rises and falls in loudness. In this context, it describes patterned fluctuations in background noise or tones that can affect how easily another sound is detected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42a2b53197ce8001f4800fb24518055aeddba8bbafc36b2c501863113ffeeac2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Goense Jozien B. M.; Feng Albert S.. Effects of Noise Bandwidth and Amplitude Modulation on Masking in Frog Auditory Midbrain Neurons. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0031589; article XML SHA-256 59cbeaba5d45dbd0006d7e6feb067febcc9f8a3a820a029267f60ee8667053ad. “Effects of Noise Bandwidth and Amplitude Modulation on Masking in Frog Auditory Midbrain Neurons” (10.1371/journal.pone.0031589).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0031589). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amputation
<a id="amputation"></a>

Amputation refers to the removal or loss of a limb. In the biological context, it is associated with changes in brain structure and function that relate to sensory and motor adjustment over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 57f1b7e88ccbb1ab08bc1b0e54c4342af9217a387ce8c9d3f2ea134a2fbf606b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Arreguín Daniel; Trejo-Méndez Daniela; Pedroza-Ramírez Sharon; Pasaye Erick; Sánchez-Carrasco Livia; Vázquez-Vela Eduardo; Paredes Raúl G. Cerebellar functional connectivity alteration in individuals with lower limb amputation. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338619; article XML SHA-256 a25a5583b13904607b23af3c8ac1864a817fdd31f6482055e8a7282849ff4835. “Cerebellar functional connectivity alteration in individuals with lower limb amputation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338619).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338619). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amputee identity disorder
<a id="amputee-identity-disorder"></a>

Amputee identity disorder is a condition marked by wanting a healthy limb removed, or wanting to have paralysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c03d5250d1ff16126761e473ed29741c82fbd0f093915e0790d8b298a2568fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Body Integrity Identity Disorder” (D000081042).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000081042). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## amuck
<a id="amuck"></a>

Amuck refers to a frenzied, violent state historically described in relation to intoxication from cannabis preparations, in which a person rushes about blindly and may attack others with impulsive destructiveness. The expression was also later used more loosely for reckless or blindly aggressive behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f14e67f95b5747f08aca2a7c17bafa698b93f0becb6480be34561d546442f32d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-2131500-2143500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amusia
<a id="amusia"></a>

Amusia is a loss or marked defect in the ability to understand, appreciate, remember, or produce music. It is described as the musical counterpart of aphasia, with forms affecting musical performance, musical comprehension, distorted musical perception, or musical memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c4971dd92658694d72a3c2299e782b61223b4107b2752423c5d4c3601847a3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Amusia” (Amusia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Amusia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amygdala
<a id="amygdala"></a>

The amygdala is an almond-shaped cluster of basal nuclei in the temporal lobe, located in front of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle. It is part of the limbic system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf423d9c5da38acd85a43fb94eb1fa23bdf5ac4e907c2d82b8ddff0e33fac7f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Amygdala” (D000679).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000679). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amyloid
<a id="amyloid"></a>

Amyloid is an insoluble, fiber-like buildup of misfolded proteins or protein fragments that typically forms a cross-beta-sheet structure. Its accumulation is linked with amyloidosis and some neurodegenerative disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be73d0b42ea4651dad042ccfbfb8eb4f43f0a63beb2504605be4254e1b4cacb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Amyloid” (C117187).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amyloid plaque
<a id="amyloid-plaque"></a>

An amyloid plaque is a buildup of amyloid-beta (Aβ) deposited in the brain. In the packet, amyloid plaque accumulation is described as being linked to the neurotoxicity and cognitive decline seen in Alzheimer’s disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b20afb69ee08142f72679d502326a7fde97722fb5d393b529d506c14664ac125

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jeon Sohee; Alia Alia O; Popovic Jelena; Vassar Robert; Cuddy Leah K. ACE1 does not influence cerebral Aβ degradation or amyloid plaque accumulation in 5XFAD mice. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330193; article XML SHA-256 8fbf32717a616ee58e50296d30782b68b2f4b4e8b2d5a30c4ac0950aab52c4b1. “ACE1 does not influence cerebral Aβ degradation or amyloid plaque accumulation in 5XFAD mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330193).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330193). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amyloid precursor protein
<a id="amyloid-precursor-protein"></a>

Amyloid precursor protein is a human protein made from the APP gene that helps with signaling at the cell surface. It is cut by secretases into several different products, including soluble peptides, membrane-bound pieces, amyloid plaque components, transcription-related molecules, and fragments that can be toxic to nerve cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6f4eebfb9b9d4700461a86c789df0f4b311e619127649f2509881285f99261a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Amyloid Beta A4 Protein” (C16285).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
<a id="amyotrophic-lateral-sclerosis"></a>

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a degenerative disease of the motor neurons in the brain, brain stem, and spinal cord. It usually begins after age 50 and causes steadily worsening muscle weakness and wasting, problems with speech and swallowing, abnormal reflexes and muscle twitching, and eventually paralysis of breathing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a632f1b073f74c914cb5d1c15ffd0239c026ce8bb7f239d41a2ac900a0b3165

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis” (D000690).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000690). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anabolism
<a id="anabolism"></a>

Anabolism is the constructive side of metabolism: the cell builds more complex chemical substances from simpler ones and stores energy in the process. It is contrasted with the opposite, breakdown process, which releases energy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98b6bb49e7c9a7456ee27709d8bc511158d8b6da86945d3bff1db77d1dd06c35

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anabolism” (Anabolism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anabolism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anaclitic personality
<a id="anaclitic-personality"></a>

Anaclitic personality refers to a personality orientation focused mainly on relatedness to others. It is marked by strong affiliative needs and a fear of abandonment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 545ba0fea2324ed75c00ab5fb3300ed779250ce4ca798fa9534f8a0da937f40d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Werbart Andrzej; Byléhn Linda; Jansson Tuva Maja; Philips Björn. Loss of Rituals, Boundaries, and Relationship: Patient Experiences of Transition to Telepsychotherapy Following the Onset of COVID-19 Pandemic. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835214; article XML SHA-256 ba31f4439419e78214b5c544adf40bb6bfb6b456a687f1b75309dafd420cfce1. “Loss of Rituals, Boundaries, and Relationship: Patient Experiences of Transition to Telepsychotherapy Following the Onset of COVID-19 Pandemic” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835214).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835214). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anaesthesia
<a id="anaesthesia"></a>

Anaesthesia is a loss or reduction of sensation, especially of touch, pain, or temperature, though one kind of feeling may be affected while others remain intact. In historical psychological writing, the term could also refer to a mental state of emotional dullness or apathy, with reduced response to ordinary feelings and impressions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2aae009460b91c92c45a0bb0b96ee3c5de483fd1de0de6a94e1abf390c42fc0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anaesthesia” (Anaesthesia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anaesthesia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Anafranil
<a id="anafranil"></a>

Anafranil is the hydrochloride salt form of clomipramine, a tricyclic antidepressant. It works in the central nervous system by reducing the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin, which increases the effects of these neurotransmitters, and it also interacts with alpha-adrenergic, histaminergic, and cholinergic receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 56882ee19e1d25be9c3f6e7af5ce767687b466b54f8533f1b73db0b5b776c912

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Clomipramine Hydrochloride” (C47458).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anagogic interpretation
<a id="anagogic-interpretation"></a>

Anagogic interpretation is a historical mode of interpreting scripture that reads passages as pointing to future heavenly realities or later revelation, rather than to truths already understood. It is described as one of the medieval “fourfold” senses of scripture and remained in use until the Reformation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cdb51782aa4daa8f3d084e92a84902603b479384466bf56a651ef370f2c38b6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anagogic Interpretation” (Anagogic Interpretation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anagogic Interpretation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## analgesic
<a id="analgesic"></a>

An analgesic is a substance that reduces or relieves pain without causing loss of consciousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 677047904a8ea918f6846329d7b74e03aca494e29a45092976f02cd34f02537f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Analgesics” (D000700).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000700). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## analog
<a id="analog"></a>

In this context, an analog is a real-world setting used as a close stand-in for another environment because it reproduces important features of it. For example, Antarctic research stations can serve as an analog for long-duration space missions because they share isolation, confinement, harsh conditions, and similar demands on group functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f128b836cb897ebd652e6bf0bdd318a2c57aa4755c6500c5c7285b8b93e1ea8c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Basner Mathias; Rennie Ka’alana; Moore Tyler M.; Gur Ruben C.; Smith Michael G.; Nasrini Jad; Hermosillo Emanuel; Ecker Adrian J.; Schneller Victoria; Jones Christopher W.; van den Berg Floris P.; Johannes Bernd. Proximity measurements for objective assessments of crew cohesion in an antarctic space analog environment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783846; article XML SHA-256 6c875505e3af2e601835d006a8fb5d431391b740e91b1bf590b4f9f9a0b5a753. “Proximity measurements for objective assessments of crew cohesion in an antarctic space analog environment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783846).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783846). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## analogical thinking
<a id="analogical-thinking"></a>

Analogical thinking is a form of inductive reasoning in which a person notices similarities and correspondences between a familiar situation and a new one, then uses that match to transfer information and form new connections or inferences. It depends on being able to access relevant past knowledge from memory and apply it to a different domain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e657bdd4f478d69d3536bac1a5576e09346d5e607004ee67860b4016300424c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Valle Tania M; Gómez-Ariza Carlos J; Bajo M Teresa. Inhibitory control during selective retrieval may hinder subsequent analogical thinking. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0211881; article XML SHA-256 21d9b1cb4a27b531f514654f273795a1970a0035affd51945a303f0744ed19dc. “Inhibitory control during selective retrieval may hinder subsequent analogical thinking” (10.1371/journal.pone.0211881).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211881). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## analogue study
<a id="analogue-study"></a>

An analogue study is a research design that examines a psychological question in a simulated or imagined version of a real-life situation rather than in the actual setting. In this example, healthy young adults were asked to imagine having an incurable illness so researchers could study likely end-of-life communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fb9935e3743d5606ae08d350396cea8e5f3b7853f9abe8e2ccf3a729f7153865

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Evans Holly E.; Sansom-Daly Ursula M.; Bryant Richard A.. Attachment as a mechanism influencing end-of-life communication: An analogue investigation. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0303652; article XML SHA-256 bda050fe42ee8eaa4086ace5ae56317bad4076d747c5a3c35a5c9e821930f3ee. “Attachment as a mechanism influencing end-of-life communication: An analogue investigation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0303652).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303652). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## analogy
<a id="analogy"></a>

Analogy is a likeness or correspondence between things, especially a similarity in the relations among their parts rather than simple overall sameness. It can also mean a proportion between cases and, from that shared pattern, support reasoning or the use of similar names for different things.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3726b82d5d45514f7013002547192cdff79721cd10c5878ea20bddc5c295b83a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Analogy” (Analogy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Analogy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## analysis
<a id="analysis"></a>

Analysis is the process of separating a complex whole into its more basic elements, by whatever method is used. In historical psychology usage, it means isolating what is simpler within what is more complex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5317274a3a05c986ed286dc7e22b64d752a4fc26a2c089f925d0b911a21037a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Analysis” (Analysis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Analysis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## analysis of covariance
<a id="analysis-of-covariance"></a>

Analysis of covariance is a statistical method for comparing groups on a quantitative outcome while also accounting for differences in a quantitative covariate that may affect that outcome. It is used to make group comparisons more sensitive by adjusting for relevant accompanying variation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf4111270c355b41bc14bbe01068a5e380a336aa3bc1d0657a98a66f2010d7ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schwarz Wolf. The Ancova model for comparing two groups: a tutorial emphasizing statistical distribution theory. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1600764; article XML SHA-256 aa792941289d477f6063f12f5333e22a792f4286f5041a2701e5fffaa111c78e. “The Ancova model for comparing two groups: a tutorial emphasizing statistical distribution theory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1600764).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1600764). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## analysis of variance
<a id="analysis-of-variance"></a>

Analysis of variance is a statistical method used to examine how one or more categorical independent variables contribute to differences in the mean of a continuous dependent variable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5022e7cffc4b4808dfbcad7f7c0b3711bc3b8dfbe98c54ff1e98614c02692609

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Analysis of Variance” (D000704).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000704). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## analysis unit
<a id="analysis-unit"></a>

An analysis unit is the specific level or category used to organize and examine performance information, such as by physician, by disease, or another chosen grouping. It determines the granularity of the assessment so results can be tailored to the needs of different decision-makers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5306d9b44c9e6b67ec5cc6b55d712a20e6e632ac0938af1bfb59de8bf6c41559

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Soldatenkova Anastasiia; Calabrese Armando; Levialdi Ghiron Nathan; Tiburzi Luigi. Emergency department performance assessment using administrative data: A managerial framework. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293401; article XML SHA-256 2ff51223f9518d5a99c628f4841085ed277b8e1dea0be0868bfad67be28d993c. “Emergency department performance assessment using administrative data: A managerial framework” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293401).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293401). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## analyst
<a id="analyst"></a>

An analyst in this context is a healthcare professional with undergraduate-level certification in behavior analysis who provides behavior-analytic services under the supervision of a Board Certified Behavior Analyst.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3200baedf5706b384a5f5e38b7615596dbf1fc1f6af1bc48dcb853065ec42c39

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Assistant Behavioral Analyst” (C204388).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## analytic approach
<a id="analytic-approach"></a>

In this biological research context, an analytic approach is a way of examining data that combines speech movement tracking with MEG brain recordings in the same experiment. It is used to derive person-specific speech movement measures and test ideas about what movement-related information is represented and processed in parts of the speech motor system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a15230b41e24fbdaad9a75380771731d972733f012f5df7ded41fb25c57d16b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Anastasopoulou Ioanna; Cheyne Douglas Owen; van Lieshout Pascal; Johnson Blake Warren. Decoding kinematic information from beta-band motor rhythms of speech motor cortex: a methodological/analytic approach using concurrent speech movement tracking and magnetoencephalography. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1305058; article XML SHA-256 a34569f0302683058a24d9ed07705fbba1cc3e36d89481169c7070ac80fd5968. “Decoding kinematic information from beta-band motor rhythms of speech motor cortex: a methodological/analytic approach using concurrent speech movement tracking and magnetoencephalography” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1305058).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1305058). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## analytic psychology
<a id="analytic-psychology"></a>

In this historical source, analytic psychology means a general psychological approach that studies the mind by breaking complex mental states into simpler elements or factors. It especially refers to analysis carried out through introspection and is contrasted with descriptive, genetic, and experimental psychology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3ce7f64300bba1f4abd97ab6d65a545cac78d1c308fa9d843db14de8d381a4e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Analysis (psychological)” (Analysis (psychological)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Analysis (psychological)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## analytic third
<a id="analytic-third"></a>

In psychoanalytic thinking, the analytic third is an unlocalized shared subjectivity that emerges within the patient-analyst relationship. It refers to an unconscious, intersubjective meaning-making process, expressed through the analytic couple’s patterns of interaction, that helps generate new ways of relating and understanding the self.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6196e360daecff58c7484e4d8a1373d9bb34a65f85c54188214ed287cf263e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reghintovschi Anatol Eduard. Exploring the analytic process, the analytic third, and the emergence of meaning from a dyadic perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1779078; article XML SHA-256 04c5397a593464b70ddf368403772c62bcb364490a59788cb7d46c51bd83c012. “Exploring the analytic process, the analytic third, and the emergence of meaning from a dyadic perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1779078).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1779078). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## analyzer
<a id="analyzer"></a>

An analyzer is an automated system used to examine information; in this source, it refers to a patient review analyzer that uses natural language processing and machine learning to assess healthcare feedback more efficiently, fairly, and accurately.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ddaa175e2f821b7d58bdb4397fbc0323a89425f0e9c2db3bb3d1463201c3a911

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Momtaz Esfahani Sayyed Mohammad Pourya; Seeman Davey; Dharma Christoffer; Noaeen Mohammad; Guha Shion; Shakeri Zahra. FairCareNLP: An AI-driven patient review analyzer for healthcare. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337676; article XML SHA-256 bc83b33953e6a28246736622fb744dcd9de70f3f6779524d533aa84262204e19. “FairCareNLP: An AI-driven patient review analyzer for healthcare” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337676).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337676). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anandamide
<a id="anandamide"></a>

Anandamide, also called AEA, is one of the body’s endocannabinoids, which are chemical messengers in the endocannabinoid system. In this system, it is part of the signaling network involved in brain communication, regulation of neurotransmitters, inflammation, and behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9ece480faf8fdb11e2853870d1e0b6ef77e29608d32a523d034c1a748860a6a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rao Jagadeesh S.; Alejandra Tangarife Maria; Venegas Maria Margarita; Forero Barbara; González Tamayo Laura Lucía; Escobar-Gallego Juan Pablo; Rodríguez-Soacha Diego A.; Ferreiros Alexandra; Mukunda Ram. The role of the endocannabinoid system in managing neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1709266; article XML SHA-256 026089343dcb01b79d8d6c4029ec9c344ee7918f2702e345a83b45468e90d755. “The role of the endocannabinoid system in managing neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1709266).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1709266). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anaphia
<a id="anaphia"></a>

Anaphia is a historical term for absence or loss of the sense of touch, used in relation to anaesthesia. In older usage it referred specifically to tactile loss of sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 60c5da1005a235d4bbb921c39fbf8dd6457c6e0ad6ea32594da956cbc60fa90e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anaphia” (Anaphia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anaphia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anaphrodisiac
<a id="anaphrodisiac"></a>

An anaphrodisiac is something that lessens genital or sexual feeling. In this historical source, the term is used for poisons or substances that reduce sexual sensibility rather than excite it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: deb21c4d4d8f6710c2912585fd6b4980e55b1fa21a44861d9838f8c90eb8d030

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-1428000-1440000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anaphylaxis
<a id="anaphylaxis"></a>

Anaphylaxis is a severe, sudden inflammatory reaction in which mast cells release histamine and similar substances, triggering a hypersensitivity immune response. It can cause trouble breathing, dizziness, low blood pressure, bluish skin color, and loss of consciousness, and it may be fatal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c799b0513ecfc00485ec70e0893b6c0bea468ed8d2f229de6ac728b22261c4c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Anaphylaxis, CTCAE” (C143282).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anarthria
<a id="anarthria"></a>

Anarthria is loss of speech articulation, or very severe difficulty producing clear speech, especially when tongue movement is impaired. In this historical source it is described as a muscular, peripheral speech defect, seen for example in bulbar paralysis, rather than a disorder involving central aphasic symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50241436a20337c17757b39202a6827758fb2ff6597ba3c667dbfd0e854ca4ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anarthria” (Anarthria).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anarthria). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ancestor worship
<a id="ancestor-worship"></a>

Ancestor worship is the religious veneration of dead ancestors. In this historical source, it is described as a social and family custom found in various peoples, while its relation to broader religion and the reasons for its development are treated as unsettled.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0c998e274967cc2c28f05b357a09b37c252c2813db9149f3a8a5b3702c9b8132

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ancestor Worship” (Ancestor Worship).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Ancestor Worship). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anchor
<a id="anchor"></a>

In judgment and decision-making, an anchor is an initial reference point that people start from when making an estimate or evaluation. Later judgments are adjusted from that starting point, and the adjustment may be too small, especially when motivation or cognitive resources are limited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e461997f53a08ac726361dfcf6e3b9be275891a39cf9e46badecd9c323b59e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jin Menghan; Peng Huamao; Wang Dahua. Age similarities in the anchoring effect in emotion intensity judgment. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s40359-023-01101-w; article XML SHA-256 b81094043c2669408eaa93f29abcf4fb3982eca980ff1083761d34410c3d37bd. “Age similarities in the anchoring effect in emotion intensity judgment” (10.1186/s40359-023-01101-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01101-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anchor test
<a id="anchor-test"></a>

An anchor test is a set of common items used across different test forms or administrations so scores can be linked and kept comparable. In assessment designs that use nonequivalent groups, it provides the shared basis for equating scores over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4db902f57de4a0b76937ee3142c6db5ff4e7ab93c5336cb5950fd04243339cb8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bilicioglu Gunes Ayse; Zeybekoglu Yesil Serife. Examining the joint impact of missing data mechanisms and item parameter drift on the accuracy of item response theory-based test equating. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353665; article XML SHA-256 a4f0e87ec5577cf3ff002a96cdbd12c3369465e1f1d19e7fc920ca831c940ae1. “Examining the joint impact of missing data mechanisms and item parameter drift on the accuracy of item response theory-based test equating” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353665).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353665). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anchoring
<a id="anchoring"></a>

Anchoring is a judgment bias in which a person’s numerical estimate is pulled toward a number presented beforehand. In other words, earlier numeric information can shape later judgments by making them closer to that starting value.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 073762c1163fffd1f0e7d586b749cc3e93768579ce81c2a4af08d3f79532eb22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jin Menghan; Peng Huamao; Wang Dahua. Age similarities in the anchoring effect in emotion intensity judgment. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s40359-023-01101-w; article XML SHA-256 b81094043c2669408eaa93f29abcf4fb3982eca980ff1083761d34410c3d37bd. “Age similarities in the anchoring effect in emotion intensity judgment” (10.1186/s40359-023-01101-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01101-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anchoring bias
<a id="anchoring-bias"></a>

Anchoring bias is a thinking bias in which an earlier piece of information acts as a reference point and pulls later judgments in the same direction. In the source example, a supplier’s past score in one area influenced how people rated that supplier in other areas and how likely they were to choose the supplier again.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b47cf7ae8ac634e8e56ef64a063501be0ca635bcbaa519a1767933bb573364f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wong Ricky S.. The power of past performance in multidimensional supplier evaluation and supplier selection: Debiasing anchoring bias and its knock-on effects. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0303700; article XML SHA-256 8ac4b43671ac015cd3beb136c82566351ab58cc11418e876543f44c4a294cf16. “The power of past performance in multidimensional supplier evaluation and supplier selection: Debiasing anchoring bias and its knock-on effects” (10.1371/journal.pone.0303700).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303700). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## android
<a id="android"></a>

Android is a widely used operating system for smartphones and other mobile smart devices. In this source, it is discussed mainly as the software platform on which mobile apps run and where malware can also be installed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 741ab122034aa978dbed36aba2727109dfb313f1d9fbb223ef42cafd7f8b6105

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aamir Muhammad; Iqbal Muhammad Waseem; Nosheen Mariam; Ashraf M Usman; Shaf Ahmad; Almarhabi Khalid Ali; Alghamdi Ahmed Mohammed; Bahaddad Adel A. AMDDLmodel: Android smartphones malware detection using deep learning model. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296722; article XML SHA-256 c17c8705dd1da881f7c98d4b246dc4ce751218f15ab498a37f2626abe1251c31. “AMDDLmodel: Android smartphones malware detection using deep learning model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296722).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296722). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anencephaly
<a id="anencephaly"></a>

Anencephaly is a severe malformation of the nervous system in which the front part of the neural tube does not close during development. The infant is born without brain structures above the brainstem level and with only partial skull formation; survival is usually very brief.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f136a6f55c9e12fbb4ff73baeddaf08a8525dc5cac75b4c6019f8cee2d2367e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anencephaly” (D000757).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000757). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## angel dust
<a id="angel-dust"></a>

Angel dust is a street name for phencyclidine, or PCP, a hallucinogenic drug that can cause dissociation. It was formerly used as an anesthetic in veterinary medicine and briefly in humans.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc487f46c513397d17530f8efea1a8f35d39f878e6cbd42fbfba3c46588cc6e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Phencyclidine” (D010622).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010622). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Angelman syndrome
<a id="angelman-syndrome"></a>

Angelman syndrome is a genetic condition marked by intellectual disability along with problems in movement and muscle control. Common features include developmental and motor delay, unsteady or jerky movements, low muscle tone, frequent laughter episodes, and distinctive physical abnormalities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3cd5ec0c4f4c3f294acb8660730d156411b877f0d8b3a80d4a4b5de811fb05f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Angelman Syndrome” (D017204).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017204). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anger
<a id="anger"></a>

Anger is a strong feeling of displeasure that arises when a person feels interfered with, harmed, or threatened.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 782375c45fbd656252c683901605023d6f578bd784ab2ea541d01c0c05946f87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anger” (D000786).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000786). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anger management
<a id="anger-management"></a>

Anger management is the use of psychological or therapeutic methods to help a person control or lessen the triggers, intensity, and effects of anger.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba3a469bd258822b3d71e62ed3c051f49ad6f47276bff6ed217c712b48758013

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anger Management Therapy” (D000067449).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067449). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## angioedema
<a id="angioedema"></a>

Angioedema is a condition involving sudden, localized, often uneven episodes of swelling beneath the skin or in mucous membranes. In the hereditary type described here, it is a rare genetic disorder that can vary widely in severity and may be life-threatening.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a3e7d444433bea60f8f2314fef3b57e9a93a0f608e6656c670bd469d0c5c67cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Arias-Flórez Juan Sebastian; Ramirez Sandra Ximena; Bayona-Gomez Bibiana; Castro-Castillo Lina; Correa-Martinez Valeria; Sanchez-Gomez Yasmín; Usaquén-Martínez William; Casas-Vargas Lilian Andrea; Olmos Olmos Carlos Eduardo; Contreras Bravo Nora; Velandia-Piedrahita Camilo Andres; Morel Adrien; Cabrera-Perez Rodrigo; Santiago-Tovar Natalia; Gaviria-Sabogal Cristian Camilo; Bernal Ingrid Tatyana; Fonseca-Mendoza Dora Janeth; Restrepo Carlos M. Phenotypic and molecular characterization of the largest worldwide cluster of hereditary angioedema type 1. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311316; article XML SHA-256 25f23e9b673f5c46b7e1262a90eb1c714d1c1a0c1df187a240b6e3a5139e9917. “Phenotypic and molecular characterization of the largest worldwide cluster of hereditary angioedema type 1” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311316).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311316). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## angiography
<a id="angiography"></a>

Angiography is an imaging procedure used to see the inside of blood vessels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 92e0fbe65ec23c75fc49e82814e7fd6257e5676f682bcbe51b2e7cbfdef83aa4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Angiography” (C190556).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## angst
<a id="angst"></a>

Angst is a feeling of dread, apprehension, or a sense that something bad is about to happen. In this usage, it refers to these emotions when they are not disabling like anxiety disorders are.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0116157211909d38d2dfa1fd4633cfea0acd2cf1996e678a4bc4781c9c6bf15f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anxiety” (D001007).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001007). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## angular gyrus
<a id="angular-gyrus"></a>

The angular gyrus is a part of the parietal lobe of the brain involved in combining information across senses, understanding language, and other cognitive functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0fd59fcfe4b50b5cde8e4315da572f12c0100055392bfd7f051ec7893d3edd1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Angular Gyrus” (C32077).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anhedonia
<a id="anhedonia"></a>

Anhedonia is an inability to feel pleasure, linked to disruption in normal psychological and neurobiological functioning. It can appear as a symptom in several psychotic disorders, including major depressive disorder and schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e991c8e333ff8b0133673abe45c2d81e120d59df274cda2d1635db98be1dcab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anhedonia” (D059445).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D059445). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## animal
<a id="animal"></a>

In this historical source, an animal is described as a living organism that cannot make its own protoplasm from inorganic material. The entry also stresses that no brief definition cleanly separates animals from plants, especially among simpler organisms, so classification depends on the organism’s overall life history, development, nutrition, and evolutionary relationship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 55f96f9299f766161bfadff6b3d2f1b0fae1427c1c8fbac4264904f21863a9e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Animal” (Animal).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Animal). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## animal-assisted therapy
<a id="animal-assisted-therapy"></a>

Animal-assisted therapy is a form of therapy that uses live animals as part of the therapeutic process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b26434cb8371ec5a9805e91511ab99e43763c7e711b461d6f5735a1beefc00c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Animal Assisted Therapy” (D056447).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D056447). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## animal behavior
<a id="animal-behavior"></a>

Animal behavior is the study of what animals do, including their movements, activity, and patterns of space use as they change over time and across environments. In this context, it is often examined by tracking individual animals in naturalistic settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 47923892e126dd9269a65725dc6142b09faeb486a973e84c193c052b2a92064d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Crall James D.; Gravish Nick; Mountcastle Andrew M.; Combes Stacey A.. BEEtag: A Low-Cost, Image-Based Tracking System for the Study of Animal Behavior and Locomotion. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0136487; article XML SHA-256 49aa9f5fa60ad673b8e6a41f75d8192068dd84e0d2a5666346f1a0aca0c21772. “BEEtag: A Low-Cost, Image-Based Tracking System for the Study of Animal Behavior and Locomotion” (10.1371/journal.pone.0136487).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136487). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## animal cognition
<a id="animal-cognition"></a>

Animal cognition is the study of animals’ mental abilities as inferred from their behavior and responses to different kinds of stimuli. It is investigated across fields such as experimental psychology, behavioral neuroscience, ethology, and ecology, often using controlled tasks that record how animals act under different conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1277d58e3dad8c489d39a82dd0d081801925eb9b2b386d6a3012c21e9123d9b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Seitz Benjamin M.; McCune Kelsey; MacPherson Maggie; Bergeron Luisa; Blaisdell Aaron P.; Logan Corina J.. Using touchscreen equipped operant chambers to study animal cognition. Benefits, limitations, and advice. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0246446; article XML SHA-256 a29731bbc6c0aebe470056e0252f16fa8f2561e768c5d92279abff93154e6b9d. “Using touchscreen equipped operant chambers to study animal cognition. Benefits, limitations, and advice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0246446).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246446). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## animal communication
<a id="animal-communication"></a>

Animal communication is the exchange of chemical or physical signals between animals, where one animal produces a signal and another receives it. The received signal affects the other animal’s behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e62777d4d73801b65f8345615a997c75293a963b1f546399e2acee714350ff5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Animal Communication” (D000819).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000819). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Animal Distribution
<a id="animal-distribution"></a>

Animal distribution is the process by which animals, in different forms and stages of development, are spread across places and over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5241d41579831f87c0c0e0e6a975ee400c877b3d1d102e84fb3d2657e64da6d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Animal Distribution” (D063147).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063147). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## animal dominance
<a id="animal-dominance"></a>

Animal dominance refers to the patterned ranking relationships, or pecking orders, that form within groups of animals. In this source, these hierarchies are described not as fixed standings but as dynamic social networks shaped by ongoing sequences of interaction among group members.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b185e08691154cea099139a0fffccf158dbe7625d2d587fcc5124374e905f99d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chase Ivan D.; Lindquist W. Brent. The Fragility of Individual-Based Explanations of Social Hierarchies: A Test Using Animal Pecking Orders. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0158900; article XML SHA-256 fec0ebb2c971f7cdf10b87775f79aa4bf26430f901bb8b1e348c6f401ddd51df. “The Fragility of Individual-Based Explanations of Social Hierarchies: A Test Using Animal Pecking Orders” (10.1371/journal.pone.0158900).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158900). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## animal intelligence
<a id="animal-intelligence"></a>

Animal intelligence refers to an animal’s capacity for knowing or cognitive activity. In this historical usage, “intelligence” is a broader term than “intellect” and is readily applied to animals without limiting it only to conceptual thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb012056a79791944b7644ff64bafc1beea6b07b70dc145ae3a86814523dc694

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Intellect (or Intelligence)” (Intellect).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Intellect). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## animal model
<a id="animal-model"></a>

An animal model is the use of animals in an experimental setup to try to reproduce features of a human disorder. It is intended as a research tool for studying the disorder’s underlying mechanisms, although a given procedure may or may not successfully produce the expected condition or symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e928b7c129f00e1fb9cc24a1a35937a723f83385807fa0b37f21ead4145ec41d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vellieux Geoffroy; Roussel Delphine; Pinto Anthony; Mougenot Nathalie; Navarro Vincent. Towards new animal models of pure hypoxic Lance-Adams syndrome: Negative results. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317638; article XML SHA-256 533fed5d73eba0afc41a4aebbbb4f71a817353c7ccf95dcc3b71e31c69f5590a. “Towards new animal models of pure hypoxic Lance-Adams syndrome: Negative results” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317638).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317638). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## animal rights
<a id="animal-rights"></a>

Animal rights refers to the moral and ethical view that animals should be protected from cruelty and abuse. This protection is understood to apply to domestic, laboratory, and wild animals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 214ef711e1ffc23a6ed329c6aad280155fdf2f8dac24da556cbf38e13aaf803f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Animal Rights” (D017087).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017087). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## animal social behavior
<a id="animal-social-behavior"></a>

Animal social behavior is the study of how animals organize their relationships and living arrangements with others of the same species, such as living alone or in groups. It examines how ecological and demographic conditions, including population density and major environmental changes, shape patterns of spatial and social organization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c791eb913564b503431bcd29858885bf15fd05fcc6cbdb58b1b7e30aeccff1a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lacey Eileen A; O’Brien Shannon L; Cuello Pablo A; Tammone Mauro N. Group living in highland tuco-tucos ( Ctenomys opimus ) persists despite a catastrophic decline in population density. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304763; article XML SHA-256 1e6fae02349bf6eb90109421ea8b2fe2593e995db09de700482f5cd247a27ce8. “Group living in highland tuco-tucos ( Ctenomys opimus ) persists despite a catastrophic decline in population density” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304763).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304763). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## animal spirits
<a id="animal-spirits"></a>

In this historical Cartesian context, animal spirits are bodily processes thought to be centered in the pineal gland whose disturbance gives rise to unclear mental states such as sensations, passions, and emotions. The term belongs to older theories about how body and mind were connected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c49255246e1b7205d285f9d9244c4f37840c6b02ee89edb4ffc947c79612b50c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Occasionalism” (Occasionalism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Occasionalism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## animal welfare
<a id="animal-welfare"></a>

Animal welfare is an area of study and teaching about how animals are treated, especially in farm settings. It is considered through animal welfare science together with ethical and legal perspectives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62e27e04863b4f1fb2b58f63f695f1bcd797ba67b201d7598005c781ae37e27f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vieira Ana C L; Vidal Michel; Menassol Jean-Baptiste; Mateus Teresa Letra; Santos Ana Sofia; Durieux Jean-Pierre; Oliveira Mónica D. ANIPHI: An innovative pedagogical platform based on the Delphi method to support animal welfare teaching. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0277189; article XML SHA-256 a8b432a524e01ea7102b61284e6aec326685de630eb78b510c450c562edc4625. “ANIPHI: An innovative pedagogical platform based on the Delphi method to support animal welfare teaching” (10.1371/journal.pone.0277189).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277189). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## animism
<a id="animism"></a>

Animism is the belief that nature and bodily life are animated by souls, spirits, or other inner agencies. In historical accounts, it can mean everything in nature is alive, that bodies contain a distinct animating principle, or that they are inhabited by the spirits of the dead.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 173e2e9af1b99e96a597cbadf52ec577948342caf97b6c03e292f1f9336c8548

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Animism (in anthropology)” (Animism (in anthropology)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Animism (in anthropology)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aniridia
<a id="aniridia"></a>

Aniridia is a rare condition present from birth in which many parts of the eye are affected, including the iris, cornea, lens, retina, and optic nerve head. In most cases it is linked to a dominantly inherited mutation in one copy of the PAX6 gene, which is important for normal eye development and function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 925723cccf40c8a6b0724f803e763db1e148c24b30ac97da22fac6eee744833e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Suiwal Shweta; Stachon Tanja; Li Zhen; Corton Marta; Nastaranpour Mahsa; Chai Ning; Amini Maryam; Seitz Berthold; Fries Fabian N.; Tschernig Thomas; Szentmáry Nóra. Gene expression study in the siRNA based aniridia cell model and in primary aniridia limbal epithelial cells following duloxetine and ritanserin treatment. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324829; article XML SHA-256 a87d7f8baa5dfe1bfe617a7abe8f7e0fe3dca008dc5edc6d997109f1f41bdaf6. “Gene expression study in the siRNA based aniridia cell model and in primary aniridia limbal epithelial cells following duloxetine and ritanserin treatment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324829).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324829). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anisocoria
<a id="anisocoria"></a>

Anisocoria is a difference in the size of the two pupils. It can be a harmless normal variation, or it can signal a problem affecting the iris muscles or the nerve pathways that control the pupil.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 81bcdb5dbf3d3b5143f5275e981a913312c97788edba5fd7ddf74cc38cad5064

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anisocoria” (D015875).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015875). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anisometropia
<a id="anisometropia"></a>

Anisometropia is a difference between the two eyes in how they refract light. In other words, the eyes do not have equal optical focusing power.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0cb8f48c447690fd16d6f5bc9d6f4a01f61a8e6cc1d0f52d777fe39a0d118cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anisometropia” (Anisometropia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anisometropia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## annihilation
<a id="annihilation"></a>

Annihilation is a historical theological doctrine holding that the wicked or unregenerate are completely destroyed rather than subjected to eternal punishment after death. The related term annihilationism names this belief.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ceb11bafdaedb1abbfb00b4048b667b935654f71379fb37abc1bbd52b1666a49

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Annihilation” (Annihilation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Annihilation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anodyne
<a id="anodyne"></a>

Anodyne is a historical term for something that relieves pain by reducing the sensitivity or irritability of local nerves or the brain. It is also called an analgesic.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e92b5f2c57965602ebee637532bb341122fff27b0e1455748ce8843397b42e6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anodyne” (Anodyne).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anodyne). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anoetic
<a id="anoetic"></a>

Anoetic refers to a basic form of consciousness linked to primal sensory experience. In this source, it describes awareness that may accompany tonic immobility without implying self-reflective, autonoetic consciousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b8037e74474c48a4b9fc39ff60d9eb29600ba5a6e3a73846998192f7bf05f26

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Woodruff Michael L.. Tonic immobility and phenomenal consciousness in animals: a review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1509999; article XML SHA-256 e524f5fdba18e7caf84930b2ebcd53f32894afca2703501918fca593e30109a4. “Tonic immobility and phenomenal consciousness in animals: a review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1509999).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1509999). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anomaly
<a id="anomaly"></a>

In historical psychology, a mental anomaly is a clear departure from what is considered typical or normal in mental abilities or functioning. It refers to an unusual or exceptional irregularity and can describe traits or symptoms discussed in abnormal psychology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e99f4f0c01533984bcf587c7b28a2da5002e59b77c1b369d51afc98c9615a036

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anomaly” (Anomaly).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anomaly). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anomia
<a id="anomia"></a>

Anomia is a language problem in which a person can recognize and describe a person or object but cannot say its name. It is associated with damage to language-related areas of the dominant side of the brain, especially the temporal lobe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4feb39e978476966277259f10fe42a11283d3c67c5d60b3d5e2c6a3b7d3cdf9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anomia” (D000849).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000849). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anomie
<a id="anomie"></a>

Anomie is a condition in which society becomes disorganized and people feel demoralized, often because there is a mismatch between shared cultural goals and the accepted ways of reaching them. It can show up in individual behavior such as nonconformity, social withdrawal, or other deviant actions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d31701df80643445f4397a06c00fa31f7c35793df4f6e615270fa59e1864c4be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anomie” (D000850).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000850). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anopia
<a id="anopia"></a>

Anopia is a loss of conscious vision in part of the visual field, such as a hemifield, leading to areas where visual perception is absent. In the packet, it refers to severe visual field loss that can be present even when standard measures of early visual pathways and visual cortex appear normal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 018bf0c44ca2bb407c484d5a501d9bf1b10ebef06fdb67db68f71ff52cac52d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moutsiana Christina; Soliman Radwa; de Wit Lee; James-Galton Merle; Sereno Martin I.; Plant Gordon T.; Schwarzkopf D. Samuel. Unexplained Progressive Visual Field Loss in the Presence of Normal Retinotopic Maps. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01722; article XML SHA-256 fa1c88b85d9dc0855e587e3f2a9ae047a33f20ba21c0d6d05e3f3506ad566a92. “Unexplained Progressive Visual Field Loss in the Presence of Normal Retinotopic Maps” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01722).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01722). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anorexia
<a id="anorexia"></a>

In psychology, anorexia usually refers to anorexia nervosa, a severe psychiatric disorder that often begins in adolescence and carries major medical risks and an increased risk of death. It affects both physical health and psychological functioning and is commonly addressed through early family-centered care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45371d14c12f5c23e0211f9f1b496deeb0a0c39d3c10898ad1efc3b2814bac72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cotugno Armando; Manaresi Francesca; Cardi Valentina. Taking care of the body to cure the mind: family-based therapies as attachment-based programs for adolescents with Anorexia Nervosa. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1710932; article XML SHA-256 239782d9de10bc8374faf0a0f51020507e8763ef514181d0be768b2d819cd1f2. “Taking care of the body to cure the mind: family-based therapies as attachment-based programs for adolescents with Anorexia Nervosa” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1710932).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1710932). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Anorexia Nervosa
<a id="anorexia-nervosa"></a>

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder marked by loss or lack of appetite, major weight loss, and refusal to maintain a minimally normal weight. It also involves an intense fear of becoming overweight and a disturbed body image.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 351693bcbe41c2e760f6708b28283fb96da5740fd1a9cd80572df00d42416f9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Anorexia Nervosa” (D000856).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000856). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anosmia
<a id="anosmia"></a>

Anosmia is a complete or marked loss of the sense of smell. It can happen for many reasons, including colds, allergies, olfactory nerve disorders, respiratory viral infections, aging, and some neurological conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6058c518f6ae76204e5ad7119d249333579dadad2d03ba7fd4b60dbdb274e878

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anosmia” (D000086582).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000086582). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ANOVA
<a id="anova"></a>

ANOVA is a statistical method for examining how categorical predictor variables account for differences in the average value of a continuous outcome. It separates the influence of those variables on variation in the outcome’s mean.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c32e704b0b71729edcff62aa78ed524f6fb06742c5a890a8af03b4127643ab6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Analysis of Variance” (D000704).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000704). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anoxemia
<a id="anoxemia"></a>

Anoxemia is a reduced amount of oxygen being carried in the blood by hemoglobin. It can contribute to reduced oxygen supply to the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 912d0bb9388595167fa07b5bb158db00077b109b6d095c40f659bfa1f5cd11e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hypoxia, Brain” (D002534).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002534). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anoxia
<a id="anoxia"></a>

Anoxia is a state in which oxygen is absent, such as when oxygen is replaced by nitrogen during ventilation. In this source, it is discussed as a form of oxygen deprivation used to study posthypoxic effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48f25206ff1d5c0dd9ccb6949abffc06546fdb6fc9631f6b4908117c624041c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vellieux Geoffroy; Roussel Delphine; Pinto Anthony; Mougenot Nathalie; Navarro Vincent. Towards new animal models of pure hypoxic Lance-Adams syndrome: Negative results. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317638; article XML SHA-256 533fed5d73eba0afc41a4aebbbb4f71a817353c7ccf95dcc3b71e31c69f5590a. “Towards new animal models of pure hypoxic Lance-Adams syndrome: Negative results” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317638).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317638). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ANP
<a id="anp"></a>

ANP stands for atrial natriuretic peptide, a biological signaling molecule discussed here as a possible inhibitor of motion sickness. In this source, it appears to counter aldosterone-related changes in the inner ear, including endolymph expansion and related ion-transport activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5138bad13066f7c6a9ed510be59d5690ea1b8fe08796d9ae9e764f3b16be3743

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Qian-Cheng; Ji Wei; Li Xia; Ge Jian-Gang; Xu Li-Hua; Jiang Zheng-Lin. Atrial natriuretic peptide may inhibit motion sickness through reducing aldosterone-induced increase in endolymph volume of the inner ear. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359426; article XML SHA-256 45cefe967ff1e9642c2b921859b225bb5707519a2412138e84e6c7a3157c0eed. “Atrial natriuretic peptide may inhibit motion sickness through reducing aldosterone-induced increase in endolymph volume of the inner ear” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359426).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359426). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ANS
<a id="ans"></a>

ANS stands for autonomic nervous system. In this context, it refers to a body system involved in physical stress responses and bodily functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f4ef4747aa3dd22a8ce78195080672c8d5a6ea9f17210c778c87e9a288ac14ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Lun; Liang Sha; Bai Jinfeng; Zeng Yun; Zhang Mengzhen; Li Zhongwen; Yan Dingshang; Hu Yangming; He Liang; Liu Yizhe; Liu Qi; Zhang Yingjun; Feng Min. Regulation of autonomic nervous system by acupuncture: a heart rate variability study on physical stress. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1676863; article XML SHA-256 23669b6376f7a47840382319bf89810bf3f56eb0e6b486a712ce466c05c640c8. “Regulation of autonomic nervous system by acupuncture: a heart rate variability study on physical stress” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1676863).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1676863). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Antabuse
<a id="antabuse"></a>

Antabuse is a medicine used to help treat alcoholism. It works by blocking the breakdown of acetaldehyde after alcohol use, causing an unpleasant reaction if alcohol is consumed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e10b8d52461d3d9dffc0c0d552557c5563f59279269b105e7b5dc60c8266bcb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Disulfiram” (C447).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antagonistic muscles
<a id="antagonistic-muscles"></a>

Antagonistic muscles are a paired set of muscles at a joint in which one bends the joint and the other straightens it. In this usage, the pair consists of a flexor and an extensor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f03b0fab873a1ea6d9f5ee5716b16fed9d4c3d1ca97a14d32f2dc4f82f4df7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Flexor and Extensor Muscles” (Flexor).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Flexor). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antecedent
<a id="antecedent"></a>

Antecedent means what comes before, first in space and then in time. In logic, it also means the ground or condition for something else, especially the statement from which a consequent is said to follow in a hypothetical judgment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d894c9cfde20e1c37912fda8660d313f91fa8cf1d042a8e5336ee701e8a725e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Antecedent” (Antecedent).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Antecedent). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antecedent variable
<a id="antecedent-variable"></a>

An antecedent variable is a factor that comes before another outcome or behavior and helps influence it. In the source example, leadership is described as an antecedent variable because it affects employee innovative behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1087582f288bdb7dcc4b4b0dd1b766309cd32334731314bfcb6bc11fae0c8d0b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Hui; Chen Min; Li Xiangqing. Moderating Multiple Mediation Model of the Impact of Inclusive Leadership on Employee Innovative Behavior. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666477; article XML SHA-256 dd387c48812ed6a371cb8fffa64d3ca913148f8e91b589597dad03e767c71160. “Moderating Multiple Mediation Model of the Impact of Inclusive Leadership on Employee Innovative Behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666477).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666477). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anterior cerebral artery
<a id="anterior-cerebral-artery"></a>

The anterior cerebral artery is a blood vessel that branches from the internal carotid artery. Its branches supply parts of the brain including the caudate nucleus, internal capsule, putamen, septal nuclei, cingulate gyrus, and areas on the frontal and parietal lobes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9fdb4613b7a80b66c03b7455e981e6345583fa8a2ba72c8120ddf58f05482da2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anterior Cerebral Artery” (D020771).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020771). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anterior chamber
<a id="anterior-chamber"></a>

The anterior chamber is the fluid-filled space at the front of the eye. It lies between the cornea in front and the iris and part of the lens behind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a71f7fe5706182dd4c8719bd8698915544b735a7fe193429519b3d080bfb32d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anterior Chamber” (D000867).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000867). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anterior choroidal artery
<a id="anterior-choroidal-artery"></a>

The anterior choroidal artery is a blood vessel that arises from the internal carotid artery or the middle cerebral artery and supplies blood to the choroid plexus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4126d2b8a5ce8166547cde967b3879d5945d474894f19bab15157bfbc7b9a2ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Anterior Choroidal Artery” (C32083).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anterior cingulate cortex
<a id="anterior-cingulate-cortex"></a>

The anterior cingulate cortex is the front part of the cingulate cortex on the inner surface of the frontal lobe, next to the corpus callosum. It is involved in decision-making and in regulating emotions and body processes such as heart rate and blood pressure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 124287435e54c55cb5801232c546db1b0bacee08705f831ef96b2bd9ee065f0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Anterior Cingulate Cortex” (C139185).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anterior commissure
<a id="anterior-commissure"></a>

The anterior commissure is a rounded bundle of nerve fibers that links the brain’s two hemispheres.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d3367bb8168afe5a43d1cb05dd9671c40032a41f0a80adb3f24e0c652632070

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Anterior Commissure” (C32086).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anterior communicating artery
<a id="anterior-communicating-artery"></a>

A blood vessel in the brain that connects the two anterior cerebral arteries.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f7cbf070f42c0fb3de12a425071e9f0ce99065e9b86cb67d42e91cbe8d85ec6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Anterior Communicating Artery” (C32087).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anterior cranial fossa
<a id="anterior-cranial-fossa"></a>

The anterior cranial fossa is the front compartment of the skull base that houses the lower and frontmost parts of the frontal lobes. It is formed mainly by the orbital portions of the frontal bone and the lesser wings of the sphenoid bone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 68e6736c4876a65ff9e592c730280c2016b88a9968e75b4706cd6a259f8f0d4a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cranial Fossa, Anterior” (D035262).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D035262). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anterior–posterior axis
<a id="anteriorposterior-axis"></a>

The anterior–posterior axis is the front-to-back direction along which the central nervous system is organized into segmental units called neuromeres. In the source, changes along this axis are described as region-specific, with more anterior segments progressively differing from more posterior ground-state segments in their neural stem cells, lineages, and resulting neuromere size.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8de23765b835bc5f2647b33eb36e1d25e86593dc451575f5f669473529a8cd2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rickert Christof; Lüer Karin; Vef Olaf; Technau Gerhard M. Progressive derivation of serially homologous neuroblast lineages in the gnathal CNS of Drosophila. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0191453; article XML SHA-256 b512cf558a0773f3684237778ea05f75e07465305db789cf08ee0af59c677fa2. “Progressive derivation of serially homologous neuroblast lineages in the gnathal CNS of Drosophila” (10.1371/journal.pone.0191453).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191453). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anterograde amnesia
<a id="anterograde-amnesia"></a>

Anterograde amnesia is a loss of the ability to make new memories from a certain point onward. It can have physical or psychological causes and may occur after brain injury, seizures, anoxia, or damage to memory-related brain structures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1000010b5a69f22ccdeff74939d3f4590b4d377b831ef62be25cbf901e7abdbe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Amnesia, Anterograde” (D020324).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020324). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anterograde transport
<a id="anterograde-transport"></a>

Anterograde transport is the movement of cellular materials forward along microtubules, driven by kinesin motors. In neurons, this carries components over long distances from the cell body toward the nerve terminal and is important for neuronal development and function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a26140a682e7397a4b686689b93aeed53d3eee8cc4293f3d5d7100ca61358ebf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Blasius T. Lynne; Reed Nathan; Slepchenko Boris M.; Verhey Kristen J.. Recycling of Kinesin-1 Motors by Diffusion after Transport. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0076081; article XML SHA-256 f4809aa15153f73625bfaae677f526e30394f52c33131952647d86c51f2dfae8. “Recycling of Kinesin-1 Motors by Diffusion after Transport” (10.1371/journal.pone.0076081).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076081). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anthropocentrism
<a id="anthropocentrism"></a>

Anthropocentrism is a human-centered way of viewing environmental issues. In this study, stronger anthropocentric tendencies were associated with less willingness to make personal sacrifices to protect the environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c86afe42fdb0817b20023801759050ae07e0ae14826160617ec1b2766455c989

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Junyan; Lu Chuntian. The environmental impact of religious beliefs in the East and West: evidence from China. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1432142; article XML SHA-256 2e49f2e003b15490566438eebb6ffae58c2921dad35d937059ed940fb4a08d5a. “The environmental impact of religious beliefs in the East and West: evidence from China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1432142).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1432142). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anthropogenesis
<a id="anthropogenesis"></a>

Anthropogenesis is the question of human origins, especially humanity’s place in nature and its descent from less developed animal forms. In this historical source, it names an early and strongly debated topic within evolutionary thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8d7f56b1ff2fd3a25c5d240f962d644a8b9170e565d94759dded7bd5817fb4b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anthropology” (Anthropology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anthropology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anthropoid
<a id="anthropoid"></a>

Anthropoid is a historical zoological term for humanlike primates. In a broad sense it refers to a primate subgroup that includes humans, and in a narrower sense it refers specifically to the manlike apes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a16b220baf5e4a3b58a4253a27c1a2c9dbf74d5d6ddae6e9d5055a766f8c50e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anthropoid” (Anthropoid).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anthropoid). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Anthropology
<a id="anthropology"></a>

Anthropology is the science of studying human beings by comparing them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1bb6fb36531f56b00b7161b13a6d187be0158187f3db4ae58a5f6d7d8ff309a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Anthropology” (D000883).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000883). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anthropometry
<a id="anthropometry"></a>

Anthropometry is the study of measuring the human body, including its proportions and other physical characteristics. In this historical source, it is described as useful both for comparing groups of people and for examining individual growth and the effects of factors such as environment, social conditions, and training.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e9c2d69f16dab3349e0f81acd5080dd4807c414037a0e59b974b4f2659c65b9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anthropometry” (Anthropometry).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anthropometry). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anthropomorphism
<a id="anthropomorphism"></a>

Anthropomorphism is the tendency to assume that things very different from humans, especially gods or natural forces, have human qualities. In historical psychology, it is described as a more limited idea than animism because it specifically involves giving a human-like form or character to what is being understood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9aba8987e8f25aa93c1025302ce43ee3435ee901b009bdb391d5c4068ff1fc86

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anthropomorphism” (Anthropomorphism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anthropomorphism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antibody
<a id="antibody"></a>

In this context, an antibody is part of the immune response to infection. Researchers are investigating whether a specific antibody may mistakenly affect healthy tissue, including the brain, in PANDAS.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2455d926a2f9e12af60ef00263d6e961f1d563728a7991235a330c33765ffb2d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. PANS and PANDAS: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 492b8d282e63ff7c47c9c126c6ee286e5bcb517442c5e4a8f3a668f35e391832. “PANS and PANDAS: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anticholinergic drug
<a id="anticholinergic-drug"></a>

An anticholinergic drug is a medication that blocks acetylcholine receptors. In the eye, this can stop the iris sphincter and ciliary muscles from contracting, which enlarges the pupil and prevents accommodation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 658f175cdb9995e198d8906643599fa024ecf8051eb2d847603345c392f82256

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cyclopentolate Hydrochloride” (C28948).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anticholinergic effects
<a id="anticholinergic-effects"></a>

Anticholinergic effects are changes caused by blocking acetylcholine at muscarinic receptors, which reduces parasympathetic nerve stimulation. In the eye, these effects can produce pupil dilation and temporary paralysis of focusing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aea709fd20f25b3a5e2f135df60b134d7fdf60024b8341381ad41d65e1928a87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Homatropine Hydrobromide” (C29093).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anticholinesterase
<a id="anticholinesterase"></a>

An anticholinesterase is a drug that blocks the enzymes that normally break down acetylcholine. By slowing this breakdown, it increases acetylcholine activity at cholinergic synapses, affecting body systems such as muscles, the heart, the gastrointestinal and urinary tracts, the eye, and the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66a8e8f5b800cd0113bc9e56275bdd87877934ed6ce0d198cad69b815f69ec56

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cholinesterase Inhibitors” (D002800).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002800). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anticipation
<a id="anticipation"></a>

In historical psychology, anticipation means either a mental state of readiness for something expected to happen, or a voluntary response made before the stimulus actually appears. The term can thus refer both to expectant awareness and to an early reaction observed before an event.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 51dd8699c6680d62f34fb69f2f2f84cafc2a085078d8fc18def0aefabc76d4a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anticipation” (Anticipation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anticipation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anticipatory grief
<a id="anticipatory-grief"></a>

Anticipatory grief is grief that a person with a life-threatening illness, or that person’s caregiver, can experience before an actual death or other loss has happened. It involves grief symptoms arising in response to the serious illness itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 46e07682b7ddc9f283f4f0d4076da8a5e2f241c49358b0de6dc0597742af985d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Shiyuan; Gu Wangyang; Zhang Ling; Liu Wei; Tao Zeqin; Cheng Yanrong; Liu Wenlin; Zhao Xiaoting; Tu Wen; Gao Xing. Patient-reported outcome measures for anticipatory grief: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1709822; article XML SHA-256 0e6efb760a30d732d944f4985b3b8feaa72f260f4cca8b5a2c8ac877ad0c8afa. “Patient-reported outcome measures for anticipatory grief: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1709822).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1709822). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anticipatory guidance
<a id="anticipatory-guidance"></a>

Anticipatory guidance is advice or education given in advance to help parents prepare for upcoming child-care practices. In this source, it refers to guidance for parents about healthy early feeding and mealtime habits during infancy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a79573b7a69f7a3d6ede33cfd858668ffcc3aec8fcfda1c289328156a9a62b30

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Helle Christine; Hillesund Elisabet R.; Wills Andrew K.; Øverby Nina C.. Examining the effects of an eHealth intervention from infant age 6 to 12 months on child eating behaviors and maternal feeding practices one year after cessation: The Norwegian randomized controlled trial Early Food for Future Health. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0220437; article XML SHA-256 342379f4feafa4539232a2f0455f334654b81c5f0c252fe0bc14f3fc62fb39b9. “Examining the effects of an eHealth intervention from infant age 6 to 12 months on child eating behaviors and maternal feeding practices one year after cessation: The Norwegian randomized controlled trial Early Food for Future Health” (10.1371/journal.pone.0220437).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220437). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anticipatory nausea
<a id="anticipatory-nausea"></a>

Anticipatory nausea is nausea that occurs before chemotherapy, typically when a patient is re-exposed to the treatment setting or related clinical cues. In psychology, it is commonly understood as a learned response and a classic example used in discussions of Pavlovian conditioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 15b0674f5e4b59c875a28a75c6741182d8647332c8eaf8baae28e390d34525b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rodríguez Marcial. Individual differences in chemotherapy-induced anticipatory nausea. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00502; article XML SHA-256 87ab136b0692fd3910e1da84b7173c6267a32f12a20e5ccaba9c5563b88e721e. “Individual differences in chemotherapy-induced anticipatory nausea” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00502).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00502). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anticipatory pleasure
<a id="anticipatory-pleasure"></a>

Anticipatory pleasure is the expected positive feeling a person thinks they will have during an upcoming experience. In this packet, so-called deficits in anticipatory pleasure are described as possibly reflecting stronger expectation of negative emotion, rather than simply reduced expectation of positive emotion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 23d1d4fd073e5d671f6ba40929de8b719f453ee563afcdb63f633f57be0bc787

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Martin Elizabeth A; Castro Mayan K; Li Lilian Y; Urban Emily J; Moore Melody M. Emotional response in schizophrenia to the “36 questions that lead to love”: Predicted and experienced emotions regarding a live social interaction. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0212069; article XML SHA-256 e59c668dd521e5c95607963011402a5087042c0419f629f27f524f8245be7c07. “Emotional response in schizophrenia to the “36 questions that lead to love”: Predicted and experienced emotions regarding a live social interaction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0212069).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212069). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anticipatory response
<a id="anticipatory-response"></a>

An anticipatory response is a stress-related bodily reaction that happens before an expected event rather than during it. In this packet, it refers to higher pre-event stress markers before a race than before routine training, suggesting the individual is reacting in advance to the upcoming challenge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6efad6e838e664766d2f579c4a4fcb4c97ced892fdbb67f0f27212e9c8edbd79

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bohák Zsófia; Harnos Andrea; Joó Kinga; Szenci Ottó; Kovács Levente. Anticipatory response before competition in Standardbred racehorses. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0201691; article XML SHA-256 89b2e446ec163c0a379d1c661fa271145d2f2722d6d3425c4d9095d2bdd1cec9. “Anticipatory response before competition in Standardbred racehorses” (10.1371/journal.pone.0201691).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201691). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anticonvulsant
<a id="anticonvulsant"></a>

An anticonvulsant is a type of medication that may be added to an antidepressant to help make treatment more effective in some cases of treatment-resistant depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc8fee82f4cd8486cbbf24292258e608d73fd560e058560f0666a833dec36f6a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 5e865d35b1103be91b52db38911aadcdf861e23a0de4e1b3e1eeb01399b987b8. “Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antidepressant
<a id="antidepressant"></a>

An antidepressant is a mood-lifting medication used mainly to treat depressive and related mood conditions. Different antidepressants work through effects on brain chemical signaling systems, including catecholamine and serotonergic pathways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a3f46bcf0218683ba565fcd4d0900e33a458cefa56e9e8f1d27026e82982a8ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Antidepressive Agents” (D000928).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000928). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antidiuretic hormone
<a id="antidiuretic-hormone"></a>

Antidiuretic hormone is a hormone released by the neurohypophysis that helps regulate the body’s water balance and osmolarity. In mammals, this refers to vasopressin, which acts on the kidney collecting ducts to increase water reabsorption and can also raise blood volume and blood pressure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43edc2a868d48448c40070dbd6201b4920b6f6558688d0ce808833cc9918db71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vasopressins” (D014667).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014667). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antigen–antibody reaction
<a id="antigenantibody-reaction"></a>

An antigen–antibody reaction is the specific binding of an antigen with its matching antibody. In the packet, it is identified indirectly by whether the complex uses up complement, so later red cells do not lyse; if red cells do lyse, no such reaction occurred in the first stage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee2bf20d054e28d7ba932a1bbf1276c9da533cb1da632c44d29f42753e508ee1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Complement Fixation Tests” (D003168).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003168). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antinociceptive
<a id="antinociceptive"></a>

Antinociceptive refers to reducing the nervous system’s processing of pain signals. In the packet, this kind of activity is described as occurring in the central nervous system, possibly through effects on NMDA receptors and serotonin-related pain-control pathways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6172aea375709364f72f37d5978b82e4733806ac615771cab4a27cb64463d365

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Amitriptyline Hydrochloride” (C28819).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antinomy
<a id="antinomy"></a>

Antinomy is a logical contradiction between two accepted principles, or between conclusions that are both correctly drawn from premises with equal claim to objective validity. In philosophy, especially in Kant’s usage, it refers to the conflict reason encounters when it tries to give a complete systematic account of the cosmos as a determinate whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b4ae1fd12747393e94407e8357866c8944e1fb91c83da66df9d63bd75ad9dc6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Antinomy” (Antinomy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Antinomy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antiparkinsonian drug
<a id="antiparkinsonian-drug"></a>

An antiparkinsonian drug is a substance used or studied for its ability to counter changes linked with Parkinson’s disease. In the source, this refers to a compound that reduced dopaminergic neuron damage, lowered α-synuclein buildup, improved dopamine-related functioning, and extended survival in animal models.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 341907e49c2adb76cad6e7c77827750e7fd488cf2818cafb51c53010b78b687b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fu Ru-Huei; Harn Horng-Jyh; Liu Shih-Ping; Chen Chang-Shi; Chang Wen-Lin; Chen Yue-Mi; Huang Jing-En; Li Rong-Jhu; Tsai Sung-Yu; Hung Huey-Shan; Shyu Woei-Cherng; Lin Shinn-Zong; Wang Yu-Chi. n -Butylidenephthalide Protects against Dopaminergic Neuron Degeneration and α-Synuclein Accumulation in Caenorhabditis elegans Models of Parkinson's Disease. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0085305; article XML SHA-256 1088d2bbae3d9486d01be69f2ae72f25c6c5a165f94f811eba8c93a9cec200d4. “n -Butylidenephthalide Protects against Dopaminergic Neuron Degeneration and α-Synuclein Accumulation in Caenorhabditis elegans Models of Parkinson's Disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0085305).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0085305). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antipathy
<a id="antipathy"></a>

Antipathy is a strong, deep-rooted dislike toward some object, usually another person, that is felt as unreasoning or hard to explain. In this historical source, it is described as more intense than ordinary aversion and as arising either from associations of ideas or from inherited predisposition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4e91a7c5b0b351fe1a5a388456b5348f9b4c25898162b9796f287d8a1835259

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Antipathy” (Antipathy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Antipathy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antipredator behavior
<a id="antipredator-behavior"></a>

Antipredator behavior is the set of responses an animal shows to predator-related threats or cues. These responses vary with factors such as age, sex, reproductive state, experience or learning, habitat, temperature, social setting, and especially the kind of predator and the level of predation pressure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5130ef755de2e483a4be2b5f06cb66ef8b430a5f0f4a3869ffce2dbda34e708f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alves-Nunes João Miguel; Fellone Adriano; Sazima Ivan; Vuolo Marques Otávio Augusto. Overcoming the phantoms of the past: Influence of predatory stimuli on the antipredator behavior of island pitvipers. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288826; article XML SHA-256 0dc7f9bd73b7d356ef5c1e6930b32e9ed7ac2a555ef691756f7433ba7e3edc04. “Overcoming the phantoms of the past: Influence of predatory stimuli on the antipredator behavior of island pitvipers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288826).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288826). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antipredator defense
<a id="antipredator-defense"></a>

Antipredator defense is behavior that helps an animal reduce the chance of being successfully attacked by a predator. In the source material, it refers to displays such as tail movements that draw a predator’s attention away from more vulnerable body parts and may also support warning or chemical defenses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 615f84e7b681b21659e235e42b8d365703f1805895ae2c28de7c96afd058eac1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mochida Koji; Mori Akira. Antipredator behavior of newts ( Cynops pyrrhogaster ) against snakes. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0258218; article XML SHA-256 cdd0d837a673361bd4c40bd1330f7df307218ded0ebc4d110d1ae1387ee90fbb. “Antipredator behavior of newts ( Cynops pyrrhogaster ) against snakes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0258218).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258218). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antipsychotic
<a id="antipsychotic"></a>

An antipsychotic is a medication used to calm agitated psychotic behavior, lessen acute psychotic states, and reduce psychotic symptoms. These drugs are also called neuroleptics, although not all of them are likely to cause neurological side effects, and some can also help with nausea, vomiting, or itching.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 78129d1b98e0e57835d4d657ea781d045f920bbd83c3ce9657fe4be689be604a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Antipsychotic Agents” (D014150).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014150). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antisocial
<a id="antisocial"></a>

Antisocial describes a deliberate behavior pattern marked by intentional aggression toward other people and purposeful disregard for accepted social norms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 644dbf1e34a5e6f0a076cdf35fbda432919d990434638f50be372d708dcc8c43

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Antisocial Behavior” (C94296).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antisocial personality disorder
<a id="antisocial-personality-disorder"></a>

Antisocial personality disorder is a personality disorder marked by a long-standing pattern of disregarding and violating other people’s rights, beginning in childhood or early adolescence and continuing into adulthood. The diagnosis applies to someone who is at least 18 years old and who had some conduct disorder symptoms before age 15.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40720afa3b570272b87a76c7e4af4fbc7119e44136a94e19e7a6f2ec778284a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Antisocial Personality Disorder” (D000987).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000987). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## antithesis
<a id="antithesis"></a>

Antithesis is a historical term for a logical or verbal contrast between opposites. It can also mean the second of two opposing propositions, with the first being the thesis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84572b4e16cde88b05d9f5ced9cf40ba92a2d3f047e2ed9d27f5ad32f50f5c5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Antithesis” (Antithesis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Antithesis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anxiety
<a id="anxiety"></a>

Anxiety is an emotional state marked by worry, fear, or a sense that something bad may happen. In this use, it refers to these feelings when they are not severely impairing like an anxiety disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f60c02bb0d5fe08d59a764860a5d43220410753a210fabffeaec6a23e73015a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anxiety” (D001007).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001007). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anxiety reaction
<a id="anxiety-reaction"></a>

An anxiety reaction is a response that occurs when a situation or substance triggers anxiety. In this source, it refers to behavioral changes seen after exposure to something anxiogenic, alongside stress- or fear-related reactions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b27ae4f41027e33e02a3ec151e59aa1083706af72974ca3c2ad83d398c35ba2b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lopez-Luna Javier; Al-Jubouri Qussay; Al-Nuaimy Waleed; Sneddon Lynne U.. Impact of stress, fear and anxiety on the nociceptive responses of larval zebrafish. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0181010; article XML SHA-256 5072d552be5b03b3602db0fd588db80cd2158bbf206c8e273356009e5ebe277c. “Impact of stress, fear and anxiety on the nociceptive responses of larval zebrafish” (10.1371/journal.pone.0181010).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181010). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anxiety scale
<a id="anxiety-scale"></a>

An anxiety scale is a rating measure in the Behavior Assessment System for Children used to assess how much a person tends to feel nervous, fearful, or worried about real or imagined problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 150d9f221d195ab43947b563aae984d0ae51e8e9c1bb06529bcdbc317597e264

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Anxiety Scale” (C121276).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anxiety sensitivity
<a id="anxiety-sensitivity"></a>

Anxiety sensitivity is a tendency for some people to become more anxious when they notice certain sensations, especially during observation of their internal experience. In this packet, it is described as elevated in some individuals, including some people with panic disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bcae3b90f20bc12787b4290eedc8c9eedf6f2d4acfcbba4dab047842f4e1fcaf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moskow Diamond Danielle; Curtiss Joshua; Carpenter Joseph K; Ito Masaya; Hofmann Stefan G. Influence of anxiety sensitivity on the observe facet of the five facet mindfulness questionnaire: differential item functioning in a clinical population. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-06488-x; article XML SHA-256 79039afedaf25f52c438a489807c48c25209c5630c838baed811f6c025228969. “Influence of anxiety sensitivity on the observe facet of the five facet mindfulness questionnaire: differential item functioning in a clinical population” (10.1186/s12888-025-06488-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-06488-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## anxiolytic
<a id="anxiolytic"></a>

An anxiolytic is a substance or medication that reduces anxiety and tension and has a calming, sedating effect. It does this without clouding consciousness or directly affecting neurologic conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3045c69c951c088499ab770b52523e7f8c34f723cfc2219e73fd78316c0bac9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anti-Anxiety Agents” (D014151).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014151). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aortic arch syndrome
<a id="aortic-arch-syndrome"></a>

Aortic arch syndrome is a group of disorders caused by problems in the arteries that branch from the aorta’s arch area. Reduced or abnormal blood flow to the head, neck, or arm can lead to neurological problems and weakness in an arm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99d65353c5720aad48c54989f4dc8d291d3aca6c9bc9a289934d4a3961648c4c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aortic Arch Syndromes” (D001015).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001015). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AP
<a id="ap"></a>

AP, or absolute pitch, is the ability to identify or produce a musical pitch without needing another note as a reference. In psychology of cognition, it is understood as a highly automatic form of auditory expertise in which a heard pitch quickly triggers its label.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b19c0d417b760b853daf644f28c339babce74edafc8f1803ce4fb1a28d2d754c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shibayama Karen; Shimada Hitoshi; Itoh Kosuke. Cognitive control in music: adaptive strategies for relative pitch across the absolute-pitch proficiency continuum. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1723224; article XML SHA-256 6abd78a7d396e01c7df2cf5df1e0e57cac62992f3ee0736a9043167a6bdeba93. “Cognitive control in music: adaptive strategies for relative pitch across the absolute-pitch proficiency continuum” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1723224).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1723224). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## APAP
<a id="apap"></a>

APAP is acetaminophen, a chemical substance used to reduce pain and fever. Its exact effects are not fully understood, but it may raise pain threshold and lower fever through actions in the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc2afd7a61fdd9abe44de021d6b5ba4b477b78da5a4a2a64b7e8ba01b1625c8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Acetaminophen” (C198).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apastia
<a id="apastia"></a>

Apastia is abstinence from food when it appears as a symptom of mental disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf8000c76b1768652eb1b9d043e7649181696c1773651adb0baea7cb38c9b3ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-546000-558000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apathy
<a id="apathy"></a>

Apathy is a reduced or absent emotional response or expression, along with a lasting decrease in motivation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 738aef8d67855a5e248ee1c10712aa0136a8322345f1c40121159e9178494d52

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Apathy” (D057565).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D057565). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Apert syndrome
<a id="apert-syndrome"></a>

Apert syndrome is an FGFR-associated craniosynostosis syndrome in which skull sutures close too early, alongside characteristic differences such as fused fingers and toes and other craniofacial changes. In cognition-related contexts, it is noted that cognitive effects can vary across affected individuals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a48538e06b98b1fd84a61270e68a5ba5179d312880a211291149de2e9d50bb44

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Motch Perrine Susan M.; Stecko Tim; Neuberger Thomas; Jabs Ethylin W.; Ryan Timothy M.; Richtsmeier Joan T.. Integration of Brain and Skull in Prenatal Mouse Models of Apert and Crouzon Syndromes. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00369; article XML SHA-256 15a5d6cfd4bb216e44f29170906fbb63f0568e47ee786a014af5f0800c24100e. “Integration of Brain and Skull in Prenatal Mouse Models of Apert and Crouzon Syndromes” (10.3389/fnhum.2017.00369).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00369). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aphakia
<a id="aphakia"></a>

Aphakia is the absence of the eye’s crystalline lens. It can occur, for example, after an operation for cataract.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 347341e18205bbce5d63331150199111798b052bc6565d620b97b483da8aca7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aphakia” (Aphakia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Aphakia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aphasia
<a id="aphasia"></a>

Aphasia is a cognitive disorder in which a person has difficulty understanding or producing language, whether spoken or written. It results from disease affecting language areas in the dominant hemisphere of the brain, and may appear in receptive, expressive, or mixed forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bce538161dd7cf0fac10f3cd72c31061563df1e3aa4c5bd52bf1464235165245

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aphasia” (D001037).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001037). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aphemia
<a id="aphemia"></a>

Aphemia is an older term for loss or reduction of the ability to produce spoken words. It was used in somewhat different ways, but in practice it largely corresponds to motor aphasia and was sometimes used more broadly for aphasia in general.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 691a4eb243513296c279846cfda8cfcb72326fbba466b4245c60b655440be4e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aphemia” (Aphemia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Aphemia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aphonia
<a id="aphonia"></a>

Aphonia is a complete loss of the ability to produce voice. It can result from a physical disorder of the larynx or from psychogenic, nonorganic causes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c57d9cf33d76ac88f418b577c868f6b48abfee7b61798ca657447ce198770dad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aphonia” (D001044).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001044). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apical dendrite
<a id="apical-dendrite"></a>

An apical dendrite is the single dendritic branch of a pyramidal cell that extends outward toward the surface of the cerebral cortex. In the cortex’s third layer, these cells also have several other dendrites that extend inward.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddd137c221300b6b12039df7ebb585b2f0898725072f9e0078b2b4a9f933a13e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “External Pyramidal Cell Layer of the Cerebral Cortex” (C32571).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Aplysia
<a id="aplysia"></a>

Aplysia is a type of sea slug in the opisthobranch mollusk group. It is often used in research on nervous system development because its neurons are large and can be individually identified.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e34df91fdb3741ef9a05a4395ad43c4ab325ba5a1f9fc8e88f33cfd4d1e170b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aplysia” (D001048).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001048). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ApoE
<a id="apoe"></a>

ApoE refers to apolipoprotein E, discussed here in terms of its genetic forms and their links to cognitive impairment risk. In this source, the APOE4 form is associated with conditions involving cognitive problems, including Alzheimer’s disease and chemotherapy-related cognitive impairment, and with altered excitatory–inhibitory signaling in the entorhinal cortex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9d2fe9b33137d5dcaa8e9a002d2d63141b13adcd01ae7237d17a9195f64f7a5b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Nancy; Pandit Harshul; Kalra Shreya; Tran Erin; Mandelblatt Jeanne; Vicini Stefano; Rebeck G William. APOE 4 and doxorubicin impair inhibitory interneuron function and homeostatic regulation in the entorhinal cortex. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343276; article XML SHA-256 67333583a1d0f1a3376d18c9b88cdd06d6038f931e6c038675b4be7f8d2a00e8. “APOE 4 and doxorubicin impair inhibitory interneuron function and homeostatic regulation in the entorhinal cortex” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343276).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343276). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apolipoprotein E
<a id="apolipoprotein-e"></a>

Apolipoprotein E is a protein involved in moving fats in the body and helping clear lipoproteins through low-density lipoprotein receptors. The packet describes three common forms, called ε2, ε3, and ε4, and notes that these genetic differences are linked to differences in cardiovascular disease risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b20d4ba064965957ea15746452c853f75104f1ca66b0718512da87c6afcec274

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Thomford Nicholas Ekow; Anyanful Akwasi; Ateko Richmond Owusu; Blackhurst Dee; Biney Robert Peter; Boadi Dennis; Nyarko Samuel Badu; Ekor Martins; Kyei George Boateng. Apolipoprotein E genetic variation, atherogenic index and cardiovascular disease risk assessment in an African population: An analysis of HIV and malaria patients in Ghana. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0284697; article XML SHA-256 77dc12f308a2c4fd11ae1ee69f3019db08eb8c3e8cc7a49f2777bf12f9a08e0c. “Apolipoprotein E genetic variation, atherogenic index and cardiovascular disease risk assessment in an African population: An analysis of HIV and malaria patients in Ghana” (10.1371/journal.pone.0284697).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284697). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apomorphine
<a id="apomorphine"></a>

Apomorphine is a morphine-derived drug that acts as a dopamine D2 agonist. It can strongly trigger vomiting and has been used for acute poisoning, and it has also been used in the diagnosis and treatment of parkinsonism, although adverse effects limit its use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c641c79b305f1bd5f851fc870002574f21f5feb8d8b9b19e3e0d11a4ca9bfc2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Apomorphine” (D001058).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001058). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apoplexy
<a id="apoplexy"></a>

Apoplexy is a historical term for a sudden stroke-like attack with loss of consciousness, feeling, and movement, most often linked to bleeding in the brain but also used for similar attacks caused by blockage of a blood vessel. It was described as often producing coma, paralysis, speech problems, and in some people lasting mental weakening or dementia-like changes after recovery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45c601180fbbeb66f01fe17d5f1f01750731f9c13638252c9156d8f280790acb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Apoplexy” (Apoplexy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Apoplexy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aposematic coloration
<a id="aposematic-coloration"></a>

Aposematic coloration is conspicuous protective body coloring in animals, such as the bright colors seen in some poison frogs. Rather than helping an animal blend in, it appears to function as part of an anti-predator strategy by honestly signaling toxicity to predators.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3bbbef3f4e91d7075f134b76e557eca75282cce9394848cf9933b6b53a0284c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dreher Corinna E.; Cummings Molly E.; Pröhl Heike. An Analysis of Predator Selection to Affect Aposematic Coloration in a Poison Frog Species. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0130571; article XML SHA-256 4ccbd340234d9644de09decc091e15330996e2ec19d796557153fbbb939292e8. “An Analysis of Predator Selection to Affect Aposematic Coloration in a Poison Frog Species” (10.1371/journal.pone.0130571).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130571). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apotemnophilia
<a id="apotemnophilia"></a>

Apotemnophilia is a condition marked by wanting a healthy limb removed, or wanting to be paralyzed. In this source, it is identified under body integrity identity disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38970386a291b3f72f16043514224fa4d9334bfba85e9f205b95b9a69379db2a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Body Integrity Identity Disorder” (D000081042).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000081042). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## APP
<a id="app"></a>

APP is the gene and protein known as amyloid-beta precursor protein. It helps with receptor-related cell signaling at the cell surface and can be cut by secretases into several products, including soluble peptides, membrane-bound fragments, amyloid plaque components, regulatory molecules, and neurotoxic fragments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a09872d71346081ba0b4ec9cbfb1edc3c10712e4df6c4de2d5b351e920d810d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Amyloid Beta A4 Protein” (C16285).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apparent magnitude
<a id="apparent-magnitude"></a>

Apparent magnitude is the observed or estimated size of a measurement or metric, rather than its true value. In this source, it refers to how large an accuracy measure seems to be, even though that impression can be distorted by factors such as prevalence and an imperfect reference standard.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3dd716f8dc855fae097879e1626060c346c91379be4db2c0d40c58e20565bb04

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Foody Giles M.. Challenges in the real world use of classification accuracy metrics: From recall and precision to the Matthews correlation coefficient. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0291908; article XML SHA-256 c83e28970c0faf73763ff5188298afb9c8b1d97786fa59e4f342fe9a13d60fcc. “Challenges in the real world use of classification accuracy metrics: From recall and precision to the Matthews correlation coefficient” (10.1371/journal.pone.0291908).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291908). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apparent movement
<a id="apparent-movement"></a>

Apparent movement is the experience of seeing movement in the visual field even when the movement is only perceived rather than actually occurring. It refers to how objects seem to move as they are seen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8e1be74e2b08ebb444addd8f06bf426963e20b596db3e78c47d5e256d5059bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Motion Perception” (D009039).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009039). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apparition
<a id="apparition"></a>

In historical psychology writing, an apparition is an unusual or seemingly supernatural appearance or event. It is related in meaning to experiences discussed under hallucination and illusion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05c38a6776b439435723d2aeb49fd10e3bd5ee6d7870612dc0660e22ca232918

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Apparition” (Apparition).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Apparition). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## appeal
<a id="appeal"></a>

In this context, appeal means the quality of something that makes it seem aesthetically pleasing or attractive. The source describes it as an aesthetic response that can apply not only to art, but also to ordinary objects, landscapes, speech sounds, and whole languages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a78ffe0f2f2409c02b4db744ca16902259dd51c32eb9f79ef394623862ea67aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Matzinger Theresa; Košić David. Phonemic composition influences words’ aesthetic appeal and memorability. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336597; article XML SHA-256 eb8e4b24a9881fffa73cd681aad76443401023f86e50f02b213e8db24297e421. “Phonemic composition influences words’ aesthetic appeal and memorability” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336597).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336597). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## appeasement behavior
<a id="appeasement-behavior"></a>

Appeasement behavior is submissive signaling shown by a lower-status individual to indicate reduced willingness to escalate a conflict with a dominant opponent. In the source context, it is described as behavior that can lessen aggression and help stabilize social relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34278eb7f7bce1ad78ee1749b04f52d8bc107a7e1a18472e1dd3e518b0d26073

Sources:
- Drafting source: [e Silva Bianca Cambiaghi; Gauy Ana Carolina dos Santos; Prado Sarah Garcia; Gesto Manuel; Soares Marta C; Gonçalves-de-Freitas Eliane. Body tactile stimulation intensifies appeasement behavior in a cichlid fish. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnbeh.2026.1821679; article XML SHA-256 d90eb1d8cdd5df1374555f9a68290217746e8029fffa2491b8e916bee1603106. “Body tactile stimulation intensifies appeasement behavior in a cichlid fish” (10.3389/fnbeh.2026.1821679).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2026.1821679). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apperception
<a id="apperception"></a>

Apperception is the attention process understood as an interaction between what is now being noticed and the mind’s prior conscious contents and settled mental tendencies. In historical use, it also referred to apprehending an object in relation to the self, and in Herbart’s account to older presentations taking up and organizing newer ones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6cc3a04f2d654817ec5e6ec58eedb7e8edaebd266fdeb9cf8200958a534e11da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Apperception” (Apperception).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Apperception). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Appetite
<a id="appetite"></a>

Appetite is the natural, recurring desire to eat food. It can change, including being reduced or increased by substances that suppress or stimulate appetite.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 29401dcebfb89d8b338d4daddc606db4ec6d989c2543f179cd07adb4c9ad5c90

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Appetite” (D001066).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001066). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## appetite suppressant
<a id="appetite-suppressant"></a>

An appetite suppressant is a substance or drug that reduces feeding behavior or food intake. In this packet, the term is used for anti-obesity drugs such as tesofensine and phentermine that lessen appetite and can contribute to weight loss.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6faa8e16c4964a818ae873dd0fb96e3818368cfac3e54590d8e1cbebc48c7163

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Perez Claudia I; Luis-Islas Jorge; Lopez Axel; Diaz Xarenny; Molina Omar; Arroyo Benjamin; Moreno Mario G; Lievana Elvi Gil; Fonseca Esmeralda; Castañeda-Hernández Gilberto; Gutierrez Ranier. Tesofensine, a novel antiobesity drug, silences GABAergic hypothalamic neurons. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300544; article XML SHA-256 5b8d7bb92849b150906b3279b70421e391a3c42ac0bcd6eaada794f39cdd4844. “Tesofensine, a novel antiobesity drug, silences GABAergic hypothalamic neurons” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300544).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300544). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## appetitive behavior
<a id="appetitive-behavior"></a>

Appetitive behavior is an animal’s searching or approach activity that comes before a more fixed instinctive action pattern. It is the variable early phase of behavior sequences such as seeking food or engaging in courtship before mating.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 786da6cf3324d241f987226363f82b0cac139374ddad7dedba33fb7ee2d2c0ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Appetitive Behavior” (D001070).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001070). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## appetitive stimulus
<a id="appetitive-stimulus"></a>

An appetitive stimulus is something that naturally attracts approach or consumption because it is experienced as rewarding or desirable. In the source example, normal salty fluid acted as an appetitive stimulus because it promoted intake, in contrast to highly concentrated salt solution, which became aversive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b4a11f950a44fe36179ecc86cf321c1fb35f921063071af3a36f79a7293db48

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Greenwood Michael P.; Greenwood Mingkwan; Paton Julian F. R.; Murphy David. Salt Appetite Is Reduced by a Single Experience of Drinking Hypertonic Saline in the Adult Rat. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0104802; article XML SHA-256 d09867083301aec7dde25e0f17fc4edd1972535619eccf864732e2444e9d0171. “Salt Appetite Is Reduced by a Single Experience of Drinking Hypertonic Saline in the Adult Rat” (10.1371/journal.pone.0104802).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0104802). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## applied behavior analysis
<a id="applied-behavior-analysis"></a>

Applied behavior analysis is the use of behavioral science to improve socially important problems, including behavior and learning difficulties. In people with intellectual and developmental disabilities, including autism, its methods may be organized as comprehensive or focused approaches.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 679e3157573b2eccdb6715086f6dfaed27415f393ecb00b63a35bf511229bc93

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Applied Behavior Analysis” (D000072357).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000072357). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## applied psychology
<a id="applied-psychology"></a>

Applied psychology is the branch of psychology that uses psychological principles to find more effective ways of handling real-world practical problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba74bfc622906c10bd70bd6f32619a9694ef48f9b41b24466e191a41eab7a274

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychology, Applied” (D011585).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011585). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## applied relaxation
<a id="applied-relaxation"></a>

Applied relaxation is a behavioral mental health technique that teaches people to notice early signs of tension or stress and relax quickly in response. It usually builds from progressive muscle relaxation practice toward using brief relaxation in imagined and real stressful situations, with the goal of carrying the skill into everyday life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3c1fc5ea62264610e373936773df4b635a0d8459198547b6cbd43db1d5b9f038

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Asselmann Eva; Zenker Monique; Rückert Frank; Kische Hanna; Pieper Lars; Beesdo-Baum Katja. Ecological momentary assessment and applied relaxation: Results of a randomized indicated preventive trial in individuals at increased risk for mental disorders. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0286750; article XML SHA-256 41acbe808881a49e6f46b8d54dcd46afa2ae4082bac53b9c667e60f4b0f3f0e2. “Ecological momentary assessment and applied relaxation: Results of a randomized indicated preventive trial in individuals at increased risk for mental disorders” (10.1371/journal.pone.0286750).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286750). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## appraisal
<a id="appraisal"></a>

Appraisal is a person’s evaluation of their own qualities or traits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dccdac09f1c3cbd3af904eca8fdfb5888c68ddd75e62a0128b0d02acffb8b6fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self-Assessment” (D012647).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012647). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## appraisal theory
<a id="appraisal-theory"></a>

Appraisal theory is a way of understanding emotion as a dynamic process that can be interpreted through appraisal models, such as the Component Process Model. In this view, changes in emotion over time can be linked to patterns in other responses, including physiological activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3851f08e48998ed3d7c3df50c3a8a9a8409453f9434e8f65889ee09c1e995f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barradas Isabel; Tschiesner Reinhard; Peer Angelika. Dynamic emotion intensity estimation from physiological signals facilitating interpretation via appraisal theory. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315929; article XML SHA-256 9a07a41d04a5c33c8ca65bad94ba1d8c8e688b6c89e29ce06e5eea03b68b0010. “Dynamic emotion intensity estimation from physiological signals facilitating interpretation via appraisal theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315929).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315929). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apprehension
<a id="apprehension"></a>

In historical psychology and philosophy, apprehension refers to a simple act of mind in which an object is directly grasped or brought before awareness. It can also mean the elementary awareness itself, or a simple belief or understanding, often contrasted with more complex thought such as judgment or comprehension.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7caa54a7fd60f94bb0c14a33cfb14c8a53911e0625b2288fdee5e52511e78510

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Apprehension” (Apprehension).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Apprehension). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apprenticeship
<a id="apprenticeship"></a>

Apprenticeship is the learning of a trade or craft through a contract in which a teacher or master can use the learner’s services for a set, often lengthy, period. Historically, it was shaped by medieval guild and monopoly laws and later lost many of its more restrictive features by the early 19th century.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 169fca2b480a8fec2ae7e9f3f239e9e26f120518c89dc98e92df6b5a681dc00a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Apprenticeship” (Apprenticeship).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Apprenticeship). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## approach motivation
<a id="approach-motivation"></a>

Approach motivation is a motivational state linked to moving toward or engaging with something rather than withdrawing from it. In the source packet, it is described as an affective form of motivation associated with approach actions and contrasted with avoidance motivation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 239603eec674048d85a610e124ee6d0720839ec3e6f985b048a0fc386ad6b711

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brookshire Geoffrey; Casasanto Daniel. Motivation and Motor Control: Hemispheric Specialization for Approach Motivation Reverses with Handedness. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0036036; article XML SHA-256 96c998830f41c89e5f92b40ecb5244738ca48f350d2bc301c76bd2b922a554fb. “Motivation and Motor Control: Hemispheric Specialization for Approach Motivation Reverses with Handedness” (10.1371/journal.pone.0036036).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036036). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apraxia
<a id="apraxia"></a>

Apraxia is a neurological disorder in which a person cannot carry out skilled movements even though they want to do them, have the physical capacity to move, and understand what action is required.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8601f3dd6be6634a0ed4a6102db367d1bb31f7a7d926ed888d6d6d989dd12169

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Apraxia” (C180557).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apraxia of gait
<a id="apraxia-of-gait"></a>

Apraxia of gait is difficulty walking that is not explained by loss of sensation or by muscle weakness. It can occur in association with conditions affecting the frontal lobes, basal ganglia, or some dementias.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b30a1b4a826c62164e74ecbfe6a6319775596a4e711289ab9977eff54291acd7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gait Apraxia” (D020235).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020235). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## apraxia of speech
<a id="apraxia-of-speech"></a>

Apraxia of speech, especially childhood apraxia of speech, is a motor speech disorder in which a person has trouble planning or programming the movements needed for speech. It can show up as inconsistent speech errors, difficulty moving smoothly between sounds or syllables, and problems with stress patterns in words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f048bac343975040806b1ac138f2998a93394bfbd366e75546cf4eea8e94cbbd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wong Eddy C. H.; Wong Min N.; Velleman Shelley L.. Clinical practice of childhood apraxia of speech in Hong Kong: A web-based survey study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0284109; article XML SHA-256 8999f6f6cdf550d2a91235d1871101d645676a2d6431e82b8057413cd93ab675. “Clinical practice of childhood apraxia of speech in Hong Kong: A web-based survey study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0284109).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284109). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aprosexia
<a id="aprosexia"></a>

Aprosexia is an inability to fix or hold attention. In historical psychology usage, it refers to a defect of attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b72a87328a86064db4e7f9ec0661a62f37e8d8c3988717f9e9d55ab201d807db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aprosexia” (Aprosexia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Aprosexia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aptitude
<a id="aptitude"></a>

Aptitude is a person's capacity to learn general or specific kinds of knowledge or skills.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7ea0934a8649f0b1f55f89825bd11b24e9aadc9687e784f5984cebdca481e62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aptitude” (D001076).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001076). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aptitude test
<a id="aptitude-test"></a>

An aptitude test is a standardized assessment used before college to measure a student’s abilities. Its results may be used as one factor in admission or eligibility decisions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2cfabf5f872defe25d4513dd88e08b397bf76a95edc9bc68063b564dcd0e0eed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sideridis Georgios; Jaffari Fathima. Aptitude measurement: is measurement validity compromised in the morning. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1210958; article XML SHA-256 c19db31fb3016539c55c63db18154657e6111f10981aba72916595b2d7c253b1. “Aptitude measurement: is measurement validity compromised in the morning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1210958).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1210958). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aptitude–treatment interaction
<a id="aptitudetreatment-interaction"></a>

Aptitude–treatment interaction is when the effect of a learning method depends on a learner’s characteristics or preferences, so the same treatment does not work equally well for everyone. In this packet, it refers to outcomes changing according to the match between text modality and the learner’s preferred modality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0f5003cab33bf5bb842a9bc8d5c49abedfcbbb2eec06b858957386b4501561a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lehmann Janina; Seufert Tina. The Interaction Between Text Modality and the Learner’s Modality Preference Influences Comprehension and Cognitive Load. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02820; article XML SHA-256 f88f4ad5d87db7b078322ebd89138ab6a07452035e500b2cb3aa80ae52eed32e. “The Interaction Between Text Modality and the Learner’s Modality Preference Influences Comprehension and Cognitive Load” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02820).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02820). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aqueduct of Sylvius
<a id="aqueduct-of-sylvius"></a>

The aqueduct of Sylvius is a narrow passage in the brain that links the third and fourth ventricles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1d72436b836ffdc8768cdfe475ba9afa850cf8b35a2a82aaa95ac78749c55651

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Aqueduct of Sylvius” (C32135).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AR model
<a id="ar-model"></a>

An AR model, here meaning a conditional Poisson autoregressive model, is a statistical time-series approach that uses earlier observations to describe how current count data vary over time. In this context, it is used to capture departures from an expected power-law pattern, such as changes in posting activity around social events.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14e14f92e9eae62cd99b0a89f6f99cb738af4313079791ed36fa9e6428a6ef32

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fujiyama Toshifumi; Matsui Chihiro; Takemura Akimichi. A Power-Law Growth and Decay Model with Autocorrelation for Posting Data to Social Networking Services. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0160592; article XML SHA-256 e7a073e3119c60b1d7c7dc04b8d023fa4c1d652ea733f07e784c5e2a9aab69c3. “A Power-Law Growth and Decay Model with Autocorrelation for Posting Data to Social Networking Services” (10.1371/journal.pone.0160592).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0160592). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## arachidonic acid
<a id="arachidonic-acid"></a>

Arachidonic acid is an essential unsaturated fatty acid found in human and animal fats, including the liver, brain, and glandular organs. It is made in the body from dietary linoleic acid and serves as a starting material for substances such as prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f507ee65a808e60c74aaa5b56a120af0d5e140243f20168f15105247aa1c2cf5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Arachidonic Acid” (D016718).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016718). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## arachnoid
<a id="arachnoid"></a>

The arachnoid is a thin membrane that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. It sits between the dura mater and pia mater, with a fluid-filled subarachnoid space separating it from the pia mater.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d98f0f1aec3d323424441008792cba68940fd6f852d4b75c3b976be5ad0e7ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Arachnoid” (D001099).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001099). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## arachnoid mater
<a id="arachnoid-mater"></a>

The arachnoid mater is a thin covering around the brain and spinal cord. It is located between the dura mater and pia mater, and a cerebrospinal fluid-filled subarachnoid space lies between it and the pia mater.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cdfdb6191781295f28b8e20d7ed6503169a4da6f187c0159fd029c92a07364c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Arachnoid” (D001099).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001099). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## arachnophobia
<a id="arachnophobia"></a>

Arachnophobia is a phobia focused on spiders. It can interfere with daily life by causing avoidance of activities or places where spiders might be encountered, such as outdoor settings or cellar rooms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7add6ca7d040bda77c1c2c542ebbc13843b8689a2948b19356c41c1abc248cb4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wriessnegger Selina C.; Kiatthaveephong Suktipol; Leitner Michael; Kostoglou Kyriaki. VRSPi: towards a neuroadaptive VR exposure therapy system for spider phobia. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1717588; article XML SHA-256 dcb8d4ed37d8ce2765c3390ff1b4d0ec8e8bae9197d51c4281ab5772cab4b1f7. “VRSPi: towards a neuroadaptive VR exposure therapy system for spider phobia” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1717588).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1717588). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## arbitration
<a id="arbitration"></a>

Arbitration is the voluntary settlement of a dispute by a neutral third person whose authority comes from the parties’ own agreement. It differs from ordinary court proceedings because the submission is by consent, although the parties may also ask the government to enforce the decision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8b2cb9291aa0668aa595f881c24fad8ad68e0cc333f819769066eaa0c776e4b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Arbitration” (Arbitration).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Arbitration). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## arborization
<a id="arborization"></a>

Arborization is the tree-like branching at the ends of the processes of a nerve cell, or neurocyte. The term refers to these terminal nerve-cell ramifications.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a7305cce4d7d1ff286fffa0389e47b0b5c979aff0cbb06145f5de14730a9faab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Arborization” (Arborization).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Arborization). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## archetype
<a id="archetype"></a>

Archetype is a historical philosophical term, from Platonic thought, for the perfect or absolute idea of a thing of a given kind. In this sense, it refers to an ideal original form rather than a particular example.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50870d6b81921536f4c5b49fc80fd9508303a6a0b841fc99235c6d9fa2f5440d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Archetype” (Archetype).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Archetype). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## architectonic structure
<a id="architectonic-structure"></a>

Architectonic structure is the anatomical patterning of the cerebral cortex, especially features such as how clearly its layers are formed. In primates, these structural properties vary along a smooth continuum across cortical areas rather than falling into only completely distinct areas or a fully uniform cortex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5ca61a54cc110c0d3d70024777f82186a1436366afc25d26708d7ec75f1d4f6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [John Yohan J.; Zikopoulos Basilis; García-Cabezas Miguel Ángel; Barbas Helen. The cortical spectrum: A robust structural continuum in primate cerebral cortex revealed by histological staining and magnetic resonance imaging. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnana.2022.897237; article XML SHA-256 d1aad320ef9201d60292ef247ca24037c936cf250faa793e194d4337991cb409. “The cortical spectrum: A robust structural continuum in primate cerebral cortex revealed by histological staining and magnetic resonance imaging” (10.3389/fnana.2022.897237).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnana.2022.897237). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## arcuate fasciculus
<a id="arcuate-fasciculus"></a>

The arcuate fasciculus is a white-matter pathway that connects Broca's area and Wernicke's area in the brain's dominant hemisphere. Damage involving this pathway and nearby structures is associated with conduction aphasia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 780d1bd4f5c1179f1b5b352392fe2ce082a4c4f9aab4a7cd8c38046bf6c445ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aphasia, Conduction” (D018886).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018886). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## arcuate nucleus
<a id="arcuate-nucleus"></a>

The arcuate nucleus is a group of nerve cells in the middle part of the hypothalamus, located very low along the third ventricle near the opening of the infundibular recess. Its cells are small and lie close to the ependymal lining.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5170df2cd3e1a3d85789bba2d458cc5f05730fe96393a8c1e474de6ab21b5318

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Arcuate Nucleus of Hypothalamus” (D001111).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001111). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## area postrema
<a id="area-postrema"></a>

The area postrema is a small structure on each side of the fourth ventricle in the medulla. It lies outside the blood-brain barrier and helps detect chemical signals that can trigger vomiting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d62cd2be089d407774faae2a0763f913e549aae5cf354abcd07fb895f2d019f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Area Postrema” (D031608).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D031608). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## area under the curve
<a id="area-under-the-curve"></a>

Area under the curve (AUC) is a summary number from a receiver operating characteristic curve that shows how well a test can distinguish between positive and negative cases. It can be understood as the chance that a randomly chosen positive case will have a higher test result than a randomly chosen negative case.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2462e8fec4a4062fae23eeba9e149b19f4d70c81377d4e100f194b839e102729

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Emir Busra; Can Fatma Ezgi; Kaymaz Elif; Ozel Zeynep; Efgan Mehmet Goktug; Tekindal Mustafa Agah; Elmali Ferhan. Sample size and power analysis for ROC AUC differences in diagnostic tests: a methodological evaluation of the Obuchowski-McClish and Hanley-McNeil methods. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12874-026-02768-6; article XML SHA-256 b2d5c786da80379d998b3f7d2f3364444f311cbcfdea137d88e55198e1699a53. “Sample size and power analysis for ROC AUC differences in diagnostic tests: a methodological evaluation of the Obuchowski-McClish and Hanley-McNeil methods” (10.1186/s12874-026-02768-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-026-02768-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## arecoline
<a id="arecoline"></a>

Arecoline is an alkaloid from betel nut, the fruit of the Areca catechu palm. It acts on muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and has been used for stimulant and parasympathomimetic effects, including veterinary use; it has also been used as a euphoriant in the Pacific Islands.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01670fe295eef60871503d7e89cca0a89fabd12b9e9029c442643f0841af9335

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Arecoline” (D001115).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001115). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## areflexia
<a id="areflexia"></a>

Areflexia is a finding in which neurological reflexes are completely absent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6351131989e67319d1728013798d055da3a43013f4691b6b987b9ad195c1600d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Areflexia” (C115420).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## argininosuccinic aciduria
<a id="argininosuccinic-aciduria"></a>

Argininosuccinic aciduria is a rare inherited urea-cycle disorder in which argininosuccinic acid builds up in body fluids and can cause severe excess ammonia in the body. It may begin in newborns with serious symptoms such as poor feeding, vomiting, lethargy, seizures, and coma, while later-onset forms are typically milder and may include irritability, behavioral problems, and delayed psychomotor development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 974935a04303eea1a46a54194dc78afe5bb3e2547f63bacd9eede1076a2ca686

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Argininosuccinic Aciduria” (D056807).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D056807). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## argument
<a id="argument"></a>

An argument is a piece of reasoning in which the connection between the supporting grounds and the conclusion is made explicit. Historically, the term could also mean a particular ground for a conclusion, including what was treated as the middle term in a syllogism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0dd7f3890dd6e01ce8e129f366ef6f8ee18ea159c101028ded68583c86dc727

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Argument” (Argument).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Argument). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## argument quality
<a id="argument-quality"></a>

Argument quality is the judged strength of an online review based on how informative and persuasive it seems. In this source, it refers to whether review content gives useful information and convincingly influences a person’s intentions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7352cda4301df7d2c96bba8ef7e57b4bfbfe517ee7f3215939e16936e7800be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Safeer Asif Ali; Abrar Muhammad; Zhou Yewang. Leveraging the potential of social media: Unveiling the influence of customer-generated photos on customer behavior. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330201; article XML SHA-256 6c3c3537d629e2b88e1eb429750a6f861ec23660aaa6e244794b1ac70c76abfc. “Leveraging the potential of social media: Unveiling the influence of customer-generated photos on customer behavior” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330201).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330201). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ARI
<a id="ari"></a>

ARI refers to a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor: a substance that blocks the return of norepinephrine, and sometimes epinephrine, into presynaptic nerve cells. This leaves more of the chemical in the synapse and increases adrenergic signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca0a307a1805d067ec46f8097ed60a5da110d65c4ad7af8dd5dfd996f35b149b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitor” (C185721).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aripiprazole
<a id="aripiprazole"></a>

Aripiprazole is a medicine used mainly as an antipsychotic. It is used in the treatment of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, and it can also be added to treatment for depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dff64f49d71fee970ea8a0a970d1cdc9fd5bf2f6bec490b773c2a89dd7707581

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aripiprazole” (D000068180).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000068180). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Aristotelian
<a id="aristotelian"></a>

In historical psychology and philosophy, Aristotelian refers here to Aristotle’s view that some knowledge is a direct grasp of its object rather than a judgment about it. In this usage, such simple apprehension or intuitive acquaintance is not the kind of act that can be true or false; only judgments are.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef8a893d7dbe8c1ce78e1d21334838a2925cbe76e9821632f15f20c3289adaf3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Apprehension” (Apprehension).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Apprehension). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Aristotle’s illusion
<a id="aristotles-illusion"></a>

Aristotle’s illusion is a tactile illusion in which a single object touched between crossed fingers is felt as if there were two objects. It is used to describe an alteration in how touch from adjacent fingers is perceived.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d26707229047a72207b2e5e24734f6dee939faced3363f9a4a83225fb86fa897

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fiorio Mirta; Marotta Angela; Ottaviani Sarah; Pozzer Lara; Tinazzi Michele. Aristotle’s Illusion in Parkinson’s Disease: Evidence for Normal Interdigit Tactile Perception. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0088686; article XML SHA-256 89cfe86041449a5bc2a107cd5a725be7a37dfbbe06869f4a5eb1c7c6fec80aac. “Aristotle’s Illusion in Parkinson’s Disease: Evidence for Normal Interdigit Tactile Perception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0088686).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088686). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## armamentarium
<a id="armamentarium"></a>

In this historical text, armamentarium means the stock of methods or therapeutic measures available to a practitioner or institution. It refers to the working range of treatments considered part of their medical resources.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a8ca36a412ca63eae0cfbdeaef29f66be1fd00481ac06109fab60ee76ea85b06

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-682500-694500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## armodafinil
<a id="armodafinil"></a>

Armodafinil is a synthetic stimulant that promotes wakefulness and affects the central nervous system. It is the R-form of modafinil and appears to raise dopamine levels in some brain areas by blocking dopamine reuptake.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 437964d374995e4aae99df7e4de12aa962527dcbd624cf21a248933e3751b7e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Armodafinil” (C65241).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## armoring
<a id="armoring"></a>

Armoring is a strategy of modifying CAR-T cells so they also express supportive immune signals such as cytokines, chemokines, or their receptors. In this context, it is used to strengthen how well the cells survive, enter tumors, and fight cancer, especially in solid tumors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1dd28d44c57d8c043909e5de5287c6f21bfc5c705e2e2ed87b76c5671d845fae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shi Hongtai; Li Andi; Dai Zhenyu; Xue Jiao; Zhao Qi; Tian Jiyuan; Song Dandan; Wang Hao; Chen Jianan; Zhang Xiaokang; Zhou Kaisong; Wei Huafeng; Qin Songbing. IL-15 armoring enhances the antitumor efficacy of claudin 18.2-targeting CAR-T cells in syngeneic mouse tumor models. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1165404; article XML SHA-256 7bc8d87764b3c46266c2a103df390c091ca8a4e1e324acb17a6c9e507438bb9e. “IL-15 armoring enhances the antitumor efficacy of claudin 18.2-targeting CAR-T cells in syngeneic mouse tumor models” (10.3389/fimmu.2023.1165404).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2023.1165404). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Arnold–Chiari malformation
<a id="arnoldchiari-malformation"></a>

Arnold–Chiari malformation is a group of congenital structural abnormalities affecting the brainstem, cerebellum, upper spinal cord, and nearby bones. Different types vary in severity and may involve downward displacement or herniation of brain tissue, and can be associated with symptoms such as headache, dizziness, swallowing problems, abnormal eye movements, breathing problems, and poor coordination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a877a3b4db357b0c2378ab08584fa48e9679978efbc6acd2089f7a3b5fdbcce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Arnold-Chiari Malformation” (D001139).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001139). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aromatase
<a id="aromatase"></a>

Aromatase is an enzyme that changes certain androgens into estrogens by aromatizing part of the steroid ring and removing the 19-methyl group. It is a membrane-bound enzyme found in estrogen-producing tissues including the ovaries, placenta, testes, adipose tissue, and brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce1082b59d22ca3da27981d33b8eb07a4ce40aaaddba46e9287dfc1c3b1c6da8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aromatase” (D001141).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001141). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aromatherapy
<a id="aromatherapy"></a>

Aromatherapy is the use of plant fragrances and essential oils to influence mood or behavior and support physical, mental, and emotional well-being. It is most commonly associated with alternative medicine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 658f1fe6a13379a6da483482c424f23eaa7720c38fbfed1d2baca5dea22463b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aromatherapy” (D019341).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019341). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase
<a id="aromatic-l-amino-acid-decarboxylase"></a>

Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase is a human enzyme protein made by the DDC gene. It helps convert amino acids into monoamine neurotransmitters.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a5e35da7075da664147d253463c11e5fe00c956eb5e34c955c39ece72cf4ac03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Aromatic-L-Amino-Acid Decarboxylase” (C128876).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## arousal
<a id="arousal"></a>

Arousal is a state of cortical alertness or readiness, understood as the brain being prepared to respond. In this source, it is described as arising from sensory input through the reticular activating system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5c1e775fa5745594ded6d7186c7199cb17223760e4747255482ba1acfc30598

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Arousal” (D001143).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001143). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## arousal system
<a id="arousal-system"></a>

The arousal system is a brain-stem system that activates the cortex. In this source, it is the system whose activation is linked to stimulant effects and may be associated with improved cognitive function in some settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6893b918c46b2475dcbc8fb62c6e79a6f6569384a8de6bfe3cb917b9e27beef0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Methylphenidate” (C62045).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ART
<a id="art"></a>

In this source, ART refers to art therapy. It is described as an adjunctive intervention for people with cancer that is used to support psychological well-being and quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b3f0fe4aba8b965fef9bf1feff838052f0c00895cda3ab6a776d92f1a4dda94

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Qianlu; Tao Yue; Huang Ying; Huang Bihong. Effects of different art therapies on the psychological well-being and quality of life in cancer survivors: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817092; article XML SHA-256 9d689417aac390b502b5224291187c10f2fe0b6770a3d6ecccc4d7d52ae57d98. “Effects of different art therapies on the psychological well-being and quality of life in cancer survivors: a systematic review and network meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817092).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817092). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## art therapy
<a id="art-therapy"></a>

Art therapy is the use of art as an additional form of therapy to help treat neurological, mental, or behavioral disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82793d3c9902e05750eb5d0be031daec68b110356d7177ff483cb07ae47d5d10

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Art Therapy” (D001155).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001155). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## arthritis
<a id="arthritis"></a>

Arthritis is inflammation in a joint. It can result from infection, autoimmune or degenerative processes, or trauma, and often involves joint pain and swelling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1946d824790a5e3071363b4b13b0a7bb3724b2a541cee4324a97cb3bd113d8b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Arthritis” (C2883).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## arthrogryposis multiplex congenita
<a id="arthrogryposis-multiplex-congenita"></a>

Arthrogryposis multiplex congenita is a congenital, non-progressive motor disorder marked by joint contractures and varying limb movement limitations, often without central nervous system involvement. In psychology and assessment contexts, it is used as a condition for examining how restricted movement—especially impaired hand use—may affect children’s cognitive development and intelligence test performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4fae37350da109c5a3295df6374f9fab62bdf86cf9271ae7a0817dfc87e8ae8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Koriakina Maria; Urentcova Anastasia; Burdukova Yulia; Agranovich Olga; Blagovechtchenski Evgeny. Characteristics of intellectual development in children diagnosed with arthrogryposis multiplex congenita. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1704823; article XML SHA-256 9e14f1198a4dfb0a1d8d573b179f30938f639d67c14cb95469e47628b8a42675. “Characteristics of intellectual development in children diagnosed with arthrogryposis multiplex congenita” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1704823).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1704823). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## articular sensation
<a id="articular-sensation"></a>

Articular sensation is the feeling that comes from movement within a joint or from pressure between its joint surfaces. In historical psychology, it was described as important for sensing limb movement, position, and resistance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 141803c513ce35baabf09314b0d1ee6a1a9e6ec31b7003e1e2e235f40a40b319

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Articular Sensation” (Articular Sensation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Articular Sensation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## articulation
<a id="articulation"></a>

Articulation, in vocal speech, is the coordinated action of the larynx and mouth that shapes or interrupts the flow of breath to produce distinct speech sounds. These sounds depend on both the noises made as breath passes the speech organs and the resonance created by the shape of the mouth and nose.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b73b0f41fc4fc031dcab708cb1110bd3ae72924e599ff6479f0e76f9b4fd643a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Articulation” (Articulation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Articulation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## articulatory suppression
<a id="articulatory-suppression"></a>

Articulatory suppression is a research method used to create verbal interference by having a person repeat syllables or words, aloud or subvocally, while doing another task. It is intended to block or reduce the use of inner speech or other verbal strategies, especially when studying phonological or language-related processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 21f3f51d050fd075c44458d15fce81d692a0466e49284fcdbc5aba6096686967

Sources:
- Drafting source: [De Livio Chiara; Gervasi Angelo Mattia; Falcinelli Ilenia; Fini Chiara; Maggio Fernando; Brozzoli Claudio; Borghi Anna M. Variability and methodological choices in articulatory suppression tasks: a review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736170; article XML SHA-256 19f1e587b8d0f5644da0c52819e12853b05e3e97a02bc6dfcf159501f510d79b. “Variability and methodological choices in articulatory suppression tasks: a review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736170).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736170). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## artifact
<a id="artifact"></a>

In EEG or ERP recording, an artifact is unwanted signal activity that comes from something other than the brain process being studied, such as eye movement during blinking. This kind of contamination can spread into recorded channels and distort the analysis of ongoing EEG and event-related responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67724fae3500bab78ca1ac2f035f94619a96e8c2e2154e3d2f864bdff024dab1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marques Abramov Dimitri; Galhanone Paulo Ricardo; Lazarev Vladimir V.; Ferreira Leite Miranda de Sá Antonio Mauricio. Conservative method for vertical electrooculogram attenuation based on local suppression of ongoing EEG artifact templates. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305902; article XML SHA-256 58fa50fa492613661ba6abeb2dae180769ee115be672d094803eaad5188d034d. “Conservative method for vertical electrooculogram attenuation based on local suppression of ongoing EEG artifact templates” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305902).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305902). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## artificial intelligence
<a id="artificial-intelligence"></a>

Artificial intelligence is the theory and development of computer systems designed to carry out tasks that usually require human intelligence. These tasks can include learning, reasoning, problem solving, decision-making, language translation, speech recognition, visual perception, and mathematical computing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db81c0ded82a73b2ee0e0bdac7a77c447a49547009cf4a1c77ab28d5d49ac873

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Artificial Intelligence” (D001185).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001185). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## artificial pupil
<a id="artificial-pupil"></a>

An artificial pupil is a set opening size used inside an optical or eye model to represent the pupil during image-quality testing. In this context, it refers to specified internal diameters used in simulations to compare lens performance under different pupil sizes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50de1275bedae012d0c6982f93d8683fd5a532cec25032b50c5cec57edb43783

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shimizu Kimiya; Kawamorita Takushi. Optical quality of Fresnel-structured hyperopic implantable collamer lenses: A ray-tracing analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345116; article XML SHA-256 877876e6c45664ea1af1ecc972c1d33108efd3b7e9b232475ff5b5eebad08182. “Optical quality of Fresnel-structured hyperopic implantable collamer lenses: A ray-tracing analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345116).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345116). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## artificial selection
<a id="artificial-selection"></a>

Artificial selection is the human-directed breeding of animals or plants to bring out preferred traits. It can be deliberate and planned, or it can happen indirectly when people keep more valued individuals and do not preserve less valued ones, leading traits to accumulate along chosen lines.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 670fec510d1adfa345784d8e18701eaee4013852f36576bd69a5c7712c24bec9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Artificial Selection” (Artificial Selection).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Artificial Selection). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ASA
<a id="asa"></a>

ASA refers to arylsulfatase A, a human enzyme made from the ARSA gene. It helps break down cerebroside sulfate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 830dfdb3898397a835c4df92546cae05442b7a08f9368bb6076c17c226508bec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Arylsulfatase A” (C103932).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## asana
<a id="asana"></a>

Asana is a yoga posture or pose. In this context, the same asana can look the same externally while being carried out with different internal patterns of effort and postural control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18c5b5e08459b7d44b42ab1bb600b2f79fdedd3de59a4788defd8e5334505451

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Phadke Leena; Boegle Reinhard; Bhavsar S N; Phadke Sanjay. Relaxation in action: enhanced vagal modulation during Virabhadrasana (a standing yoga-asana) despite orthostatic demand suggests efficient regulation of effort. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1887856; article XML SHA-256 fc7638422b7d3100e5ff9f881bc3251e8ed42b445f69369c2c584c40bb7cf656. “Relaxation in action: enhanced vagal modulation during Virabhadrasana (a standing yoga-asana) despite orthostatic demand suggests efficient regulation of effort” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1887856).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1887856). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## asb
<a id="asb"></a>

In this source, ASB refers to anti-social behavior in a higher education setting. It is used as the name of a measure concerning such behavior among students.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42e117512cbdbba6b3b2a517320f8447be574f696cb40dac38c138e24bfca4a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Afsharzada Mohammad Sajjad; Saadat Sajjad; Azizi Basir Ahmad; Talbian Wahidh. Validation of the multi-dimensional scale for Anti-Social Behavior in a higher education setting (ASB) in a sample of Afghan students. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05383-8; article XML SHA-256 e0966acaa0f011cf055655ebc993787d6fcf28b297b0d0f0523a4fd1e61c1e80. “Validation of the multi-dimensional scale for Anti-Social Behavior in a higher education setting (ASB) in a sample of Afghan students” (10.1186/s40359-026-05383-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05383-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ASC
<a id="asc"></a>

ASC is an eye-tracking measurement reported as useful in screening and diagnosis for autism spectrum disorder. In the source, it is described as one of several newer metrics linked with better sensitivity and specificity in identifying ASD.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2471ee71f84d0d22fb33a23f116b0e57a07130d29a9313e74bf12542a87cb3a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Raymond Kong; Kwong Kenneth; Liu Kevin; Kong Xue-Jun. New eye tracking metrics system: the value in early diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1518180; article XML SHA-256 dd6ff9de543eb269f5050a442b4247de64784c6372b0dd69d7ab9d1514222b8f. “New eye tracking metrics system: the value in early diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1518180).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1518180). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ascending pathway
<a id="ascending-pathway"></a>

An ascending pathway is a neural route that carries sensory information upward from the spinal cord to higher brain areas. In this study context, the dorsal column tract is described as the ascending pathway transmitting touch-related input toward the thalamus through the dorsal column–medial lemniscus system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2ec29c1cafa59e87bdcb1ed672f414a25d7ac16091924212dd6e096404db1f1d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shimoju Rie. Muscimol injection into the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus impairs tactile reward-seeking behavior but preserves affective vocalization in male rats. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351495; article XML SHA-256 3b9fbf8ceb3950db0fa969e32f36f3eabf13596c6f2d473669bf765b5dba58f1. “Muscimol injection into the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus impairs tactile reward-seeking behavior but preserves affective vocalization in male rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351495).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351495). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ascending reticular activating system
<a id="ascending-reticular-activating-system"></a>

The ascending reticular activating system is a central nervous system system involved in arousing the cortical and limbic parts of the brain. In the packet, reducing activity through GABA-A receptors in this system is described as blocking arousal and producing sedative and hypnotic effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50d2a27b0223fd0f12fd71f0539eb548f6aff331e2297e89666cfe2364b66e51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Flurazepam” (C62030).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ascending tract
<a id="ascending-tract"></a>

An ascending tract is a bundle of nerve fibers in the spinal cord that carries sensory information upward. In this source, it refers to a tract in the lateral part of the dorsal columns that conveys information from the upper half of the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c05cd9798d0d6bfc9d1e2f48e848669a06c21abe2597824eea4dd6c37508efc9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tract of Burdach” (C33798).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## asceticism
<a id="asceticism"></a>

Asceticism is a way of life that tries to achieve moral or spiritual aims through strict restraint of bodily appetites and worldly desires. It is presented less as a theory than as a practical discipline based on the view that a higher good stands in opposition to ordinary impulse and earthly interests.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db2668c9865cf0f4791c0afe86156359e374ad860241b0905e473aa45ea617d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Asceticism” (Asceticism (in ethics and philosophy)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Asceticism (in ethics and philosophy)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Asch situation
<a id="asch-situation"></a>

The Asch situation is a research setting in which a person faces pressure to go along publicly with other participants’ clearly incorrect answers. In this social context, the pull to conform can be experienced as socially threatening and may lead people to respond more cautiously or inhibit their usual behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c12259e599e15c7be47fe4297a88dd612b0098905732af156cfd8ce629f258b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van den Bos Kees; Lind E. A.; Bommelé Jeroen; VandeVondele Sebastian D. J.. Reminders of behavioral disinhibition increase public conformity in the Asch paradigm and behavioral affiliation with ingroup members. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00837; article XML SHA-256 80130984c5ebb9282085bfc3cdbdb38a41a1cb6421f36b6fd10e5b56c179127d. “Reminders of behavioral disinhibition increase public conformity in the Asch paradigm and behavioral affiliation with ingroup members” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00837).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00837). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ASD
<a id="asd"></a>

ASD stands for autism spectrum disorder, a neurodevelopmental disorder that begins in early childhood. It involves varying levels of difficulty with social interaction, along with restricted interests and repetitive or stereotyped behaviors, and its severity can differ greatly from one child to another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03efcae8e98ac512a7ba6c940dcc6f67344f037364e8d25d532877969a5e7f6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Shimei; Deng Liangqiong; Jia Xinyi; Lang Xiya; Diao Lianghui; Wang Yafei; Wen Pingjing. A masking effect of vitamin D on ASD symptom severity: mediation by developmental level and altered predictive features in vitamin D insufficiency. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1900932; article XML SHA-256 10599094ea275109724f94f053b2a002072d41e6ccd21eecfb81b012859f130a. “A masking effect of vitamin D on ASD symptom severity: mediation by developmental level and altered predictive features in vitamin D insufficiency” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1900932).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1900932). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## asemia
<a id="asemia"></a>

Asemia, or asemasia, is a broad historical term for losing the ability to produce or understand signs and symbols, including words, gestures, and other expressive acts. It extends the idea of aphasia beyond speech alone to any learned system used to convey thought or feeling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6758c357494002d13304d565725039a115bac9d94866ce7333fa2b911eb5a69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Asemia or Asemasia” (Asemia or Asemasia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Asemia or Asemasia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## asenapine
<a id="asenapine"></a>

Asenapine is an antipsychotic medicine, notable here as the only one described as FDA-approved in sublingual form. In the supplied source, it is reported to help positive, negative, and depressive symptoms linked with schizophrenia and to have relatively limited metabolic and extrapyramidal side effects compared with some other antipsychotics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 676855e2376f106685beecde8827ef143fec81db9429fc610dad9db8309b65cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wada Shuhei; Iwamoto Kunihiro; Okumura Hiroki; Hida Hirotake; Hiraoka Shuichi; Kamei Aya; Mori Daisuke; Yamada Kiyofumi; Ozaki Norio. Sensory evaluation of the bitterness of asenapine using D-sorbitol pretreatment: single-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-04664-5; article XML SHA-256 8e746c94afc69231d96c908cb2394451d87402504b107bd1c0c278cbac626998. “Sensory evaluation of the bitterness of asenapine using D-sorbitol pretreatment: single-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial” (10.1186/s12888-023-04664-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04664-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ASEP
<a id="asep"></a>

ASEP is a research project on assisted suicide in Germany. It is designed to build and share scientific knowledge about current practice by drawing on the experiences of practitioners and family members.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c819298e98203d392bb982e3b73d1f66c2df43e46800e689139850747df0f1ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schwabe Sven; Herbst Franziska A.; Stiel Stephanie; Schneider Nils. Suicide assistance in Germany: A protocol for a multi-perspective qualitative study to explore the current practice. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311880; article XML SHA-256 a6fa149072db7069728a48599dbc9cac0be276cb67c11286502b48f9d1e76c97. “Suicide assistance in Germany: A protocol for a multi-perspective qualitative study to explore the current practice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311880).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311880). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aseptic meningitis
<a id="aseptic-meningitis"></a>

Aseptic meningitis is inflammation of the membranes around the brain and spinal cord that occurs without a bacterial cause.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd0693012b38c831bae48ee112c09d5769d48e63be9334e2b370243e5d24d976

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Aseptic Meningitis” (C118299).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ASL
<a id="asl"></a>

ASL is a functional MRI method for measuring blood flow in the brain. It does this by using magnetically labeled water as a tracer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4be7d99bb16ba48ab4af05d08c4df08cf518a755c6b7fa75f7c2043523b918af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Arterial Spin Labeling Magnetic Resonance Imaging” (C116450).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## asonia
<a id="asonia"></a>

Asonia is a historical term for tone deafness: a hearing defect in which a person does not hear sounds of certain pitches even though lower or higher tones may still be heard. It refers specifically to a defect of pitch hearing rather than to total deafness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 754e92ea7ca23fd0262c9aee03adcfc2e2e454ccd1a8a82d2b936a1027b8544a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hearing (defects of)” (Hearingd).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Hearingd). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aspect
<a id="aspect"></a>

In aspect-level sentiment analysis, an aspect is the specific word or term in a sentence that the analysis focuses on. It is the particular target whose related sentiment is identified separately from the rest of the text.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a659aa32056b49f22de4b1ce9707d80ecd82cf1b17c982e77472127cdcd49393

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lou Xiaoye; Liu Guangzhong; Xu Yangshuyi. MSDC: Aspect-level sentiment analysis model based on multi-scale dual-channel feature fusion. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328839; article XML SHA-256 71224d7c795264dbcf9fa33262cd34c240c10f4a02fc27d3abda78a29819a874. “MSDC: Aspect-level sentiment analysis model based on multi-scale dual-channel feature fusion” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328839).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328839). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Asperger’s disorder
<a id="aspergers-disorder"></a>

Asperger’s disorder is a childhood-onset condition marked by ongoing difficulty with two-way social communication and interaction, along with restricted and repetitive behaviors, interests, or activities. These features can interfere with everyday functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ab6c4cd47e3e9bc6cef33cf333dbadd49ab45e09b1d0dbf08d650db290d262e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Asperger Syndrome” (D020817).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020817). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aspiration
<a id="aspiration"></a>

In this historical Christian-ethics sense, aspiration means a strong inner striving produced by faith, expressed either as a deep desire for reconciliation with Christ or a firm resolve to live a Christian life as fully as possible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d962c4669bd5f10a4c13cdbae6435a8fbcacea87357a54fc4b6c202067e4a5f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aspiration” (Aspiration).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Aspiration). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ASR
<a id="asr"></a>

ASR refers to the Adult Self-Report, a questionnaire used with adults aged 18 to 59 to gather information directly from the person about behavioral and emotional problems. In this assessment system, its results are compared with age- and sex-based norms and include scales such as internalizing, externalizing, substance use, critical items, and total problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a2615a199335c331e81c9c3572ad76d0376fb724fd59a2c263e60ca2dfc3aa6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment-Adult Self-Report and Adult Behavior Checklist” (C165713).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## assault
<a id="assault"></a>

In mental health contexts, assault refers to a serious harmful act such as a physical or sexual attack that a person may experience or witness. Such events can be traumatic and are among those linked with later PTSD.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59163ecd7f7e3c1bebb3028d9213dba21918fbf160a9ab0019cdf43352ed7cd9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 26e67ff4f086c205fb75853bb73fb562d4a3adcbc6d53b78fdbc83f945b4f1ba. “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assertion
<a id="assertion"></a>

Assertion is the ability to state one’s needs, preferences, and opinions in social situations while staying engaged with other people. It is a socially grounded way of expressing oneself that differs from aggression, which puts the self above others, and from passivity, which hides or suppresses one’s own needs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4724af725224d066d7e126869d7e1ded52ef5de97b4adfd2ea63e4f135c12d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hirai Mika; Lamborn Susie D.. Situational self-assertion in self–other dilemmas among young adults in five cultures: negotiations between self and others. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766805; article XML SHA-256 5bbdf4639319f5b6387bb0e8c291e2ae5ba4ca1ca96130f9fca7d88aecd6f737. “Situational self-assertion in self–other dilemmas among young adults in five cultures: negotiations between self and others” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766805).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766805). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assertive community treatment
<a id="assertive-community-treatment"></a>

Assertive community treatment is an intensive community-based mental health approach developed in the context of deinstitutionalisation that provides frequent, practical support in everyday settings and over extended service hours. In the reviewed literature, it was used for people with serious and persistent mental illness and was associated with lower emergency department use and better social or psychosocial functioning, although effects on symptoms were more limited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a1e91808f16389ed5f85f179b6162a59ef4dfb1c7237c57c68cd961d03f710e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [von Berg Vanessa; Heng Hazel; Sayeed Md Shapin Ibne. Assertive community treatment for adults with complex mental illness and emergency department use: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1837300; article XML SHA-256 19b5a03254916a9f0fe2af7649e42435052c790490250ca53f447f8b913e60ea. “Assertive community treatment for adults with complex mental illness and emergency department use: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1837300).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1837300). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assertiveness
<a id="assertiveness"></a>

Assertiveness is the learned ability to express one’s opinions, needs, and feelings clearly while respecting oneself and the social situation. In psychology and skills training, it is treated as part of socially effective communication, though overly direct expression can sometimes be seen as aggressive or inappropriate depending on the context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59e9c0b4cecbd998ff9c3751d99e1f438095be8d19768dbb33cfe301d109e57a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ito Daisuke; Okabe Yushun; Nobushige Aya; Saito Seiko; Takahashi Yoshinari. Functional assertiveness with acceptance and commitment therapy for employees returning to work: a preliminary investigation. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1415212; article XML SHA-256 bcd00a3a0b2bf0c5b4e99747d01cb36f0c75c7d379fe36950b1b6fce548bc8b9. “Functional assertiveness with acceptance and commitment therapy for employees returning to work: a preliminary investigation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1415212).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1415212). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assertiveness training
<a id="assertiveness-training"></a>

Assertiveness training is a behavioral learning approach used to strengthen interpersonal relationships by teaching socially appropriate behavior and helping people express their opinions and needs clearly. In practice, it emphasizes self-expression while taking the social situation and other people into account so communication remains effective rather than seeming aggressive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce54b0f1ea9ef454327fcbbaacf85570fb3b9c05743a9ccc204c79fef89e4e0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ito Daisuke; Okabe Yushun; Nobushige Aya; Saito Seiko; Takahashi Yoshinari. Functional assertiveness with acceptance and commitment therapy for employees returning to work: a preliminary investigation. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1415212; article XML SHA-256 bcd00a3a0b2bf0c5b4e99747d01cb36f0c75c7d379fe36950b1b6fce548bc8b9. “Functional assertiveness with acceptance and commitment therapy for employees returning to work: a preliminary investigation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1415212).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1415212). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assessment
<a id="assessment"></a>

Assessment is the clinical process of evaluating a patient’s condition in a structured way, such as establishing a baseline, asking direct questions, and following up over time. In this context, it helps distinguish problems that were present before treatment from difficulties that emerged during treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5845a419caab851f2358403c6b63ec8d24f8802eb397df077af211a375a8d54

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Siladji Djendji; Maletin Nemanja; Denda Nikola; Knežević Milica; Paut Kusturica Milica; Kuljančić Dušan; Rašković Aleksandar. Sexual dysfunction associated with antidepressants and antipsychotics: a structured narrative review of mechanisms, assessment, and personalized management. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1865752; article XML SHA-256 72627f115aa7a2478cabbef3a1522010634eac07d52d08ab7ae591a04d02ae2f. “Sexual dysfunction associated with antidepressants and antipsychotics: a structured narrative review of mechanisms, assessment, and personalized management” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1865752).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1865752). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assessment center
<a id="assessment-center"></a>

An assessment center is a personnel selection setting or procedure in which candidates are evaluated in person, including through cognitive testing and observation of their behavior. In this context, it is used to make selection decisions and raises concerns about fairness when testing conditions are altered.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7b8650af2357aef484ca54c9da7ece341705ea4b17ef60bd577e38cfca052a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zinn Frank; Mittelstädt Justin Maximilian. Effects of face masks on fairness in on-site personnel selection during a pandemic. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1168311; article XML SHA-256 9cac6b5ddc76486d39e1215a9a3496632580ae8b265d7163742a82571d310efb. “Effects of face masks on fairness in on-site personnel selection during a pandemic” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1168311).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1168311). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assessment instrument
<a id="assessment-instrument"></a>

An assessment instrument is a tool used to evaluate a person’s condition or level of risk by considering relevant factors. Its quality depends in part on whether it includes appropriate factors and shows good acceptability, usability, and content validity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b50d3e7b094184bdef680359e2780eaa562b004ae4f87e7e97e5d59a49913144

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Coleman S; Nixon J; Keen J; Muir D; Wilson L; McGinnis E; Stubbs N; Dealey C; Nelson E A. Using cognitive pre-testing methods in the development of a new evidenced-based pressure ulcer risk assessment instrument. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12874-016-0257-5; article XML SHA-256 3ae198e45e9d91ad140a2cfd7f3feee041405856deb282f950acb3fadb49b78c. “Using cognitive pre-testing methods in the development of a new evidenced-based pressure ulcer risk assessment instrument” (10.1186/s12874-016-0257-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-016-0257-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## assessment of intelligence
<a id="assessment-of-intelligence"></a>

Assessment of intelligence is the effort to measure a person’s mental ability in a reliable and objective way. In the supplied source, it is described mainly as estimating mental speed, such as how quickly someone processes information during simple cognitive tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8dd127f66af20de7d0851019c2a41efd474343ffdd913f0e686b700c35c4147d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maksimenko Vladimir A; Runnova Anastasia E; Zhuravlev Maksim O; Protasov Pavel; Kulanin Roman; Khramova Marina V; Pisarchik Alexander N; Hramov Alexander E. Human personality reflects spatio-temporal and time-frequency EEG structure. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0197642; article XML SHA-256 cc0ded8f121ffe784a075d5cb5c62b5c8f0c3266e29580654a495732be619b84. “Human personality reflects spatio-temporal and time-frequency EEG structure” (10.1371/journal.pone.0197642).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197642). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assisted death
<a id="assisted-death"></a>

Assisted death refers to a practice in which a physician helps bring about a person’s death, usually in the context of severe suffering and a voluntary wish to die. In this packet, it is discussed as a legally and ethically disputed issue, especially when the suffering is linked to psychiatric disorder rather than physical illness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03bc1c2f7e3f51c075186beacb0373473ac9aa640282dedd86acab5da3ad8762

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Veen SMP; Widdershoven GAM; Beekman ATF; Evans N.. Physician Assisted Death for Psychiatric Suffering: Experiences in the Netherlands. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.895387; article XML SHA-256 8d4d4bcbe42281108f5ecc5e9653e55e897f56520ab61573119ae454752c8caf. “Physician Assisted Death for Psychiatric Suffering: Experiences in the Netherlands” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.895387).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.895387). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assisted reproductive technology
<a id="assisted-reproductive-technology"></a>

Assisted reproductive technology is a group of medical procedures used to help people conceive when spontaneous conception is difficult or unsuccessful. In the psychology literature, it is discussed not only as a fertility treatment but also as an experience that can involve significant emotional strain, including anxiety during treatment and around pregnancy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 02b39222d7e1453069b7f962a129dbe9a25889aa630ba21be132d150129e9335

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Davies Nicole L.; Carson Lauren; Keynejad Roxanne C.. Anxiety symptoms following conception through assisted reproductive technology: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1709200; article XML SHA-256 c215900fc9a8524bfdd86c4f81f160bacc472aba26dc7fd14be073adc2d14e3b. “Anxiety symptoms following conception through assisted reproductive technology: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1709200).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1709200). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assisted suicide
<a id="assisted-suicide"></a>

Assisted suicide is when a health professional, family member, or friend provides help or the means for a person to end their own life. The final act is carried out by the person who dies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 63fe1d5b592bf8491998b0b074a6279d744ab5b12d8f08a0521a39f9a0d82181

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Suicide, Assisted” (D017236).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017236). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assistive device
<a id="assistive-device"></a>

An assistive device is a wearable aid, such as an ankle-foot orthosis or exoskeleton, that helps support or improve a person’s movement. Its effects depend not only on the device itself but also on how forces and motion are transmitted through the body’s soft tissue where the device contacts the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3688cb94a2d7ffb1040224a23ddfedb6a92ec1de7b5c36e57151afe73f202976

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Scherb David; Weidner Robert; Wartzack Sandro; Miehling Jörg. Integrating the behavior of biological soft tissue into musculoskeletal simulation for the design of wearable assistive devices. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1781987; article XML SHA-256 74d5cb3028e7f592262052c4bb69784ca2eb1e01e5a26dd5a830879170c6077b. “Integrating the behavior of biological soft tissue into musculoskeletal simulation for the design of wearable assistive devices” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1781987).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1781987). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assistive technology
<a id="assistive-technology"></a>

Assistive technology refers to devices that are not attached to the body and are made to help people with musculoskeletal or neuromuscular disabilities carry out movement-related activities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ace6708f3f43e7d8c1717f0542a6ec03b570d15c7af780ed0031d2aae84a5ccd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self-Help Devices” (D012656).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012656). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## associated movement
<a id="associated-movement"></a>

In this historical usage, associated movement means the pupil’s contraction that normally occurs along with focusing on a near object and converging the eyes. The passage contrasts this associated pupillary action with the light reflex, noting that one may be preserved when the other is lost.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f49bc8f36c897c188d75176ac20d7e4db2165aff015bfeef648f41e3ef725890

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2835000-2847000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## association
<a id="association"></a>

Association is a mental link between psychological experiences or ideas in which one tends to bring the other to mind. It can also mean the process through which that link is formed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98086582cbc919c428242ca7bcd58f0110fa7d898d8f5141e77066d6354a3ef5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Association” (D001244).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001244). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## association by contiguity
<a id="association-by-contiguity"></a>

Association by contiguity is the linking of mental contents because they occur at the same time or in immediately successive moments, so that one can later call up the others. In associationist thought, repeated pairings by this kind of nearness in time help simple experiences combine into more complex ideas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b23f566208f6b98a648c8ac0ffe2fe6dfc2653f800ce93f9ec3cdd45544b7b14

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Associationism” (Associationism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Associationism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## association cortex
<a id="association-cortex"></a>

Association cortex refers to areas of the cerebral cortex involved in linking and processing sensory information rather than just responding to a single simple input. In this packet, it includes visual and auditory association areas and multimodal regions that couple information across different senses during perception and conditioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 638c5c609d8e25e3c4047f58e640a804b6b69058732fbf1cffb97b6bbf2946f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meyer Martin; Baumann Simon; Marchina Sarah; Jancke Lutz. Hemodynamic responses in human multisensory and auditory association cortex to purely visual stimulation. 2007; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-8-14; article XML SHA-256 1b57445e1fb9dc79d507561c24f9ff0fa4954623d2e59c685e02c0c7b7c4c52c. “Hemodynamic responses in human multisensory and auditory association cortex to purely visual stimulation” (10.1186/1471-2202-8-14).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-8-14). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## association fiber
<a id="association-fiber"></a>

Association fibers are bundles of nerve pathways that link different areas of the brain’s cortex within the same hemisphere. They provide an important anatomical basis for many higher cognitive functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 642da4f96f2f9dc7d573f9baf0cba4fe3045297225fd9a9d3d5d9dfd93dc4819

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mitter Christian; Prayer Daniela; Brugger Peter C.; Weber Michael; Kasprian Gregor. In Vivo Tractography of Fetal Association Fibers. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0119536; article XML SHA-256 e41b30b4cb94ce49a6dca1c62d0c6696637bedac7449c73133da3ba79696bb03. “In Vivo Tractography of Fetal Association Fibers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0119536).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0119536). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## association of ideas
<a id="association-of-ideas"></a>

Association of ideas is the learned linking of two or more mental contents through experience, so that the return of one tends to bring back the others. In historical psychology, this linking was described as occurring through relations such as similarity, contrast, or closeness in experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7252fa5f34690aa863e8b3d2a9cc6ee8459dfdad25167f00822657365c651106

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Association (of ideas)” (Association (of ideas)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Association (of ideas)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## association-reaction time
<a id="association-reaction-time"></a>

Association-reaction time is the reaction interval in a task where a spoken word starts a chain of associations, and the person then makes an agreed motor response after that associative process is finished. It is a more complex form of reaction time than a simple reflex-like response because it includes the time taken by the central associative process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b7378578e3524203d91cc67e097a67b44bf5442827ea8f322f040436a8b1db8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2362500-2374500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## association study
<a id="association-study"></a>

An association study is a research approach that tests whether certain traits or groups, such as people with a condition versus controls, differ in how often particular genetic variants or chromosomal regions appear. In this packet, it refers especially to genome-wide association methods used to look for genetic links with autism-related phenotypes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 48641a54df19e6bfb26941d92c6173c9ddff27f0170e95860a1036112b0225b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ueno Fumihiko; Takahashi Ippei; Ohseto Hisashi; Onuma Tomomi; Narita Akira; Obara Taku; Ishikuro Mami; Murakami Keiko; Noda Aoi; Matsuzaki Fumiko; Metoki Hirohito; Tamiya Gen; Kure Shigeo; Kuriyama Shinichi. Deep-embedded clustering by relevant scales and genome-wide association study in autism. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322698; article XML SHA-256 3addb58aca195994e5e4f216afe1cbc63dca75423c87d4c2bc16f0eef265e569. “Deep-embedded clustering by relevant scales and genome-wide association study in autism” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322698).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322698). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## associationism
<a id="associationism"></a>

Associationism is a historical psychological theory that explains mental life as developing mainly from the joining together of simple basic elements of consciousness according to laws of association. In this view, even apparently new or complex mental products arise from combinations of elements already present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 91398e49dea919eb1793e521e56082fc6a2f35218362bea255a4a9a280225dd8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Associationism” (Associationism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Associationism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## associative law
<a id="associative-law"></a>

The associative law is the rule that when three terms are combined, changing the grouping does not change the result. In the passage, this is stated for both logical addition and multiplication: (a + b) + c equals a + (b + c), and (ab)c equals a(bc).

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 902bc23ea35399f40185c17e3694f4f07d243e4d17d202d50254d805adb0d8e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3633000-3645000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## associative learning
<a id="associative-learning"></a>

Associative learning is the idea that when things are experienced together, they become linked in the mind, so that one can bring back or trigger the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 79755e2d292310ff9ea2571d86ce748cb3c5c20547a2faa47d5295b8b48516e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Association Learning” (D001245).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001245). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## associative memory
<a id="associative-memory"></a>

Associative memory is the ability to connect separate pieces of an experience so they can be remembered together. It is an important part of memory function and can be affected by aging and some pathological conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eba3ae91fc14d86893e23ab6cfcc13cc640424d4619ac8d4610463f3c78d4b27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Juras Luka; Martinčević Marina; Konstantinović Uroš; Filipović Saša R.; Vranić Andrea; Bjekić Jovana. Multi-session tDCS over the posterior parietal cortex and associative memory. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318593; article XML SHA-256 f033b12e6b2cdcea2ee495f6fbfb69442ea635cb26aa41ce9308bdc5aa64bbcf. “Multi-session tDCS over the posterior parietal cortex and associative memory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318593).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318593). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## associative strength
<a id="associative-strength"></a>

Associative strength is the learned pull a stimulus has because of its history of reinforcement versus non-reinforcement. In transitive inference tasks, it refers to choosing based on how often each stimulus has been rewarded rather than on a mentally inferred order or hierarchy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7b138b0c51775b7d1bf01b7a8370d8616a6457f5395cb62406f6465b7d57cb83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Giurfa Martin; Lee Silvia; Macri Catherine. Honey bees rely on associative stimulus strength after training on an olfactory transitive inference task. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1529460; article XML SHA-256 f40e6fe32ba59ce3bb88877c2039f46d0b14b0da4402514cefbdcf896632273b. “Honey bees rely on associative stimulus strength after training on an olfactory transitive inference task” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1529460).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1529460). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assonance
<a id="assonance"></a>

In historical psychiatric writing, assonance refers to a pattern of thought in which ideas are linked mainly by similarity of sound between words rather than by meaning. One word prompts another that sounds like it, and this can contribute to apparently incoherent speech.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36b5e1e3f0a74111aef80bb9ebb25e7d7d5a350192877395edb0bccd6b579680

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-210000-222000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assortative mating
<a id="assortative-mating"></a>

Assortative mating is a pattern in which individuals with similar traits are more likely to mate with one another. In the source context, it can arise indirectly when individuals with similar characteristics choose the same habitat and then mate within that shared setting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5ee3b0d7e86d691af928b35dbbb2eeafc9d59d278762349a5f4ac323199a8405

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Peralta-Rincón Juan Ramón; Aoulad Fatima Zohra; Prado Antonio; Edelaar Pim. Phenotype-dependent habitat choice is too weak to cause assortative mating between Drosophila melanogaster strains differing in light sensitivity. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0234223; article XML SHA-256 5f4196a5dde4651490ed926424d51f97036bea6386598c5e70f9ab3192db6d10. “Phenotype-dependent habitat choice is too weak to cause assortative mating between Drosophila melanogaster strains differing in light sensitivity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0234223).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0234223). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## assumption
<a id="assumption"></a>

In historical logic, an assumption is a proposition treated as true for the sake of an argument. The source also presents it as a broad category that includes postulates and hypotheses, and notes that earlier Latin logicians used the term for the minor premise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e4596ecb774f63973451a2eaad1fd47ecde227287990689c44b2ff8b617cb02

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Assumption” (Assumption).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Assumption). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## astasia
<a id="astasia"></a>

Astasia is a historical term for a form of static ataxia: an unsteadiness in maintaining a position rather than in making a movement. In this source, it refers specifically to inability to hold the arm extended steadily.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48931ef47f028003fcf671858a2987c9106b283473643f363ac2b0af3364a65d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ataxia” (Ataxia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Ataxia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## asthenia
<a id="asthenia"></a>

Asthenia means a lack or reduction of strength or vitality, producing a general state of debility. In historical usage, it can also appear in compound terms such as neurasthenia to mean reduced nervous vigor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea020d4bd2b29d5d2ae0ea4c6e69eed19890fb2d4b6766f31349cccc68e3d7ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Asthenia” (Asthenia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Asthenia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## asthenopia
<a id="asthenopia"></a>

Asthenopia is visual weakness in which the eyes tire easily, especially because the muscles used for focusing or moving the eyes are prone to fatigue. It may arise from strain or weakness in those eye mechanisms, or as part of a more general bodily disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b76d631a923ecc6e439695964cd4001b073d8eba8696b80290bf1efa514fde02

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Asthenopia” (Asthenopia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Asthenopia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## astigmatism
<a id="astigmatism"></a>

Astigmatism is a defect in the eye’s refracting system in which light from a single point is not focused to a single point on the retina. In regular astigmatism, this commonly happens because a refracting surface such as the cornea is unevenly curved in different directions, so lines in different orientations are not seen equally clearly at the same time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d6f555459fcedc1a90e31ee31440dc75b2f11bc6e0bd4585672b568295d7095

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Astigmatism” (Astigmatism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Astigmatism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## astroblastoma
<a id="astroblastoma"></a>

Astroblastoma is a rare glial tumor linked to rearrangements of the MN1 gene on chromosome 22q12.1. It is usually found in the cerebral hemispheres of children and young adults and is more common in females.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b2cf6613347270eeb03a0ec699d8ffbf4cfb952960201647112d50f5806d1df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Astroblastoma, MN1-Altered” (C4324).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## astrocyte
<a id="astrocyte"></a>

An astrocyte is a type of neuroglial cell in the central nervous system. Astrocytes are varied specialized cells that help support its structure, function, and internal balance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66777b2375d2b075854ea484546fbd79c766c94fb12ba5a8c1fcdd2dd152b2eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Astrocyte” (C12477).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## astrocytoma
<a id="astrocytoma"></a>

An astrocytoma is a tumor of the brain or spinal cord that develops from glial cells. These tumors can range from relatively less aggressive forms to highly malignant ones, and they commonly occur in the cerebellum in children and in the cerebrum in adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 662da5d25cbfeaa0c2fab8241240d99efa34c1be6dcc82d039a0dccbdef6eff5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Astrocytoma” (D001254).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001254). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## astrology
<a id="astrology"></a>

Astrology is a belief system that uses the positions and movements of stars and planets to interpret or predict events in human life and the world.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b2eb0736bb9ccdf631eceac93039da98785b8aac74a6c1eacc97c4a58b46c359

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Astrology” (D001255).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001255). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## asymbolia
<a id="asymbolia"></a>

Asymbolia is the loss of the ability to create or understand expressive signs or symbols. In historical usage, the term was also sometimes used more broadly as a synonym for aphasia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 581f6ebb256d9e4c10d8ae9b11e86f7f43249eea95f076f90f11cfa453c4116a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Asymbolia” (Asymbolia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Asymbolia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## asymmetry
<a id="asymmetry"></a>

Asymmetry is a lack of visual balance or proportional match between structures on opposite sides. In a biological context, it refers to one side not appearing the same as the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f7c80faf5581a5802053bf5473c096a335a511c71a7c133eed5c83f9f99e9e21

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Asymmetry” (C28025).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## asynchrony
<a id="asynchrony"></a>

Asynchrony is a lack of timing alignment between events or signals. In this packet, it refers to auditory and visual information being presented at different times rather than simultaneously, a timing gap also called stimulus onset asynchrony.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cdf364803abfcad0226578e496f180f0dcd5622033420402fdcf9fe4e8c26713

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Arabian Ali; Goodridge Courtney M; Merat Natasha. Asynchrony of directional auditory warnings and visual information in hands-on SAE level 2 automated vehicles: Analysis of driver responses. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336941; article XML SHA-256 b40c0f3e44ea2b217ddfddc9e63a937eb5c21018c06d717b9f97aa7f1d97aafc. “Asynchrony of directional auditory warnings and visual information in hands-on SAE level 2 automated vehicles: Analysis of driver responses” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336941).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336941). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## asynergia
<a id="asynergia"></a>

Asynergia is defective muscular coordination due to a failure of central coordination in the nerve processes involved. In this historical usage, it refers to parts not working together properly, as in some disturbances of speech.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 29c7a906fdb5ddcfca5f7c0ee37f88e234c30c0f61aa10bc088f5bbed0383bd4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Asynergia” (Asynergia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Asynergia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## at-risk mental states
<a id="at-risk-mental-states"></a>

At-risk mental states are clinical states in which a person is identified as having an increased risk of developing psychosis, often before full psychotic symptoms are present. The term is used in early detection and prevention work because this risk phase can include subthreshold symptoms and may precede a first psychotic episode.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 879dd2ac133317f97f02ad3f381bee8d60b8dae6f7c6d6e8497b346088b716ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barajas Ana; Mauri Luis; Cid Jordi; Gutiérrez Enrique; Calvo Ana; Lalucat Lluis. Detection of psychosis risk: reliability and validity of the Spanish version of the Comprehensive Assessment of At-Risk Mental States interview (CAARMS-S). 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1726125; article XML SHA-256 5d69a4a1ae71c7f53ed19a35b7e5dc0906325544133b9642a1e6491335ad47f2. “Detection of psychosis risk: reliability and validity of the Spanish version of the Comprehensive Assessment of At-Risk Mental States interview (CAARMS-S)” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1726125).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1726125). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ataque de nervios
<a id="ataque-de-nervios"></a>

Ataque de nervios is a culturally specific syndrome described among Latinos, marked by a feeling of losing control, often with intense crying or shouting. It usually occurs briefly in response to a stressful event, especially involving family, and is linked with social vulnerability as well as depression and anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd1dfef3bb4751e1a87329d35e0bdfe8ec04f98c1562b4fec6fd2e8365b3b9ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lerman Ginzburg Shir; Lemon Stephenie C.; Romo Eric; Rosal Milagros. Social support and strain and emotional distress among Latinos in the northeastern United States. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s40359-021-00544-3; article XML SHA-256 c8a0f68da6c28447bb1c401f6f9c5e2e85bb29cacdae6611cb5359c1e974bcb9. “Social support and strain and emotional distress among Latinos in the northeastern United States” (10.1186/s40359-021-00544-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00544-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ataraxy
<a id="ataraxy"></a>

Ataraxy is a state of mental calm or imperturbability. In the Pyrrhonian tradition, it is the repose of mind sought by the wise person and is said to arise from suspending judgment about things.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54efd1b67cbea6fafc9eb4d048602b7ad034049c5b41adcb3c60ef18be7a392a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2299500-2311500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## atavism
<a id="atavism"></a>

Atavism is a reversion to an earlier or more primitive ancestral type, shown when traits from distant forebears reappear through heredity after not being present in the immediate line. The term was also used historically for traits reemerging in an individual or group from earlier ancestral mixing, though such cases were noted as not always easy to separate from ordinary variation or environmental effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d28f54dc2c19b70aca0e969fa785613b2e7417f761ceb7002aa21fab0e09ba2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Atavism” (Atavism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Atavism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ataxia
<a id="ataxia"></a>

Ataxia is a problem with making voluntary movements smooth and well coordinated. It can affect the limbs, trunk, eyes, throat, voice box, and other body parts, and may arise from problems in sensory or motor function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9409f499fb7a25b31593654dbca85a8fe37b78a1a4605b8dc248c02f77cb3ec6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ataxia” (D001259).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001259). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ataxia telangiectasia
<a id="ataxia-telangiectasia"></a>

Ataxia telangiectasia is an inherited autosomal recessive disorder that begins in childhood and involves worsening problems with coordination from cerebellar ataxia, abnormal involuntary movements, slurred speech, and visible small widened blood vessels in the eyes and skin. It also includes reduced B- and T-cell immune function and unusual sensitivity to ionizing radiation, with increased risk of repeated sinobronchopulmonary infections and certain cancers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 586ab59f1323c642b98a45d342483d4e9a40b7e4ab7c935a3e4b8e0863544f93

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ataxia Telangiectasia” (D001260).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001260). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ataxic speech
<a id="ataxic-speech"></a>

Ataxic speech is a type of dysarthria, meaning a speech-motor disorder pattern within a clinical classification of abnormal speech. In this context, it refers to one of the recognised speech feature clusters used to describe speech problems seen in neurological disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8167f9fd66e8fb29892cfbc736f5b4388e14c8b564c6121a6f1f76a7fcc4add

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Campi Marta; Peters Gareth W.; Toczydlowska Dorota. Ataxic speech disorders and Parkinson’s disease diagnostics via stochastic embedding of empirical mode decomposition. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0284667; article XML SHA-256 19d99a31fc79756b73c856d429fffa9f7e93e51db047075bb5f3d2f1c32aefae. “Ataxic speech disorders and Parkinson’s disease diagnostics via stochastic embedding of empirical mode decomposition” (10.1371/journal.pone.0284667).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284667). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## atherosclerosis
<a id="atherosclerosis"></a>

Atherosclerosis is a long-lasting inflammatory disease of the blood vessels. In this condition, stress in the endoplasmic reticulum appears to be an important regulator of vascular injury and is linked with oxidative stress and immune-related processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a056fec29c475119d4a9d04d752dbe1ea0428b4a24128dcbb028217ffea4fb03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qu Xiaomeng; Shao Yiming; Li Han; Bao Yuhan; Sun Zhen; Yu Shuhua. Screening and comprehensive analysis of endoplasmic reticulum stress-related biomarkers in atherosclerosis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350047; article XML SHA-256 cc0ed005d40ce4f129681a115a7de3f1fbf4542a1f7bd85f97c76dcbd40c2ed0. “Screening and comprehensive analysis of endoplasmic reticulum stress-related biomarkers in atherosclerosis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350047).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350047). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## athetosis
<a id="athetosis"></a>

Athetosis is a movement disorder marked by difficulty keeping the fingers, toes, tongue, or other body parts still, causing ongoing slow, writhing, flowing involuntary movements. It often occurs together with chorea, and can appear in basal ganglia disease or as a result of drug toxicity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6955edda52e332132574be7dbef753f2042357d6968490fca51709b66aedd7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Athetosis” (D001264).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001264). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Athletic Coping Skills Inventory
<a id="athletic-coping-skills-inventory"></a>

The Athletic Coping Skills Inventory is a sport psychology measure used to assess athletes’ psychological regulation skills for handling competitive demands. In this context, it relates to abilities such as focusing attention, coping with adversity, setting goals, and managing pressure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c6f77a36006d67248530367bf299410bd49b15078e166b035d703b9e62ea842

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Jiarong; Omar Dev Roxana Dev; Yaakop Nurhidayah. Trait mindfulness, psychological skills, and mental toughness in paddleboard athletes: A correlational study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354427; article XML SHA-256 82e98e40b29df4e83b113f8f0909de96c75f838689bb101738d8931011b497c7. “Trait mindfulness, psychological skills, and mental toughness in paddleboard athletes: A correlational study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354427).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354427). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## athletic type
<a id="athletic-type"></a>

Athletic type refers to a sports-related or sport-like mechanism of injury. In this packet, it means injuries considered consistent with athletic trauma and is estimated indirectly using cases grouped under falls and other exposure to mechanical forces when a specific sports-injury category is not available.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 55f3464d139eee1c923655e9e45ce461cf06e98b2bb97c2595a8459c0731967c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alkhatatbeh Tariq; Alkhatatbeh Ahmad; Chen Weidong; Fang Hang; Liao Yan; Cheng Jingyang; Liang Hao; Liang Zhilin; Chen Hao; Huang Wenyan; Fang Zijie; Zhang Rongkai. Global burden of athletic-type knee dislocation in young adults: a GBD 2021 proxy-based analysis, 1990–2021. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fphys.2025.1692607; article XML SHA-256 74ccb0aa92548d87ef4a7153a2dc4df0b828efd398a1a5fbbee32fac64fc23b2. “Global burden of athletic-type knee dislocation in young adults: a GBD 2021 proxy-based analysis, 1990–2021” (10.3389/fphys.2025.1692607).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2025.1692607). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## athymia
<a id="athymia"></a>

Athymia is an old historical term for low spirits or loss of courage, used to mean dejection, despondency, or melancholia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 92ba1671aad80af7ba9726a959011959b1af6195583ad55a8656be044516ee78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-598500-610500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## atonia
<a id="atonia"></a>

Atonia is a lack of tone, described here as part of a languid state marked by listlessness and unwillingness to exert oneself. It may be accompanied by feelings of fatigue, weakness, or faintness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae231221ed88ba1e4ef0990eb040310dd4c48a27d95c3a351078ffe21b6c2197

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Languor” (Languor).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Languor). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ATP
<a id="atp"></a>

ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, is an adenine-containing nucleotide with three phosphate groups attached to its sugar portion. It has essential roles in metabolism and also acts as a neurotransmitter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48ea0307290dc36a592e240278562e3506ec39077b63052e935c1e36b61f9f6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Adenosine Triphosphate” (D000255).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000255). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## atrial flutter
<a id="atrial-flutter"></a>

Atrial flutter is a cardiac rhythm disorder, grouped with atrial fibrillation as one of the more common heart-rhythm problems. In the mental-health context of this source, it is discussed because stress and personality traits may be related to how it develops and how it progresses clinically.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a2eaaa33208496e8d290c72e170033193fac5de907d1db6561f2b24b907afb2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Falenta Adrianna; Przytocka Natalia; Droździok Natalia; Florek Szymon; Suchodolski Alexander; Piegza Magdalena; Szulik Mariola; Kalarus Zbigniew; Gorczyca Piotr; Dębski Paweł. An analysis of the relationship of selected personality traits on perceived stress in patients undergoing ablation for atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1681576; article XML SHA-256 6435dd9fbf1b2bcc2a92f732ea84e39b6d4d76f3a0ec8a8146f258cf6de66b3d. “An analysis of the relationship of selected personality traits on perceived stress in patients undergoing ablation for atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1681576).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1681576). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## atrophy
<a id="atrophy"></a>

Atrophy is a decrease in the size or working power of a bodily organ or mechanism caused by disuse, injury, or disease. In historical evolutionary usage, it also referred to the shrinking of an organ or tissue because it had become useless or had been replaced in function by another organ.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 56d9fb00179808b30e2c8648e81fad9472547148db7aab902235e3efc44d7923

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Atrophy” (Atrophy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Atrophy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attachment-based intervention
<a id="attachment-based-intervention"></a>

An attachment-based intervention is a mental health intervention designed to strengthen attachment security in infants. In this packet, it refers to an approach being studied to see whether it has specific effects on infant attachment security and related maternal and child outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b767c5defac68a822098d89c4dc5b5f7ab8e4a80ff2dce4e7629f3153d35974a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ramsauer Brigitte; Lotzin Annett; Mühlhan Christine; Romer Georg; Nolte Tobias; Fonagy Peter; Powell Bert. A randomized controlled trial comparing Circle of Security Intervention and treatment as usual as interventions to increase attachment security in infants of mentally ill mothers: Study Protocol. 2014; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-14-24; article XML SHA-256 add3d46a15362d9f23f79e5aa5c79c29efda9079e5bdff1e5005cd067b728e05. “A randomized controlled trial comparing Circle of Security Intervention and treatment as usual as interventions to increase attachment security in infants of mentally ill mothers: Study Protocol” (10.1186/1471-244x-14-24).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-14-24). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attachment behavior
<a id="attachment-behavior"></a>

Attachment behavior is the pattern of responses shown in relation to a primary attachment figure, especially how an individual reacts to that figure’s presence versus separation. In this source, it refers to behaviors linked to close social bonding that begin in infancy and can remain associated with social behavior in adulthood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ebb9af5d731ee9e463c0ed3179df5af18276a923f57a91826bf38a8ee651f88

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Savidge Logan E.; Bales Karen L.. An Animal Model for Mammalian Attachment: Infant Titi Monkey ( Plecturocebus cupreus ) Attachment Behavior Is Associated With Their Social Behavior as Adults. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00025; article XML SHA-256 36e6c3c1428dc4d73267e3f489639fcb277ef9e563e14f09c5d2e02a8f935b37. “An Animal Model for Mammalian Attachment: Infant Titi Monkey ( Plecturocebus cupreus ) Attachment Behavior Is Associated With Their Social Behavior as Adults” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00025).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00025). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attachment bond
<a id="attachment-bond"></a>

An attachment bond is a well-established, complex affectionate relationship that can be understood as a form of attachment. In this source, it refers to the emotional tie between a dog and a human owner.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6642358538b8a3f2952244351ea64ad04d2920599bc4793ef69168ad87e929c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Siniscalchi Marcello; Stipo Carlo; Quaranta Angelo. "Like Owner, Like Dog": Correlation between the Owner's Attachment Profile and the Owner-Dog Bond. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0078455; article XML SHA-256 4dea7740e34d1f87d12c8c5eaeb4637c3001cad824fd96f1e6d87091ee894091. “"Like Owner, Like Dog": Correlation between the Owner's Attachment Profile and the Owner-Dog Bond” (10.1371/journal.pone.0078455).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0078455). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attachment disorder
<a id="attachment-disorder"></a>

Attachment disorder is a childhood condition linked to difficulties in prosocial social behavior. A reactive attachment disorder involves inhibited, emotionally withdrawn behavior and is typically associated with problems in prosocial behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 88de60ad4c8c99c449764321ce979819bf058a1678c99e784f1ba7e4f89ec235

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cuyvers Bien; Vervoort Eleonora; Bosmans Guy. Reactive attachment disorder symptoms and prosocial behavior in middle childhood: the role of Secure Base Script knowledge. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12888-020-02931-3; article XML SHA-256 19957a91e05b104a25b30122815e8a4c16a0e1aea611f0439beac946b49d0c75. “Reactive attachment disorder symptoms and prosocial behavior in middle childhood: the role of Secure Base Script knowledge” (10.1186/s12888-020-02931-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02931-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attachment style
<a id="attachment-style"></a>

Attachment style is a way of describing how a person relates in attachment terms, often using labels such as secure, avoidant, anxious, or fearful-avoidant. In this source, it is treated as a dimensional, changeable pattern rather than a fixed type, shaped by life experiences, emotional regulation, and social context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a5dfa3ca5247f4dbc4419aa4246e624b1d8127a993f057bf481a0d479b339266

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mizrahi Dor; Laufer Ilan; Zuckerman Inon. Improving attachment style clustering with ROCKET and CatBoost: Insights from EEG analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331112; article XML SHA-256 1e8010f50185a9c74f532e112927841cd287fa65815994ebb569c7f820f71e46. “Improving attachment style clustering with ROCKET and CatBoost: Insights from EEG analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331112).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331112). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attack behavior
<a id="attack-behavior"></a>

Attack behavior is aggressive action directed at another individual, used in this source as a measure of increased aggression after traumatic or stressful experience. In the study context, it refers to recurrent or excessive attacking that can persist over time and is linked to activation of brain circuits involving the medial amygdala.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7bfc2799f8d0606391bc4420e8b64575e27d14b3d89fe61f0a362ca102402b90

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mojahed Nooshin; Adjei Magdalene; Qasem Elana; Aaflaq Sophia; Adu Temitope; Jacobs Jessica T.; Richardson Ben D.; Nordman Jacob C.. Acute social defeat during adolescence promotes long-lasting aggression through activation of the medial amygdala. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2024.1433993; article XML SHA-256 9369888aae5845aad56b88e9d52353903ea1ee75a8771adf1acec7bee5fd2316. “Acute social defeat during adolescence promotes long-lasting aggression through activation of the medial amygdala” (10.3389/fnins.2024.1433993).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2024.1433993). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attempted suicide
<a id="attempted-suicide"></a>

In this historical source, attempted suicide means an act in which a person has tried to kill himself. The passage treats it as something to ask about in assessing a disturbed person, including the means used and any stated motive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 310fa8dca81b0ecbbf17904cb2031d6238e0e81e02246a928ec13b891a2f6d87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1018500-1030500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attendance
<a id="attendance"></a>

In this learning context, attendance means how regularly a student is present at school over time. Low or irregular attendance can act as an early warning sign of broader difficulties affecting the student, family, school, or community.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d88584b327a434dcd63a50e1c2bcf46a944f0f747eabf03f9b5da07bda369f4c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Turner Jasmine S.; Kyobutungi Victo; Ayozu Hellen; D’Sa Nikhit; Jordans Mark J. D.. Increasing school attendance and retention in refugee settings: Participatory development of the SchoolLinks intervention. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357215; article XML SHA-256 90a3061b93aa286211e8d71ccf35b2740205b35611567c1cd9a18f9003880936. “Increasing school attendance and retention in refugee settings: Participatory development of the SchoolLinks intervention” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357215).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357215). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Attention
<a id="attention"></a>

Directing your mental focus toward some parts of an experience while leaving others in the background.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26360fea7aeb1a31fc03ecd2c1e5dd373c05efc5fcb0f23f20770f05fdb3e949

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Attention” (D001288).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001288). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attention decrement
<a id="attention-decrement"></a>

Attention decrement is a reduction in attentional capacity during a sustained task, meaning a person shifts from full attention to a lower-attention state. In the source, it was indicated by slower reaction times later in the task than earlier.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef7559afb7f5a8912d22b0b35e7f4f4562dd121417fb5811c7c96e0b166cf1a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Derosière Gérard; Dalhoumi Sami; Perrey Stéphane; Dray Gérard; Ward Tomas. Towards a Near Infrared Spectroscopy-Based Estimation of Operator Attentional State. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0092045; article XML SHA-256 4b2569ef37cb15b07bb7a58bd4dacda189d9ebb013dfcf4e63891ab6df295b80. “Towards a Near Infrared Spectroscopy-Based Estimation of Operator Attentional State” (10.1371/journal.pone.0092045).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0092045). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
<a id="attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder"></a>

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is a diagnosis marked by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactive-impulsive behavior that does not fit the person’s developmental level and significantly disrupts functioning in at least two settings, such as home and school. Recognized presentations include combined, inattentive/distractible, and hyperactive/impulsive types.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17613b20a90f9282898b94e4661683f1bb6b84b480d4f63b9b16a168adf88ed8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder” (C97160).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attention disorder
<a id="attention-disorder"></a>

Attention disorder refers to difficulties with maintaining attention over time and across tasks. In the packet, it is described as ADHD, a neurodevelopmental disorder involving a lasting pattern of inattention, hyperactivity-impulsivity, or both that disrupts functioning or development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c31912a7e001d878bebe45486ecabfded4431dbf963428e45be2effd6472d68f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zamboni Daniela; Snyder Vicki. Behind the thinking of attention disorder. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1358405; article XML SHA-256 f144663d6ea76b33edc1fc5037d44d46e49990e7ab2584d0963f5462dc496245. “Behind the thinking of attention disorder” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1358405).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1358405). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Attention
<a id="attention-mesh-d001288"></a>

Attention is the mental process of focusing on some parts of what is happening in the present while leaving out other parts. It involves noticing, heeding, or concentrating on what is selected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 750ceafeeb84a1bbcfef6099ce12dcf36fd814484f6b2a6202a573bedc5448fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Attention” (D001288).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001288). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Attention Network Test
<a id="attention-network-test"></a>

The Attention Network Test is a task paradigm used to measure how efficiently key attention systems work, especially alerting, orienting, and executive control. It typically uses cues and target–flanker trials to separate these aspects of attention by comparing performance under different cueing and conflict conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f9041d736d7e1372d9d35063fe384ca6560f64830166750179729276328ae2d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Han Tianfang; LaCroix Arianna N. Testing the effect of stimulus onset asynchrony on auditory attention using the attention network test. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1726700; article XML SHA-256 a1efc110f4bd9b2cba5ddc94188870f293f62737b85185093c779c77ae48bf10. “Testing the effect of stimulus onset asynchrony on auditory attention using the attention network test” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1726700).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1726700). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attentional blink
<a id="attentional-blink"></a>

Attentional blink is a brief drop in visual attention during a rapid stream of visual items. After someone notices one target, their ability to detect a second target is reduced for the next few hundred milliseconds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a61a3a3fcf41580d971b88dcc39096b264b10a1c7f7a869ceae275db1fc467ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Attentional Blink” (D054518).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D054518). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attentional capture
<a id="attentional-capture"></a>

Attentional capture is the shifting of attention toward a new or noticeable stimulus even when it is not relevant to the current task. In this context, emotionally important stimuli can gain priority and draw processing resources, sometimes guiding attention automatically.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6fd1a5cef44313245aae6af60c67afdf3eb5330c97a3b4053a1553f1c8c88c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Jiacheng; Jia Lin; Wen Suxia; Jia Yadi; Li Guangxin; Liu Hongli. The influence of emotional feedback material type on attentional capture at different presentation times. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0310022; article XML SHA-256 823f4deadd484ce5d911ba4e8ac0c42fa942c6a411c24f617f1d0f36947a1eba. “The influence of emotional feedback material type on attentional capture at different presentation times” (10.1371/journal.pone.0310022).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310022). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attentional focus
<a id="attentional-focus"></a>

Attentional focus is where a person directs attention while performing a movement or skill. In this context, it commonly refers to focusing either on the effects of the movement in the environment (external focus) or on the body’s own movements (internal focus).

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98d67481f85f9294b4a8ca2d84ced89ed519b6ef53fce5a28ba7d8eb9b387264

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Starzak Marcin; Niźnikowski Tomasz; Biegajło Michał; Nogal Marta; Arnista Weronika Łuba; Mastalerz Andrzej; Starzak Anna. Attentional focus strategies in racket sports: A systematic review. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285239; article XML SHA-256 64da810794c7773ad036651df821e059946a6593a36c0b1ba7f5e2307b8c0cee. “Attentional focus strategies in racket sports: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285239).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285239). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attentional narrowing
<a id="attentional-narrowing"></a>

Attentional narrowing is a reduced scope of attention in which a person focuses more tightly on emotional information rather than taking in a broader range of cues. In the source packet, it is described as being linked to negative emotion, and more generally as decreased visual attentional breadth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e39bd35a33ad04f37f12df4fcf5cf5e92534cfb895836e80394f8f3e8d8f6c5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Boelens Elisa; Van Beveren Marie-Lotte; De Raedt Rudi; Verbeken Sandra; Braet Caroline. Are Emotion Regulation Strategies Associated With Visual Attentional Breadth for Emotional Information in Youth?. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.637436; article XML SHA-256 adf1f997ef66f22d97a6a46812fdbb3a166b7f2c3897631cf4412b666397c42b. “Are Emotion Regulation Strategies Associated With Visual Attentional Breadth for Emotional Information in Youth?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.637436).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.637436). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attentional strategy
<a id="attentional-strategy"></a>

An attentional strategy is a habitual way of directing selective attention to certain kinds of information during perception or processing. In the source packet, it refers to how speakers tend to focus more on particular speech features, such as segments or tones, often reflecting patterns carried over from their dominant language.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f0dd9524b6cf783c9586143bf1dc01509c17b9563eb572201bca5e7bfc37f05

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Yi; Ning Jinghong. The Effect of Language Dominance on the Selective Attention of Segments and Tones in Urdu-Cantonese Speakers. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.710713; article XML SHA-256 df5969304b7a5e09cf50e8f422193b2036a514c47a7fbb2183c98186a5fdf997. “The Effect of Language Dominance on the Selective Attention of Segments and Tones in Urdu-Cantonese Speakers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.710713).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.710713). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attentiveness
<a id="attentiveness"></a>

Attentiveness is the inward focusing of consciousness on a stimulus or idea so that it becomes more clearly perceived. In this historical account, it involves an active mental adjustment to the strength and kind of what is being noticed, often accompanied by a felt sense of effort or strain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1761381b88dbb2c0d1324f59cdb4914e588b3e490ccf748a8806810044f15350

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attenuated positive symptoms
<a id="attenuated-positive-symptoms"></a>

Attenuated positive symptoms are milder, residual forms of positive psychotic symptoms that can remain after a schizophrenia episode, rather than full delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech or behavior. In the packet, odd beliefs are given as an example.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 422fd305acf789e5f86527955b6e8f1ebe5a0cbef9f5b1cff296f74c6a01f458

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Residual Type Schizophrenia” (C35007).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attenuated psychotic symptoms
<a id="attenuated-psychotic-symptoms"></a>

Attenuated psychotic symptoms are reduced-intensity psychotic-like experiences that emerge in people considered at ultra-high risk for psychosis. In this context, they are used as part of identifying increased risk and often occur alongside worsening day-to-day functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a1e2aa505a1ae34bc2ac4b71ed1997ea56890b514742f1c60ba4dfbbf2a891e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lim Keane; Lam Max; Huang Hailiang; Liu Jianjun; Lee Jimmy. Genetic liability in individuals at ultra-high risk of psychosis: A comparison study of 9 psychiatric traits. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243104; article XML SHA-256 7cf8936105a0b3b3ea12e4375f20c3148efb49822110524f8101d8849f904240. “Genetic liability in individuals at ultra-high risk of psychosis: A comparison study of 9 psychiatric traits” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243104).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243104). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attitude
<a id="attitude"></a>

An attitude is a relatively lasting, learned tendency to respond in a consistent way toward a particular kind of thing or situation. It can also mean a continuing state of mental or neural readiness to react to something as it is perceived or understood, rather than simply as it is.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d89c1f331620fb6a617b64330b7b1a637df26428ea7c4c107aca95991949dcdb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Attitude” (D001290).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001290). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attitude change
<a id="attitude-change"></a>

Attitude change is a shift in a person’s stated attitude, such as after acting in a way that goes against their original view. In cognitive dissonance research, this change is commonly studied after counter-attitudinal behavior and is linked to emotions, with more positive emotions and fewer negative emotions associated with greater change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b358788c0fe04123fe41c9fe4d171a9629c696e96d26a27027c5f9b20397a33d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cancino-Montecinos Sebastian; Björklund Fredrik; Lindholm Torun. Dissonance reduction as emotion regulation: Attitude change is related to positive emotions in the induced compliance paradigm. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209012; article XML SHA-256 7f30c9fa1a6843049da3d09a73566dfd087c21a2bedf419d6e7f201a014e14e6. “Dissonance reduction as emotion regulation: Attitude change is related to positive emotions in the induced compliance paradigm” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209012).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209012). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attitude object
<a id="attitude-object"></a>

An attitude object is the person, thing, idea, or other target that someone forms an attitude about. People’s attitudes toward an object can be based on past experience with it or, when it is unfamiliar, constructed in the moment from feelings and thoughts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ca8e7eaf7b8316d0cdfc49bfaff06e2b82490462b4ca87c05928ac25f19e7c48

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Giesen Roxanne I.; Fischer Arnout R. H.; van Dijk Heleen; van Trijp Hans C. M.. Affect and Cognition in Attitude Formation toward Familiar and Unfamiliar Attitude Objects. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0141790; article XML SHA-256 dbce8a8fdbed12f35abea5c79a5850b750a5f051eb9da8b14f6f2af20fd2380f. “Affect and Cognition in Attitude Formation toward Familiar and Unfamiliar Attitude Objects” (10.1371/journal.pone.0141790).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141790). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attitude strength
<a id="attitude-strength"></a>

Attitude strength is the degree to which an attitude functions as a strong or weak guide for behavior. A stronger attitude is more predictive of what a person does, whereas a weaker attitude is less behavior-guiding and may be more shaped by the person’s own behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb933484edde93dc191ba0b5ff2ee4e00b3705ec2769ce3a479f9632ae79e2ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ziegler Rene; Schlett Christian. An Attitude Strength and Self-Perception Framework Regarding the Bi-directional Relationship of Job Satisfaction with Extra-Role and In-Role Behavior: The Doubly Moderating Role of Work Centrality. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00235; article XML SHA-256 3a05b23603fd049e028c1f3a8c1804d4f9187aa8c1b1ade1d7f098ba8043c6ed. “An Attitude Strength and Self-Perception Framework Regarding the Bi-directional Relationship of Job Satisfaction with Extra-Role and In-Role Behavior: The Doubly Moderating Role of Work Centrality” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00235).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00235). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attitude survey
<a id="attitude-survey"></a>

An attitude survey is an assessment tool made up of questions or items used to measure people’s attitudes toward a particular subject, such as school science. In this context, it refers to an instrument designed to be easy to understand and administer while providing dependable measurement of those attitudes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 909966d935b3fcc26f8282b8458737a2f2c9dc22f5b97e5020f64af832beb959

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Toma Radu Bogdan; Meneses Villagrá Jesús Ángel. Validation of the single-items Spanish-School Science Attitude Survey (S-SSAS) for elementary education. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209027; article XML SHA-256 694b08f876bba6add0bc49141fef3519082f9cfd94d3aa00d1b672ec7c71aadc. “Validation of the single-items Spanish-School Science Attitude Survey (S-SSAS) for elementary education” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209027).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209027). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attractor dynamics
<a id="attractor-dynamics"></a>

Attractor dynamics refers to the tendency of a changing system to be pulled toward some states and away from others over time. In plain language, it describes repeated patterns that persist despite ongoing disturbances, with the most likely states showing relative stability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 24859b355d42f03639530d4937be1a4d7723a741ffc7858af7c1b8646d5a50b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Butner Jonathan E.; Wiltshire Travis J.; Munion A. K.. Modeling Multi-Agent Self-Organization through the Lens of Higher Order Attractor Dynamics. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00380; article XML SHA-256 8ef41d1b503ca2580f2274b73b72d77ea5980cd2fd3c349d2be82ce583d59d7e. “Modeling Multi-Agent Self-Organization through the Lens of Higher Order Attractor Dynamics” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00380).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00380). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attribute
<a id="attribute"></a>

An attribute is an essential characteristic of a being or substance, something so basic that the thing cannot be conceived without it. In logic, the term may also be used for a predicate, while using it for just any property is described here as a loose and incorrect usage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b87cd1810a1f0a80432b73469cc50a4a4cb4943b23ad6098a7076a245e394c26

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Attribute” (Attribute).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Attribute). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attrition
<a id="attrition"></a>

Attrition is a historical term for sorrow about wrongdoing that comes from a relatively lower motive, such as fear of its future consequences. It contrasts with contrition, which refers to a fuller or higher degree of remorse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 24ed22482c0fbd7ea35cf4905ccc64eebf14f70435908e43e8b8c97dc6cb1a70

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Attrition” (Attrition).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Attrition). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## attunement
<a id="attunement"></a>

In counselling ethics, attunement means a therapist’s sensitive, moment-to-moment awareness of the client’s needs, the purpose of what the therapist is doing, and the context of the therapeutic relationship. In this sense, ethical and effective decisions depend on staying closely responsive to these factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48cadf029603b6a6163b0e9c46b526e3ddbd57eee6d171c8f753a23fea793053

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jeffery Danielle. Therapist self-disclosure: a systematic review and brief person-centered framework for clinical practice and training. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1869955; article XML SHA-256 da0c5b76face12dfb8c0abd154558431c69472555f7750b6a366baa8067cd1af. “Therapist self-disclosure: a systematic review and brief person-centered framework for clinical practice and training” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1869955).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1869955). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## atypical
<a id="atypical"></a>

In this context, atypical refers to a type of antipsychotic medication. These medicines may be prescribed to help reduce symptoms of disruptive mood dysregulation disorder in children or adolescents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1866dd54c706ccaeb5da43b328c187189e723679c54d0a130e36944f7a0e2f28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 2f1e06df6de4eaffe8d6a05ad39220c840ff0b6e8aaec6f86c36cc150507fdf3. “Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## atypical antipsychotic
<a id="atypical-antipsychotic"></a>

An atypical antipsychotic is a medication used to treat mental and behavioral disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. In this source, these medications are also noted as a possible cause of drug-induced neutropenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f96a362a4ef36424dc629d670288bd3938fc36d017227ffcf5a52f27f7aca5b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Swain Courtney A.; Robbs Emily J.; Verma Lindsay; Brandt Heaven; Seppaenen Alexandra L.; Cavnar Peter J.. Characterization of the atypical antipsychotic drug aripiprazole cytotoxicity in the neutrophil model cell line HL-60. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318878; article XML SHA-256 1aa664746e55d4d676335921e076d42080dc9543706aa9d8c6c90135e6dd9da2. “Characterization of the atypical antipsychotic drug aripiprazole cytotoxicity in the neutrophil model cell line HL-60” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318878).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318878). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## atypical depression
<a id="atypical-depression"></a>

Atypical depression is a form of depression in which mood can improve in response to positive events, alongside features such as increased appetite, oversleeping, heavy feelings in the limbs, and long-term sensitivity to rejection from others. It is also often seen together with weight gain and other metabolic and inflammatory changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc6b57d0dfcabf03883922c24ac64dd6d096eafb5a4b62ad29be764227704a7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cuaranta Ignacio. Chrononutrition interventions for mental health: addressing atypical depression, ultra-processed food use disorder, and circadian dysregulation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1603595; article XML SHA-256 692c16436221133531dd82e5d5407edac4b451f7ae8ba2e4710319da4f998679. “Chrononutrition interventions for mental health: addressing atypical depression, ultra-processed food use disorder, and circadian dysregulation” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1603595).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1603595). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AUC
<a id="auc"></a>

AUC stands for area under the curve, a statistical summary that combines a series of measurements from one person into a single value. In clinical pharmacology, it is often used to represent total drug exposure over time and to compare how available the same drug is across different products.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9669e9e2419f7d10e22b20044097a3775e6f0675b47ccfc41a0822d103375418

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Area Under Curve” (D019540).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019540). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## audience effect
<a id="audience-effect"></a>

Audience effect is a change in an individual’s behavior that occurs when that individual detects that another is watching. In the source context, the observer’s presence altered how animals behaved during mate choice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9297f674b44adcf44d5ac0a494cd970ad853c7175b4a105c9f57deefbac823a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kniel Nina; Bender Stefanie; Witte Klaudia. Sex-Specific Audience Effect in the Context of Mate Choice in Zebra Finches. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0147130; article XML SHA-256 e7f6397355bc57bc19a1059bfa187fa364c546d8080b70f04b9f31706ac0c742. “Sex-Specific Audience Effect in the Context of Mate Choice in Zebra Finches” (10.1371/journal.pone.0147130).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147130). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## audiogenic seizure
<a id="audiogenic-seizure"></a>

An audiogenic seizure is a seizure triggered by sound. In the supplied source, it refers to sound-induced seizures seen in a genetic hamster model that resemble generalized tonic seizures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bab79e1a51505df49253130b60b117893a838c6fffc96e2053e0e09c7cf02a2e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Díaz-Casado Elena; Gómez-Nieto Ricardo; de Pereda José M; Muñoz Luis J; Jara-Acevedo María; López Dolores E. Analysis of gene variants in the GASH/Sal model of epilepsy. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0229953; article XML SHA-256 37bcd14099959dc18be024259aac9334141cfd033d275ef890e00921c832adb7. “Analysis of gene variants in the GASH/Sal model of epilepsy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0229953).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229953). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## audiology
<a id="audiology"></a>

Audiology is a professional field involved in hearing assessment and in care related to hearing and balance, including vestibular services. Its scope of practice includes working with other professionals to support timely referral and coordinated care for hearing and balance problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1e8564f6dc4dadf3c93c007ed527f6af1909758b68b5b29dcbab0ba64b38359

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ayas Muhammed; Ravi Rohit; Gunjawate Dhanshree R.. Interprofessional recognition of audiology scope of practice in hearing and balance care: Evidence from the University of Sharjah. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347133; article XML SHA-256 c29d8bc660903d3d5f37fb9d8e9db59129a306677c18915936111f23ddfb3821. “Interprofessional recognition of audiology scope of practice in hearing and balance care: Evidence from the University of Sharjah” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347133).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347133). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## audiometer
<a id="audiometer"></a>

An audiometer is an apparatus used in psychological hearing experiments to test sound sensitivity with a sound kept constant in itself while its loudness is changed by adjusting the size of openings through which it passes. It serves to measure differences in hearing intensity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3328f81c72e135663abef2b0a6609f8b259c24c8cf6ae90a312af2d15238f662

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Laboratory (of psychology) and Apparatus” (Laboratory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Laboratory). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## audit
<a id="audit"></a>

AUDIT is a 10-item self-report screening questionnaire used to identify excessive, hazardous, or harmful alcohol use. It asks about how often and how much a person drinks, along with signs of alcohol dependence and alcohol-related problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a7805b408c55896c22c77809ccb6eca18558c12bac488ba1f4c43fdd5a084fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test Self-Report Version Questionnaire” (C119097).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## audition
<a id="audition"></a>

Audition is hearing: the ability or process of detecting sound and converting acoustic stimulation into signals for the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8811b0a9a0c46e72e7b9f3d3a6e595d5995d969db72175a924bd09e85e271df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hearing” (D006309).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006309). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory abilities
<a id="auditory-abilities"></a>

Auditory abilities are a person’s hearing-related capacities as they experience them in everyday situations, such as following conversations, locating sounds, judging distance, separating simultaneous sounds, and hearing speech or music clearly. In this source, the term refers to perceived performance across these kinds of listening tasks rather than a single skill.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 04186200865840ed7c1cb6800e0babd15011b49e18861d302c4c8fb3a5d99399

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kolarik Andrew J.; Raman Rajiv; Moore Brian C. J.; Cirstea Silvia; Gopalakrishnan Sarika; Pardhan Shahina. Partial Visual Loss Affects Self-reports of Hearing Abilities Measured Using a Modified Version of the Speech, Spatial, and Qualities of Hearing Questionnaire. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00561; article XML SHA-256 4421ac7124db554f22e4d9357c6f734b7f08c961dba3505134376e3983b32aca. “Partial Visual Loss Affects Self-reports of Hearing Abilities Measured Using a Modified Version of the Speech, Spatial, and Qualities of Hearing Questionnaire” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00561).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00561). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory acuity
<a id="auditory-acuity"></a>

Auditory acuity is the ability to hear sounds and tell one sound apart from another. It refers to how well hearing can detect and discriminate sounds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46f9939f40fab93978ebbec7dc1dd1e303b569a629d45d35e2b9a0a7db0f9770

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Auditory Acuity” (D000099122).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000099122). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory aphasia
<a id="auditory-aphasia"></a>

Auditory aphasia is a speech disturbance linked to injury of Wernicke’s area, in the hindermost part of the first temporal convolution. In this older localization account, it is one of the cortical forms of aphasia associated with a specific brain region.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a0a7f202801e5f441188b5c44fce84d69fb0572dd0455d56e603b27eb7e6eb7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-105000-117000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory attributes
<a id="auditory-attributes"></a>

Auditory attributes are characteristics of a sound that can be tested in psychoacoustic tasks, such as pitch or intensity. In plain language, they are the features people hear and can discriminate or detect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eed597177955b3c2b7d0f9e65fb26730aeb41b3d2f1208e5e27d43883cc4a005

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bidelman Gavin M.; Jennings Skyler G.; Strickland Elizabeth A.. PsyAcoustX: A flexible MATLAB ® package for psychoacoustics research. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01498; article XML SHA-256 2cc59632fc400430920beb55b0b774a13205757cfcbfd11c667abf4e51442023. “PsyAcoustX: A flexible MATLAB ® package for psychoacoustics research” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01498).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01498). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory brainstem response
<a id="auditory-brainstem-response"></a>

Auditory brainstem response is an objective test that evaluates how the auditory nerve and brainstem pathways respond to sound. It is used to help identify possible neurological problems involving the eighth cranial nerve and connected hearing pathways up to the midbrain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8940677622f11cf25addc6e95e7427fbb42e0958c129c2c230bb47142a3c6be0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Auditory Brainstem Response” (C184949).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory canal
<a id="auditory-canal"></a>

The auditory canal is the part of the ear canal located outside the eardrum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e12138ff7eab826a625ea2c714d64e20f78f21024db9b398d028aab6cb349ff8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “External Auditory Canal” (C12498).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory closure
<a id="auditory-closure"></a>

Auditory closure is the ability to make sense of speech when parts of the sound are missing or masked by noise. It involves using partial sound cues together with cognitive and language-based top-down processes to reconstruct the intended message.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a98de6e3ddc5d501b62ce4586ce5ec4cf6f9f2b3ed30ffaf85b279ba4d07dc89

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nagaraj Naveen K.; Magimairaj Beula M.. Auditory processing in children: Role of working memory and lexical ability in auditory closure. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0240534; article XML SHA-256 6bf1500d3c72be1926b6547e9831aafa498005b32406f5ed6cfefb46951d4fdd. “Auditory processing in children: Role of working memory and lexical ability in auditory closure” (10.1371/journal.pone.0240534).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240534). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Auditory Continuous Performance Test
<a id="auditory-continuous-performance-test"></a>

The Auditory Continuous Performance Test is a diagnostic test used to look for problems with auditory attention. A person listens to single words and responds when a target word is heard, which can help in identifying attention deficits such as ADD or ADHD in children ages 6 to 11.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08a33c33db12a6aa19c8726fc55aed929451e3fba0872b04455c21f2d226c54a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Auditory Continuous Performance Test” (C131529).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory cortex
<a id="auditory-cortex"></a>

The auditory cortex is the part of the cerebral cortex that receives hearing-related nerve signals from the medial geniculate body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 210aa94888b94d74c37c1cc6bd693cf9c70c6d2319b59dd0931b2a9f4408b709

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Auditory Cortex” (D001303).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001303). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory discrimination
<a id="auditory-discrimination"></a>

Auditory discrimination is the ability or process of telling apart basic features of sounds. In this context, it refers to distinguishing sound differences as part of auditory processing and auditory training.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 35db88e78a6699862705e5d6cf0a1f4f7f85fc48cbb21e76343652f7d70e87b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [M-Cam Sergio; Alonso-Valerdi Luz Maria; Ibarra-Zarate David I. Auditory discrimination improvement in young adults by a digital auditory game-based training protocol. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313478; article XML SHA-256 09b4904e90e6988f9877ecb8a460cfdc69852a24ea178c232d7554e9db8950a4. “Auditory discrimination improvement in young adults by a digital auditory game-based training protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313478).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313478). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory display
<a id="auditory-display"></a>

An auditory display is a way of presenting information through sound. In the source packet, it refers to sonification designs that map physical quantities onto auditory features such as pitch or spatial sound.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6859c260069d77a657728b1f2f69f8e579d722e4680ce87c6cd983d780e3cd87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dubus Gaël; Bresin Roberto. A Systematic Review of Mapping Strategies for the Sonification of Physical Quantities. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0082491; article XML SHA-256 e52e0e19b77f45b3fbb46289d3be18e09e92d88319caba84ff0377cd3bfc7d66. “A Systematic Review of Mapping Strategies for the Sonification of Physical Quantities” (10.1371/journal.pone.0082491).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082491). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory distance perception
<a id="auditory-distance-perception"></a>

Auditory distance perception is the ability to judge how far away a sound source is from oneself using hearing. Research in the packet indicates that these judgments are typically less accurate and more variable than visual distance judgments, and they improve when congruent visual information is available.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 271d3408af15aa3f606d4d0143f3eca55430868d8af85c270db1f907dd5b02f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Anderson Paul W.; Zahorik Pavel. Auditory/visual distance estimation: accuracy and variability. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01097; article XML SHA-256 6e557f64394c4010bce90d8c3daa933b3bb3b92473c1ca0c1ef7b0db1e95fdcb. “Auditory/visual distance estimation: accuracy and variability” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01097).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01097). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory evoked potential
<a id="auditory-evoked-potential"></a>

An auditory evoked potential is the brain’s electrical activity in the cerebral cortex that is triggered by sound or by stimulation anywhere along the hearing pathways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3aba1e1d5040f71814c2939489b3ba35970515124c84ca12426a66c04be7910c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Evoked Potentials, Auditory” (D005072).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005072). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory fatigue
<a id="auditory-fatigue"></a>

Auditory fatigue is a temporary reduction in sensitivity to sound caused by prior sound stimulation. It appears as a short-term rise in the level needed for a sound to be heard.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 129ece9d967bb18077ba7e4c0568a1ea2b82cadf5728a11f0320b542e63b6528

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Auditory Fatigue” (D001305).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001305). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory feedback
<a id="auditory-feedback"></a>

In psychology, auditory feedback can mean giving a person information about their own autonomic nervous system activity as sound, such as signals linked to heartbeat, brain waves, or skin temperature. It is used in biofeedback to help the person learn some self-control over related conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ffd04c795c3296684f195ec5f56f37f1837383cbbb0ed5c724d243f3dac5dd13

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Biofeedback, Psychology” (D001676).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001676). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory hallucination
<a id="auditory-hallucination"></a>

An auditory hallucination is hearing a sound when there is no matching external sound source or stimulus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e1924f3426f45b2f948d64b45c6389be7cd017ced128fb779bcbd99d9b745021

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Auditory Hallucination” (C118174).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory localization
<a id="auditory-localization"></a>

Auditory localization is the ability to tell where a sound is coming from in space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 173eaecf6d0c2b1e6871c645862eb72fb03ef41f7f404874344be20889c35a32

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sound Localization” (D013017).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013017). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory masking
<a id="auditory-masking"></a>

Auditory masking is a hearing phenomenon in which one sound is made less audible by another sound that is close to it in frequency or occurs near it in time, when the other sound is strong enough. It includes simultaneous masking and temporal masking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef86abd9ffbbe8023d6e91e880a7e30b5a96f440e942332eda125c30677496c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kludt Eugen; Nogueira Waldo; Lenarz Thomas; Buechner Andreas. A sound coding strategy based on a temporal masking model for cochlear implants. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0244433; article XML SHA-256 f4c9cc7ec1acbc9ff17547c4a55e7b043b0c02934649816b565078dd95bd0120. “A sound coding strategy based on a temporal masking model for cochlear implants” (10.1371/journal.pone.0244433).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244433). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory memory
<a id="auditory-memory"></a>

Auditory memory is short-term memory for information that is heard. In assessment, it may be measured along with attention by asking a person to recall unrelated digits presented in random order.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f77b76f081df3f053927994406daaa73fad475de2129eea1410d251e5e721f6c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Digit Span Subtest (WISC-V)” (C205264).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory nerve
<a id="auditory-nerve"></a>

The auditory nerve is the cochlear part of the eighth cranial nerve. Its fibers connect the cochlea with brain-stem hearing centers and carry the signals that make hearing possible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c8734ebb21ff091ad83a9228890e07ad417a2437eabf009b501a8a6dfbf4a87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cochlear Nerve” (D003056).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003056). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory object
<a id="auditory-object"></a>

An auditory object is a perceived sound pattern, such as speech or music, that listeners recognize as the same and meaningful even when its exact acoustic form changes. Its perceived identity is shaped not only by the sound itself but also by prior experience, immediate context, and the listener’s goals and expectations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00f6ae48ab3e972089d22d1038de22fcc94f5d0a41cb74e58d1f9ba512138b21

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Heald Shannon L. M.; Van Hedger Stephen C.; Nusbaum Howard C.. Perceptual Plasticity for Auditory Object Recognition. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00781; article XML SHA-256 f95bd595aeb90d91cb0e87335dbcd5c407a37396ba6c0b613bba6427f7289a48. “Perceptual Plasticity for Auditory Object Recognition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00781).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00781). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Auditory Perception
<a id="auditory-perception"></a>

Auditory perception is the way an organism takes in sounds and makes sense of them by noticing, organizing, and interpreting auditory information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b64077265894879ef6541024f7e8590780e991c1ce686ad2e2b081460dcb8c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Auditory Perception” (D001307).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001307). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory perceptual disorder
<a id="auditory-perceptual-disorder"></a>

Auditory perceptual disorder is a condition in which the brain does not correctly interpret or process sound signals coming from the ears. The problem lies in how auditory information is understood, rather than in the ear structures themselves.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f3938270b69bd562c830276331094013af6c55371e94b0b4cd6c7d060a8eb62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Auditory Perceptual Disorder” (C84575).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory processing
<a id="auditory-processing"></a>

Auditory processing is the way an organism takes in sound by selecting, organizing, and making sense of auditory information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b3150e3d5eb06f2809c0714bc2d830c440f30e1babdd79c5334e33b79b33a96

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Auditory Perception” (D001307).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001307). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory processing disorder
<a id="auditory-processing-disorder"></a>

Auditory processing disorder is an acquired or developmental problem in how the brain perceives sound information, even though the hearing pathways are intact. It can make it hard to understand speech, locate where sounds are coming from, and grasp meaning carried by changes in tone or inflection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7ed8f2c16f6a4b8d5a62d761a8285bfffae294845964da5a1c039b10ac34aea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Auditory Perceptual Disorders” (D001308).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001308). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory sensory memory
<a id="auditory-sensory-memory"></a>

Auditory sensory memory is the brief, automatic retention of sound information after it is heard, often described as echoic memory. In speech perception, how long this trace lasts can vary with properties of the sound and with a listener’s language experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40edaffb920b2ebec6895dfd1efe5aaf97388393468d5fc3c0b8b7be17d363a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yu Yan H.; Shafer Valerie L.; Sussman Elyse S.. The Duration of Auditory Sensory Memory for Vowel Processing: Neurophysiological and Behavioral Measures. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00335; article XML SHA-256 e4e188b0d1a60fe7724ef7534bd59d47650effeca0e8fa229aeb98964b72d971. “The Duration of Auditory Sensory Memory for Vowel Processing: Neurophysiological and Behavioral Measures” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00335).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00335). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory skills
<a id="auditory-skills"></a>

Auditory skills are abilities used to hear and process sound details in speech or music. In this source, they include accurately encoding phonological details, perceiving pitch, and using auditory working memory to hold sound information long enough to learn word–object pairings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 37ecf540b90cf5a34d06a1a1af77d9764cfb7ab43e0be4bba399baeddc5f2a8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Smit Eline A.; Milne Andrew J.; Escudero Paola. Music Perception Abilities and Ambiguous Word Learning: Is There Cross-Domain Transfer in Nonmusicians?. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.801263; article XML SHA-256 02b07289ea6fef958a7f37528d18e9da23c8564dc53136dd6fc370e37d0f143a. “Music Perception Abilities and Ambiguous Word Learning: Is There Cross-Domain Transfer in Nonmusicians?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.801263).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.801263). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory space perception
<a id="auditory-space-perception"></a>

Auditory space perception is the perception of where a sound is located in space, understood mainly as judging its direction. In this historical source, it is described chiefly in terms of estimating the direction a sound comes from and comparing that judgment with the sound’s actual position.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e6c09fe39b8abee9d9a5409fbd9edbb0ebd2748bb8b78932006f7f4a99648cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Laboratory (of psychology) and Apparatus” (Laboratory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Laboratory). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory system
<a id="auditory-system"></a>

The auditory system is the set of body parts that detect sound and process hearing information. It includes the outer ear, ear canal, eardrum, middle ear, and inner ear, including the cochlear organ.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dcdaf7e2a3dfb2e0631cc9201704d5c64f9b6cd86359939a8fa5e6ed9af0cacb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Auditory System” (C12889).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory threshold
<a id="auditory-threshold"></a>

Auditory threshold is the lowest limit at which differences in sound loudness and pitch can be heard. It refers to the boundary of what is audible for distinguishing these sound features.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 12311d85f5339e6a4da779fbbbf9a4d8784594beb9b5de0bfaf9d927a07f7348

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Auditory Threshold” (D001309).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001309). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auditory training
<a id="auditory-training"></a>

Auditory training is practice designed to help people cope with a degraded or hard-to-hear sound signal. In the supplied source, it is described as improving listening-related functioning in adults with hearing loss, especially when auditory tasks also engage broader cognitive skills such as attention or working memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 31cbb1b5d1786157389bba32c63343ae95fad971b02308a7ed4b72fa877572b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ferguson Melanie A.; Henshaw Helen. Auditory training can improve working memory, attention, and communication in adverse conditions for adults with hearing loss. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00556; article XML SHA-256 eac4fdd27130f0a0f1662cb85e73c6d1d45ea8bd1b73930631fe3c3d96818953. “Auditory training can improve working memory, attention, and communication in adverse conditions for adults with hearing loss” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00556).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00556). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Auditory Verbal Learning Test
<a id="auditory-verbal-learning-test"></a>

The Auditory Verbal Learning Test is a neuropsychological assessment that uses a spoken list of words longer than immediate memory span to evaluate verbal memory and learning. It can provide measures such as short-term recall, learning across repeated trials, and delayed recall, and is used to help detect memory impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d19f3c77f25cc30b0257ec3de14da4b7d7ddfc01ba235ae0738930085ea65649

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cremona Sandrine; Jobard Gaël; Zago Laure; Mellet Emmanuel. Word Meaning Contributes to Free Recall Performance in Supraspan Verbal List-Learning Tests. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02043; article XML SHA-256 47fa534bd100fdcff07de64d18c5b161a39168484f030bd3030e081e21441040. “Word Meaning Contributes to Free Recall Performance in Supraspan Verbal List-Learning Tests” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02043).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02043). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Aufgabe
<a id="aufgabe"></a>

In this historical psychology passage, Aufgabe means the task or assignment of analysis. It refers to the work of examining experience, whether by drawing out logical implications or by identifying the actual elements present in consciousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0da33c9df693a8048845df2cd062ca2c671396f10c0c000217797674c7ce7ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Titchener, The Schema of Introspection, 1912. 1912 American Journal of Psychology 23, 485–508. “Titchener, The Schema of Introspection, 1912” (3df3e717981e5484759c).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/introspection.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/introspection.htm). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## augmentation strategy
<a id="augmentation-strategy"></a>

An augmentation strategy is a way of improving a predictive model by adding extra derived information to the original data. In this source, it means using features produced by a discrete wavelet transform alongside the time-series data to help deep learning models make forecasts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee32b78ed3e215fe9cd8e682239a8902c8cec07091486c20cd45029ef3bce89c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sperandio Nascimento Erick Giovani; Ortiz Júnia; Furtado Adhvan Novais; Frias Diego. Using discrete wavelet transform for optimizing COVID-19 new cases and deaths prediction worldwide with deep neural networks. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0282621; article XML SHA-256 5801af3b392243892f0fac470acaaadaf52cb555e7876048868b1a0412a81295. “Using discrete wavelet transform for optimizing COVID-19 new cases and deaths prediction worldwide with deep neural networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0282621).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282621). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## augmentative communication
<a id="augmentative-communication"></a>

Augmentative communication is an added way of communicating that uses a direct channel from the brain to an output device, without relying on muscle movement. In this source, it refers to brain-computer interface systems that translate detected brain signals into commands so people with neuromotor or nervous system injuries can operate devices and communicate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 256543f3084af39099d98d346729d55b021c624e0df93fd416caebaef734f983

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tariq Madiha; Trivailo Pavel M.; Simic Milan. EEG-Based BCI Control Schemes for Lower-Limb Assistive-Robots. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00312; article XML SHA-256 8fa4c370ed9604a3e8eecf27202b000fd3080da3086e3bc9013dd8a80b96032d. “EEG-Based BCI Control Schemes for Lower-Limb Assistive-Robots” (10.3389/fnhum.2018.00312).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00312). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## augury
<a id="augury"></a>

Augury is a form of divination in which signs or omens are interpreted to gain knowledge believed to come from a superhuman source. In this historical account, augury includes reading chance events or natural occurrences symbolically, such as animal appearances or cries.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e0c3a2d2b62417d0a20ecf8e687b17c87ce07aec3c617ca9f5c0563fab30e426

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Magic (1) and (2) Divination” (Magic (1) and (2) Divination).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M1defs.htm#Magic (1) and (2) Divination). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aura
<a id="aura"></a>

Aura is a historical term for the subjective sensory, motor, bodily, or mental experiences that can come just before a nervous seizure, especially in epilepsy or hysteria. In a narrower historical sense, it can mean the feeling of something like a current of air rising from the body to the head as a warning of an epileptic attack; it was also used for a supposed mesmeric emanation or fluid.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9236dfcf889ecac87fb07c6260d4213a616e839ab2bfa23b31dbb83f6a7fe869

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aura” (Aura).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Aura). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auricle
<a id="auricle"></a>

The auricle is the outer ear structure examined for its shape and individual variation. In this source, it is treated as the upper part of the external ear, distinct from the ear lobule.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b9e830b65bb6aa7e42323ce6aec4be1a712613a6945682cc26b924ffb7dfabb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Biwasaka Hitoshi; Usui Akihito; Takamiya Masataka; Angelakopoulos Nikolaos; Cameriere Roberto; Kumagai Akiko. Validation of morphological ear classification devised by principal component analysis using three-dimensional images for human identification. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0306843; article XML SHA-256 4f9a7e626e02e071f640006bb089c9260fe73f2aa9ae42c6da85204b7d469aa3. “Validation of morphological ear classification devised by principal component analysis using three-dimensional images for human identification” (10.1371/journal.pone.0306843).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306843). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## auscultation
<a id="auscultation"></a>

Auscultation is the act of listening to sounds from the body, especially the lungs, as part of a physical examination using a stethoscope. It is a non-invasive way clinicians gather information and reason about possible respiratory problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61dff11a664fef30a0df8436d130c878cd6c1f8dc3a373aafa0b2177295d73f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kuriyama Ayaka; Kasai Hajime; Shikino Kiyoshi; Shiko Yuki; Kawame Chiaki; Takeda Kenichiro; Tajima Hiroshi; Hayama Nami; Suzuki Takuji; Ito Shoichi. The effects of simple graphical and mental visualization of lung sounds in teaching lung auscultation during clinical clerkship: A preliminary study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0282337; article XML SHA-256 1244e836643b410b5fe6f0912c51bbc289013c5ac1f8bd172a57d00b1cc1ff5b. “The effects of simple graphical and mental visualization of lung sounds in teaching lung auscultation during clinical clerkship: A preliminary study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0282337).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282337). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aut-
<a id="aut"></a>

AUT refers to autistic individuals, meaning people with a clinical diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder. In this source, autism is described as a developmental disorder involving differences in social skills, communication, and repetitive patterns of behaviour.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ebd3fcde41bfb7ecf89b41acf4a814caf319bbe6aa1c47bcff04ddc82b27dec8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Daikoku Tatsuya; Kumagaya Shinichiro; Ayaya Satsuki; Nagai Yukie. Non-autistic persons modulate their speech rhythm while talking to autistic individuals. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285591; article XML SHA-256 aacc84d4107d2632f7dfa5f6ca58dd03852db66b8ae51a0a5d5b533de763c28b. “Non-autistic persons modulate their speech rhythm while talking to autistic individuals” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285591).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285591). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## authenticity
<a id="authenticity"></a>

Authenticity is the question of whether a work or claim is genuine, especially in judging its true authorship, title, or possible forgery. In historical criticism, it belongs to the broader problem of deciding what is genuinely original rather than merely accepted by tradition or textual transmission.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e6d7172601d438517bf7dc93c5c8ece5709c489546857d77d8ef76f1b528df0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Authenticity” (Authenticity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Authenticity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## authority
<a id="authority"></a>

In this historical source, authority in religion means a recognized standard or organizing power that sets limits or starting points for belief and thought. It can refer to an external church structure that governs individuals, to church creeds and scripture as norms for personal or theological reasoning, or in more philosophical theology to reason or dogma as the basis for religious conclusions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 57a83cf27cb4016236803e760e2dfda5433dcda31df6bcf4a6ff3854d46ea9e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Authority” (Authority).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Authority). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autism
<a id="autism"></a>

Autism is a developmental disorder marked by major difficulties in social interaction and communication, along with repetitive or stereotyped behaviors and activities. Delays in social interaction and language appear before age 3.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bcb55c744065b6b8223f2e431d5407d745923fde014b9b826553ff4037af975a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Autism” (C97161).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autism spectrum disorder
<a id="autism-spectrum-disorder"></a>

Autism spectrum disorder is a broad range of related cognitive and neurobehavioral conditions marked by difficulties with social interaction and with verbal and nonverbal communication, along with restricted and repetitive behaviors. It is described as a spectrum because these features can vary across individuals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0dae33f4a0d2aaf9db95697919a34ac896af82c06b9bc77cafff734da0c01473

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Autism Spectrum Disorder” (D000067877).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067877). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autistic disorder
<a id="autistic-disorder"></a>

Autistic disorder is a childhood-onset condition involving major differences or difficulties in social interaction and communication, along with a strongly limited range of interests and activities. How it appears can vary widely depending on a person's age and developmental level.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6c81d79fff054bd3bc4ccd7e06877386d2b12cb609bf3278cc9ceb1e0664a2a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Autistic Disorder” (D001321).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001321). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autobiographical memory
<a id="autobiographical-memory"></a>

Autobiographical memory is a type of declarative memory for a person’s own life experiences. It refers to personal memories rather than general knowledge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9564fe2caac5382ab878a1d5aa12f1eed466b2ed35ac469b56576138f71e1347

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Memory, Episodic” (D061212).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D061212). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autocorrelation
<a id="autocorrelation"></a>

Autocorrelation, in this packet’s spatial context, means the degree to which nearby locations show similar patterns rather than being randomly distributed. Positive spatial autocorrelation indicates clustering, with high or similar values tending to occur together across neighboring areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 109848d629b3b22da3d3aa5424f5dcff216c9b96d90a6631f0876910a56964ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Kwang-Sub; Eom Jin Ki. Spatiotemporal dynamics of visitors to Jeju Island: Hotspot and spatial autocorrelation analyses using mobile phone data. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321694; article XML SHA-256 9868b3e07a8d73668370cf28b831e8c4208ef3041e9da5b71ffab89be74c741d. “Spatiotemporal dynamics of visitors to Jeju Island: Hotspot and spatial autocorrelation analyses using mobile phone data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321694).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321694). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Autogenic Training
<a id="autogenic-training"></a>

Autogenic training is a relaxation method that uses self-hypnotic exercises to reduce muscle tension. It is used alongside psychotherapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4090fa9a33835f0922ab8dcb8462621da4ed3661b64dabfff712bb793a2b066f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Autogenic Training” (D001326).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001326). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autokinesis
<a id="autokinesis"></a>

Autokinesis is movement that arises from causes within the organism itself, rather than from an external source.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 771383d3d4a13621f66f7c93deb272cd880bf47c0259f66a12b43ed6a120dfd4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Autokinesis” (Autokinesis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Autokinesis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## automaintenance
<a id="automaintenance"></a>

Automaintenance is a conditioned tendency to make a response toward a cue that predicts reward, such as pecking a lighted key after it has been paired with food. In negative automaintenance, this response can persist even though pecking causes the expected reward to be withheld.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a3274b6b278a45ece774ba8a1d238d942f4d3e1f382ea286cbe7970a169177c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lesaint Florian; Sigaud Olivier; Khamassi Mehdi. Accounting for Negative Automaintenance in Pigeons: A Dual Learning Systems Approach and Factored Representations. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0111050; article XML SHA-256 fbbb06fa072c23a66c91ab81335202c21a72c157c80176e2968097dbbd11cff5. “Accounting for Negative Automaintenance in Pigeons: A Dual Learning Systems Approach and Factored Representations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0111050).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0111050). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## automated assessment
<a id="automated-assessment"></a>

Automated assessment is the use of computer-based methods, such as image processing and supervised machine learning, to detect and measure features without direct manual scoring. In this source, it means classifiers that analyze digital biopsy images to identify and quantify steatosis automatically.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a140c9e912f14b154454395aaed165c550c0d0e0c9f030285671cd4a3f381c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sethunath Deepak; Morusu Siripriya; Tuceryan Mihran; Cummings Oscar W.; Zhang Hao; Yin Xiao-Ming; Vanderbeck Scott; Chalasani Naga; Gawrieh Samer. Automated assessment of steatosis in murine fatty liver. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0197242; article XML SHA-256 111dae2b43291786c09d740de9997b9d3152e78f4114a3e940cbd04173efa1a8. “Automated assessment of steatosis in murine fatty liver” (10.1371/journal.pone.0197242).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197242). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## automated speech recognition
<a id="automated-speech-recognition"></a>

Automated speech recognition is a machine’s ability to turn spoken language carried in an audio signal into words. It is used in areas such as human-computer interaction, assistive technology, and analysis of large collections of speech, and research aims to make it more reliable despite differences in speaker, accent, and background noise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 401d6179490df80aff42a2a00a2f6dc74f7ae67e185ed38b2e83f9a3db886333

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Castellini Claudio; Badino Leonardo; Metta Giorgio; Sandini Giulio; Tavella Michele; Grimaldi Mirko; Fadiga Luciano. The Use of Phonetic Motor Invariants Can Improve Automatic Phoneme Discrimination. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0024055; article XML SHA-256 a2ff68d3a1b82218e4bc492769301ca2f208fc0d0d23d2933241f3a56568ea49. “The Use of Phonetic Motor Invariants Can Improve Automatic Phoneme Discrimination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0024055).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024055). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## automatic action
<a id="automatic-action"></a>

In psychology, automatic action is a series of responses produced by repeated or ongoing stimulation that goes on with little or no attention. Historical usage distinguished inborn reflex-like actions from actions that become attention-free through habit, and it also treated the term as different from merely meaning spontaneous or self-moving.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ddae1c35de5e5a41179a7ccefcf12c89518fc86b6d2dc2573967b27097cdc91

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Automatic Action” (Automatic Action).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Automatic Action). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## automatic performance
<a id="automatic-performance"></a>

Automatic performance is action carried out with little attention to its separate movements, so that attention is directed to the act as a whole rather than to each step. In this state, trying to consciously monitor the individual parts of the movement can interfere with smooth execution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 357b64899b2d7713a5bb036e0d31ff061ca3bc1ee5eac47d05be6f0700d5df71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-661500-673500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## automatic process
<a id="automatic-process"></a>

An automatic process is a chain of actions produced by repeated or ongoing stimulation that goes on largely without attention. In this historical usage, it can refer either to inborn reflex-like activity or to well-practised actions that no longer need attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d2e5fa0f620057454cb71486953c64c27c560297341535108d426acae182e90

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Automatic Action” (Automatic Action).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Automatic Action). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## automatic speaker recognition
<a id="automatic-speaker-recognition"></a>

Automatic speaker recognition is the use of computer-based classification methods to identify who is speaking from features of their voice. In the source packet, its performance varied widely, and wearing a surgical mask appeared to reduce accuracy to some extent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cecf969c206dcfe9f7c43187f10585a633583816f980aa3fbf6b6662cac0eaad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Geng Puyang; Lu Qimeng; Guo Hong; Zeng Jinhua. The effects of face mask on speech production and its implication for forensic speaker identification-A cross-linguistic study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0283724; article XML SHA-256 d9058f09c4a3ad7273f632a58d8114fa1ce57c91615849fd002b63114cb8e9fd. “The effects of face mask on speech production and its implication for forensic speaker identification-A cross-linguistic study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0283724).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283724). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## automatic speech
<a id="automatic-speech"></a>

In this historical source, automatic speech means spontaneous, self-directed talking that runs on by itself, like soliloquising or prattling. It is described as speech produced with little active attention to the outside world, as in simple mania.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 592d6d9625b9cd4188bfcc4efc050f7f6a022f0a601ccb426cf0ada80439777c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2068500-2080500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## automatic thoughts
<a id="automatic-thoughts"></a>

In this source, automatic thoughts are described as immediate, hard-to-control negative judgments about oneself, the environment, and the future. They may appear as distorted thinking patterns such as overgeneralizing, catastrophizing, self-blame, black-and-white thinking, or dismissing positive experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de985bed5f83f80cf962bc9eccb4888c982ec3933a84390cd0feaa0019dc7eb9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ding Ganzhen; Wang Wenbo; Tao Weidong. Growth mindset and intrapersonal dimensions of social emotional skills: mediating roles of negative automatic thoughts and self-control in elementary students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1714395; article XML SHA-256 7ce83d7e9c8c55ef7b410bc98dbb3bdae94aeb5cae7123cbe4449fcf040a528d. “Growth mindset and intrapersonal dimensions of social emotional skills: mediating roles of negative automatic thoughts and self-control in elementary students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1714395).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1714395). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## automatic writing
<a id="automatic-writing"></a>

Automatic writing is writing produced without the writer’s full conscious participation, so that words or sentences seem to be formed by themselves. In historical psychology, it was treated as a complex kind of automatic movement seen both in some nervous disorders and in otherwise healthy people, with no settled explanation for how it occurs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82894eec51e58262a2e3fca9319571a8634162c7123339daea95b77f48a9ae16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Automatic Writing” (Automatic Writing).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Automatic Writing). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## automaticity
<a id="automaticity"></a>

Automaticity, in this context, means the brain’s ability to control walking with little need for conscious attention or other executive mental resources. It refers to locomotion being managed more automatically rather than through effortful control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e89589896d3a6331928b44dcb5e6d78b2b7e97d2b592ca21b30f9b8744e5bc88

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Burgos Pablo I.; Liu William; Silva-Batista Carla; Baker-Alcalá Francesca; Carlson-Kuhta Patricia; King Laurie A.; Horak Fay B.; Chung Kathryn A.; Lapidus Jodi A.; Mancini Martina. Personalized versus fixed tactile cueing in Parkinson’s disease: Protocol for a randomized controlled trial on gait automaticity. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336859; article XML SHA-256 9ea4e07bbadffcc1f78592a9ad53d388ba62febeb0a9ae86beb8a90edd41784a. “Personalized versus fixed tactile cueing in Parkinson’s disease: Protocol for a randomized controlled trial on gait automaticity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336859).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336859). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Automatism
<a id="automatism"></a>

Automatism is behavior that happens automatically in a mechanical, seemingly purposeless way and is not under conscious control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab3001eb730632b60d78c06d9442783c329e3c569c3600e0649315ea075b5a92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Automatism” (D001332).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001332). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## automatism defense
<a id="automatism-defense"></a>

An automatism defense is a courtroom claim that a person committed an act while in a blackout or automatic state rather than under conscious control. In this packet, it is discussed specifically as a non-insane automatism defense, with culture sometimes offered as an explanation for what led to the blackout.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 042503c03826d30940d470bb9ea50dad52742adf064c9aaf5e66849d713c4a02

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maeder Evelyn M.; Yamamoto Susan. Culture in the Courtroom: Ethnocentrism and Juror Decision-Making. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0137799; article XML SHA-256 9a69fb959e0563b246ab464454a431bf54510c8ebaa5898378b1773540cf1322. “Culture in the Courtroom: Ethnocentrism and Juror Decision-Making” (10.1371/journal.pone.0137799).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137799). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## automatization
<a id="automatization"></a>

Automatization is the progressive becoming semi-automatic of a function, including the control of movement. In this state, attention is directed to the action as a whole rather than to each separate step, and trying to attend to the individual details can slow or disrupt performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 33214cafb200a0f8970872a00b9c45ac33866f183701f099e94f7202798aab3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-661500-673500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## automaton
<a id="automaton"></a>

In historical psychology and philosophy, an automaton is a living being or machine understood as acting through automatic, mechanical processes rather than through conscious purpose or will. The term was used especially in automaton theory for the view that behavior may be fully explained by bodily processes, with consciousness treated as absent or only an inactive accompaniment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ffad32071edaba5f0e157ddd94493785cbb7b331deb86281b3e59f65c3569f31

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Automatic and Automatism” (Automatic and Automatism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Automatic and Automatism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autonomic
<a id="autonomic"></a>

In counselling and psychotherapy contexts, autonomic refers to body-state regulation linked with arousal patterns such as activation, calming, or shutdown. Changes in autonomic state can affect whether a person stays within a workable range for thinking, feeling, and relating during therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3029adbed2ba0306c6af62dd730f6a2eb2c8ef2150721afe46b49b680d5347a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pandey Aarsh Ojas Parasar. The Swara-Informed model of autonomic synchrony in psychotherapy: theoretical foundations and hypotheses. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1853837; article XML SHA-256 fbef788079004d1d6a5bb240efc7b2f16161909aecd002c9597ee3ce10917096. “The Swara-Informed model of autonomic synchrony in psychotherapy: theoretical foundations and hypotheses” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1853837).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1853837). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autonomic balance
<a id="autonomic-balance"></a>

Autonomic balance is the state of stable, adaptive functioning in the body’s automatic physiological regulation, reflected in measures such as heart rate and heart rate variability. In this context, it can be disturbed by academic stress and linked to emotional well-being and self-regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 059fac3d29bacb79b6fc5aa593211b5b1fa06fa3bc6d21cc83ab525184bfe80a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Benítez-Agudelo Juan Camilo; Navarro-Jiménez Eduardo; Clemente-Suárez Vicente Javier. Autonomic and psychophysiological effects of a 13-week mindfulness-based intervention in university students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1704398; article XML SHA-256 78f8cc156e0db30c5b34bb501c3c9231c2130d9eef1c2745904ba8d1c0498082. “Autonomic and psychophysiological effects of a 13-week mindfulness-based intervention in university students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1704398).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1704398). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autonomic conditioning
<a id="autonomic-conditioning"></a>

Autonomic conditioning is a proposed form of Pavlovian learning in which repeated sensory interaction between a mother and fetus or infant shapes each person’s autonomic state. In this account, it begins during gestation and leads to learned autonomic socioemotional reflexes that later influence physiology, emotion, and behavior after birth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 780e0ba226f0624a50f98e0813e2e1cb650d34295c4ed94a4de748260f8fee88

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ludwig Robert J.; Welch Martha G.. Wired to Connect: The Autonomic Socioemotional Reflex Arc. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.841207; article XML SHA-256 51fd7e902ee3326723f33642ce87c85d6040e6d1aa544cae2ff8a87e669f341c. “Wired to Connect: The Autonomic Socioemotional Reflex Arc” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.841207).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.841207). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autonomic dysfunction
<a id="autonomic-dysfunction"></a>

Autonomic dysfunction is impaired functioning of the autonomic nervous system, the body system that helps maintain internal balance and regulates cardiovascular activity. In this source, it refers to problems in that control that can occur when cancer treatments affect autonomic and cardiovascular function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c20f8c7840287a8797a25fd72004dfc4be8e0c839ada478a296df17e0688176

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lavín-Pérez Ana Myriam; Collado-Mateo Daniel; Mayo Xián; Liguori Gary; Humphreys Liam; Jiménez Alfonso. Can Exercise Reduce the Autonomic Dysfunction of Patients With Cancer and Its Survivors? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.712823; article XML SHA-256 4d2f4b3492091977110e50c67a116f819cb756c0d0231e6ef6ea71ef1069903a. “Can Exercise Reduce the Autonomic Dysfunction of Patients With Cancer and Its Survivors? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.712823).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.712823). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autonomic dysreflexia
<a id="autonomic-dysreflexia"></a>

Autonomic dysreflexia is a syndrome that can occur after spinal cord damage above the middle of the thoracic spine, in which minor triggers such as bladder or rectal distention cause an unusually strong sympathetic nervous system reaction. It commonly involves very high blood pressure along with changes in heart rate, fever, flushing, and heavy sweating, and severe hypertension can lead to stroke.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7ff0fc2410245cba1b98375a5ae9041d7ec4bc52bf2a3893359ba37429b04ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Autonomic Dysreflexia” (D020211).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020211). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autonomic ganglia
<a id="autonomic-ganglia"></a>

Autonomic ganglia are clusters of nerve cells within the autonomic nervous system where signals from preganglionic fibers coming from the central nervous system are passed to neurons whose fibers go on to target organs. They also include supporting cells, intrinsic neurons, and some preganglionic fibers traveling through to other ganglia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e20652f6df58d03cd3f830648912d2517d04f466d0cae5c6fbfb4062ee3a5af5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ganglia, Autonomic” (D005725).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005725). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autonomic hyperactivity
<a id="autonomic-hyperactivity"></a>

Autonomic hyperactivity means overactivation of the body's automatic functions, shown by signs such as increased blood pressure, faster heart rate, enlarged pupils, and sweating. In this packet, it is described as a feature seen in alcohol withdrawal delirium.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a061a48eef3c283b8d16684fe79f2c73b579ee35dc8a381a9a5bb38468e55a27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alcohol Withdrawal Delirium” (D000430).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000430). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## autonomic hyperreflexia
<a id="autonomic-hyperreflexia"></a>

Autonomic hyperreflexia is a syndrome linked to spinal cord damage above the mid-thoracic level in which minor triggers, such as bladder or rectal stretching, cause an exaggerated sympathetic nervous system reaction. It can lead to severe blood pressure elevation along with changes such as fast or reflexively slow heart rate, fever, flushing, and heavy sweating, and in extreme cases may be associated with stroke.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2befa33559bbd467be658545cc138d7e8b9a2eafbf0552f824eab61d9da5b8de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Autonomic Dysreflexia” (D020211).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020211). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autonomic learning
<a id="autonomic-learning"></a>

Autonomic learning is an evolutionarily conserved form of functional Pavlovian conditioning proposed to occur in the autonomic nervous system. In this account, it develops between mother and fetus during gestation and continues after birth, shaping conditioned autonomic socioemotional reflexes that influence physiology and behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7fea921d3122265f972bb6cbbd06d34c28354ea4da6e0173463d5d36dca873a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ludwig Robert J.; Welch Martha G.. Wired to Connect: The Autonomic Socioemotional Reflex Arc. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.841207; article XML SHA-256 51fd7e902ee3326723f33642ce87c85d6040e6d1aa544cae2ff8a87e669f341c. “Wired to Connect: The Autonomic Socioemotional Reflex Arc” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.841207).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.841207). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autonomic nervous system
<a id="autonomic-nervous-system"></a>

The autonomic nervous system is the combined enteric, sympathetic, and parasympathetic nervous systems. It helps regulate the body’s internal conditions during both calm states and physical or emotional stress, under the control of the central nervous system, especially the hypothalamus and solitary nucleus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 20a1e4303fd9903d9ce64a9ef0aedcb01804a8b30c69e24a91ccb6931f48a846

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Autonomic Nervous System” (D001341).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001341). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autonomic neuropathy
<a id="autonomic-neuropathy"></a>

Autonomic neuropathy is a disorder of peripheral nerves that affects the autonomic nervous system, either through inherited or acquired causes. It disrupts automatic body functions that normally happen without conscious control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 27cefd9e7e4603af1fb6ae1e020ae9fcb758593a1ea197fc26429b790719d040

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Autonomic Neuropathy” (C27033).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autonomic reactivity
<a id="autonomic-reactivity"></a>

Autonomic reactivity is the way the autonomic nervous system changes in response to a stimulus, especially emotionally meaningful material. In this study, it meant shifts in heart rate variability during emotional compared with neutral memory scripts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a55967bd652fad41a149167b46451a26c13c694cde7984039dcf4a94e824c9a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Clausen Ashley N; Aupperle Robin L; Sisante Jason-Flor V; Wilson David R; Billinger Sandra A. Pilot Investigation of PTSD, Autonomic Reactivity, and Cardiovascular Health in Physically Healthy Combat Veterans. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0162547; article XML SHA-256 c9a5bd7d41cfe61da955b01429227b3b62c6b94658ad8fc6b683feb25591d307. “Pilot Investigation of PTSD, Autonomic Reactivity, and Cardiovascular Health in Physically Healthy Combat Veterans” (10.1371/journal.pone.0162547).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162547). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autonomic response
<a id="autonomic-response"></a>

An autonomic response is an automatic bodily reaction to a stimulus, seen in measures such as heart activity, breathing, blood pressure, and peripheral vascular resistance. In this source, it refers to short- and longer-term cardio-respiratory changes that occur in response to a painful stimulus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 04e41d9069e8bc6b002f7344163bc7ffb0d1638c7a304e7a3a71c893022ea7ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Devalle Guya; Castiglioni Paolo; Arienti Chiara; Abbate Carlo; Mazzucchi Anna; Agnello Luca; Merati Giampiero. Cardio-respiratory autonomic responses to nociceptive stimuli in patients with disorders of consciousness. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0201921; article XML SHA-256 e57a0b18fb972b94955d63f51700cbeac58ab05c4eb8045e7021fb7831043f44. “Cardio-respiratory autonomic responses to nociceptive stimuli in patients with disorders of consciousness” (10.1371/journal.pone.0201921).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201921). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autonomous activity
<a id="autonomous-activity"></a>

Autonomous activity is behavior that is carried out for its own sake, mainly from internal interest or enjoyment rather than outside rewards or pressures. In this source, artistic behavior is described as an autonomous activity because it is driven by a stable, domain-specific intrinsic motivation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 938f852b35ea50f3b9082f249e4b592604e1363e81f32a64ea0c68f8e596a385

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Varella Marco Antonio Correa. Evolved Features of Artistic Motivation: Analyzing a Brazilian Database Spanning Three Decades. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769915; article XML SHA-256 48024336e8a3db46cbcccca85f5228e6af909f966fcd995fa530db2b16c7913b. “Evolved Features of Artistic Motivation: Analyzing a Brazilian Database Spanning Three Decades” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769915).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769915). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autonomy
<a id="autonomy"></a>

Autonomy means independence or self-determination, especially freedom from outside control or restraint. In discussions of the will, it can mean either complete freedom or a relative freedom from motives imposed by others, and in Kantian usage it refers to the rational will as giving law to itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 455c3f943dce8963e4fa497bdc8fd6cd1319279e6d56629bd054998363c17c7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Autonomy” (Autonomy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Autonomy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autoradiography
<a id="autoradiography"></a>

Autoradiography is an imaging method that estimates how a substance is distributed in a sample by detecting and quantifying tracks recorded in a detector. In this source, neutron autoradiography is used to assess boron microdistribution, and its accuracy depends on careful image acquisition and analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c56f48592b3008e96d2c5f78206aa0f871b61081544cb2264c63d26caae06e39

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Viglietti Julia S.; Espain María S.; Díaz Rodrigo F.; Nieto Luis A.; Szewc Manuel; Bernardi Guillermo C.; Rodríguez Luis M.; Fregenal Daniel E.; Saint Martin Gisela; Portu Agustina M.. From nuclear track characterization to machine learning based image classification in neutron autoradiography for boron neutron capture therapy. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293891; article XML SHA-256 0457a153ab0ccc3df4e2403dc13ac28af80e9eb465816935b4ee176532224de4. “From nuclear track characterization to machine learning based image classification in neutron autoradiography for boron neutron capture therapy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293891).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293891). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autoreceptor
<a id="autoreceptor"></a>

An autoreceptor is a receptor on or near a nerve ending that responds to the same chemical messenger that the ending itself releases. The term also includes receptors on hormone-releasing cells that respond to the hormones those cells release.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b1c18f9c62f10847d18feaae995dda3918c3fd683252224dc5f86a77d5777f10

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Autoreceptors” (D017660).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017660). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autoregression
<a id="autoregression"></a>

Autoregression is a time-series forecasting approach that predicts future values from patterns in earlier values of the same measure over time. In this context, it refers to methods such as neural network autoregression used to estimate future trends or clinical events from past data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 919ac227178dc5d9677554894956116e2bb0e449c0ac0dd5caaa2807391179ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cañedo Mayara Carolina; Lopes Thiago Inácio Barros; Rossato Luana; Nunes Isadora Batista; Faccin Izadora Dillis; Salomé Túlio Máximo; Simionatto Simone. Impact of COVID-19 pandemic in the Brazilian maternal mortality ratio: A comparative analysis of Neural Networks Autoregression, Holt-Winters exponential smoothing, and Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average models. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296064; article XML SHA-256 9242ff8339226865ec50fbd26156c577347b28afb9405a0496bac0676e2fc424. “Impact of COVID-19 pandemic in the Brazilian maternal mortality ratio: A comparative analysis of Neural Networks Autoregression, Holt-Winters exponential smoothing, and Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296064).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296064). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autoshaping
<a id="autoshaping"></a>

Autoshaping is a Pavlovian/instrumental learning procedure in which an organism acquires a new operant response around a conditioned stimulus linked to a reward. It involves forming a conditioned stimulus–unconditioned stimulus association and the transfer of incentive value from the reward to that cue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ecd2d8bf471359bbc94e7e3a75111961390c15863e6271eec3ae579d4fa61da5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Savchenko Artem; Müller Carina; Lubec Jana; Leo Damiana; Korz Volker; Afjehi-Sadat Leila; Malikovic Jovana; Sialana Fernando J.; Lubec Gert; Sukhanov Ilya. The Lack of Dopamine Transporter Is Associated With Conditional Associative Learning Impairments and Striatal Proteomic Changes. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.799433; article XML SHA-256 a4f0ae2c4a53dd7530abf4e40ea19d409e3e7e75223d6ec96d4e411f141465aa. “The Lack of Dopamine Transporter Is Associated With Conditional Associative Learning Impairments and Striatal Proteomic Changes” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.799433).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.799433). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autosomal recessive
<a id="autosomal-recessive"></a>

Autosomal recessive describes an inherited pattern in which a disorder can appear in children from unaffected parents, as in the reported family with two affected siblings. In this context, it refers to a genetic form of nonsyndromic intellectual disability passed on in that way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d9689e8749976765675e1b1a39ebe756b59ee4af564387b3b3840241b91fdb71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Muthusamy Babylakshmi; Bellad Anikha; Prasad Pramada; Bandari Aravind K; Bhuvanalakshmi G; Kiragasur R M; Girimaj Satish Chandra; Pandey Akhilesh. A Novel LINS1 Truncating Mutation in Autosomal Recessive Nonsyndromic Intellectual Disability. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00354; article XML SHA-256 84fa33084ad350c228d1e507d43e5262f43e2131c5a19bad949e3ebf7309674b. “A Novel LINS1 Truncating Mutation in Autosomal Recessive Nonsyndromic Intellectual Disability” (10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00354).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00354). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Autosuggestion
<a id="autosuggestion"></a>

Autosuggestion means a suggestion a person gives to themselves rather than receiving from someone else.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 88c6f64017eeb370226b962da65d2fd9e8d5d795e2a34e5dfc4b7083a8d7e6ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Autosuggestion” (D001346).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001346). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## autotomy
<a id="autotomy"></a>

Autotomy is the loss or shedding of a body part, such as a limb. In the source context on crabs, it refers especially to losing a claw or other limb during events like predation, fighting, defense, molting problems, crowding, or harvesting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8e606fd3a4f263b227c25bf40daf54d78eb86b7bbe73fa95cf9ddb7c364c8551

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Cong; Song Xiao-zhe; Zhang Qian; Pang Yang-yang; Lv Jia-huan; Tang Bo-ping; Cheng Yong-xu; Yang Xiao-zhen. Changes in bud morphology, growth-related genes and nutritional status during cheliped regeneration in the Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209617; article XML SHA-256 bc76ed3afa3593027660fa191b2dc829f1e55e7443a634030d0c074219d93e3a. “Changes in bud morphology, growth-related genes and nutritional status during cheliped regeneration in the Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209617).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209617). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## availability heuristic
<a id="availability-heuristic"></a>

The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut in which people judge how common or likely something is by how easily examples come to mind. It can bias judgment because information that is more retrievable may be treated as more frequent or probable than it really is.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39f642d9227f13d580a45b1a92d3c7389a6b5959ea8a0f6d23b6f96952ed6980

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Zihui. The debiasing paradox: cognitive biases in judicial adjudication of valuation adjustment mechanisms across Chinese and American courts. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870936; article XML SHA-256 88d3cad3240c24d95711abe96b0701f1571e32bdb4bedc7a13d2c54dde323e62. “The debiasing paradox: cognitive biases in judicial adjudication of valuation adjustment mechanisms across Chinese and American courts” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870936).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870936). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## avatar
<a id="avatar"></a>

In this historical usage, an avatar is one of the incarnations of Vishnu in Hindu mythology. It refers to a human form understood as the god being actually present, though later mythology also extended the idea to animal and monstrous forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9bde093ae6215498caad4ebdf13d89752d1ad224f46d943774aa3cf64a31603c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Avatar” (Avatar).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Avatar). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## average
<a id="average"></a>

Average usually means the arithmetic mean, found by combining values and dividing by how many there are. More broadly, it can refer to any measure that represents the center of a set of values.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18614af29de8be507c5eda6f1482542027d728853489780b2ab01d8e8ef7ae69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Average” (average.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/average.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## average deviation
<a id="average-deviation"></a>

Average deviation is the mean amount by which repeated reproductions differ from a standard. In this historical psychophysical use, it summarizes how far responses stray from the original item being matched.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1bfe07aff0d103644ceaeb305e9e81cd76f30374ded05f7f6c39c17e68699a5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3874500-3886500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aversion conditioning
<a id="aversion-conditioning"></a>

Aversion conditioning is a form of learning in which a stimulus becomes rejected because it is paired with something unpleasant or aversive. In the source packet, it refers to using an unpleasant consequence alongside appetitive conditioning to strengthen discrimination learning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb96e32cbc2647b6fa4f0126262ec342454c86ab885a29ea4233dc4f681d842c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Avarguès-Weber Aurore; de Brito Sanchez Maria G.; Giurfa Martin; Dyer Adrian G.. Aversive Reinforcement Improves Visual Discrimination Learning in Free-Flying Honeybees. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0015370; article XML SHA-256 01daf099cff40c1c991d8f37e801a905f4a8edc357c7c10da2f43f9deff9e1b4. “Aversive Reinforcement Improves Visual Discrimination Learning in Free-Flying Honeybees” (10.1371/journal.pone.0015370).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0015370). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aversion therapy
<a id="aversion-therapy"></a>

Aversion therapy is a form of psychotherapy that aims to make an unwanted behavior less appealing by linking it with unpleasant stimuli, so the person develops an aversion to that behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4e4a5f434bc9156ee64bbf87b5f4b0fd5714f54de6bb04a03ba373e9423e823

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Aversion Therapy” (C219822).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aversive event
<a id="aversive-event"></a>

An aversive event is an unpleasant or threatening occurrence that can become linked in learning with another cue and contribute to fear responses. In this context, even relatively mild aversive events may help strengthen later fear memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d384e86defddce35c699c866ac3c59a824c6f36d444b0bc989427076af52f92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gazendam Femke J.; Kindt Merel. Worrying Affects Associative Fear Learning: A Startle Fear Conditioning Study. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0034882; article XML SHA-256 5f64d7540d41f68e414966b69c2cc75322ea91306ad0b3febac80e45aa848dd5. “Worrying Affects Associative Fear Learning: A Startle Fear Conditioning Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0034882).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0034882). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aversive stimulus
<a id="aversive-stimulus"></a>

An aversive stimulus is something an organism tries to avoid or escape because it leads behavior toward reducing contact with it. It is used in learning contexts such as negative reinforcement and punishment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f3f4f2e2a94aff3e00d337f724f3c5d49bf8c4c64215c76f90aba62366dfe5f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Aversive Stimulus” (C41257).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aversive therapy
<a id="aversive-therapy"></a>

Aversive therapy is a treatment approach that aims to reduce unwanted behavior by pairing it with unpleasant consequences at the same time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7dc32b596bba5f73ac057b5188ecb6c650179420a34801e6064da6380db6052a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aversive Therapy” (D001348).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001348). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## avian influenza
<a id="avian-influenza"></a>

Avian influenza is an influenza virus infection of birds caused by a segmented, single-stranded RNA virus. It is important in poultry, is mainly carried and spread by migratory birds, and can infect humans, giving it pandemic potential.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43d3e1809afb2069a6d29b81ec196daff063b5d5ef9e16e546a5ff44aa1a1a1d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Castro-Sanguinetti Gina R.; Marques Simas Paulo Vitor; Apaza-Chiara Ana Paola; Callupe-Leyva Jose Alonso; Rondon-Espinoza Juan Alexander; Gavidia Cesar M.; More-Bayona Juan Anderson; Gonzalez Veliz Rosa Isabel; Vakharia Vikram N.; Icochea Maria Eliana. Genetic subtyping and phylogenetic analysis of HA and NA from avian influenza virus in wild birds from Peru reveals unique features among circulating strains in America. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0268957; article XML SHA-256 d3b93f23044a86d35f61d7226b9e5a2ce15471297f18e34f763b2ebf1b23c6f5. “Genetic subtyping and phylogenetic analysis of HA and NA from avian influenza virus in wild birds from Peru reveals unique features among circulating strains in America” (10.1371/journal.pone.0268957).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268957). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## aviophobia
<a id="aviophobia"></a>

Aviophobia is a fear of flying. It can cause marked distress and lead people to avoid air travel, affecting social, work, and personal life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9296bede2a501ec4e1e3620a439f5a95a38303903b4efc5a0feff9492ac8973d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eyiz Eylül; Kırhan Kübra Nur; Polat Sevdiye Kemik; Aslan Mustafa. A qualitative study on aviophobia and coping strategies. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05050-y; article XML SHA-256 7a07c3471719476c7db2a66378713c3249b2dd363f109db50b83ddff939b2b19. “A qualitative study on aviophobia and coping strategies” (10.1186/s40359-026-05050-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05050-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AVLT
<a id="avlt"></a>

AVLT is a verbal learning and memory test used with children and adults. In this version, a person hears one 15-word list over repeated trials, then a second 15-word list, and is asked to recall the words immediately and again after a delay so performance and intrusion errors can be counted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8d6b6f7f258a111ce451f4c97b34896a5aa75a9b2da57a8cf47f0c574fe167f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative Auditory Verbal Learning Test Functional Test” (C102112).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AVM
<a id="avm"></a>

AVM refers to around view monitoring, a vehicle system that uses four wide-angle cameras to capture the area around the vehicle. In this source, AVM images are used to help detect nearby obstacles and estimate how far they are from the vehicle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9d21304e063946d86711dd808bd73b2c96452068ae9ff185ca4bf09ce7e46da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Zhe; Liao Yule; Wang Bolong; Wang Minwang; Fu Min; Hu Zhaozheng. Near obstacles detection by inverse perspective mapping of AVM for intelligent vehicles. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336851; article XML SHA-256 ccd6130757360a171e41054d19cbc1aa58ed736cce90b17be96a9c562ba90354. “Near obstacles detection by inverse perspective mapping of AVM for intelligent vehicles” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336851).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336851). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## avoidance
<a id="avoidance"></a>

Avoidance is a behavior in which a person consciously or unconsciously stays away from, withdraws from, or refuses to face certain situations, activities, or objects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ddb8ec4fe4feeec0f36d0313332889a34037b077e0238aad45159614922d6f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Avoidance” (C54264).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## avoidance behavior
<a id="avoidance-behavior"></a>

Avoidance behavior, in this source, means a pattern of pulling back from work by reducing one’s presence, attention, or timely effort, such as through absenteeism, disengagement, and procrastination. It describes an evasive way of staying employed while withholding involvement, without necessarily intending to quit or cause harm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 499f3366d58c6d5440c9a1cca66091f2ba5b2e5af6d53a9f303e9a4cb3cec855

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yufu; Zada Muhammad; Alotaibi Hammad S; Vega-Muñoz Alejandro; Contreras-Barraza Nicolás; Khan Jawad; Ali Kishwar. Getting unstuck from a stagnant career: examining the role of perceived mentor proactivity in the relationship between protégés career plateaus and workplace avoidance behavior. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920144; article XML SHA-256 1b10fb4b19e9004be1a0969b3d3ec768beac7a9c4416d65cf01ce1d4fb1a44b7. “Getting unstuck from a stagnant career: examining the role of perceived mentor proactivity in the relationship between protégés career plateaus and workplace avoidance behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920144).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920144). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## avoidance conditioning
<a id="avoidance-conditioning"></a>

Avoidance conditioning is a form of learning in which repeated pairings of a signal with an unpleasant event lead an organism to avoid the signaled item or situation. In the source packet, it refers specifically to taste avoidance learning that occurred only when the cue came before the aversive stimulus, showing that the learned avoidance depended on that pairing order.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c11e6b3f83d26bdb06d10b3199805be1bac971a4730dce4d8539e2e9011993f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Takahashi Tomoyo; Takigami Satoshi; Sunada Hiroshi; Lukowiak Ken; Sakakibara Manabu. Critical Period of Memory Enhancement during Taste Avoidance Conditioning in Lymnaea stagnalis. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0075276; article XML SHA-256 f0d095b629cc7218dffa2529c576dc98cbee61f5db86d9d3db8448222e9731b4. “Critical Period of Memory Enhancement during Taste Avoidance Conditioning in Lymnaea stagnalis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0075276).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0075276). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## avoidance gradient
<a id="avoidance-gradient"></a>

An avoidance gradient is the pattern in which avoidance behavior becomes stronger as something aversive is approached. In the source, it refers to flight paths showing greater divergence from a turbine’s direction at closer distances, especially when the turbine was operating.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca314f986cdd8fbbfd76f0419403a267fed538b10e4cf3708c06e5057659e9eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shultz Abigail; Solick Donald; Whitby Michael; Newman Christian; Corcoran Aaron. Integrating 3-D thermal videography, ultrasonic acoustics, and weather radar to characterize bird and bat activity at wind turbines. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352329; article XML SHA-256 d04d1051f8cacfa4ae80f000c10152d00a63f463991517ed9f1d65f516aa75f1. “Integrating 3-D thermal videography, ultrasonic acoustics, and weather radar to characterize bird and bat activity at wind turbines” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352329).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352329). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## avoidance learning
<a id="avoidance-learning"></a>

Avoidance learning is learning to make a response when a cue appears so that an unpleasant or harmful experience is prevented. It involves behavior that serves to avoid something noxious.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75fe3e0a5677e2431ae47863c15469b2c4819a9b1fb1e2488be3b94e9a812074

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Avoidance Learning” (D001362).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001362). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## avoidant attachment
<a id="avoidant-attachment"></a>

Avoidant attachment is an insecure attachment style. In the supplied source, it is described as one of the insecure attachment patterns examined as a mediating factor in adolescents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fbe6047e47ac88e2578ccf12e3d73193a2aa37fecfe42f605926c0fd0b9e6020

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jin Xinquan; Jiang Qiang; Xiong Weiyan; Zhao Wei. Effects of use motivations and alexithymia on smartphone addiction: mediating role of insecure attachment. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1227931; article XML SHA-256 810544c570d102edc6278478882622c5effffda68ad2a300561cfabbd390ddb5. “Effects of use motivations and alexithymia on smartphone addiction: mediating role of insecure attachment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1227931).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1227931). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## avoidant personality disorder
<a id="avoidant-personality-disorder"></a>

Avoidant personality disorder is a mental health condition marked by a long-standing pattern of avoiding social situations and close contact with other people. This avoidance is driven by strong feelings of social inadequacy and heightened sensitivity to criticism, negative judgment, or rejection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c220add5de0dd8ca4f4d74bef5ca0beede053438e59db42b71f16eb3451630e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Avoidant Personality Disorder” (C92636).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## AVP
<a id="avp"></a>

AVP refers to a human gene product called vasopressin-neurophysin 2-copeptin, a protein involved in neuropeptide hormone activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a55a8c349a7b83d00b7a281304ab8a6b9fe1c6b24872277ddd14def71bb08e84

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Vasopressin-Neurophysin 2-Copeptin” (C26089).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## awareness
<a id="awareness"></a>

Awareness is the act of registering or recognizing an object, event, or situation. It means something is taken into account, without necessarily examining or judging its qualities or nature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7879f8cd882641157804d68b309b3b275db8509aaf101fee121c6b5fde7daa0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Awareness” (D001364).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001364). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## awareness training
<a id="awareness-training"></a>

Awareness training refers here to the Awareness Training Program, a group-based mental training approach that includes compassion and wisdom meditation as core practices. In the source, it is used to help people regulate negative emotions by influencing attention, thinking, and behavioral responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 044876fbe02ed986f8e4dde6e1a9d45dda81a16c25c2f14638b34d5d256f621a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Junling; Leung Hang Kin; Fan Jicong; Wu Bonnie Wai Yan; Sik Hin Hung. The neurophysiology of the intervention strategies of Awareness Training Program on emotion regulation. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.891656; article XML SHA-256 321c6ddfdd2b5974e1f60c7f9bbd0436bc90335e86c14c5412707649f870abff. “The neurophysiology of the intervention strategies of Awareness Training Program on emotion regulation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.891656).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.891656). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## awe
<a id="awe"></a>

Awe is a complex emotion with both positive and mixed qualities, often compared to the Romantic idea of the sublime. In psychology research, it is studied as an emotional experience that can be evoked and examined experimentally, including with virtual reality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31f3984ba6f267d38c284411019d1f5a7ed399b8afdb6af461edab5f50e2d8dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bondi Elena; Carbone Flavia; Pizzolante Marta; Schiena Giandomenico; Ferro Adele; Mazzocut-Mis Maddalena; Gaggioli Andrea; Chirico Alice; Brambilla Paolo; Maggioni Eleonora. Integrating virtual reality, electroencephalography, and transcranial magnetic stimulation to study the neural correlates of awe experiences: The SUBRAIN protocol. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302762; article XML SHA-256 ae8af8ab537ac5c129cfdcee543aa16c42a39955833a9731632294b0786e708e. “Integrating virtual reality, electroencephalography, and transcranial magnetic stimulation to study the neural correlates of awe experiences: The SUBRAIN protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302762).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302762). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Axenfeld–Rieger syndrome
<a id="axenfeldrieger-syndrome"></a>

Axenfeld–Rieger syndrome is an inherited developmental disorder linked in this packet to PITX2 mutations. It involves abnormal development of the front part of the eye along with underdeveloped teeth, distinctive craniofacial differences, and umbilical abnormalities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b6e3141654a658a451040cd780044477ba549bc38089031508d53124c7dd774

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Yi; Semina Elena V.. pitx2 Deficiency Results in Abnormal Ocular and Craniofacial Development in Zebrafish. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0030896; article XML SHA-256 426e12f0c93fa51ace9bfdcfee7c4c42e210dadb986a8eb942fdc162a8ff5916. “pitx2 Deficiency Results in Abnormal Ocular and Craniofacial Development in Zebrafish” (10.1371/journal.pone.0030896).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030896). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## axiom
<a id="axiom"></a>

An axiom is a general proposition taken to need no proof, or to be beyond proof, because it is treated as self-evident. In historical usage, the term has also referred to ultimate principles of reasoning or knowledge, and in mathematics to the self-evident starting points of geometry and familiar general facts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cbff7b132f49065d7e367ed538d1c0a6cc6adfc22b9f00f3fba52ea47eac4162

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Axiom” (Axiom).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Axiom). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## axis cylinder
<a id="axis-cylinder"></a>

Axis cylinder is a historical term for the central nervous axis running through a nerve fibre. It was also sometimes shortened to simply axis, and the related axis-cylinder process refers to the neurite.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc68bf14baba4f30495817a6fc62e7525c3fcf4ed6a008ecad2cebf7e31a13b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Axis Cylinder” (Axis Cylinder).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Axis Cylinder). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## axon
<a id="axon"></a>

An axon is the part of a neuron that extends from the cell body and carries electrical signals away from it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7b8df91029f1a3f66ba541d3d9250c6e08e6277a6244e6bfebaa570768861877

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Axon” (C32177).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## axon reflex
<a id="axon-reflex"></a>

An axon reflex is a nerve-mediated local response in which activation of small nerve fibres in the skin produces a nearby widening of blood vessels, seen as a flare after heating. In this context, it is used as an indicator of small fibre function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f4d93a7b4cb95d11d608a0ba2f040cbb83036d0328d7d3a457f7ca93fdb3eb7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vas Prashanth R. J.; Rayman Gerry. The Rate of Decline in Small Fibre Function Assessed Using Axon Reflex-Mediated Neurogenic Vasodilatation and the Importance of Age Related Centile Values to Improve the Detection of Clinical Neuropathy. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0069920; article XML SHA-256 b1a953a14c1b10466eeacccf26dbfe80f05ddff78ae1b0b5794054d39324d133. “The Rate of Decline in Small Fibre Function Assessed Using Axon Reflex-Mediated Neurogenic Vasodilatation and the Importance of Age Related Centile Values to Improve the Detection of Clinical Neuropathy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0069920).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069920). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## axonal myelination
<a id="axonal-myelination"></a>

Axonal myelination is the formation or restoration of myelin around axons in the central nervous system. This myelin is needed for neurons to function properly, and when it is lost or not regenerated, neurons are more vulnerable to further degeneration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eda474e277677ff74fab00de0dc3bb5d8205e819e6b26d16f9767537c9e88824

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lariosa-Willingham Karen D.; Rosler Elen S.; Tung Jay S.; Dugas Jason C.; Collins Tassie L.; Leonoudakis Dmitri. Development of a central nervous system axonal myelination assay for high throughput screening. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12868-016-0250-2; article XML SHA-256 e40603d2e209be10a01fdff4f60e83454ff8c567d91c48c281c91278ca29a421. “Development of a central nervous system axonal myelination assay for high throughput screening” (10.1186/s12868-016-0250-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-016-0250-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## axonal transport
<a id="axonal-transport"></a>

Axonal transport is the purposeful movement of organelles and other molecules along a neuron's axon. It may travel away from the cell body or back toward it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09d690fa3d9f28cc1db46622768c86dc684d85991ff2ddfa00ecedb2f67ae74e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Axonal Transport” (D001370).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001370). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## axosomatic synapse
<a id="axosomatic-synapse"></a>

An axosomatic synapse is a junction where the axon of one neuron connects with the cell body of another neuron.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f104bfbd88fdea66aa0c77236dff13d4af4d755bac0cffb07412192a1b54f29b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Axosomatic Synapse” (C32178).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ayahuasca
<a id="ayahuasca"></a>

Ayahuasca is a psychedelic compound that has drawn interest as a possible rapid-acting treatment for treatment-resistant depression. In psychology and mental health ethics, discussion of ayahuasca includes not only its possible effects but also ethical, methodological, and real-world questions about how useful it may be in clinical care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ccb2460c709c26d55be9437a13f308c9de301847d9e93d17ffc3a39b0d252de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Civardi Serena Chiara; Besana Filippo; Durbano Federico; Toscano Marco Otto Maria; Raffone Fabiola; Dell’Osso Bernardo Maria; Olivola Miriam. Psilocybin and ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: clinical evidence, methodological constraints and ethical challenges: a narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1858319; article XML SHA-256 050e000aa2745e2a45cce055deb0d657801e82b5b6e11d2a796d5c4102981c89. “Psilocybin and ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: clinical evidence, methodological constraints and ethical challenges: a narrative review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1858319).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1858319). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Ayurveda
<a id="ayurveda"></a>

Ayurveda is an ancient Indian tradition described as part of a holistic approach to mental health that brings together physical, mental, and spiritual well-being. In this context, it offers guidance for balanced living, mental peace, and coping with psychological difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cd31c664bc8c6f50be87b5f8a1bf2c84b73a73200745c181e1bd1c1f835930c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bhati Ruchi; Mandal Mitu; Singh Tripti. Ancient Indian perspectives and practices of mental well-being. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1616802; article XML SHA-256 85de59f674790a92aaae26c6f74bd243523575a2f0c85669da4807e15be3eaa1. “Ancient Indian perspectives and practices of mental well-being” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1616802).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1616802). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## B cell
<a id="b-cell"></a>

A B cell is an immune-system lymphocyte that does not depend on the thymus. It can be short-lived and naive or long-lived with memory features, and its main role is producing immunoglobulins.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d89ba162627092e36c1a2eddcc2dca48aeab63493f78f2e4bc7d0c8fd35f798b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “B-Lymphocyte” (C12474).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## B lymphocyte
<a id="b-lymphocyte"></a>

A B lymphocyte is an immune system lymphocyte that does not depend on the thymus. It may be a short-lived naive cell or a long-lived memory cell, and its main role is producing immunoglobulins.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50412e6e7eb42948071cb55cc0e80d3a42765c5dd06f5283fced3f9f87d10598

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “B-Lymphocyte” (C12474).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## B-value
<a id="b-value"></a>

B-value is a diffusion MRI acquisition setting that measures how strongly diffusion-sensitive gradients affect tissue and therefore how sensitive the image is to water diffusion. Higher B-values increase sensitivity to microstructural features such as white matter fiber bundles, but they also reduce signal-to-noise ratio.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86d3f3ad322b4cf173be451b7f2509b91399845904f45bc0d8f6ef6c376b4e52

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Guolan; Xue Xiaohong; Chen Yifei; Liu Hao; Li Haifang; Wang Qianshan. RISNet: A variable multi-modal image feature fusion adversarial neural network for generating specific dMRI images. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329653; article XML SHA-256 1461041b8cb60b8fb9fe95129c4cab90f3d43fc4c6c99005224bdb469b10593d. “RISNet: A variable multi-modal image feature fusion adversarial neural network for generating specific dMRI images” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329653).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329653). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## babbling
<a id="babbling"></a>

Babbling is an early stage of language development in the maturational and learning process through which sounds and symbols become more complex and meaningful to the individual. It is one of the developmental stages that comes before later language abilities such as word imitation and short sentences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bdceef05822312c5c7273bed8a6eb1da359c2033fd266c2970c2e3e101dc1338

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Language Development” (D007804).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007804). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Babinski reflex
<a id="babinski-reflex"></a>

The Babinski reflex is a foot response in which stroking the sole causes the big toe to bend upward and the other toes to spread. This pattern is normal in infants, but in adults its presence is used as a sign of central nervous system dysfunction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8957e44f1e89fa5700ec9f9f1c955702d72fad4ddb414088a290677b8bb1243

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reflex, Babinski” (D001405).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001405). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## baby blues
<a id="baby-blues"></a>

Baby blues is a common term for mild, brief mood changes after childbirth, including worry, unhappiness, and exhaustion. It typically refers to feelings many women have during the first 2 weeks after giving birth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4cf00140e37b92bb0400321c742da25de3405e41bb9bac209ffd4884a7e6eb93

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Perinatal Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 da7c7019e90c70c4e547cffa57eb80d317ecfea814e3e8f0f83cec7e04211841. “Perinatal Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/perinatal-depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/perinatal-depression). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BAC
<a id="bac"></a>

BAC stands for blood alcohol concentration, a measure of how much alcohol is present in the blood. In this context, it refers to detecting or estimating alcohol levels for research use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e29262202aa9ff80ad8edc7e80b820866cdd1560faf34a1f40ec5d896b7d744b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Jiayi; Hu Yingqi; Jin Ziqi; A Runa; Wang Xiaoxue; Zhang Lingyu; Xue Yongzhi. Optimizing blood alcohol concentration measurement with breath alcohol meter and its preliminary application in evaluating CYP2E1 activity. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335312; article XML SHA-256 c6531ef9bb06ae0e73db1ce288878f355f10f23395d323ef5df68e1367112dfb. “Optimizing blood alcohol concentration measurement with breath alcohol meter and its preliminary application in evaluating CYP2E1 activity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335312).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335312). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Back Pain
<a id="back-pain"></a>

Back pain is pain that occurs in the back and may be short-term or long-lasting. It is located in the back of the chest, the lower back and sacral area, or nearby regions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83b305aaaef070336065121e0cebb18cc7ba2a837042481610021040b08bbdfd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Back Pain” (D001416).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001416). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## backbone
<a id="backbone"></a>

In network analysis, a backbone is a simplified version of a complex network that keeps its most important structural features and connections. It is used to reduce complexity while preserving information needed for tasks such as visualization or further analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ac737511ca454f0e9309a0965d35a5df03eff2f46ee3c280283ba0fbfd04c64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yassin Ali; Cherifi Hocine; Seba Hamida; Togni Olivier. Exploring weighted network backbone extraction: A comparative analysis of structural techniques. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322298; article XML SHA-256 3b9f21d894ddb781cdb529634bcaed487641b1c975a313f2b848b728945a215b. “Exploring weighted network backbone extraction: A comparative analysis of structural techniques” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322298).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322298). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## background variable
<a id="background-variable"></a>

A background variable is a factor treated as part of the setting or context rather than as the main focus of analysis. In this packet, the emotion taxonomy is described as a background variable when evaluations assume it is a neutral condition underlying performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 28e2bba04fbc3917dd0a4dffa3b72042a7ea5cd206205ee515a66403b8daa977

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Fa; Chen Jian. Granularity paradox: how emotion taxonomies shape GPT-5’s affective cognition and human-AI alignment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1786724; article XML SHA-256 1e81ba177685b850bb62f35490b7bc34444d8c591ad63f1eeab2708f8f4a6222. “Granularity paradox: how emotion taxonomies shape GPT-5’s affective cognition and human-AI alignment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1786724).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1786724). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## backward conditioning
<a id="backward-conditioning"></a>

Backward conditioning is a conditioning arrangement in which the unconditional stimulus is presented before the conditional stimulus. In the supplied study, this US-then-CS order did not produce conditioning, unlike the CS-then-US sequence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ca681b16ee7d2c66edd27e6cce21f545d7ce8e69aff1a27ea2794699df22ed4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Takahashi Tomoyo; Takigami Satoshi; Sunada Hiroshi; Lukowiak Ken; Sakakibara Manabu. Critical Period of Memory Enhancement during Taste Avoidance Conditioning in Lymnaea stagnalis. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0075276; article XML SHA-256 f0d095b629cc7218dffa2529c576dc98cbee61f5db86d9d3db8448222e9731b4. “Critical Period of Memory Enhancement during Taste Avoidance Conditioning in Lymnaea stagnalis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0075276).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0075276). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## backward elimination
<a id="backward-elimination"></a>

Backward elimination is a variable-selection method used in regression modeling to decide which predictors to keep in a multivariable analysis. It refers to removing variables from a model so the final model includes a selected set of predictors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b540ab50e3e5d5cc154b0df3d476831deb4159dea2c7f6e558e499087440767

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schernhammer Eva S.; Weitzer Jakob; Han Emilie; Bertau Martin; Zenk Lukas; Caniglia Guido; Laubichler Manfred D.; Birmann Brenda M.; Steiner Gerald. Determinants of trust in times of crises: A cross-sectional study of 3,065 German-speaking adults from the D-A-CH region. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0286488; article XML SHA-256 dede7f27bfe5254f56af9897055395db96794632bf7054dcbf2020f414b0f190. “Determinants of trust in times of crises: A cross-sectional study of 3,065 German-speaking adults from the D-A-CH region” (10.1371/journal.pone.0286488).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286488). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## backward masking
<a id="backward-masking"></a>

Backward masking is a visual research method in which a briefly shown target image is quickly followed by another image, called a mask, to reduce or disrupt awareness of the target. It is used to study conscious and unconscious visual processing by changing the timing between the target and the mask.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 386399306bef9c3968d3eb5a5b597586d7517c10bd5e618440c0f4be9af769d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Silverstein David N.. A computational investigation of feedforward and feedback processing in metacontrast backward masking. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00006; article XML SHA-256 7f7655b39bb288f8613a0392c8850042f969f0658ecbe0375344ddd54e19c212. “A computational investigation of feedforward and feedback processing in metacontrast backward masking” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00006).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00006). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## backward pairing
<a id="backward-pairing"></a>

Backward pairing is a conditioning arrangement in which the unconditioned stimulus is presented before the conditioned stimulus, such as sucrose followed by an odor. In the supplied source, this order is linked to inhibitory learning, meaning the later cue can come to reduce or interrupt the conditioned response rather than trigger it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cccedce03a33dbc93cec3596b4bd03b6ccfe131e9242790c53bb8d423d6ba28e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dacher Matthieu; Smith Brian H.. Olfactory Interference during Inhibitory Backward Pairing in Honey Bees. 2008; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0003513; article XML SHA-256 8b8fe5236dfa06c5b685da23ab3d48690c01256d1798e3f4bc7a9e11630e1068. “Olfactory Interference during Inhibitory Backward Pairing in Honey Bees” (10.1371/journal.pone.0003513).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0003513). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## baclofen
<a id="baclofen"></a>

Baclofen is a drug related to gamma-aminobutyric acid that activates GABA-B receptors. It is used to reduce muscle spasticity, especially after spinal cord injury, by decreasing excitatory signaling in the spinal cord and brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5d504eb12ae2448374485d629b68454a94bd6a0f6fb694d10363c182f3629e40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Baclofen” (D001418).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001418). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Baconian method
<a id="baconian-method"></a>

The Baconian method is a way of inquiry that starts with many particular observations and builds broader ideas only from what comparison of those cases supports. In its stricter historical sense, it refers to Francis Bacon’s form of induction, which tries to isolate what is essential to a phenomenon by excluding features that do not consistently appear with it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 056aedc50d9b1ef3b184d536a990e0f2a29f9189ff394670ba7e7d93d657ae57

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baconian Method” (Baconian Method).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Baconian Method). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bacterial meningitis
<a id="bacterial-meningitis"></a>

Bacterial meningitis is inflammation of the membranes around the brain and spinal cord caused by a bacterial infection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b767afd46ac0a756b91bc49bd2a4ddff9a2f80644696bc97c333f28a289d16d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Bacterial Meningitis” (C118297).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BAL
<a id="bal"></a>

BAL, also called dimercaprol, is a chelating agent that has been used in Wilson’s disease, a condition involving excess copper buildup in the liver and brain. The source describes it as clinically toxic, with a narrow safety margin and risks including kidney, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and liver-related adverse effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dfb499544871de032b00d751c24b4b2ca3243a6b54aca73ff7a8073f633889b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Molano Miguel Fernando; Gómez Gómez Alba Marcela; Moncayo-Lasso Alejandro; Bejarano Carlos A.; Diaz John Edward; Buendía-Atencio Cristian; Delgado Miguel Ángel; Lorett Velásquez Vaneza Paola; Loaiza Alix E.; Mejía Sol M.. Dimercaprol (BAL): Insights into conformational stability, fragmentation pathways via tandem LR-ESI, HR-EI mass spectrometry, and gas-phase thermochemical properties from quantum chemical calculations. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349950; article XML SHA-256 4bef31a03e0f81ca7862505bd430f141584f9051e1dfbf67bc1148cb66f39fc0. “Dimercaprol (BAL): Insights into conformational stability, fragmentation pathways via tandem LR-ESI, HR-EI mass spectrometry, and gas-phase thermochemical properties from quantum chemical calculations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349950).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349950). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## balance
<a id="balance"></a>

Balance is the control of body stability by sensorimotor mechanisms, and it can be examined by measuring how a person responds to controlled surface or visual disturbances. In clinical assessment, balance is often measured indirectly, but more standardized objective methods aim to reveal the underlying control processes and related deficits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: dd4585b41e49754c4d1af3bc689c6418afef2306d61d5f1bdc0f474dfb94a371

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brodsky Jennifer L.; Lee Jae W.; King Laurie A.; Peterka Robert J.. Assessment of balance control mechanisms in patient populations using perturbation-based modeling: a narrative review with clinical implications. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1768417; article XML SHA-256 28a601daec48a561cb6c4645313e04d638e7966564893d769e681d7312dcfac1. “Assessment of balance control mechanisms in patient populations using perturbation-based modeling: a narrative review with clinical implications” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1768417).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1768417). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## balance control
<a id="balance-control"></a>

Balance control is the neuromechanical ability to keep the body stable and accurately regulate posture during standing and movement. In this context, it is evaluated through patterns of postural stability, often using center-of-pressure measures to detect differences in how people regulate balance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ca8eb80a15e2de49b3deeccf5d2b3f52d5749d04464f31d584d3e2408001baab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cui Xinze; Gao Jie; Zhang Pengquan; Yan Jingyi; Chen Yongxia; Xu Guocai; Cheng Yuqi; Wang Xin; Fu Yanming. Dual-Stream deep learning for multimodal feature fusion and classification of balance control in elite freestyle aerial skiers. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337296; article XML SHA-256 7f6d7097abbfa2e4e109ad9f1b015c350c3d35322c1ab265bdf0aaa16d005b9e. “Dual-Stream deep learning for multimodal feature fusion and classification of balance control in elite freestyle aerial skiers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337296).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337296). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## balance training
<a id="balance-training"></a>

Balance training is practice aimed at improving postural stability while standing and bearing weight on the feet. It involves doing tasks that challenge a person’s ability to stay upright and avoid losing balance or falling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6fc6fee148c3e27063be8ce07b68c174a513d84d82ac165288011d04e129822f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sun Yao; Hurd Caitlin L.; Barnes Michelle M.; Yang Jaynie F.. Neural Plasticity in Spinal and Corticospinal Pathways Induced by Balance Training in Neurologically Intact Adults: A Systematic Review. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2022.921490; article XML SHA-256 f7930f494540197881b947ad85307eb2eda35e5c3a3161bce368d14d86b39e9b. “Neural Plasticity in Spinal and Corticospinal Pathways Induced by Balance Training in Neurologically Intact Adults: A Systematic Review” (10.3389/fnhum.2022.921490).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.921490). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## balanced design
<a id="balanced-design"></a>

A balanced design is a study setup in which comparison conditions are arranged so that potentially important features are evenly controlled across them. In this source, it means the sentence conditions were matched on factors such as the target word type and the immediately preceding context, so differences in responses could be attributed more confidently to the anomalies being tested.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1aef8541876ff2e6b21b29706e926ac83c850ecf1e01eeba3d1e876f8f38b0a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fromont Lauren A; Steinhauer Karsten; Royle Phaedra. Verbing nouns and nouning verbs: Using a balanced design provides ERP evidence against “syntax-first” approaches to sentence processing. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0229169; article XML SHA-256 4322e38603d1faa71dfeaaf9e9f06d76ea23a99c941f2fd868f78e5a95dcabe1. “Verbing nouns and nouning verbs: Using a balanced design provides ERP evidence against “syntax-first” approaches to sentence processing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0229169).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229169). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Baldwin’s figure
<a id="baldwins-figure"></a>

Baldwin’s figure is a historical name for one of the named figures used in discussions of optical illusion. In this source, it refers specifically to figure 17 among geometrical-optical illusion examples.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba5db569fb131a61eb45f3cf771588520bc039c231be8feacec7bf75fcf440c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1176000-1188000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bandwidth
<a id="bandwidth"></a>

Bandwidth is the communication capacity available for sending data between devices and servers. In this context, lower bandwidth consumption means transmitting model information more efficiently and with less communication overhead.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17057ec24c1514dd68f7db98ebff897649c9e4ce45d8bb42d367d10dd62830d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Jie; Liu Renjing; Xing Jinsheng. Threshold-adaptive pruning with multi-key homomorphic encryption for communication-efficient secure federated learning. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349432; article XML SHA-256 932f2078fbe149421b12af8c6f75c95da9895d898e946d3ac7f3b770479c24bc. “Threshold-adaptive pruning with multi-key homomorphic encryption for communication-efficient secure federated learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349432).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349432). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## banner advertisement
<a id="banner-advertisement"></a>

A banner advertisement is an online display ad used to promote a product or brand on a webpage. In psychology research on attention, it is often studied as a visual stimulus that may attract or fail to attract viewers’ notice and can influence what parts of the ad people look at and how they judge the advertised product.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b63acf094df2cb9d1420aa9603827f192f78edd89f29473889352830e72e52c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Palcu Johanna; Sudkamp Jennifer; Florack Arnd. Judgments at Gaze Value: Gaze Cuing in Banner Advertisements, Its Effect on Attention Allocation and Product Judgments. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00881; article XML SHA-256 d2a2a60473badf442b1815f6d1714e66f1fbec3faddc9cbc41427a4adecbd71f. “Judgments at Gaze Value: Gaze Cuing in Banner Advertisements, Its Effect on Attention Allocation and Product Judgments” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00881).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00881). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## baquet
<a id="baquet"></a>

In the history of Mesmerism, the baquet was the apparatus set up for Mesmer's “magnetic” treatment, in which induced crisis-like symptoms were thought to help bring about recovery. The room where it was used for cures was known as the salle des crises.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7ed3ba02cf6052a0511e488f4e8c8f839066bc85aa3ed13fc77006c0619dd74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Crisis” (Crisis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Crisis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## barbiturate
<a id="barbiturate"></a>

A barbiturate is a class of drugs that slows activity in the central nervous system. It works mainly by enhancing GABA-A receptor effects, which reduces nerve-cell signaling and can lead to sedation, sleep, anesthesia, coma, and reduced seizure activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab3c93cbabe0584ab9589e1d409a4819dec1c28e13e4e6395db1ba089e683376

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Barbiturate” (C67084).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bardet–Biedl syndrome
<a id="bardetbiedl-syndrome"></a>

Bardet–Biedl syndrome is an inherited autosomal recessive disorder marked by a pattern of physical and developmental features that can include retinitis pigmentosa, extra fingers or toes, obesity, intellectual disability, underdeveloped sex organs, kidney dysplasia, and short stature. It is recognized as distinct from Laurence-Moon syndrome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f682470472b63f671d661c6cc092d445758b5b8b17d15016103a258215ff04e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bardet-Biedl Syndrome” (D020788).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020788). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bargaining
<a id="bargaining"></a>

Bargaining is the process of negotiating to reach an agreement or compromise on an important issue for the people involved. It can also refer to using a third party to decide a dispute or help reconcile the opposing sides.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82bca12665d3130b734ea075edb399c793e3ee69067629fd79afd403c4d4ef67

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Negotiating” (D017008).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017008). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bariatrics
<a id="bariatrics"></a>

Bariatrics refers to activities aimed at helping people with obesity lose weight. It can involve diet, exercise, behavior change, medicines, and bariatric surgery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 956c3b977c38d4a52184767f185f716ac6c949093a8506d8004ddb0e484e1d99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bariatrics” (D049088).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D049088). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## barrier-free environment
<a id="barrier-free-environment"></a>

A barrier-free environment is a setting without obstacles that would prevent a mobile service robot from moving about and carrying out its tasks freely. In this context, barriers include features such as closed doors or elevators that otherwise require special building adaptations or human help.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f16fb2f3db98773f9db6430912f2eef949055fc08aaa26e1fbb3abb150e3d78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schulze Paul Robert; Müller Steffen; Müller Tristan; Gross Horst-Michael. On realizing autonomous transport services in multi story buildings with doors and elevators. 2025; DOI 10.3389/frobt.2025.1546894; article XML SHA-256 d412c87cf1d264af22d1b6e4b9ef207f1fa6f2ae00bb5dcd3dbadf62003d9645. “On realizing autonomous transport services in multi story buildings with doors and elevators” (10.3389/frobt.2025.1546894).](https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2025.1546894). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Barron–Welsh Art Scale
<a id="barronwelsh-art-scale"></a>

The Barron–Welsh Art Scale is an assessment used to measure creativity. In the supplied source, it was one of the questionnaires used to compare creativity levels in people with different levels of risk for bipolar disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c009ee13b9bc94970ae66caf8a0de4186edd54f06638c9f9b1329106562e2f7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Michaelis Elisabeth; Bauer Michael; Bechdolf Andreas; Bermpohl Felix; Berndt Christina; Bröckel-Bundt Kyra L.; Burkhardt Eva; Correll Christoph U.; Dannlowski Udo; Falkenberg Irina; Fallgatter Andreas J.; Fusar-Poli Paolo; Hadji Sarina; Jansen Andreas; Juckel Georg; Kircher Tilo; Kittel-Schneider Sarah; Krüger-Özgürdal Seza; Lambert Martin; Leopold Karolina; Maicher Birgit; Matura Silke; Mennigen Eva; Mikolas Pavol; Reif Andreas; Ritter Philipp; Sauer Cathrin; Stamm Thomas; Martini Julia; Pfennig Andrea. Creativity and transition to bipolar disorder: a prospective analysis from the early-bipolife study. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40345-025-00406-6; article XML SHA-256 140d6a25d5df0ceb9b1ad018d722769586f332991bc2032ee2a4240c068041c7. “Creativity and transition to bipolar disorder: a prospective analysis from the early-bipolife study” (10.1186/s40345-025-00406-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40345-025-00406-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bartholin’s glands
<a id="bartholins-glands"></a>

Bartholin’s glands are mucus-secreting glands located at the back and sides of the vaginal vestibule.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 917de65b65947b84da721127851e74dfd5e9e63169edd3c2d2f9a57a439bd787

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bartholin's Glands” (D001472).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001472). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BAS
<a id="bas"></a>

BAS is a smoking-cessation program that aims to keep a person’s sense of reward and reinforcement up after quitting. It does this by increasing rewarding non-smoking activities and reducing dependence on food as a replacement for smoking, which may help lower weight-related relapse risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba255742f541082d83c4d35c95606c0cf661932acbf7cbc02ad4e352f9b7daf5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Behavioral Activation Intervention to Smoking Cessation and to Post-Cessation Weight Gain” (C162647).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## basal forebrain
<a id="basal-forebrain"></a>

The basal forebrain is a part of the telencephalon that lies in front of and below the striatum. It includes the amygdala, septal nuclei, substantia innominata, and ventral pallidum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47eef3457b0456d05c90f22219cdd6a828eb7bd1ae21506cf2e675495c4f8d9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Basal Forebrain” (D066187).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066187). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## basal ganglia
<a id="basal-ganglia"></a>

The basal ganglia are large groups of nerve cell nuclei beneath the cerebral cortex. They develop from the telencephalon and lie in the lower regions of the cerebral hemispheres.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3aae52eb93cbdb32c77ff22391851c6e0063e53c8276c8d0331bda7c8aa03935

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Basal Ganglia” (D001479).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001479). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## basal magnocellular nucleus
<a id="basal-magnocellular-nucleus"></a>

The basal magnocellular nucleus is a nucleus in the basal forebrain that sends broadly distributed projections to sensory and motor areas of the cortex. In this source, it did not project to the prelimbic/infralimbic prefrontal cortex and had weaker effects on cortical whisker-response activity than stimulation of the horizontal diagonal band of Broca.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35b7a59a377cff3e920548fd399d449e52d0213ee12c6546ead4a351ee62f091

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chaves-Coira Irene; Martín-Cortecero Jesús; Nuñez Angel; Rodrigo-Angulo Margarita L.. Basal Forebrain Nuclei Display Distinct Projecting Pathways and Functional Circuits to Sensory Primary and Prefrontal Cortices in the Rat. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fnana.2018.00069; article XML SHA-256 3e4ab1176ba4722314b3e064b80759bb57b828343d06fc72f6fcc856787a4afa. “Basal Forebrain Nuclei Display Distinct Projecting Pathways and Functional Circuits to Sensory Primary and Prefrontal Cortices in the Rat” (10.3389/fnana.2018.00069).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnana.2018.00069). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## basal nucleus of Meynert
<a id="basal-nucleus-of-meynert"></a>

The basal nucleus of Meynert is a group of nerve cells in the substantia innominata that sends widespread connections to the neocortex and is notable for high acetylcholine-related activity. It degenerates in Parkinson disease and Alzheimer disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5250a56a5fd8f04368417ff640fcc7ffe549dbb4c18d07c1f2cde95ff1f1cebb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Basal Nucleus of Meynert” (D020532).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020532). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## base rate
<a id="base-rate"></a>

Base rate is the actual proportion of a population that has a particular condition or characteristic. It is important in classification because common possibilities are generally more likely than rare ones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa17df2185f8378f361d95ebca2bd9c288f84ad6fae76bcdc2655a4c914d366a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Base Rate” (base_rate.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/base_rate.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## baseline functioning
<a id="baseline-functioning"></a>

Baseline functioning is a person’s starting level of functioning before an intervention or change is measured. In this source, poorer baseline functioning refers to higher autonomic reactivity and more anxiety or depression symptoms at the outset.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a512d67bb890b4fbe437a3a3ab73b6eac5e1b816858dfd7487d539d0dbc9553d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dale Lourdes P.; Dana Audrey N.; Lee Carrie E.; Lamont Hannah; Van Vleet Goelz Donnalea; Dale Caitlin V.; Nazarloo Parmida; McIntosh Mark; Cuffe Steven P.. Feasibility study examining the short-term effects of Sonic Augmentation Technology™. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1772405; article XML SHA-256 3b9dc5d31f266b3e5131f8a10b1d3401fb7df1c952fb9f71e0c3d520a0896f8e. “Feasibility study examining the short-term effects of Sonic Augmentation Technology™” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1772405).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1772405). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## baseline measure
<a id="baseline-measure"></a>

A baseline measure is a one-time assessment taken at the start of a study or follow-up period. In mental health research, it can be used as an initial reference point to examine whether early levels of symptoms predict later outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2d4bf26b9385ab2edb2611d3bda845631d63665db33ddeb5f394cba163cddef1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Palacios Jorge E.; Khondoker Mizanur; Achilla Evanthia; Tylee Andre; Hotopf Matthew. A Single, One-Off Measure of Depression and Anxiety Predicts Future Symptoms, Higher Healthcare Costs, and Lower Quality of Life in Coronary Heart Disease Patients: Analysis from a Multi-Wave, Primary Care Cohort Study. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0158163; article XML SHA-256 ff30c4decfaa9119b199c29aceb29c08b1e7a5d9501aa0b423db6fb89fa5ad5e. “A Single, One-Off Measure of Depression and Anxiety Predicts Future Symptoms, Higher Healthcare Costs, and Lower Quality of Life in Coronary Heart Disease Patients: Analysis from a Multi-Wave, Primary Care Cohort Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0158163).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158163). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## basic emotion
<a id="basic-emotion"></a>

Basic emotion refers to a set of widely recognized emotions, such as anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise, that are described as culturally universal. These emotions involve brain systems including the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex, although the packet also notes debate about whether each basic emotion depends on its own single brain region.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 86810c09d8fcb87a00e285b63e2f15581ce033d6a1276051222598642ce07de0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nakajima Riho; Kinoshita Masashi; Okita Hirokazu; Liu Zhanwen; Nakada Mitsutoshi. Preserving Right Pre-motor and Posterior Prefrontal Cortices Contribute to Maintaining Overall Basic Emotion. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2021.612890; article XML SHA-256 725e6d12bbac4a44f3dd086bba7b74b51d6cb64adf0d7ab48b78a7038d7300bf. “Preserving Right Pre-motor and Posterior Prefrontal Cortices Contribute to Maintaining Overall Basic Emotion” (10.3389/fnhum.2021.612890).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.612890). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## basic-level category
<a id="basic-level-category"></a>

A basic-level category is a more specific class within a broader category, such as “bird” or “dog” within “animal.” In visual categorization, identifying this level can take longer and be less accurate than deciding the broader superordinate category, especially when other members of the same broad class are present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76131400105bb57f381e440401cbc99413641d8bcc4fb2afb3d57ef2c731ea2c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Macé Marc J.-M.; Joubert Olivier R.; Nespoulous Jean-Luc; Fabre-Thorpe Michèle. The Time-Course of Visual Categorizations: You Spot the Animal Faster than the Bird. 2009; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0005927; article XML SHA-256 1ae2b35d2dd226fdc9b3c0b14589e10657a272c802f9d83970e079456c62207c. “The Time-Course of Visual Categorizations: You Spot the Animal Faster than the Bird” (10.1371/journal.pone.0005927).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005927). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## basic rule
<a id="basic-rule"></a>

In this source, the basic rule is that when the mammalian neocortex gets larger, it also becomes more folded. Larger brains tend to develop disproportionately more convolutions, although folding is not explained by size increase alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4927cf699ac7df483923860a2bab055a3321e5d5efbe66bc411bf05f013a9240

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lewitus Eric; Kelava Iva; Huttner Wieland B.. Conical expansion of the outer subventricular zone and the role of neocortical folding in evolution and development. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00424; article XML SHA-256 9f177879894eaa15069d33dca781001792817067af12ef70812418052d3e2739. “Conical expansion of the outer subventricular zone and the role of neocortical folding in evolution and development” (10.3389/fnhum.2013.00424).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00424). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## basic science
<a id="basic-science"></a>

Basic science is the foundational scientific knowledge taught before or alongside practical training, such as subjects like anatomy and biochemistry. In this context, it is described as a core part of medical education that supports clinical reasoning and medical practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 871497c4acb9f8fb0a1728fcb70298eb9462d3e2adb9ed7db7cb33c20875734d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Elfanagely Yousef; Tanzer Joshua Ray; Pulido Ricardo; Rashid Hanin; Copeland Liesel. How curricular changes influence medical students’ perceptions of basic science: A pilot study. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0236365; article XML SHA-256 42c964cd357413fb55a53ab8f0e9c09209fd403ea888b1cbdfb318a9308c3325. “How curricular changes influence medical students’ perceptions of basic science: A pilot study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0236365).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236365). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## basic skills
<a id="basic-skills"></a>

Basic skills are core academic abilities such as reading, mathematics, and science. In this source, the term refers to these foundational areas when comparing group differences across countries.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0d1bfd58767daf5d28530cc6278cc3ba1692099950ee5aa94f1059a10e2be28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Balducci Marco. Linking gender differences with gender equality: A systematic-narrative literature review of basic skills and personality. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1105234; article XML SHA-256 4beb6a8c00d9741bfb1c733f42c313657dd746b9cb0260d33c1ca7713407c446. “Linking gender differences with gender equality: A systematic-narrative literature review of basic skills and personality” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1105234).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1105234). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## basilar artery
<a id="basilar-artery"></a>

The basilar artery is a blood vessel created where the right and left vertebral arteries join. It travels along the pons and then divides into the two posterior cerebral arteries.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 932390e4d4ce423162a80a92819a0f522d308b562b6a7f871acf6cf6b412653a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Basilar Artery” (D001488).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001488). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## basilar membrane
<a id="basilar-membrane"></a>

The basilar membrane is a membrane in the cochlea that supports the hair cells of the organ of Corti. When sound-driven fluid moves in the cochlea, this membrane is displaced, helping stimulate the hair cells so mechanical sound vibrations are converted into neural activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6df2f4af4f06879d50df38927e974152d1e4ce0a2ec97529a9405e898bf20fc3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Basilar Membrane” (D001489).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001489). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BAT
<a id="bat"></a>

Behavioral Activation Therapy is an evidence-based treatment that aims to change behavior by increasing positive activities and rewards while reducing negative experiences and their effects. It is often used to help with depression and anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6404083ccba0c7c6663fc2ca47c228cf4a4445bb2e53e7af60d85a713c87acc3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Behavioral Activation Therapy” (C179172).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bath therapy
<a id="bath-therapy"></a>

Bath therapy is an external treatment in which a substance is applied through bathing rather than taken internally. In this packet, it refers to using a Chinese herbal medicine formula or placebo in a bath as part of psoriasis care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b093e561e4ef26c84534f9dd686b6a4c67f640a4d86f483b473c0814cf61cfad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Junyue; Zhang Claire Shuiqing; Zhang Anthony Lin; Yu Jingjie; Deng Hao; Chen Haiming; Xue Charlie Changli; Lu Chuanjian. Add-on effects of Chinese herbal medicine external application (FZHFZY) to topical urea for mild-to-moderate psoriasis vulgaris: Protocol for a double-blinded randomized controlled pilot trial embedded with a qualitative study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297834; article XML SHA-256 666c2741e39745fa533f17df782cbcc1abe474f3a6f29cb12ccdbc12d804d8f8. “Add-on effects of Chinese herbal medicine external application (FZHFZY) to topical urea for mild-to-moderate psoriasis vulgaris: Protocol for a double-blinded randomized controlled pilot trial embedded with a qualitative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297834).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297834). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## battered-child syndrome
<a id="battered-child-syndrome"></a>

Battered-child syndrome is a clinical condition in which a child has repeated physical and psychological injuries caused by parents or other caregivers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ef3964bc62610c3f0682c259c28a4b54f42abe024d7a4402f27b22ebcb81c7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Battered Child Syndrome” (D001497).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001497). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## battered women
<a id="battered-women"></a>

Battered women are women who have experienced battering and, in this source, are considered a trauma-exposed group. Their recollections of traumatic events are discussed in relation to autobiographical memory, emotional state, and coping with trauma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69216bb5e3e742b4cf39c867dd048633edf3910168d26f66d3f91d504449cce3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fernández-Lansac Violeta; Crespo María. Narrative Length and Speech Rate in Battered Women. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0142651; article XML SHA-256 c1488a2d1581dfcb4cddb114177a17c8278caa9732442bdc60a8482d657b535e. “Narrative Length and Speech Rate in Battered Women” (10.1371/journal.pone.0142651).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142651). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bayes theorem
<a id="bayes-theorem"></a>

Bayes theorem is a probability rule used to update the chance of a condition or diagnosis by combining the overall rate of that condition with how often a characteristic, symptom, or test result appears in people with and without it. In health research and clinical decision-making, it helps estimate the probability of disease or a particular diagnosis when certain findings are present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08791a819d57fee01eedf977f8be149f921eb9cd676d196d4c7c7af3edde4875

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bayes Theorem” (D001499).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001499). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BBS
<a id="bbs"></a>

BBS stands for biology and biomedical science. In this context, it refers to undergraduate students in these fields and their mentoring relationships within and beyond their institutions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fe290cae96ceba81906f8b6f0ed670fa12bb82a1a01a441d883fa6a4d24f85f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Loyola Irizarry Héctor G; Donis Krista; González Roxana; Uzcategui Mia; McCartney Melissa. Mentorship across institutional contexts: Insights from biology and biomedical science undergraduates at two institutions. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355290; article XML SHA-256 ff7bfcda5ac332faa878c21956bae8f591dfdc16c554ff0b96ca00807e420c5f. “Mentorship across institutional contexts: Insights from biology and biomedical science undergraduates at two institutions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355290).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355290). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BCI
<a id="bci"></a>

In this packet, BCI refers to a technology used with lower-limb robotic rehabilitation for people recovering from stroke. It is discussed as a rehabilitation approach being compared with traditional therapy for its effects on leg function and cognition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d0f5fa23426f4b0e2cce417ef5c1e72196c3b1903766bf55a343f4814e35d3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shao Mengqi; Wang Xiurong; Wang Kui; Yang Kang; Zou Andi; Chen Bo; Zhang Hui; Meng Zhaoxiang; Jin Xing. Effects of BCI-based lower limb robots on lower limb function and cognition in stroke patients: a preliminary systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1782862; article XML SHA-256 ebfb32cdf22c63515ca04b5af8bb0c3703a4e6e00527702a4dd6bb7b274e0253. “Effects of BCI-based lower limb robots on lower limb function and cognition in stroke patients: a preliminary systematic review” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1782862).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1782862). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BCS
<a id="bcs"></a>

BCS stands for breast cancer survivors. In this source, it refers to women who have survived breast cancer and are discussed as a group in relation to demoralization and war-related stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f1bc47fefdb6759cc4b4d8a3d6e038ba8d98ad3e46a8ebbd3b3e32963049782

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baziliansky Svetlana; Sowan Wafaa. Demoralization syndrome among women exposed to war: comparing breast cancer survivors and those with no breast cancer history. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1812342; article XML SHA-256 06511551ad1971ae3ada42fb1f33efb6eaa2fab45afeccacbf03a250a178a220. “Demoralization syndrome among women exposed to war: comparing breast cancer survivors and those with no breast cancer history” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1812342).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1812342). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BDD
<a id="bdd"></a>

BDD, or body dysmorphic disorder, is a psychological condition in which a person’s appearance-related worries are psychological in nature, but they may not recognize this and may instead seek cosmetic or medical help. Shame, stigma, and frequent misunderstanding of the symptoms can make getting appropriate psychological support difficult.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c58a113b02952421012241bd1d2ee27d23f6b10ce77c10361fc06acb06bc82e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schmidt Michaela; Schoenenberg Katrin; Engelkamp Julia E; Staufenbiel Thomas; Martin Alexandra; Ebert David D; Hartmann Andrea S. Efficacy of an internet-based, therapist-guided cognitive behavioral therapy intervention for adolescents and young adults with body dysmorphic disorder: a randomized controlled trial. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-06797-1; article XML SHA-256 07a3cc15844bedb8d8158fb985b900db581debdd922a905c8a69c1165a40190a. “Efficacy of an internet-based, therapist-guided cognitive behavioral therapy intervention for adolescents and young adults with body dysmorphic disorder: a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-025-06797-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-06797-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BDI
<a id="bdi"></a>

BDI stands for Beck Depression Inventory, a standardized, validated tool used to assess depressive symptoms. In psychology research, it can be used alongside other measures to track emotional symptoms as part of a broader assessment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 91537a6b30d980be2116fd621ca955ded1ea40647486289796b0be5af2054ab7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Yue; Liu Hai-Xiao; Wang Ling-Yun; Li Chang-Lin; Li Dong-Tao; Meng Ling-Han; Zheng Guang-Da; Bao Yan-Ju. Efficacy of psychological interventions versus standard care for cancer pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1811605; article XML SHA-256 66ecdebae1b3d05433a23849a016b0c4fb8e8ee78dfbb4a01d9213e1c740cbf4. “Efficacy of psychological interventions versus standard care for cancer pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1811605).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1811605). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BDNF
<a id="bdnf"></a>

BDNF, or brain-derived neurotrophic factor, is a trophic protein in the nerve growth factor family. It supports certain brain neurons, including retinal, cholinergic, and dopaminergic cells, and also affects motor and sensory neurons in the peripheral nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5cc34826cda8a7ad3dbe516819759df4d8811e64173c145c6bddeea39bbba1e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor” (D019208).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019208). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BDS
<a id="bds"></a>

BDS stands for Backward Digit Span, a task used in psychology to assess working memory, especially in children. It requires a person to hold a sequence of digits in mind and mentally reverse it, so it draws on both keeping information active and manipulating it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 658155da346da44392c892478fa423ee36762ff387760d502096b21449a51ef3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xinxin Tian; Demareva Valeriia; Malykh Artem; Xinghua Wang; Ismatullina Victoria; Adamovich Timofey; Malykh Sergey. The relationship between daytime sleepiness and working memory performance in Russian adolescents: evidence from the Backward Digit Span task. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748332; article XML SHA-256 e869af7505bd0fcb953379f4d9563d0255efb0f5d06348cd89e4c331b616eada. “The relationship between daytime sleepiness and working memory performance in Russian adolescents: evidence from the Backward Digit Span task” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748332).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748332). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Beck Anxiety Inventory
<a id="beck-anxiety-inventory"></a>

The Beck Anxiety Inventory is an assessment measure used to evaluate anxiety symptoms. In the source material, it is listed as a neuropsychiatric outcome measure for comparing anxiety-related outcomes in people with Parkinson’s disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 003c87ed7de876a9461baca2e166e1b9305e039b6ee0480533232c1e6b9fbb9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ning Jing; Lv Xiujuan; You Jianyu; Zhou Xingyu; An Chengfei; Zhou Zhigang. Neuropsychological outcomes comparing deep brain stimulation and best medical treatment for Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587; article XML SHA-256 af971fb6a9b037c466d05ee91fa126e1c1ba634efe2ff3d6a458939cb778efd1. “Neuropsychological outcomes comparing deep brain stimulation and best medical treatment for Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Beck Hopelessness Scale
<a id="beck-hopelessness-scale"></a>

The Beck Hopelessness Scale is a psychological rating scale used to assess a person’s level of hopelessness. In research and clinical contexts, it can be used alongside other mental health measures to compare hopelessness across groups or examine its relationship with distress and caregiver burden.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c0db73fa1ea6e56091d62673d0b19165d238f75c3c95f529a498de4348db704a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Çetin Duru Emine; Kılıç Demir Barış; Uysal Alper. Psychological distress and caregiver burden among informal caregivers of patients with earthquake-related and stroke-related dependency: a comparative study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1871183; article XML SHA-256 48871cb6f3c9fa29b93aa51533739b8d373f4969210405e9413f58f3e79af9bc. “Psychological distress and caregiver burden among informal caregivers of patients with earthquake-related and stroke-related dependency: a comparative study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1871183).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1871183). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bed-sharing
<a id="bed-sharing"></a>

Bed-sharing is a sleep arrangement in which a child sleeps in the same bed as a parent or caregiver. In this source, it refers specifically to reactive bed-sharing in preschool children, meaning bed-sharing examined as a response linked with sleep problems or anxiety rather than as a cause of later psychopathology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c8a92ad78686d6f67b492f7cf0db906c8d57f52fea042dcf7eaebac96390e8aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marakovitz Susan E; Sheldrick R Christopher; Copeland William E; Restrepo Bibiana; Hastedt Ingrid; Carpenter Kimberly LH; McGinnis Ellen W; Egger Helen L. Associations of preschool reactive bed-sharing with sociodemographic factors, sleep disturbance, and psychopathology. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s13034-023-00607-w; article XML SHA-256 d5769a6ace066dd2a5f9d090799054b52ae03a39d6b7afa14ee13d1f5918e6aa. “Associations of preschool reactive bed-sharing with sociodemographic factors, sleep disturbance, and psychopathology” (10.1186/s13034-023-00607-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00607-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavior
<a id="behavior"></a>

Behavior is the observable way a person or animal responds to a situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b721aebaeab703c53760ac6ab778c8d98ac297695aedac1d3922009d9d506899

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Behavior” (D001519).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001519). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Behavior, Animal
<a id="behavior-animal"></a>

Animal behavior is the observable way an animal responds in a given situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d72aa254e9d95030c5af5ad5ef008dbaf7cd5512cbecfd93180080762ec56e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Behavior, Animal” (D001522).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001522). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavior change
<a id="behavior-change"></a>

Behavior change is a shift in how a person acts, such as in their physical activity habits. In this source, it refers to changes in behavior that rehabilitation or other interventions try to promote to support recovery after lumbar surgery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c1d0c5afcb3806635bb063507bd3569754750ea282232a34e11827c8510f328

Sources:
- Drafting source: [García-Moreno José Manuel; Adams Tyler; Beynon Amber; Vlaar Olthuis Janine; Dombrowski Stephan U.; Witherspoon Richelle; Wedderkopp Niels; Hébert Jeffrey J.. Effects of rehabilitation and behavior change interventions on physical capacity and physical activity behavior following lumbar surgery for degenerative disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347420; article XML SHA-256 ce88ba3c2de4b61d1df70ac98a46f0cc50c9baa8a8c886b6e8ddfd4e5fa43976. “Effects of rehabilitation and behavior change interventions on physical capacity and physical activity behavior following lumbar surgery for degenerative disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347420).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347420). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavior checklist
<a id="behavior-checklist"></a>

A behavior checklist is an assessment tool used to gather information about an adult’s behaviors and problems from the person and from others who know them well. It can be used in settings such as counseling, mental health, medical, forensic, and substance use services, and summarizes results on problem-related scales.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e072ea258e05c98f9ba92d9b0a6d95a3a1e69cd3de13b4c82c50419931de30c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment-Adult Self-Report and Adult Behavior Checklist” (C165713).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## behavior diary
<a id="behavior-diary"></a>

A behavior diary is a daily record people complete to note their behavior over a set period of time. In the source, it was used over 28 days to track behavior along with symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4539915d1d0433e09380789df169f5499aaa56c4fc325dd9483d41ba719d21f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Singata-Madliki Mandisa; Lawrie Theresa A; Balakrishna Yusentha; d’Hellencourt Florence Carayon-Lefebvre; Hofmeyr G Justus. Behavioral effects of different contraceptive methods and HIV acquisition: an ancillary study of the ECHO randomized trial. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12978-021-01232-6; article XML SHA-256 d72fe50739ff2ffa01d12e8b991d2fc9f18ac5d147e2966c7caffc1041289d4f. “Behavioral effects of different contraceptive methods and HIV acquisition: an ancillary study of the ECHO randomized trial” (10.1186/s12978-021-01232-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-021-01232-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavior management
<a id="behavior-management"></a>

Behavior management is a school-based behavioral intervention used to help children and teens with ADHD at school. In this context, it means having a plan to support and guide behavior as part of school help for learning and classroom functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fba8b2ea9e0f0cb63bd52f51cd3071d4d1c70b1810bf1d3b09ae5d7e772b0187

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0b516be887dc405542437e91764765e37c105ae98c1d697b1789447654440453. “Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-what-you-need-to-know).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-what-you-need-to-know). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavior mapping
<a id="behavior-mapping"></a>

In this packet, behavior mapping refers to analyzing how differences in brain lesion location relate to differences in task performance, such as error rates or productivity. More specifically, voxel-based lesion-behavior mapping examines these relationships across small brain regions to identify neural systems linked to particular aspects of performance monitoring.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d4ca2af9ebba181da4dd000293180a9a8e26268db0ccacc3afd104eb9f6f7a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Visalli Antonino; Maldonado Natasha; Dadak Mete; Lanfermann Heinrich; Weißenborn Karin; Kopp Bruno. Post-stroke lesion correlates of errors in verbal and spatial production tasks. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517876; article XML SHA-256 b4ac6c665963f7060094ffb7ac8fb56c3f2fff169469c00cc0a4291da6d4c3dd. “Post-stroke lesion correlates of errors in verbal and spatial production tasks” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517876).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517876). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavior modification
<a id="behavior-modification"></a>

Behavior modification is the use of learning and conditioning principles to change problematic behavior. It applies ideas from modern learning theory in treating behavior disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f1c37611532ded5a37a51015c295ecec6f30db05d6c62bd7f5e4d8d86715f6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Behavior Therapy” (D001521).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001521). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavior observation
<a id="behavior-observation"></a>

Behavior observation is the use of many different formal or informal methods to record and describe behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ab129b9268cd6944371637bb8beb7f96eaf3e71dac6ca6a0dba7912e5e7a9c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Behavior Observation Techniques” (D000067289).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067289). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavior rating
<a id="behavior-rating"></a>

Behavior rating is an assessment approach that uses rating scales to judge a person’s behavior, such as symptoms seen in young children. In the packet, these ratings are described as commonly used but vulnerable to subjectivity and the influence of the setting or observer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d9dd248b3ea57df7ed45c82796c589ffae2da90eeacb8fbfde27992b389fc2a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kayış Hakan; Gedizlioğlu Çınar. Leveraging point-of-view camera and MediaPipe for objective hyperactivity assessment in preschool ADHD. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1769322; article XML SHA-256 44cbe130ae098135c4d45c12ee84d86af27ed0db80505b0afdd8b8fcc7762440. “Leveraging point-of-view camera and MediaPipe for objective hyperactivity assessment in preschool ADHD” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1769322).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1769322). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Behavior Rating scale
<a id="behavior-rating-scale"></a>

A behavior rating scale is a standardized tool used to evaluate behavior in people or animals. It provides a consistent format for describing or measuring behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b986e6f9ebd08790b3bda137f01c9fb7f453708c3edfd7fc124741d212ca0927

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Behavior Rating Scale” (D000067290).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067290). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavior record
<a id="behavior-record"></a>

A behavior record is a collection of data gathered while a person is actively behaving, often combining multiple time-based measures such as brain activity, eye movements, motion, or respiration. It may also include time-stamped events and contextual information so behavior can be examined across situations and over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07bd639cd0ae4eb20e72fa1c920391cdde41e063e4cdb2bb8e160cfed6b01621

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cockfield Jeremy; Su Kyungmin; Robbins Kay A.. MOBBED: a computational data infrastructure for handling large collections of event-rich time series datasets in MATLAB. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fninf.2013.00020; article XML SHA-256 059eb7217b19deadb263c72b57ca2f37d77f36ff5139436b8cd6382b11aa3862. “MOBBED: a computational data infrastructure for handling large collections of event-rich time series datasets in MATLAB” (10.3389/fninf.2013.00020).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fninf.2013.00020). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavior sampling
<a id="behavior-sampling"></a>

Behavior sampling is an observational method in which behaviors are recorded from video over a defined period of time. In the source, it was used to document calves’ suckling behavior across a 24-hour period at different ages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c11fd5f6924fb9a565d87c66813eb89724b77a51121f4d1f3b0550b6188fa2a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wegner Claire S.; Chan Cady W.; Rönnegård Lars; Agenäs Sigrid; Lidfors Lena; Eriksson Hanna K.. Suckling and allosuckling behavior of dairy calves in indoor dam-rearing systems. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fvets.2025.1617158; article XML SHA-256 d3817be63912a540742ac745e7102dba5ade5038fff9a112cd4d4b08a1242bf6. “Suckling and allosuckling behavior of dairy calves in indoor dam-rearing systems” (10.3389/fvets.2025.1617158).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1617158). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavior setting
<a id="behavior-setting"></a>

In ecological psychology, a behavior setting is the linked pattern between recurring, longer-term behavior and the material features of an environment. The term emphasizes that behavior and setting are understood together as a dynamic relationship rather than as separate factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 15604b7ee7992aabb6856532351c47e43e29193979dd33f5940249dc72fe1844

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Deng Chenhao; Zhao Zhiyi; Ahmad Noorhani Nur maizura; Mustapha Arniatul Aiza. An eco-psychological framework for research on the physical environment of childcare classrooms and children’s play behavior. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1463151; article XML SHA-256 b946218e8bd24da0e9260bd3489b8751df2e376a71f9aefcfee4ff7f85ea55a7. “An eco-psychological framework for research on the physical environment of childcare classrooms and children’s play behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1463151).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1463151). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavior shaping
<a id="behavior-shaping"></a>

Behavior shaping is a way of building a desired behavior by rewarding actions that increasingly resemble the target behavior. Over time, the standard for reward becomes more exact, so only responses that are closer to the goal continue to be reinforced.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5ff23942fad5d8132b323d2f610a3b8af23e25a354cb9bac1e0e2cb824d3e12

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Berardi Vincent; Lan Tian; Guirguis Ariane; Maoz Uri. Empirically validating a computational model of automatic behavior shaping. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313925; article XML SHA-256 d367b280677188029843bf6d6b3739ff3bd9e4b0a9f872ba747687fbfd5df42d. “Empirically validating a computational model of automatic behavior shaping” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313925).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313925). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Behavior Therapy
<a id="behavior-therapy"></a>

Behavior therapy is a treatment approach for behavior disorders that uses contemporary ideas about learning and conditioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7ee2a5fb06248445ac18761b10f4d4b55fa0b74f8463c18b1b0460c6dfb80d3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Behavior Therapy” (D001521).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001521). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral activation
<a id="behavioral-activation"></a>

Behavioral activation is an evidence-based therapy that aims to change behavior by increasing positive experiences and rewards while reducing negative events and consequences. It is commonly used to help with depression and anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e10b4c222c56b8483e84636590fe4bf97b2cc66f1b3b645f0728d4c580925e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Behavioral Activation Therapy” (C179172).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral approach system
<a id="behavioral-approach-system"></a>

The behavioral approach system is a personality-related motivational system describing how strongly a person is oriented toward appetitive cues such as reward. It reflects the degree to which someone tends to respond and function when exposed to rewarding stimuli and is discussed as part of self-regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f04d1a38cc05ed25f7dd18eabee0c76ac1901e059ec0dc708e580932d3c1dca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Valachová Michaela; Lisá Elena. Dispositional mindfulness and BIS/BAS up-close: can the self-regulation of people be seen in the eyes?. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1217129; article XML SHA-256 2990134b8980c738077cde9932d297abdc1a548e340fbf7e169719008e13d0c0. “Dispositional mindfulness and BIS/BAS up-close: can the self-regulation of people be seen in the eyes?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1217129).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1217129). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral avoidance test
<a id="behavioral-avoidance-test"></a>

A behavioral avoidance test is a practical assessment in which a person is asked to face a situation they have been avoiding so their avoidance and actual performance can be observed. In this source, it refers to a post-treatment driving test in real traffic used to see whether patients could carry out previously feared driving tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: eac502e261b0f97b7017caf1c3dee9872796e8912ac169b5bae81482e49029e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kaussner Y; Kuraszkiewicz A M; Schoch S; Markel Petra; Hoffmann S; Baur-Streubel R; Kenntner-Mabiala R; Pauli P. Treating patients with driving phobia by virtual reality exposure therapy – a pilot study. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0226937; article XML SHA-256 76b5cf8c586bbf96b97a289c9413c0455ecbab22cbe8f1ffbd7e2cd0e95306a5. “Treating patients with driving phobia by virtual reality exposure therapy – a pilot study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0226937).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226937). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral baseline
<a id="behavioral-baseline"></a>

A behavioral baseline is a person's or animal's usual pattern or profile of behavior that serves as a reference point. It is used so later changes in behavior can be noticed and interpreted, such as possible signs of stress, health problems, or changes in daily circumstances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86ea3416a36b12ca97c2a01aa1c13470333abb421d269c90e9abee6c2f54ca06

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yuhuan; Sexton Courtney L.; DAP Consortium; Fitzpatrick Annette; Ruple Audrey. An analysis of behavioral characteristics and enrollment year variability in 47,444 dogs entering the Dog Aging Project from 2020 to 2023. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330257; article XML SHA-256 c182ea62a65f777b4aa24cc5c8406597eab3a7136d20a06a42e445b0157bab89. “An analysis of behavioral characteristics and enrollment year variability in 47,444 dogs entering the Dog Aging Project from 2020 to 2023” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330257).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330257). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral contingency
<a id="behavioral-contingency"></a>

Behavioral contingency is the link between what a person does or withholds doing and the outcome that follows, such as reward or punishment. In this source, it refers to whether a go or no-go response, and whether it is correct or incorrect, leads to winning or losing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f958a7c8aee79b5d52e0e03cbd027684cc8a04c9a248a2db7c161d6246200a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Le Thang M.; Wang Wuyi; Zhornitsky Simon; Dhingra Isha; Zhang Sheng; Li Chiang-Shan R.. Reward sensitivity and electrodermal responses to actions and outcomes in a go/no-go task. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0219147; article XML SHA-256 3da9aa50b149dff6cf66607e22d99c82a20a49500784302b82e70e8b2110ec6d. “Reward sensitivity and electrodermal responses to actions and outcomes in a go/no-go task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0219147).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219147). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral coping
<a id="behavioral-coping"></a>

Behavioral coping refers to the ways people respond to negative emotions caused by stressful events or public emergencies. In this source, it includes coping by focusing on different kinds of information, such as self-related information or information about the group, to help lessen emotions like fear, anxiety, or sadness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2eb68d832cd1ae82d4c1fb7fe0a6216d31c6007e401b4d4c1c904b3396ace553

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sun Yan; Li Yang; Wang Yong; Li Fangmin. Understanding the Emotion Coping Strategies During Public Emergencies – From the Perspective of Psychological Distance. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.699180; article XML SHA-256 ed060753480415bf658afcff08ae5e1fd8d445b4d181261202a05c79fecf2c17. “Understanding the Emotion Coping Strategies During Public Emergencies – From the Perspective of Psychological Distance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.699180).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.699180). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral counseling
<a id="behavioral-counseling"></a>

Behavioral counseling is a form of psychotherapy focused on recognizing behaviors that may be harmful or unhealthy and supporting change toward healthier patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4437759a0e32b318fc35c45792d695fbe37c9dba4adac0c901a7aba82f0773d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Behavioral Counseling” (C181743).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral couples therapy
<a id="behavioral-couples-therapy"></a>

Behavioral couples therapy is a counselling approach that involves both partners together as part of the intervention. In this source, it is used with motivational interviewing to address alcohol use and intimate partner violence, with expected changes in communication and relationship quality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b47876f75fed8ae58723269685ea1692e0353e93d41ae7f4fea1f6d2f367eeb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Achar Meghna; Ramaiya Megan; Srinivasan Krishnamachari; Ekstrand Maria L.; Heylen Elsa; Pradeep R Johnson; Hartmann Miriam; C. K Nisha; Pereira Matilda; Acharya Bibhav. Protocol for a randomized controlled trial of a combined motivational interviewing and behavioral couples therapy intervention to reduce intimate partner violence and alcohol use in south India. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335332; article XML SHA-256 455edabdacbf95eb3dfbd564bff4f15d1de7afc1727628ca7430105e95e88399. “Protocol for a randomized controlled trial of a combined motivational interviewing and behavioral couples therapy intervention to reduce intimate partner violence and alcohol use in south India” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335332).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335332). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral criterion
<a id="behavioral-criterion"></a>

A behavioral criterion is an observable performance standard used to judge whether a person is ready for a target behavior or intervention. In this context, it refers to using pill-taking practice performance to decide adherence readiness and when treatment should begin.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3902afcd02ab80509af2aa118f2fd622925cd57922dd865ec6d3fe5613d9d611

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wagner Glenn J; Linnemayr Sebastien; Ghosh-Dastidar Bonnie; Currier Judith S; Hoffman Risa; Schneider Stefan. Supporting Treatment Adherence Readiness through Training (START) for patients with HIV on antiretroviral therapy: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s13063-016-1287-3; article XML SHA-256 d2f33dff87b0de6e25d765a06e193855984c2cdf4188b06686d2b2dca7ed80a4. “Supporting Treatment Adherence Readiness through Training (START) for patients with HIV on antiretroviral therapy: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s13063-016-1287-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-016-1287-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral disorder
<a id="behavioral-disorder"></a>

A behavioral disorder is a specific pattern of problem behaviors that tends to persist and appear in characteristic groupings, and that causes significant difficulty in a person’s functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dcb56e65075d4f471bc71720b6648b8b0357484effafe2e09534caca812327cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Behavioral Disorder” (C35470).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral dynamics
<a id="behavioral-dynamics"></a>

Behavioral dynamics refers to changes in how organisms act and adapt within a system, especially strategies such as cooperation, non-cooperation, and infection-avoidance behaviors that can alter disease spread and population stability. In this context, it describes how patterns of behavior within and between groups shape ecological and epidemic outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 78eaf928496d652b19aa36f6cc81b3287b8a404a7d67b47994eb02875a69803b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kabir K. M. Ariful. Integrating behavioral dynamics and allee effect in eco-epidemiological model: A comprehensive approach to disease impact. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323928; article XML SHA-256 0f04ed98f7548844db4b5c301c8291c39eb4feb152544bd58f23cacd63d9e966. “Integrating behavioral dynamics and allee effect in eco-epidemiological model: A comprehensive approach to disease impact” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323928).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323928). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral economics
<a id="behavioral-economics"></a>

Behavioral economics is a field that combines psychology and economics to study how people actually behave in markets. It focuses on what happens when decision-makers are influenced by normal human limits and complexities rather than acting in perfectly rational ways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 456a64d4bfb5986faa3f7344afc41a46aab2485102d4ab14ba7b921250a3cc3d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Economics, Behavioral” (D060909).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D060909). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral finance
<a id="behavioral-finance"></a>

Behavioral finance is an area of finance that examines how psychological biases and emotions influence investment decisions and the allocation of assets. In the packet, it is described through effects such as regret, where remorse and hesitation can shape choices and lead investors to avoid recognizing losses or to miss opportunities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 25ea181d57a19c859a2be673a0b37dd962678baba8c62080200fcd24519cbd32

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Larni-Fooeik AmirMohammad; Sadjadi Seyed Jafar; Mohammadi Emran. Stochastic portfolio optimization: A regret-based approach on volatility risk measures: An empirical evidence from The New York stock market. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299699; article XML SHA-256 7cccd9171495b8e7a61e29d062311c2d24d1a04ca0e0fb5e7d8abeaf53907ab5. “Stochastic portfolio optimization: A regret-based approach on volatility risk measures: An empirical evidence from The New York stock market” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299699).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299699). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral genetics
<a id="behavioral-genetics"></a>

Behavioral genetics is the study of how genes contribute to patterns of behavior and mental abilities. It looks at genetic influences on behavioral traits such as eating, mating, substance use, social attitudes, and violence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a6927c7a1688e8f2f76e9bf57ab1ad918511818e97a4b33e6cd357f4f6a87311

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Behavioral Genetics” (C16625).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral inhibition
<a id="behavioral-inhibition"></a>

Behavioral inhibition is a temperament pattern in which a child tends to be highly inhibited, and it is associated with greater risk for internalizing disorders. It may show up differently across contexts, so reports from different adults can give different pictures of the child’s behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b92c9ee5df73474db7729acd6162d88c28e21340714ee7e9aa595947d78d3e48

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sulyok Róza Sára; Miklósi Mónika; Kárpáti Noémi; Györe Szandra; Szabó Brigitta. The discrepancies in parent and teacher reports of children’s behavioral inhibition provide domain-specific information about psychopathology and parenting. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1457479; article XML SHA-256 6521fa862afff3830c21a0b48fd5df9c9ad3e9bfea08ac4a0bf3386eb74e0401. “The discrepancies in parent and teacher reports of children’s behavioral inhibition provide domain-specific information about psychopathology and parenting” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1457479).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1457479). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral medicine
<a id="behavioral-medicine"></a>

Behavioral medicine is an interdisciplinary area that combines behavioral and biomedical knowledge and methods related to health and illness. It applies this combined understanding to prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c6ae08033e3be69400528c8e595675d7f46ad78405986c569b8ddba3250b299

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Behavioral Medicine” (D001524).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001524). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral pharmacology
<a id="behavioral-pharmacology"></a>

Behavioral pharmacology is a translational research area that uses behavioral models, often in animals, to study drug-related effects in relation to behavior. It is used to help identify treatment targets and to examine the neurobehavioral basis of disorders and possible treatments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6432fb45987cf5ea3f7452c17cd51ef9375d66dbdd46329a520a125568a4850

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maximino Caio; van der Staay Franz Josef. Behavioral models in psychopathology: epistemic and semantic considerations. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s12993-019-0152-4; article XML SHA-256 c8c07c9fa537b5604346b122f9193647d64eee6691758d3c3ac83f12e1e692da. “Behavioral models in psychopathology: epistemic and semantic considerations” (10.1186/s12993-019-0152-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-019-0152-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral phenotype
<a id="behavioral-phenotype"></a>

A behavioral phenotype is the pattern of behavior that emerges from the interaction of underlying personal characteristics, compensatory cognitive processes, and biological or environmental risk factors. In this source, it refers especially to a maladaptive pattern that can appear when neurodevelopmental risk factors weaken compensation and make behavioral difficulties more evident.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5707c41f442748ebae5ac55f132bd4764b4b3bd5c50487bdcc9e7d3b4ef98ebf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sarovic Darko. A Unifying Theory for Autism: The Pathogenetic Triad as a Theoretical Framework. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.767075; article XML SHA-256 8a31950af6166710d630abaf1c2551e6f0b30b13d378c545ccbb5167b90a01f8. “A Unifying Theory for Autism: The Pathogenetic Triad as a Theoretical Framework” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.767075).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.767075). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral plasticity
<a id="behavioral-plasticity"></a>

Behavioral plasticity is the capacity to change how a behavior is carried out to fit different conditions or constraints in the environment. In this source, it refers to making substantial and precise adjustments to web-building when space is limited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b0905bd13505253d8ec902910eb628c41ec51f130a5cdc3c9d6cba381ce105b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Quesada-Hidalgo Rosannette; Eberhard William G; Barrantes Gilbert. Complex behavioral plasticity is not reduced in spiderlings with miniature brains. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0251919; article XML SHA-256 7f76050aa13aa6c330a3b9d58821548452a5cf650b69aa50041a78d83d7a1ac7. “Complex behavioral plasticity is not reduced in spiderlings with miniature brains” (10.1371/journal.pone.0251919).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251919). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral psychotherapy
<a id="behavioral-psychotherapy"></a>

Behavioral psychotherapy is a form of psychotherapy that focuses on identifying behaviors that are unhealthy or self-defeating and helping a person change them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2eb333e044ece7119b348c874372d09a8b1d0b2af9533046c2130234bab67bc1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Behavioral Counseling” (C181743).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral rehearsal
<a id="behavioral-rehearsal"></a>

Behavioral rehearsal is a role-playing technique in psychotherapy in which a therapist guides a person to act out situations or roles so they can practice new ways of behaving. It is used to help strengthen change by trying out responses in action rather than only talking about them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 21cdf5b16191ab56f2d0d034468253f4a270cdc676aae548a565959c4f3cedcf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mazzucato Matteo; Savastano Micol; Iudici Antonio. Role-playing interventions in adult psychotherapy: a systematic review of clinical applications, reported outcomes, and future directions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1749378; article XML SHA-256 af11bd8167fceb6837d7265c90bb05a78f86b3663a9afd16f6c9aab41c9f278b. “Role-playing interventions in adult psychotherapy: a systematic review of clinical applications, reported outcomes, and future directions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1749378).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1749378). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral repertoire
<a id="behavioral-repertoire"></a>

Behavioral repertoire is the range and pattern of behaviors an organism shows. In this context, the complexity of that range can be used as a sign of how environmental conditions are affecting the organism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a2ab35efe074d3d9b375d1d50fc1f5e058be24944ff33319be105730872156c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [da Silva-Pinto Thalles; Silveira Mayara Moura; de Souza Jéssica Ferreira; Moreira Ana Luisa Pires; Vieira Edson Aparecido; Longo Guilherme Ortigara; Luchiari Ana Carolina. Damselfish face climate change: Impact of temperature and habitat structure on agonistic behavior. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0235389; article XML SHA-256 c6775a800a9e4faa947c5f3b1d73f96760d191bfb1f8140aaa2d65c0632df6cf. “Damselfish face climate change: Impact of temperature and habitat structure on agonistic behavior” (10.1371/journal.pone.0235389).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235389). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral risk factor
<a id="behavioral-risk-factor"></a>

A behavioral risk factor is an actual behavior, rather than an attitude or what someone knows, that is associated with a higher likelihood of premature illness or death. The term refers to behavior-based risks tracked in adults to monitor health-related outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9600a163c4e98e120ee3f274f685f6788607ca092b078e674019f03f50375c4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System” (D040343).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D040343). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Behavioral Sciences
<a id="behavioral-sciences"></a>

Behavioral sciences are fields of study that focus on understanding the behavior of humans and animals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fcc7f4f1f88281b00c06ed62ab6a3c3614415ee5ca1d3aa94588bc78f56ae503

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Behavioral Sciences” (D001525).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001525). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral self-control training
<a id="behavioral-self-control-training"></a>

Behavioral self-control training is a psychological treatment for alcohol use disorder that aims to help people reduce harmful drinking and work toward controlled drinking rather than only abstinence. In the source packet, it is described as a brief intervention delivered in five sessions and presented as an effective option for treatment-seeking individuals with alcohol use disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bf230c9ab57de6e621782c84a836ed0c1bb16dacbd713c4c7a517d3b4a739a79

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Flores Sergio; Jónsson-Bachmann Egill; Ingesson-Hammarberg Stina; Hammarberg Anders; Nystrand Camilla; Sampaio Filipa. A cost-effectiveness analysis of two psychological treatments for controlled drinking in individuals with alcohol use disorder. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12962-025-00633-9; article XML SHA-256 9b318f4368fed0239f4f53545a74b061b08ff8a04348e711c71fd6cfc9b3b9be. “A cost-effectiveness analysis of two psychological treatments for controlled drinking in individuals with alcohol use disorder” (10.1186/s12962-025-00633-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12962-025-00633-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behavioral specialization
<a id="behavioral-specialization"></a>

Behavioral specialization is the tendency for different members of a group to show distinct, regular behavior patterns, such as some honey bee foragers consistently searching for new food sources while others mainly return to known ones. In this source, it is described as arising from shifts in brain modulatory systems that increase the likelihood or frequency of a particular behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e4d7870c03099ad38b64804479e3ef96574d7b4cbf233463f0b8e9e946f706b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chatterjee Arumoy; Bais Deepika; Brockmann Axel; Ramesh Divya. Search Behavior of Individual Foragers Involves Neurotransmitter Systems Characteristic for Social Scouting. 2021; DOI 10.3389/finsc.2021.664978; article XML SHA-256 fa63f3a8d4622112ac286f429d61f22378a7132595571b699234c466a97e8efe. “Search Behavior of Individual Foragers Involves Neurotransmitter Systems Characteristic for Social Scouting” (10.3389/finsc.2021.664978).](https://doi.org/10.3389/finsc.2021.664978). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behaviorally anchored rating scale
<a id="behaviorally-anchored-rating-scale"></a>

A behaviorally anchored rating scale is an assessment tool that rates performance or engagement by linking score points to specific observable behaviors. In this source, it is used to judge how operating-room staff carry out the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist by observing their behavior during the checklist process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2c7d4e1ce6d0eec78a6e85b53ee9d80cc42cdeb083e779d4de208948a32688ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Khalid Syed Yousaf; Sibghatullah Qazi Muhammad; Abdullah Muhammad Haroon; Farooq Omer; Ashraf Sandal; Ahmed Adeel; Arshad Ashhar; Nadeem Abdullah; Mumtaz Hassan; Saqib Muhammad. Implementation of World Health Organization behaviorally anchored rating scale and checklist utilization: promising results for LMICs. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fmed.2023.1204213; article XML SHA-256 8a990fa1fc4a62758da84f8972ee39c0f0cc74894eabf42fd698bd1755953328. “Implementation of World Health Organization behaviorally anchored rating scale and checklist utilization: promising results for LMICs” (10.3389/fmed.2023.1204213).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2023.1204213). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## behaviorism
<a id="behaviorism"></a>

Behaviorism is a psychological theory, associated with John Broadus Watson, that focuses on the study and measurement of observable behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b1059672ca0dc78f51e53016d3bb40674e4cbfea7ef4e7465a294403299b0b53

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Behaviorism” (D001527).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001527). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## belief
<a id="belief"></a>

Belief is the mind’s acceptance or endorsement of something as real or true. In historical psychology, some writers used the term broadly for any unrejected experience, while others reserved it for a more reflective, explicit conviction reached beyond mere immediate experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cea3fc33a73d122366ae9dfbb2b7e277359efab4cb553538ed7de370bb15ab04

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Belief” (Belief).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Belief). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## belief bias
<a id="belief-bias"></a>

Belief bias is a tendency in deductive reasoning for a person’s existing beliefs to influence how they judge an argument or syllogism. In this research context, it refers to the effect of beliefs on reasoning accuracy and on response bias when deciding whether conclusions are acceptable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c26a3c4d1bac6d60b0f1c3999680cd87b3b08393f4a74cfab263194499528de3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Trippas Dries; Handley Simon J.; Verde Michael F.. Fluency and belief bias in deductive reasoning: new indices for old effects. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00631; article XML SHA-256 6153fde41d12ac5f0878da70f064f583cdd338d94eba577227dfb594062c4152. “Fluency and belief bias in deductive reasoning: new indices for old effects” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00631).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00631). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## belief system
<a id="belief-system"></a>

A belief system is an interconnected network of beliefs, attitudes, and related behaviors, linked by how they are associated with one another. In this view, beliefs can shape behavior, and behavior can in turn support or challenge those beliefs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a87a668612f94d8957baa0c7e1b190293494083258a977a6b6a241b152be14a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Sanguk; Goldberg Matthew H.; Rosenthal Seth A.; Maibach Edward W.; Kotcher John E.; Leiserowitz Anthony. Climate change belief systems across political groups in the United States. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300048; article XML SHA-256 7d23af79751161ba82127316e80718d0d946315d908d25d377a96a5921415d5f. “Climate change belief systems across political groups in the United States” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300048).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300048). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## belladonna alkaloid
<a id="belladonna-alkaloid"></a>

A belladonna alkaloid is a substance derived from plants such as Atropa belladonna or Hyoscyamus niger that blocks muscarinic receptors and reduces parasympathetic activity. Its effects include lowering secretions like saliva, mucus, gastric juices, and sweat, and decreasing bladder contraction and gastrointestinal movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb1d3a072a925762477a569c1d0717b4e7e48556e2d833f31d49cc798c2e8526

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hyoscyamine” (C29104).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bell’s palsy
<a id="bells-palsy"></a>

Bell’s palsy is a syndrome in which paralysis develops suddenly on one side of the face and typically worsens over about 2 to 5 days. It can involve weakness of the muscle that closes the eye, leading to incomplete eye closure and possible corneal injury, and ear pain may come before the paralysis; it may be linked to human herpesvirus 1 infection of the facial nerve.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80ac29f7da4a56ca0b7a468449d42997bb8fa20e7c76d8674cd6bb1c8aa7d536

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bell Palsy” (D020330).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020330). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## belonging
<a id="belonging"></a>

In educational psychology, belonging usually refers to school belonging: a student’s subjective sense of being valued, included, and accepted by peers and teachers at school. It is understood as a developmental and context-dependent experience shaped by relationships, safety, opportunities, motivation, and how students perceive their school environment, rather than as a fixed personal trait.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: acbf1ee41fef07522be976d6b3b003fe13e943e8eeadaf8409d62e03a605c20d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liao Yuan; Peng Qin; Li Runlin. Cross-economy stability of predictor rankings for adolescent school belonging and mathematics anxiety: an explainable machine-learning analysis of PISA 2022. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1875261; article XML SHA-256 9f9bff0ed33767850c24dbcdede2810518296a433e1ca6579f24ac918e448f81. “Cross-economy stability of predictor rankings for adolescent school belonging and mathematics anxiety: an explainable machine-learning analysis of PISA 2022” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1875261).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1875261). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bem Sex Role Inventory
<a id="bem-sex-role-inventory"></a>

The Bem Sex Role Inventory is a questionnaire used in psychology research to assess a person’s gender role orientation, such as the extent to which they show feminine traits. In the source, it was used to examine how gender role orientation relates to adults’ responses and preferences toward infants.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1523b1094913f35aac819f4fdd827817a1e2adee623ae793feca27cbd3981660

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ding Fangyuan; Cheng Gang; Jia Yuncheng; Zhang Wen; Lin Nan; Zhang Dajun; Mo Wenjing. The role of sex and femininity in preferences for unfamiliar infants among Chinese adults. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0242203; article XML SHA-256 a478ac55ef0ee49ff57072410f8b7b54e5902c3ff7d953be9fc8897450612b56. “The role of sex and femininity in preferences for unfamiliar infants among Chinese adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0242203).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242203). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## benchmark
<a id="benchmark"></a>

In this context, a benchmark is a human expert-produced reference used as the standard for comparing other outputs. It serves as the baseline for judging how closely generated material matches human structural patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f688f6e151d834f5f6821c5e5fa9155fc578260fa9bdb6c6a4fb28f323c9deba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zuo Jiaxin; Wang Yiquan; Yibulayin Xiadiya. Relative-to-human benchmark Cognitive Divergence and semantic comprehensibility in Chinese–Uyghur LLM translation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1732609; article XML SHA-256 ac6a88064c3352f15e67806142cc41f8c4f69455a93c01457c5f9d3830b5d292. “Relative-to-human benchmark Cognitive Divergence and semantic comprehensibility in Chinese–Uyghur LLM translation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1732609).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1732609). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bender Visual–Motor Gestalt Test
<a id="bender-visualmotor-gestalt-test"></a>

The Bender Visual–Motor Gestalt Test is a psychological assessment that uses nine geometric designs shown one at a time on cards. After each design is presented, the person is asked to draw it again from memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ad737448d42856ff6434bbab8e7bb341013ecea3d0a058dc11c07f037f765a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bender-Gestalt Test” (D001538).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001538). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## benign
<a id="benign"></a>

In this social-psychology context, benign refers to a more adaptive form of envy that arises when someone notices another person’s advantage and responds with motivation to improve themselves or emulate that person, rather than trying to pull them down.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1826a464ba9cb7c2211534b5fbe266d43b15358693ded86ed80a14d23cc450c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zheng Wenfeng; Wang Bimei; Cai Lingzhi; Zhu Zhao; Jiang Yuyin. The double-edged sword effect of social comparison orientation on college students’ creativity from the perspective of envy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1816275; article XML SHA-256 407526dd6d15372817d89d623788f4a092fb539618d260125daa52fa2c2be00d. “The double-edged sword effect of social comparison orientation on college students’ creativity from the perspective of envy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1816275).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1816275). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Benton Visual Retention Test
<a id="benton-visual-retention-test"></a>

The Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT) is a drawing-based task in which a person reproduces visual designs, and performance can be judged by the accuracy of those reproductions. In the source material, it is used to study shape recognition and the reconstruction of visual forms, including simple, medium, and complex designs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 216a32525eb3a34901d301965633ef07dd4f24457f85ed29c6255f8d3f6f1e17

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Okamoto Nakako; Seiyama Akitoshi; Hori Shota; Takahashi Satoru. Role of the left posterior middle temporal gyrus in shape recognition and its reconstruction during drawing: A study combining transcranial magnetic stimulation and functional near infrared spectroscopy. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302375; article XML SHA-256 2cc286ad347f50ac5d171edf0da73cb8d6ca91f393b79e10196c36287cc151d7. “Role of the left posterior middle temporal gyrus in shape recognition and its reconstruction during drawing: A study combining transcranial magnetic stimulation and functional near infrared spectroscopy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302375).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302375). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Benzedrine
<a id="benzedrine"></a>

Benzedrine is a form of amphetamine sulfate, a stimulant that affects the central nervous system and the body by promoting release of certain chemical messengers in nerve endings. In mental health contexts, it is relevant because it is commonly abused, can produce psychological dependence and short-term effects like elevated mood and alertness, and with ongoing use may lead to psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations or delusions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34ac272e7b2e646c3c94805a47e711dfe40876143c9134314884a700352f86ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Amphetamine Sulfate” (C28822).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## benzene
<a id="benzene"></a>

Benzene is a clear, colorless, highly flammable liquid chemical found in crude oil and used in industry as a solvent and to make other chemicals. Exposure can cause neurological symptoms, damage bone marrow and the immune system, and increase the risk of certain blood and lymphatic cancers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8be2eaf35865ada1da82e80b3f50d5d4c1572bfa15093c35c88a5c60699bb653

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Benzene” (C302).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## benztropine
<a id="benztropine"></a>

Benztropine is a centrally acting drug that blocks muscarinic activity in the brain. It has been used to help relieve symptoms of Parkinson disease and also reduces the reuptake of dopamine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fc359d858c33ced3f9c00906659823e6ff8cd49c7ca05de24e69f6e3a35c3a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Benztropine” (D001590).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001590). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bereavement
<a id="bereavement"></a>

Bereavement is the overall process of grieving and mourning after a loss, typically involving a profound sense of sadness and loss.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18f5cbbc02e6d6a11cf832385a34cb54c978c6a6a9b099b0654ee4da41fbe1c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bereavement” (D001601).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001601). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bereavement program
<a id="bereavement-program"></a>

A bereavement program is an organized set of supports for people after a death, especially families, to help with grief and maintain continuity of care. In the source, it includes measures such as staff training, guidance on end-of-life and bereavement communication, follow-up contact, condolence letters, support groups, and psychological follow-up when needed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 814bb9aa7b9a610047a4bbde154ae1780e3372dab5dafe506549decdd3049a1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Garcia-Quintero Ximena; Pedraza Eddy Carolina; Cuervo-Suarez María Isabel; Correa^ Isabel; Baker Justin N; McNeil Michael J. Implementation of a hospital-based end-of-life and bereavement care program in a latin American middle-income country. A source of light and compassion in the midst of cloudy times. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12904-024-01522-3; article XML SHA-256 90f4e12e4258aa7ccd0a9149454ae13d08d85549906ae8c086322446c58427c8. “Implementation of a hospital-based end-of-life and bereavement care program in a latin American middle-income country. A source of light and compassion in the midst of cloudy times” (10.1186/s12904-024-01522-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12904-024-01522-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bernoulli distribution
<a id="bernoulli-distribution"></a>

A Bernoulli distribution is a probability distribution for a situation with two mutually exclusive outcomes. It is used to model cumulative incidence and prevalence rates, and it is a special case of the binomial distribution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d8341d3c31d2942de474b681f6fdb63b7f8237c8efb3f46491cc8ff787570aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Binomial Distribution” (D016010).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016010). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bessel’s correction
<a id="bessels-correction"></a>

Bessel’s correction is the step of dividing by the number of observations minus one when calculating a sample variance or standard deviation. It is used to reduce bias when estimating the population variance from sample data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7e16d7bfe1880dd64916b0d300495ba30a3f831c2f16143fb3bbce745e5a1fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## best fit
<a id="best-fit"></a>

Best fit is the statistical process of finding the mathematical function that most closely represents the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. The exact method depends on the type of regression model being used, such as linear, logistic, or multiple regression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc299d1c964a970729724c4fcb31cc14ceb78793e06146b57d5a0b3689abfc36

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Regression Analysis” (D012044).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012044). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## best interests of the child
<a id="best-interests-of-the-child"></a>

The best interests of the child is a legal and ethical principle in custody decisions that requires judges to put the child’s welfare first and choose the outcome most beneficial to the child. In practice, this means focusing on the child’s needs, including emotional and psychological well-being, rather than treating parental claims alone as decisive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2db5140b5901c6673af0fc4e04cdc8d88b392d41a5165b36decbfe6c76393dea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Xin; Chen Shi; Wang Mengyuan. Gender bias in child custody judgments: Evidence from Chinese family court. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305479; article XML SHA-256 0590995ae0b46e1ac18e5c0e51b89a90c08830e5517f15bc6cfd7f50ddcca823. “Gender bias in child custody judgments: Evidence from Chinese family court” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305479).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305479). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## beta-adrenergic receptor
<a id="beta-adrenergic-receptor"></a>

A beta-adrenergic receptor is a receptor in tissues supplied by sympathetic adrenergic nerves that belongs to the beta class of adrenergic receptors. It responds to epinephrine and norepinephrine and, when activated, can raise cellular cyclic AMP and produce effects such as increased heart activity, fat breakdown, or relaxation of bronchial and vascular smooth muscle depending on the receptor subtype.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0c0d8cfa46a312ad2382f970476b3e605a915ff2b57da324ca2539f1e3bb2960

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Beta Adrenergic Receptor” (C17062).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## beta-amyloid
<a id="beta-amyloid"></a>

Beta-amyloid is a peptide made from a larger precursor protein. In its fibrillar amyloid form, it is the main material in the plaques seen in Alzheimer’s disease and in older people with Down syndrome, and it is found mostly in the nervous system though it has also been reported in other tissues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aef1931075a0472644280bc14ef5c365d1e13fce202c954046c71ae3bf9d580f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Amyloid beta-Peptides” (D016229).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016229). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## beta blocker
<a id="beta-blocker"></a>

A beta blocker is a natural or synthetic drug that blocks beta-adrenergic activity in the sympathetic nervous system, reducing the effects of those signals. In mental health contexts, it may be used to help with anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a718ac36e614aeab65af1b81ef2dd9277b618097acc5dd70be2ec2c97691e2a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Beta-Adrenergic Antagonist” (C29576).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## beta-endorphin
<a id="beta-endorphin"></a>

Beta-endorphin is a naturally occurring opioid-like substance in the body, found in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. It is associated with feelings of well-being or euphoria and can lessen both physical and emotional pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 219c161dad06737c1c66c19037ac3c757cd68ef13b78d3fb650c624dffa50e0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Beta Endorphin” (C2479).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## beta-glucuronidase deficiency
<a id="beta-glucuronidase-deficiency"></a>

Beta-glucuronidase deficiency, also called Sly syndrome, is a rare inherited lysosomal storage disease caused by too little of the beta-glucuronidase enzyme. In cognition-related contexts, it may involve intellectual impairment along with physical features such as an enlarged liver and spleen, skeletal abnormalities, and a large head.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bfecd7e9417adbc59d619158832f06a341af9e710ca4ddd0aed28cb06fac4653

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sly Syndrome” (C84903).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## beta rhythm
<a id="beta-rhythm"></a>

Beta rhythm is a pattern of brain-wave activity measured on an EEG, with a frequency of about 15 to 30 hertz. It is typically seen when a person is awake and mentally active.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17e8ce8555a414756577596d3956c95cc833c3a89499921d98c93f7d0b2a6017

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Beta Rhythm” (D001611).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001611). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## beta-secretase
<a id="beta-secretase"></a>

Beta-secretase, specifically the enzyme BACE1, cuts amyloid precursor protein in a way that increases production of beta-amyloid. In Alzheimer’s disease, this process is linked to amyloid plaque buildup between neurons, which can disrupt neural signaling and contribute to memory impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7edc571919812fa9ca71d92fe607019787b0f2e8b74040ab97afe6f321c0e656

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ahmad Iqra; Waheed Sara; Alotaibi Bader S; Abbasi Sumra Wajid; Khan Muhammad Umer; Rahman Faiz Ur; Dib Hanna; Fawy Khaled Fahmi; Nishan Umar; Ali Abid; Zaman Aqal; Shah Mohibullah. Cheminformatics-driven discovery of natural isoquinoline alkaloid inhibitors of Beta-secretase I for Alzheimer’s management. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343717; article XML SHA-256 7750d330b7403f3efac34badf63c27d4b88089fc73c92dbed847257dbe3884d5. “Cheminformatics-driven discovery of natural isoquinoline alkaloid inhibitors of Beta-secretase I for Alzheimer’s management” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343717).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343717). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## beta wave
<a id="beta-wave"></a>

A beta wave is a pattern of brain activity measured with EEG in the 13–30 Hz range. In this source, lower beta wave power is linked with a calmer or more relaxed mental state rather than heightened anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4872280e491195dd9976e00ec06cd7fd4303dccb906f41347f21f2edebaee38e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Boere Katherine; Krigolson Olave E.. The effects of multi-colour light filtering glasses on human brain wave activity. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12868-024-00865-0; article XML SHA-256 6d9cafce02fc8f3eb64320efbcc513953c7e36c34dc14c9c8d85527e05171180. “The effects of multi-colour light filtering glasses on human brain wave activity” (10.1186/s12868-024-00865-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-024-00865-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## beta weight
<a id="beta-weight"></a>

A beta weight is a standardized regression coefficient.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b1ce8717157c731f8002f6695182a7f8fd09da79a22810037351f240edfcf3c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Beta weight” (beta_weight.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/beta_weight.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## betel nut
<a id="betel-nut"></a>

Betel nut is a widely used substance that is chewed, often in betel quid or related products, as a socially accepted masticatory product. In mental health context, it is notable because it has addictive properties and is described as one of the most widely abused substances worldwide.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47a334fdade67c863eca8f1431b5ed09edfba690214d1fe201b60778209ba3ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sharan Rajeshwar N.; Mehrotra Ravi; Choudhury Yashmin; Asotra Kamlesh. Association of Betel Nut with Carcinogenesis: Revisit with a Clinical Perspective. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0042759; article XML SHA-256 08611612f374a8e6e69a3e41b69eb932e356e57755fb89337b1addffebf8f494. “Association of Betel Nut with Carcinogenesis: Revisit with a Clinical Perspective” (10.1371/journal.pone.0042759).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0042759). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## better-than-average effect
<a id="better-than-average-effect"></a>

The better-than-average effect is the tendency for people to judge themselves as better than an average person. In psychology, it describes a self-evaluation bias that can vary across areas such as morality and competence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7de14124d660ce0ad8cc838dfeb73032b4d8264b9f2080887a892ccfd5c9d280

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ding Yi; Sugiura Motoaki. The psychological mechanisms of the better-than-average effect in the moral and competence domains under self-enhancement and self-protection motives among young Japanese adults. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1367568; article XML SHA-256 ee50b83eb32d0310d59dd0e3a4e040be1594224fdb18d2a49e7c5cfff017ce0c. “The psychological mechanisms of the better-than-average effect in the moral and competence domains under self-enhancement and self-protection motives among young Japanese adults” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1367568).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1367568). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## between-groups design
<a id="between-groups-design"></a>

A between-groups design is a study setup that compares outcomes across separate groups of participants, such as one group with one condition and another group with a different condition. In this design, the groups are contrasted with each other on the same measures rather than tracking changes within a single group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03cc889f993f9758505149e60e3a33132ad4d4a746341c6179a8c127091cae75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yu Tingfeng; Wang Keji; Xu Yun. Negative emotional processing and decision-making inhibition deficits in adolescents with NSSI: a cross-sectional ERP study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905635; article XML SHA-256 bcd989aed644ed62a20125f93dc28471d8d444c375c3497eddb81d9a75c3b243. “Negative emotional processing and decision-making inhibition deficits in adolescents with NSSI: a cross-sectional ERP study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905635).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905635). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## between-subjects analysis of variance
<a id="between-subjects-analysis-of-variance"></a>

Between-subjects analysis of variance is a statistical method used to test whether outcome scores differ across separate groups of participants. In this study, a two-way between-subjects ANOVA compared scores by study programme, study year, and whether the effect of one depended on the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d7c020cd94f0587597a9fb2d1bd87a7be08fc6cbaf23009769f1da57ad337e5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Black Cameron; Mallows Adrian; Waterworth Sally; Freeman Paul; Hope Edward; Liew Bernard X W. A cross-sectional investigation of back pain beliefs and fear in physiotherapy and sport undergraduate students. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0284754; article XML SHA-256 d0d5b423ee3dd6d06ddef99ca43567418b433a2d5361eed2934e40abb064c74d. “A cross-sectional investigation of back pain beliefs and fear in physiotherapy and sport undergraduate students” (10.1371/journal.pone.0284754).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284754). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## between-subjects design
<a id="between-subjects-design"></a>

A between-subjects design is a research design for comparing differences between means where different participants are placed in different conditions or groups, rather than being measured across all conditions. It is contrasted with a within-subjects design, where the same participants contribute measures in multiple conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2bb53a0f0676e367e47687d04f3e970977ba505ca5de70c80ef7cdf2cdc7bbb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## between-subjects factor
<a id="between-subjects-factor"></a>

A between-subjects factor is a variable in a study that separates participants into different groups, with each person belonging to only one group. In the example provided, skill level is a between-subjects factor because participants are classified as either experts or novices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: aebd42ac53ac23ed63f192d461dd1dce8b60e4a45550fd1c43cdcd0d7880d94c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Long; Ou Shi Jia; Liu Yang. Neural correlates of map representation and spatial orientation in orienteering experts: an fNIRS study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1769082; article XML SHA-256 6ac891a410f0508323c7bb129bf85ee1615ee09c2575496d292491969893ab7c. “Neural correlates of map representation and spatial orientation in orienteering experts: an fNIRS study” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1769082).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1769082). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BEV
<a id="bev"></a>

BEV refers to a bird’s-eye-view representation used in perception systems, where sensor data such as LiDAR and camera information are organized from an overhead spatial perspective. In the source, BEV features are used to better align and combine information from different sensors for object detection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f7c6edcdb8fcb265d216eb0d1945bb326e059b34395efdcddaee5dc9652824c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cheng Haixing; Liu Chengyong; Gu Wenzhe; Wu Yuyi; Zhao Mengye; Liu Wentao; Wang Naibang. LGMMFusion: A LiDAR-guided multi-modal fusion framework for enhanced 3D object detection. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331195; article XML SHA-256 3376669436b2ac5a5093cbd67f16cb2aca2ce9ddb0128a8b7cf732992cf45483. “LGMMFusion: A LiDAR-guided multi-modal fusion framework for enhanced 3D object detection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331195).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331195). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bhang
<a id="bhang"></a>

Bhang is a historical Indian name for cannabis, or Indian hemp. In this source it is described as a drug whose heavy use could produce intoxication with marked excitement or frenzy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 24e62ae2fce8e88dc5fd4a88b1dbba134d3fd2879799bdd0532b813c76861e23

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-2131500-2143500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BIA
<a id="bia"></a>

BIA stands for bioelectrical impedance analysis, a non-invasive method used to estimate body composition. In mental health settings such as anorexia nervosa treatment, it can help monitor changes in body compartments like fat-free mass, skeletal muscle mass, and body water that are not shown by weight or BMI alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: beae180bb1095c2f85ac87db225cc170e562d2fa7e7dbec004ed6ab54fc3bbdd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Monaco Francesco; Vignapiano Annarita; Landi Stefania; Bonifacio Rossella; Falchetta Daniela; Ferrara Emanuela; Panarello Ernesta; Attianese Bruno; Caputo Annaluce; Steardo Luca; Sosto Gennaro; Corrivetti Giulio. Psychosocial recovery and nutritional rehabilitation in residential treatment for anorexia nervosa: an exploratory longitudinal multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883192; article XML SHA-256 c91be2f058fd94d48fc319b1e2aee4b2b770dbba47844ab4d3444c284cf3420f. “Psychosocial recovery and nutritional rehabilitation in residential treatment for anorexia nervosa: an exploratory longitudinal multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883192).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883192). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bias
<a id="bias"></a>

Bias is a departure of findings or conclusions from what is true, or the kinds of processes that produce that departure. In research or assessment, it can arise from systematic measurement error, problems in study design, or flawed data collection, analysis, or interpretation, and it does not necessarily mean personal prejudice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a8c3de947f3062fe507516f430581fb96f87d9d6bc2faa85db0732086f619565

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bias” (D015982).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015982). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bibliotherapy
<a id="bibliotherapy"></a>

Bibliotherapy is a supportive psychotherapy approach that uses carefully chosen reading material for the patient. It involves selecting what the person reads as part of psychological support.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d97e25ad7411cea552399ed1dfc0659316bb800811bfaaf793fb1d9a22f58246

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Bibliotherapy” (D001638).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001638). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BIC
<a id="bic"></a>

BIC stands for Bayesian Information Criterion, a Bayesian-based information criterion. In this context, it is used as a score criterion in dynamic Bayesian network structure learning and can affect how the model structure is learned.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 786ce55169ccaff369fa358cf5da3f55c168d0af2ef153881ff70bed03b7006e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yaman Aslı; Cengiz Mehmet Ali. Comparative evaluation of score criteria for dynamic Bayesian Network structure learning. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336250; article XML SHA-256 a1a21faedaea86022005b5dc866e6e7e59ea26a5e615e524d6e2e98bd489c822. “Comparative evaluation of score criteria for dynamic Bayesian Network structure learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336250).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336250). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bicalutamide
<a id="bicalutamide"></a>

Bicalutamide is an anticancer drug examined in prostate cancer cells as part of research on how drugs and tissue stiffness interact. In this study, it was one of several agents with distinct cellular targets, and it was associated with an increase in the cells’ elastic modulus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 89541bbb2948628252d3e40fbc67bd6a251f0fe64587efd9c11a161202522602

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ramezani Sayed Reza; Mojra Afsaneh; Tafazzoli-Shadpour Mohammad. Mechanochemical interactions in cancer cells: The role of substrate stiffness in cell behavior and drug response. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327874; article XML SHA-256 86323516890baaaffa595c85ede05c70321c2995b4d280a7069b557a8fd2350d. “Mechanochemical interactions in cancer cells: The role of substrate stiffness in cell behavior and drug response” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327874).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327874). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bicuculline
<a id="bicuculline"></a>

Bicuculline is a plant-derived isoquinoline alkaloid that blocks GABA-A receptors by competing with GABA at those receptor sites.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90fbd18c9229dc0934b02f2cce8d3548625c9042c17544d7980476e45c6135f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bicuculline” (D001640).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001640). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Big Five personality model
<a id="big-five-personality-model"></a>

The Big Five personality model is a widely accepted dimensional way of describing personality in terms of five broad traits: neuroticism, conscientiousness, openness, agreeableness, and extraversion. In this view, personality refers to a person’s characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving, and these traits have been linked to differences in well-being and work-related functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc9124652b9b532650a68721fef12704276a62735ca6a93366ce5456dcf894f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lin Xi; Li Xiaoqing; Liu Qing; Shao Shengwen; Xiang Weilan. Big Five Personality Model-based study of death coping self-efficacy in clinical nurses: A cross-sectional survey. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0252430; article XML SHA-256 13caf9bbec91991e3abf2a604a573780e876f884b1f8f48ed633b1462d1971b2. “Big Five Personality Model-based study of death coping self-efficacy in clinical nurses: A cross-sectional survey” (10.1371/journal.pone.0252430).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252430). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bigamy
<a id="bigamy"></a>

Bigamy is the act of entering a marriage when one of the parties is already married to someone else. In the historical legal example given, it is treated as unlawful.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d193e1db17306b074a030e7bb36dc4b68c59681c5f3cc81a8d13e9fdf2452e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ignorance (in law)” (Ignorance).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Ignorance). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bigram
<a id="bigram"></a>

A bigram is a two-unit sequence in language, here referring to a pair of phonemes in a word. In this research context, how predictable or surprising these two-sound sequences are is used to study cognitive processing in spoken words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e90f4c2616f2e610d49b02234b5035389f0fc9548b7877883572be1623b72d03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kilpatrick Alexander; Bundgaard-Nielsen Rikke L. Exploring the dynamics of Shannon’s information and iconicity in language processing and lexeme evolution. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321294; article XML SHA-256 73404db5ad130b6584edd546f6e191928dee7c24e535bc847a22b5f5053d53e7. “Exploring the dynamics of Shannon’s information and iconicity in language processing and lexeme evolution” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321294).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321294). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BIID
<a id="biid"></a>

BIID is a condition where a person wants a healthy limb removed, or wants to have paralysis. The wish may involve one limb or more than one.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08f723a489d05714d1c42898d67af835a7d7b7d04f6bb3a58201bc8535e68eb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Body Integrity Identity Disorder” (D000081042).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000081042). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## bilateral
<a id="bilateral"></a>

In this context, bilateral means involving both sides of the body, especially both hands acting or being imagined together rather than just one hand alone. It contrasts with unilateral, which involves only one side.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 034e1a6d12f093a37d80b5d3a24b103c04347f480efa55658b66b8bdc4123a2b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Umeno Kazuya; Itaguchi Yoshihiro. Effects of bilateral and unilateral mental practice on actual motor performance and event-related desynchronization. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325860; article XML SHA-256 3a91342b4b4757faaa65d2c30fbcf4725f0ade55c1d77f683425da285793f96d. “Effects of bilateral and unilateral mental practice on actual motor performance and event-related desynchronization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325860).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325860). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bilateral lesion
<a id="bilateral-lesion"></a>

A bilateral lesion is damage to or destruction of a structure on both the left and right sides of the nervous system. In this source, making a bilateral lesion in the parafacial respiratory group region prevented the usual increase in breathing rate linked to locomotion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59e77e717f5f327da511fc32d280efb41a1d054faa28b9de82be16f58d606de7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Le Gal Jean-Patrick; Juvin Laurent; Cardoit Laura; Thoby-Brisson Muriel; Morin Didier. Remote Control of Respiratory Neural Network by Spinal Locomotor Generators. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0089670; article XML SHA-256 cc7bce47b56071cb7cf47eb8baff8f236e70fcec8c5e7bdc97e41c80e945ea2e. “Remote Control of Respiratory Neural Network by Spinal Locomotor Generators” (10.1371/journal.pone.0089670).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089670). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bilingualism
<a id="bilingualism"></a>

Bilingualism is the use of two languages by the same people or within the same community. In the source, it is described as a condition that can alter both languages by carrying over the speakers’ usual sound patterns and sentence habits, sometimes blurring the distinct character of each.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b06f278c4c31d4fc89de339deaf73f2a150a74d37cdaa354619cf83d0fa961f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Language” (Language).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Language). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bimanual coordination
<a id="bimanual-coordination"></a>

Bimanual coordination is the ability to organize the movements of both arms or hands in relation to each other, including patterns of relative timing or phase between them. In learning research, it refers to practicing and improving these linked two-limb movement patterns under different kinds of feedback.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 87ed3ec660777d764910f63f129eb7f64b6f8e9d5230adc64178ab8507fc4bb8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chiou Shiau-Chuen; Chang Erik Chihhung. Bimanual Coordination Learning with Different Augmented Feedback Modalities and Information Types. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0149221; article XML SHA-256 8ef003994f5d862e1ed8f7222a288065a67f294c9f8be9d9df6fe6b58c49a5ef. “Bimanual Coordination Learning with Different Augmented Feedback Modalities and Information Types” (10.1371/journal.pone.0149221).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0149221). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bimodal distribution
<a id="bimodal-distribution"></a>

A bimodal distribution is a pattern of data that has two clearly separate high points or peaks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7b5c2086491434dd8984cf6d236c19afea9cc60ab8eb6b6aac0950f29445eb55

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Bimodal Distribution” (Bimodal_Distribution.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/Bimodal_Distribution.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binary trial
<a id="binary-trial"></a>

A binary trial is a trial whose result is recorded in only two possible categories, giving a very coarse measure of behavior. In learning research, this means performance is reduced to a simple two-outcome result rather than capturing the fuller details of what the animal did.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0bc4ea569e0d28eb5d4b6b44e233556dc609ae8734a41fd4e0db43b0ee806312

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jankowski Maciej M; Polterovich Ana; Kazakov Alex; Niediek Johannes; Nelken Israel. An automated, low-latency environment for studying the neural basis of behavior in freely moving rats. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12915-023-01660-9; article XML SHA-256 7884bd5597bc2024285faa66e297ef5a878c65896bae66e80f3b21ba67c7edf3. “An automated, low-latency environment for studying the neural basis of behavior in freely moving rats” (10.1186/s12915-023-01660-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12915-023-01660-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binaural
<a id="binaural"></a>

Binaural refers to hearing with both ears. In this historical source, it also notes that the two ears may differ in how they register the same pitch, sometimes enough to matter in abnormal hearing, and that hearing with both ears was discussed in relation to beats and sound localization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3368862197a70a1212419ae6a7116fdfd4467e85dea592f29d5f75727829a934

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Binaural Hearing” (Binaural Hearing).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Binaural Hearing). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binaural beat
<a id="binaural-beat"></a>

A binaural beat is a perceived sound that can arise when different tones are presented to each ear. It is typically experienced as a fluctuation in loudness at smaller frequency differences, can sound like a rotating tone when the difference is very small, and tends to become a rough sound at larger differences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 28b8bb59224d92220705177c6af84d1438e727e970ebc89634058fb7f0162ac1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ingendoh Ruth Maria; Posny Ella S; Heine Angela. Binaural beats to entrain the brain? A systematic review of the effects of binaural beat stimulation on brain oscillatory activity, and the implications for psychological research and intervention. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0286023; article XML SHA-256 8c46e03b2b288f81b3272198146b16e63dc2ff58cd02374783a7c16fabbbef79. “Binaural beats to entrain the brain? A systematic review of the effects of binaural beat stimulation on brain oscillatory activity, and the implications for psychological research and intervention” (10.1371/journal.pone.0286023).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286023). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binaural hearing
<a id="binaural-hearing"></a>

Binaural hearing is normal hearing that uses both ears together. The source also notes that the same pitch may be heard somewhat differently by each ear in some people, and that this can matter for understanding how sounds are perceived.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3ecfdb6c7bc27c96a61de426b3d12955eca8d5880e3093a768991db66979db7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Binaural Hearing” (Binaural Hearing).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Binaural Hearing). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binaural interaction
<a id="binaural-interaction"></a>

Binaural interaction is the way the auditory system combines sound information arriving at both ears, including sensitivity to differences in the timing of the sound between ears. In the source packet, it is reflected by response patterns that are strongest and fastest when timing is matched across ears and become smaller and slower as the delay between ears increases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aedc6300bea7fdc338f25f4120c60605672d80bd02949e2f0d13a8804bebb610

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Doubell T P; Alsetrawi A; Bastawrous D A S; Bastawrous M A S; Daibes A; Jadalla A; Schnupp J W H. The effect of interaural timing on the posterior auricular muscle reflex in normal adult volunteers. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0194965; article XML SHA-256 788022b138393c2645d2ccb54f278422e41f6a537e868bc0cc33aed05bfb29ad. “The effect of interaural timing on the posterior auricular muscle reflex in normal adult volunteers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0194965).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194965). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binaural masking level difference
<a id="binaural-masking-level-difference"></a>

Binaural masking level difference is a lab measure of the binaural hearing advantage for finding a sound in background noise. It means the change in the faintest detectable signal level when the relationship between the sound and the masker differs across the two ears, often by comparing a same-phase condition with one in which the signal is reversed in phase at one ear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2245ae298d1f526526f90801bf8d5d0fec20d027d051aea36a88fd5384845cbc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ho Cheng-Yu; Li Pei-Chun; Chiang Yuan-Chuan; Young Shuenn-Tsong; Chu Woei-Chyn. The Binaural Masking-Level Difference of Mandarin Tone Detection and the Binaural Intelligibility-Level Difference of Mandarin Tone Recognition in the Presence of Speech-Spectrum Noise. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0120977; article XML SHA-256 d6b546e91c164e1c851a43d092ee97af54a9bd2ec235ce07ddffec8bf13b99cd. “The Binaural Masking-Level Difference of Mandarin Tone Detection and the Binaural Intelligibility-Level Difference of Mandarin Tone Recognition in the Presence of Speech-Spectrum Noise” (10.1371/journal.pone.0120977).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120977). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binaural summation effect
<a id="binaural-summation-effect"></a>

The binaural summation effect is the improved performance that can occur when sound information from both ears is combined rather than heard with one ear alone. In this packet, it refers to a measure of binaural benefit in speech understanding, including in bimodal listening with a cochlear implant in one ear and a hearing aid in the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b2bf9c03366cc7f017d47cb9a5de3f88e1cc61aa2ea85903167c1fb507d53cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Balkenhol Tobias; Wallhäusser-Franke Elisabeth; Rotter Nicole; Servais Jérôme J.. Cochlear Implant and Hearing Aid: Objective Measures of Binaural Benefit. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2020.586119; article XML SHA-256 e3b9b6b31fde91c6f17d5e8b1b5355327094ca96019e001b69d9ed2103335b01. “Cochlear Implant and Hearing Aid: Objective Measures of Binaural Benefit” (10.3389/fnins.2020.586119).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2020.586119). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binge drinking
<a id="binge-drinking"></a>

Binge drinking is consuming an excessive amount of alcoholic beverages over a short period of time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dda02beae8dc5a3228fa33d142a4ce75818791a38735f2e094107e827a45a834

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Binge Drinking” (D063425).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063425). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binge eating
<a id="binge-eating"></a>

Binge eating is a pattern of regularly feeling unable to control eating and consuming unusually large amounts of food.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5afbef37f313f72ad3dfb411e1ae79ac37bafd072397295e8656727af00e294a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. What Are Common Types of Eating Disorders?. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 a4b5d10e4b84fc68edab0c0391024f6901f27492e7220d464960e26249f46066. “What Are Common Types of Eating Disorders?” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/what-are-common-types-of-eating-disorders).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/what-are-common-types-of-eating-disorders). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binocular cue
<a id="binocular-cue"></a>

A binocular cue is visual information available only when both eyes are used together. In this packet, it refers to retinal disparity—the difference between the two eyes’ views—which signals whether something appears to come forward or recede in depth and helps guide binocular eye coordination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05b7a12e50848c15715cfe706746727b07499a4f009948fcba86aa0748178f04

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schotter Elizabeth R.; Blythe Hazel I.; Kirkby Julie A.; Rayner Keith; Holliman Nicolas S.; Liversedge Simon P.. Binocular Coordination: Reading Stereoscopic Sentences in Depth. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0035608; article XML SHA-256 29ab09322d367bde9710b1197a48d49a6c675b19d64c77a0c4bb328ebee74e9d. “Binocular Coordination: Reading Stereoscopic Sentences in Depth” (10.1371/journal.pone.0035608).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035608). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binocular disparity
<a id="binocular-disparity"></a>

Binocular disparity is the slight difference between the images formed on the two retinas when viewing the same object. It happens because each eye sees the object from a slightly different position.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a40acffd0eb59bbfe94aa0543fcc9c82955a4d7e63231d6e632ef4a852b0560

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vision Disparity” (D015357).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015357). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binocular fusion
<a id="binocular-fusion"></a>

Binocular fusion is the combining by the two eyes of separate but corresponding images into one visual experience, often yielding a single impression of depth or solidity. In stereoscopic viewing, different images are presented to each eye so that they unite into one three-dimensional appearance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fed610e56169b70b1948caf461fec069f4e25f4af733492aeb3dba33526d8792

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3412500-3424500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binocular perception
<a id="binocular-perception"></a>

Binocular perception is visual perception using both eyes to judge depth or distance in the third dimension. In this historical source, it is described as depending mainly on the differences between the two eyes’ images and on eye movements involved in convergence and accommodation, with other visual cues playing a secondary role.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8db08d014ac2b6363e2eb49795bc6a3b072eaccfea57ecd0f72c7d1f118d4858

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Depth or Distance, Visual (perception of)” (Depth or Distance, Visual (perception of)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Depth or Distance, Visual (perception of)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binocular rivalry
<a id="binocular-rivalry"></a>

Binocular rivalry is a visual perception phenomenon in which awareness alternates between different images when conflicting stimuli are shown separately to each eye. It is understood as a way the visual system handles mismatched input from the two eyes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1fb3a6b5e868522d6b0a31187e7eed50d90c4117fbd1c6adf9b3b60c4230898c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Szekely Brian; Keys Robert; MacNeilage Paul; Alais David. Short communication: Binocular rivalry dynamics during locomotion. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300222; article XML SHA-256 355b2c922f9e52cb87f2ab138f99e3004785b00de314051a57b19c7faf82097a. “Short communication: Binocular rivalry dynamics during locomotion” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300222).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300222). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binocular summation
<a id="binocular-summation"></a>

Binocular summation is the improvement in perceptual performance that occurs when using two eyes instead of one. In the source, this is described as potentially arising from probability summation, neural summation, or better accommodation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 881727f3827e2ad97646918f58deb1169e23d7bad7747d211795fbc5e32978b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Hongyi; Allison Robert S.. Binocular contributions to motion detection and motion discrimination during locomotion. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315392; article XML SHA-256 90b8309288f29c530b20bd8a18083a7c083702e9de390f35312a2c62fc6dbeae. “Binocular contributions to motion detection and motion discrimination during locomotion” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315392).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315392). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binocular suppression
<a id="binocular-suppression"></a>

Binocular suppression is a method used to present a visual stimulus without conscious awareness by suppressing it from awareness while still allowing its effects on attention or perception to be studied. In this context, it was used to show face images unconsciously and measure how they influenced later performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ff6612f77f933cf7052d8bef257e57807a4de06d3f466098ac1d442c79c13306

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tan Jieqing; Ma Zheng; Gao Xiaochao; Wu Yanhong; Fang Fang. Gender Difference of Unconscious Attentional Bias in High Trait Anxiety Individuals. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0020305; article XML SHA-256 b68f9b58709e46bb6d07215597a29c1a1c1ec43c5adee2282cf033b02d607045. “Gender Difference of Unconscious Attentional Bias in High Trait Anxiety Individuals” (10.1371/journal.pone.0020305).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0020305). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binocular vision
<a id="binocular-vision"></a>

Binocular vision is normal seeing with both eyes acting together as a single visual system. In psychology it has been studied especially for what it shows about how visual space is perceived, including the relation between the two retinas, convergence, depth, and related visual effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73e4e05d1ad61f344598d4d6db3039a96b1e0c0b94949606b8b6abc1c86f9d73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Binocular Vision” (Binocular Vision).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Binocular Vision). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## binomial distribution
<a id="binomial-distribution"></a>

A binomial distribution is a probability distribution for situations with two possible outcomes. In research, it is used to model rates such as cumulative incidence and prevalence, and the Bernoulli distribution is a special case of it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f391438e1d347e1480aac8ce5ccdcef577f76ae9d9ce80f1cf619ce7ecb3b028

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Binomial Distribution” (D016010).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016010). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Binswanger’s disease
<a id="binswangers-disease"></a>

Binswanger’s disease is a chronic, gradually worsening disorder affecting the brain’s white matter beneath the cortex, linked to widespread small-vessel and nerve-fiber damage. It is commonly associated with declining thinking abilities and can progress to cognitive impairment or dementia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9607d47442c83d97c0b41ea341f68bdb00d2e3313a1516e9d9ac1e7080c8c2fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Haiyi; Zhang Lu; Lu Juan; Yue Jiajun; Yuan Zhengzhen; Hu Jidan; Yao Qi; Fu Yuting; Chen Guiquan; Fang Jiliang; Zhao Jie. Multiparameter resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging as an indicator of neuropsychological changes in Binswanger’s disease with mild cognitive impairment. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnagi.2025.1522591; article XML SHA-256 41b546abefc60f4ce3ed7ad6738569c6c15328cd2ce8646511a6da51733c5f0a. “Multiparameter resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging as an indicator of neuropsychological changes in Binswanger’s disease with mild cognitive impairment” (10.3389/fnagi.2025.1522591).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2025.1522591). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bioacoustics
<a id="bioacoustics"></a>

Bioacoustics is the study of sounds produced by living organisms and how those sounds relate to behavior and interaction with the environment. In this context, it involves analyzing animal vocalizations to understand communication and activity patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d9e047a6a4ecdec6b4ab8696bfbd63339be3effd863e77e377d4fdbf13223016

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Screpanti Laura; Di Nardo Francesco; De Marco Rocco; Furlati Stefano; Bucci Giacomo; Lucchetti Alessandro; Scaradozzi David. Acoustic analysis of bottlenose dolphin vocalizations for behavioral classification in controlled settings. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336419; article XML SHA-256 03a314a466e98b7f5c651850555ef48ab8347770b01329477d7b1df1aefd4f7a. “Acoustic analysis of bottlenose dolphin vocalizations for behavioral classification in controlled settings” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336419).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336419). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biochemical defect
<a id="biochemical-defect"></a>

A biochemical defect is an abnormal chemical process in the body that contributes to disease. In the source example, it refers to the unusually rapid production of toxic lipofuscin bisretinoids in retinal pigment epithelium in Stargardt disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0048c8fd77f863faff648b35a24df3dc4bee516431b77d9e8bedcbd2373ba850

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yuhong; Ma Xiang; Muthuraman Parthasarathy; Raja Arun; Jayaraman Aravindan; Petrukhin Konstantin; Cioffi Christopher L; Ma Jian-Xing; Moiseyev Gennadiy. The novel visual cycle inhibitor (±)-RPE65-61 protects retinal photoreceptors from light-induced degeneration. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0269437; article XML SHA-256 89f93fe177ef62b9d8556bd0025933d26ce0800187b9de14b8c03374d90a2257. “The novel visual cycle inhibitor (±)-RPE65-61 protects retinal photoreceptors from light-induced degeneration” (10.1371/journal.pone.0269437).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269437). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biochemical marker
<a id="biochemical-marker"></a>

A biochemical marker is a measurable body substance used to indicate a physiological change or possible injury. In this study, blood creatine kinase was used as a biochemical marker of muscle injury.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 46e3ec5ae13ed6d96d45bd959f88fe3a8ed203e8adbe61bca4e0de69c0316369

Sources:
- Drafting source: [de Carvalho Gabriela; Girasol Carlos Eduardo; Gonçalves Luiz Guilherme Cruz; Guirro Elaine Caldeira Oliveira; Guirro Rinaldo Roberto de Jesus. Correlation between skin temperature in the lower limbs and biochemical marker, performance data, and clinical recovery scales. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248653; article XML SHA-256 b9b251a2d86c3ee21df3a500e3892216985d8352ecb843567af6eb60d5e46b33. “Correlation between skin temperature in the lower limbs and biochemical marker, performance data, and clinical recovery scales” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248653).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248653). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biodata
<a id="biodata"></a>

Biodata refers to biological data and the organized resources that store, curate, combine, and analyze those data for research use. In this source, the term especially points to the global network of biodata resources that preserve hard-to-reproduce biological information and make it more usable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 266492fde58daeed777626cf271683ffbce5ed46170b231f6e037483be4ef3d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Imker Heidi J; Schackart Kenneth E; Istrate Ana-Maria; Cook Charles E. A machine learning-enabled open biodata resource inventory from the scientific literature. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0294812; article XML SHA-256 28d44b9af2d66699559e354f82df1992d49c74fc06fc81aea276c61867832788. “A machine learning-enabled open biodata resource inventory from the scientific literature” (10.1371/journal.pone.0294812).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294812). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bioecological model
<a id="bioecological-model"></a>

The bioecological model is a view of human development that explains a person’s growth or life course through ongoing interactions between personal characteristics and multiple layers of surrounding context. In this perspective, outcomes such as career development are shaped together by the individual and their environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2ed66a24c9f0f369310dd0904904ab77da261478bdc68422219b702747c2d2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Dan; Xu Yuwei; Zhao Tongtong; Che Siqi. Academic Career Development of Chinese Returnees With Overseas Ph.D. Degrees: A Bioecological Development Perspective. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.859240; article XML SHA-256 b4d136579ab315e78a42f62b22403439f93ccf0248560622e7906dd2e81747cb. “Academic Career Development of Chinese Returnees With Overseas Ph.D. Degrees: A Bioecological Development Perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.859240).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.859240). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bioenergetics
<a id="bioenergetics"></a>

Bioenergetics refers to the processes by which cells, especially mitochondria, produce and manage energy such as ATP. In this context, it is used to describe measurable patterns of cellular energy production and how these change in disease or when parts of the electron transport chain are impaired.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1aec481083746e0dc47d88c98d84c12933401e77c3ee5c205dc518ee2d7e0b8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chenna Sandeep; Joselin Alvin; Theurey Pierre; Bano Daniele; Pizzo Paola; Ankarcrona Maria; Park David S.; Prehn Jochen H.; Connolly Niamh M. C.. Integrating simulated and experimental data to identify mitochondrial bioenergetic defects in Parkinson’s Disease models. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339326; article XML SHA-256 5ca8e12e4c95108dcd80fbb144d7f435cbfb934fdd2648d4aaa2580af9b1848e. “Integrating simulated and experimental data to identify mitochondrial bioenergetic defects in Parkinson’s Disease models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339326).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339326). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bioengineering
<a id="bioengineering"></a>

Bioengineering is a discipline that applies engineering principles and the physical, chemical, or mathematical sciences to treatment and to the study of biology, medicine, behavior, or health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ffb113659204b1128710a0fbff3d453a35160733e0c66c5d5b1678e2fb1136a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Bioengineering” (C18076).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bioethics
<a id="bioethics"></a>

Bioethics is a branch of applied ethics concerned with the value and moral questions raised by practices and advances in the life sciences, medicine, and health care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64ff9071215c296b8fe866c2a0a007fa8f6ead1d988264dca4d1f58e59df9d33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bioethics” (D001675).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001675). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biofeedback
<a id="biofeedback"></a>

Biofeedback is a training method that monitors body processes such as heart rate, muscle tension, skin temperature, or brain activity so a person can learn to influence them intentionally. It is used to support better health and physical functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 665a72cd13dd896c4221be4ab9e76e03b180ec67a57a55684eeca1e31b94da46

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Biofeedback” (C15186).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biogenesis
<a id="biogenesis"></a>

Biogenesis is the principle that every living thing comes from one or more living parents, expressing the continuity of living substance. It stands against the older, now rejected view that life can arise spontaneously from nonliving matter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d65d62e8579ead855b2a361d14941dfd5563f5ff9feb0cbd69e851f0d1ffc4a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Biogenesis” (Biogenesis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Biogenesis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biogenic amine
<a id="biogenic-amine"></a>

A biogenic amine is a naturally occurring amine formed when enzymes remove carbon dioxide from natural amino acids. Many of these substances have strong effects in the body, and some related compounds are also important in pharmacology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4330e46aabefe0f38cf11c75df73c067b6b41e993befaff268a407b93af5e27b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Biogenic Amines” (D001679).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001679). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biological age
<a id="biological-age"></a>

Biological age is an estimate of how far a person’s body has aged based on blood biomarkers that reflect overall physiological functioning, rather than simply the number of years since birth. It is used to capture differences between people in functional decline and molecular aging that chronological age may miss.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0cbc62d8ff9815dabe114c9c33bd01880812fccdf399bbdbc4582c93c0c19848

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fu Fanyu; Dong Li; Lian Jiwei; Liu Chang; Pang Tingting; Wang Yunli; Liu Peng; Wang Yufeng. Biological age threshold is associated with symptomatic knee osteoarthritis risk in chinese adults: Insights from machine learning analysis of a national cohort. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335250; article XML SHA-256 416738df599ca8e834a52b0a2e1fdc7c07c90d771d22af54b7bdec057db9d427. “Biological age threshold is associated with symptomatic knee osteoarthritis risk in chinese adults: Insights from machine learning analysis of a national cohort” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335250).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335250). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biological aging
<a id="biological-aging"></a>

Biological aging is the age-related change in how an organism functions, seen here as declines in movement and memory or learning over the lifespan. The packet supports that different abilities can worsen at different times and rates during healthy aging, rather than all declining together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c25ff5aea6bec99b736abbbc946ba07a366ac2f0a84da9ca0acd242428cd6e0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Thiem Jessica; Viskadourou Maria; Gaitanidis Alexandros; Stravopodis Dimitrios J; Strauß Roland; Duch Carsten; Consoulas Christos. Biological aging of two innate behaviors of Drosophila melanogaster : Escape climbing versus courtship learning and memory. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293252; article XML SHA-256 12a0a5b2ea4f4c932957a5d0778f30a60a2edf76343817270a54e40fd05ffe64. “Biological aging of two innate behaviors of Drosophila melanogaster : Escape climbing versus courtship learning and memory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293252).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293252). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biological clock
<a id="biological-clock"></a>

The biological clock is a group of neurons in the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus that act as self-sustained oscillators. It generates rhythmic patterns of gene activity and electrical activity that help align the body’s circadian rhythms with the 24-hour day–night cycle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76b68688ec610f2385f0ac8f6368796db670774f3d8534d881f4899072b055dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shapiro-Reznik Mika; Jilg Anje; Lerner Hadas; Earnest David J.; Zisapel Nava. Diurnal Rhythms in Neurexins Transcripts and Inhibitory/Excitatory Synapse Scaffold Proteins in the Biological Clock. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0037894; article XML SHA-256 00bc6f4dc11ca86f6919551310871cdd38860a14fd4f77b9331f7822f21d0dcf. “Diurnal Rhythms in Neurexins Transcripts and Inhibitory/Excitatory Synapse Scaffold Proteins in the Biological Clock” (10.1371/journal.pone.0037894).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0037894). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biological determinism
<a id="biological-determinism"></a>

Biological determinism is the view that organic or bodily events happen because of prior effective causes and can be explained by those earlier conditions. In this historical sense, it holds that bodily changes are determined by preceding vital changes, whether or not mental processes accompany them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3af0d8b10adc204f93d3f49e4f91853555b3edfbac9f60cd1d8c7b26c2041f41

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Determinism (in biology)” (Determinism (in biology)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Determinism (in biology)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biological measures
<a id="biological-measures"></a>

Biological measures are bodily indicators used to assess stress by tracking activity in stress-response systems. In research on children’s daily stress, these measures most often include endocrine markers such as cortisol and autonomic nervous system indicators, with brain- and immune-related markers used less often.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 322589e7986b53f08426591ffee7132a547832710accebf3e10957154d70b6ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kang Sujeong; Kim Eunkyung. Methodological trends in biological assessment of children’s daily stress: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355460; article XML SHA-256 5876e5626925bd8d91c9587b931590bce5664966af8e5aadade488cde4932f9c. “Methodological trends in biological assessment of children’s daily stress: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355460).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355460). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biological perspective
<a id="biological-perspective"></a>

In this source, a biological perspective means understanding identification by its function in living organisms, especially how animals signal who they are and recognize particular individuals over time and across places. It treats identification as biologically important for both the sender and the receiver of signals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 790486eb1a9b08146a55807927239cbc71847b28c471e3528d127154afaefeb9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Budka Michał; Deoniziak Krzysztof; Tumiel Tomasz; Woźna Joanna Teresa. Vocal individuality in drumming in great spotted woodpecker—A biological perspective and implications for conservation. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0191716; article XML SHA-256 e6a24b4d22ce2442ce764724170d5e0bc2055f3b359e40753224a46e3cc1154f. “Vocal individuality in drumming in great spotted woodpecker—A biological perspective and implications for conservation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0191716).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191716). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biological stress
<a id="biological-stress"></a>

Biological stress refers to the body’s physiological stress response as shown by measurable biological markers, such as changes in the stress hormone cortisol. In this source, it is treated as distinct from psychological stress, which is based on a person’s perceived stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b139beabc9f7e19385b0d93a2a9565ca66b98e37e6454ede1436173256e4515

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Miller Melissa; Brown Robin D.; Krautkramer Cole; Gogia Rhea; Fritz Hagen; Wylie Dennis; Kinney Kerry; Champagne Frances A.. Association between chronic stress and the epigenome: Exploration of psychological and biological stress. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346517; article XML SHA-256 d25b06d236ee147b18dba75bab10b0da859e2f1fb6d2389433284d227cf39be1. “Association between chronic stress and the epigenome: Exploration of psychological and biological stress” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346517).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346517). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biological therapy
<a id="biological-therapy"></a>

Biological therapy is treatment that uses biological agents, such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) inhibitors. In this source, it refers to anti-TNFα treatment used for severe Crohn’s disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 170c6be6a75b52a14e0e13a8e03b2b4cf360a20eb6c773686c217e40213b3c50

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wasserbauer Martin; Mala Sarka; Stechova Katerina; Hlava Stepan; Cernikova Pavlina; Stovicek Jan; Drabek Jiri; Broz Jan; Pichlerova Dita; Kucerova Barbora; Liskova Petra; Kral Jan; Bartuskova Lucia; Keil Radan. Dysfunction of peripheral somatic and autonomic nervous system in patients with severe forms of Crohn’s disease on biological therapy with TNFα inhibitors–A single center study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0294441; article XML SHA-256 918ba2c9edc618f28f4ba09f09484f27097cda5f0b1647a12402b1e56c362d86. “Dysfunction of peripheral somatic and autonomic nervous system in patients with severe forms of Crohn’s disease on biological therapy with TNFα inhibitors–A single center study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0294441).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294441). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biology
<a id="biology"></a>

Biology is the general science of life, covering both plants and animals. In this historical source, it refers to the broad study of life's general problems, with more specialized topics treated under botany and zoology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b42b5ca428636446da86afc3f9ffc5e2fbd1797937e607f9c9ca1edd42a0da02

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Biology” (Biology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Biology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biomarker
<a id="biomarker"></a>

A biomarker is a measurable biological sign, such as a level of a substance or another quantifiable body-related feature, that is used to help assess health or physiological states. It can be used in areas such as estimating disease risk, identifying psychiatric disorders, tracking environmental exposure and its effects, and supporting diagnosis or research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ddeaa39204c508e15b8056a111c0ae68e4d26b740a3da4142333bf99c86551a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Biomarkers” (D015415).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015415). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## biomechanics
<a id="biomechanics"></a>

Biomechanics is the study of how living systems are structured, function, and behave when mechanical forces act on them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 948705a389a4f84ebcadbe8ff5a35ea0176bd27d0ab71bb671c71f048367e490

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Biomechanical Phenomena” (D001696).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001696). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biomedical engineering
<a id="biomedical-engineering"></a>

Biomedical engineering is a discipline that uses engineering together with physical, chemical, or mathematical science to support treatment and to investigate biology, medicine, behavior, and health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6cd56e3742a7b6d03c01ec4b35c121323aae20ff18cd80bb905222c83db52d97

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Bioengineering” (C18076).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biomedical informatics
<a id="biomedical-informatics"></a>

Biomedical informatics is a healthcare research area that uses large electronic health record data together with statistical and machine-learning methods to make predictions that can improve care. In this context, it includes tasks such as filling in missing data, forecasting a known patient’s future condition, and applying patterns learned from past patients to new patients.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a826e841803f7905eb484aaec471b1aedf026731a24e31ee48a6a42b1b53300

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qian Ting; Masino Aaron J.. Latent Patient Cluster Discovery for Robust Future Forecasting and New-Patient Generalization. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0162812; article XML SHA-256 37a5bd794f64b690f0aaa99aa9e17858cf211f18ca2ae3d2027bd26aaf2918be. “Latent Patient Cluster Discovery for Robust Future Forecasting and New-Patient Generalization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0162812).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162812). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biometrics
<a id="biometrics"></a>

Biometrics, or biometry, is the use of statistical and mathematical methods to study biological observations and phenomena.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8755ab6181fd403a744f60d17c455b84d0f52e477ea2ab520d5e63e0b7cb99dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Biometry” (D001699).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001699). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biophilia
<a id="biophilia"></a>

Biophilia is the idea that humans have an inborn attraction to nature, so natural settings tend to draw attention easily and people are inclined to seek them out. In this context, it refers to an assumed affinity for nature rather than a specific disorder or treatment concept.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 632923cdb66706b730795084e53189c717aa336cdfe32299288c52686d224902

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kioka Chihiro; Tobita Kunihito. Vehicle avoidance: The hierarchy of visual attention towards animals, plants, and vehicles. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330475; article XML SHA-256 9ef8ba55d9c55ea3570b3432aeedd8a19ab33f9aadb20d1ed52e8b448acaec86. “Vehicle avoidance: The hierarchy of visual attention towards animals, plants, and vehicles” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330475).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330475). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biopsychosocial
<a id="biopsychosocial"></a>

Biopsychosocial refers to a three-part approach that addresses mental health through combined biological, psychological, and social aspects. In this context, it describes an intervention designed to improve mental health and quality of life by working across all three areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8231325436152521a6623259cda368bf1da0167c99d3ca40b0b4a4aa5a0297f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Yan; Lin Xiao; Ye Xinwu. A tripartite biopsychosocial intervention program enhances mental health and quality of life in elderly patients with depression secondary to geriatric diseases. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1696674; article XML SHA-256 beadc959cbefa63c11acfc40c1106ef11a61f60f9b4204181374b1bc10987a50. “A tripartite biopsychosocial intervention program enhances mental health and quality of life in elderly patients with depression secondary to geriatric diseases” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1696674).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1696674). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## biosocial theory
<a id="biosocial-theory"></a>

Biosocial theory is the view that dysregulated behaviors linked to borderline personality disorder develop partly through repeated cycles of rumination, difficulty recognizing emotions, and poor emotion regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4874d8abf381058a7ad0a10943f081186ad34966c84d04977ad996b34d73ca03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meaney Rebecca; Hasking Penelope; Reupert Andrea. Borderline Personality Disorder Symptoms in College Students: The Complex Interplay between Alexithymia, Emotional Dysregulation and Rumination. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0157294; article XML SHA-256 bb4cc6595e58b9debc2c687fdb9adb1f92205fc46ad067a0dc44cf8e54e86fb6. “Borderline Personality Disorder Symptoms in College Students: The Complex Interplay between Alexithymia, Emotional Dysregulation and Rumination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0157294).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157294). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## biostatistics
<a id="biostatistics"></a>

Biostatistics is the use of statistical methods in biology and the study of living systems. It includes gathering or retrieving data and then organizing, analyzing, simplifying, and interpreting both qualitative and quantitative information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 035d5c2e1bfc518578e9a33f2e91d246ee598ae01ab7ea91d0d578920f853408

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Biostatistics” (D056808).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D056808). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bipedal locomotion
<a id="bipedal-locomotion"></a>

Bipedal locomotion is walking on two legs. In the context of gait adaptation, it involves adjusting movement to stay stable as conditions such as uphill or downhill walking change, using body-based and visual cues to help regulate walking speed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c99de9fdab0c4927eb44855f733820cc87f5a959e0a95b43046ef013ea234a5f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Benady Amit; Zadik Sean; Lustig Adi; Gilaie-Dotan Sharon; Plotnik Meir. The effect of virtual visual scene inclination transitions on gait modulation in healthy older versus young adults—A virtual reality study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311315; article XML SHA-256 e7e0a962b0188d82558284614a75bfc0c02a0a0a452f43cefa608c5a21db31e8. “The effect of virtual visual scene inclination transitions on gait modulation in healthy older versus young adults—A virtual reality study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311315).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311315). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bipolar
<a id="bipolar"></a>

Bipolar disorder is a mental health condition that often begins during adolescence, a key period of brain development. In this context, it is described as having neurobiological features that are partly shared with, and partly distinct from, major depressive disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22b64783d3cc7be5b7f72a037614750deb92dce0812feb7ad876260eacd70e49

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Yijia; Yang Yuhang; Cheng Zixuan; Liu Jingwen; Zhang Yu; Luo Jiaxin; Huang Xingyin; Liu Mingke; Liu Can; Lei Du; Hu Liangbo. Structural network alterations in adolescent major depression and bipolar disorder: a graph-theoretical and fixel-based analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-07961-x; article XML SHA-256 8aa7442ef205cc5addaba8b7a6effd07e8efe516eda85d97d83b70e64af5cf43. “Structural network alterations in adolescent major depression and bipolar disorder: a graph-theoretical and fixel-based analysis” (10.1186/s12888-026-07961-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-07961-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bipolar cell
<a id="bipolar-cell"></a>

A bipolar cell is a macroglial cell of the ependyma with a two-sided cell-body shape and processes that reach the basal lamina around blood vessels, the pia mater, and the cerebral ventricles. In this sense, Müller cells of the retina are included because they have similar shape and local tissue contacts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c9db38d6fd07978a55c34b1ebd6f3f5981242291320fbafb1293cdb4e8e4e72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ependymoglial Cells” (D063928).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063928). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bipolar disorder
<a id="bipolar-disorder"></a>

Bipolar disorder is a major mood disorder involving severe shifts in mood, including manic episodes or episodes of major depression. It commonly follows a pattern of improvement and return over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce89075aea5c921671405cea7e725553be8be80fce948fd547ad3b456bc67974

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bipolar Disorder” (D001714).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001714). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bipolarity
<a id="bipolarity"></a>

Bipolarity means a division into two contrasting positions or poles. In this source, it refers to participants being split between two different views about how climate change acceptance should be defined.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6931066cce98c05af4aa5dee910e2ce5048fc242517eaf446efb522a6fe92c60

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Duke Jessica R.; Holt Emily A.. Defining climate change acceptance in undergraduate science student populations: A Delphi study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356374; article XML SHA-256 d3b4288ccfe9082a72a22debfce75cfc75ee43236cec367a21d906569eb8f67c. “Defining climate change acceptance in undergraduate science student populations: A Delphi study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356374).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356374). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## birth control
<a id="birth-control"></a>

Birth control refers to a prescribed contraceptive used to prevent pregnancy. In the source context, it is discussed as something used alongside a condom in dual-method contraceptive decision-making during vaginal intercourse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8485e4521b06b4f56417ab0759904b41cc192310cd119bbd615f463ddfab9afd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Holt Lauren; Corneli Amy; Stevenson Eleanor; Swartz Jonas J.; Relf Michael V.. The theoretical understanding of risk perception and dual-method contraceptive decision-making among Texas adolescent and young adult cisgender females. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343687; article XML SHA-256 795f96289d6e090eb7f07710cd6207655895ecda1cdebd3c5d867a59d5bbfa37. “The theoretical understanding of risk perception and dual-method contraceptive decision-making among Texas adolescent and young adult cisgender females” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343687).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343687). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## birth mother
<a id="birth-mother"></a>

A birth mother is the woman who gives birth to a child. In adoption research, the term is used to distinguish her genetic and prenatal influences from the child’s later rearing environment provided by adoptive parents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b115c31384cbdd13ba90a6cd31e2dfd5b78a8c86147a211141a97d3b5f19fa9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gordon Rebecca E F; Bates Elizabeth J S; Ganiban Jody M; Neiderhiser Jenae M; Natsuaki Misaki N; Shaw Daniel S; Leve Leslie D. Heritable, Prenatal, and Environmental Pathways of Parental Stress: Differential Influences on Children’s Effortful Control and Cortisol Regulation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355546; article XML SHA-256 d55bddac8c5413bd3920c4075e5b64abcdb7f0ca855e6e0d398c090d54d719b7. “Heritable, Prenatal, and Environmental Pathways of Parental Stress: Differential Influences on Children’s Effortful Control and Cortisol Regulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355546).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355546). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## birth order
<a id="birth-order"></a>

Birth order is a person’s position in the sequence of children born in a family, such as being the first, middle, or last child.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fc7c0fef90ad0a387f99313375502e5ac571342a7dad93ec487908f00257c942

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Birth Order” (D001722).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001722). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## birth parent
<a id="birth-parent"></a>

A birth parent is a child’s biological parent whose influence may come through genetic or prenatal pathways rather than through being the person who raises the child after birth. In adoption research, the term is used to distinguish these birth-related influences from the postnatal environment provided by adoptive parents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e516252b51a50b1a728c70690e9e9272e1f7fa3463f722c95402d74fe64a3a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gordon Rebecca E F; Bates Elizabeth J S; Ganiban Jody M; Neiderhiser Jenae M; Natsuaki Misaki N; Shaw Daniel S; Leve Leslie D. Heritable, Prenatal, and Environmental Pathways of Parental Stress: Differential Influences on Children’s Effortful Control and Cortisol Regulation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355546; article XML SHA-256 d55bddac8c5413bd3920c4075e5b64abcdb7f0ca855e6e0d398c090d54d719b7. “Heritable, Prenatal, and Environmental Pathways of Parental Stress: Differential Influences on Children’s Effortful Control and Cortisol Regulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355546).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355546). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## birth rate
<a id="birth-rate"></a>

Birth rate is the frequency of births in a population or region during a given time period. In the source, it is used as a population measure that varies across places and over time and is influenced by social, economic, educational, urbanization, and age-structure factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ff9e23765a384c10c95d573a9b5711b68975cbb310d8a21b2038f440edd06cc3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiang Xiujuan; Pan Qianhua; Xu Wei; Sun Jingyuan; Chen Sicheng. Analysis of the spatiotemporal evolution of birth rates and influencing factors in the Yangtze River Basin. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316139; article XML SHA-256 387efcd4cc9114e572fc4ceaf44c55e6947fb9c627ca2cafd395912c370ae13e. “Analysis of the spatiotemporal evolution of birth rates and influencing factors in the Yangtze River Basin” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316139).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316139). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BIS
<a id="bis"></a>

BIS is an EEG-derived measure of brain activity used here as an indirect marker of trance-like states during a mind-body intervention. In this context, lower BIS values were taken to suggest greater involvement in trance, although the measure showed substantial variation within and between people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9aa641eaa553ecc9a543bb946b9ba27f1e80ab191a43d5fd4a2b31a10ecdf17a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zech Nina; Busch Martin; Jaeger Veronika; Hansen Ernil. Within-subject and between-subject variability in responses to a mind-body intervention in electrophysiological brain activity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872803; article XML SHA-256 dbb53ec216c050f56f9af326b399ebeed672f7c47de3ae750317d1a7be1f81ee. “Within-subject and between-subject variability in responses to a mind-body intervention in electrophysiological brain activity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872803).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872803). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bisexuality
<a id="bisexuality"></a>

Bisexuality is sexual attraction to, or relationships with, people of both the same sex and the opposite sex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8d5b9e824b2b97d7603a01777c03c49168bb8207a8f8542aae247077c54404dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Bisexuality” (D001727).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001727). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bit
<a id="bit"></a>

BIT, or the Breast-Impact of Treatment Scale, is a 13-item self-report questionnaire that uses a 4-point scale to measure stress related to body changes in women with breast cancer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a63a7bd57cfe4ef5d711768575ba54d3856c6f539593e9bececab0fc5e1c6935

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Breast-Impact of Treatment Scale” (C129607).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bivariate
<a id="bivariate"></a>

Bivariate refers to data in which each observation includes two variables, so the two measurements are considered together. For example, a pair of values recorded for each person or case would be bivariate data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 732ee30c17d3a2a17517d1ad084c0466e45b467affd414cc3e92d4992c63d9dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Bivariate” (bivariate.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/bivariate.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## black box
<a id="black-box"></a>

In learning, a black box is a pre-trained source model whose internal data or parameters are not accessible, often because of privacy limits. It is used only through the labels or predictions it produces, which can then be transferred to another domain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1443ab3285203f573ba285ac803c48ba3703045082185072db0c7d70d621d6b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Huiwen; Lee Jaeri; Kang U. Threshold-based exploitation of noisy label in black-box unsupervised domain adaptation. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321987; article XML SHA-256 3235b4e4ec0b6a3bbf9acb1a0c4a5311f807499e810c62b506177c4c7b1487bb. “Threshold-based exploitation of noisy label in black-box unsupervised domain adaptation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321987).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321987). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blacking out
<a id="blacking-out"></a>

Blacking out is a temporary loss of consciousness, or a brief period of altered awareness, that leads to memory loss for what happened during that time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 925f12b434a54254030f356223bc70e7db15a515ef5a7a6b47171c715b2d739a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Blacking Out” (C180702).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blackout
<a id="blackout"></a>

Blackout is a brief period of losing consciousness, or having consciousness altered, in a way that leaves a gap in memory for what happened.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe1fcc04084c1a8f1e223338f0868b70204891deab441b0f609e71f675e82c2d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Blacking Out” (C180702).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blastula
<a id="blastula"></a>

In historical usage, blastula names a stage of development in which the segmented ovum consists of the blastosphere. It refers to that early embryonic stage rather than to a separate structure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1ffcb4d8521626a07c79feda4f21a637f42cec4587a2af3e0c5edc9aeb6b210

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Blastula” (Blastula).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B2defs.htm#Blastula). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blending
<a id="blending"></a>

In this historical source, blending means fusion or mixing. It is presented as an alternative English rendering of the German term Verschmelzung, though fusion is preferred.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a701f32b8d454684480519ccff3ccd822e4fb31576163e154354cca7ae7ac42b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Blending” (Blending).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B2defs.htm#Blending). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blind
<a id="blind"></a>

Blindness is visual deprivation in which a person lacks visual experience, providing a model for studying how the brain organizes itself without sight. In this context, the occipital cortex, usually linked to vision, can become involved in touch, hearing, language, memory, mathematics, and executive functions through altered patterns of brain connectivity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 654c48e07c9583e963e4283728b8e75f5145d82034ba8c3ea6f96208b2e4b196

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xiao Xiang; Zhang Yu; Zheng Jiacheng; Tian Mengyu. Functional reorganization of the visual cortex in blindness: a connectivity perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1884190; article XML SHA-256 fecc483f1515bbdddcf167b1f8ec26843c36102dde0bb5801cc08322bde24f77. “Functional reorganization of the visual cortex in blindness: a connectivity perspective” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1884190).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1884190). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blind spot
<a id="blind-spot"></a>

A blind spot is the small area in each retina that does not respond to light because it is where the optic nerve enters the eye. Although nothing is seen at that point, vision usually seems continuous because the other eye can cover it in binocular vision and the mind may complete the missing part from surrounding visual input.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0ef141907bf15169985e06558fa1666dcc81cd5d16d2dbaa253103398645e6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Blind Spot” (Blind Spot).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B2defs.htm#Blind Spot). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blindness
<a id="blindness"></a>

Blindness is the inability to see, or a loss or absence of awareness of visual input. It can result from disorders of the eyes, optic nerve, optic chiasm, or brain areas involved in vision, including the visual pathways and occipital lobe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 25da5402b16ab36a3eb37222861bda3574ac5b82e0b2b398e2ed7d93955355e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Blindness” (D001766).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001766). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## block design
<a id="block-design"></a>

Block design is a cognitive test task in which a child copies a shown pattern by arranging one- or two-color blocks. It is used to assess the ability to break down and put together abstract visual information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9301278858db31f315fa8d36669a57405d2a1b76fb8de01b56f6058ff6fae108

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Block Design Subtest (WPPSI-IV)” (C120352).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blocking
<a id="blocking"></a>

Blocking is a problem with recalling something or a sudden break in a person’s flow of thinking or speaking that is linked to emotional factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b961cd5cfca16bdd614f23b8287d4518bc9ef01af3b36d35df6aa879eee9337d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mental Blocking” (C86946).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blood alcohol concentration
<a id="blood-alcohol-concentration"></a>

Blood alcohol concentration is the amount of alcohol present in a given volume of blood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9cf5e030c4585942886229ffd07e98b59c278a2c79a06e0f9c3f6741721648ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Blood Alcohol Content” (D000067401).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067401). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blood levels
<a id="blood-levels"></a>

Blood levels are the amounts of substances measured in the blood, such as triglycerides, glucose, or HDL cholesterol. In diagnosis, blood levels may be described as increased or decreased when they are above or below stated cutoff values.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2370a5e6b2278d6ac81fe1fd53317694e1df6dc8488173bda900e8c1ffad156

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hoekstra Steven; Lommen Miriam J. J.; Warrens Matthijs J.; Visser Ellen; Doornbos Bennard; Cath Daniëlle. Associations between childhood maltreatment, PTSD and metabolic outcomes in patients with common mental disorders at outpatient clinics in specialized care. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07346-6; article XML SHA-256 5ed26fb217426d80b63c8e90c5e68a1367861e34f0146db8077547b832cd4c6b. “Associations between childhood maltreatment, PTSD and metabolic outcomes in patients with common mental disorders at outpatient clinics in specialized care” (10.1186/s12888-025-07346-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07346-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blood poisoning
<a id="blood-poisoning"></a>

Blood poisoning is an older term for septicemia, a serious condition in which disease-causing microorganisms enter the bloodstream and trigger a fast-moving whole-body reaction that can progress to shock. It commonly involves fever, chills, a fast heart rate, and rapid breathing, and it is a medical emergency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: dc104f5cceaafff060e001cdc7b1aa2a16d5766e3afa78c3ff913525c7af0b82

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Septicemia” (C3364).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blood–brain barrier
<a id="bloodbrain-barrier"></a>

The blood–brain barrier is a layer of closely connected endothelial cells lining brain capillaries that acts as a selective barrier between the blood and brain tissue. It limits the passage of some substances into the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: edde6e3283e54b98d001a44954ab86ab8f274f78ba5eaec9c6d430bca6cf2f80

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Blood-Brain Barrier” (D001812).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001812). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bloom’s taxonomy
<a id="blooms-taxonomy"></a>

Bloom’s taxonomy is a framework used in education to describe levels of learning, especially in the cognitive domain from simpler to more complex thinking skills. It is commonly used to guide learning outcomes and to design or evaluate exam questions so they reflect different levels of cognition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c488b8ea252f25012eabd80104120a41974b7ee40e71e557e980d3efc63f7cf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mohammed Manal; Omar Nazlia. Question classification based on Bloom’s taxonomy cognitive domain using modified TF-IDF and word2vec. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0230442; article XML SHA-256 9d89931bf096c9b35167f6cbe85cb6168ca04a7ce8133e71f483a0a90e64eae8. “Question classification based on Bloom’s taxonomy cognitive domain using modified TF-IDF and word2vec” (10.1371/journal.pone.0230442).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230442). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blues
<a id="blues"></a>

Blues is a popular term for a mood or period of mental depression. In this historical source, it is linked with melancholia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 89e6a381b0a1ef8112d0140feb9587dd2344898c7ebf4264824c811ec702c6a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Blues” (Blues).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B2defs.htm#Blues). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blue–yellow blindness
<a id="blueyellow-blindness"></a>

Blue–yellow blindness is a form of partial colour-blindness in which the short-wave end of the spectrum appears very dark and weakly coloured, yellow may be mistaken for white, and red and green remain distinguishable. In the source, it is described as involving loss of blue–yellow colour perception rather than total loss of colour vision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 320b655a488e3216f0e1a67250a7732135aab9b462f5b3f30e64919a1ab70ffb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: C3defs.htm” (ba7f9580cfb903b583a8).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C3defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blurred vision
<a id="blurred-vision"></a>

Blurred vision is reduced visual sharpness, making it harder to see fine details clearly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e5637e41bb7618d1133795ad54045777b041f156babd68ef640362f516f8e21

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Blurred Vision” (C27123).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## blushing
<a id="blushing"></a>

Blushing is an involuntary reddening, usually of the face, that occurs especially with feelings such as embarrassment, confusion, or shame.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cd5b7011d0c50f87b99d77dc01ea09b372d49f989af0e5975b19f36dfab1ce5f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Blushing” (D001821).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001821). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BMI
<a id="bmi"></a>

BMI stands for body mass index. In this source, it is discussed as a body-related measure examined in relation to eating behavior and depressive symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f75a7b94f98f2bd9297152c42131fd4326f9cd2c030658ecb424b0643470d055

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schamarek Imke; Bautz Anna; Stumvoll Michael; Blüher Matthias; Kovacs Peter; Tönjes Anke; Rohde-Zimmermann Kerstin. Trait disinhibition mediates the associations of depressive symptoms and BMI in a non-clinical cohort of lean and individuals with obesity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1705171; article XML SHA-256 1e696cfe40359a582969bc9390379ca8c3450b27afe5a8eecf352a4c25b72e1c. “Trait disinhibition mediates the associations of depressive symptoms and BMI in a non-clinical cohort of lean and individuals with obesity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1705171).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1705171). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BMLD
<a id="bmld"></a>

BMLD stands for binaural masking-level difference, a laboratory measure of how much using both ears improves detecting a sound in noise. It is the difference in the just-audible level of a signal between two binaural listening conditions, commonly comparing the same-phase condition with one where the signal is phase-inverted at one ear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8d0438b3838b4cfe3f019d26ff9c0b2de86f5df00bee4782e69015b61b15c3c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ho Cheng-Yu; Li Pei-Chun; Chiang Yuan-Chuan; Young Shuenn-Tsong; Chu Woei-Chyn. The Binaural Masking-Level Difference of Mandarin Tone Detection and the Binaural Intelligibility-Level Difference of Mandarin Tone Recognition in the Presence of Speech-Spectrum Noise. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0120977; article XML SHA-256 d6b546e91c164e1c851a43d092ee97af54a9bd2ec235ce07ddffec8bf13b99cd. “The Binaural Masking-Level Difference of Mandarin Tone Detection and the Binaural Intelligibility-Level Difference of Mandarin Tone Recognition in the Presence of Speech-Spectrum Noise” (10.1371/journal.pone.0120977).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120977). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BNT
<a id="bnt"></a>

In this source, BNT refers to neurocognitive training delivered by computer. It is described as a cognitive training approach studied for whether it can improve long-term memory and reduce PTSD and depressive symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7db6f7e5ddd55e1551f865ab3f577cb57c906b6e7486af67f7d92069c95ce7ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Muschner Patric; Goldschmidt Lena; Gröning Luisa Sophie; Spohrs Jennifer; Willmund Gerd-Dieter; Piefke Martina. Combining trauma therapy with computer-based neurocognitive training in soldiers with post-traumatic stress disorder: a quasi-experimental study on symptom reduction and long-term memory functions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1750423; article XML SHA-256 653977d447a14b968552931ab01ce428fe2168a9f83040e8329c324070beac4e. “Combining trauma therapy with computer-based neurocognitive training in soldiers with post-traumatic stress disorder: a quasi-experimental study on symptom reduction and long-term memory functions” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1750423).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1750423). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## body
<a id="body"></a>

In historical psychology and physiology, body means the material, physical being that exists as an individual in space and time. It is used especially to contrast the physical person with mind or spirit.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 178b7ba31938ba7e2192e290677ca4abd04670f7d8f7fae0af75db3cdb360d19

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Body” (Body).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B2defs.htm#Body). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## body buffer zone
<a id="body-buffer-zone"></a>

Body buffer zone refers to the invisible personal boundaries around a person’s body that they keep in relation to other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a92b0fb0324baa7340c4914f093b551eeaa3d4c796182d80272f07112e260bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Personal Space” (D010550).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010550). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## body build
<a id="body-build"></a>

Body build means the overall shape or physical constitution of a person’s body as one of the features people use to judge appearance. In this study context, it is considered alongside height and weight in how attractive or desirable someone sees their appearance to be.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3a85da3512d1e319da80f85dfd595705d6e9416b06f0ca52903ee19114869139

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Platta Anna M.; Mikulec Anna T.; Radzymińska Monika; Ruszkowska Millena; Suwała Grzegorz; Zborowski Marek; Kowalczewski Przemysław Łukasz; Nowicki Marcin. Body image and willingness to change it—A study of university students in Poland. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293617; article XML SHA-256 c05e014db22273096ae155d375c2a8e2ae3e38878f0aa1ad4f5f4bf3916019fb. “Body image and willingness to change it—A study of university students in Poland” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293617).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293617). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## body distortion
<a id="body-distortion"></a>

Body distortion is a change in normal body posture or movement pattern that happens when a person compensates for a missing or limited function, such as wrist rotation after upper-limb amputation. In this context, it refers to awkward whole-body adjustments during tasks, which can reduce comfort and may contribute to emotional distress such as anxiety or depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43cdf13f6ab03270dc1ee6ebbd03a8cd4929e0ad0bf3b3b7d0bc1e3b735358c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Yang; Luo Yuhui; Xiao Ting; Liang Jiejunyi. Non-back-drivable clutch based self-locking mechanism of prosthetic joint to improve manipulation stability. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1385076; article XML SHA-256 ee292528b9ea809f6afac785f854d20119b55ed61649107b32444ba9a449ec4b. “Non-back-drivable clutch based self-locking mechanism of prosthetic joint to improve manipulation stability” (10.3389/fbioe.2024.1385076).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2024.1385076). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## body dysmorphic disorder
<a id="body-dysmorphic-disorder"></a>

Body dysmorphic disorder is a mental health condition in which a person has distressing and often strongly held beliefs about flaws in their appearance, along with significant impairment. It often begins in childhood or adolescence, is common in young people, and can be long-lasting and severe if untreated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 43f34a032b7235efe47b7aba7fd37fcdbd400e82381376a4132f4faf749cd7c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schmidt Michaela; Schoenenberg Katrin; Engelkamp Julia E; Staufenbiel Thomas; Martin Alexandra; Ebert David D; Hartmann Andrea S. Efficacy of an internet-based, therapist-guided cognitive behavioral therapy intervention for adolescents and young adults with body dysmorphic disorder: a randomized controlled trial. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-06797-1; article XML SHA-256 07a3cc15844bedb8d8158fb985b900db581debdd922a905c8a69c1165a40190a. “Efficacy of an internet-based, therapist-guided cognitive behavioral therapy intervention for adolescents and young adults with body dysmorphic disorder: a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-025-06797-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-06797-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## body esteem
<a id="body-esteem"></a>

Body esteem is a person’s evaluation of their own appearance and body shape. It is a body-related aspect of self-worth that is linked to psychological well-being and can be influenced by social pressures and body image.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4acd134b6aafa9e3d7f091658e70958faba93a6eb8906b1938a2e87c6c11c1c3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Yuna; Zeng Yong; Dong Heling; Li Han. The influence of exercise on body esteem among college students of different genders: evidence from Latin dance and aerobics. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1648594; article XML SHA-256 2dc53692161c2dd53bf3738d8b6f2f2fcf63bf70b5b5f5c71e388bf943eb29c7. “The influence of exercise on body esteem among college students of different genders: evidence from Latin dance and aerobics” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1648594).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1648594). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## body ideal
<a id="body-ideal"></a>

Body ideal is the body shape or composition a person sees as the one they would ideally like to have. In this packet, it refers especially to a culturally shared appearance standard that people may internalize, such as preferring more muscle and less body fat, and it often serves as the comparison point for judging one’s current body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e08660615014f6ac5e76abda9770a7b96b663c67160ce1d23a1e07e18b3b3dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Groves Vicki; Ridley Bethany J.; Cornelissen Piers L.; Maalin Nadia; Mohamed Sophie; Kramer Robin S. S.; McCarty Kristofor; Tovée Martin J.; Cornelissen Katri K.. Men's perception of current and ideal body composition and the influence of media internalization on body judgements. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1116686; article XML SHA-256 0d1baf5d5cb0cfc5c411858ffab7533e426208974c1350e26741e71db48b60fa. “Men's perception of current and ideal body composition and the influence of media internalization on body judgements” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1116686).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1116686). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## body-image distortion
<a id="body-image-distortion"></a>

Body-image distortion is an inaccurate perception of one’s own body size or dimensions, such as seeing oneself as larger or smaller than one’s actual body. It is a form of body image misperception and can occur alongside dissatisfaction with body weight or shape.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f6facd66fc08bdfd4898c3398b57eadd50280a49ffa1f0fbab3dec0b7b7e9696

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cabral Magno C.; Coelho Gabriela M. O.; Oliveira Natalia; Canella Daniela S.; Brasil Raiane L. O.; Campos Tatiana A. M.; Faerstein Eduardo; Bezerra Flávia F.. Association of body image perception and (dis)satisfaction with adiposity in adults: The Pró-Saúde study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304987; article XML SHA-256 166f4b51c7b226cc6ed650ae0bd188c3d96b859200ab8875ee080da08eb29ab3. “Association of body image perception and (dis)satisfaction with adiposity in adults: The Pró-Saúde study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304987).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304987). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## body-image ideals
<a id="body-image-ideals"></a>

Body-image ideals are the appearance or body-weight standards people feel they should meet, especially in settings where looks or weight are tied to performance. In this study context, these ideals are treated as influences on body-image perception, eating-related behaviors, and mental health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4ff3829ca566dad9c0b1b5d2e60e23d1b6e5bc715700c87937f35c81d25d04d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dobkowska-Szefer Daria; Staśkiewicz-Bartecka Wiktoria; Kiciak Agata; Kardas Marek. Eating disorders risk assessment and body esteem among elite polish contact karate athletes. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnut.2025.1704743; article XML SHA-256 86c2382639b7ceeef7b5cb9b8adbca7fb853309de8156ff76242efb7f4508166. “Eating disorders risk assessment and body esteem among elite polish contact karate athletes” (10.3389/fnut.2025.1704743).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2025.1704743). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Body Integrity Identity Disorder
<a id="body-integrity-identity-disorder"></a>

Body Integrity Identity Disorder is a condition in which a person wants one or more healthy limbs amputated or wants to be paralyzed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5dad24c99ddf83ca4e23e9809ad70b3f5d1db220de9c4479e00ae90a602194b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Body Integrity Identity Disorder” (D000081042).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000081042). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## body mass index
<a id="body-mass-index"></a>

Body mass index is a widely used measure of body size that serves as an indicator of nutritional and metabolic status. In this study, BMI was grouped into categories such as underweight, normal weight, and overweight/obesity to examine how body weight status relates to sleep disturbance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 80e3be7244e68de98302c68e6453734dc22b2034689ac450536a3535c72c4888

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Feng Chunlin; Dai Jun; Liu Jingju; Zhu Ling; Zhang Zhang; Sun Qiming. Associations of body mass index and chemotherapy emetogenic risk with sleep disturbance in patients with cancer: a retrospective study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1902262; article XML SHA-256 2b6ac06c410fc9eba5c79924bc8ab340c03f464e7c1a7fd83db826ef4f4378fa. “Associations of body mass index and chemotherapy emetogenic risk with sleep disturbance in patients with cancer: a retrospective study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1902262).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1902262). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## body rocking
<a id="body-rocking"></a>

Body rocking is a standing postural task in which a person deliberately rocks the body at the ankle joint in the sagittal plane, meaning forward and backward while upright. In this context, it is used to study how posture is coordinated and controlled during standing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a69131c20cb65dfa171dafc92c8bd9b19f276898267625170855f82e5f93508

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Zheng; Ko Ji Hyun; Challis John H.; Newell Karl M.. The Degrees of Freedom Problem in Human Standing Posture: Collective and Component Dynamics. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0085414; article XML SHA-256 78c5b060c309bdb55dd6f2cc7245d37761284e603313f915c67cae50c2df4b44. “The Degrees of Freedom Problem in Human Standing Posture: Collective and Component Dynamics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0085414).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0085414). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## body schema
<a id="body-schema"></a>

Body schema is the mind’s implicit sensorimotor map of the body that is used during movement. It also supports planning and mentally simulating actions, such as imagining rotating one’s own body to judge left and right from an egocentric viewpoint.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2dbb287d6ace14182706a2808bdd418e0cefccc933c9faecdec71ab82aa44f2b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Naraindas Akansha M.; Cooney Sarah M.. Body image disturbance, interoceptive sensibility and the body schema across female adulthood: a pre-registered study. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1285216; article XML SHA-256 56b06c1344d81832492115bfe3cb847b9c27f8c097cc7b9fd07d8a9e6a218686. “Body image disturbance, interoceptive sensibility and the body schema across female adulthood: a pre-registered study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1285216).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1285216). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## body-size overestimation
<a id="body-size-overestimation"></a>

Body-size overestimation is a form of body image distortion in which a person perceives their body as larger than it actually is. In this study, it was expressed as a perceived body size or BMI that was higher than the person’s real body size or BMI.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 13fc1e3c7009bc83dfbc5270d029fe7a1f83718f9dab1facd3fb759543a5c6bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cabral Magno C.; Coelho Gabriela M. O.; Oliveira Natalia; Canella Daniela S.; Brasil Raiane L. O.; Campos Tatiana A. M.; Faerstein Eduardo; Bezerra Flávia F.. Association of body image perception and (dis)satisfaction with adiposity in adults: The Pró-Saúde study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304987; article XML SHA-256 166f4b51c7b226cc6ed650ae0bd188c3d96b859200ab8875ee080da08eb29ab3. “Association of body image perception and (dis)satisfaction with adiposity in adults: The Pró-Saúde study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304987).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304987). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BOLD
<a id="bold"></a>

BOLD is a functional MRI method that estimates brain activity by detecting differences in the MRI signal between oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor hemoglobin. Because these signal changes reflect metabolic activity, it is used to infer neurologic activity in the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2474c205a7b334b4b522c306256585f4da1423edc7672835e3a460469b929c6c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Blood Oxygen Level-Dependent Functional MRI” (C49099).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bombesin
<a id="bombesin"></a>

Bombesin is a 14-amino-acid peptide first identified in the skin of certain toads and also found naturally in many animals, including mammals, where it acts as a neurotransmitter. It influences smooth muscle activity as well as stomach secretion and kidney blood flow and function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 932254c6395d291e774672f8c1ec7753495c5d277a2398cb13cdcf4e2438c5c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bombesin” (D001839).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001839). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bond
<a id="bond"></a>

In developmental psychology, bond usually refers here to the mother–infant bond: a changing emotional relationship in which the mother responds suitably to the baby’s needs and experiences the baby’s signals positively. This bond helps create a secure, nurturing setting that supports the child’s development and later relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f485514f247a05107618a175274ba9ca5e6d805c2c03b18ca64b6c14187b604c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ribeiro Feitosa Marielle; Gomes Júnior Saint Clair; Carneiro Melo Emanuella; Viana Júnior Antonio Brazil; de Almeida Paulo César; Rebelo Fernanda. Postpartum depression as the main predictor of impaired mother- infant bonding: A prospective study in a low-risk obstetric and neonatal cohort. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347856; article XML SHA-256 3cb1959e438e81dc1b23f333bc97a7c83d5d16c976964e6fdd8c9d4902d6ee38. “Postpartum depression as the main predictor of impaired mother- infant bonding: A prospective study in a low-risk obstetric and neonatal cohort” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347856).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347856). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bonding
<a id="bonding"></a>

In this source, bonding refers to the developing process by which a person forms meaningful ties with a place through interaction, use, and experience over time. It highlights how this relationship can start even in an initial encounter and deepen as the place gains personal significance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0925c6601218e66c542b1d2814a0913cf2d49fff29cbcdb0bc8d6be1f11c7cae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yuchen; Song Hongcai; Lu Jiangsu; Wei Jie. Visual metaphors promote place bonding in urban marathon participation through emotional involvement and spatial meaning reconstruction: a ZMET–PLS-SEM study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1921873; article XML SHA-256 167dbfad8f87c2ce24ebe5b64f2235204f45a2c01f83ef9378fcd5143e056c9a. “Visual metaphors promote place bonding in urban marathon participation through emotional involvement and spatial meaning reconstruction: a ZMET–PLS-SEM study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1921873).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1921873). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bone age
<a id="bone-age"></a>

Bone age is an estimate of a person’s age based on how mature their bones are. It is closely related to skeletal maturity, which means the current stage of bone development, and differs from chronological age, which is based only on date of birth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 103e7112bc5bf97b6ed7bd85fdfd02f58febf63727afe51ee0182fa95785092f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dallora Ana Luiza; Anderberg Peter; Kvist Ola; Mendes Emilia; Diaz Ruiz Sandra; Sanmartin Berglund Johan. Bone age assessment with various machine learning techniques: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0220242; article XML SHA-256 ca07fc468299c7b9e152ad55543606d93d77f34bcbc2579b9c959e9e8c4ffe1f. “Bone age assessment with various machine learning techniques: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0220242).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220242). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bone Conduction
<a id="bone-conduction"></a>

Bone conduction is the transmission of sound to the inner ear through vibrations of the skull bones rather than through the ear canal and eardrum. It can be used to estimate cochlear hearing levels while bypassing problems in the outer or middle ear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d46bfe19154aa333a413de786ae2fc6d841e7c4dfcc377a714422013167e449a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Bone Conduction” (D001844).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001844). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bonnet syndrome
<a id="bonnet-syndrome"></a>

Bonnet syndrome, or Charles Bonnet syndrome, is a condition in which people with visual impairment experience visual hallucinations. It can be distressing, may increase health-related anxiety, and is often missed because awareness of it is limited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e326cc246c9bfaba661c4243cbc4a501660dfed0bb62c0a9d8b4602a10f43694

Sources:
- Drafting source: [McCready Jemma; Gomes Renata S. M.; Kiernan Matthew D.; Arnfield Jane; Senior Emma; Farrell Derek P.. Understanding healthcare accessibility for military veterans living with Charles Bonnet Syndrome: co-production of a psychoeducational toolkit. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1698432; article XML SHA-256 bbb52f3b6ea171a574d251624f685b51da2b94cbb446d741ec977dbe1957c8e6. “Understanding healthcare accessibility for military veterans living with Charles Bonnet Syndrome: co-production of a psychoeducational toolkit” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1698432).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1698432). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bony labyrinth
<a id="bony-labyrinth"></a>

The bony labyrinth is the system of bone-lined spaces in the inner ear within the petrous part of the temporal bone. It contains the membranous labyrinth and includes the vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6fd8092530602afd7a7d4e001ef69c14822323f6d57bd433f14203c8ce1ebd74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Osseous Labyrinth” (C33227).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bootstrapping
<a id="bootstrapping"></a>

Bootstrapping is a non-parametric way to estimate uncertainty by creating many resampled versions of available data and using them to produce multiple possible outcome paths or scenarios. In this use, it helps model variation without relying on strong assumptions about the underlying distribution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6820b27a8f22321a0ae562e09f66cccdae875c2a59cf6d33b992d32a11069ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Amini Morteza; Javadi Sajedeh; Soleimani-damaneh Majid. Scenario-based portfolio optimization via bootstrapping and machine learning methods: Theory development and empirical evidence from the Tehran Stock Market. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342593; article XML SHA-256 14f1d3057f08303b8f20b1ce37c73231fa89abdc588e7b0ccdf1a15c2bfc0b17. “Scenario-based portfolio optimization via bootstrapping and machine learning methods: Theory development and empirical evidence from the Tehran Stock Market” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342593).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342593). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## borderline disorder
<a id="borderline-disorder"></a>

Borderline disorder, described here as borderline personality disorder, is a severe and complex mental disorder. The packet supports that it can involve differing patterns of emotions and behavior, such as anger, impulsivity, emptiness, affective instability, and self-harm or suicidality, and that its presentation may vary across genders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abb3fbfa0c6adb8de1c9ebd0305a16bfe4bdbfdf58b2af2a2657bb1c47a0637f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bozzatello Paola; Blua Cecilia; Brandellero Davide; Baldassarri Lorenzo; Brasso Claudio; Rocca Paola; Bellino Silvio. Gender differences in borderline personality disorder: a narrative review. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1320546; article XML SHA-256 20c2fe09fc10c7b598d476ce55b32b60a7e0b8b9be9f1506533ce9c646f2c520. “Gender differences in borderline personality disorder: a narrative review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1320546).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1320546). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## borderline intelligence
<a id="borderline-intelligence"></a>

Borderline intelligence refers to intellectual functioning in the borderline IQ range, about 70 to 85. In the source packet, it is described as part of borderline intellectual functioning, a neurodevelopmental condition linked with difficulties in thinking and social functioning, often alongside academic and behavioral problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dcffebbccaa2927a8ed466a5e60eb0c7084a7e855e0532bdd3b0d94ce5961d00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Valle Annalisa; Baglio Gisella; Zanette Michela; Massaro Davide; Baglio Francesca; Marchetti Antonella; Blasi Valeria. A New Perspective on the Role of Self-Confidence and Confidence in the Evaluation and Rehabilitation of Children With Adverse Life Experience and Borderline Intellectual Functioning: A Preliminary Study. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.720219; article XML SHA-256 44a7fedecf1c768e63cd59d0b50635556192d3ea9ac0f6ec8965bb63a885bbdd. “A New Perspective on the Role of Self-Confidence and Confidence in the Evaluation and Rehabilitation of Children With Adverse Life Experience and Borderline Intellectual Functioning: A Preliminary Study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.720219).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.720219). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## borderline personality disorder
<a id="borderline-personality-disorder"></a>

A personality disorder involving a long-standing pattern of unstable relationships, self-image, and emotions, along with impulsive behavior. It typically begins by early adulthood and appears across different areas of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7891293bc9c7824e11287e23b4fe153c6f37fd2201819ebaa322efefb2d4ea85

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Borderline Personality Disorder” (D001883).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001883). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## boredom
<a id="boredom"></a>

Boredom is a psychological state that arises when an activity feels unmotivating or when a person must remain in an uninteresting situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b075bcc36081c9f26a564379a3defc201cc0f80a9b74edc97c4c5d4d68186cfe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Boredom” (D001887).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001887). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Börjeson–Forssman–Lehmann syndrome
<a id="borjesonforssmanlehmann-syndrome"></a>

Börjeson–Forssman–Lehmann syndrome is an X-linked recessive genetic condition caused by changes in the PHF6 gene. It is associated with severe intellectual disability and may also involve epilepsy, hypogonadism, hypometabolism, and obesity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1044fc43f16b55a6b8d4acda741f7e336d1e1c761e076744c8fe6dcab788a3dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Intellectual Developmental Disorder, X-Linked, Syndromic, Borjeson-Forssman-Lehmann Type” (C157122).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## borna disease
<a id="borna-disease"></a>

Borna disease is a sporadic neurological illness of horses and sheep caused by mammalian Borna disease virus. It occurs mainly in certain endemic parts of central Europe, tends to peak seasonally in spring, and evidence in the packet suggests the bicolored white-toothed shrew may act as a natural host that helps maintain the virus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08a2fde60609e38b6a09823016563967b9b0ab1acf6a83735322426d780c8498

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dürrwald Ralf; Kolodziejek Jolanta; Weissenböck Herbert; Nowotny Norbert. The Bicolored White-Toothed Shrew Crocidura leucodon (HERMANN 1780) Is an Indigenous Host of Mammalian Borna Disease Virus. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0093659; article XML SHA-256 d914015839438894316cae9e532a7b19fa33ddaf7684b8b340655bdef236856e. “The Bicolored White-Toothed Shrew Crocidura leucodon (HERMANN 1780) Is an Indigenous Host of Mammalian Borna Disease Virus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0093659).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093659). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Boston Naming Test
<a id="boston-naming-test"></a>

The Boston Naming Test is a measure used to assess naming ability, a part of language function. In this packet, it appears as a secondary outcome for evaluating changes in older adults’ cognitive and language performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8c34a6082ec1c1bd7779c8003d9d648de4723bcb304bea2fe9d9c3a45bc9240

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Zhenhua; Liu Yingcong; Zhu Shan; He Yupeng. Effects of visual art therapy on cognitive function in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828257; article XML SHA-256 290b47d11e53902d127bb1f64a30b7fbc5554e061692a43c3c0effff5357dabe. “Effects of visual art therapy on cognitive function in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828257).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828257). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BOT
<a id="bot"></a>

BOT refers to a social-platform account treated as an automated or malicious social actor whose activity can threaten the integrity and safety of online networks. In this source, bots are identified by patterns in how they connect and interact with human and bot accounts and by features found in their local online neighborhood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b11e2acbd42d8d1b57243e7cf60c23e80b2e5e2019c432520b8b4e909799ebdf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yan; Lu Haoyu; Chen Wanying. Neighborhood perceivable graph neural network for relational heterogeneous Twitter bot detection. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342686; article XML SHA-256 a787c5be9680e9aa1baefc65123f7fa43793fb15d8095578f896b1c71f94053c. “Neighborhood perceivable graph neural network for relational heterogeneous Twitter bot detection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342686).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342686). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## botany
<a id="botany"></a>

Botany is the branch of biological science concerned with plants.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ecff7805b844dae2d13a898f5cac04606c9cc78b26554f64c7696bd1da5a561b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Botany” (Botany).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B2defs.htm#Botany). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bottoming out
<a id="bottoming-out"></a>

Bottoming out means a process reaches a low point after declining or slowing down, and then begins to recover or rise again. In the packet, it describes a rebound that follows a period of worsening or weaker growth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 543ce74b6958c35a4f60cafd340ba4273220baa17e83095cbec12b7d184971dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Hui; Wang Wei; Li Sha. Spatio-temporal evolution and driving factors of the coupling and coordinated development of China's digital economy and older adult care services. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpubh.2025.1490461; article XML SHA-256 9eda9acae57e3ecb7af12e3c82d3d16f86ae8fbd1de5ec4bdca5ec896b5867ca. “Spatio-temporal evolution and driving factors of the coupling and coordinated development of China's digital economy and older adult care services” (10.3389/fpubh.2025.1490461).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2025.1490461). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bound energy
<a id="bound-energy"></a>

Bound energy here means energy held in phosphate chemical bonds, especially in the creatine system that stores and transfers this energy in the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53d56ee69b8bcf55da8c3596374f8d55a88f904e02c72970bce5ea10bc7ba4be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tachikawa Masanori; Ikeda Saori; Fujinawa Jun; Hirose Shirou; Akanuma Shin-ichi; Hosoya Ken-ichi. γ-Aminobutyric Acid Transporter 2 Mediates the Hepatic Uptake of Guanidinoacetate, the Creatine Biosynthetic Precursor, in Rats. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0032557; article XML SHA-256 9a1580ef4309ccb533e7c5e4d828f25c353a27b0f0ad20fa28f69aa8ba5472ed. “γ-Aminobutyric Acid Transporter 2 Mediates the Hepatic Uptake of Guanidinoacetate, the Creatine Biosynthetic Precursor, in Rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0032557).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0032557). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## boundary ambiguity
<a id="boundary-ambiguity"></a>

Boundary ambiguity is a lack of clear separation at the edges of a target, where transitions are unclear and the true contour is hard to identify. In the source context, this happens when low contrast, irregular shape, or visual interference make accurate boundary detection difficult.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40b8bca4dc7338fa955e41fd18f50a79ffe6bebb9bae8e47eb1746f4ed636eb0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Jiayue; Zhang Tianlu; Li Ping. SegMan-based dual-prior network with boundary-augmented hybrid attention for robust skin lesion segmentation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344622; article XML SHA-256 80ee79f83669713adef0ac0da7cd5e1e553212102f418cb5a7bc7cf49e965f15. “SegMan-based dual-prior network with boundary-augmented hybrid attention for robust skin lesion segmentation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344622).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344622). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## boundary issues
<a id="boundary-issues"></a>

In cognition, boundary issues are the problem of deciding what counts as the actual conscious system when a measure of consciousness also seems to apply to its parts, to larger irrelevant extensions, or to groups made up of conscious individuals. The term refers to uncertainty about where the boundaries of consciousness should be drawn and whether the measured properties truly belong to the system itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a858487e9b406f2d31133bb7755cc8825382dfa3978ee3c41873a3604236dd6b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fekete Tomer; van Leeuwen Cees; Edelman Shimon. System, Subsystem, Hive: Boundary Problems in Computational Theories of Consciousness. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01041; article XML SHA-256 d034d997c55ada040b75cfb6fbd1dbaffd98234f9a789eb9f747cd3d84529cbf. “System, Subsystem, Hive: Boundary Problems in Computational Theories of Consciousness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01041).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01041). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## boundary spanning
<a id="boundary-spanning"></a>

Boundary spanning is the process of reaching beyond an organization’s usual limits to seek outside knowledge and resources. In this source, it is described as a search activity that helps organizations connect external information to better support economic, environmental, and social performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b3e0f481e277e9c3e06246dcd59242f8badc807059e8effcf323c362c22accc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ye Fang; Yang Yi; Xia Haiyan; Shao Yixuan; Gu Xieguo; Shen Jiaqiang. Green entrepreneurial orientation, boundary-spanning search and enterprise sustainable performance: The moderating role of environmental dynamism. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.978274; article XML SHA-256 fb3342426042e5e921f768d9ab75746cd28aa9127272d6676c7bc4e691d84c13. “Green entrepreneurial orientation, boundary-spanning search and enterprise sustainable performance: The moderating role of environmental dynamism” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.978274).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.978274). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bounded rationality
<a id="bounded-rationality"></a>

Bounded rationality is the idea that people do not always make fully rational decisions because their access to information, ability to process it, and psychological biases are limited. In practice, complex information, emotions, and expectations can lead judgments away from strictly rational choices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a4929a3a8030a7d923bf5b324cfab099499cda7552c60981323083a29e61efe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qian Yu; Wang Xiaohe; Huang Xianhong; Li Jinwen; Jin Chen; Chen Jie; Sha MengYi. Bounded rationality in healthcare: unraveling the psychological factors behind patient satisfaction in China. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1296032; article XML SHA-256 ef6dbf7505cca8bc2d30029a8dd77ffe96e69b4ed056adf171c4a30980056e7c. “Bounded rationality in healthcare: unraveling the psychological factors behind patient satisfaction in China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1296032).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1296032). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Box–Tidwell transformation
<a id="boxtidwell-transformation"></a>

The Box–Tidwell transformation is a statistical check used in regression modeling to test whether independent variables have a linear relationship with the model’s log-odds. In plain terms, it helps assess whether a logistic regression assumption about predictor shape is met.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c47b00177d17cbec7c74ac540059c5488b1522921875182471559e7ca5dadf1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Yuanyuan; Sun Yuehua; Zhang Xinyu; Chen Yang; Zhao Shuai; Shi Mengyao; Lv Xuefeng; Lian Wenping; Wang Zhongquan; Wu Yongjun; Ma Yajie; Liu Gang; Peng Mengle. A nomogram based on coagulation markers for predicting meige syndrome risk. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnagi.2025.1665276; article XML SHA-256 fa51c3913476faaab11f5e4ae16f20804fc8f85426befa53b784565bc1bed515. “A nomogram based on coagulation markers for predicting meige syndrome risk” (10.3389/fnagi.2025.1665276).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2025.1665276). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BPA
<a id="bpa"></a>

BPA, or bisphenol A, is a chemical mainly used to make plastics. In this source it is described as a xenoestrogen and endocrine disruptor that can mimic estrogen’s effects in the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b2adf945e489d5469fae503d1817ca97de9b86bf200171b7d353ef7bcb1754af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Xiaohui; Shimohigashi Miki; Shimohigashi Yasuyuki. Bisphenol BPAF and BPC are agonists for estrogen receptor ERα but antagonists for N-terminal domain-lacking ERα. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350499; article XML SHA-256 4a9d3d599ff405592eb5b681edca8ae95229b9c8b181027dfc404b2fa48b6430. “Bisphenol BPAF and BPC are agonists for estrogen receptor ERα but antagonists for N-terminal domain-lacking ERα” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350499).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350499). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BPRS
<a id="bprs"></a>

BPRS here refers to a terminology set of test names for clinical classification questions linked to the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale–Anchored, used in the CDISC SDTM data standard.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a8bb887f6b20a2a8132e87b03d7414480f0084eb8e1d9fc4a1b59fbce81842d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “CDISC Clinical Classification BPRS-Anchored Test Name Terminology” (C100133).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BPS
<a id="bps"></a>

BPS stands for Battered Person’s Syndrome, a pattern of psychological symptoms seen in people who have experienced intimate partner violence. In forensic mental health, it may be considered when evaluating self-defence claims in cases where a battered person killed the abuser.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70632bfbdf7026c81bf0658353308d5dd5545c21dd1c920fcf27c54b86bf1239

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mendonca Oreen; Patel Mitesh. The battered who commit homicide; an overview of battered person’s syndrome and battered child syndrome in Canadian and American contexts. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1562114; article XML SHA-256 e5f7ac9cd5fd517a2e9626caa7ceb47915247bbd127a1aaedf1dc4c9610a2ad4. “The battered who commit homicide; an overview of battered person’s syndrome and battered child syndrome in Canadian and American contexts” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1562114).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1562114). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brachial plexus
<a id="brachial-plexus"></a>

The brachial plexus is a large network of nerves that supplies the upper limb. It runs from the neck into the armpit area and in humans usually comes from the lower cervical and first thoracic spinal cord segments, though variation is common.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee9f729d9cc43576ff209f157e17ca9d6fdf2cd979434acb196acf842e1728f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brachial Plexus” (D001917).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001917). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brachium conjunctivum
<a id="brachium-conjunctivum"></a>

The brachium conjunctivum is a structure within the human brainstem. In the source, it is described as showing selective volume loss and related MRI signal changes with normal aging, contributing to what has been described as midbrain shrinkage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84b0bf2dd6712185c5b7ea5724c1a4a3295e6df7bd20925d08aec6c7c796e04e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lambert Christian; Chowdhury Rumana; FitzGerald Thomas H. B.; Fleming Stephen M.; Lutti Antoine; Hutton Chloe; Draganski Bogdan; Frackowiak Richard; Ashburner John. Characterizing Aging in the Human Brainstem Using Quantitative Multimodal MRI Analysis. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00462; article XML SHA-256 a407f7810321524d8ae6f8b7d6790670c56e307a4303fd7ea6d46a2c50171d98. “Characterizing Aging in the Human Brainstem Using Quantitative Multimodal MRI Analysis” (10.3389/fnhum.2013.00462).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00462). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Brachmann–de Lange syndrome
<a id="brachmannde-lange-syndrome"></a>

Brachmann–de Lange syndrome is a biological syndrome involving slowed growth and short stature, severe intellectual disability, distinctive head and facial features, excess body hair, a low-pitched growling cry, and hand malformations. It can appear sporadically or be linked to autosomal dominant inheritance or duplication of the long arm of chromosome 3.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 709ff8b985343ff32a311386226e023e7653548fe0347e77d459b4cc2cf7c5a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “De Lange Syndrome” (D003635).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003635). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brachy-
<a id="brachy"></a>

Brachy- is a prefix meaning that the body part named is relatively short or small. In historical descriptive usage, it appears in compound terms for features such as a short, broad skull, short fingers, or a short nose.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f69d21202ee14b7f8dd790a16bc4c18d2e00e942f5e1db20acbd22e73ba384a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Brachy-” (Brachy-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B2defs.htm#Brachy-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brachycephalic
<a id="brachycephalic"></a>

Brachycephalic refers to being short-headed, the opposite of dolichocephalic. In this historical usage, it describes a skull or head shape with a relatively greater breadth compared with its front-to-back length.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39bf1430d7ebb8b608c70c84ec0d29b2bed03cc4a7a788d552d820d43b1fbed0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dolichocephalic” (Dolichocephalic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Dolichocephalic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bradycardia
<a id="bradycardia"></a>

Bradycardia, specifically sinus bradycardia, means a resting heart rhythm from the sinus node that is slower than 60 beats per minute. It can occur as a normal finding, such as during sleep or in athletic people, or as a sign of illness; while it often does not need intervention, persistent severe slowing can be dangerous.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed298b9e251adc213fd949aa060f7ca17d4f290bfc2a139b98483e2cd9888b87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Weng Saizheng; Wang Bo; Li Mo; Chao Shan; Lin Ruiqian; Zheng Rongyan; Yu Yinliang; Guo Shaonan; Lin Xianhao. Genome-wide association study of antipsychotic-induced sinus bradycardia in Chinese schizophrenia patients. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0249997; article XML SHA-256 ab165d905783c4a75b9749a542ad33b4c8a66332d63796335319f1c003acbf1e. “Genome-wide association study of antipsychotic-induced sinus bradycardia in Chinese schizophrenia patients” (10.1371/journal.pone.0249997).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249997). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain
<a id="brain"></a>

The brain is the part of the central nervous system located inside the skull. As it develops, it includes major regions such as the cerebrum, cerebellum, and structures of the brain stem.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c97c71107e9944d797b805e59a1fd2b4f3b3a628b2441a8f1b76455e1da839f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brain” (D001921).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001921). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain abscess
<a id="brain-abscess"></a>

A brain abscess is a localized pocket of pus within the brain caused by bacterial or other infections. It often develops when infection spreads from another body site, such as the sinuses, middle ear, heart, or lungs, and it can be associated with penetrating head injury or neurosurgical procedures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e0bff28f6fe370e084bd5e3301faaeb67fc50963352fd343013709ec8934b5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brain Abscess” (D001922).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001922). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain atlas
<a id="brain-atlas"></a>

A brain atlas is an organized reference resource for the brain, such as a database that maps features like gene expression across brain regions. In this context, it is used to compare areas that are anatomically and functionally distinct and to help identify markers at their boundaries.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 821384d1b962357281eb9837b941cc44c371330c1f821ed648ff920c031a0df6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Weed Natalie; Bakken Trygve; Graddis Nile; Gouwens Nathan; Millman Daniel; Hawrylycz Michael; Waters Jack. Identification of genetic markers for cortical areas using a Random Forest classification routine and the Allen Mouse Brain Atlas. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0212898; article XML SHA-256 55326ab0e46b3214849490708f2642fc4800752c420778891f808550a0fad93b. “Identification of genetic markers for cortical areas using a Random Forest classification routine and the Allen Mouse Brain Atlas” (10.1371/journal.pone.0212898).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212898). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain bank
<a id="brain-bank"></a>

A brain bank is a repository that provides post-mortem human brain tissue for research. In this context, it is a source from which investigators retrieve brain samples from defined groups for biological study.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9c50fd9e2c8fe1e8151d8a635329bedf77020c53a86b7d48bbb263a65463f3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Morisaki Mizuki; Rezaali Farnoosh; Lau Laurie C; Boche Delphine; Khandaker Golam M; Turecki Gustavo; Sinclair Lindsey I. Depression as a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease: A human post-mortem study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320561; article XML SHA-256 2081234540ec8befbdbb83b84a98c69a5eff0883cc7ba012571e1c384c0d279d. “Depression as a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease: A human post-mortem study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320561).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320561). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain-based learning
<a id="brain-based-learning"></a>

Brain-based learning is an approach to teaching that aims to apply research on the brain, especially findings about learning and memory, to classroom practice. In the source, it is described as an area of strong interest in schools but one that is often mixed with neuroscience misconceptions, or neuromyths.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f650d421ae10d7867dde7f2e8aee2c507fa81c327ce3ac4d883dfcf5dc872043

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Grospietsch Finja; Mayer Jürgen. Pre-service Science Teachers’ Neuroscience Literacy: Neuromyths and a Professional Understanding of Learning and Memory. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00020; article XML SHA-256 a66e398ee9d7a8b0d1d1560069018580a88bd78354be06745c62bde54f2d1648. “Pre-service Science Teachers’ Neuroscience Literacy: Neuromyths and a Professional Understanding of Learning and Memory” (10.3389/fnhum.2019.00020).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00020). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain concussion
<a id="brain-concussion"></a>

Brain concussion is a general term for a temporary change in awareness or a brief loss of consciousness after a closed head injury. The unconsciousness usually lasts seconds but can continue for several hours, and concussions may be described as mild, intermediate, or severe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98487b96a337d5f15b9d9aac4215965a40d0c8e2f99d0f65cec65ac1c24b4cb4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brain Concussion” (D001924).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001924). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain contusion
<a id="brain-contusion"></a>

A brain contusion is a bruise of the brain caused by the skull being struck.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0662d5b0eee73d2dd0ab361652489f8d2dae4be66c04396695b233485597ba2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brain Contusion” (D000070624).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000070624). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain damage
<a id="brain-damage"></a>

Brain damage here refers to injury in vulnerable brain regions associated with neurotoxicity, including neuroinflammation and oxidative injury. The packet supports this meaning only in the specific context of chemotherapy-related harm to the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa8decbdd5ad187bc07c88a30959784426939d75161d3264c214d2c4940c1dd2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kazmi Hafiz Muhammad Obaid; Suleman Muhammad Umer; Maqsood Syeda Iqra; Khan Shahbaz Azam; Khadam Iqra; Khattak Saima Mumtaz; Khalil Umer; Mursaleen Muhammad; Jami Muhammad Mustafeez Waheed; Javed Sumaira; Ullah Najeeb; Ikram Muhammad; Alqumbaey Marwan. Glycine as a potential neuroprotective adjuvant to reduce cisplatin-induced brain inflammation in mice. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12868-026-01023-4; article XML SHA-256 c282f7623f586596251f195cfefc4f966888c18d7f1c1a48020f6948ad4cf0e8. “Glycine as a potential neuroprotective adjuvant to reduce cisplatin-induced brain inflammation in mice” (10.1186/s12868-026-01023-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-026-01023-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain death
<a id="brain-death"></a>

Brain death is a prolonged, irreversible stopping of all brain activity, including the lower brain stem. It involves no voluntary movement, no response to stimulation, no brain stem reflexes, and no spontaneous breathing, after ruling out reversible conditions that can look similar.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47592e462082c28ddb98319e816e37e1bbfd21d23a1c8a06a4aef70fc4e9196c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brain Death” (D001926).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001926). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain disease
<a id="brain-disease"></a>

A degenerative brain disease associated with repeated brain trauma that worsens over time. It can involve symptoms such as memory loss, aggression, and depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f4d07c92e5b55fc467acd17ba33fc46bc192080e00be76b520726ecef933efc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy” (D000070627).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000070627). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain disorder
<a id="brain-disorder"></a>

A brain disorder is a disease or condition that affects the brain, including both non-cancerous and cancerous disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4db382dc94e06619f1df8dff312fadf81f963175f839bb74ae2e7315e6510450

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Brain Disorder” (C96413).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain fag
<a id="brain-fag"></a>

Brain fag is a historical psychology term for a state of marked mental fatigue in which the range of consciousness becomes greatly narrowed, so a person can manage little beyond the immediately passing thought or word. In this condition, thinking continues with difficulty and slowness, even though ideas still follow one another in sequence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97375ef1f79d943a7f9c302269afea5402e4a7df843809843fc5575926eda098

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain growth
<a id="brain-growth"></a>

Brain growth is the increase and development of brain structures over time. In this packet, it refers to changes in the size of regions such as the cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, and major white-matter tracts, which can be altered in preterm infants even when severe brain injury is not present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6cbbb3dfc0127225c0a633f8a9afb3b0038d2e71f1cbca0e3e816a063e2fdb20

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Goyal Medha; Quigley Meagan; Dutta Sourabh; Stein Nina; Goswami Ipsita. Differential linear brain growth patterns in preterm neonates based on birth gestational age and steroid exposure: A retrospective chart review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323454; article XML SHA-256 90aeac755c34313a6e172b52074bf02b1c40b467d02be31c7e22263eee23a75e. “Differential linear brain growth patterns in preterm neonates based on birth gestational age and steroid exposure: A retrospective chart review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323454).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323454). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain imaging
<a id="brain-imaging"></a>

Brain imaging is the use of different methods to create pictures of the central nervous system, either by showing its structure directly or by showing its activity indirectly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d3e176a5471be9cd16f6b4c31b63620398d31916658a65863bac46300ba4fc0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neuroimaging” (C173635).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain injury
<a id="brain-injury"></a>

In this packet, brain injury refers specifically to traumatic brain injury, which is described as a long-term condition that can extend beyond the acute phase and often requires ongoing rehabilitation and coordinated care. Recovery and access to rehabilitation may be influenced by how healthcare systems are organized, funded, and delivered.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c33dd26eb55c6764e2bc6313f505708fde59a30945f04c5a4faf25171b61fae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sharma Davina; Gill Shané J; Goodman Lizbeth; Rabinowitz Amanda; Hunter Louis N; Schaler Reinhard; Wycoff Kirby. Health management practices in chronic traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: A scoping review protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351635; article XML SHA-256 e6d6c2633c287d589506f73e3e54b0d07b6341fae453ffe7864273b7d0525cd5. “Health management practices in chronic traumatic brain injury rehabilitation: A scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351635).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351635). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain lesion
<a id="brain-lesion"></a>

A brain lesion is a localized area of structural abnormality or injury in the brain, such as damage, deformity, or a break in normal tissue. It reflects a pathological or traumatic change affecting a specific part of the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ecc490d0f9e7d2cd0adc7872fd5af7e801e389a1b7c4f1542d7ac02a44f4a891

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Brain Lesion” (C163764).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain mapping
<a id="brain-mapping"></a>

Brain mapping refers to imaging methods that match areas of the brain with specific functions or physiological activity. In plain terms, it is used to show where brain activity happens in relation to brain structure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7069bff3100255f78fe79c13d9b5c1bb60b1067795e66e5c145e4702f6b972db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brain Mapping” (D001931).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001931). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain nucleus
<a id="brain-nucleus"></a>

A brain nucleus is a cluster of nerve cells located in a specific part of the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a45e62d81a89fc1d22194c1415b7520e676a7db329f3d41a91556bf958fcbfbd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Brain Nucleus” (C49346).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain plasticity
<a id="brain-plasticity"></a>

Brain plasticity is the relative capacity of the brain and nervous system to be modified so that an individual can make new adjustments. In this historical source, it is presented as the basis of acquisition, especially learning and motor learning, and is contrasted with the fixed character of instinct and reflex action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34125964b16a9cefb39697ae9a7db9cc4d74ed058bbc18c59edb78e79757c76a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1722000-1734000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain reserve
<a id="brain-reserve"></a>

Brain reserve is a person’s capacity to withstand or recover from the effects of a brain injury or a psychotic episode.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2baeb9e76ae442591d2c36ae5e5d4fd03fc17d35560914487bc2b97ab0e68046

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognitive Reserve” (D058245).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058245). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain stimulation
<a id="brain-stimulation"></a>

Brain stimulation is a treatment option that may be considered for depression when psychotherapy, medication, or both have not reduced symptoms enough.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 68c38605c05679ed49a8f10c3a43280afe6729a85d1ce3f00d647e4361fcef9d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 5e865d35b1103be91b52db38911aadcdf861e23a0de4e1b3e1eeb01399b987b8. “Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain tumor
<a id="brain-tumor"></a>

A brain tumor is an abnormal growth in the brain that may be benign or malignant. It can start in the brain or spread there from another part of the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f0212eda5f99421bc5292f4431f168611b2d04e5a5066bae4a7bfe2879678a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Brain Neoplasm|Brain Tumor” (C2907).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain waves
<a id="brain-waves"></a>

Brain waves are rhythmic changes in electrical activity between different parts of the brain, typically measured with electroencephalography (EEG).

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62eda82320cd2c2655e866cb802e441879cf2acdb61909493111681fa03eef28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brain Waves” (D058256).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058256). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain–computer interface
<a id="braincomputer-interface"></a>

A brain–computer interface is a hardware-and-software system that communicates with the brain. It records brain signals and uses software to interpret them into commands for controlling a device or sending feedback back to the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1239f6063f0342fc5e27cc4592f1f20293783d7521362978d68cce96d84a971d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brain-Computer Interfaces” (D062207).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D062207). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brain–machine interface
<a id="brainmachine-interface"></a>

A brain–machine interface is a system that lets a person use neural activity to directly control an external device such as a robot, communication aid, or electrically stimulated function. In this context, it links brain signals to device actions so control can continue even as the recorded neural signals change over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0df75a6a5849b4269b614ea7e55ec510bfbdc3b023128ed4ade8f6a3676a0630

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pohlmeyer Eric A.; Mahmoudi Babak; Geng Shijia; Prins Noeline W.; Sanchez Justin C.. Using Reinforcement Learning to Provide Stable Brain-Machine Interface Control Despite Neural Input Reorganization. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0087253; article XML SHA-256 1ee76ea79efe1e5892726f9b39c38abc6dedeca79111fe3811c7cb7b006bfc69. “Using Reinforcement Learning to Provide Stable Brain-Machine Interface Control Despite Neural Input Reorganization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0087253).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0087253). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brainstem
<a id="brainstem"></a>

The brainstem is the part of the brain that links the cerebral hemispheres to the spinal cord. It includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1799b2b8d5383729609a26f2fd098fa60c222f275f0f2ae1b87085840949a2c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brain Stem” (D001933).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001933). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brainstem auditory evoked response
<a id="brainstem-auditory-evoked-response"></a>

Brainstem auditory evoked response is an objective neurological test that measures how the auditory pathways in the brainstem respond to sound. It is used to assess hearing pathway function from the auditory nerve to the midbrain and to help identify suspected abnormalities involving the eighth cranial nerve or related pathways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 414ad8f9e89a5bb9ffe742574499da1b10962e1576dac2bf77a4b2b330534b80

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Auditory Brainstem Response” (C184949).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brainstorming
<a id="brainstorming"></a>

Brainstorming is a creativity method for generating many ideas about a specific problem. It typically encourages people to offer ideas freely without immediate criticism or evaluation, often in a group where participants can build on one another’s suggestions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 91f64829f118429f6e1c9d00bce06602c4e81b47f71ee155c26bca09ba42f726

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wöllner Theresa; Schweisfurth Tim G; Brem Alexander. The impact of mixed-anonymity on brainstorming performance: Evidence from field experiments. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354236; article XML SHA-256 62ceba87213c110054ca88c86ba12b623e632194ff4350fb0f333e76e5359c63. “The impact of mixed-anonymity on brainstorming performance: Evidence from field experiments” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354236).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354236). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brainwashing
<a id="brainwashing"></a>

Brainwashing is the use of intense, often coercive methods aimed at causing major changes in a person's attitudes, beliefs, and emotions. It has commonly been described in contexts such as prisoners of war and religious cults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a3b993ec284322a471e7a7ad0ab43e93ffa447603d13c360e83f312bc6151c00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brainwashing” (D000096965).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000096965). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brainwave entrainment
<a id="brainwave-entrainment"></a>

Brainwave entrainment is the idea that rhythmic external stimulation can cause the brain’s electrical activity to synchronize with the same frequency. In this packet, it is discussed mainly in relation to binaural beats, but the reviewed evidence for such entrainment effects is described as inconsistent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2fc175e809626399d76e3e5386b14151c95d55eccedd7029426f8503d7908058

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ingendoh Ruth Maria; Posny Ella S; Heine Angela. Binaural beats to entrain the brain? A systematic review of the effects of binaural beat stimulation on brain oscillatory activity, and the implications for psychological research and intervention. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0286023; article XML SHA-256 8c46e03b2b288f81b3272198146b16e63dc2ff58cd02374783a7c16fabbbef79. “Binaural beats to entrain the brain? A systematic review of the effects of binaural beat stimulation on brain oscillatory activity, and the implications for psychological research and intervention” (10.1371/journal.pone.0286023).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286023). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bravery
<a id="bravery"></a>

Bravery is a mental or emotional quality that helps a person act despite feeling that there is danger, hardship, or pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 352f3b07f7ea88d354706256c71565bbcb117023bd361e5074eb7e3b0108c817

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Courage” (D066279).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066279). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale
<a id="brazelton-neonatal-behavioral-assessment-scale"></a>

The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale is a tool used to evaluate newborns and very young infants up to about two months old. It helps caregivers identify an infant’s developmental strengths and areas of weakness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bfc29601ac853bfad4c00fc3930fedfc2d752a3bd9b28185b89f716adce8938e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale” (C81238).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## breast-feeding
<a id="breast-feeding"></a>

Breast-feeding is feeding or nursing an infant directly at the breast.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 35b802762fc6ed42b84e4c1da41d231f7be0c6b1eb0f3de01014fad4fd6a5488

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Breast Feeding” (D001942).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001942). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## breathing
<a id="breathing"></a>

Breathing is a basic body process that, in psychology-related contexts, is also understood as influencing brain and autonomic functioning rather than only gas exchange. Deliberately changing breathing pace or depth can affect stress, attention, emotional steadiness, and cardiovascular arousal, and breathing-based practices may be used as supportive tools rather than stand-alone medical treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8cd84b2da720b6544746139a0ddffe08b6be65d04635db29d0e97fcb2ba23353

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sharma Pravesh; Veerareddy Vaishnavi; Hong Isu; Nycklemoe Marin; Kandimalla Mahathi; Sharma Vamika; Kung Tiffany L.; Osman Rowa; Lim Seokbeen; Kandimalla Karunya K.; Lapid Maria I.; Min Paul H.. Neurophysiological mechanisms of breathing-based well-being practices: a narrative review for clinical application. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1774490; article XML SHA-256 2f45b0f5b04ec32b74d875237f70fc63a0ac56c6d2d49bc24e509a4d44a257f6. “Neurophysiological mechanisms of breathing-based well-being practices: a narrative review for clinical application” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1774490).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1774490). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## breathing retraining
<a id="breathing-retraining"></a>

Breathing retraining is a structured program that teaches people about breathing and practices ways of breathing, especially breathing awareness, nasal breathing, and resonance or coherent breathing. In this source, it is used over several weekly sessions to help reduce dysfunctional breathing and improve symptoms and well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53a669d6e481781fc84e723d2fb67c2d691afeb6679da64eecd1c065a881c4d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Svenningsen Hege; Stub Trine; Courtney Rosalba; Karlsen Tor-Ivar. Breathing therapy for patients with medically unexplained physical symptoms and dysfunctional breathing: A pilot and feasibility trial. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325951; article XML SHA-256 1dbf6e7c1817225f8bc5d0c0a787d2568cda03ca4b59950b8f0ce0c54752c15d. “Breathing therapy for patients with medically unexplained physical symptoms and dysfunctional breathing: A pilot and feasibility trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325951).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325951). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## breathwork
<a id="breathwork"></a>

Breathwork is a breathing-based practice studied for its ability to induce altered states of consciousness. In this source, it was linked with stronger short-term psychedelic-like experiences than meditation, along with greater emotional breakthrough, insight, and self-reported behavior change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7d02bb98f1d6d639fc44ee8ac69ec315dbddc52fbfe2aa610817cc020a625e1b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fincham Guy W; Caddye Edward; Kartar Amy A; Lilley Elizabeth A; Stoke Nicola; Colasanti Alessandro. An exploratory study of breathwork-induced altered states of consciousness in experienced practitioners: the airways to alteration (A2A) trial. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1851882; article XML SHA-256 6e10195b8d3744bec29bf4f9f71cf7be97c7a83efd13f9dc898dfa70bdf4721e. “An exploratory study of breathwork-induced altered states of consciousness in experienced practitioners: the airways to alteration (A2A) trial” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1851882).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1851882). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bregma
<a id="bregma"></a>

In historical craniometry, bregma is a point on the top of the skull that some writers used as the upper reference point when measuring the skull’s vertical diameter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed434965aebe44cc327ec32b12e044fcaf8fd0f45452a787b1e929583c55b30b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Diameter” (Diameter).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Diameter). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bridging
<a id="bridging"></a>

Bridging, in this context, means helping connect people across cultural differences through everyday academic, social, and peer interactions. It involves ethical dialogue, fair representation, and the ongoing negotiation of cultural identities through shared participation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d1840e8ffaec6e9e047e7f7803ffe88425a3e4c60cd9d999871418c3558b46d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Al-Hamami Talib bin Ahmed. Role of Najran University Scholarship Students in the United Kingdom in cultural bridging and civilizational dialog. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350745; article XML SHA-256 bc670df651df5c0dffe9329d39d597757fc76effb06dc9c141f6f289b1a8b89b. “Role of Najran University Scholarship Students in the United Kingdom in cultural bridging and civilizational dialog” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350745).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350745). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale
<a id="brief-psychiatric-rating-scale"></a>

The Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale is a rating scale with 18 symptom areas meant to reflect relatively separate aspects of observable psychopathology. It was first developed to make treatment-response assessment more efficient in psychopharmacology research and was later adapted for other uses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 000aed80030375c5111cf137d1059b3e3848acb7703cf63ca6efd519d89e66a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale” (D010054).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010054). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brief psychodynamic psychotherapy
<a id="brief-psychodynamic-psychotherapy"></a>

Brief psychodynamic psychotherapy is a time-limited form of psychodynamic therapy that is organized around one or more clear treatment focuses rather than broad, long-term aims. It requires the therapist to take an active role, establish the focus early, work on it consistently in the present therapeutic relationship, and set goals that are realistic within a limited time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5dc390a26c6935c90fe09f8bf65a0259a57f087ab8225230783fb22085f4fc95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dagnino Paula; Calderón Ana. Tracking Psychodynamic Foci: Trajectories Through the Therapeutic Process. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.786240; article XML SHA-256 ddc69f08e308dbe0527b50beab0612b33e6f41bff31c042571c419aaf1fd8d01. “Tracking Psychodynamic Foci: Trajectories Through the Therapeutic Process” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.786240).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.786240). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brief psychotherapy
<a id="brief-psychotherapy"></a>

Brief psychotherapy is any form of psychotherapy intended to bring about therapeutic change in a short period, usually within no more than about 20 sessions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f4d5f70dbcb4a00b6803bac1e89aff757cecf2262d4c782038e3d41a7b6030e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychotherapy, Brief” (D011614).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011614). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brief psychotic disorder
<a id="brief-psychotic-disorder"></a>

Brief psychotic disorder is a mental disorder in which a person has delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, or severely disorganized behavior. These symptoms go away within a month.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d34d9b48a0b11a0cba84295fb83cdcad9cfe32a0650a4996267886b10914fa1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Brief Psychotic Disorder” (C94390).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bright light therapy
<a id="bright-light-therapy"></a>

Bright light therapy is a form of phototherapy that uses bright white full-spectrum light, often from a light box, to imitate natural outdoor light. It is used to help treat depressive symptoms in seasonal affective disorder and non-seasonal depression, and also some sleep and other mood disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9da6b8008c6ece618bb0e632ea52ef707e146d4d248f9fc6925b559689679c8f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Bright White Light Therapy” (C174524).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brightness
<a id="brightness"></a>

Brightness can mean either the strength of a visual experience, including color or color plus lightness, or more narrowly the achromatic aspect of vision running from black through grey to white. In this narrower sense, it refers to the colorless lightness quality of a visual sensation rather than color itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 093d10e0b59a4451bc26e4b07397c38508c1e0d77b898e892fe8ede1ea4d7e05

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Brightness” (Brightness).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B2defs.htm#Brightness). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brightness contrast
<a id="brightness-contrast"></a>

Brightness contrast is the difference in brightness at the boundary between an object and its background. In visual processing, this contrast helps influence how color is perceived.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a8dc400745c586d5222aaef6df30662ac931060441ae1f65be2531c88381e0fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Color Perception” (D003118).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003118). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brightness perception
<a id="brightness-perception"></a>

Brightness perception is the experience of how dark or bright something looks, corresponding to its luminance. The packet also indicates that this perceived brightness can change with how a scene or object is organized in depth, even when the retinal image stays the same.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9452eaa60bf2c2771d18a2d4f7f6868dd84f2e0b148797a2f0d03dfdcbac879a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Arai Tetsuya; Masuda Tomohiro; Igarashi Yuka; Omori Keiko; Aizawa Yasunori; Masuda Naoe. Depth inversion with a 3D structure influences brightness perception. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0224192; article XML SHA-256 b488fbc8af795442bad5c423e1903f75599ac51cbd248ef2f18382ccfcb798d4. “Depth inversion with a 3D structure influences brightness perception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0224192).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224192). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## broadband noise
<a id="broadband-noise"></a>

Broadband noise is ambient noise spread across a wide range of frequencies that can mask other sounds, such as social calls. In this context, it reduces the acoustic information available to an animal and can change attention-related behaviour such as vigilance and foraging efficiency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 900e01c3d1fe079c32a388bdffe98ddec215f4934164b0c97b591fe03a2612bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Evans Julian C; Dall Sasha R X; Kight Caitlin R. Effects of ambient noise on zebra finch vigilance and foraging efficiency. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209471; article XML SHA-256 11d92a987a122d8df5c584f85e1b0766c55835c88d32610d0bf233f2dda44e11. “Effects of ambient noise on zebra finch vigilance and foraging efficiency” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209471).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209471). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Broca’s area
<a id="brocas-area"></a>

Broca’s area is a functional region in the inferior frontal gyrus that includes the pars opercularis and pars triangularis. It plays an important role in producing speech and language, and damage to it is linked with Broca aphasia and apraxia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec3721e952a15ac37eb5e0a87f7fd3558372d7c67b9a3c08c254195c177dbe2d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Broca Area” (D065711).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065711). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Brodmann’s area
<a id="brodmanns-area"></a>

A Brodmann’s area is one of 47 numbered regions in the cerebral cortex. Each area is defined by its distinctive cellular organization and is linked with particular cortical functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: faa8dd57e3e60a9396c99b90b21c416182ec52332ea28c7b0806b07022f3c7fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Brodmann's Area” (C94868).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bromazepam
<a id="bromazepam"></a>

Bromazepam is a benzodiazepine medication used in the treatment of anxiety disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5cab553935ad7116b3e90e33e1e673cf5d2b8d13bb8b12d862bce7bbf915f733

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bromazepam” (D001960).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001960). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bromocriptine
<a id="bromocriptine"></a>

Bromocriptine is a semisynthetic ergotamine-derived drug that acts as a dopamine D2 agonist. It also reduces prolactin secretion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 85e3e1cca04d255fc9c31aac777029d920edf1d1edaeaf58d16d797f27d6eb15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bromocriptine” (D001971).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001971). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brood parasitism
<a id="brood-parasitism"></a>

Brood parasitism is a reproductive strategy in which a parasite places its egg in another species’ nest, often causing the host to lose reproductive success. In response, host animals may develop behaviors for recognizing and rejecting the foreign egg.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ade7934af2209f07f3b784d2eb2b41afe8bfd93cc78c97ee89aecf864184022b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Soler Manuel; Ruiz-Raya Francisco; Roncalli Gianluca; Ibáñez-Álamo Juan Diego. Relationships between egg-recognition and egg-ejection in a grasp-ejector species. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0166283; article XML SHA-256 891fee62210a2e6c90415814fcfed161c50dfde3be40a1274cbbf61c8747ace3. “Relationships between egg-recognition and egg-ejection in a grasp-ejector species” (10.1371/journal.pone.0166283).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166283). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Brown-Séquard’s syndrome
<a id="brown-sequards-syndrome"></a>

Brown-Séquard’s syndrome is a neurological syndrome caused by damage to one side of the spinal cord. Below the injury, it typically involves weakness or paralysis and loss of position sense on the same side as the lesion, with loss of pain and temperature sensation on the opposite side, while touch is often preserved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1f0449de990c1e9a345b7168fc126109a05b99c516616c8d36e15c20c468aeb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brown-Sequard Syndrome” (D018437).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018437). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bruce effect
<a id="bruce-effect"></a>

The Bruce effect is a phenomenon in which early pregnancy may be interrupted when a recently mated female is exposed to an unfamiliar male. In mice, this depends on a mating-related memory of the original male and the female’s ability to tell his odor apart from the odor of a novel male.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 208392619abe9aff54019dbf7aa2a86be890e8ddcd3983412012f171203c1958

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yuting; Liu Dingzhen. Low Incidence of Miscarriage Induced by the Scent of Male Littermates of Original Mates: Male Kinship Reduces the Bruce Effect in Female Mice, Mus musculus. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0068673; article XML SHA-256 ece40cf722fbe711591729d1c8cf6a8b7b90875b0572043ed25992f48ba935f2. “Low Incidence of Miscarriage Induced by the Scent of Male Littermates of Original Mates: Male Kinship Reduces the Bruce Effect in Female Mice, Mus musculus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0068673).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068673). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency
<a id="bruininksoseretsky-test-of-motor-proficiency"></a>

The Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency is an assessment used to measure motor proficiency in children. In the source packet, it is used to evaluate areas such as fine motor skills, fine motor integration, and balance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00f58144f995a6b8fb76206ca98ee3f93c098f9a7f0651ce00934dca578bcfc5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Đošić Anđela; Živković Danijela; Uzunović Slavoljub; Živković Mladen; Đorđević Nenad; Pantelić Saša. Effects of a 12-week dance program with two weekly frequency protocols on fine motor competence and balance in preschool children: A randomized controlled trial. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338422; article XML SHA-256 75fa2a111406e5fe53c98c02c3e3a4b179f6333a086ace8e464b431444559def. “Effects of a 12-week dance program with two weekly frequency protocols on fine motor competence and balance in preschool children: A randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338422).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338422). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## brute force
<a id="brute-force"></a>

Brute force refers to a search method that directly compares input data to find distances and nearest matches rather than relying on shortcuts. In the source, it is described as the most effective approach for high-dimensional data when building nearest-neighbor graphs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 897ff15c20e26820a78caaec8663f036a316b470e49ed888f2be06f1ab211be2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Komarov Ivan; Dashti Ali; D'Souza Roshan M.. Fast k -NNG Construction with GPU-Based Quick Multi-Select. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0092409; article XML SHA-256 90525b9c35f86528c1e5cad5bd8de8635865adcaace15f28b57015803d1dde93. “Fast k -NNG Construction with GPU-Based Quick Multi-Select” (10.1371/journal.pone.0092409).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0092409). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bruxism
<a id="bruxism"></a>

Bruxism is a disorder in which a person grinds or clenches the teeth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 921c913e1852b757d53585477316c7b9e790b1b015364741c6ccad5fd4f8e78e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bruxism” (D002012).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002012). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BSM
<a id="bsm"></a>

BSM stands for blockchain-based social media, meaning social media platforms built on blockchain technology. In this source, the term refers to decentralized platforms that some users adopt because of social influence and financial incentives, and keep using because of community, while barriers include a steep learning curve and concerns about moderation, security, and privacy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 42bb906e8cbc62e5ff9962f4626dbdfd8aae762e67bf07dcef8d44e912224eac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gruzd Anatoliy; Saiphoo Alyssa; Mai Philip. The lure of decentralized social media: Extending the UTAUT model for understanding users’ adoption of blockchain-based social media. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308458; article XML SHA-256 21cee98508988845b9c95d545c078ac96e3a23d0bd9a28ba34ff4a1e5248ef95. “The lure of decentralized social media: Extending the UTAUT model for understanding users’ adoption of blockchain-based social media” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308458).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308458). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BT
<a id="bt"></a>

BT usually refers to Bachelor of Theology, an academic degree in theological study. It generally involves education in areas such as biblical languages, theology, ethics, preaching, and ministry.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bae21a4f2463fa26558c8820f7191d1d69c7b003c2b1a67ddd9727e963661c76

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Bachelor of Theology” (C71354).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BuChE
<a id="buche"></a>

BuChE stands for butyrylcholinesterase, an enzyme involved in cholinesterase activity that is discussed as a key therapeutic target in Alzheimer’s disease research. In the source, it is measured because some compounds can inhibit BuChE, which may be relevant to efforts to address progressive cognitive decline.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7e83896769a9f2ab44991e0729d60f4186bdbaba76b03f53bec1b6026a597679

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maria; Khan Asifullah; Ajaj Rahaf; Rauf Abdur; Marryum; Shah Zafar Ali; Ahmad Zubair; Hemeg Hassan A; Rashid Umer. Secondary metabolites isolated from Fernandoa adenophylla (Wall. ex G.Don) steenis as multitarget inhibitors of cholinesterases for the treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease, followed by molecular docking studies. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331119; article XML SHA-256 c98f8c2748682e31768016b916981fc813dfd4bb848c5545351be7b1ae6403ac. “Secondary metabolites isolated from Fernandoa adenophylla (Wall. ex G.Don) steenis as multitarget inhibitors of cholinesterases for the treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease, followed by molecular docking studies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331119).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331119). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Buddhism
<a id="buddhism"></a>

Buddhism is a tradition based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha. In this view, suffering is part of life, and freedom from it is sought through mental and moral self-purification leading to nirvana.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22364a8315f0288e2b082c66cf84dbf19ad31ece19e6473dbc3effa9f8cc86ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Buddhism” (D002016).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002016). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## buffer
<a id="buffer"></a>

In this psychology context, a buffer is something that softens or weakens the link between other factors in a process. Here, it refers to hope reducing the pathway from personality to perceived stress through self-esteem.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d9ef24f360e5d6e89e4826bfe5f3917fe23cc5b7474b85cb27d87f542d92233

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Lizao; Yin Liang. Temporal scaffolding and agentic pathways: a mixed-methods analysis of hope as a buffer in the personality–stress relationship. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1808290; article XML SHA-256 a90333033ada3d12dbd71a68fed321ae10a6ea7e0e9cbd8562beaee50cb9149b. “Temporal scaffolding and agentic pathways: a mixed-methods analysis of hope as a buffer in the personality–stress relationship” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1808290).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1808290). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## buffering
<a id="buffering"></a>

In this psychology context, buffering refers to a protective effect in which one factor lessens the harmful impact of stressors or difficulties on outcomes. Here, perceived teacher support is described as buffering online academic burnout by directly reducing it and by strengthening helpful beliefs and emotional regulation around learning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fc390276d0fa75200d04a2c2b8cf812e1ee5c1e9e26553a10e26bad66d5b461

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Chen; Wang Ze; Kozhamkulova Nazgul Seifullinkyzy; Jiang Na; Luo Xiaoyu. The buffering effect of perceived teacher support on students’ academic burnout in online learning: a mini review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1919759; article XML SHA-256 88f8f0ef03cdb97c09c116bba1e181ea70eb425e72d3c9b31890d6aeeaf881b0. “The buffering effect of perceived teacher support on students’ academic burnout in online learning: a mini review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1919759).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1919759). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bulb
<a id="bulb"></a>

Bulb is a historical term used as another name for the medulla oblongata, a part of the brain. It also appears in compound expressions such as bulbar paralysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17d9537b4d3072dd49b701dbe530f1cf090fea8beedf4af43b6f45bd02d210ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Bulb” (Bulb).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B2defs.htm#Bulb). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bulbospongiosus muscle
<a id="bulbospongiosus-muscle"></a>

The bulbospongiosus muscle is a muscle in the vulvo-perineal area, near the rear part of the perineum. In the source, it is identified as part of the perineal muscle region where oxygen saturation was measured in women with and without dyspareunia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0f26f658faad816fa11e0bfdfe480c98c1c663f739b316ea5d511081da182eab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hurt Karel; Zahalka Frantisek; Zikan Michal; Rackova Jana; Rakovicova Ivana; Rakovic Jakub; Halad Martin. Hypoxia as a potential cause of dyspareunia. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281268; article XML SHA-256 619636dc4679d5946e86ab5e3f555f76268ecd20dfa4c812208a4d7555535afa. “Hypoxia as a potential cause of dyspareunia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281268).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281268). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bulimia
<a id="bulimia"></a>

Bulimia is a mental health disorder marked by repeated episodes of binge eating during which the person feels unable to control the eating, followed by repeated behaviors to avoid weight gain, often self-induced vomiting. A person’s self-worth is also overly shaped by body image.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 89712790968c6481e4cfb1ac291f0a859f26cbe5c3c3999db16afeec4787bad2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Bulimia Nervosa” (C34440).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bulimia Nervosa
<a id="bulimia-nervosa"></a>

Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder marked by repeated binge eating followed by behaviors intended to prevent weight gain. These compensatory behaviors can include self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives or diuretics, excessive exercise, or fasting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf5206b0d068957f50e64bbbaf4a83c9dc76f4833e8530423474d6a356adcfff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Bulimia Nervosa” (D052018).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D052018). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Bullying
<a id="bullying"></a>

Bullying is aggressive behavior by someone with more power that causes physical injury or emotional suffering to the person targeted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f217d97b1dd8d09d4380d60cbdbb348c504d682aea576e6069819c55a72e2bec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Bullying” (D058445).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058445). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bundling
<a id="bundling"></a>

Bundling here means combining multiple FDA expedited program features for a therapy into one overall measure of regulatory pathway intensity. In this study, it referred to summarizing the mix of designations and review pathways a product received as a single Regulatory Bundling Index.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 062d7b9c85d5582cbe625ea1e364680151f18f24c24fcdf2db1ede01edb1bef8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sayed Ahmed M.; Ezzelarab Nada M.; Huy Nguyen Tien. Expedited pathway portfolios, trial complexity, and FDA approval timelines in oncology and neurology: A comparative analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355495; article XML SHA-256 9f29ca62477c81f59ca6ee83fa7f6255227f09ee60f033cdb39a425af761ba00. “Expedited pathway portfolios, trial complexity, and FDA approval timelines in oncology and neurology: A comparative analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355495).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355495). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## buprenorphine
<a id="buprenorphine"></a>

Buprenorphine is a synthetic opioid-related drug that partly activates mu-opioid receptors and blocks kappa-opioid receptors in the central nervous system. It has pain-relieving and sedating effects, and may also reduce increased pain sensitivity and have antidepressant effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38f1aa806abc264fce6578ced375adda5af79e43874c1c5a0dd2107eded9b13d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Buprenorphine” (C61656).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bupropion
<a id="bupropion"></a>

Bupropion is a medication used as an antidepressant and to help with smoking cessation. It is a propiophenone-derived drug that works by blocking dopamine uptake.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7318a67d4a0f085d23e9df2c8cbff2b42763ac26e21d241e04345feda8ab10a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bupropion” (D016642).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016642). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## bureaucracy
<a id="bureaucracy"></a>

In this packet, bureaucracy refers to the organized administrative structure of social service agencies, including oversight by administrators and the way front-line workers carry out services. It is discussed especially in the idea of street-level bureaucracy, which focuses on how workers who directly interact with the public can shape outcomes through their everyday practices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f93a4ba21d8375c140b762a960e9ce4d89003dac1b8d0821e82357656fe58497

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Smith Curtis; Bhaduri Moinak. A recipe for systems change: Predictive modeling and street-level bureaucracy among homeless services. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328822; article XML SHA-256 d3b2122bcaca1771d4faeb1da1030c25a20eecce91d065b733b96644f61f0b7f. “A recipe for systems change: Predictive modeling and street-level bureaucracy among homeless services” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328822).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328822). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## burn injuries
<a id="burn-injuries"></a>

Burn injuries are injuries caused by burning that can lead to long-term problems for survivors. In the social and public-health context described here, they are important because rising numbers of new cases and survivors can reflect weak prevention measures and limited rehabilitation services.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cbbf1a95425bdb80abb2e0df0a2693649fcaa71b144b26a69c227756fbaa757b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Iorember Paul Terhemba; Van Niekerk Ashley. Socio-structural determinants of burn injuries in Africa: The role of social inequality, informal housing, and access to clean cooking energy technology. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336633; article XML SHA-256 a21bf3e7a835756954ee0008b6a41a3fe4f9a98ac1e2ae8379a902e3adff80d9. “Socio-structural determinants of burn injuries in Africa: The role of social inequality, informal housing, and access to clean cooking energy technology” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336633).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336633). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## burned out
<a id="burned-out"></a>

Burned out describes a state of poor work-related and psychological wellbeing. In the packet, it is linked with lower commitment to one’s job, more thoughts of leaving the profession, and higher depression, anxiety, and reduced subjective wellbeing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d82dde8873068db0b4a406b82a2ebb154c66f45d402e75d0610b369e4d0b7788

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gutentag Tony; Asterhan Christa S. C.. Burned-Out: Middle School Teachers After One Year of Online Remote Teaching During COVID-19. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.802520; article XML SHA-256 0cb2d95a62adf167c20c126da82de358d11a91fdb48d3d2bd7d26cc8c79c52d0. “Burned-Out: Middle School Teachers After One Year of Online Remote Teaching During COVID-19” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.802520).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.802520). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## burnout
<a id="burnout"></a>

Burnout is an excessive response to stress from a person’s environment. It can involve emotional and physical exhaustion along with feelings of frustration and failure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bde2a09039a06a3f1c16996b09cdffd7674a62c404cf2c60675c4933487557d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Burnout, Psychological” (D000077062).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077062). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Burnout, Psychological
<a id="burnout-psychological"></a>

Psychological burnout is an excessive response to stress from a person’s environment. It commonly involves emotional and physical exhaustion along with feelings of frustration and failure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0589251d3e1ae8876c473ebc2621e07bfc8e0eadbb2588262885586f20347ae6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Burnout, Psychological” (D000077062).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077062). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## buspirone
<a id="buspirone"></a>

Buspirone is a medication used to reduce anxiety. It acts as a serotonin receptor agonist and is chemically different from benzodiazepines, while having anxiety-relieving effects described as comparable to diazepam.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c2d06aae4f46d9ae3d6a4243bff837619ba78012bc44838128456fd204f13f3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Buspirone” (D002065).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002065). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## butyrophenone
<a id="butyrophenone"></a>

Butyrophenone refers to a class of synthetic compounds with a phenyl-1-butanone structure. In mental health contexts, many drugs in this group are antipsychotic medicines used to reduce symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions, often by affecting neurotransmitter activity including dopamine receptor blocking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4b1701b79bb56b9e3af4576020a7fe2389e23aee0f0b2b6dbe39323b747352a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Butyrophenone” (C323).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## butyrylcholinesterase
<a id="butyrylcholinesterase"></a>

Butyrylcholinesterase is an enzyme involved in reducing the activity of a neurotransmitter. In the context of neurological disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease, increased butyrylcholinesterase activity or levels are associated with disease progression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 46465e9f5a89526bff93f6613c9a1e7327a070d09f00f8a0f7eac3194dff025a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ullah Inayat; Shad Bibi Noor; Sadiq Abdul; Niazy Bakhtyar; Hesam Atiq Mohammad. In-vitro studies of phytochemical, Antioxidant, Antibacterial and Enzymatic inhibition of Oxalis corniculata whole plant from South Waziristan Tribal District Pakistan. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335026; article XML SHA-256 832a436b511bb50a9f377eeffa470a0d8f29e271022d3a9c32de39395178ba70. “In-vitro studies of phytochemical, Antioxidant, Antibacterial and Enzymatic inhibition of Oxalis corniculata whole plant from South Waziristan Tribal District Pakistan” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335026).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335026). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BWAS
<a id="bwas"></a>

BWAS stands for the Bergen Work Addiction Scale, a 7-item questionnaire used to assess work addiction. It measures core features of work addiction based on an addiction-components model, including salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, relapse, and problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ecfadee8692a7085051d4b0869ba6d45a9078711bcb7bd2da597e916e5e8d3e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [SUN Ruimei; LAM Long W; WU Anise M S. Work addiction in Chinese white-collar workers: the psychometric properties of its measure and its comorbidity with general anxiety in network analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s40359-023-01247-7; article XML SHA-256 0ac46bb4522a08da6b818784a355540736641b024af3d60a36e3808395510535. “Work addiction in Chinese white-collar workers: the psychometric properties of its measure and its comorbidity with general anxiety in network analysis” (10.1186/s40359-023-01247-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01247-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## BWS
<a id="bws"></a>

BWS stands for the Belonging at Work Scale, a brief one-dimensional measure of work group inclusion that assesses an employee’s feelings of belongingness at work. It was developed for use across varied workplaces and employee groups and has been linked with factors such as mistreatment in the work climate and leaves of absence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 885c9d1bdaddb8f9caf636a5dab6615389a12606eba91b7dda711576bad2a405

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee-Baggley Dayna; Bakour Hayam; Howatt Bill; Gilin Debra; Etezad Ehsan. Development and validation of the belonging at work scale: Association with mistreatment and leaves. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346786; article XML SHA-256 981aba48438acfaef2a3a08e2e85ea0a1d6775c9902a9215326b444c9ea2f385. “Development and validation of the belonging at work scale: Association with mistreatment and leaves” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346786).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346786). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CA
<a id="ca"></a>

CA refers to the cornu ammonis, a horn-shaped part of the hippocampus in the brain. It is divided into four regions called CA1, CA2, CA3, and CA4.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02feda2b9f9f8edda52f1a8dd5c04fb53c4b5727965a2fb582fdff56c5a69cd0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cornu Ammonis” (C32374).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cachexia
<a id="cachexia"></a>

Cachexia is a complex syndrome marked by loss of muscle and body weight, seen here in the context of cancer and chemotherapy. In this source, it is described as often not improving with nutritional support and as involving reduced muscle protein content and protein building in skeletal muscle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7377945d0e4f258adbd52bafd5a8634bea5c2e533e3280b2e5c98f9d17ac06cf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mora Stephen; Mann Gagandeep; Adegoke Olasunkanmi A J. Sex differences in cachexia outcomes and branched-chain amino acid metabolism following chemotherapy in aged mice. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340647; article XML SHA-256 2b6ca5ddf25010a9833e61eab672226c1219a3cc32c6d39416a97d31cc52c5be. “Sex differences in cachexia outcomes and branched-chain amino acid metabolism following chemotherapy in aged mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340647).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340647). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## caffeine
<a id="caffeine"></a>

Caffeine is a naturally occurring methylxanthine found in certain plant seeds, nuts, and leaves. In the central nervous system, it mainly blocks adenosine receptors, which reduces adenosine’s calming effect and increases brain activity; it also has anti-inflammatory effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6cd5e5a7dfaf9fffbaf6a853060b5f5d32dd0b8321c270fd1696e0f44f519637

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Caffeine” (C328).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CAI
<a id="cai"></a>

CAI means cast-as-intended verifiability in electronic voting: a safeguard that lets a voter check that the vote recorded matches the vote they meant to cast, even without a secure channel to election officials. In this source, it is discussed as a security and trust property that can be difficult to balance with protection against coercion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 563aa95c62e16336909458b969007d5662eabb779c894fa38c7034d932bb3505

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kho Yun-Xing; Heng Swee-Huay; Tan Syh-Yuan; Chin Ji-Jian. A provably secure coercion-resistant e-voting scheme with confidentiality, anonymity, unforgeability, and CAI verifiability. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324182; article XML SHA-256 55ce1c978fb3bd29f7cf93a818c28e4f57b158fb692add70865975a3a5faaeb1. “A provably secure coercion-resistant e-voting scheme with confidentiality, anonymity, unforgeability, and CAI verifiability” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324182).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324182). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CAL
<a id="cal"></a>

CAL refers to the calcarine fissure and surrounding cortex, a brain area measured in this study when examining spontaneous neural activity with resting-state fMRI. In patients with minimal hepatic encephalopathy, activity changes in the right CAL after liver transplantation were linked to changes in cognitive test performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ebae1bfa7e7ef128e777bd141031ddce9324b02c82f457e603e19fd3dc4abe5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Shiting; Qin Bin; Zhang Yunli; Wei Yunfei; Liang Jinyu; Liang Junli; Liang Zhijian. Spontaneous neural activity changes in minimal hepatic encephalopathy before and 1 month after liver transplantation. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1682584; article XML SHA-256 f17c92a651c03b2a59c54ec3de62f3ee1b510cf32e6e76f2ed5f2e9b37fdf288. “Spontaneous neural activity changes in minimal hepatic encephalopathy before and 1 month after liver transplantation” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1682584).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1682584). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## calcarine fissure
<a id="calcarine-fissure"></a>

In this historical source, the calcarine fissure is the region of the occipital cortex beside which lies a specialized layer of cells described as the cortical centre for vision. These cells are said to connect with the geniculate bodies through the optic radiations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 32b71932a1c9098f28efbb8183edc096ca1b55c455f0e16ee6202965dfda9ecc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Degeneration (nervous)” (Degeneration (nervous)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Degeneration (nervous)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## calcium channel
<a id="calcium-channel"></a>

A calcium channel is a voltage-dependent protein in the cell membrane that lets calcium ions pass selectively into or out of cells. Different types are grouped by how they open and close, what ions they favor, and how they respond to drugs or toxins, with some found widely in the cardiovascular and central nervous systems and others mainly in neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bcfb9c90a1cb1a370b577c4675cd917a022eb9253b04d769da0a964bf6ddfbd2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Calcium Channels” (D015220).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015220). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## calcium-channel blocker
<a id="calcium-channel-blocker"></a>

A calcium-channel blocker is a drug class that includes nicardipine. In the source, nicardipine is described as being widely used to lower blood pressure in severe hypertension after events such as ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury, and intracerebral hemorrhage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2316d345fcd3cdb3f268239f150c462911d5167c6fc4b5080a149241fbdfbfa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Bor-Ren; Chang Pei-Chun; Yeh Wei-Lan; Lee Chih-Hao; Tsai Cheng-Fang; Lin Chingju; Lin Hsiao-Yun; Liu Yu-Shu; Wu Caren Yu-Ju; Ko Pei-Ying; Huang Shiang-Suo; Hsu Horng-Chaung; Lu Dah-Yuu. Anti-Neuroinflammatory Effects of the Calcium Channel Blocker Nicardipine on Microglial Cells: Implications for Neuroprotection. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0091167; article XML SHA-256 7110636743098574f568a1582395da73d47e41bd44ab6fd2e22204b25f515650. “Anti-Neuroinflammatory Effects of the Calcium Channel Blocker Nicardipine on Microglial Cells: Implications for Neuroprotection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0091167).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0091167). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## calibration
<a id="calibration"></a>

In this psychology context, calibration refers to how closely a person’s confidence in a judgment matches whether that judgment is actually correct. It describes the alignment between confidence and decision accuracy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99c9e31ec9c5ffec4534f5e703592100ee7fb3c5a397c8bf569572f7cc76ca4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Chen; Ren Ning; Guo Zikai. Authority cues and metacognitive miscalibration in linguistic judgment: evidence from an English–Chinese revision paradigm. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877483; article XML SHA-256 3e429bb2958c76322abcb3729e34c2481bbe5e89dc4777be71e77f67e4f778f0. “Authority cues and metacognitive miscalibration in linguistic judgment: evidence from an English–Chinese revision paradigm” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877483).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877483). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## California Psychological Inventory
<a id="california-psychological-inventory"></a>

The California Psychological Inventory is a broad personality test used to assess individual differences across multiple personality characteristics. In this packet, the CPI260 version is described as a commercially available measure that had been used with employed adults for career development purposes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9181dae78c64414b7351615c8712a2371e69f0c9b234015b3361ced5db960ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Douglas Heather E.; Cunningham Mitchell L.; Tisdell Jessika; Arneson Justin. The problem with confidence: too much and too little results in poorer achievement, inner conflict, and social inhibition. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.960013; article XML SHA-256 8c2fef26a2a8792dddf9a226c34cee9a84d4911165c39114488bbd055fec7edb. “The problem with confidence: too much and too little results in poorer achievement, inner conflict, and social inhibition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.960013).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.960013). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## California Verbal Learning Test
<a id="california-verbal-learning-test"></a>

The California Verbal Learning Test is a neuropsychological assessment used to evaluate verbal learning and memory in a detailed, comprehensive way. The packet identifies the referenced version as the second edition and indicates it is intended for people ages 16 to 89.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64665f68460f830fbccc8a43007e3b0ead41ef4e41dd0635a175f60f47ef827c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “California Verbal Learning Test - Second Edition” (C120257).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## callosal
<a id="callosal"></a>

Callosal refers to the fibres that pass through the callosum to connect matching areas of the two cerebral hemispheres. In the historical source, these fibres are described as undergoing secondary degeneration after cortical injury, extending toward the corresponding region on the opposite side.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a4bd9312f007a7fdbdff1f770dc13445dd9fdef01d790f26d42c980e8a9fe15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Degeneration (nervous)” (Degeneration (nervous)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Degeneration (nervous)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## callosum
<a id="callosum"></a>

In this context, the callosum refers to the corpus callosum, a major white-matter pathway made of interhemispheric commissural fibers. It links the two sides of the brain and is part of the structural networks discussed in mood disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 75b88c1a1ed92899213e9526f64d264d4977e187c836219b888733317de45096

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Yijia; Yang Yuhang; Cheng Zixuan; Liu Jingwen; Zhang Yu; Luo Jiaxin; Huang Xingyin; Liu Mingke; Liu Can; Lei Du; Hu Liangbo. Structural network alterations in adolescent major depression and bipolar disorder: a graph-theoretical and fixel-based analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-07961-x; article XML SHA-256 8aa7442ef205cc5addaba8b7a6effd07e8efe516eda85d97d83b70e64af5cf43. “Structural network alterations in adolescent major depression and bipolar disorder: a graph-theoretical and fixel-based analysis” (10.1186/s12888-026-07961-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-07961-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## calmodulin
<a id="calmodulin"></a>

Calmodulin is a small, heat-stable protein found mainly in the brain and heart. When it binds calcium, it can activate other enzymes and help regulate the levels of the signaling molecules cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 21b7c56ae20b040fd6aa825a6103d8fc6e4fd77fb51e9d9e70dfe4d4e6358bd2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Calmodulin” (D002147).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002147). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## caloric restriction
<a id="caloric-restriction"></a>

Caloric restriction is a deliberate reduction in calorie intake, treated in this source as a behavioral intervention. It is used to lower excessive abdominal fat and can change the body’s metabolism, including processes linked to insulin resistance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 860ab5ff2bce8232b2bc574c6ddc3a8a619cb82ffc167ecb464cdda00ce589e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cornejo Manuel A.; Dhillon Jaapna; Nishiyama Akira; Nakano Daisuke; Ortiz Rudy M.. Mass recovery following caloric restriction reverses lipolysis and proteolysis, but not gluconeogenesis, in insulin resistant OLETF rats. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0252360; article XML SHA-256 1246ce4f32c91398a03da3dae01dce5983423e7e90d26c9d4a5831cc0640775b. “Mass recovery following caloric restriction reverses lipolysis and proteolysis, but not gluconeogenesis, in insulin resistant OLETF rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0252360).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252360). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Calvinism
<a id="calvinism"></a>

Calvinism is the theological system associated with John Calvin. In this historical account, it presents human life within a divine plan in which God’s will, predestination, sin, grace, and salvation are central, including the idea that humanity shares in Adam’s fall and that salvation comes through union with Christ by faith.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3614284021bf98fd4c197598d7cc5daa984a8867f493b94a7f39491e0ee5ec1d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Calvinism” (Calvinism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Calvinism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CAM
<a id="cam"></a>

CAM refers to cell adhesion molecules, a broad group of proteins found on cell surfaces and in the space outside cells that help cells attach to each other and to the surrounding matrix. They also play roles in recognition and activation, and include four main groups: integrins, selectins, cadherins, and immunoglobulin-like adhesion molecules.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e0f6cf795b989be3ad3e49f25a8ed843dff4229e694acf21d56da2121743bd39

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cell Adhesion Molecule” (C16393).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## camisole
<a id="camisole"></a>

A camisole was a strait-waistcoat used to restrain people described in this historical source as violently insane. The term is a historical one for a garment of confinement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f1aff4c0676b48d7baa4d9c3c87a6ddfa192201670a5eb3d7a78da43b133f3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-987000-999000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## camouflage
<a id="camouflage"></a>

Camouflage is coloration or patterning that helps an animal blend with its surroundings so it is harder for observers to detect. Its effectiveness depends on how light interacts with the environment and on features such as shadows, habitat structure, and the visual limits of the animals viewing it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3442919b3ef4b12efe0f50f864154621408c04deeceef07de60abd9933ec799c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hancock George R A; Cuthill Innes C; Troscianko Jolyon. Shining a light on camouflage evolution: Using genetic algorithms to determine the effects of geometry and lighting on optimal camouflage. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346231; article XML SHA-256 9931bfd49a9c9a935d6061273a9138c7a2ebf65f59b6984fc3ccb1579e533bc0. “Shining a light on camouflage evolution: Using genetic algorithms to determine the effects of geometry and lighting on optimal camouflage” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346231).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346231). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## canalization
<a id="canalization"></a>

Canalization is the path-making in the nervous system that develops when activity repeatedly travels in the same direction, making that route more established. In this historical usage, it refers to an anatomical basis for a tendency of nervous elements to function in a particular way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec06526392ba532f7f4f01c073bbe34cdea60de34863f688e0fa08c9553cc001

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Disposition (nervous)” (Disposition (nervous)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Disposition (nervous)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cannabidiol
<a id="cannabidiol"></a>

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a chemical from Cannabis plants that does not produce psychoactive effects. It has been described as having pain-relieving, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer-related biological activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f7aeea2e4c3a66cbd77c9af06e79c618f79341c02b0166e3a0d47adcf44277c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cannabidiol” (C118452).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cannabinoid
<a id="cannabinoid"></a>

A cannabinoid is any compound that can activate the body’s CB1 and/or CB2 cannabinoid receptors. This group includes plant-derived, naturally occurring in-body, and synthetic or partly synthetic compounds, and some can produce psychoactive effects such as euphoria.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7d77849e03ccf79960625da7e7639ca6f9dbcf48b044c0efeac835d719abbcd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cannabinoid” (C105578).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cannabinoid receptor
<a id="cannabinoid-receptor"></a>

A cannabinoid receptor is a type of G-protein-coupled receptor that responds to cannabinoids, including compounds from cannabis and the body’s own endocannabinoids. These receptors may help regulate the release of signaling substances such as neurotransmitters and cytokines.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 176909cdf42670b5fa61d55d1a1ae9c9271ccc3257dd8f828cf615e19a66471b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Receptors, Cannabinoid” (D043882).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D043882). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cannabis
<a id="cannabis"></a>

Cannabis is a psychoactive substance whose use is described here as an environmental risk factor for psychotic disorders, especially in early psychosis. In this context, it is associated with stronger dissociative experiences and disturbances in self-experience, particularly with frequent use of high-potency THC products.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 73da250e2a9bb291e8cc258cb2bc84dafdc15c7a36438d97557e19689be2cd7d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ricci Valerio; De Berardis Domenico; Martinotti Giovanni; Maina Giuseppe. Self-disturbance in first-episode psychosis: Theoretical framework and potential cannabis interactions - a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1733254; article XML SHA-256 381c6eff1691b51eace58822325702dddb770ed0ca9f5d31fadedb02d7f37875. “Self-disturbance in first-episode psychosis: Theoretical framework and potential cannabis interactions - a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1733254).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1733254). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cannabis dependence
<a id="cannabis-dependence"></a>

Cannabis dependence is a dependent pattern of cannabis use in which the severity of dependence can vary among users. In the source, it is discussed as a common problem linked with cannabis use frequency and with some motives for use, especially coping and routine motives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a3695e958b4194f252ca6f0d92a421c3ea9cd7a3f9f2d8f3cb697b5a260cd9c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Genrich Gregor; Zeller Céline; Znoj Hans Jörg. Interactions of protective behavioral strategies and cannabis use motives: An online survey among past-month users. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0247387; article XML SHA-256 5d9830b7b9232289fc0982d6e4f8703f3dfa6d28eac13e2e5fe43d6585d60f6d. “Interactions of protective behavioral strategies and cannabis use motives: An online survey among past-month users” (10.1371/journal.pone.0247387).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247387). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cannabis intoxication
<a id="cannabis-intoxication"></a>

Cannabis intoxication is the short-term state after using cannabis in which mental and motor performance can be disrupted. In the supplied source, it is linked with poorer lateral control while driving, slower driving, slower simple reactions after inhalation, more response-inhibition errors, and reduced short-term memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: af55e92aae826c782b52b15a3633929658f0ff212e773f1cecb282b32f5818be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Copeland Paige V.; Malone Quinn; Dalton Brian H.; McNeil Chris J.. A six-hour time series of the acute effects of ingested cannabis intoxication on a battery of cognitive-motor tasks. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353389; article XML SHA-256 51c5fe13936c602eb5739cc3aba492f412ea461a88b795720b3a2d41b69da69b. “A six-hour time series of the acute effects of ingested cannabis intoxication on a battery of cognitive-motor tasks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353389).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353389). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## canon
<a id="canon"></a>

Canon means an accepted rule, standard, or guiding principle used in areas such as logic, ethics, aesthetics, criticism, and law. In theology, it also means a body of books regarded as fundamental and authoritative, especially scripture.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98141329b74611a0c4688222bfb9e674f2e4c9645fa1deac8faa6fef92ff2efc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Canon” (Canon).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Canon). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## canonical correlation analysis
<a id="canonical-correlation-analysis"></a>

Canonical correlation analysis is a statistical method that converts two sets of variables into paired combined scores and measures how strongly those pairs are related. It is used to describe the strength of association between the two variable sets.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39ec7b51c6f71110f6d7ab2eaa29555ae5e452c98e53f69ab4c2b0d4ffaeaf72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Canonical Correlation Analysis” (D000089342).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000089342). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## capability
<a id="capability"></a>

In the COM-B framework, capability is the person’s ability to carry out a behavior. It includes physical capability and psychological capability, with psychological capability highlighted here as especially important for volunteering.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ea5a9340fe96894d4e19c27a81ea3e0f9b92677987d9b22adbb5f35c439d1d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Yijing; Luo Zhanni; Peng Kangzhou. Rethinking the occurrence of volunteering from the capability-opportunity-motivation perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1799101; article XML SHA-256 e4c3ab1a319b28ed4250aafe5efa5fff91d5b10923427efeb9c235b3105a908d. “Rethinking the occurrence of volunteering from the capability-opportunity-motivation perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1799101).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1799101). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## capacity
<a id="capacity"></a>

Capacity is the ability to take in impressions or ideas and to respond to them, sometimes with emphasis on receptiveness alone. It can also mean physical or mental power more broadly, including the degree of inborn or developed ability in a particular area.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5d95655d33d402c5b365f1fd4e3776ba67f9579858f159cc0ff6c9e3e87b3d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Capacity” (Capacity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Capacity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CAPD
<a id="capd"></a>

CAPD stands for Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium. It is a brief observational screen used in pediatric critical care to quickly look for signs of delirium by noting consciousness, thinking, orientation, movement, and emotional distress in critically ill patients from birth to age 21, including those with developmental delays.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e401686558e1b4702c4ca2039eee37bfae569360336f749aed2a3bedbc3f351c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium” (C201866).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Capgras syndrome
<a id="capgras-syndrome"></a>

Capgras syndrome is a psychotic disorder in which a person believes that someone they know well, such as a relative or acquaintance, has been replaced by an identical double or imposter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86626b0caf2f7419da086727d58394f23c4ce61d050344539b9c1c3deb7e71ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Capgras Syndrome” (D002194).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002194). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## capitalization
<a id="capitalization"></a>

In this historical source, capitalization means converting a stream of income, such as economic rent, into a present land value by applying a capitalization rate. Here, that rate is described as the inverse of the interest rate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac6801aaa923c6f6da86a5ad9fa7878f8f4115dbafeb4ff77349dce1ea3f9034

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Land, Land Value” (Land).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Land). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## capsaicin
<a id="capsaicin"></a>

Capsaicin is a chili pepper extract with pain-relieving effects, especially when applied to the skin for peripheral nerve pain. It acts on primary sensory peripheral neurons and has also been studied for its effects on substance P and related neuropeptides.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4059689fbe6629c633ea164c43aa03f426e52603a61b1c34c80e4a5729e72857

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Capsaicin” (C339).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## captioning
<a id="captioning"></a>

Captioning is the process of producing a text description for an image. In this source, it refers specifically to automatic image captioning, where artificial intelligence combines visual analysis and language generation to create relevant sentences about a picture.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dffb5c1624d7d84d01bd44200cdb74f836a85bb4bd50b36bbd943072cd1b261c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Masud Adiba; Hosen Md Biplob; Habibullah Md; Anannya Mehrin; Kaiser M Shamim. Image captioning in Bengali language using visual attention. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0309364; article XML SHA-256 18634d90dd4ac84d9b46d2ccc8fe702b3bd79f352782b357485ab1072fbf0756. “Image captioning in Bengali language using visual attention” (10.1371/journal.pone.0309364).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309364). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## captivity
<a id="captivity"></a>

Captivity is the state of being kept in a restricted enclosure rather than a natural habitat. In a learning and behavior context, this change in environment can markedly shift an animal’s usual behavior, sometimes leading to abnormal repetitive actions, changes in feeding, and greater responsiveness to people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 586d60741cb98fca6b1b1136e608d194da052e016482739bb9a99c35496e1750

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pokhrel Nishan; Koju Narayan Prasad; Gautam Sandeepa; Kyes Randall C. Behavior of wild tigers in captivity at the Central Zoo, Nepal. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353056; article XML SHA-256 d3baef9cf51f8ff8b8dc860bf715464b5b34514a9db460b2990957341ae3ec27. “Behavior of wild tigers in captivity at the Central Zoo, Nepal” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353056).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353056). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CAR
<a id="car"></a>

CAR usually refers to chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy, a cancer treatment in which a person’s own T cells are genetically modified to recognize and attack cancer cells. It is used especially for some blood cancers when standard treatments have not worked, though it can cause serious immune-related and neurological side effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d504a196c9708ce864832625af50a608d5a3c050636343d8fe00c85907f2bf0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Girleanu Isabela; Brady Anne-Marie; Boland Vanessa. Mapping the experiences of adult cancer patients receiving chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy: A scoping review protocol. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338210; article XML SHA-256 a9cf8ba38bddb29123d3e1d58be5aa852e8f16134c9f87e6a7c5e94ca671510c. “Mapping the experiences of adult cancer patients receiving chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy: A scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338210).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338210). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## carbamazepine
<a id="carbamazepine"></a>

Carbamazepine is a tricyclic drug related chemically to tricyclic antidepressants that has anticonvulsant and pain-relieving effects. It reduces certain nerve response activity, and it is commonly used for pain linked to trigeminal neuralgia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8d59ca92d7014a1a3894149dc56c7b80a9946ebb04a0ac919f7c3284dd99802e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Carbamazepine” (C341).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## carbidopa
<a id="carbidopa"></a>

Carbidopa is a substance that blocks the enzyme that converts levodopa into dopamine. It is used in Parkinson disease to lessen levodopa’s effects outside the brain and does not have anti-parkinson effects on its own.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c271f9b5a8f7f326f3698866e3e7bf28ddaa2c4e57800993376e0be728d0b9b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Carbidopa” (D002230).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002230). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## carbohydrate metabolism
<a id="carbohydrate-metabolism"></a>

Carbohydrate metabolism is the set of body processes that produce and use glucose, involving organs such as the stomach, intestine, liver, kidney, muscles, adipose tissue, brain, and heart. It includes pathways like glucose oxidation, glycolysis, and gluconeogenesis, and is influenced by insulin and insulin resistance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59dafd6f8b4a7907826984effbc096bc1214fbcfef58a4ae5f52726d47ce8e50

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Goyal Mukul; Aydas Buket; Ghazaleh Husam; Rajasekharan Sanjay. CarbMetSim : A discrete-event simulator for carbohydrate metabolism in humans. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209725; article XML SHA-256 0dacd02e554b187209af37f15c30f3984e8b87c20b22f7985ace35098a9e9787. “CarbMetSim : A discrete-event simulator for carbohydrate metabolism in humans” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209725).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209725). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cardiac muscle
<a id="cardiac-muscle"></a>

Cardiac muscle is the excitable muscle tissue of the heart. In the packet, it is described as tissue whose electrical activity is shaped by voltage-gated potassium channels that help control repolarization and the timing of action potentials, so channel dysfunction can contribute to arrhythmias.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: db80522c9d16615897b63ecc2674087e1d22704d57ed9ead15322edcda6e4cab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sasaki Hayato; Otake Kazuki; Takeda Kazuki; Tesaki Karin; Takahashi Eiki; Yasuda Jumpei; Matsuda Shizukaze; Kawasaki Ayumu; Watanabe Masaki; Otani Kosuke; Okada Muneyoshi; Sekijima Masakazu; Yamawaki Hideyuki; Sasaki Nobuya. Protective function of the voltage-gated potassium channel Kv11.3 in a mouse model of cardiac ischemia/reperfusion injury. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323428; article XML SHA-256 2237496373ed21d040b90941f73bdb58f99bdf2316afe9647903093e639bae99. “Protective function of the voltage-gated potassium channel Kv11.3 in a mouse model of cardiac ischemia/reperfusion injury” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323428).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323428). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cardiac neurosis
<a id="cardiac-neurosis"></a>

Cardiac neurosis refers to a syndrome in which slight physical effort brings on palpitations, shortness of breath, labored breathing, and a sense of strain or discomfort. It may also include dizziness, shakiness, sweating, and insomnia, and is commonly described as a form of anxiety disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d887e54b0cf54f0032308876e7eabef8102815778f5e37ed9442d9506ff7db8f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurocirculatory Asthenia” (D009449).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009449). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cardinal
<a id="cardinal"></a>

In this context, cardinal means the main or core features of a condition. The packet uses it to describe the primary motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 92f5a3a90d2ac0e262eb5c5e75d9d69ad063e6cf09a4e74ed6b3a536d141a6ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chambers Nicole E.; Hall Dominic; Kaplan Morgan; Garan Sarah; Eichner Tyler; Moehle Mark S.. M 5 positive allosteric modulation alleviates parkinsonian motor deficits. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345115; article XML SHA-256 448748fdf9aadbba665945171dacf5e6d1963ea265c5bf54a1602d34bed515e4. “M 5 positive allosteric modulation alleviates parkinsonian motor deficits” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345115).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345115). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cardinal virtues
<a id="cardinal-virtues"></a>

Cardinal virtues are the chief or foundational virtues on which other virtues are understood to depend. In this historical usage, they are prudence, temperance, fortitude, and justice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fbc13db8654ca10ca9ba4efda576c99d753d812fb090c8212671facf18b456a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Cardinal Virtues” (Cardinal Virtues).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Cardinal Virtues). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cardio-
<a id="cardio"></a>

Cardio- is a prefix meaning related to the heart or cardiovascular system. In this context, it appears in cardio-renal multimorbidity, which refers to combined heart-related and kidney disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7f25ce62f44c162fa4eb1fa6e44e2848825c5d8018613d122b7948257d06eed9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Qianshen; Xu Lingling; Fan Zhixing; Li Hongbo. Allostatic load and progression of cardio-renal multimorbidity: A UK biobank study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339576; article XML SHA-256 55e4fac459b892d6c8356b0a2bb597fa980549163946d5ff6653a09ea1c42af7. “Allostatic load and progression of cardio-renal multimorbidity: A UK biobank study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339576).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339576). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cardiovascular
<a id="cardiovascular"></a>

Cardiovascular refers to cardiovascular health, a physical health area discussed in research on its relationship with common mental disorders such as depression and anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16eeb8a0bfef1d3eb1857d6039eb25685958905849f2030e2523166c75586e10

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moyo Audrey; Munyombwe Theresa; Peer Nasheeta; Dubazana Siyabonga Eric; Sithole Nokwanda; Maposa Innocent; Govindasamy Darshini. The relationship between cardiovascular health and common mental disorders among adults aged ≤ 50 years: a systematic review of observational studies. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08281-w; article XML SHA-256 34c87bcafd44d815b8703d585cae3fab1715c8382628f7103073dca76e41c2b4. “The relationship between cardiovascular health and common mental disorders among adults aged ≤ 50 years: a systematic review of observational studies” (10.1186/s12888-026-08281-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08281-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CARE
<a id="care"></a>

In this context, care means mental health services that a young person may need, such as seeing a doctor and sometimes being hospitalized.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a70b8b9cfa4c03388b059373beab6ff4491464bd15e7bcc28a0a624f9fa935a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 2f1e06df6de4eaffe8d6a05ad39220c840ff0b6e8aaec6f86c36cc150507fdf3. “Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## career choice
<a id="career-choice"></a>

Career choice is the act of deciding on a particular occupation or profession.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ff37a6e3448f8e7b3b14560e05f3c48d549906e61bcc08b1871f4255ab91f892

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Career Choice” (D002321).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002321). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## career counseling
<a id="career-counseling"></a>

Career counseling is a structured process that helps people choose an occupation or appropriate work by considering factors such as their abilities and education.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 772766a102e98626565a7c9d454d46c068d5757a84d417acf783a5ce06f0e587

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vocational Guidance” (D014830).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014830). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## career guidance
<a id="career-guidance"></a>

Career guidance is support for making career choices that is tailored to a person's characteristics, learning preferences, and changing aspirations. In this source, it is described as needing to move beyond standardized assessments and fixed recommendations so it better fits individual differences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cefc75dee45d11a2fe0936b4474ecb382f59769b043a40e80bb88482a11e9166

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cheng Wang. Designing a precision career-guidance model based on student psychological profiling in higher education. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1743896; article XML SHA-256 34f515cca1f1caf57bdc81e2975f689bdc4184143cfc6143083b1de608ebdf94. “Designing a precision career-guidance model based on student psychological profiling in higher education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1743896).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1743896). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## caregiver
<a id="caregiver"></a>

A caregiver is a person who looks after and supports a child or adolescent, such as a parent. In a mental health context, this can mean someone helping care for a young person with a condition like DMDD.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 480611294609f5811a5d60f2f1ba9af9346e2b91e5b1f5e65a964bd10d0560f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 2f1e06df6de4eaffe8d6a05ad39220c840ff0b6e8aaec6f86c36cc150507fdf3. “Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Caregiver Burden
<a id="caregiver-burden"></a>

Caregiver burden is the stress and emotional strain a caregiver may experience while looking after someone with a mental or physical disability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e5ab1e276202be0ac400e9cea87ee545fdf018ea77155151eaad48afe20b429

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Caregiver Burden” (D000084802).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000084802). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## carotid stenosis
<a id="carotid-stenosis"></a>

Carotid stenosis is a narrowing of part of the carotid arteries, usually caused by buildup of atherosclerotic plaque. The narrowed area can develop clots or release platelet or cholesterol material that may lead to a transient ischemic attack, stroke, or temporary blindness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f94fecf4c41c0e1d2fafe88e289769b639dd98e8093525f434fc75cc2d457d8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Carotid Stenosis” (D016893).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016893). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## carpal tunnel syndrome
<a id="carpal-tunnel-syndrome"></a>

Carpal tunnel syndrome is a condition caused by compression of the median nerve as it passes through the carpal tunnel in the wrist. It can be linked with repetitive strain, wrist injury, pregnancy, rheumatoid arthritis, and some other medical conditions, and often causes burning pain, tingling, or reduced feeling in the palm side of the hand and fingers, sometimes with wasting of the thumb muscles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00fa7545f659a0111d3f6128e6295f27ebc399df5dd3283ee04d4cc52718232a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Carpal Tunnel Syndrome” (D002349).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002349). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Carpenter’s syndrome
<a id="carpenters-syndrome"></a>

Carpenter’s syndrome is an extremely rare inherited disorder marked by early joining of the skull bones, a cone-shaped head, and abnormalities of the fingers or toes such as fusion or extra digits. It can also occur with heart or kidney defects, short stature, undescended testes, and mild intellectual impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a9d734f684277a9f47413837ce515d811ae487c0d3652a759f7490d1f1a8f1d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Type II Acrocephalopolysyndactyly” (C98873).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CART analysis
<a id="cart-analysis"></a>

CART analysis is a statistical method that sorts data into decision-tree branches to find which features best predict an outcome. In this study, it was used to test whether symptom patterns could help classify patients as having acute chikungunya infection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b594655343748a96cc79ecb7902916822aee6c73cb1897d91bbd566de8d41d19

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vogt Florian; Nkuba-Ndaye Antoine; De Weggheleire Anja; Makiala-Mandanda Sheila; Mbala-Kingebeni Placide; Mputu-Ngoyi Benoit; Kinganda-Lusamaki Eddy; Pukuta Elisabeth; Subissi Lorenzo; De Smet Birgit; Buyze Jozefien; Ahuka-Mundeke Steve. Developing a clinical case definition for Chikungunya fever in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355216; article XML SHA-256 a7d47ae086acf70155c0cd2c655034ce9d11ae1ba28e4b885718e8562dfaa96c. “Developing a clinical case definition for Chikungunya fever in the Democratic Republic of the Congo” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355216).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355216). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## carve out
<a id="carve-out"></a>

In cognition, to carve out means to separate or mark off things into distinct categories or groups. In the source context, different labels helped infants treat highly similar objects as belonging to different categories.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d80790d9aaa00a0af2ad29d0b7f412aca3b67cd3b43636f5dc7e413f5f08931c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Switzer Jessica L.; Graham Susan A.. 14- to 16-Month-Olds Attend to Distinct Labels in an Inductive Reasoning Task. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00609; article XML SHA-256 eda5916ab47c786f45226c2dc4d1f139bda2c4f8ad6d015c0d476cd8ffe12065. “14- to 16-Month-Olds Attend to Distinct Labels in an Inductive Reasoning Task” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00609).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00609). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CAS
<a id="cas"></a>

CAS refers to the Coronavirus Anxiety Scale, a self-report screening measure used to identify problematic anxiety related to the coronavirus crisis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6db7f368d1a322046f6b1a919a7fe50dc21c2c32871571dc739d14c79e6466b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Coronavirus Anxiety Scale” (C175568).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## case-based reasoning
<a id="case-based-reasoning"></a>

Case-based reasoning is an approach to decision-making that uses past cases to guide responses to a current problem. It works by identifying the important features of an existing situation, finding similar earlier cases, and adapting what was done before for reuse in the new case.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66fa0c2083d183934733d6884c1b5afd9a019705ddeb74c4a6424154ca95a9c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ma Dongling; Kuang Jingwen; Zhang Minyuan. Case-based reasoning for emergency response planning of coal mine gas explosion accidents. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331711; article XML SHA-256 0617bdbc187453219c548e295590d613923b852163e500714877cb6b68000528. “Case-based reasoning for emergency response planning of coal mine gas explosion accidents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331711).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331711). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## case history
<a id="case-history"></a>

A case history is the detailed record kept by an investigator about an individual in a clinical trial. It includes documentation such as informed consent, medical records, and other observations about the person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3388d83924f9a7c228c15860bf41fd1234703515fd20ed4488cfa38607e517ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Investigational Subject Case History” (C142588).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## case law
<a id="case-law"></a>

Case law is law expressed in judges’ published decisions on particular cases, especially the rulings of higher courts. It refers to judicial precedents that guide later judgments and is distinct from general legal principles laid down apart from specific cases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 750e4b4ab3fcfb0522a99321063907316f8dd772c977986412ba5c6fecacf2d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Case-law” (Case-law).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Case-law). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## case management
<a id="case-management"></a>

Case management is a framework of support for people with serious and persistent mental illness that is intended to address biopsychosocial needs outside of crisis situations. In this source, it is described as typically being available during standard business hours.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c14f6431148813fd1a532f8aff30e97bcd4ecd860d88241d4a14029ed0435144

Sources:
- Drafting source: [von Berg Vanessa; Heng Hazel; Sayeed Md Shapin Ibne. Assertive community treatment for adults with complex mental illness and emergency department use: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1837300; article XML SHA-256 19b5a03254916a9f0fe2af7649e42435052c790490250ca53f447f8b913e60ea. “Assertive community treatment for adults with complex mental illness and emergency department use: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1837300).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1837300). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## caste
<a id="caste"></a>

Caste is a hereditary social class marked by strict limits on social contact and originally tied to perceived racial difference, later also to occupation or religion. The term is especially associated with India’s social divisions, though similar fixed class systems have appeared in other societies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d15e4b66cd067d2402d52c6f1392d816858e6c79c1542e2337636a329849424

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Caste” (Caste).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Caste). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## castration complex
<a id="castration-complex"></a>

Castration complex refers to anxiety centered on imagined injury to, or loss of, the genitals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0528f8cc986da999fe1885bac587c62b000ff8b49ea2cb5cde419f055865885d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anxiety, Castration” (D001009).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001009). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cat-cry syndrome
<a id="cat-cry-syndrome"></a>

Cat-cry syndrome is a genetic infant disorder caused by deletion of the short arm of chromosome 5. It is marked by a distinctive cat-like cry along with poor growth, small head size, intellectual disability, muscle stiffness with weakness in all four limbs, and characteristic facial and genital differences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b3ad83c4d1a00d277af915fa975c5b048bd8666086b2009691febc5014c815b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cri-du-Chat Syndrome” (D003410).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003410). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## catalepsy
<a id="catalepsy"></a>

Catalepsy is a state of marked inactivity and reduced response to stimulation, with a tendency to hold a fixed posture. A person’s limbs may stay in whatever position they are placed, sometimes called waxy flexibility, and this state can occur with psychotic disorders, drug toxicity affecting the nervous system, or other conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c94e5ebdb65b367e7591cc8b5183f48407bf6f565530ac44958c096200da3ba6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Catalepsy” (D002375).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002375). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## catalyst
<a id="catalyst"></a>

In this learning context, a catalyst is a factor that changes how strongly other supports lead to learning, helping their effects become stronger or work differently without being the skill practice itself. Here, relatedness is proposed as a contextual catalyst because feeling cared for, respected, and connected may amplify the benefits of autonomy and competence support.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 56cbf9d970c60507347287159df858a839cc48e978a594d2918c4f65f6d42d8d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Im Chang-Ha. Relatedness as a contextual catalyst in motor learning: the socially embedded motor learning framework. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810460; article XML SHA-256 1e4ea7939ceb0e3f9156e424c8d2dd363cca9aafaff36fe468b00a46a1d98fb8. “Relatedness as a contextual catalyst in motor learning: the socially embedded motor learning framework” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810460).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810460). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cataphasia
<a id="cataphasia"></a>

Cataphasia is a historical term for a severe deterioration of speech, usually associated with serious nervous disease, in which a person repeatedly says the same word or phrase. It was also used for markedly reduced sentence formation, with childlike, minimally grammatical speech and frequent repetition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2921bb51a4b1d4d86e3f1f981c8d3cec64a658d9365247eb057d9f0b7fb701c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Cataphasia (or Kata-)” (Cataphasia (or Kata-)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Cataphasia (or Kata-)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cataphora
<a id="cataphora"></a>

Cataphora is a historical term used for a state of stupor, and also for marked drowsiness or somnolence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9071338f3406af4ff02fcba2577c9f3ac2d734eecdf53bc699e42aa398678f5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1008000-1020000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cataplexy
<a id="cataplexy"></a>

Cataplexy is a condition in which a person has brief episodes of sudden muscle weakness or paralysis, often brought on by strong emotions or physical effort. It commonly occurs in association with narcolepsy and involves a sharp drop in muscle tone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b6ad797d1d403a380e79408589d5defd0fce1de5ce7f2c37668d863e39ce999

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cataplexy” (D002385).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002385). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cataract
<a id="cataract"></a>

A cataract is a clouding of the eye’s natural lens in one or both eyes. This reduces visual sharpness and can eventually lead to blindness; it may occur in childhood but is more common in older people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb69866cac6555047eab5a9645a13fd20850035e2ee21b857717300bb8be1d2a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cataract” (C26713).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## catastrophe theory
<a id="catastrophe-theory"></a>

Catastrophe theory is an approach for describing how a system can shift abruptly from a stable state to an unstable one when ongoing change reaches a critical point. In the packet, it is used in cusp form to track stability with an indicator that changes sign as the system crosses that threshold.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 451ba3db01674a5cbc95394f7b6b52acb29bab99d7d0f735b37c3f231849a2ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Zhaofeng; Du Bin; Zhu Huadong; Jiang Yonglei; Wang Tengwen; Chen Wei; Zhao Yanlin; Wang Yuanzeng. Energy evolution and catastrophic instability of excavated consequent slopes: A cusp catastrophe-based criterion and gradient-anchoring reinforcement strategy. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354142; article XML SHA-256 b025be69bc7f6a756276c3a49b7830f27087695663f1e88e54b0d5bf521929d7. “Energy evolution and catastrophic instability of excavated consequent slopes: A cusp catastrophe-based criterion and gradient-anchoring reinforcement strategy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354142).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354142). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## catatonia
<a id="catatonia"></a>

Catatonia is a neuropsychiatric disorder marked by abnormal movement, speech, and behavior, such as immobility, mutism, rigid or unusual postures, repetitive movements, echoing speech or actions, or extreme excitement. It can occur with psychiatric conditions or with medical disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3472b45f51e676150369aa95e0715f5452a2e3764c1178d892b36bc33b4ab0e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Catatonia” (D002389).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002389). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## catatonic schizophrenia
<a id="catatonic-schizophrenia"></a>

Catatonic schizophrenia is a form of schizophrenia marked mainly by unusual motor behavior, such as stupor, rigidity, excitement, or odd posturing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: af8ad0da5ce42d2daeb9cf33d6251caeb00743f3b8687d2d3e065b4ee4465852

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Schizophrenia, Catatonic” (D012560).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012560). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## catatonic state
<a id="catatonic-state"></a>

A catatonic state is a condition of catatonia, a severe psychomotor disturbance marked by abnormal movement that can be either unusually increased or greatly slowed. When it is prolonged or severe, it can also interfere with communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3c67b245b8da801f1920a5c693df2919eeae6e3d52f2a39900b53b3c2f5ac96a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zingela Zukiswa; Stroud Louise; Cronje Johan; Fink Max; van Wyk Stephan. The psychological and subjective experience of catatonia: a qualitative study. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s40359-022-00885-7; article XML SHA-256 fef005fbd97e29f80805140340c54abf193f8f672e9900aac81ca9e2e33a0ae3. “The psychological and subjective experience of catatonia: a qualitative study” (10.1186/s40359-022-00885-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-022-00885-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## catechol-O-methyltransferase
<a id="catechol-o-methyltransferase"></a>

Catechol-O-methyltransferase is an enzyme made from the human COMT gene. It helps break down neurotransmitters as part of their metabolism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8f167e30409627a7770f0ff853548c67ddbdf1cc982a725558bc6294b783463

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Catechol O-Methyltransferase” (C16387).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## catecholamine
<a id="catecholamine"></a>

Catecholamines are a group of hormone-like chemical messengers, including adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine, that are made from tyrosine. They are produced in the adrenal glands and sympathetic nervous system, especially during stress, and help regulate many body functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 591365250cc792931fbf62720c6e672d7d06e758c7bd22b4d372ec64da93687a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Catecholamine” (C88516).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## categorical
<a id="categorical"></a>

Categorical refers to a judgment or assertion stated outright, without making it depend on any expressed condition. In historical usage, Aristotle used the term for what is affirmative, while later usage contrasted it with hypothetical or conditional statements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e2c7a20e3abbe08d809cefd77a272e37c1787d5ca356511132831653a9ee116

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Categorical” (Categorical).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Categorical). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## categorical classification
<a id="categorical-classification"></a>

Categorical classification is a way of organizing mental disorders into distinct categories using sets of criteria and defining features. In this context, it refers to the approach used in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 886a550a4b5a1a99273c3189655025a0dfb778d7cb8bcb04a870e62092c5eab4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders” (D039721).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D039721). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## categorical data
<a id="categorical-data"></a>

Categorical data are information sorted into named groups or classifications rather than measured on a continuous scale. These categories may be unordered, ranked, or limited to two possible outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 60dfecbb0d62eb8dc5a32e9f874961062710f86fe6feb912a9d8808f42e19f4a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Androwski Rebecca J.; Popovitchenko Tatiana; Smart Anna J.; Ogino Sho; Wang Guoqiang; Saba Mark; Rongo Christopher; Driscoll Monica; Roy Jason. Analysis of categorical data from biological experiments with logistic regression and CMH tests. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335143; article XML SHA-256 7da6330d7373c5e80a6711556ab0e6108c6166535638a01d566538229229deac. “Analysis of categorical data from biological experiments with logistic regression and CMH tests” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335143).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335143). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## categorical data analysis
<a id="categorical-data-analysis"></a>

Categorical data analysis is the statistical analysis of data sorted into classes or outcomes rather than measured on a continuous scale. It is used for variables such as nominal, ordinal, or two-choice outcomes and applies methods suited to frequencies or proportions, especially when studying binary or multinomial results.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 529add70a56ae5ad2174cd83122f83f67428015b207f01a0fbf574f4b4092993

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Androwski Rebecca J.; Popovitchenko Tatiana; Smart Anna J.; Ogino Sho; Wang Guoqiang; Saba Mark; Rongo Christopher; Driscoll Monica; Roy Jason. Analysis of categorical data from biological experiments with logistic regression and CMH tests. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335143; article XML SHA-256 7da6330d7373c5e80a6711556ab0e6108c6166535638a01d566538229229deac. “Analysis of categorical data from biological experiments with logistic regression and CMH tests” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335143).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335143). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## categorical imperative
<a id="categorical-imperative"></a>

In this historical ethics sense, a categorical imperative is a moral law that allows no conditions or exceptions, unlike a hypothetical imperative, which applies only in relation to some further goal. In Kant’s use, it expresses a universal moral requirement: one should act only on a principle that could be willed as a universal law, while treating humanity as an end and not merely as a means.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c27b9ff36501c988ad6ae9fd7be6b03dd16491dd8eacdc67cc99edd2f6bd25d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Categorical Imperative” (Categorical Imperative).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Categorical Imperative). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## categorical scale
<a id="categorical-scale"></a>

A categorical scale is a rating method that places observations into a small set of named categories rather than along a continuous range. In the source example, responses were scored with ordered labels such as absent, weak, and strong.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0236fce4c794828942df481fbf56dea15bda3a4a1e25227ab84541b7d538d381

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meeremans Pieter; Yochum Noëlle; Kochzius Marc; Ampe Bart; Tuyttens Frank A. M.; Uhlmann Sven Sebastian. Inter-rater reliability of categorical versus continuous scoring of fish vitality: Does it affect the utility of the reflex action mortality predictor (RAMP) approach?. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0179092; article XML SHA-256 0228dfd44aac7ce19f0c77e2255edabed64fa447002243ba5b503e1e2664e55c. “Inter-rater reliability of categorical versus continuous scoring of fish vitality: Does it affect the utility of the reflex action mortality predictor (RAMP) approach?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0179092).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179092). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## categorical variable
<a id="categorical-variable"></a>

A categorical variable is a variable whose values fall into named groups rather than having a natural order. Its categories can be given numbers for coding, but those numbers do not carry numerical meaning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7b8b26dce819a57bff3a79bdcfbd25c9f527edbaf7463618a44b91fb51929a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Qualitative Variable” (qualitative_variable.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/qualitative_variable.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## categories of thought
<a id="categories-of-thought"></a>

In this historical source, categories of thought are basic ways the mind organizes understanding, such as identity and difference. They are treated as logically linked abstractions that thinking uses to grasp reality, while in actual knowledge one or the other may be emphasized depending on the purpose of thought or action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec896e81fd3f03c0856e43cb0c120d23b004c5133fc7b554676362df4e63dfb8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Identity (in metaphysics)” (Identitym).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Identitym). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## categorization
<a id="categorization"></a>

Categorization is the mental process of sorting information into groups as part of making decisions. In psychology, it is especially studied in situations with uncertainty, where the brain tracks ambiguity to help guide adaptive behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c603fbdda5324256bf194a2fcc952660401cbbf7b684b2510d004d12c79ffd71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cai Xueli; Zhang Miao; Chen Zhencai; Wu Mengxue; Tang Hong; Lei Jun; Lei Ming; Mao Yanhui; Wang Yifeng. Neural correlates of categorization uncertainty: evidence from a category induction task. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1556213; article XML SHA-256 9e8f92b48c35bbfa18ce701768d0f69166ef045faf88fe4c3dab526f1deed91e. “Neural correlates of categorization uncertainty: evidence from a category induction task” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1556213).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1556213). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## catharsis
<a id="catharsis"></a>

Catharsis is the process of bringing out thoughts, ideas, or previously repressed unconscious material, along with a strong emotional reaction and a sense of relief.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54bcb5084b452b3d932aaf663d22e68d5a7259fff92c4075a6a3383e22ae9a40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Catharsis” (D002399).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002399). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cathexis
<a id="cathexis"></a>

Cathexis is the conscious or unconscious investment of emotional meaning or importance in an idea, object, or especially another person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6984e167fd53b1beef571f3b3753e2085e135427d0d021368bd22847738b67d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cathexis” (D002409).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002409). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Cattell Personality Factor Questionnaire
<a id="cattell-personality-factor-questionnaire"></a>

The Cattell Personality Factor Questionnaire is a self-report personality measure that produces 16 trait scores, describing tendencies along paired qualities such as reserved versus outgoing or humble versus assertive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50b63e0a8f4542e35b0619f1a2494deb6fb6e78e683195db0cba98920b68cb64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Cattell Personality Factor Questionnaire” (D002416).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002416). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cauda equina
<a id="cauda-equina"></a>

The cauda equina is the lower portion of the spinal cord made up of the lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal nerve roots.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a73b8dd68a04ceb105c9041c2ce87bb7abf9e5560fb22fb5ad1c65e24679f0d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cauda Equina” (D002420).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002420). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## caudal
<a id="caudal"></a>

Caudal means toward the back or posterior end of a brain structure along its front-to-back axis. In the hippocampus, the caudal portion refers to the posterior part, which earlier studies have linked mainly with spatial memory and navigation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 50c23024e371e02da8d62e32fbff0d212d6b13a4717daa04963101410e544f97

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vorobiova Alicia Nunez; Feurra Matteo; Pavone Enea Francesco; Stieglitz Lennart; Imbach Lukas; Moiseeva Victoria; Sarnthein Johannes; Fedele Tommaso. Functional segregation of rostral and caudal hippocampus in associative memory. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1509163; article XML SHA-256 c22456fc23666eb4d0256a59da219b2f8f2630bd99716a3d40ca52ab7ecbf30e. “Functional segregation of rostral and caudal hippocampus in associative memory” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1509163).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1509163). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## caudate nucleus
<a id="caudate-nucleus"></a>

The caudate nucleus is an elongated mass of gray matter that is part of the neostriatum. It lies next to the brain’s lateral ventricle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 548231dc4f0d556b7f7bf362b0cda0fbf437253573579dca1bc0b340a9050fa4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Caudate Nucleus” (D002421).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002421). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## causal attribution
<a id="causal-attribution"></a>

Causal attribution is the process of deciding whether a person’s psychological symptoms, injury, or impairment can reasonably be linked to a specific event. In forensic assessment, this judgment requires more than timing, plausibility, or diagnosis alone and depends on combining causal reasoning with consideration of the validity of the person’s reported and tested presentation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e5bc35029ca78d5a55a64ea1242ddac700370c9453fbe08204303b5b062f3d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tortes Saint-Jammes Juliane. Causal attribution in forensic psychological injury: legal causation, validity assessment, and expert reasoning. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877102; article XML SHA-256 1826f07b69ada61afc18ce55bd91a4b1dd62c29be6bca5ec97aa68d6af4b087e. “Causal attribution in forensic psychological injury: legal causation, validity assessment, and expert reasoning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877102).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877102). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## causal chain
<a id="causal-chain"></a>

In this historical usage, a causal chain is a connected sequence of events understood as producing one another. James uses the phrase for a single explanatory sequence that can include both bodily processes in the nervous system and mental events such as ideas or reminiscences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75e6fce2399a320cbab3c2f1d006a9a7efb6999e8387d70d02017913bb778501

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## causal law
<a id="causal-law"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, a causal law is the basic rule proposed to explain association in thought: if two elementary brain processes have occurred together or one right after the other, the return of one tends to arouse the other. On this view, familiar mental links such as contiguity, similarity, and contrast are treated as outcomes of this more fundamental law of neural habit.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7ddc9a90b79beeada7d8dc4abd65794c8352d443c8b6f686910d1c167e6af69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## causal mechanism
<a id="causal-mechanism"></a>

A causal mechanism is the underlying process or pathway through which one factor produces changes in another. In this context, it means the psychophysiological or biological link that would explain how exercise could lead to changes in autonomic regulation, inflammation, and symptoms, rather than just showing that these are associated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 52f9d6f540d7a219aafbde40a568da3a7ecdb736a548838cce6a9bdda7df634d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Feng Yulong; Wei Jinhu. Exercise, vagal regulation, and inflammatory symptom clusters in breast cancer survivors: a structured mini-review and hypothesis-generating framework. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872288; article XML SHA-256 5506dce8ec1fb8aa7c108814245cc1708169e7db6050898921878c6fb7436d7e. “Exercise, vagal regulation, and inflammatory symptom clusters in breast cancer survivors: a structured mini-review and hypothesis-generating framework” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872288).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872288). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## causal nexus
<a id="causal-nexus"></a>

Causal nexus is the bond or connection that links causes and effects in an ordered whole. More broadly, a nexus means the mutual dependence of parts in a series, with an added sense that they are united rather than merely related.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf8dec994002a6ab7fed02b16cffd0f0710149c1162cc46f79b87533332ddf64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nexus” (Nexus).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nexus). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## causal path
<a id="causal-path"></a>

A causal path is the proposed route by which one factor influences another. In this context, it can include a direct effect as well as indirect effects that pass through other variables acting as mediators.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa02ff0785196a0d0ed1b92bafa92930c28d885bbd722186ca9daf4fd1b5a4c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zi Yahua; de Geus Eco J. C.. Reviewing the association between motor competence and physical activity from a behavioral genetic perspective. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1480631; article XML SHA-256 bda1e19f9afd60663f1a0864c0c87ad16d60616fa36c068206a9ea7056d5459a. “Reviewing the association between motor competence and physical activity from a behavioral genetic perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1480631).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1480631). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## causalgia
<a id="causalgia"></a>

Causalgia is a type of complex regional pain syndrome in which an injured peripheral nerve leads to burning pain and unusually strong sensitivity to touch in that nerve’s distribution. It can also involve autonomic changes such as altered sweating, blood vessel regulation, and skin nutrition changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3c1d7ca0235fac18af033dfaf9d515cd53e260b5a06e57872ba130eb75b9f62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Causalgia” (D002422).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002422). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## causality
<a id="causality"></a>

Causality is the necessary connection between events as they occur over time, rather than a relation of logic alone. It also means the idea that one process happens as a consequence of another process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3f46601969d57de75d0dd00a4758a4625ac42d5dde362e8bddbe991a58cddd6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Causality” (Causality).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Causality). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## causation
<a id="causation"></a>

In this packet, causation refers to a cause-and-effect influence across levels of organization, especially the idea that a whole biological system can affect the activity of its component parts. The source specifically discusses downward causation, where influence runs from a higher, whole-system level to lower-level parts in the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d4ccd3477ae4c289059ff45948e25d91d05e19a1d31f95a3ebfe377f5993ce2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ohmura Yoshiyuki; Kuniyoshi Yasuo. Whole-to-parts causation mechanism. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1654139; article XML SHA-256 9f5050a3b8a4319afd2544e53644ccc645e52039af698af3fee05de61b838c1a. “Whole-to-parts causation mechanism” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1654139).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1654139). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cause
<a id="cause"></a>

In mental health language, to cause something means to make it happen or bring it about, such as when a condition leads to harm or death.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6aedbca2a206916a753d690cdb026be2d736ac499ad92396bbd56f65c6748330

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Let’s Talk About Eating Disorders. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 cb176594d8fbcc5ced6a587f1c41e93fc0c6fb3c3ca2fd1fa44c2220cad9fa03. “Let’s Talk About Eating Disorders” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/lets-talk-about-eating-disorders).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/lets-talk-about-eating-disorders). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CAVLT
<a id="cavlt"></a>

CAVLT stands for the Chinese Auditory Verbal Learning Test, a neuropsychological measure used to assess memory as part of cognitive evaluation. In the study packet, it was used as an outcome measure alongside other tests to track changes in memory function in people with mild cognitive impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b369e962c79ce34417efdeb9ab79139ba2087d61067c060b2fc2124325c16167

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Jingsong; He Youze; Liang Shengxiang; Liu Zhizhen; Huang Jia; Liu Weilin; Tao Jing; Chen Lidian; Chan Chetwyn C H; Lee Tatia M C. Effects of computerized cognitive training on structure‒function coupling and topology of multiple brain networks in people with mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s13195-023-01292-9; article XML SHA-256 db4bad9813a1c9b670e42e4b333398a539082e9c7838864ccb9ea3f836def8e8. “Effects of computerized cognitive training on structure‒function coupling and topology of multiple brain networks in people with mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s13195-023-01292-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-023-01292-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CBCL
<a id="cbcl"></a>

CBCL stands for Child Behavior Checklist, a standardized questionnaire used to assess children’s and adolescents’ behavioral, emotional, and social functioning. It is completed from parent or teacher reports and is designed to capture a broad range of problem areas, including attention and behavior difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bee843ba2fd04392e57ae842523f258e8cef4f54de0ae8e9ba8713361e9d480c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiang Chen; Gu Xuejun; Li Sixuan; Zhao Xudong; Cai Fang; Zheng Yi; Zhang Kun; Ding Linlin; Hu Sujun; Zhou Tingting; Lv Yingbo; Fu Chanrong; Cheng Wei. Measurement properties of the Child Behavior Checklist-10: an ultra-brief screening updated in longitudinal cohort. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1767665; article XML SHA-256 266c5750d3f956486753edfb7bacb4f451a40ed7a0f65ca23dfacfcbcc0425a1. “Measurement properties of the Child Behavior Checklist-10: an ultra-brief screening updated in longitudinal cohort” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1767665).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1767665). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## CBD
<a id="cbd"></a>

CBD, or cannabidiol, is a chemical from Cannabis plants that is described here as non-psychoactive. In this source, it is noted for pain-relieving, anti-inflammatory, and cancer-related biological effects rather than for causing a high.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e92da8e78de610f3206df6215d738724aa010b99b91569403117bc85ae3c5f30

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cannabidiol” (C118452).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CBT
<a id="cbt"></a>

CBT, or cognitive behavior therapy, is a form of psychotherapy used for various mental disorders. It focuses on recognizing harmful or unhelpful thought and behavior patterns and replacing them with more constructive ones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3a3b0c5e9e690d83cac2c0d74028da970d0ea190c082ce153ff373aa1b698d63

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cognitive Behavior Therapy” (C64345).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CCRT
<a id="ccrt"></a>

CCRT stands for computerized cognitive remediation therapy, a computer-based approach intended to improve cognitive deficits. In the supplied source, it is described as a promising method for reducing cognitive and negative symptoms in people with schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2c2f67dbdd507505a3cbfb9a9190730f9b67144fe2533f03ca418b51251c59db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Peiyun; Chen Lingyun; Qin Qianqian; Liu Chao; Zhu Haijiao; Hu Wenqing; He Xinyu; Tang Kaihong; Yan Qi; Shen Hongmei. Enhanced computerized cognitive remediation therapy improved cognitive function, negative symptoms, and GDNF in male long-term inpatients with schizophrenia. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1477285; article XML SHA-256 a7a29c9c6965d1ba4113abc34082aef4d778d5938bd00bbbd71e393e0ebd5cce. “Enhanced computerized cognitive remediation therapy improved cognitive function, negative symptoms, and GDNF in male long-term inpatients with schizophrenia” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1477285).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1477285). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CD
<a id="cd"></a>

CD refers to color flow Doppler ultrasound imaging, a method that uses pulsed ultrasound to show blood flow in blood vessels. Different colors indicate the direction and speed of the flow.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 20ad2220b3d064bc5f343f284dafdfdb412b667bc61c7d57a95ee3fcf9e11145

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Color Flow Doppler Ultrasound Imaging” (C190518).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CDC
<a id="cdc"></a>

CDC stands for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. In this context, it is a government source for information about autism spectrum disorder screening.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0d7cce8f7a7a40ecdd07e51ae3c7d5021d09bcf6c25db88536d147c8a750caa9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Autism Spectrum Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 79ec4251e9cdc3e82ee94b02bff7b0d0bc25fa910edb696f382cecf3bfa43548. “Autism Spectrum Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/autism-spectrum-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/autism-spectrum-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CDI
<a id="cdi"></a>

CDI means color flow Doppler ultrasound imaging, a test that uses pulsed sound waves to make blood movement in vessels visible. Colors on the image indicate how fast the blood is moving and which way it is flowing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ab890bfc2deb138e897fbcb2d334f53a1fdc1532beeb69dc466193685c5901d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Color Flow Doppler Ultrasound Imaging” (C190518).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Celexa
<a id="celexa"></a>

Celexa is citalopram hydrobromide, an antidepressant medicine taken by mouth. It is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor that increases serotonin activity in the central nervous system, with little effect on norepinephrine or dopamine reuptake.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e6e2c13a858399e5dc5323badd790e947a2c1a8e3d326afe0645481d37f5939

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Citalopram Hydrobromide” (C28932).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## celiac plexus
<a id="celiac-plexus"></a>

The celiac plexus is a large network of autonomic nerves in the abdomen around the celiac and superior mesenteric arteries. It contains sympathetic and parasympathetic outgoing fibers as well as sensory fibers from the internal organs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f836b6afbfe95dd176253aae27662081fff13591d5a9366e9ff16666215cea9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Celiac Plexus” (D002447).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002447). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## celibacy
<a id="celibacy"></a>

Celibacy is the voluntary renunciation of marriage, or remaining single. In historical usage it became especially linked with the Roman Catholic priesthood and with an ascetic belief that the unmarried state is spiritually purer than marriage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f370d814ede7606aa56a1657e81cedc91b17f56920409813be01bda89ad39a4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Celibacy” (Celibacy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Celibacy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cell
<a id="cell"></a>

In this historical source, a cell is the basic structural and living unit of an organized body, usually described as having a membrane and protoplasmic contents such as a nucleus and cytoplasm, though some parts may be absent. In neurology, a nerve-cell means the whole structural unit of the nervous system: the cell body together with its outgoing processes, including dendrites and the axis-cylinder process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2c435b5250cdf0d3d3abb5c140a12f9d1f526eb75edc1f1ea2bf9987e651f8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Cell” (Cell).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Cell). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cell adhesion molecule
<a id="cell-adhesion-molecule"></a>

A cell adhesion molecule is a member of a varied group of proteins on cell surfaces or in the space outside cells that helps cells stick to each other or to the surrounding matrix, and also supports cell recognition and activation. Main types include integrins, selectins, cadherins, and immunoglobulin-like adhesion molecules.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e8f023b353723e89ea3290c4b355b5b0b058a99f4582b3e925dc9d05bfb6c9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cell Adhesion Molecule” (C16393).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cell body
<a id="cell-body"></a>

The cell body is the main part of a cell that contains the nucleus and cytoplasm. It does not include surface extensions such as flagella or neurites.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c55fcb03cbd17bbb11333c26fe4ca1944fcf4a6be6d381bf2b1c6d5359e0c539

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cell Body” (D066146).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066146). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cell interactions
<a id="cell-interactions"></a>

Cell interactions are the ways living cells in an organism communicate with each other, either through direct contact or through chemical messengers such as neurotransmitters, hormones, and cyclic AMP.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11dc5f7d0e2403ea0fd621c089b1a9c6ed7933cff2e809479f39c4989706425a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cell Communication” (D002450).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002450). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cell-mediated immunity
<a id="cell-mediated-immunity"></a>

Cell-mediated immunity is the part of the immune response, especially involving T-cell pathways, that is described here as the main way the body controls cytomegalovirus infection. In this context, it is more informative than antibody status alone for judging protection, because antibodies may help limit spread but are not enough by themselves to control latency or prevent reactivation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 96fc3ff8cacbdc8b66504614fb6bd398a2f52d639009d35ed89d01f39cda9d7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Klinmalai Chompunuch; Apiwattanakul Nopporn; Prasongtanakij Somsak; Bruminhent Jackrapong; Srisala Supanart. Comparison between enzyme-linked immunospot assay and intracellular cytokine flow cytometry assay of cytomegalovirus-specific T-cell response in healthy participants. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349292; article XML SHA-256 518ecd4f86f7dd43486db44e74b65521b6278284c440597459c5f25cf8fb0617. “Comparison between enzyme-linked immunospot assay and intracellular cytokine flow cytometry assay of cytomegalovirus-specific T-cell response in healthy participants” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349292).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349292). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cell migration
<a id="cell-migration"></a>

Cell migration is the active, guided movement of an entire cell or cell body from one place to another in response to a gradient. It does not refer to movement limited to cell extensions or surface projections.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dbb098760167623dcab9626341a0d874ac8315a0dd32e5e3e2144fb75b12ffd0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cellular Migration Process” (C26169).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cell proliferation
<a id="cell-proliferation"></a>

Cell proliferation is the production of new cells through cell division. In the adult brain, it refers to the increase in newly formed cells seen in areas where neurogenesis can occur, including the hippocampus and some other regions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ef569ce47c37eee965295c44309196d54636f617be5e289d7573705032d41d3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bedos Marie; Sánchez Núñez Mariana; Castro Analía E.; Paredes Raúl G.. Mating-induced neurogenesis and cell proliferation in male rats depend on opioid signaling. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329795; article XML SHA-256 1ba8c3a6bc98681aeb64d715d00b8f3910f6bdeacc7d44cff50f1409b262df92. “Mating-induced neurogenesis and cell proliferation in male rats depend on opioid signaling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329795).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329795). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cell theory
<a id="cell-theory"></a>

Cell theory is the view that living things are made of cells, either as single cells or as many cells together with their products. It also holds that every cell, however specialized, comes from an already existing cell.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8a1c4e7c3c214fe79ed73c6de3c1a059e71752a0f33c076f08ff1c67b9b91b4b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Cell Theory” (Cell Theory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Cell Theory). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CEM
<a id="cem"></a>

CEM is a treatment regimen made up of carboplatin, etoposide, and melphalan. It is used to treat childhood neuroblastoma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 30626a6d9c9c55b54e99ff35b174afe706971f12aa0bb9c9e30a658d47269680

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Carboplatin/Etoposide/Melphalan Regimen” (C125601).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## census tract
<a id="census-tract"></a>

A census tract is a small, relatively stable geographic area within a county or similar jurisdiction that is used for statistical purposes. Its boundaries can be updated locally before each decennial U.S. census.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 12d3f81de604b23aaeef8d4a799b1bc5e34f73e171d7ecbd8a969206d7f7c0aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Census Tract” (D000091368).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000091368). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## center
<a id="center"></a>

In this context, a center means a fitness club or exercise facility where people go to train. It is treated as a setting for promoting health and for studying patterns such as attendance and dropout over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b27fd39458c7e95fb7626a76ade7e5577f76f090db34b28b13952f59bfb1d5d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Teixeira Diogo S.; Ekkekakis Panteleimon; Elsangedy Hassan Mohamed; Bastos Vasco. Impact of two brief behavioral theory–driven professional training programs on fitness center attendance: protocol for pragmatic controlled intervention with random allocation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1856891; article XML SHA-256 68f3f6ea6fbfbbc23c012faf41cc2004541cabf44afbf3af0e3703b4fa025960. “Impact of two brief behavioral theory–driven professional training programs on fitness center attendance: protocol for pragmatic controlled intervention with random allocation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1856891).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1856891). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale
<a id="center-for-epidemiologic-studies-depression-scale"></a>

The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale is a self-report measure used to assess depressive feelings and behaviors in the general population.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a0af326038483e3365000320920c17dff88788d13673ae0683c07e4d8306a23

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale” (C77964).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## centered
<a id="centered"></a>

In this source, centered refers to higher-level brain function based in the cerebral cortex. It means the brain’s most integrated level of activity, which helps regulate language, thought, and behavior through sensory, motor, and cognitive processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad6e7389b7133f3710f95a31bef35f79ddcee504b7b88c03c69d4f789c68874f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Higher Nervous Activity” (D006613).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006613). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
<a id="centers-for-disease-control-and-prevention"></a>

In this context, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is named as a source for up-to-date suicide statistics and information related to suicide risk and prevention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 583deb0cb0aa6926fe78c14fe75c50d77a6065da5a514a034d87f2c051cea9af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Frequently Asked Questions About Suicide. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 29868bb49faa6d8f7659d3ea129e40c16977f6f054235814c676989de872e2c3. “Frequently Asked Questions About Suicide” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/suicide-faq).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/suicide-faq). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## center–surround receptive field
<a id="centersurround-receptive-field"></a>

A center–surround receptive field is a visual response pattern, especially in retinal ganglion cells, in which stimulation at the center and in the surrounding area has opposing effects because of lateral inhibition. This organization helps code spatial contrast by emphasizing differences between a region and its neighborhood rather than uniform brightness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e9577645e38a2209138a3952b996445f3362427789a150ba3c013f0a69e1bca1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yeonan-Kim Jihyun; Bertalmío Marcelo. Retinal Lateral Inhibition Provides the Biological Basis of Long-Range Spatial Induction. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0168963; article XML SHA-256 dd134969d33b0453f8bc7fb22f438b52fab4a033635eafc9cba9b5ec282dfc5d. “Retinal Lateral Inhibition Provides the Biological Basis of Long-Range Spatial Induction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0168963).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0168963). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central
<a id="central"></a>

Central means relating to the nervous system’s centres or nerve cells, in contrast to peripheral, which refers to nerve pathways or end organs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 19942016ec7ee9d599a307955c95573e380d616af793c4a76674bf01d9b7ac37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Central” (Central).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Central). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central auditory abilities
<a id="central-auditory-abilities"></a>

Central auditory abilities are the brain-based parts of hearing that help process sound beyond basic hearing sensitivity. In this packet, they especially include handling timing information in sound and support understanding speech, particularly when speech is distorted or heard with background noise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c988ae8be32516fb1e1bca8367b5ef2f2b5e22f7cbf7b883109a38ea7d4857ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Profant Oliver; Jilek Milan; Bures Zbynek; Vencovsky Vaclav; Kucharova Diana; Svobodova Veronika; Korynta Jiri; Syka Josef. Functional Age-Related Changes Within the Human Auditory System Studied by Audiometric Examination. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fnagi.2019.00026; article XML SHA-256 7ebc6ae5c469c80b6728c15b349f595e53a2d32601389ececa2e7db7312527be. “Functional Age-Related Changes Within the Human Auditory System Studied by Audiometric Examination” (10.3389/fnagi.2019.00026).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2019.00026). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central auditory processing disorder
<a id="central-auditory-processing-disorder"></a>

Central auditory processing disorder is a condition in which the brain has difficulty processing sound, leading to problems recognizing and making sense of what is heard. Reported causes include delayed brain maturation and brain injury or tumors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03da17ae96b4b07ebc9e3707d752bd514ceb7aa4789fa323585b5dd7534add53

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Central Auditory Processing Disorder” (C97170).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central canal
<a id="central-canal"></a>

The central canal is the narrow channel in the spinal cord that is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. It starts at the lower part of the fourth ventricle and extends through the length of the spinal cord.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ac1aee031dcc23ca06f36a170cd57d265a96ea068e3dc6f03b52e12f2e28451

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Central Canal of Spinal Cord” (C12891).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central coherence theory
<a id="central-coherence-theory"></a>

Central coherence theory is a cognitive account used to explain some features of autism. In its weak form, it proposes that autistic individuals tend to process details more strongly than the overall whole or “big picture,” which can affect tasks that rely on integrating information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ddd188a8fa848310b089c948c3069eb787488bcd2b1517beab6d06e6aa937de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alamdari Sarah Barzegari; Sadeghi Damavandi Masoumeh; Zarei Mojtaba; Khosrowabadi Reza. Cognitive theories of autism based on the interactions between brain functional networks. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2022.828985; article XML SHA-256 7e7b035016d1c424b9c505d0436dac6d5b32219313ceaa1216318b69c03bef49. “Cognitive theories of autism based on the interactions between brain functional networks” (10.3389/fnhum.2022.828985).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.828985). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central distribution
<a id="central-distribution"></a>

In this historical usage, central distribution means the way optic nerve fibres are arranged and connected to their brain centres beyond the eye. These connections help explain how injuries in different parts of the visual pathway can produce different forms of hemianopsia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 143087da52578b9be9fab5cdf7e7d9747aba3da2edcff8ffd9362ac1d4fba813

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hemianopsia” (Hemianopsia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H2defs.htm#Hemianopsia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central gray
<a id="central-gray"></a>

Central gray is gray matter in the midbrain that surrounds the cerebral aqueduct. It is thought to help regulate pain and certain behavioral and bodily responses, including rage, feeding, bladder tone, and the lordosis reflex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a60a58e9c955d013e18c6ea5e7607a35f2ed44111889858f548cfd437a89e473

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Periaqueductal Gray” (D010487).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010487). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central inhibition
<a id="central-inhibition"></a>

In this packet, central inhibition means reducing pain signaling within the central nervous system. It refers specifically to blocking transmission of migraine pain by inhibiting trigeminal neurons in the brain stem and upper spinal cord.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e40aaeda8dd257fdf22c515bf39e2d097cd7396332fd944ab9818a9b09037655

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sumatriptan Succinate” (C29470).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central lobe
<a id="central-lobe"></a>

The central lobe is an inward-folded part of the cerebral cortex at the base of the Sylvian fissure on the brain’s lateral surface. It is involved in processing emotions and memory, as well as higher autonomic control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f061066afd3179f48881a6216e429c872b1e20a3a7d4b0cd53a8e6bc36a9f00e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Central Lobe” (C32278).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central nervous system
<a id="central-nervous-system"></a>

The central nervous system is the body’s main information-processing part of the nervous system. It includes the brain, spinal cord, and meninges.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bb5a19ee40745fb7f627f7571032dc54df42ef28cd1d619f660a3bdf8dbde0e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Central Nervous System” (D002490).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002490). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central nervous system disorder
<a id="central-nervous-system-disorder"></a>

A central nervous system disorder is a disease affecting the brain and/or spinal cord. It can be either non-cancerous or cancerous.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3a5e5906c8739c54e414ea7348c03ae3f679b7549e1a855d93e3afd4db95388

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Central Nervous System Disorder” (C2934).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central processes
<a id="central-processes"></a>

Central processes are the parts of geniculate ganglion cells that project inward to the brain stem, in contrast to peripheral processes that extend outward to sensory targets.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f47af9bae8734332e6ff1280402073c86a5c08856c51c224f3a1bfef7d15cf7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Geniculate Ganglion” (D005830).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005830). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central sleep apnea
<a id="central-sleep-apnea"></a>

Central sleep apnea is a sleep-related breathing problem in which breathing repeatedly stops because the brain’s breathing control center responds less to carbon dioxide. This leads to alternating periods of no breathing and increased breathing during sleep.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec2681a004bbfa4a9a1ee15116721eea42e6c83ab9a4c105fbb938e076e21fa0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Central Sleep Apnea” (C116046).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central stimulation
<a id="central-stimulation"></a>

Central stimulation is stimulation applied to the brain, described here as dual transcranial direct current stimulation. In this context, it was paired with peripheral sensory-motor stimulation as part of a combined rehabilitation approach.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cecbbd4c7a1533c9c1f6d92bf095af1d89b9edf8ed2de0c46de0292567d07005

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Ling; Chu Fengming; Liu Xuan; Chen Jie; Zhang Ming; Zhang Yuming. Effects of occupational therapy synchronized with dual transcranial direct current stimulation on upper limb function and electroencephalography power in subacute stroke patients: A randomized, double-blind, controlled study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320142; article XML SHA-256 1cf82e7bc1f66a68508f4dbbfece9963699127ba63d57183df5f17f999347ecb. “Effects of occupational therapy synchronized with dual transcranial direct current stimulation on upper limb function and electroencephalography power in subacute stroke patients: A randomized, double-blind, controlled study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320142).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320142). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central-tendency bias
<a id="central-tendency-bias"></a>

Central-tendency bias is a pattern in which people judge themselves as being closer to the middle of a distribution than they really are, regardless of their actual position. In the source material, it refers to people placing their income rank near the median even when their objective income rank is higher or lower.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b65ea1bfb31dec2c51ee0854e8521e26b3b480d23ae886fc628026c2031666f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kulic Nevena; Griaznova Olga; Clerici Eleonora. (Mis)perceptions of individual position in national and global income distribution. The Italian case. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fsoc.2025.1646173; article XML SHA-256 5fd6d1554fa5a388940397943c173fa0f0bef8b8bf5ddb65ebfe51a717141a23. “(Mis)perceptions of individual position in national and global income distribution. The Italian case” (10.3389/fsoc.2025.1646173).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2025.1646173). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## central vision
<a id="central-vision"></a>

Central vision is the part of the visual field at the center of where a person is looking. In this source, it refers to visual processing within the central 6° of the visual field and is used for tasks such as detecting and recognizing images.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 460726e0cbf444aa006f56e0a2d000de54c9aa615ad8855989eeffe61259d0fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Roux-Sibilon Alexia; Rutgé Floriane; Aptel Florent; Attye Arnaud; Guyader Nathalie; Boucart Muriel; Chiquet Christophe; Peyrin Carole. Scene and human face recognition in the central vision of patients with glaucoma. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0193465; article XML SHA-256 6d1cb5ca452dd46b014ae36fb901a625f206411fd3569de040b5862068bbfc5f. “Scene and human face recognition in the central vision of patients with glaucoma” (10.1371/journal.pone.0193465).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193465). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## centralized organization
<a id="centralized-organization"></a>

In this context, centralized organization means a network arrangement with a star-like pattern, where connectivity is focused around central points rather than spread evenly across the network. It contrasts with a more decentralized, line-like and more random organization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 767760d84b561e5b05c30bf84df36af75030322b4aac5bf8df4bba8cbda84f56

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yanpei; Tao Fuxiang; Zuo Chenyi; Kanji Maihefulaiti; Hu Mingming; Wang Daoyang. Disrupted Resting Frontal–Parietal Attention Network Topology Is Associated With a Clinical Measure in Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00300; article XML SHA-256 2dcdddf4e1585eb3321834de448e083b033fff1ca6420ecaeeb922004ad1ba1b. “Disrupted Resting Frontal–Parietal Attention Network Topology Is Associated With a Clinical Measure in Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00300).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00300). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## centrencephalic
<a id="centrencephalic"></a>

Centrencephalic refers to a group of central brain structures distinguished from neocortical and paralimbic-limbic regions. In this source, it includes the thalamus, caudate nucleus, and lenticular nucleus, including the putamen and pallidum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b563f843c6cc5f85dee9dad92a73355ead3d960d96e0eecfa71439f3973ab7c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lv Jun; Liu Dongdong; Ma Jing; Wang Xiaoying; Zhang Jue. Graph Theoretical Analysis of BOLD Functional Connectivity during Human Sleep without EEG Monitoring. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0137297; article XML SHA-256 1959c9c66c5f8350c25149e713e75a62fc75c372d227fe3b584efa6b770997e1. “Graph Theoretical Analysis of BOLD Functional Connectivity during Human Sleep without EEG Monitoring” (10.1371/journal.pone.0137297).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137297). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## centripetal
<a id="centripetal"></a>

In this historical usage, centripetal refers to a nerve that carries incoming stimulation toward a receptive central organ or centre rather than outward from it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 95feac02f6fbdaca9e7606cdf235b191e5cfbd951acac82c41fbd586443d48fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aesthesodic” (Aesthesodic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Aesthesodic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cephalalgia
<a id="cephalalgia"></a>

Cephalalgia means pain located in the head or skull region. It can occur on its own as a harmless symptom or as part of many different headache disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c9e2f21bc455aaff1d6e621b5c36afb8b63f5a059889cdcfeecb1389f980873

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Headache” (D006261).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006261). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cephalic index
<a id="cephalic-index"></a>

Cephalic index is the ratio of the maximum width of the skull or head to its maximum front-to-back length. In this historical source, it is used to describe head shape, with lower values indicating a relatively longer head.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d8b8afd35e6e5b55c69a7d81157928f48a75f52d24364c759175201a666aecc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dolichocephalic” (Dolichocephalic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Dolichocephalic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CER
<a id="cer"></a>

CER refers to the cerebellar network in brain connectivity research. In the supplied source, it is discussed as a network whose functional connectivity changes with working-memory load and is examined for possible altered cerebellar-cortical integration in schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f68fe797358d54ed1be1800a29cb77ae24cc610100f164934068f8c7704ad8a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rosales-Gurmendi Diana S M; Hussain Sadam; de Avila-Armenta Eduardo; Fumagal-González Gerardo A; Garza-Abdala Jorge A; Pedro-Pérez Alma A; Toscano Jasiel; Tamez-Peña Jose G. Cerebellar dysconnectivity in schizophrenia spectrum: task-based functional connectivity analysis and cognitive stratification. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1796599; article XML SHA-256 67a98e7cc30aed6c5ce192846eb1ce9d0d7bcd10ea25167326b0bc1eef599fa6. “Cerebellar dysconnectivity in schizophrenia spectrum: task-based functional connectivity analysis and cognitive stratification” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1796599).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1796599). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebellar
<a id="cerebellar"></a>

Cerebellar means relating to the cerebellum, the part of the brain at the base of the skull that helps control balance, equilibrium, and movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8326854f753acb8a590aeb6cc4845ed0ee2cab96ae0f0cac3b6b9422b216d3a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cerebellum” (C12445).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebellar ataxia
<a id="cerebellar-ataxia"></a>

Cerebellar ataxia is a loss of coordination in voluntary movement caused by disease of the cerebellum. It commonly involves inaccurate reaching, shaking during attempted movement, difficulty with rapid alternating movements, and an unsteady gait.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6dea52da821c995046812dd870334a06c5446bae42b8ff8c1a28539ef0ec5357

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebellar Ataxia” (D002524).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002524). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebellar cortex
<a id="cerebellar-cortex"></a>

The cerebellar cortex is the outer gray matter layer of the cerebellum. It has two main layers: the molecular layer and the granular layer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc55c617c323e0c883ed642919c30ab58daf2e18a299b3cbd33de40ea5d0b1da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebellar Cortex” (D002525).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002525). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebellar gait
<a id="cerebellar-gait"></a>

Cerebellar gait is an abnormal pattern of walking caused by cerebellar ataxia. In this packet, it is linked to problems in cerebellar pathways involved in body-position sensing and balance-related vestibular function, and is described as a major clinical sign of FXTAS.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6c32e4e3981f6540a2d1a0febf547566d1e08513c65cc9fe7eaa116b6e3ff092

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Elias-Mas Andrea; Paracuellos-Ayala Irene; Wang Jun Yi; Kim Kyoungmi; Tassone Flora; Schneider Andrea; Hessl David; Rivera Susan M.; Hagerman Randi J.. T2-FLAIR hyperintensities in the inferior cerebellar peduncles and their association with clinical symptoms, molecular and MRI markers in male FMR1 premutation carriers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnmol.2026.1720370; article XML SHA-256 bf0ddf8dcbcfc682432c4d0248332c9ab72fadb15a23f556033290c58fb96381. “T2-FLAIR hyperintensities in the inferior cerebellar peduncles and their association with clinical symptoms, molecular and MRI markers in male FMR1 premutation carriers” (10.3389/fnmol.2026.1720370).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2026.1720370). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebellar hemisphere
<a id="cerebellar-hemisphere"></a>

A cerebellar hemisphere is one of the two sides of the cerebellum. In this context, each side can be stimulated separately, and stimulating either side can influence brain activity in networks related to swallowing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: caa50fda9a3419c3f12ad11da65ce8621dfad5fc3001ec52cbfb8871c9460250

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Bingyan; Sun Hui; Pan Xiaona; Ma Wenshuai; Dong Linghui; Wang Qiang; Meng Pingping. The effects of intermittent theta burst stimulation of the unilateral cerebellar hemisphere on swallowing-related brain regions in healthy subjects. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1100320; article XML SHA-256 0c6c2c1040a1daefc407f859dd8f516e04676934ec96f5ba0725dd929cd90327. “The effects of intermittent theta burst stimulation of the unilateral cerebellar hemisphere on swallowing-related brain regions in healthy subjects” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1100320).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1100320). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebellar nucleus
<a id="cerebellar-nucleus"></a>

A cerebellar nucleus is a group of neurons in the cerebellum, such as the deep cerebellar nucleus, that receives input related to movement. In the source, these neurons are described as getting signals from spinal motor pathways and issuing motor output whose function is reflected by their receptive fields.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3f5aceaf820feec25d54fcfc7a3630b22626fb42df604eac269a92b982741513

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bengtsson Fredrik; Jörntell Henrik. Specific Relationship between Excitatory Inputs and Climbing Fiber Receptive Fields in Deep Cerebellar Nuclear Neurons. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0084616; article XML SHA-256 48d8e9c629669c36d9adc9d251479203ea43df909302c0410880512674baf59e. “Specific Relationship between Excitatory Inputs and Climbing Fiber Receptive Fields in Deep Cerebellar Nuclear Neurons” (10.1371/journal.pone.0084616).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0084616). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebellopontine angle
<a id="cerebellopontine-angle"></a>

The cerebellopontine angle is a part of the brain where the pons, cerebellum, and medulla meet. It is also a common location for tumors to develop.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8eb0f90b8aa88c81b3cdb56e245225f0d88666c91888cca247aeadde8c80eec4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cerebellopontine Angle” (C54057).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebellum
<a id="cerebellum"></a>

The cerebellum is a part of the brain located behind the brain stem at the back of the skull. It helps coordinate voluntary movement, maintain balance, and support the learning of motor skills.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3b9d88242a3cc6aaf6ed779633590409417bf06af7894491a49b7c4409ac2b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebellum” (D002531).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002531). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral
<a id="cerebral"></a>

Cerebral refers to the brain’s hemispheres, which are involved in movement and in mental functions such as language, thinking, emotion, reading, writing, and learning. Each side of the cerebrum directs muscle activity on the opposite side of the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d05755f4d679b04dc267a4d825ffbeb1b07faf02d091f86d79c187580c1efdae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cerebral Hemispheres” (C12351).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral angiography
<a id="cerebral-angiography"></a>

Cerebral angiography is an imaging procedure that uses X-rays to show the blood vessels of the brain after a contrast dye has been injected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f3a087f3650dcd7a22c7cefbc699aaf1d4584758abdc404c6ac8a8fd0025c8b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebral Angiography” (D002533).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002533). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral aqueduct
<a id="cerebral-aqueduct"></a>

The cerebral aqueduct is a narrow passage in the midbrain that links the third and fourth cerebral ventricles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46c4f8b29b56a35f4ff5e52f8c76432609b2ad88724ee5e9371aa7e3a54aeef1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebral Aqueduct” (D002535).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002535). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral atrophy
<a id="cerebral-atrophy"></a>

Cerebral atrophy is a wasting or shrinkage of the cerebrum due to loss of nerve cells, either in one area or more widely across the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22e81b46935da35d17432a1561a49b15b0245a938cb13e477b306c9ed61876a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cerebral Atrophy” (C98273).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral contusion
<a id="cerebral-contusion"></a>

Cerebral contusion is a traumatic brain injury in which the brain has been injured severely enough to place the person at risk of rapid worsening. It is associated with a higher risk of death, and outcome is often assessed in relation to survival and level of consciousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c22e06e9fb94dadca02b2f1636272f0d13828b9d84e329134aed04f2c0a25b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Chao; Su Zhaoyin; Deng Shulu; Zhang Binhao; Qin Junlong; Wu Kun; Zhao Yanzong; Liu Yao. Factors affecting prognosis in traumatic cerebral contusions: A protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319146; article XML SHA-256 571d347f571272a4e6260a919f260ed06734bc0945ff005e590339d2cb909be4. “Factors affecting prognosis in traumatic cerebral contusions: A protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319146).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319146). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral cortex
<a id="cerebral-cortex"></a>

The cerebral cortex is the thin outer layer of gray matter covering the cerebral hemispheres. It is folded into gyri and sulci and is associated with intellectual abilities and other higher mental functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0dccb89e0ace639e9eac375758143b7dfa2185b7128be507c87b5e028b52e03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebral Cortex” (D002540).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002540). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral dominance
<a id="cerebral-dominance"></a>

Cerebral dominance is the tendency for one side of the brain to be more responsible than the other for certain brain functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa07b635aed264793d9dab29637a560edaa3fdde2032ff28eec54ca797c811d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dominance, Cerebral” (D004292).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004292). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral dysfunction
<a id="cerebral-dysfunction"></a>

Cerebral dysfunction means impaired functioning of the brain. In this source, it refers to a diffuse or widespread disturbance in brain function seen with sepsis, even when there is no direct infection of the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 825d5bbe6a44e9cd9b2c29be13f0db371c382594b7bc5ab25074b5a8483d9e2a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baby Sheon; Reljic Tea; Villalba Nuria; Kumar Ambuj; Yuan Sarah Y. Endothelial glycocalyx-associated molecules as potential serological markers for sepsis-associated encephalopathy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281941; article XML SHA-256 9761220d26adb349a070a49ad81c695e96d355ae79312ad4c6c3137ac620e84d. “Endothelial glycocalyx-associated molecules as potential serological markers for sepsis-associated encephalopathy: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281941).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281941). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral edema
<a id="cerebral-edema"></a>

Cerebral edema is swelling of the brain caused by too much fluid building up in brain tissue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d54442c232813c2c31a972bda5fc706f51b4d324fc73412b158d3979d86c656d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cerebral Edema” (C4909).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral gigantism
<a id="cerebral-gigantism"></a>

Cerebral gigantism is an overgrowth syndrome present before or after birth, usually involving unusually large height and head size along with variable delays in motor and cognitive development. It can also occur with other physical and neurological features and is linked to a higher risk of tumors in adulthood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb3b4ed9db9ec557f8ad87c009003c507e4b5ba77ee8c4aad945310f5c98f601

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sotos Syndrome” (D058495).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058495). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral hemisphere
<a id="cerebral-hemisphere"></a>

A cerebral hemisphere is one of the two halves of the brain involved in movement and in functions such as speech, thought, emotions, reading, writing, and learning. Each hemisphere controls muscle movement on the opposite side of the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42eeab7e81a00fe1bc62d2af1003e3b24af49f85492115d825f2de78c357925f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cerebral Hemispheres” (C12351).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral hemorrhage
<a id="cerebral-hemorrhage"></a>

Cerebral hemorrhage is bleeding within one or both halves of the brain, including areas such as the basal ganglia and cerebral cortex. It is often linked with high blood pressure or head injury.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e0c00c2ea0b62bc6ce0004b335b69ad4503a38e83ec7916de34f1d8e4caff52

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebral Hemorrhage” (D002543).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002543). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral infarction
<a id="cerebral-infarction"></a>

Cerebral infarction is an area of brain tissue death in the cerebrum caused by too little arterial or venous blood flow. It is commonly described by which side or lobe of the cerebrum is affected, the blood vessel territory involved, or the underlying cause.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ed9678e623b37b60dced45f9705a41cdad930c5ad52ecb6d3617324e48eaf55

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebral Infarction” (D002544).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002544). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral infection
<a id="cerebral-infection"></a>

Cerebral infection is infection involving the brain. In this source, it refers to Trypanosoma brucei infection of the brain, where parasites and T cells enter brain regions early and contribute to local inflammatory, metabolic, and sleep-related changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e806c33123c27c5893eb8646ab2adbbe4ec94429c1d9de2fc3a84004676fc09

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Olivera Gabriela C; Vetter Leonie; Tesoriero Chiara; Del Gallo Federico; Hedberg Gustav; Basile Juan; Rottenberg Martin E. Role of T cells during the cerebral infection with Trypanosoma brucei. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009764; article XML SHA-256 1ea4c89a5d524df9cfc02813822f42f6f6190c628abe5d5da3d940a88a8320ed. “Role of T cells during the cerebral infection with Trypanosoma brucei” (10.1371/journal.pntd.0009764).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0009764). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral lesion
<a id="cerebral-lesion"></a>

In this historical source, a cerebral lesion means brain damage, especially after injury to the skull or brain, that is linked with both bodily symptoms and episodes of mental disturbance. It is described as sometimes improving, but in more severe cases following a progressive course toward lasting impairment or degeneration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48c134413cbac5dc14ebd7c2ed1ae159e411f41c6e0cfd79885f60f2f8338a38

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1060500-1072500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral peduncle
<a id="cerebral-peduncle"></a>

The cerebral peduncle is the front part of the midbrain. It includes the midbrain tegmentum, crus cerebri, and pretectum, but not the tectum of the midbrain or the trochlear nerve.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc4fdcc1aae160985f66e887356f41c6225f19513aa52ceb4ad7f64b078b8664

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebral Peduncle” (D065850).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065850). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral stimulation
<a id="cerebral-stimulation"></a>

In this historical source, cerebral stimulation means a direct exciting effect on the brain, inferred when marked agitation appears before paralysis and cannot be explained only by breathing difficulty. It is also linked here with a greater tendency to convulsive or epileptiform attacks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31a6ead1b0fe63dd0c89a24afc6ffa90a9063e9284d2e79d8911619fef8fbadb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-2415000-2427000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebral vascular insufficiency
<a id="cerebral-vascular-insufficiency"></a>

Cerebral vascular insufficiency is a condition in which disease within the brain’s blood vessels leads to too little blood flow to the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb020112f9d2c1ac4325675c00414e0d33e246c78e2a45a31435edfde67396db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cerebral Vascular Insufficiency” (C180840).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebration
<a id="cerebration"></a>

Cerebration is a historical term for the set of brain processes that follow a perception. In this source, it refers broadly to cerebral activity occurring in sequence after something is perceived.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2e1ace1df6116c558be64d1fbc3df6669930e976fc0d709ac65b1e23649cf4b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1050000-1062000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebrovascular accident
<a id="cerebrovascular-accident"></a>

A cerebrovascular accident, or stroke, is a sudden loss of neurological function caused by reduced blood flow to the brain or bleeding inside the skull. It refers to a group of conditions that vary by the type and location of brain tissue damage and by whether bleeding is involved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d965908780ef1590c0a996e6afd18ad504a22714d045377ee85ba99aa5d17210

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Stroke” (D020521).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020521). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebrovascular disease
<a id="cerebrovascular-disease"></a>

Cerebrovascular disease is a disorder caused by too little blood flow in the blood vessels that supply the brain. It includes problems such as reduced blood supply to brain tissue, blockage by an embolus, and brain infarction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44c83cd07bbea254e3c65c6decc9ed4c4741b90c715e1845dcfb73ccd59e4e18

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cerebrovascular Disorder” (C2938).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cerebrovascular insufficiency
<a id="cerebrovascular-insufficiency"></a>

Cerebrovascular insufficiency is a condition in which the brain does not get enough blood flow because of disease within the blood vessels that supply it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62173dda37d08a98773241bd660491e9f7c77537db3f974db81a2a12db53d8a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cerebral Vascular Insufficiency” (C180840).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## certifiable
<a id="certifiable"></a>

In historical mental-health usage, certifiable meant that a person’s mental condition could be formally declared insanity under the law. It referred to cases in which observed symptoms were considered sufficient for legal certification and institutional care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fed08b34b52a14698875ca76fd7c928c875cc26b28b111eddd82e00397eec69a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-819000-831000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## certification
<a id="certification"></a>

In this school-development context, certification means the formal diagnostic labeling of a student’s difficulties as special educational needs. It is described as a process shaped by how teachers, parents, and health services interpret nonconformity with school expectations, often using the label to manage uncertainty or shift responsibility to specialists.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 697594ed5118952de503e725587d934c5c18ad7247efeaae16bc943817aead51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Iudici Antonio; Caraglia Cristiana; Cottone Paolo. Discourses leading to diagnostic excess: an ethnopsychological study in Italian schools. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1672345; article XML SHA-256 079501fde2e457bc80ce42a8ce45b8827929b625054008950ab0c975b6bc6554. “Discourses leading to diagnostic excess: an ethnopsychological study in Italian schools” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1672345).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1672345). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cervical plexus
<a id="cervical-plexus"></a>

The cervical plexus is a network of nerves that comes from the upper four cervical segments of the spinal cord. It supplies feeling to parts of the neck, shoulders, and back of the head, and sends movement-related fibers to some neck muscles, the infrahyoid muscles, and the diaphragm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d3f293ac595c47b343be2c4aa8972692518602e3120d45602c9f7bf6c58b522

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cervical Plexus” (D002572).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002572). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CES
<a id="ces"></a>

CES refers to cultural ecosystem services: the non-material benefits people gain from natural environments, such as recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, cultural heritage, environmental learning, and spiritual meaning. In psychology-related contexts, CES are studied for how they shape people’s perceptions, emotions, preferences, and well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39731103ba4f186bb896a01fe4cc6957fc433952935c4acf6d888f75f4621387

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Shuhan; Liu Yuxiang. How do cultural ecosystem services affect visitor emotions? Evidence from social media data in Shanghai urban parks. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1711498; article XML SHA-256 0162ca13025d8560a4341a44b4740f36839b95d719acbbc841924096ad13da1e. “How do cultural ecosystem services affect visitor emotions? Evidence from social media data in Shanghai urban parks” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1711498).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1711498). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CES-D
<a id="ces-d"></a>

CES-D is a self-test used in the general population to measure depressive feelings and behaviors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07f1a2bbbd1a6e6d5d550310f39c1c4dd931cdef43c7d075b0debbbd43322859

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale” (C77964).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CET
<a id="cet"></a>

CET refers to cetirizine, an antihistamine discussed in research on androgenetic alopecia. In this context, it is being studied as a possible way to promote hair growth, which may matter socially because hair loss can affect people’s social life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b7fadc9294cfb5b6681d994435ad2f44a93147eecf0648fe56f081d2a7a3858

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zelai Noha Talal. Targeted transferosomal delivery of cetirizine: A new approach to alopecia management. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347648; article XML SHA-256 b5f861b430b975d4104540bdb0128da8555004d8d8ed86b8701020f832058226. “Targeted transferosomal delivery of cetirizine: A new approach to alopecia management” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347648).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347648). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CFF
<a id="cff"></a>

CFF refers to a cue-driven feature fusion approach used in time series forecasting, where language-based semantic cues are combined with numerical sequence features to guide predictions. In the source, it is described as a parameter-efficient method for adapting forecasting models by using text-derived information to modulate numerical outputs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b0de5625776b4437a68c6b0c66c23455a520e9cadc52c3f19378a868853368a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wei Kaibin; Jing Jianqiang; Liu Jiawei; Liu Qing; Xie Xiannian. Sample-efficient fine-tuning with textual prompts for time series forecasting. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353130; article XML SHA-256 31cd7b3496d79c042a026d1d4b3b709cfea07a9a16760b8c9bfb1a7935c0cfbe. “Sample-efficient fine-tuning with textual prompts for time series forecasting” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353130).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353130). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CFS
<a id="cfs"></a>

CFS, or chronic fatigue syndrome, is a complex condition of unknown cause marked by fatigue that continues for more than six months and does not improve with rest. It can also involve pain and problems with thinking and emotions, and the prolonged fatigue may reduce social functioning, quality of life, and work efficiency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0bc40b88b17c6e18e7492c7a12f481a7bb0d087c0f9b1c00635cc32be2b51a62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Yingru; Wen Xuan; Fang Zeman; Zhang Jinling; Zhang Handi. Cognitive impairment and prefrontal TGF-β1 elevation in a rat model of fatigue. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1841951; article XML SHA-256 69c1569ca9571235fb2b506210a726de55527600f3bce0eae1caec420faddd93. “Cognitive impairment and prefrontal TGF-β1 elevation in a rat model of fatigue” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1841951).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1841951). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cGMP
<a id="cgmp"></a>

cGMP, or cyclic GMP, is a cellular signaling molecule that works as a second messenger. Its levels rise in response to various signals and it helps activate specific protein kinases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d6028b1eb397cb8e61c4bc4aeeaf5d0d1a1b09f1d8408c07a76b0cc1b68e317

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cyclic GMP” (C534).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## challenge
<a id="challenge"></a>

In counselling, to challenge means to help a person question unhelpful thoughts and behaviors so they can change them in ways that improve anxious or depressed feelings. It involves examining negative ways of thinking and replacing them with more helpful ones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc8f5d5bd2217ff3510fd79b28868202bd4e1f1ae512ffc87fd2c7a88f3464e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Seasonal Affective Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d89120086a5f01bf70f21f43fbf64f1a5b58f4c35f5185f5dac0c769f3d6317c. “Seasonal Affective Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## challenging behavior
<a id="challenging-behavior"></a>

Challenging behavior refers to problematic actions that are shaped by a child’s interaction with their surroundings, rather than by the child alone. In children with autism spectrum disorder, it is linked with social communication and interaction difficulties and may arise when stimulation, attention, access to preferred activities, or other environmental conditions are hard for the child to manage or express verbally.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e62d51ae87af55cce4d6ca681881465003af33f95edefadc5eecff856b4870d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kabashima Yuri; Tadaka Etsuko; Arimoto Azusa. Development of the parental self-efficacy scale for preventing challenging behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorder. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0238652; article XML SHA-256 c6939f1b1947ffbae2a36ff98bf9d91c975ee0be394df422fefc0b77d738e909. “Development of the parental self-efficacy scale for preventing challenging behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorder” (10.1371/journal.pone.0238652).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238652). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## change agent
<a id="change-agent"></a>

A change agent is a factor thought to help bring about improvement or symptom change over time. In this context, it refers to self-compassion as a possible process that influences later PTSD symptoms during therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 43383fd4ad2700279dba6dcab4b408497b78c2bf95a0e26344cf90a901060440

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hoffart Asle; Øktedalen Tuva; Langkaas Tomas F.. Self-compassion influences PTSD symptoms in the process of change in trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapies: a study of within-person processes. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01273; article XML SHA-256 3afe9ef56408b39d02a2edb4da09ec3531b952e1de2dcaf8fd3abd6fba5997a9. “Self-compassion influences PTSD symptoms in the process of change in trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapies: a study of within-person processes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01273).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01273). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## change blindness
<a id="change-blindness"></a>

Change blindness is a failure to notice a visual change when it happens alongside a disruption such as an eye movement, a blink, a flash, or other distracting input. The packet also indicates that some changed visual information may still be processed implicitly even when the person cannot consciously report the change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 22e7008409fbead3b23be42a4482db2d4f2e5119d60aa1c4bb055d22c2da4cba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lyyra Pessi; Mäkelä Hanna; Hietanen Jari K.; Astikainen Piia. Implicit Binding of Facial Features During Change Blindness. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0087682; article XML SHA-256 53f0999a97cd14e5778406150f122b5b6b44ebc52af6980edd0ed9e804a3dd19. “Implicit Binding of Facial Features During Change Blindness” (10.1371/journal.pone.0087682).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0087682). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## change effect
<a id="change-effect"></a>

In cognitive dissonance research, the change effect is the shift in a person’s attitude after engaging in behavior that goes against their original view, such as writing a counter-attitudinal essay. In the induced-compliance setting described here, greater attitude change was linked with more positive emotions and less change with more negative emotions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb4409b4895da3077bac7324d7d83389e4715027848220b7b9a989bec64a4b0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cancino-Montecinos Sebastian; Björklund Fredrik; Lindholm Torun. Dissonance reduction as emotion regulation: Attitude change is related to positive emotions in the induced compliance paradigm. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209012; article XML SHA-256 7f30c9fa1a6843049da3d09a73566dfd087c21a2bedf419d6e7f201a014e14e6. “Dissonance reduction as emotion regulation: Attitude change is related to positive emotions in the induced compliance paradigm” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209012).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209012). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## change management
<a id="change-management"></a>

Change management is the planned handling of organizational change as a core part of strategy, with attention to how change approaches fit a specific work setting. In this context, it includes understanding employees’ engagement, satisfaction, and views so decisions about change can be better adapted to the environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6804269eef94a871b4d1833ce29839c72108d5e1ac3dbd6a1f6a9062f744e0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ezzeddine Rima; Otaki Farah; Darwish Sohaib; AlGurg Reem. Change management in higher education: A sequential mixed methods study exploring employees’ perception. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0289005; article XML SHA-256 9bd13590348606afa9c46d83ec67b768c338bbcc0db66776545609023c5fe69a. “Change management in higher education: A sequential mixed methods study exploring employees’ perception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0289005).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289005). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## change score
<a id="change-score"></a>

A change score is a measure of how much a person’s score on a variable shifts over time rather than just where it starts. In this context, latent change score modeling separates an initial level from a change component so researchers can study within-person increases or decreases across repeated measurements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f7ca38ef7a72cf816deb95f6f77b139e44d25eeb736aba217c513a0a4f254bad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Honghong; Gu Xuan; Jiang Daokui; Liu Yaru. Illegitimate tasks, knowledge hiding, and performance erosion: a four-wave latent change score investigation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1730215; article XML SHA-256 644b4fbbee62805fffafa12eb4d5380cf52dc09a3b58a873174549991bc8e810. “Illegitimate tasks, knowledge hiding, and performance erosion: a four-wave latent change score investigation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1730215).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1730215). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## channels of communication
<a id="channels-of-communication"></a>

In this historical usage, channels of communication are the ordinary recognized sensory means by which one person’s mind can affect another’s, such as cues carried through sight, sound, or slight bodily movements. The term is used especially to contrast normal communication with supposed telepathy and to emphasize the need to rule out unnoticed signals like whispering or gesture-reading.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83d9b2e009aad385ef858e68ebf2a39f4aa9721e838324f78efd000690194c39

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2152500-2164500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chaos theory
<a id="chaos-theory"></a>

Chaos theory is an approach to understanding dynamic systems by looking at how very small disturbances can cause their behavior to diverge over time. In this context, it provides the basis for measures of local dynamic stability that describe how sensitive movement patterns are to minor perturbations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0e6a77979ce7b3ccb45282503cd69a38cbd7d8d11d31bf4ada6174e7bc9c7127

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reynard Fabienne; Vuadens Philippe; Deriaz Olivier; Terrier Philippe. Could Local Dynamic Stability Serve as an Early Predictor of Falls in Patients with Moderate Neurological Gait Disorders? A Reliability and Comparison Study in Healthy Individuals and in Patients with Paresis of the Lower Extremities. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0100550; article XML SHA-256 34c05eb9a7974c16c5b72c22b35d7ea875491677b3ae2f0e61f672c903a283dd. “Could Local Dynamic Stability Serve as an Early Predictor of Falls in Patients with Moderate Neurological Gait Disorders? A Reliability and Comparison Study in Healthy Individuals and in Patients with Paresis of the Lower Extremities” (10.1371/journal.pone.0100550).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0100550). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## character
<a id="character"></a>

Character is a term now used much like personality. It refers to the relatively stable traits and usual ways a person tends to respond.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7f81ac038e344020325bdb6c2c6e1ecd7d00860151d84f4c98d1ba5da82b679

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Character” (D002605).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002605). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## character development
<a id="character-development"></a>

Character development is the process of developing the whole person by engaging interconnected inner capacities such as the self, heart, and soul. In this source, it means overcoming lower impulses and strengthening higher qualities so a person can move toward full human potential and self-realization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22f97176c590329a1b5cfbd4382f6181b60e6f214c35aa203f7346ea036a220b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gillani Uzma; Khan Muhammad Jahanzeb. Achieving our highest potential through character development (Husn-i-Akhlaaq): an Islamic perspective on holistic personality development, spiritual growth and human flourishing. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569393; article XML SHA-256 def213d1478a6d2f27196ffca835940731662b30e23acd25a50ba016ff1cec01. “Achieving our highest potential through character development (Husn-i-Akhlaaq): an Islamic perspective on holistic personality development, spiritual growth and human flourishing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569393).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569393). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## character strength
<a id="character-strength"></a>

Character strength refers to a positive personal trait, such as love of learning, perseverance, or teamwork, that can be measured by self-report and studied in relation to how people function in specific settings. In this research context, different character strengths were linked to differences in achievement and positive learning experiences beyond cognitive ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a429b2280bfbdb701338e38bca8fef69f9cc31bc0c3d42d75560c194ef6927c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wagner Lisa; Holenstein Mathias; Wepf Hannah; Ruch Willibald. Character Strengths Are Related to Students’ Achievement, Flow Experiences, and Enjoyment in Teacher-Centered Learning, Individual, and Group Work Beyond Cognitive Ability. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01324; article XML SHA-256 fe6260b5d28ffb2c16f882bc8280a3395479ff3bde05eb4e3c1fd73bc35c6ed7. “Character Strengths Are Related to Students’ Achievement, Flow Experiences, and Enjoyment in Teacher-Centered Learning, Individual, and Group Work Beyond Cognitive Ability” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01324).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01324). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## character type
<a id="character-type"></a>

In this developmental research context, character type means the kind of protagonist a children’s book features, specifically whether the character is human or non-human. It is used as a category when examining patterns such as gender representation in books.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ee7509f9f4d202e288268f3ca9a122ef39b0c69180c5d7f7a159f4b90fa7e6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Casey Kennedy; Novick Kylee; Lourenco Stella F.. Sixty years of gender representation in children’s books: Conditions associated with overrepresentation of male versus female protagonists. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0260566; article XML SHA-256 73825fcd0f8365420e85d0bbd7c8afc1c6375b222cc0b5a5419a72f167496843. “Sixty years of gender representation in children’s books: Conditions associated with overrepresentation of male versus female protagonists” (10.1371/journal.pone.0260566).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260566). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## characteristic
<a id="characteristic"></a>

A characteristic is a distinctive trait or quality that marks an individual, or sometimes a class or group, as different from others. In art and aesthetics, it also means a portrayal that clearly and truthfully brings out the most important distinguishing features of a person, object, or action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b830e60c766f23a27eccb515fb0bfe9c7f45cf7d0039cfb77a72c14244b72a07

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Characteristic” (Characteristic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Characteristic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease
<a id="charcotmarietooth-disease"></a>

Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease is an inherited disorder of the peripheral nerves that affects both movement and sensation. It usually causes gradually worsening wasting and reduced reflexes in the lower legs, sometimes also affecting the arms, and it is often passed down in an autosomal dominant pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aaa4ed68c5aece7fd9f6800d65e5a328a4f4acc18156872d6c483a7e20dfce78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease” (D002607).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002607). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## charisma
<a id="charisma"></a>

Charisma is a leader’s ability to attract, captivate, and persuade followers. In the context of abusive groups, it works with authority to encourage members’ submission and can support manipulation and control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 86853a95f7bed1e320bb8221281de68ed52e04ea10f46dff313d9698d3d01d21

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tinelli Lorita; Destratis Paride; Curci Antonietta; Schincariol Alexa; Melis Giulia; Scarpazza Cristina. Are psychologists aware of group psychological abuse? A survey on awareness of the phenomenon among Italian psychologists. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1749074; article XML SHA-256 d7c0cfb89d67d27a67d075e2ceaeab3f380dbb64a6c4f0a572d0675f9bbb0224. “Are psychologists aware of group psychological abuse? A survey on awareness of the phenomenon among Italian psychologists” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1749074).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1749074). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## charismatic leader
<a id="charismatic-leader"></a>

A charismatic leader is a leader seen as especially able to attract, inspire, and influence other people through a compelling personal style and strong communication. In this context, such a leader’s perceptions, emotions, attitudes, and behaviors may spread to followers, who can themselves come to be seen as more charismatic over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d30845d1682d40708741b1b314aa8b4b24e7ab4a08e1bf2d49f1069ef4164d8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Katz-Navon Tal; Delegach Marianna; Haim Eden. Contagious charisma: the flow of charisma from leader to followers and the role of followers’ self-monitoring. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1239974; article XML SHA-256 73c08562e215e7a1f87082a391d2856cfccb31e0fcd95844706fe407c8593c74. “Contagious charisma: the flow of charisma from leader to followers and the role of followers’ self-monitoring” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1239974).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1239974). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## charity
<a id="charity"></a>

A charity is an organization set up to help people in need or to provide public benefit through educational, scientific, religious, or artistic support.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8b77d97fd03e0bbab892336e3b250b38825ca6c22d285ecfd9e556338abecda

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Charity” (C203647).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Charles Bonnet syndrome
<a id="charles-bonnet-syndrome"></a>

Charles Bonnet syndrome is a condition in which a person, most often an older adult with reduced vision or visual field loss, repeatedly sees things that are not really there. They typically recognize that these visual experiences are unreal, and the syndrome is not linked to delusions or hallucinations in other senses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5178ea839468201063fb9f2c89b1d05c8a3964a2a6abf0063f1747d3e5a73b17

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Charles Bonnet Syndrome” (D000075562).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000075562). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## charm
<a id="charm"></a>

In historical psychology writing, a charm can mean an object, spoken phrase, or formula believed to have special power and therefore treated with reverence. It can also mean to exert a distinctive, captivating influence, especially in discussions of fascination, trance, hypnosis, magic, superstition, and primitive religion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 30ce7fcf3335daa1be2f2e5ed4f8fbc8d1564eee0c364b0ee0bd022c5929133d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Charm” (Charm).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Charm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chart
<a id="chart"></a>

In this mental health context, a chart is a daily record used to follow a child’s moods, behaviors, and sleep patterns over time. It helps make the course of the illness easier to see and can show whether treatment seems to be helping.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb513560bb5ed83fab17f4c08a74baca5ea97f8260b4e01f5ecdf2b192d2f482

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar Disorder in Children and Teens. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0efc8ed70ccbb4dbf61d1606b9718eb7a26d1ec80d6bdf3718206b4ad79262dc. “Bipolar Disorder in Children and Teens” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder-in-children-and-teens).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder-in-children-and-teens). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chastity
<a id="chastity"></a>

Chastity is purity in sexual conduct or relations. In this historical source, it is treated as a character virtue closely connected with temperance, though distinct from social or legal expectations surrounding marriage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4dd47b1d3730e7a4387fe7c8a5de0a1ed985134e805e52f2d53ca56431137c56

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Chastity” (Chastity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Chastity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chat
<a id="chat"></a>

CHAT refers to the human gene that encodes choline O-acetyltransferase, an enzyme protein. This protein helps make acetylcholine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f707adde65ea081bf01a98387212ab0053c018b2038b49c0dda88d4de6543fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Choline O-Acetyltransferase” (C104887).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CHD
<a id="chd"></a>

CHD stands for congenital heart disease, meaning a heart condition present from birth. In this source, the term is used in the context of medical imaging research on segmenting cardiac CT scans in people with CHD.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 16fec4eb11ce1d39e0dddd5b509909aa0a0104c84ef85d50407b16e02e9a8227

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yu Sinling Tiffany; Amini Zahra; Fouad Shereen; Novak Jan; Fratini Antonio. Deep learning for cardiac CT segmentation for congenital heart disease: A systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357600; article XML SHA-256 cc8759af4e0d7902fa7df7aa683ef6115baad7e339303111a1cb8d5a0b78b03b. “Deep learning for cardiac CT segmentation for congenital heart disease: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357600).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357600). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cheating
<a id="cheating"></a>

In educational settings, cheating is a form of academic misconduct in which a person uses dishonest or deceptive means to gain an unfair academic advantage. It can include exam cheating, using prohibited electronic devices or unauthorised materials, or obtaining access to questions in advance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53f68b357e39d47d131dd9d8f4ce494dd62ca31be447767f8fa7b43644f6617d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jones Ben; Jones Lee. The Dark Tetrad and academic dishonesty: a systematic review and narrative synthesis of personality predictors of cheating, plagiarism, and deception in education. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04894-8; article XML SHA-256 5008344f5a641d0da766196eb8c60a16ef0e2753eb12a193dab54aef9856a57b. “The Dark Tetrad and academic dishonesty: a systematic review and narrative synthesis of personality predictors of cheating, plagiarism, and deception in education” (10.1186/s40359-026-04894-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04894-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## checkerboard pattern
<a id="checkerboard-pattern"></a>

A checkerboard pattern is a visual test stimulus made of checks that switch or reverse about every half-second. The size of the checks, the overall area shown, and where it appears in the visual field can be varied to examine particular parts of the visual pathway.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 889c79bb05933fd93d26c3bf9928a7d751e9aa4251bd5d25ad54c7a9bb3df624

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Checkerboard Square Size” (C117759).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## checklist
<a id="checklist"></a>

In assessment, a checklist is a structured screening tool made up of specific items that are scored to capture important behavior patterns or symptoms. In the supplied source, it refers to an observation-based scale with multiple items across key developmental domains, used to help identify young children who are more or less likely to have autism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6aab271765e1ddf41c81b92c929eea6d480a1831d1a2d17f5925a0b34661115d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shao Zhi; Zhang Lin; Zhang Yaru; Guo Lei; Luo Yan; Meng Zhaoxue; Kuang Guifang; Hong Qi; Tian Xianyu; Wang Zhaohui; Zhao Qin; Tan Jianming. Development and validation of an early screening tool for young children with autism spectrum disorders: the checklist for Chinese toddlers with autism. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1810421; article XML SHA-256 723c4769b99e80e28db206f335ca58ba040406423980922c977c8db8febeda14. “Development and validation of an early screening tool for young children with autism spectrum disorders: the checklist for Chinese toddlers with autism” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1810421).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1810421). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ChEI
<a id="chei"></a>

Chei- refers to the hand and appears in chiromancy, a historical practice that claims to interpret the lines and features of the hand to infer a person’s character or foretell future events. In this source, it is treated mainly as a historical and anthropological form of divination rather than a recognized science.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0dc377e9d4f185b4d18bbad3c882acc4e907d91237dab6617cd13a2c75f1b46a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Chiromancy (or Chei-)” (Chiromancy (or Chei-)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Chiromancy (or Chei-)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cheiromancy
<a id="cheiromancy"></a>

Cheiromancy is a historical term for a theory or practice associated with astrology and grouped with physiognomy. In this source, it is mentioned as one of the older popular ways crude ideas about mental traits were given a scientific-looking form.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5577a5b3d8a4944717c7a2dd6cb981777d33e7e283f033e356370a14a469eeb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Localization (cerebral)” (Localization (cerebral)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Localization (cerebral)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chemical dependence
<a id="chemical-dependence"></a>

Chemical dependence is a state in which a person develops a psychological, and sometimes physical, reliance on a drug. It involves behavioral responses marked by a recurring urge to use the drug to feel its mental effects or sometimes to prevent discomfort when it is absent, and tolerance may or may not occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc3e304b8f806efc27335b99ee75aabeb528354b4da2a056b127f6504331958f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Drug Dependence” (C3894).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chemical senses
<a id="chemical-senses"></a>

In this historical usage, the chemical senses are the senses of smell and taste. They are grouped together because they are discussed as bodily sources of simple pleasure and displeasure, such as relish and disgust.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5ad20973fe09a159e4f489da577103df2dea443bc1d568887d6c1b68b7845e94

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-220500-232500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chemical stimulation
<a id="chemical-stimulation"></a>

Chemical stimulation is an increase in a measurable bodily or metabolic activity caused by a drug or other chemical. It can involve many kinds of physiological processes, such as neural, cardiovascular, immune, or enzymatic activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd560387bb25d5d12cc96ae441fdf66727504cb2ed585e71c16c6e99bb1ed8de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Stimulation, Chemical” (D013268).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013268). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chemical sympathectomy
<a id="chemical-sympathectomy"></a>

Chemical sympathectomy is a procedure that uses drugs to selectively and reversibly destroy adrenergic nerve endings while sparing cholinergic nerve endings. It is a chemically induced form of sympathectomy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d5b41d2a7352612ce366002f5a118fbbc931bf1bd9e73c18a64fa467c061751

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sympathectomy, Chemical” (D013563).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013563). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chemical synapse
<a id="chemical-synapse"></a>

A chemical synapse is a junction between cells where an electrical signal in the presynaptic cell triggers release of a neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic gap and binds to ion channels on the postsynaptic cell, changing that cell’s resting electrical state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc020e69b38720fa8a7902beba4c2047897251b262f5c1c60668c80b57d9f4e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Chemical Synapse” (C32302).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chemical transmission
<a id="chemical-transmission"></a>

Chemical transmission is the process at a synapse in which synaptic proteins work together to release neurotransmitter efficiently. In this context, successful signaling depends on coordinated protein function, including calcium-sensitive mechanisms involved in fast, synchronized release.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea8b04de220be293ee9956916c9059cad9b3c594a03aece9098b43fcda5fce9f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shields Mallory C.; Bowers Matthew R.; Fulcer McKenzie M.; Bollig Madelyn K.; Rock Patrick J.; Sutton Bryan R.; Vrailas-Mortimer Alysia D.; Lochmüller Hanns; Whittaker Roger G.; Horvath Rita; Reist Noreen E.. Drosophila studies support a role for a presynaptic synaptotagmin mutation in a human congenital myasthenic syndrome. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0184817; article XML SHA-256 e7db9518ca19c8aa560462a3da496ef109a8702f572966f73500e7e52d0cd6d3. “Drosophila studies support a role for a presynaptic synaptotagmin mutation in a human congenital myasthenic syndrome” (10.1371/journal.pone.0184817).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184817). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chemical transmitter
<a id="chemical-transmitter"></a>

A chemical transmitter is a chemical signal released from a neuron's presynaptic terminal at a synapse. It is stored in synaptic vesicles, crosses the synaptic cleft, and activates receptors on the target cell.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1628a03afaeb0f8e22b28768e6ffd7d7c13dc340cd3e84e7f727d75769556546

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Synapses” (D013569).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013569). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chemoreceptor
<a id="chemoreceptor"></a>

A chemoreceptor is a specialized cell that detects chemical substances and sends that information to the nervous system. It may respond to chemicals from outside the body, such as those involved in taste and smell, or to internal chemical levels such as oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83f35f361ba7f4dccf3c6d27a8c65cb5b6fbddb7df8ce0d64f9ef2db2ec8e8ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Chemoreceptor Cells” (D002628).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002628). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chemotaxis
<a id="chemotaxis"></a>

Chemotaxis is the movement of a cell or organism toward or away from a substance because of changes in that substance’s concentration across space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 17b51a353b6fbcf3553e5861d23a3d2863fed2ed5ba3456e178eb4201f3b571f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Chemotaxis” (D002633).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002633). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Chernoff faces
<a id="chernoff-faces"></a>

Chernoff faces are a data-visualization method used to display multivariate relationships, helping people see patterns in complex data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea6e713963ecd71531d609759cbf4b2467161bfbaf98af08500229ae15b659a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Choi Kyoungho. Enhancing the communication of radiation exposure data for radiological workers in Korea using data visualization techniques. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323091; article XML SHA-256 805a34975a93f40bcd87d7d02873848e4d3f04247a446ceb4733b0b6559d1371. “Enhancing the communication of radiation exposure data for radiological workers in Korea using data visualization techniques” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323091).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323091). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chi-square distribution
<a id="chi-square-distribution"></a>

The chi-square distribution is a probability distribution formed from adding together the squared values of independent standard normal variables. In research methods, it is used as the reference distribution for chi-square tests, which can help assess whether population distributions differ from one another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c0f9a441ae86a4cff3a850c29144c998d3242c684095cb3925b28b2c6801051

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Chi-Square Distribution” (D016009).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016009). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chi-square test
<a id="chi-square-test"></a>

A chi-square test is a statistical method used to check whether there are significant differences in variables between groups. In the source, it was used to identify which variables differed between an arthritis group and a control group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8d5bfd3819fceb1df602ccdd7df6a83158083efbb3436aba594a68817d564b0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Tianhua; Long Zhiwei. Predicting arthritis risk with machine learning: Insights from the 2023 National Health Interview Survey data. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336018; article XML SHA-256 dfbc46405c1c173121ed3e879a36051b05df0dcaff5bc671b188d2515cbc3ef9. “Predicting arthritis risk with machine learning: Insights from the 2023 National Health Interview Survey data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336018).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336018). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## child abuse
<a id="child-abuse"></a>

Child abuse is the mistreatment of a child by others, including within families, institutions, or other settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9ccb13d06fe719a59dbe43b9f9fd6327aaf9dc18f97aef4214145451293078f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Child Abuse” (D002649).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002649). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## Child Behavior Checklist
<a id="child-behavior-checklist"></a>

The Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) is a youth behavioral screening measure made up of items about attention and behavior problems. In the supplied source, a 34-item CBCL was used as the basis for creating a shorter version to help screen for ADHD while also reflecting broader behavior difficulties that can occur alongside it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06402cd48d5072ba9f09638f88982cc3786b16fb2d1e590e45571253817ddc99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiang Chen; Gu Xuejun; Li Sixuan; Zhao Xudong; Cai Fang; Zheng Yi; Zhang Kun; Ding Linlin; Hu Sujun; Zhou Tingting; Lv Yingbo; Fu Chanrong; Cheng Wei. Measurement properties of the Child Behavior Checklist-10: an ultra-brief screening updated in longitudinal cohort. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1767665; article XML SHA-256 266c5750d3f956486753edfb7bacb4f451a40ed7a0f65ca23dfacfcbcc0425a1. “Measurement properties of the Child Behavior Checklist-10: an ultra-brief screening updated in longitudinal cohort” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1767665).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1767665). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## Child Behavior Disorders
<a id="child-behavior-disorders"></a>

Child behavior disorders are behavior disturbances in children that are judged abnormal for the child’s age and developmental stage, such as conduct-related problems or anaclitic depression. The term does not include psychoneuroses, psychoses, or personality disorders with fixed patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 229ad3a7104b04b75170e78c0e01478737675d3d01182c7a262ce84fc7fb1e5b

Wording review pending: The complete exclusion clause follows the source sentence; preserve named diagnoses but rewrite the surrounding explanation.

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Child Behavior Disorders” (D002653).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002653). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## child-centered
<a id="child-centered"></a>

Child-centered describes an approach that places children’s own experiences and interests at the center of analysis. In this context, it means examining issues such as privacy, autonomy, and online identity from the child’s perspective rather than focusing only on parental behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0cc3d5bcd1fed17626561f3480a0a1d075b566bbfdc605dd1427169b2a697bb1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Akay Osman. Children’s privacy, autonomy, and digital identity in sharenting research: a scoping review with bibliometric mapping. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845715; article XML SHA-256 948269552e6e570fda69d6880f236e47563c5cfdc73dd1b9112a27c9f880c1ac. “Children’s privacy, autonomy, and digital identity in sharenting research: a scoping review with bibliometric mapping” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845715).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845715). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## child day care
<a id="child-day-care"></a>

Child day care is a non-parental care setting, such as kindergarten or another day-care institution, that children attend during the day. Entering child day care is described as a major transition in a child’s life and may also support development, for example by helping compensate for possible language difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a7854f89f8a20c05a51617ff4d0434dd54e94d295035cb6be44694e6b0abb74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rickmeyer Constanze; Lebiger-Vogel Judith; Leuzinger-Bohleber Marianne. Transition to Kindergarten: Negative Associations between the Emotional Availability in Mother–Child Relationships and Elevated Cortisol Levels in Children with an Immigrant Background. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00425; article XML SHA-256 73ad44cb0b23645694df593629c36975d15fbade55dfc0834ed73d5c44d339ae. “Transition to Kindergarten: Negative Associations between the Emotional Availability in Mother–Child Relationships and Elevated Cortisol Levels in Children with an Immigrant Background” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00425).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00425). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## child development
<a id="child-development"></a>

Child development is the ongoing, orderly process in which a child matures physically and psychologically from birth until the start of adolescence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3141823d73ea83a63212e225c9bc720af788430f437a8f5d39aa5fce76cdd16b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Child Development” (D002657).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002657). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## child-directed speech
<a id="child-directed-speech"></a>

Child-directed speech is the way adults speak to children, such as during interactions at home or classroom book reading. In the source packet, it is described as a form of talk that can support children’s learning of new words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ce69a2065eeec0b7394bab67528024e107b4f55bb303962c7e87f8287c524dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hindman Annemarie H.; Farrow Jean M.; Anderson Kate; Wasik Barbara A.; Snyder Patricia A.. Understanding Child-Directed Speech Around Book Reading in Toddler Classrooms: Evidence From Early Head Start Programs. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.719783; article XML SHA-256 45dd31fbd667d68de8eacff2d425b15306375e61d1e862f051b81041ca6c4a28. “Understanding Child-Directed Speech Around Book Reading in Toddler Classrooms: Evidence From Early Head Start Programs” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.719783).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.719783). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## child find
<a id="child-find"></a>

Child Find is the federally required process under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act for schools to actively locate, identify, and evaluate children ages 3–21 who may have disabilities. It is meant to ensure that children are considered for appropriate special education supports, with parent participation and required notices and consent as part of the process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5d49494c96a95f6db10df1ee128065def40912a1d34e18b3482a793cc15965d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Malagon-Palacios Laura J; Bruner Kimber L; Mullinax Hayley M; Sevillano Clarissa N; Yosai Erin. El acceso es esencial: procedural compliance alone does not ensure meaningful Latino parent participation in special education. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815521; article XML SHA-256 918fab79bab34a9827006efe4fa6915b2d6e01ed6a4534eb68de7b0255d38c9a. “El acceso es esencial: procedural compliance alone does not ensure meaningful Latino parent participation in special education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815521).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815521). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## child neglect
<a id="child-neglect"></a>

Child neglect is a form of child abuse. In this source, it is grouped with emotional and physical abuse as a subtype of child abuse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 989a74ef3acf74724aa766962c87d5924ac6af05961d71a094fb83ac51621e7e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Steger V; Stadelmann S; White L; Döhnert M. Child abuse and pubertal timing: what is the role of child sex and identity of the perpetrator?. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05683-6; article XML SHA-256 474d0c6edfc5579182cec6b9932067b4a95aca2ec0f6f427d33cb47742cd021c. “Child abuse and pubertal timing: what is the role of child sex and identity of the perpetrator?” (10.1186/s12888-024-05683-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05683-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## child pornography
<a id="child-pornography"></a>

Child pornography is an older term for child sexual abuse material: images or videos, including photorealistic AI-generated media, that depict sexual activity involving a child or show a child nude or partly nude in a sexually suggestive way. The term is criticized because it can imply consent, so child sexual abuse material is often preferred.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e773a6b25e54ca1f0a4f767503d5232c3a407bab6ea0de8d8e6d967cdcba9a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pellowski Jan S.; Bergner-Köther Ralf; Schmidt Stefanie; Peschka Lasse; Hock Michael; Briken Peer; von Franqué Fritjof. Toward a new tool for risk-assessment: recidivism of child sexual abuse materials in men under voluntary treatment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1764052; article XML SHA-256 78a88f62f7835cece3581fa5a3b2650950e7e62794c0d7e9108bcbcf626a40b6. “Toward a new tool for risk-assessment: recidivism of child sexual abuse materials in men under voluntary treatment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1764052).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1764052). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## child psychology
<a id="child-psychology"></a>

Child psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with studying the mind of the child.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b849c81e541f6356c32ad125cb2cdbd7c1cee08b4012988e44b3ecd33b6659b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Child Psychology” (Child Psychology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Child Psychology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## child psychotherapy
<a id="child-psychotherapy"></a>

Child psychotherapy is a form of therapy with children that can use pretend play as part of the therapeutic process, especially in psychodynamic work. In the supplied source, it is described as helping attachment-traumatised children use imagination and metaphor so they can express hidden trauma-related experiences and move toward mentalisation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 872841551294878f154015553ffeaa66ed3213d03b5bfcfe1ef121ee002abc02

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meurs Patrick; Schäfer Dennis; Hesemans Stefanie; Çınar Dilan; Rickmeyer Constanze Christina; Hug Felicitas; Fischmann Tamara; Meyer Terry; Lebiger-Vogel Judith. Rethinking the role of the pretend play mode in mentalisation-focused psychoanalytic child therapy for adopted and foster children with attachment trauma: from a pre-mentalising mode to a developmental achievement and a milestone on the trajectory towards mentalisation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1695144; article XML SHA-256 6f54ce3720655845514f9e9762442529a09ac4b287e5548aecc87d522fd26137. “Rethinking the role of the pretend play mode in mentalisation-focused psychoanalytic child therapy for adopted and foster children with attachment trauma: from a pre-mentalising mode to a developmental achievement and a milestone on the trajectory towards mentalisation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1695144).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1695144). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## child support
<a id="child-support"></a>

In this source, child support refers to South Africa’s Child Support Grant, a benefit tied to children’s age-based eligibility. The study examines how longer eligibility for this grant is associated with the cognitive function of biological mothers of child beneficiaries.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3b9b599703fa84ca5b20ff6c03671ba1a2fab6a86cfa833b4245c029cf21cd1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chakraborty Rishika; Kobayashi Lindsay C.; Jock Janet; Wing Coady; Chen Xiwei; Phillips Meredith; Berkman Lisa; Kahn Kathleen; Kabudula Chodziwadziwa Whiteson; Rosenberg Molly. Child support grant expansion and cognitive function among women in rural South Africa: Findings from a natural experiment in the HAALSI cohort. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297673; article XML SHA-256 8f0375511606311efeb585e173c27d5757d4635ae0cc6f74ff5db1fde15fdb89. “Child support grant expansion and cognitive function among women in rural South Africa: Findings from a natural experiment in the HAALSI cohort” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297673).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297673). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## child welfare
<a id="child-welfare"></a>

Child welfare refers to organized community or organizational efforts aimed at promoting a child’s health and overall well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e8a27cd79b883e329abd5d6eab762602b2223be63f7636320be145cb87b4de3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Child Welfare” (D002669).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002669). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## child with special needs
<a id="child-with-special-needs"></a>

A child with special needs is a child whose physical, psychological, or social needs require family members to adjust daily life and routines to provide care and support. In this context, the term refers to children whose care demands can create substantial practical and emotional strain for parents and the family.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 170b648aa1d798745e76d00270113abe71c279885ff69c1611450a1f5b3f8351

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kurşunel Melek; Akpınar Öznur; Yanar Tunçel Nazlı; Akpınar Selahattin. Is having a child with special needs a barrier to physical activity? A mixed design study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348527; article XML SHA-256 abca1268093106f93aa3d2de68c559eeb3ea1b6b97924b744ddaef1c1fbf242a. “Is having a child with special needs a barrier to physical activity? A mixed design study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348527).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348527). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## childhood absence epilepsy
<a id="childhood-absence-epilepsy"></a>

Childhood absence epilepsy is a childhood epilepsy in which cognitive difficulties may remain even after seizures are brought under control. In particular, problems with attention and executive functioning can persist and contribute to school difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a951a29cc2fc896565587e2227fcca6689a9b7e213dde47f9ac9c6cc7e7b4c7f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Glynn Peter; Eom Soyong; Zelko Frank; Koh Sookyong. Feasibility of a Mobile Cognitive Intervention in Childhood Absence Epilepsy. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00575; article XML SHA-256 a05833ac53f568d481a6e91fa24d1b578e8cfc0fa1477133824b7e8187a37ce8. “Feasibility of a Mobile Cognitive Intervention in Childhood Absence Epilepsy” (10.3389/fnhum.2016.00575).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00575). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## childhood apraxia of speech
<a id="childhood-apraxia-of-speech"></a>

Childhood apraxia of speech is a severe neurodevelopmental speech disorder in which a child has difficulty planning and coordinating the movements needed to produce speech sounds. It is marked by features such as a limited range of consonants, vowel mistakes, and inconsistent production of words, and is thought to reflect motor discoordination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d70717be990a01338fab8969ed09fc0a3f06646dde29ec658b73d2ae4ff68534

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wright Sterling L; Joslin Mia; Kim Yookyung; Olson Magdalena; Hall Ayden; Peter Beate; Whisner Corrie M. Distinct gut and oral microbiome patterns associated with dyslexia in a family-based cohort: A preliminary exploratory study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353463; article XML SHA-256 b932fbe91c88ea2fa0811bc3ef90210b102ef4001a815d1af6adfbd3c89a7656. “Distinct gut and oral microbiome patterns associated with dyslexia in a family-based cohort: A preliminary exploratory study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353463).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353463). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## childhood depression
<a id="childhood-depression"></a>

Childhood depression is a mental health condition in children marked by a lasting sad or irritable mood along with loss of interest in usual activities. It may also involve changes in sleep or appetite, low energy, feelings of worthlessness, or repeated thoughts about death or suicide.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a6ad1e650775b8e8c1ee7fc9730cbde62f6ea9baadddebdc927bce04fb88da0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Childhood Depression” (C97163).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## childhood disintegrative disorder
<a id="childhood-disintegrative-disorder"></a>

Childhood disintegrative disorder is a childhood condition in which development is normal for at least the first two years, followed by marked loss of previously gained abilities such as language, social interaction, bowel or bladder control, or motor skills. Repetitive, stereotyped behaviors similar to those seen in autism may also occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d84942409d0f535ab110cf9e57964d01d026e6499c2eb4ea9f9f653f3f7771e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Childhood Disintegrative Disorder” (C97164).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## childhood-onset fluency disorder
<a id="childhood-onset-fluency-disorder"></a>

Childhood-onset fluency disorder is a speech problem in which the normal flow and timing of speech are disrupted. These disruptions are beyond what would be expected for the person’s age and language abilities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c2c3f232cb5e044e5739977d5bb4b0ddd9561fb863d20ed705521f773fc37ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Childhood-Onset Fluency Disorder” (D000067454).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067454). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## childhood psychosis
<a id="childhood-psychosis"></a>

Childhood psychosis refers to psychosis that starts early in life. The packet indicates that remission can be difficult to achieve, but it is possible, and some affected children may later behave and function well after several years of illness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 724fbcad50f0f0c67ce890941b274e19b18da033592b0fd0bcb5931b67b0d008

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hassan Ghada AM; Taha Ghada RA. Long term functioning in early onset psychosis: Two years prospective follow-up study. 2011; DOI 10.1186/1744-9081-7-28; article XML SHA-256 5daef786963596f93ffcb1c17503afe8fd2bf3f97f6b5e4dd9cec89f61cc7037. “Long term functioning in early onset psychosis: Two years prospective follow-up study” (10.1186/1744-9081-7-28).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-7-28). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## childhood schizophrenia
<a id="childhood-schizophrenia"></a>

Childhood schizophrenia is an outdated diagnostic term that was historically used for childhood mental disorders believed to be a type of schizophrenia. It appeared in earlier DSM versions but is no longer used as a separate concept, having been folded into the broader category of pervasive developmental disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 532136492a17376ab4acea47b679195491241e7076713d3433c70b870375cf8d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Schizophrenia, Childhood” (D012561).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012561). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Children’s Depression Inventory
<a id="childrens-depression-inventory"></a>

The Children’s Depression Inventory is an assessment tool used to measure the severity of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents. Research on its newer version suggests that the way its scores group together can differ across populations, so interpretation may need culture-specific validation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a301a757ce62b6e5458187797cbe140ea9a7adbc2a512c9f201e8b887eb9593

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Anant Nandini; Kaur Divjyot; Nadarajan Ranjani; Phua Desiree Y.; Chong Yap Seng; Gluckman Peter D.; Yap Fabian; Chen Helen; Broekman Birit; Meaney Michael J.; Ang Yuen-Siang. Validating the Children’s Depression Inventory-2: Results from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards Healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0286197; article XML SHA-256 f02430477e564b8a6bc51af20b6f5def7641021dfffc54fcd2bea0030f108020. “Validating the Children’s Depression Inventory-2: Results from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards Healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0286197).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286197). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## Chinese Room argument
<a id="chinese-room-argument"></a>

The Chinese Room argument is a philosophical challenge to the idea that computation alone produces genuine understanding. It uses a scenario in which symbols are manipulated by rules without access to their meaning, to argue that isolated symbol processing may imitate language use without true semantic understanding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a78cd84ee7d9b95612aed6c340dee812b8abdfe2f410ce3857b38ba7ec4433c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Loginov Evgeny V; Vasilyev Vadim V; Kuznetsov Anton V; Volkov Dmitry B; Besedin Artem P; Mertsalov Andrew V. Peirce's revenge on the Chinese Room. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900073; article XML SHA-256 cb6c349c98a8fbdcc2bc1886cdbfeb04ff70ad9121fb4f7f91eb961bcf52650c. “Peirce's revenge on the Chinese Room” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900073).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900073). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chiromancy
<a id="chiromancy"></a>

Chiromancy is the practice of interpreting the lines, shape, and other features of the hand in order to infer a person's character or predict future events. In this source it is treated not as a recognized science, but mainly as a historically and anthropologically important form of divination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: af0d25149fe647825a4363c3c075b4beda5b5a8899884bad8acccf305f3b977c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Chiromancy (or Chei-)” (Chiromancy (or Chei-)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Chiromancy (or Chei-)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chloral hydrate
<a id="chloral-hydrate"></a>

Chloral hydrate is a synthetic drug that depresses activity in the central nervous system, giving it sedative, sleep-inducing, and anticonvulsant effects. In the body it is converted to trichloroethanol and acts on several neurotransmitter-related ion channels, including increasing GABA-A receptor activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4cc200f51af13c5d26e48c06ae442e888adaf11dea0f0711b1bc1a1b8513dcd2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Chloral Hydrate” (C28922).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chlordiazepoxide
<a id="chlordiazepoxide"></a>

Chlordiazepoxide is a benzodiazepine medication that reduces anxiety and also has sedative, anticonvulsant, and memory-impairing effects. It has also been used to relieve symptoms of alcohol withdrawal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 21af0d12560d9838779a1efe25cb3b4cbacc41a089d00126b149c6a75dbbb7f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Chlordiazepoxide” (D002707).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002707). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chloride channel
<a id="chloride-channel"></a>

A chloride channel is a cell membrane pathway that allows chloride ions to move across the membrane when the channel is activated. In this packet, chloride channels are described in relation to GABA A receptors, where their activation produces measurable transmembrane chloride currents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c836f482858a300034c8de31007584238a4440a29214a8379fdde47fc2b9451

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jourdain Pascal; Boss Daniel; Rappaz Benjamin; Moratal Corinne; Hernandez Maria-Clemencia; Depeursinge Christian; Magistretti Pierre Julius; Marquet Pierre. Simultaneous Optical Recording in Multiple Cells by Digital Holographic Microscopy of Chloride Current Associated to Activation of the Ligand-Gated Chloride Channel GABA A Receptor. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0051041; article XML SHA-256 c396f929394001ba9edf3f9e158d53e689b1fdb06f58d1b9004e93a3465b0364. “Simultaneous Optical Recording in Multiple Cells by Digital Holographic Microscopy of Chloride Current Associated to Activation of the Ligand-Gated Chloride Channel GABA A Receptor” (10.1371/journal.pone.0051041).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051041). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chlorpromazine
<a id="chlorpromazine"></a>

Chlorpromazine is a prototypical phenothiazine antipsychotic drug. Its antipsychotic effect is thought to result from the brain’s longer-term adaptation to dopamine receptor blockade, and it also has other medical uses such as reducing nausea and treating intractable hiccup.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c5e82e6458adf34f7b9dba5c43b55e957f00cc6c0574c7639cb9f7cc57cf93b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Chlorpromazine” (D002746).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002746). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## choice behavior
<a id="choice-behavior"></a>

Choice behavior is the act of selecting one option from two or more alternatives, usually after some deliberation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 682a760c610af77ad492c1250a6b05c5ffdf83f6aeebc647df6def029931c501

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Choice Behavior” (D002755).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002755). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## choice reaction time
<a id="choice-reaction-time"></a>

Choice reaction time is the time it takes a person to tell different stimuli apart and make the correct response to them. It is used as a basic measure of attention and the speed of information processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 55f08b5eb2a8104180b654be089da31d03c8c4734f5822043257761ff4f08fd0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Woods David L.; Wyma John M.; Yund E. W.; Herron Timothy J.. The Effects of Repeated Testing, Simulated Malingering, and Traumatic Brain Injury on Visual Choice Reaction Time. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00595; article XML SHA-256 5dd7c27d732d974895c29b5f373458462cb5d1083a7e57238c5e87fc540d282c. “The Effects of Repeated Testing, Simulated Malingering, and Traumatic Brain Injury on Visual Choice Reaction Time” (10.3389/fnhum.2015.00595).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00595). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## choked disk
<a id="choked-disk"></a>

Choked disk is swelling of the optic disk, most often linked to increased pressure inside the skull. It can involve redness, blurred disk edges, small hemorrhages, enlargement of the blind spot, and swollen retinal veins, and if it continues over time it may lead to optic atrophy and vision loss.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 28af95674a454f177b37639ca840d25670b7866165d867f17a2f327c7d3fb31e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Papilledema” (D010211).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010211). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chokes
<a id="chokes"></a>

In this historical medical context, chokes means that a patient begins to choke while being fed through a tube or funnel, suggesting the food may be entering the airway instead of the stomach. It describes an immediate danger during feeding that requires the flow to be stopped.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5bc3f84055b1117f3dabd6e770405b9525a237b6e140844d052ef245a5a6bf4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2898000-2910000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## choking under pressure
<a id="choking-under-pressure"></a>

Choking under pressure is a drop in performance when a person faces competitive or evaluative pressure and performs worse than expected. In sport, it is described as arising when attention is pulled away from the task or becomes overly focused on the mechanics of the action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2039746a9d249dc1bef50b440f40f3d30cb6bdd92d12bb934d6829efacdd70b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wergin V. Vanessa; Beckmann Jürgen; Gröpel Peter; Mesagno Christopher. Investigating cumulative effects of pre-performance routine interventions in beach volleyball serving. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0228012; article XML SHA-256 9c8db77de44ad61a0933f8e08ac199ce67e1a0a04e80d629f80bfbb815399424. “Investigating cumulative effects of pre-performance routine interventions in beach volleyball serving” (10.1371/journal.pone.0228012).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228012). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cholesterol
<a id="cholesterol"></a>

Cholesterol is the main sterol found in higher animals. It is present throughout body tissues, especially in the brain and spinal cord, and also occurs in animal fats and oils.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d103c3db3c3060c23d459b90ddd7fe0ef6e3a7caf2d56fbb9f2c468a1f19b7ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cholesterol” (D002784).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002784). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## choline
<a id="choline"></a>

Choline is a substance that is part of lecithin and occurs in many plants and animal organs. It is important because the body uses it to make acetylcholine, donate methyl groups in metabolism, and support lipid metabolism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3978cc3c0a265bcbd09e0db2de78256c6b0fdfd975d3fa15dae9221d0ddd30f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Choline” (D002794).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002794). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## choline acetylase
<a id="choline-acetylase"></a>

Choline acetylase is an enzyme that produces acetylcholine by combining choline with an acetyl group from acetyl-CoA.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da01e96e3c8d7d209f205bc7a5c6405ae42ea621de74828d732b132519151d37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Choline O-Acetyltransferase” (D002795).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002795). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cholinergic
<a id="cholinergic"></a>

Cholinergic refers to drugs that act on cholinergic systems. This includes substances that increase or block cholinergic activity, alter the life cycle of acetylcholine, or affect the survival of cholinergic neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb781fe761909a535acb3f2016738b5bf6261ef3c348594ef7dac80b4228a273

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cholinergic Agents” (D018678).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018678). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cholinergic drug
<a id="cholinergic-drug"></a>

A cholinergic drug is a medication that acts on cholinergic systems, including drugs that increase or block these effects, alter the life cycle of acetylcholine, or affect the survival of cholinergic nerve cells. The term has sometimes been used more narrowly to mean muscarinic agonists, but that limited use is discouraged.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 231fa43c6d804e0c1dac0cf28de15772a8cdb5ce1db5c64101ab7d3346fcceee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cholinergic Agents” (D018678).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018678). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cholinergic receptor
<a id="cholinergic-receptor"></a>

A cholinergic receptor is a protein on the cell surface that strongly binds acetylcholine and sets off internal cell changes that affect how the cell behaves. These receptors are broadly grouped into muscarinic and nicotinic types, with further subtypes distinguished by factors such as their location and mode of action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e6414c1737644e51d3ef818a2f862841f61738459a70d32138ddce269fdab28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Receptors, Cholinergic” (D011950).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011950). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cholinesterase
<a id="cholinesterase"></a>

Cholinesterase is a term for enzymes such as acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase. In Alzheimer’s disease research, these enzymes are treated as important therapeutic targets, and their activity is often measured to see whether a substance inhibits them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 050eb345bc76889de5007d1521974720c10476754b8b64956f6a52ec89b576bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maria; Khan Asifullah; Ajaj Rahaf; Rauf Abdur; Marryum; Shah Zafar Ali; Ahmad Zubair; Hemeg Hassan A; Rashid Umer. Secondary metabolites isolated from Fernandoa adenophylla (Wall. ex G.Don) steenis as multitarget inhibitors of cholinesterases for the treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease, followed by molecular docking studies. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331119; article XML SHA-256 c98f8c2748682e31768016b916981fc813dfd4bb848c5545351be7b1ae6403ac. “Secondary metabolites isolated from Fernandoa adenophylla (Wall. ex G.Don) steenis as multitarget inhibitors of cholinesterases for the treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease, followed by molecular docking studies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331119).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331119). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chorda tympani
<a id="chorda-tympani"></a>

The chorda tympani is a branch of the facial nerve that runs through the middle ear and exits through the petrotympanic fissure. It carries taste signals from the front two-thirds of the tongue and sends parasympathetic nerve fibers to the salivary glands.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96bfc858f1e8c4320570269487d84c7aa02ee8c67da3365a3b98daf02fa759a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Chorda Tympani Nerve” (D002814).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002814). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chorea
<a id="chorea"></a>

Chorea is a pattern of involuntary movement marked by rapid, jerky, forceful motions that can be mild or blend together enough to noticeably disrupt normal movement. It is often associated with low muscle tone and pendular reflexes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 661b877f9707e36930b3824861ca57f8cdbd8bf19d6e1c4f5e3133e8c409b6ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Chorea” (D002819).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002819). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## choreomania
<a id="choreomania"></a>

Choreomania is a historical term for outbreaks of convulsive or compulsive dancing that spread through groups of people like an epidemic, especially as described in the Middle Ages. It was also referred to as chorea Germanorum or chorea magna.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6fad01ceb56a4eab744b0a416e4d9f7312ef185f765241071e0931dd17019f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1207500-1219500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## choroid plexus
<a id="choroid-plexus"></a>

The choroid plexus is a folded, fingerlike network of blood vessels located in the brain’s lateral, third, and fourth ventricles. It helps produce cerebrospinal fluid and influences its composition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be6a1416da18846e53d4a6bba5d220829dfd49fd9983f0cb71723cc040fd1713

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Choroid Plexus” (D002831).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002831). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chromatic
<a id="chromatic"></a>

In historical usage, chromatic refers to the science of colour. More strictly it concerns colour as a property of light, though the term was also used for effects in colour sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5df965072dea6d45a33dc056fa8088d03d061e9613c37b25ff13473cc8fb5532

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Chromatics” (Chromatics).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Chromatics). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chromatic aberration
<a id="chromatic-aberration"></a>

Chromatic aberration is an optical defect of the eye caused by different colours of light being bent by different amounts, so shorter-wave rays such as violet come to a focus differently from longer-wave rays such as red. This can produce coloured fringes at edges under certain viewing conditions, although the effect is usually masked when the eye is focused for the middle parts of the spectrum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9a74a2b9c59fa786d02a3808c46030ecf35ec35252edf03dc0e95cf35827432

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4368000-4380000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chromatics
<a id="chromatics"></a>

In historical psychology usage, chromatics means the science of colour. More strictly it refers to colour as a property of light, though the term has also been used for colour sensations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1023681baf69b64eeac6ba3028c576a639c5a98d154c2511e0c32c11a998525

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Chromatics” (Chromatics).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Chromatics). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chromatopsia
<a id="chromatopsia"></a>

Chromatopsia is an abnormal experience of color in vision, in which things are seen with an unusual color appearance. It is also called chromopsia or chroöpsia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc2f0979068b8555951be97c21acb89b3d4a51ffe09617ad9899ffe2f78a1903

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Chromatopsia” (Chromatopsia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Chromatopsia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chromopsia
<a id="chromopsia"></a>

Chromopsia is an abnormal experience of color in vision, where objects may appear tinted or colored in an unusual way. It is also called chromatopsia or chroöpsia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8866b9fc132f4d8f5b32f7d2f93c7019d379d95e2b1edf018c5e91c74f309e48

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Chromatopsia” (Chromatopsia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Chromatopsia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chromosome
<a id="chromosome"></a>

A chromosome is one of the strongly staining bodies seen in a cell’s nucleus while the cell is dividing. In this historical account, chromosomes are described as important units in cell division and fertilization, splitting so that each daughter nucleus receives half, and the name was first used by Waldeyer in 1888.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9d83973097f814e19df49f2d21741db6d3bebe4e078b1242da23937ed5a549a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Chromosome” (Chromosome).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Chromosome). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chromotherapy
<a id="chromotherapy"></a>

Chromotherapy, or color therapy, is a type of phototherapy that uses color with the aim of affecting health or helping with physical or mental disorders. It may involve visible or nonvisible light, or the use of color through mental suggestion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aaeef1c485147b2793faf70a5de9c154a081474ee214f46052ed791c4a3e7728

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Color Therapy” (D016500).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016500). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chronaxie
<a id="chronaxie"></a>

Chronaxie is the shortest length of an electrical stimulus needed to trigger a response when the stimulus strength is set at twice the rheobase, the minimum intensity that can produce an action potential. It is used as an indicator of how excitable nerve or muscle tissue is and can reflect the type or condition of those cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eec6cdc037ce40dd674c061e666220bf94766ed4f77efad5b9651961f9f480d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Chronaxy” (D002907).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002907). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chronic
<a id="chronic"></a>

In this context, chronic refers to a condition or illness that continues over a long period rather than being short-lived. The term is used for ongoing health problems that require adaptation and self-management over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a9f0cb621fa75111feae8fca5cf823ecd14787d1c49bb09dfd5d90d1a170ae17

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Feng Zhenzhen; Yang Qin. Flourishing in chronic disease care: a narrative review and proposed conceptual framework. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1915817; article XML SHA-256 4707ee56370c34cdd5418549949e3f0150603308d4acc34c8c72907abd6be5ee. “Flourishing in chronic disease care: a narrative review and proposed conceptual framework” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1915817).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1915817). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chronic fatigue syndrome
<a id="chronic-fatigue-syndrome"></a>

Chronic fatigue syndrome is a condition of unknown cause, also called myalgic encephalomyelitis, marked by unexplained fatigue lasting at least six months that is not due to ongoing exertion, is not greatly relieved by rest, and significantly reduces a person’s usual activities. It commonly occurs along with long-lasting problems such as memory or concentration difficulties, widespread pain, sore throat, tender lymph nodes, new or changed headaches, and unrefreshing sleep.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd7bb1cdb57b3b91e5382a2a939183a1a3a49c1f36b8c11022d8dc080198b111

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Chronic Fatigue Syndrome” (C3037).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chronic illness
<a id="chronic-illness"></a>

Chronic illness is a medical condition that continues for a long time, is expected to last more than three months, or comes back repeatedly, such as more than three times in a year. In adolescents, chronic illness can be linked with ongoing stress and a higher risk of mental health difficulties, although many still adapt well psychologically.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a08029668fb57f55141f444870705409e2e69b24bc10d47262d6205517baced

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Meijia; Ren Liya; Jiang Hao; Wang Yuxin; Zhang Liping; Dong Chaoqun. Discrepancies in perceived family resilience between adolescents with chronic illness and parents: using response surface analysis to examine the relationship with adolescents’ psychological adjustment. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05917-7; article XML SHA-256 f222ae3a08c8f3f45aa7e6df037fa4a37ba73fdd1f3d10c07d8da88c985c95a7. “Discrepancies in perceived family resilience between adolescents with chronic illness and parents: using response surface analysis to examine the relationship with adolescents’ psychological adjustment” (10.1186/s12888-024-05917-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05917-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chronic myofascial pain
<a id="chronic-myofascial-pain"></a>

Chronic myofascial pain is a long-lasting pain syndrome discussed here as a condition linked with pain-related disability. In this source, it is examined in relation to anxiety, motor cortex excitability, and the way pain is modulated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 136e9954b85a5badcccf38b595245eb79be1538a947fb2735d9f9458428982d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vidor Liliane Pinto; Torres Iraci LS; Medeiros Liciane Fernandes; Dussán-Sarria Jairo Alberto; Dall’Agnol Letizzia; Deitos Alicia; Brietzke Aline; Laste Gabriela; Rozisky Joanna R; Fregni Felipe; Caumo Wolnei. Association of anxiety with intracortical inhibition and descending pain modulation in chronic myofascial pain syndrome. 2014; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-15-42; article XML SHA-256 fbe58d8fbcd41a9233351051caf7af8bd636fb63a8dcd4bd443a66eadac466ae. “Association of anxiety with intracortical inhibition and descending pain modulation in chronic myofascial pain syndrome” (10.1186/1471-2202-15-42).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-15-42). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chronic pain
<a id="chronic-pain"></a>

Chronic pain is pain that continues for more than a few months. It may happen with or without injury or disease, can remain after an injury has healed, and is often less clearly located or described than acute pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b5c4213b5c1b3fdd5fc7a8bf6d716abedbb4dca28a4b46a1ac07e557bc2a0fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Chronic Pain” (D059350).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D059350). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chronic stress
<a id="chronic-stress"></a>

Chronic stress is ongoing stress over time, considered in this source as both a person’s repeated experience of psychological stress and biological signs of stress such as cortisol levels. It is described as important because it can predict health outcomes and is linked to changes in epigenetic patterns that may help connect stress with later health effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3097f275c9fd2cd70ded3f222d5fc9eca359902cfe04a60a596b58957299baa7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Miller Melissa; Brown Robin D.; Krautkramer Cole; Gogia Rhea; Fritz Hagen; Wylie Dennis; Kinney Kerry; Champagne Frances A.. Association between chronic stress and the epigenome: Exploration of psychological and biological stress. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346517; article XML SHA-256 d25b06d236ee147b18dba75bab10b0da859e2f1fb6d2389433284d227cf39be1. “Association between chronic stress and the epigenome: Exploration of psychological and biological stress” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346517).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346517). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chronic traumatic encephalopathy
<a id="chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy"></a>

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy is a degenerative brain disease associated with repeated brain trauma. It gradually worsens and can involve problems such as memory loss, aggression, and depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be76a83add7baf5683a3ba9e1c5fc5e5d50e14c25652374aaac17b47166fede2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy” (D000070627).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000070627). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chronicity
<a id="chronicity"></a>

Chronicity is the tendency for a condition or pattern of symptoms to persist over an extended period rather than resolving quickly. In this context, it refers to continued work addiction over time and its endurance across years.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddac17b313c8ab9e551c04104ecbc1e830ad806ebe8e547679d9e1bd796d34f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kun Bernadette; Kökönyei Gyöngyi. Long-term chronicity of work addiction: the role of personality and work motivations. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-02907-6; article XML SHA-256 59103b41afb08d15918a20cb0d811047da2703898ea81055b486eb8477fd28ac. “Long-term chronicity of work addiction: the role of personality and work motivations” (10.1186/s40359-025-02907-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02907-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chronobiology
<a id="chronobiology"></a>

Chronobiology is the area of research concerned with biological timing, especially circadian rhythms and the cues that can shift them. In mental health contexts, it examines how factors such as meal timing may help realign disrupted daily rhythms linked to symptoms like depression, anxiety, insomnia, and impulsivity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b670c920dcfe3f3ea6887c8f83a3057172956ca35f07afd86eab2e6358c84a6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cuaranta Ignacio. Chrononutrition interventions for mental health: addressing atypical depression, ultra-processed food use disorder, and circadian dysregulation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1603595; article XML SHA-256 692c16436221133531dd82e5d5407edac4b451f7ae8ba2e4710319da4f998679. “Chrononutrition interventions for mental health: addressing atypical depression, ultra-processed food use disorder, and circadian dysregulation” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1603595).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1603595). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chronological age
<a id="chronological-age"></a>

Chronological age is a person’s age measured by time since birth. In this context, it is used to examine how age in years relates to cognitive performance at different stages of reproductive aging.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 57b5b35dc7482d709b5cf097e537d4a9c2bea69634b4a0455281fb34f78ffc21

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lühr-Henríquez Jonathan; Castillo-Aguilar Matías; Jurado-Barba Rosa; Velásquez Muñoz Cinthya; Núñez-Espinosa Cristian. Chronological age is differentially associated with cognitive performance according to climacteric stage: evidence from a Bayesian multivariate analysis in Chilean women. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823236; article XML SHA-256 c134fbce03f0309a035f46e66a3c327903a5583d44e7a930aa11cdf7c240a381. “Chronological age is differentially associated with cognitive performance according to climacteric stage: evidence from a Bayesian multivariate analysis in Chilean women” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823236).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823236). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chronometry
<a id="chronometry"></a>

Chronometry, in this context also called mental chronometry, is the study of the timing of cognitive processes. It uses measures such as event-related potentials from EEG to estimate when mental processing occurs with very fine time resolution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5d5167bae91e506a7a316cb023834579028c7fde075a539c87a91f5806be4d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wascher Edmund; Sharifian Fariba; Gutberlet Marie; Schneider Daniel; Getzmann Stephan; Arnau Stefan. Mental chronometry in big noisy data. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0268916; article XML SHA-256 c0a0ae9a48afe44198e05459475ea40a23ec577913aafea1e2ed63dc1b3f78e2. “Mental chronometry in big noisy data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0268916).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268916). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chronotherapy
<a id="chronotherapy"></a>

Chronotherapy is the practice of timing medication to the body’s daily circadian rhythms so it matches when a drug’s target varies across the day. The aim is to improve treatment effects while reducing side effects and unwanted drug interactions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da974d6f0a8087fc2fdf5892143e65a56c71bbed41bb7332a0be0e1a0f61ecd9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Egstrand Søren; Mace Maria Lerche; Morevati Marya; Engelholm Lars Henning; Thomsen Jesper Skovhus; Brüel Annemarie; Olgaard Klaus; Lewin Ewa. Chronotherapy with Cinacalcet has a striking effect on inhibition of parathyroid gland proliferation in rats with secondary hyperparathyroidism. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316675; article XML SHA-256 dc7b46bac7e976e72c250ec217b624ad5f51134d3689ab01c1705ade752f046d. “Chronotherapy with Cinacalcet has a striking effect on inhibition of parathyroid gland proliferation in rats with secondary hyperparathyroidism” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316675).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316675). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## chunking
<a id="chunking"></a>

Chunking is the process of dividing a sequence of information, especially text, into separate non-overlapping groups of related units. It is used to help identify how the basic elements in sequential data belong together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa510ce733cfd9f64131980f46f9f79c5a43d6c012874d656fbf6dbfe1b9a594

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Borrelli Dario; Gongora Svartzman Gabriela; Lipizzi Carlo. Unsupervised acquisition of idiomatic units of symbolic natural language: An n-gram frequency-based approach for the chunking of news articles and tweets. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0234214; article XML SHA-256 aebed5243e73e58af99095e8e34037959ab30fa62550b17e485655a9ad76c404. “Unsupervised acquisition of idiomatic units of symbolic natural language: An n-gram frequency-based approach for the chunking of news articles and tweets” (10.1371/journal.pone.0234214).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0234214). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CIL
<a id="cil"></a>

CIL, or class-incremental learning, is a form of learning in which a model keeps adding new categories over time while trying to retain what it learned about earlier categories. A central challenge is avoiding catastrophic forgetting, where performance on older classes declines as the model adapts to new ones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 885e770b4cdbc68d18b5f8d2f15872e9d1506de75f89ea10d4be6af8bfe0a470

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gu Jianye; Huang Shucheng; Li Tian; Zhang Senbao; Li Mingxing. Gated subspace alignment with drift compensation for parameter-efficient Class-Incremental Learning. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348270; article XML SHA-256 1b8902ded275ae48b9e4b79a765b0414ed3f65bccd90ef252a605043b5d0b80f. “Gated subspace alignment with drift compensation for parameter-efficient Class-Incremental Learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348270).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348270). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ciliary body
<a id="ciliary-body"></a>

The ciliary body is a ring-shaped tissue in the eye that runs from the scleral spur to the ora serrata of the retina. It has a uveal part, which contains the ciliary muscle, and an epithelial part, which contains the ciliary processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9705b57c852a9d0f1d80e5e9819dbecc7f25079d4d1a616a009990cd3d108dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ciliary Body” (D002924).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002924). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ciliary muscle
<a id="ciliary-muscle"></a>

The ciliary muscle is a smooth muscle in the eye that helps the lens change focus for near and distant vision. By contracting and relaxing, it changes tension on the zonular fibers and lens curvature, and its functioning is closely tied to visual clarity and stability through accommodation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 686fc4cb69232ddd13b22241eacefd38e5c5cf299702dc9b5adcc0c915e168ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Meng; Zhou Sheng; Zhang Xu. Development and preliminary evaluation of a ciliary muscle–oriented motor imagery script for primary school children: a school-based cluster randomized controlled trial. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809541; article XML SHA-256 1096d6fac8b79c0ba855e71ac2bfbad85ebddeb266ca99816e59682c489728af. “Development and preliminary evaluation of a ciliary muscle–oriented motor imagery script for primary school children: a school-based cluster randomized controlled trial” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809541).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809541). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ciliary processes
<a id="ciliary-processes"></a>

Ciliary processes are structures in the epithelial part of the ciliary body, a ring of tissue that runs from the scleral spur to the ora serrata of the retina. The ciliary body has two parts: a uveal portion, which contains the ciliary muscle, and an epithelial portion, which contains the ciliary processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7674fdc4c1c7cc5b6b5961a949996b8664cd038ccdec3b84c2fe1a4b672f3a57

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ciliary Body” (D002924).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002924). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cilium
<a id="cilium"></a>

A cilium is a cellular projection that serves movement or sensing functions and depends on a distinct set of proteins to work properly. Its base forms a gate-like transition zone, where the centriole’s microtubules change into those of the axoneme and where protein entry into the cilium is regulated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c26fd1f744ae34498ce02de15ee4b011b40c5a88114e649a205e3b403589837

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Blasius T. Lynne; Takao Daisuke; Verhey Kristen J.. NPHP proteins are binding partners of nucleoporins at the base of the primary cilium. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0222924; article XML SHA-256 761933d51ea596c9e4c04c61e4dc77451db5b38335299eff7e24e3faae71e3e9. “NPHP proteins are binding partners of nucleoporins at the base of the primary cilium” (10.1371/journal.pone.0222924).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222924). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cingulate cortex
<a id="cingulate-cortex"></a>

The cingulate cortex is a part of the cerebral cortex located on the inner, middle-facing surface of the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a4f48d690d4b50f59bd113b3fd2db1e7c28ab13c5f0e32515720085851894b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cingulate Cortex” (C52713).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cingulotomy
<a id="cingulotomy"></a>

Cingulotomy is a neurosurgical lesion procedure discussed as a clinically effective intervention for obsessive-compulsive disorder. In this context, it is used to help relate OCD symptoms to the brain circuits involved in the disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb91ecde990b16339be835d507a6c539979dbb3df77b74a098c55fb4dbc0b8d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lauro Peter M; Palmer Charles F; Nambiar Marshall M; Muller Ully; Qiu Liming; Halpern Casey H; Scangos Katherine W. Circuit-based neuromodulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review of prior and emerging methods. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828620; article XML SHA-256 abb584ae7745ca91cf96bffdef1ddd58ed7cda26475f21993089cb87561fa676. “Circuit-based neuromodulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review of prior and emerging methods” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828620).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828620). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cingulum bundle
<a id="cingulum-bundle"></a>

The cingulum bundle is a major white matter pathway that runs from the front to the back of the brain and links frontal, parietal, and temporal regions. Because of its central position in brain networks, it is considered important for cognitive functioning, and age-related changes in this tract have been associated with problems in memory and executive function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3dfbc18dd7839b1ef177d41c96c4037a7eec54a1c36c8bd574ce89b5eb3c542

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Edde Manon; Theaud Guillaume; Rheault François; Dilharreguy Bixente; Helmer Catherine; Dartigues Jean-François; Amieva Hélène; Allard Michèle; Descoteaux Maxime; Catheline Gwénaëlle. Free water: A marker of age-related modifications of the cingulum white matter and its association with cognitive decline. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0242696; article XML SHA-256 da52bd873a997dc9fb03953b3bf328d365533564b858e15786d0d9bb1797cfc4. “Free water: A marker of age-related modifications of the cingulum white matter and its association with cognitive decline” (10.1371/journal.pone.0242696).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242696). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## circadian rhythm
<a id="circadian-rhythm"></a>

A circadian rhythm is the body’s biological pattern that follows the daily light–dark cycle. When this timing is disrupted, such as by constant light or modern lighting conditions, melatonin levels can change and functions such as balance may be affected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 412000a0772da73b6f0f1973aaad29e7bc68a9176e4f760defb5ec9a7dbb45ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Otlu Hüsniye Gül; Korkmaz Hanifi; Bulut Nilüfer Diller; Göktürk Nurcan. Circadian rhythm disruption as a potential contributor to BPPV: Evidence from a young rat model vestibular effects of circadian disruption. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339869; article XML SHA-256 cb1dfb504eb696c59aae7926b01baf3cc69d4b86b200edf03bea27032598775a. “Circadian rhythm disruption as a potential contributor to BPPV: Evidence from a young rat model vestibular effects of circadian disruption” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339869).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339869). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## circadian rhythm sleep disorder
<a id="circadian-rhythm-sleep-disorder"></a>

Circadian rhythm sleep disorder is a sleep problem in which the usual 24-hour sleep-wake pattern is disrupted. It can occur in connection with travel, shift work, or other causes that disturb normal timing of sleep.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 250f9d898a57ebfc7267701d2e3495dbf58727cff05c70c4d0e66cca428e31e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep Disorders, Circadian Rhythm” (D020178).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020178). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Circle of Security
<a id="circle-of-security"></a>

Circle of Security, in this packet’s context, refers to Circle of Security-Parenting (COS-P), an attachment-based group programme for birthing parents in perinatal mental health services. It is described here as a 10-session intervention, often delivered online with babies present, aimed at supporting the parent-infant relationship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08f4fdbf2125387501826484cc0e9eeda32586f6fcf15a9e52f051f5f39ac981

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Darwin Zoë; Field Jude; Richards Lani; Rehman Sophia Nahz; Trevena Kavita; Clarke Amy; Aryal Basanti; Morris Nina; Pettyll Innamana; O’Shaughnessy Ruth; Horley Nic; Alyousefi-van Dijk Kim; Fonagy Peter; Rosan Camilla. Widening access to perinatal mental health group interventions: learning from a trial of the Circle of Security-Parenting programme in England. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1802417; article XML SHA-256 f296002823890a35fe14edc57aa606b640e5914e29f75a68729926869d82276e. “Widening access to perinatal mental health group interventions: learning from a trial of the Circle of Security-Parenting programme in England” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1802417).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1802417). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## circle of Willis
<a id="circle-of-willis"></a>

The circle of Willis is a ring-like network of connected arteries at the base of the brain. It is formed by links among the internal carotid arteries and parts of the anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries through the anterior and posterior communicating arteries.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 12938ce27df029acb536210b205543498c7f077e3e21c9c11896496ec1f0aa7d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Circle of Willis” (D002941).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002941). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## circular causality
<a id="circular-causality"></a>

Circular causality is a two-way relationship in which each factor helps shape the other, rather than one acting as the only cause. In the source material, it refers to the idea that accounting figures can influence market value while market activity can also influence accounting practices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9dc7dc8ba2cc67d3ee9204c5c16c09e2a2449fd0234babd88607abc6e8395725

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Herghiligiu Ionut Viorel; Dicu Roxana Manuela; Aevoae George-Marian; Sahlian Daniela Nicoleta; Popa Adriana Florina; Robu Ioan-Bogdan. Circular causality analysis of corporate performance and accounting quality in M&As. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308608; article XML SHA-256 ba0dda50fbca1e096991464134b07997114dd632c6722c5728ae5036039474d1. “Circular causality analysis of corporate performance and accounting quality in M&As” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308608).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308608). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## circular reasoning
<a id="circular-reasoning"></a>

Circular reasoning is a faulty argument in which the conclusion, or a claim that depends on that conclusion, is used as part of the proof. It often appears as a chain of reasoning that loops back on itself instead of supplying independent support.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0061dc48d968086954ba3662c4fb88b36b7c868227870a057a9f62e2de47f656

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Circulus in Probando” (Circulus in Probando).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Circulus in Probando). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## circulating levels
<a id="circulating-levels"></a>

In this diagnostic research context, circulating levels means the measured amount of a biological substance, such as GDNF, present in the body’s circulation so it can be compared between groups and studied as a possible biomarker.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c23825d8b8bc19d6e9734227205b5cb3f4d6bbd8796e708292c80b71ef8cde7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Davarinejad Omran; Komasi Saeid; Moradi Mohammad-Taher; Golmohammadi Farzaneh; Bahrami Maryam; Lashgarian Hamed Esmaeil; Jalalvand Masumeh; Hookari Sara; Kazemisafa Fatemeh. Circulating Levels of Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (GDNF) in Schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-06498-9; article XML SHA-256 8025d815e42c4dc2f2fc83717dbe794aef1bbb24fb669e5d5e054274d8f744e4. “Circulating Levels of Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (GDNF) in Schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1186/s12888-025-06498-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-06498-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## circumplex
<a id="circumplex"></a>

In psychology, a circumplex is a way of organizing emotional experience within a two-dimensional space. In the circumplex model of affect, feelings are located by their level of pleasure versus displeasure and activation versus deactivation, allowing affective states to be understood as combinations of valence and arousal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 616392bfbe8c39f1d7010385f52937c2a4f498e378d4100233898d71aaa205f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Szabo Attila; Bulgay Celal; Stephens-Sarlós Erzsébet; Járai Róbert; Somogyi Angéla; Boros Szilvia; Podstawski Robert; Ihász Ferenc; Ruíz-Barquín Roberto; de la Vega Ricardo. Studying exercise-induced affect in older adults: how the circumplex model could enhance theoretical and practical advances in the field. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fragi.2026.1780273; article XML SHA-256 0ba8af913a935fade09ff204efd19814f9a0ad3d6674f31494e89e25050b7924. “Studying exercise-induced affect in older adults: how the circumplex model could enhance theoretical and practical advances in the field” (10.3389/fragi.2026.1780273).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fragi.2026.1780273). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## circumstantial evidence
<a id="circumstantial-evidence"></a>

Circumstantial evidence is proof made up of surrounding facts or conditions from which a conclusion about the disputed matter may properly be inferred, rather than shown directly. It depends on legitimate inference from relevant circumstances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da0d8443122348ab4aa865be6219c6bec797f72bfc10063c8a901cd189f8b573

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Evidence (in law)” (Evidencel).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Evidencel). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## circumvallate papillae
<a id="circumvallate-papillae"></a>

Circumvallate papillae are taste-related structures on the back part of the tongue. In this source, they are described as receiving taste sensory fibres through the glossopharyngeal nerve.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e3fa79020e87a4bf4d6b39c16383f596720c9f3736ef88f0489e26b168368a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-924000-936000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## circumventricular organs
<a id="circumventricular-organs"></a>

Circumventricular organs are specialized, highly blood-rich tissues found mainly along the midline of the brain’s ventricular system, extending from the forebrain to the hindbrain. Unlike most brain areas, they do not have a typical blood-brain barrier and have capillaries with small openings, and they include cells involved in chemical sensing or neurosecretion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b2cfff7db3e7aeab7d1cae2d806b4afa12f6a65c60c2f2ae2634fd90977b7037

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Circumventricular Organs” (D066280).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066280). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cirrhosis
<a id="cirrhosis"></a>

Cirrhosis is a disorder in which normal liver tissue is replaced by scar-like fibrous tissue and regenerative nodules. It is commonly linked to alcohol use and hepatitis B or C, and it can lead to fluid buildup in the abdomen, enlarged veins in the esophagus, bleeding, and problems with brain function caused by liver disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 07c815645c141bfba9e3c9283ce2d57dfe3f5a29def80a9c99f133ed9bbaf655

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cirrhosis” (C2951).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cisterna magna
<a id="cisterna-magna"></a>

Cisterna magna is one of the three main openings in the subarachnoid space. It is also called the cerebellomedullary cistern and is one of the structures collectively called cisterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b90a2ad551af9962f55dae9b9e88d59f4ca74f164423edae4b1d3b17e02ec09e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cisterna Magna” (D002946).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002946). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CIT
<a id="cit"></a>

CIT stands for Concealed Information Test, a method used to assess whether someone recognizes information they are trying to hide. It commonly compares responses to one meaningful item against neutral items, often using physiological signals and sometimes behavior such as reaction times to indicate concealed knowledge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b36bc8618bc88aa28de2d166defb246c7220c98bb31244529937a417626352dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kawashima Tomoya; Kabata Takashi. No evidence for the utility of negative cues in a visual search-based concealed information test. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04594-3; article XML SHA-256 a9f8c27e7232f5d2955888cf16729c8908afd954f3990555d9803d391dac4974. “No evidence for the utility of negative cues in a visual search-based concealed information test” (10.1186/s40359-026-04594-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04594-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## citalopram
<a id="citalopram"></a>

Citalopram is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor used as an antidepressant. It has also been reported as effective in reducing ethanol intake in people with alcoholism and may be preferred over tricyclic antidepressants in depressed patients with tardive dyskinesia because tricyclics can worsen that movement problem.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc68366718b19c985b707517a17bedc567c7e3868ce9493481f9c096e10d87ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Citalopram” (D015283).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015283). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## citation analysis
<a id="citation-analysis"></a>

Citation analysis is the study of how one document refers to another and how those references are used to assess things like research impact, author standing, or peer evaluation. It can examine not only how often citations occur but also their qualitative meaning, such as the sentiment or importance conveyed by the citation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 40a9498466cbda63ab86de78cecdd7cf953f7e1b4018f0c76279b84d96febe57

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alnowaiser Khaled. Scientific text citation analysis using CNN features and ensemble learning model. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302304; article XML SHA-256 c7cdfad489b185e9b410a97699acc8161c9ef4c8a95a0d332309a1a7a6deb0b2. “Scientific text citation analysis using CNN features and ensemble learning model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302304).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302304). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## citizen
<a id="citizen"></a>

A citizen is a person who belongs to a city or state through recognized civic standing. Historically, the word first referred to someone with municipal rights in a city, and later also to either a city inhabitant or a person with political rights in a sovereign state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 931384538af13c9fa0d6c50fd173fa4272fbe539a709541fc5b3d5b9014c92b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Citizen” (Citizen).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Citizen). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cittosis
<a id="cittosis"></a>

Cittosis is an older term for pica, meaning a craving for unusual kinds of food. It refers to a depraved or abnormal appetite.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0464929c9bebc830b2b6f9bb9eb431712f86f17cd615014189449915f6b374b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1302000-1314000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## civil rights
<a id="civil-rights"></a>

Civil rights are legal protections that support a person’s equal access, inclusion, and fair treatment in society. In this context, they refer to protections against discrimination, stigma, and being denied access or services because of disability or use of a service dog.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8cf04c192b2850124c62e4d4202a8954e3f5fee7ef6f53c9e70b74ec001528a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Leighton Sarah C; Hofer Molly E; Miller Cara A; Mehl Matthias R; Walker Tammi D; MacLean Evan L; O’Haire Marguerite E. Obstacles to inclusion and threats to civil rights: An integrative review of the social experiences of service dog partners in the United States. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313864; article XML SHA-256 3014b6499bf9bc9c51ffb5d530f285203e55156ad1fd9f1e17b86a8fc0f68da0. “Obstacles to inclusion and threats to civil rights: An integrative review of the social experiences of service dog partners in the United States” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313864).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313864). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CJD
<a id="cjd"></a>

CJD, or Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, is a rare transmissible brain disorder caused by prions that progressively damages brain tissue. It can involve changes such as sleep problems, personality changes, language difficulty, poor coordination, weakness, vision loss, and sudden muscle jerks, and it is usually fatal within a year of onset.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0c849497f37ebf2f608a40201016027861e04fc92383a802f50b56459ee41ed4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease” (C26802).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CL
<a id="cl"></a>

CL stands for clearance, a pharmacokinetic measure of how well the body removes a drug over time. It is used to help estimate dosing schedules, steady-state drug levels, half-life, and possible drug interactions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7fd450e4f205b23828064a4d759766651f5458d0516af8f58aac219175d1a069

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ampadi Ramachandran Remya; Tell Lisa A.; Mercer Melissa A.; Xu Xuan; Millagaha Gedara Nuwan Indika; Clapham Maaike Ottoline; Lin Zhoumeng; Riviere Jim E.; Jaberi-Douraki Majid. Machine learning-based unified models for predicting drug clearance from pharmacokinetic animal and study design variables. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346432; article XML SHA-256 49895c67b02eeda1335dd5c9d20d061622a4ff47d9b80840a04644ab91937492. “Machine learning-based unified models for predicting drug clearance from pharmacokinetic animal and study design variables” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346432).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346432). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clairaudience
<a id="clairaudience"></a>

Clairaudience is the name for an alleged power like clairvoyance in which hearing, rather than sight, is the medium. It refers to a supposed ability to hear what would not normally be audible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8a5a08eab1077d49836b9ebe270cf7724b32b42ad986b069c2cfce19682b4af3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Clairvoyance” (Clairvoyance).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Clairvoyance). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clairvoyance
<a id="clairvoyance"></a>

Clairvoyance is the alleged power to perceive things that are not ordinarily visible or that are far away by means of a special faculty. In historical psychology writing, it was linked with mesmerism, phrenology, spiritualism, and older divination traditions, but the source states that strict scientific testing did not produce evidence that the power is real.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 191dc3603c393eb6f5ceaa03dc72ca6dfb276dfa606dccc8013bfff8a769b351

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Clairvoyance” (Clairvoyance).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Clairvoyance). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clan
<a id="clan"></a>

A clan is a kin group larger than a household but smaller than a tribe, whose members trace their relationship through only one line of descent, either the father’s or the mother’s. Historically, the term first referred in English to Scottish Highland kin groups and later came to be used more generally in ethnology and sociology for this kind of descent-based organization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 220a50f3012eb7d8f486bc846852d4b6af1f26b4dcccdcb6dd983c9503ade130

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Clan” (Clan).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Clan). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale
<a id="clance-impostor-phenomenon-scale"></a>

The Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale is a self-report assessment used in research to measure trait impostor phenomenon, a pattern of feeling intellectually or professionally fraudulent despite evidence of success. It is one of the measures used to study impostorism and its psychometric properties have been reviewed in the assessment literature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5001daa071c37b7806dff3bafc93963ed981720f7322568462a17d7599f71dce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mak Karina K. L.; Kleitman Sabina; Abbott Maree J.. Impostor Phenomenon Measurement Scales: A Systematic Review. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00671; article XML SHA-256 0c2defad9c2fa49e1c8428cc329d1a36a71c873b7185446186f6cf9df6f10516. “Impostor Phenomenon Measurement Scales: A Systematic Review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00671).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00671). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## class
<a id="class"></a>

A class is a grouping of individual things or cases that share a certain amount of definite features. In logical use, it refers to a broad and somewhat arbitrary grouping, wider than the more specialized kinds of classes used in particular sciences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 480c8f02d48ecd2b1e6dfe770f88aa911a8064740a32a2666428c68847229261

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Class” (Class).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Class). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## class inclusion
<a id="class-inclusion"></a>

In this historical logic usage, class inclusion means understanding a proposition as a relation between classes, where one class falls within or is contained under another. The passage treats this as one way of expressing what a proposition means, paired with and logically equivalent to an attribute-based reading.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 413c41de77c932596f3927bb19234ec61684c42d23bd70dca97e3699927ef2a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2058000-2070000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## class interval
<a id="class-interval"></a>

A class interval is a range used to group data values in a histogram. It is the width of each bin, such as dividing test scores into several score ranges.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 528122729dfed9610a777f87260d598053c087e85d38f78aa5a01d265c6a3210

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Class Interval” (class_interval.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/class_interval.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## class structure
<a id="class-structure"></a>

Class structure is the pattern by which a society is divided into social classes based on how different kinds of resources are distributed. In this source, it refers to class differences shaped not only by money and wealth but also by social ties, cultural resources, and personal assets such as health and attractiveness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a61e437cb20bb440b8a95807179947b0eb7b41309e18f8a74a8cb567371d5ab1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vrooman J Cok; Boelhouwer Jeroen; Gijsberts Mérove. A contemporary class structure: Capital disparities in The Netherlands. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296443; article XML SHA-256 1a2c34a3288f3f1a0792abf1f6faed015491f62f14ef88da93bdd2909960a096. “A contemporary class structure: Capital disparities in The Netherlands” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296443).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296443). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## classical conditioning
<a id="classical-conditioning"></a>

Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which different stimuli are presented close together in time so that a response becomes linked to one of them, without the response being followed by reward or punishment. It is also called Pavlovian conditioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8dd97648b76945c5bfb495e031c5770072d892f146f3905bd5a4c9d9edc7f77

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pavlovian Conditioning” (C41215).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## classical probability
<a id="classical-probability"></a>

Classical probability is a rule-based way of judging likelihoods in which probability estimates are expected to stay consistent with standard constraints, such as conjunction and disjunction rules and the requirement that two complementary outcomes add up appropriately. In this context, it refers to a coherent, internally consistent form of probabilistic reasoning against which human and model judgments can be compared.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4f4439d280be5aebf94beb92d474d1707fe1664bc2e4b50f2af558bf6b236c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Imannezhad Pegah; Pothos Emmanuel M; Wills Andy J. Divergent patterns of probabilistic reasoning in humans and GPT-5. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782184; article XML SHA-256 d9a847f6546636705636f62300e065c00972a3930a5d7f51c01f3ff9a2676296. “Divergent patterns of probabilistic reasoning in humans and GPT-5” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782184).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782184). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## classical psychoanalysis
<a id="classical-psychoanalysis"></a>

Classical psychoanalysis is a form of psychological treatment that has traditionally aimed to bring unconscious conflicts into awareness mainly through spoken language, often described as the talking cure. In the source material, it is contrasted with newer psychoanalytic views that also stress bodily communication and pre-verbal interaction between patient and therapist.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e13de3131c8994ccd9d7416c74ca2b427bae6445a951a68a340d334d8fc6b996

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Markova Elena; Enache Gabriel. Embodied simulation, body language, and symbolization: understanding somatic symptoms in psychoanalysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1642418; article XML SHA-256 870a15a633095bf6d608b3f219b4789fd858dc3bd1a5fb92bf734f978908bcb8. “Embodied simulation, body language, and symbolization: understanding somatic symptoms in psychoanalysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1642418).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1642418). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## classical test theory
<a id="classical-test-theory"></a>

Classical test theory is a measurement approach that uses the idea of a true score: a theoretical, error-free value underlying a person’s test performance. In this framework, repeated scores on parallel forms can average toward that true score because random error tends to cancel out.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 15e4897320be2c8c1fb654f129de97b48517ae78b9b02d1b3986d5567b55dd91

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “True Score” (true.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/true.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## classification
<a id="classification"></a>

Classification is the process of arranging objects within some area of experience into groups or kinds based on shared features. Beyond simple logical division, it also considers either the purpose of the arrangement or which features naturally go together, with the goal of supporting broad general statements and a systematic overview.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7fda2c8241367adc20a5bc514d04c895a90a3fcb0f6abe971af3e0d11608f933

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Classification” (Classification).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Classification). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## classification table
<a id="classification-table"></a>

A classification table is a structured way of organizing multiple clinical dimensions so they can be considered together in an assessment. In this context, it helps combine areas such as symptom severity, functional limits, daily functioning, clinical coherence, and work demands into a clearer, more transparent summary.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f2fe2fcd45510ea7c37c4882f6c1a2a6217ea6df881c5ac82bffbab256c57b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Damsa Cristian. Straight or fractured? The DIDCO lifeline framework: a structured multidimensional model for psychiatric work capacity evaluation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1877131; article XML SHA-256 a6846702323d7d126c2ab0b3a6dd59ef5f46064d7e8e3445e56e6b36e6cea115. “Straight or fractured? The DIDCO lifeline framework: a structured multidimensional model for psychiatric work capacity evaluation” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1877131).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1877131). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## classroom environment
<a id="classroom-environment"></a>

Classroom environment is the set of instructional and social conditions students perceive in a class that can shape how they learn and regulate their work. In this source, it includes teaching practices such as task design, teacher support, and opportunities for autonomy, as well as support from teachers and peers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7038f4b1629b6f9b9989ad11186aed2baad2388aeaf2069c93ba2ce32abeb05

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Jingran; Wu Chang'an; Peng Shuang. Beyond linguistic competence: shifting classroom environments and motivational paths to foster self-regulated oral presentations—a theoretical framework development. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901333; article XML SHA-256 71bfc4bae9e3638106e759b705621b28ac5d1a69bcee4b376334736f7fb3bc61. “Beyond linguistic competence: shifting classroom environments and motivational paths to foster self-regulated oral presentations—a theoretical framework development” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901333).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901333). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## claustrophobia
<a id="claustrophobia"></a>

Claustrophobia is a persistent, irrational fear of enclosed spaces or situations involving confinement, such as elevators, tunnels, airplanes, or the backseat of a car. People often avoid these situations or endure them with intense anxiety, often centered on panic-like feelings such as trouble breathing, choking, sweating, or fear of losing control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee7605a08236f9a485dec0be92b8bef95cf75ef5abcda44698989fe7a4c38adb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Claustrophobia” (D000098452).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000098452). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## claustrum
<a id="claustrum"></a>

The claustrum is a thin sheet of gray matter beneath the neocortex, positioned between the putamen and the insular cortex. It is regarded as part of the basal ganglia and has widespread connections with much of the cortex and several subcortical structures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b16f795ba25193bfff0316093486a5445209cb516162cf024d7fb6152b01e65e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Claustrum” (D000079482).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000079482). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clava
<a id="clava"></a>

Clava is a bulge in the upper part of the gracile funiculus that contains the nucleus of that tract.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6264c762d2467c0b0e545bc093db0354e97a6fa82c0567a7abce4f1f3572b7a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: B3defs.htm” (d9eb8eee52e9327abc9b).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B3defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clavus
<a id="clavus"></a>

In this historical psychiatric usage, clavus means a severe, sharply localised pain in the head. The source presents it as a classic example of the neuralgic-like pains described in hysteria.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8411061b75f5cb0da3f2a1f02d9ab02f41a99c026c30580b095e2e2c6c8174b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3580500-3592500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clearance
<a id="clearance"></a>

In this context, clearance means the removal or handling of harmful material, such as protein aggregates, by cells in the brain. The article describes it as a function supported by microglial nanotubes, which can help cells dispose of or manage damaging substances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b9bf64ffcbc2541c5e0ec285a87a7ed9e2443cc234f5cb8ff92cfd4735839033

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jategaonkar Maya S; Miller Nathan H; Zur Skyler E; Geula Changiz; Penzes Peter; Zaccard Colleen R. Nanotubular networks in the aging brain: from neuroprotection to neurodegeneration. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1864090; article XML SHA-256 9860868e58ac439a2bab9414833e4162c8797e7001dad3e4cdd74baa51e3bcf5. “Nanotubular networks in the aging brain: from neuroprotection to neurodegeneration” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1864090).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1864090). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cleavage
<a id="cleavage"></a>

In this historical source, cleavage means the early division of a fertilized egg into multiple cells as development begins. It can also mean the splitting of the mesoderm to form the body cavity in some animals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c60801b6491926adcbf09aab8d4c4550b83f420486f67facd061f92d78b24700

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Cleavage” (Cleavage).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Cleavage). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Clérambault’s syndrome
<a id="clerambaults-syndrome"></a>

Clérambault’s syndrome, also called erotomania, is a rare delusional disorder in which a person persistently believes that someone else, often a person of higher social or professional status, is in love with them despite little or no real contact. It commonly includes intense infatuation and attributing the person’s own feelings or intentions to the supposed admirer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 30349b2abe52083de63ad9661248558b534990e2bdfdac194900176be39b6314

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alotti Nasri; Osvath Peter; Tenyi Tamas; Voros Viktor. Induced erotomania by online romance fraud - a novel form of de Clérambault’s syndrome. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05667-6; article XML SHA-256 f17fd476350ab77596e50b5df23e1ca717c0ba19ba2de919a8364182cfb44b3b. “Induced erotomania by online romance fraud - a novel form of de Clérambault’s syndrome” (10.1186/s12888-024-05667-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05667-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## client characteristics
<a id="client-characteristics"></a>

Client characteristics are features of a person receiving mental health care that may be examined to understand differences in treatment course or outcomes. In this source, the term refers to personal, social, and clinical factors such as age, education, employment, social support, functioning, and symptom severity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0c01930cce433f01d736f08d1b725b13316da3ac28ea147939488dd84c2338a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hanevik Elin; Røvik Frida M. G.; Bøe Tormod; Knapstad Marit; Smith Otto R. F.. Client predictors of therapy dropout in a primary care setting: a prospective cohort study. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-04878-7; article XML SHA-256 eb2d63bf60e3e15cf9d5a82ae954bec702e44675eabea30a41627c0ea64ca477. “Client predictors of therapy dropout in a primary care setting: a prospective cohort study” (10.1186/s12888-023-04878-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04878-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## client satisfaction
<a id="client-satisfaction"></a>

Client satisfaction is a patient-reported experience of mental health services or interventions, used to assess how well care is meeting the client’s perspective. Measuring it can help evaluate and improve service quality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 42e2e47d4a7721ad03372ed2c2537404fd1b9977598ff955e69bdbdada5b0399

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pedersen Henrik; Havnen Audun; Brattmyr Martin; Attkisson C Clifford; Lara-Cabrera Mariela L. A digital Norwegian version of the client satisfaction questionnaire 8: factor validity and internal reliability in outpatient mental health care. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-04281-8; article XML SHA-256 e3f5038cc7aef329090a3b438168e875dd96c6e59fbde1e29bb5f6f8e663d64a. “A digital Norwegian version of the client satisfaction questionnaire 8: factor validity and internal reliability in outpatient mental health care” (10.1186/s12888-022-04281-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-04281-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## climax
<a id="climax"></a>

Climax is the peak point of sexual excitement in humans or animals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6569a4a85086ba063191db7fb31c20dc6ff828952239bf335497911531f53efb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Orgasm” (D009948).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009948). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinging behavior
<a id="clinging-behavior"></a>

Clinging behavior is an overly dependent, attached way of relating to others that reflects a strong need to be cared for and fear of being separated. In the packet, it appears as a feature of dependent personality disorder alongside submissive behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0bc6faa045a4e50ef958ebc7f5aec558b98105b3e8e236a28cc13b9ed400446

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dependent Personality Disorder” (D003859).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003859). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinic
<a id="clinic"></a>

A clinic is a healthcare setting where medical treatment can be given, similar to a doctor’s office or hospital.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 051891d3b068db84c2dbdb460c353d9fc27297a2e40feab9a67351f4ec2c4bf5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 5e865d35b1103be91b52db38911aadcdf861e23a0de4e1b3e1eeb01399b987b8. “Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinical assessment
<a id="clinical-assessment"></a>

Clinical assessment is the process of evaluating a person’s physical, mental, or emotional condition. It brings together information from sources such as interviews, observation, medical history, examinations, and test results.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7090094bb08e72b80a572da9dfc82f3ad8a349c166435730bfb619bc631e99ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Clinical Evaluation” (C124351).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinical diagnosis
<a id="clinical-diagnosis"></a>

A clinical diagnosis is a broad professional assessment of a person’s symptoms that brings together the clinical interview, developmental history, day-to-day impairment, and other information such as observation, reports from others, standardized measures, and clinician judgment. Because it considers more than scale scores alone, it can capture important features and complexity that symptom questionnaires may miss.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2900d2cba854c973aae7e785fbc51e35a841f21707e71020dd69862b78be2ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Varbanov Vesko; Overton Paul G. Visual orientation discrimination in adults with ADHD and ASD: the differential impact of clinical diagnosis and trait severity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1754032; article XML SHA-256 a1314cee40bdc337bf0fd8325ed46d4e8b22826e6e5f4f4b1f8e9937bc99219d. “Visual orientation discrimination in adults with ADHD and ASD: the differential impact of clinical diagnosis and trait severity” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1754032).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1754032). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinical judgment
<a id="clinical-judgment"></a>

Clinical judgment is the professional decision-making used by clinicians to assess a patient and choose appropriate actions in context. In this source, it is described as an essential part of multidisciplinary evaluation that cannot be replaced by a structured assessment framework alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8b59bc24c113a1fb9cb6a4af76d18a1bac87189e91fd7920840ca0f2a37dc6df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moleón-Ruiz Álvaro; Álvarez de Toledo Paloma; Martín-Bejarano Manuela; Bioque Miquel; Torres Díaz Cristina V. Functional psychosurgery in psychiatry: indications and preoperative evaluation. A narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1844401; article XML SHA-256 74473673d077dfb813276f0eb36889b7ac53ec1f3525b231e5740b174d5e3d65. “Functional psychosurgery in psychiatry: indications and preoperative evaluation. A narrative review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1844401).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1844401). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinical method
<a id="clinical-method"></a>

In this historical usage, clinical method means a practical way of describing or grouping features by direct clinical observation. Here it contrasts with a more theoretical division and refers to a rough, convenient scheme for enumerating characteristics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e2afcfa0c8c9ab3c284a0a906a79c2fc239369106a6fdc38b72cbb56fb232ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1648500-1660500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinical practice guidelines
<a id="clinical-practice-guidelines"></a>

Clinical practice guidelines are systematically developed recommendations for healthcare practice that should be created with clear, rigorous, and transparent methods so their advice is appropriate and reliable. They commonly address clinical management and are expected to be based on systematic reviews while also considering practical context such as costs, feasibility, equity, and acceptability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11fc3fda093bd471b5318cead66c595c2d30d925b445ae64a6e664cd10c2aa54

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brañez-Condorena Ana; Solis-Chimoy Blanca; Mejia Jhonatan R.; Chávez-Rimache Lesly; Soriano-Moreno David R.; Fernández-Chinguel Jose Ernesto; Taype-Rondan Alvaro. Methodological characteristics of Peruvian clinical practice guidelines, 2018 – 2023: A scoping review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339861; article XML SHA-256 fe8e6b34ab367efddbfd8f24441d040491c9e539cb1d0b86baff1b55c38e1c05. “Methodological characteristics of Peruvian clinical practice guidelines, 2018 – 2023: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339861).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339861). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinical prediction
<a id="clinical-prediction"></a>

Clinical prediction is the use of routinely available clinical information to estimate the likelihood of a specific outcome in a healthcare setting. In this packet, it refers to building and testing a weighted risk model from identified risk factors so clinicians can predict the chance of early medical abortion failure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82d857f85bd2576d9b5903f22ee401b69c0c947756a4dbdcfc4a3081432d93c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu An-Hao; Xu Bin; Li Xiu-Wen; Yu Yue-Wen; Guan Hui-Xin; Sun Xiao-Lu; Lin Yan-Zhen; Zhang Li-Li; Zhuo Xian-Di; Li Jia; Chen Wen-Qun; Hu Wen-Feng; Ye Ming-Zhu; Huang Xiu-Min; Chen Xun. Development and validation of a risk assessment model for predicting the failure of early medical abortions: A clinical prediction model study based on a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315025; article XML SHA-256 c2ab46d59d520c8ebeaac2b222651af125da103f19b852b4c4c274590d08c770. “Development and validation of a risk assessment model for predicting the failure of early medical abortions: A clinical prediction model study based on a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315025).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315025). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinical psychology
<a id="clinical-psychology"></a>

Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology focused on identifying and treating psychological and behavioral problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f06c343ea3a388e4d456cd0852bbf39a4b4dd9e61d22fb6c8a274e2a09d0f16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Clinical Psychology” (C17028).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinical risk assessment
<a id="clinical-risk-assessment"></a>

Clinical risk assessment is the process of estimating a patient’s chance of harmful health outcomes by reviewing clinical risk factors, often with a scoring system. In the source, it refers to using risk scores and sometimes biomarkers to improve individualized prediction when treatment decisions are uncertain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c2a929d7c42f18fea342df171b1ab10b09fc749421139e8bbe7c5c1f2aa5a8e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Salbach Christian; Yildirim Mustafa; Milles Barbara Ruth; Hund Hauke; Mueller-Hennessen Matthias; Frey Norbert; Katus Hugo; Giannitsis Evangelos. Improvement in risk prediction for patients with atrial fibrillation and intermediate-risk CHA 2 DS 2 -VASc score utilizing highly sensitive cardiac troponin T. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330164; article XML SHA-256 10437aab9d7084dd04c39dccf520715ad2e7545e8875e93c7eed9b3bb21af199. “Improvement in risk prediction for patients with atrial fibrillation and intermediate-risk CHA 2 DS 2 -VASc score utilizing highly sensitive cardiac troponin T” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330164).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330164). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinical trial
<a id="clinical-trial"></a>

A clinical trial is a type of clinical research in which people take part under safety and ethical guidelines. It involves considering possible risks and benefits and what participants may experience during the study.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8e483fe43c718ab7f94d3da263674515c9561fc217c93f0f8ad1fe7d91df98ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Publications about Clinical Research and Trials. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 831ea36567e81bb69ce254e36653fe91220b27b06595e2a830c9bc5d17db1426. “Publications about Clinical Research and Trials” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-and-trials-listing).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-and-trials-listing). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinical type
<a id="clinical-type"></a>

In this historical usage, clinical type means the characteristic pattern of symptoms by which a disease presents in practice. In the passage, it refers to the usual symptom picture of intracranial hereditary syphilis, described as spastic weakness of the limbs with convulsive attacks and some mental decline.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2634b417c339bf167799f135a10b49294f4be5a0d483e7dd137b90e0c79a8eb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3118500-3130500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinical utility
<a id="clinical-utility"></a>

Clinical utility means how useful something is in actual clinical practice, such as whether it helps patient care or treatment outcomes. In this packet, the term is used to indicate that rTMS has practical value as a treatment even though patients’ responses can vary.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a8f4a51a393966a307ba11c4913385f14f83574e4975adfcbf49540634d29505

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yun Sonora; Figee Martijn. The neurobiological synergy of transcranial magnetic stimulation and mindfulness-based interventions in treatment-resistant depression: a narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1805825; article XML SHA-256 e12b1c44a3b53a59922510927a9d5c9db23170e1e3565a3d28818141651714e2. “The neurobiological synergy of transcranial magnetic stimulation and mindfulness-based interventions in treatment-resistant depression: a narrative review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1805825).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1805825). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinical validation
<a id="clinical-validation"></a>

Clinical validation is the process of showing that a proposed digital measure meaningfully reflects the clinical problem it is supposed to represent in real-world use. In this context, it means going beyond modest or single-signal correlations to demonstrate that the endpoint is fit for purpose and clinically meaningful.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 88a4430f4d61991dabdcb11f7267b61a304237c81946f3e14b5cd964504db5bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shu Yanping; Li Qing; Liang Lifan; Liu Jiaoying; Zheng Zuli; Li Tong; Huang Sha; Chen Jiajing; Wen Juanrong; Tan Jiang. AI-enabled passive digital phenotyping of experiential negative symptoms in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders: a narrative review on the path from sensing to clinical endpoints. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1898444; article XML SHA-256 9af2530dac4b9922b5a0008760f3e256537ce95af2fa28ba9d03b4e1974dbafd. “AI-enabled passive digital phenotyping of experiential negative symptoms in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders: a narrative review on the path from sensing to clinical endpoints” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1898444).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1898444). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clinically relevant behavior
<a id="clinically-relevant-behavior"></a>

In this study, clinically relevant behavior refers to child behavior problems severe enough to fall in the concerning range on a behavior checklist. It was used for internalizing or externalizing problems when the child’s score reached the study’s cutoff for a behavior problem.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 605794cff3225e47f572550c319636fecb2548e66ba503c9967ad3bec2911e4c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sundbakk Lene Maria; Wood Mollie; Gran Jon Michael; Nordeng Hedvig. Impact of prenatal exposure to benzodiazepines and z-hypnotics on behavioral problems at 5 years of age: A study from the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0217830; article XML SHA-256 089f0ff8facf1fb28cd3ae4d039277a0218e652be79a8ff9cda6a9f44f438d69. “Impact of prenatal exposure to benzodiazepines and z-hypnotics on behavioral problems at 5 years of age: A study from the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0217830).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217830). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clomipramine
<a id="clomipramine"></a>

Clomipramine is a tricyclic antidepressant that works mainly by reducing the brain’s reuptake of serotonin. It is absorbed from the digestive tract and is converted in the liver into an active metabolite called desmethylclomipramine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0cbfe1923133ed76fbdbc8383214b5a3e34b257905acc71e40d51ea5b1c42eb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Clomipramine” (D002997).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002997). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clone
<a id="clone"></a>

In this source, a clone is a fragment of software code that carries the same underlying logic as another fragment, even if its wording or structure has been changed or obscured. The term is used in the context of detecting semantically similar code during software analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa3ad2d433f179ca8433923eec5fe175bfe3d7ec5944a622a404c9a17cfb2c0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shahbaz Ismail M; Shahzad Sara; Quradaa Fahmi H. Semantic code clone detection using hybrid intermediate representations and BiLSTM networks. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340971; article XML SHA-256 887639bcfae4710a9da033e8c9437d50519e879d6aeba20364d9f1ba49942903. “Semantic code clone detection using hybrid intermediate representations and BiLSTM networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340971).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340971). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clonic phase
<a id="clonic-phase"></a>

The clonic phase is the part of a tonic-clonic seizure marked by rhythmic flexing movements of the trunk and limbs. It may also include widened pupils, increased blood pressure and pulse, loss of bladder control, and tongue biting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1c9bd9cae4c7a9bf8a72b59b33e25596b33301e76d133a5eeb8303b9d67330f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Epilepsy, Tonic-Clonic” (D004830).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004830). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clonidine
<a id="clonidine"></a>

Clonidine is a centrally acting drug with blood-pressure-lowering effects. It stimulates alpha-2 adrenergic receptors in the brain, which reduces norepinephrine release and sympathetic nerve activity, leading to lower blood pressure and heart rate; actions at imidazoline I1 receptors may also help.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 698ba7d089d0d839bee10b3d9e60eec42a9ce233ae5b250e773fcb169b9d226e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Clonidine” (C380).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## closed group
<a id="closed-group"></a>

In this tooth-pain animal model, the closed group was the set of rats whose tooth pulps were exposed and then immediately sealed rather than left open or treated with adjuvant.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad2fd1ce47a31f1106c31210124b1253d40cd34e5a01af2000b897690e65c565

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Filippini Helena F.; Scalzilli Paulo A.; Costa Kesiane M.; Freitas Raquel D. S.; Campos Maria M.. Activation of trigeminal ganglion satellite glial cells in CFA-induced tooth pulp pain in rats. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0207411; article XML SHA-256 ccc85c89c8250559b015301123c9a88671a6b2f71bc80393e79496341d9ddbee. “Activation of trigeminal ganglion satellite glial cells in CFA-induced tooth pulp pain in rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0207411).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207411). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## closed skill
<a id="closed-skill"></a>

A closed skill is a motor activity performed in a stable, predictable setting, usually at a self-selected pace. It involves largely predefined movement patterns, as in activities like running or swimming.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c3061f6e7aa16b7a12500565977a22957b0f666cdb0d22c636fdaf9af2da86d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Huiyan; Wei Wei; Zhang Weiwei. Open-skill vs. closed-skill sports and executive function in children and adolescents: a mini review of mechanisms and moderating factors. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873432; article XML SHA-256 66fca3691746339745324eeacd390906cb44c413c0c9a0cfaed61d08b343acc2. “Open-skill vs. closed-skill sports and executive function in children and adolescents: a mini review of mechanisms and moderating factors” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873432).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873432). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## closed system
<a id="closed-system"></a>

In this historical mind–body usage, a closed system is a process or set of bodily changes treated as complete in itself, so that an accompanying mental event does not alter its course. In the epiphenomenal view described here, brain changes are called a closed system because consciousness is taken to arise alongside them without acting back on them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8211f4828e176026fe69fbd0182932e58e79a0299323985e23429a1d2f083a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Epiphenomenon” (Epiphenomenon).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Epiphenomenon). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## closing
<a id="closing"></a>

Closing, in this packet, refers to the brief shutting of the eyelids. It can happen automatically as a normal repeated protective action or be done voluntarily.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93c338ed7e64508b64f3c8e78f9338dcdd2b52680433ce40c22278475e2acdbb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Blinking” (D001767).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001767). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## closure
<a id="closure"></a>

In this learning context, closure means a school policy that keeps students on campus and limits entry, exit, and in-person group activities during a public health emergency. It can also involve moving classes online and restricting normal campus life to reduce infection risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5fc8cc5ed0074b92a904739d5fbf858d2e8905ab8d0a0fc1445ec189f28330f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Su Baochen; Sun Zhengna; Chen Rui; Liu Hui; Xu Xixing; Kong Fanlei. Association between psychological distress, lifestyle and career planning on health-related quality of life among the university students during school closure of COVID-19 pandemic in China. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347032; article XML SHA-256 4a9485306e19c0b9af6cd952833a60d93f56c58db0587833f9a5850a4ce67ba1. “Association between psychological distress, lifestyle and career planning on health-related quality of life among the university students during school closure of COVID-19 pandemic in China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347032).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347032). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clozapine
<a id="clozapine"></a>

Clozapine is an atypical antipsychotic drug with a distinctive pattern of action in the brain, affecting several receptor systems including serotonin and dopamine receptors. It is notable for only weakly blocking dopamine D2 receptors and for the serious risk of agranulocytosis as an adverse effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2296be875b833eecf6b6e6b7a1e2b4a4ae970c208e193802a242b50f923e7026

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Clozapine” (D003024).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003024). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CLT
<a id="clt"></a>

CLT, or Cognitive Load Theory, is an educational psychology model about how the demands of a task and the way instruction is designed interact with the limited capacity of working memory. It emphasizes reducing unnecessary mental effort and organizing learning tasks so people can build lasting knowledge structures and apply what they learn.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f606ca2448884ce7d6ae49e984b75a8d1e3a3e53b7a4e44ac4765100a7dd28c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Yumeng. Optimizing cognitive load in Guzheng learning: a narrative review of demonstration, segmented practice, and feedback scaffolding. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881131; article XML SHA-256 35f02a9fa4ea413d6d04f823dcc28a64c79a434c0f74f025f8c83d8a43b8838f. “Optimizing cognitive load in Guzheng learning: a narrative review of demonstration, segmented practice, and feedback scaffolding” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881131).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881131). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clubfoot
<a id="clubfoot"></a>

Clubfoot, also called congenital talipes equinovarus, is a common birth-related foot deformity in which the ankle and foot are turned into an abnormal position. It involves ankle equinus, inward turning of the hindfoot, a high arch, and inward bending of the front of the foot, often with calf muscle wasting, and may occur on its own or with other conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 84a617f8c35c86e411fbfd1e46b5aadf27aa59cc15563f1410c4abb3cf0a3d78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Johansson Arne; Wallander Henrik; Esbjörnsson Anna-Clara. Initial clubfoot treatment in Sweden from 2016 to 2019: A national register study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305900; article XML SHA-256 c9cf1a323d343340b517197b80dfdf08a86754bbe7d4df6e7675abe15964d974. “Initial clubfoot treatment in Sweden from 2016 to 2019: A national register study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305900).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305900). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cluster analysis
<a id="cluster-analysis"></a>

Cluster analysis is a group of statistical methods for sorting variables or observations into subgroups whose members are strongly related to one another. In health research, it can also be used to study tightly grouped events or cases that show clear patterns across time, place, or both.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 77b023840841ff5428460f48b4e975d5094b44985d692fcbac7b4ace5ae0b96d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cluster Analysis” (D016000).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016000). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cluster headache
<a id="cluster-headache"></a>

Cluster headache is a primary headache disorder marked by very severe pain on one side of the head, usually around the eye, forehead, or temple. Attacks last about 15 to 180 minutes, can happen from once to eight times a day, and often come with same-side eye redness or tearing, nasal symptoms, facial sweating, eyelid swelling, or a constricted pupil.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9051094ad6480542ced1295eb325a8bf9412bef5b96867cf54eaff99355786bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cluster Headache” (D003027).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003027). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cluster randomization
<a id="cluster-randomization"></a>

Cluster randomization is a study design in which groups, or clusters, rather than individual people are assigned during an evaluation of interventions such as health-care, screening, or educational programs. In this approach, the sizes of the groups may differ, which can matter when planning the study.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b5debbe0006547574d8af612217da9b84e7c933ebf023b50a8e5b080ad39e426

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guittet Lydia; Ravaud Philippe; Giraudeau Bruno. Planning a cluster randomized trial with unequal cluster sizes: practical issues involving continuous outcomes. 2006; DOI 10.1186/1471-2288-6-17; article XML SHA-256 84ca15f2a8498293a76f3ea9812cd8249531123371fc7052f957d0db5e193fe5. “Planning a cluster randomized trial with unequal cluster sizes: practical issues involving continuous outcomes” (10.1186/1471-2288-6-17).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-6-17). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clustered data
<a id="clustered-data"></a>

Clustered data are observations grouped within larger units, whether in hierarchical or other nested arrangements, such as people within schools. This kind of grouping is common in social, behavioral, and biomedical research and is typically analyzed with multilevel statistical methods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b40ceb2a09ffb430ad4e62de8b464aaa4a604126bbdb215c7fb4b674aa97205

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Multilevel Analysis” (D055361).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055361). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## clustering
<a id="clustering"></a>

Clustering is a group of statistical methods used to sort variables or observations into subgroups whose members are closely related to each other. In epidemiology, it can also refer to examining events or health cases that occur close together in time, place, or both and show a clear distribution pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb904223d3538251cb69762e690b04bfc1751da68ff311b256624c35e459b797

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cluster Analysis” (D016000).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016000). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cluttering
<a id="cluttering"></a>

Cluttering is a fluency disorder in which parts of a person’s speech in their native language are usually heard as excessively fast, irregular, or both. This description relies on the listener’s judgment and does not set exact cutoffs for how fast or irregular speech must be.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9957b0ffb717c0ad235eb9849c9013398ded9504ef903f5da275520926c07469

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tomisato Shuta; Mori Takanori; Asano Kazumi; Yada Yasuto; Wasano Koichiro; Kono Takeyuki; Ozawa Hiroyuki. Social anxiety and life impact in adults who clutter and stutter: a comparative study with pure stuttering. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810425; article XML SHA-256 f4af21192b6e5b66ff8fe55c73cd5ae28a4ee53f23c77c7e3fca5b5eb3bd9dc4. “Social anxiety and life impact in adults who clutter and stutter: a comparative study with pure stuttering” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810425).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810425). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CME
<a id="cme"></a>

CME, in this packet, refers to a computer-based instructional system that teaches academic material one student at a time and lets learners progress at their own speed until they master the content.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7f0a3c1261ee69390a704a76995912beaf43c7a6019b0e15d9f51dda288f57d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Integrated Learning System” (C19544).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CMHC
<a id="cmhc"></a>

CMHC stands for community mental health center, a local facility that organizes and provides psychological and psychiatric services for people in a neighborhood or community.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df2dd514e28376c441ae70f3838de5450035cbcbe74e018089b8071aa9625786

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Community Mental Health Centers” (D003155).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003155). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CMP
<a id="cmp"></a>

CMP usually refers to the Conway-Maxwell-Poisson regression model, a statistical method for count data. It is used when the spread of counts may be either lower or higher than expected under a standard Poisson model, making it a more flexible way to study relationships involving counts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4533cfdc0b04ad3032e5299a8152df1b443a30645b2ff916dd78a9c881b149c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Umam Shafeel; Razzak Rubaiya Binte; Munni Munniara Yesmin; Rahman Azizur. Exploring the non-linear association of daily cigarette consumption behavior and food security- An application of CMP GAM regression. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328109; article XML SHA-256 2c063c6e017f7544a825b37c6b4a1207ab0b588c03301f03ebdc1ee6556d0ef1. “Exploring the non-linear association of daily cigarette consumption behavior and food security- An application of CMP GAM regression” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328109).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328109). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CMS
<a id="cms"></a>

CMS refers to the Children's Memory Scale, a test used to broadly evaluate learning and memory in children and adolescents ages 5 to 16.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e2b9cf334f3456d63f40ca20727704f1e5830842056f253da92937e7f46c0f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Children's Memory Scale” (C120253).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CNS depressant
<a id="cns-depressant"></a>

A CNS depressant is a substance that lowers activity in the central nervous system. In the supplied source, this occurs by strengthening the inhibitory effects of GABA and also reducing excitatory nerve signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b0a3f0f0fa78938985d4fbe2a95122fae54ce6f769cca17c7de2aeb526c7a4e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pentobarbital Sodium” (C47662).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CNS stimulant
<a id="cns-stimulant"></a>

A CNS stimulant is a broadly defined group of drugs that tends to raise alertness and can also increase agitation or excitement. These drugs act through different mechanisms, usually without directly stimulating neurons, and the term does not include drugs whose stimulant effects are only side effects of another main use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d65d097263f1c6ac61edf611877792cfd1f917d448caf7153a49a6a5398a016

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Central Nervous System Stimulants” (D000697).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000697). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CNV
<a id="cnv"></a>

CNV stands for choroidal neovascularization, a form of new blood vessel growth inside the eye. In the source, it is described as a major sign of intraocular neovascularization and an important cause of blindness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa67e669aa2083ec3dc07df10175f416162e15364b2928165ced5b5ec14889ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yadi; Deng Aiping; Jiao Kangwei; Yan Jie; Zuo Wandong; Dong Yujie; Xu Wenrong; Li Yuting; Guo Chunming; Chen Maorong; Tian Run; Hu Zhulin. Active peptides of TSP-1 inhibit retinal angiogenesis through the CD36 pathway in a rat model of choroidal neovascularization. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325661; article XML SHA-256 700c14f4e5f6796e61591934c0185885a56497ca4f6807721ca64ca0f2431837. “Active peptides of TSP-1 inhibit retinal angiogenesis through the CD36 pathway in a rat model of choroidal neovascularization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325661).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325661). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## co-occurrence
<a id="co-occurrence"></a>

In mental health, co-occurrence means two conditions are present together in the same person, such as alcohol use disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder happening at the same time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd496eaa72fa6e946f633c8bf82196d93fe59fd9d14e93b6d0ae5650d50794ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ahmed Mohamed Awad E.; Amin Mufreh; Abdalla Yomna Emad; Abdelghani Amr; Eid Nourhan; Samy Aya; Kassar Omar; Alsaadany Khalid Radwan; Mansour Mohamed Ezzat M.. N-acetylcysteine for patients with alcohol use disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and their co-occurrence: a systematic review of placebo-controlled randomized trials. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08124-8; article XML SHA-256 dd74a800dc2e831debe535b82c978be32d87d9c86d5487a89e464d1f219670f6. “N-acetylcysteine for patients with alcohol use disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and their co-occurrence: a systematic review of placebo-controlled randomized trials” (10.1186/s12888-026-08124-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08124-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coaching
<a id="coaching"></a>

In this context, coaching means guidance used within an intervention to help a person become more aware of their emotional experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 452d3339e3b29976384c214495a93bd80c2762b872512618cc005ce9e2c5cfe2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Emotion-Focused Therapy” (D000071441).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000071441). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Coaching Behavior Assessment System
<a id="coaching-behavior-assessment-system"></a>

The Coaching Behavior Assessment System is an observational method used during games to assess coaches’ reactive behaviors, including their verbal responses to athletes’ performances. In this study, it was used in live competition settings to observe coaching behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17788b574a67702b0233a4c59774d19a68115cc7f10be10a2ca41b6819fca0eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Teques Pedro; Duarte Daniel; Viana João. Coaches’ Emotional Intelligence and Reactive Behaviors in Soccer Matches: Mediating Effects of Coach Efficacy Beliefs. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01629; article XML SHA-256 4b700a6fde8bd357cd4c1d2e5f014a8dde415b543bbe2de368373b51f6473c06. “Coaches’ Emotional Intelligence and Reactive Behaviors in Soccer Matches: Mediating Effects of Coach Efficacy Beliefs” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01629).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01629). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coaction effect
<a id="coaction-effect"></a>

The coaction effect is a change in a person's or animal's behavior or task performance that happens when another member of the same species is present and actively doing the task at the same time. It is a form of social influence in which a co-performer's presence can improve performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7536c4c6bc20bfe0080c6b08e16101452cd0d85d164ef3d644d6e14450ed41ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reynaud Amélie J.; Guedj Carole; Hadj-Bouziane Fadila; Meunier Martine; Monfardini Elisabetta. Social Facilitation of Cognition in Rhesus Monkeys: Audience Vs. Coaction. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00328; article XML SHA-256 6a77a14ee75afad66382fa588b023d824e71f23d36d366b963a4ba317b0aebf5. “Social Facilitation of Cognition in Rhesus Monkeys: Audience Vs. Coaction” (10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00328).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00328). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coactivation
<a id="coactivation"></a>

Coactivation is the simultaneous activation of alpha and gamma motor neurons. This helps muscle spindles keep contributing to movement control even as muscle length changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 538c4284bd433fc17d6a77b5d7ea83a1025cf971c1ecfbc4bc56646970f7949f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Motor Neurons, Gamma” (D009047).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009047). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coalition
<a id="coalition"></a>

A coalition is a group of stakeholders organized around a shared policy position or set of beliefs within a policy area. In this context, coalitions can be identified by their common viewpoints, resources, and policy-oriented learning as they influence policy change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6096f97588b178d1da67543fa6c1714cf5f7405e58e0555bed2b3d3c69a9c1b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Koga Tatsuya. Applying the advocacy coalition framework to wildlife management: Explaining policy change for damage mitigation in Japan. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331966; article XML SHA-256 054156f7750540ba8f2e78066d90e82ec5d03e3905ca358ad14d43145052ae4e. “Applying the advocacy coalition framework to wildlife management: Explaining policy change for damage mitigation in Japan” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331966).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331966). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cocaine
<a id="cocaine"></a>

Cocaine is a substance obtained from coca leaves that has strong effects on the central nervous system. It is also used medically as a local anesthetic and blood-vessel constrictor, but it is also a drug of abuse and its reinforcing effects are thought to involve blocking dopamine uptake.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3494f915de3e925f51ff59f26d0e187b52e6519386bb66eabfc4a434c660cf6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cocaine” (D003042).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003042). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cocaine dependence
<a id="cocaine-dependence"></a>

Cocaine dependence is a condition that develops from cocaine use in which a person’s psychological and social functioning becomes impaired, sometimes along with physical changes. It is marked by compulsive behavior aimed at obtaining the drug.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bad09160d835336b824caac521e5c6435feb93408688cef91157e81fb43cb8e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cocaine Dependence” (C34492).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Cocaine Smoking
<a id="cocaine-smoking"></a>

Cocaine smoking is the use of cocaine by smoking it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 822cecba9d33f888f0b6fda21dc49f338697129af9ab9ee232e3227db577d93a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Cocaine Smoking” (D000074101).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000074101). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cocaine withdrawal
<a id="cocaine-withdrawal"></a>

Cocaine withdrawal is the set of mental and cognitive symptoms that can appear when cocaine use stops. In the supplied source, these symptoms include anxiety, psychosis, depression, and problems with thinking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ca5f4b3fda1b6901d5dbc03e267f7807ffe10a3e71d40ed07720e75f6f69932

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ledesma Juan Carlos; Aguilar Maria A.; Giménez-Gómez Pablo; Miñarro José; Rodríguez-Arias Marta. Adolescent but not adult ethanol binge drinking modulates cocaine withdrawal symptoms in mice. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0172956; article XML SHA-256 5a56c07d2426d330d1d27f4708e51d537cf03dbe022d3cc0a59b383873a76402. “Adolescent but not adult ethanol binge drinking modulates cocaine withdrawal symptoms in mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0172956).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172956). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cochlea
<a id="cochlea"></a>

The cochlea is the hearing-related part of the inner ear. It is the front portion of the labyrinth and has a snail-like shape.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 655c247c51fdf3eda8962ac4984721932d0552aa4318f53b0083a6b1b244887f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cochlea” (D003051).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003051). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cochlear duct
<a id="cochlear-duct"></a>

The cochlear duct is a spiral, endolymph-filled tube inside the bony cochlea. It starts at the vestibule, winds about two and a half turns around the modiolus, and separates the surrounding perilymph-filled space into the scala vestibuli and scala tympani.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee8c6251266f374e4695273975803045afab222c9efc75958fab5669f2deadcc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cochlear Duct” (D003053).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003053). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cochlear implant
<a id="cochlear-implant"></a>

A cochlear implant is a surgically placed device used to provide auditory rehabilitation for people with severe to profound hearing loss. In this context, it is also the setting in which cochlear function may be monitored during surgery to help predict and preserve remaining hearing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d52458c550e03c051dd48fad2a8fc9a4ba2ada969dbe9084ebda511006fb01c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cooper Jaimee; Mittal Jeenu; Zalta Max; DiStefano Nicholas; Klassen Delany L; McKenna Keelin; Godur Dimitri A; Monterrubio Andrea; Moosa Moeed; Mittal Rahul; Eshraghi Adrien A. Bridging the gap: A systematic review of intraoperative electrocochleography during cochlear implantation and preservation of residual hearing. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323493; article XML SHA-256 94e5bdcafdbb389bd9a1b5f01c5f1a766cfa05c3cc97b95bc7604b1d262b480c. “Bridging the gap: A systematic review of intraoperative electrocochleography during cochlear implantation and preservation of residual hearing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323493).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323493). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cochlear nerve
<a id="cochlear-nerve"></a>

The cochlear nerve is the hearing-related part of the eighth cranial nerve. Its fibers connect the cochlea with brain-stem cochlear nuclei and carry sound information that supports the sense of hearing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c560b4df5878ba5bb3894035fe23d723b6df9c7b435858cd6da0fe37d9bc4fa5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cochlear Nerve” (D003056).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003056). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cochlear nucleus
<a id="cochlear-nucleus"></a>

The cochlear nucleus is a brainstem nucleus that receives input from the cochlear nerve. It lies lateral and dorsolateral to the inferior cerebellar peduncles, is divided into dorsal and ventral parts, and serves as an early center for central auditory processing before sending signals on to higher auditory areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa2ce6f23b5bd62ed839301589df88fd739faeb47bda7a6e203233cac2a71071

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cochlear Nucleus” (D017626).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017626). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Cochran Q test
<a id="cochran-q-test"></a>

Cochran Q test is a statistical test used in meta-analysis to check whether the results of different studies vary more than would be expected, indicating heterogeneity across studies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 897427c6bbc8a8d17904a2c57edc6904f52f8bef426a304a25dc0166eb73e25f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gebremariam Beminet Moges; Hailu Dejene; Stoecker Barbara J; Mulugeta Afework. Birth prevalence and determinants of neural tube defects among newborns in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315122; article XML SHA-256 81817fc22fe3f0e3203b1118b1affcf42915d1327659c827f2b84f9bde4de77a. “Birth prevalence and determinants of neural tube defects among newborns in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315122).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315122). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Cockayne syndrome
<a id="cockayne-syndrome"></a>

Cockayne syndrome is a genetic disorder involving multiple body systems, marked by short stature, sensitivity to sunlight, early-aging features, and hearing loss. It results from autosomal recessive gene changes affecting transcription-coupled DNA repair, and it is grouped into types based on how severe it is and when it begins.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e069e4786f24b26c74456fd326de88ab848bc3451de953d9de078a8ff2ba563

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cockayne Syndrome” (D003057).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003057). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## codability
<a id="codability"></a>

Codability is the ease with which an experience, such as a smell or flavor, can be expressed in words. In this context, higher codability means people can describe it more consistently and effectively in language.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a1388a1462a218b70bc52e312ce420ceb8e2f5270493ab8996ac7e63bd7954c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Croijmans Ilja; Majid Asifa. Not All Flavor Expertise Is Equal: The Language of Wine and Coffee Experts. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0155845; article XML SHA-256 b93c37776564d83e7ff1b798ec51edd3a2141636586f38f3942c6747003b4bdf. “Not All Flavor Expertise Is Equal: The Language of Wine and Coffee Experts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0155845).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155845). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## code of ethics
<a id="code-of-ethics"></a>

A code of ethics is an organized set of principles or rules that describes proper professional behavior, usually created by a professional organization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc17cbb9296f36c7bccb5670e2c26cc36167df5b2c1aa0dc42e003264768e633

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Codes of Ethics” (D032781).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D032781). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## code switching
<a id="code-switching"></a>

Code switching is the use of more than one language within communication, such as shifting from Arabic to English while speaking. In the source context, it is described as a common language-related phenomenon that can serve different functions depending on the speaker’s purpose.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35db957162788f6fb53f39efa38a1ae9d6070a96675fe74753a630ae535563ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Almoaily Mohammad. Code-switching functions in online advertisements on Snapchat. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0287478; article XML SHA-256 bd60bb9fa5c73e4130d819825443303bc59893f473884851de4d90cf00036b19. “Code-switching functions in online advertisements on Snapchat” (10.1371/journal.pone.0287478).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287478). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## codeine
<a id="codeine"></a>

Codeine is a naturally occurring opioid drug that acts on opioid receptors in the central nervous system and gut. It is used for pain relief and can also reduce coughing and slow intestinal movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de84dcdee487dbfe0be0fa4ca9a98159d5fb902e1ff539e19e16446f9cf293bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Codeine” (C383).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## codependency
<a id="codependency"></a>

Codependency is a pattern of unhealthy relationship dependence marked by relying too much on another person emotionally, becoming overly entangled in the relationship, and repeatedly putting one’s own needs aside. In this source, it is treated as related to but different from addiction-like involvement in romantic relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d5ba456a1fd340b8c1a7a577aa4a1ab8383eee8b6481d0ff278306664202605c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Incekara Harun Ismail; Ulaş Enver. Predictors of romantic relationship addiction: attachment styles, mindfulness, and separation anxiety. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778771; article XML SHA-256 7a5e9831a127a5ee0de6bf5f4a997becb63f4f4777bb95b8528c170593594606. “Predictors of romantic relationship addiction: attachment styles, mindfulness, and separation anxiety” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778771).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778771). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## codification
<a id="codification"></a>

Codification is the process of organizing law into a formal code that aims to state a whole area of rights, remedies, or penalties in written form. In this historical usage, it is contrasted with mere compilations or revisions of statutes, which replace earlier laws without fully covering the field.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d942f38f25e224ac8c53dfad8c1fa39ed903f728044ebabe664421165c7883b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: C3defs.htm” (ba7f9580cfb903b583a8).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C3defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coding
<a id="coding"></a>

Coding is a subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children in which a child uses a key to match numbers with symbols and writes the correct symbol in boxes on the page. It is used to assess visual processing speed, short-term visual memory, efficient shifting of eye focus, and fine motor skill, without relying on expressive language.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5748026416e1967ac6c44e18eae9efcb5c3132506ea44307acf450523eb05dfe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Coding Subtest (WISC-V)” (C120360).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coefficient of agreement
<a id="coefficient-of-agreement"></a>

A coefficient of agreement is a number used to show how much two ways of assessing the same thing match each other in their results. In this source, it refers to the kappa statistic summarizing agreement between manual and eDNA surveys.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d0aaa50e49c81b7db2c959a5cb15329a44f20333f0dfca6cfe4971299218c0e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rees Helen C.; Cousins Mags E.; Baker Claire A.; Maddison Ben C.. A qPCR assay for the rapid and specific detection of Shining ram’s-horn snail ( Segmentina nitida ) eDNA from Stodmarsh National Nature Reserve, UK. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288267; article XML SHA-256 35069e5555b6a53b732c05513e845830c99a09d65993df7dd79bd869d2d8ce15. “A qPCR assay for the rapid and specific detection of Shining ram’s-horn snail ( Segmentina nitida ) eDNA from Stodmarsh National Nature Reserve, UK” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288267).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288267). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coefficient of concordance
<a id="coefficient-of-concordance"></a>

The coefficient of concordance is a statistic used to show how much agreement there is among multiple raters when they judge items on an ordered scale, such as a five-point rating scale. In this context, higher values indicate greater consistency in the raters’ evaluations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c4f632d0e82856dc14c7f44dac5da46cf0baa3000ebf40e972cc584aad26793

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gan Lulu; Chen Jing; Wang Luning; Lu Yunfei; Ren Jie. Reliability of subjective evaluation in assessing elite table tennis players’ performance. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1432711; article XML SHA-256 448f41206fbb73e965841e54a8b0072b1b32a7d4e72568cc7cac9a97d5e359a5. “Reliability of subjective evaluation in assessing elite table tennis players’ performance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1432711).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1432711). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coercive behavior
<a id="coercive-behavior"></a>

Coercive behavior is a repeated pattern in a close relationship in which one person uses pressure, intimidation, control, or force against a partner or spouse. It can occur along with physical, psychological, or sexual abuse, as well as isolation, stalking, deprivation, or reproductive control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 87aa008705e8f27015fb0ca4d79cbc490357c46b3d11582906cf45260358ab79

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Intimate Partner Violence” (D000066511).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000066511). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coffee
<a id="coffee"></a>

Coffee is a widely consumed drink that contains caffeine, a psychoactive substance that promotes wakefulness through actions on adenosine receptors involved in sleep regulation. In this psychology-related context, coffee is relevant because caffeine can affect sleep, although habitual coffee intake in one large cross-sectional study showed little relationship with usual sleep patterns or daytime sleepiness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 85ec6308bb7027d8be829180b1f51c032cddb90e50ef0da363b77eb75dde7a73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Söderholm Simon; Ulander Martin; William Toma Vanessa; Kaufmann Sara; Qiao Xiangyu; Berglind Daniel; Calling Susanna; Daka Bledar; Grote Ludger; Martinell Mats; Bergman Frida; Henriksson Pontus; Östgren Carl-Johan; Zhong Wen; Cantù Claudio; Iredahl Fredrik. Habitual coffee consumption poorly correlates with sleep quality and daytime sleepiness: A cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344479; article XML SHA-256 40ac7b80006d999b078617ba033ef6d6df5bff4a4b2227ee5b7e70e2188b7a88. “Habitual coffee consumption poorly correlates with sleep quality and daytime sleepiness: A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344479).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344479). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Cogan’s syndrome
<a id="cogans-syndrome"></a>

Cogan’s syndrome is a biological condition marked by inflammation in the eyes, often involving interstitial keratitis, together with problems affecting balance and hearing and inflammation of medium to large blood vessels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fbf4d00e02b2609f9c284ef9f72d733c6ddcd64de2eff141eea1b05ef341bddc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cogan Syndrome” (D055952).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055952). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognition
<a id="cognition"></a>

Cognition is the mental process through which an organism acquires knowledge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f18ff20def180da083468ab070f0a9aa60725b7e196353ad7b29dfadf9356ef3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognition” (D003071).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003071). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive ability
<a id="cognitive-ability"></a>

Cognitive ability is the set of mental processes used to gain and make sense of knowledge through thinking, experience, and sensory input. It includes functions such as attention, perception, language, intelligence, and executive functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9846db5367cbee9ac90eec4b9675fee0a58ef2db1f70d9bf31726b6150406ad8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Zhihan; Wang Shiqiang; Ma Zitong; Li Dan; Zhang Shuge. 24-hour movement behaviors and cognitive ability in preschool children: A compositional and isotemporal reallocation analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320081; article XML SHA-256 358b52b0b9293cfcd46c9cd9af516384a834b4e46c834098f4a52c1dc37113ec. “24-hour movement behaviors and cognitive ability in preschool children: A compositional and isotemporal reallocation analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320081).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320081). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive aging
<a id="cognitive-aging"></a>

Cognitive aging is the natural age-related decline in learning and memory abilities. It refers to changes in these cognitive functions that occur as part of growing older.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 20e3be6476b2002574244d69330fe26f90ab4c38a511eb0b30fe7901def1b13e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognitive Aging” (D000066492).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000066492). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive aid
<a id="cognitive-aid"></a>

A cognitive aid is a tool, such as a checklist or reference, used during high-stakes events to help people quickly recall important steps, consider possible diagnoses, and find needed information such as medications or other instructions. In medical emergencies, it is often used selectively to support memory and decision-making rather than followed strictly step by step.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2530243a7d2606ac7fbbf45561dacd3ddc01636d7f52a5f71fc36c68d80bcf65

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Clebone Anna; Klock Jr P. Allan; Choi Ellen Y.; Tung Avery. Why are critical event checklists not always used in the perioperative setting?: A retrospective survey. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314774; article XML SHA-256 0a5cbacde8db7fecefed11de0749f70cbacd1370a2127f3d6d3581b53513b824. “Why are critical event checklists not always used in the perioperative setting?: A retrospective survey” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314774).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314774). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive analytic therapy
<a id="cognitive-analytic-therapy"></a>

Cognitive analytic therapy is a brief integrative psychotherapy that combines ideas and methods from cognitive therapy and psychoanalysis. It works collaboratively and uses feedback, and it describes recurring problematic thinking patterns such as traps, dilemmas, and snags to help set a focused treatment aim.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9bb8b85c773623254581a5f16999db5ce33029be101d256c1c3c143bcb99f828

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Feixas Guillem; Compañ Victoria. Dilemma-focused intervention for unipolar depression: a treatment manual. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12888-016-0947-x; article XML SHA-256 fbcf4b849651ab4617b0eee4108b86b9c6f472455e9eceb5dae529459a1d7f37. “Dilemma-focused intervention for unipolar depression: a treatment manual” (10.1186/s12888-016-0947-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0947-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive appraisal theory
<a id="cognitive-appraisal-theory"></a>

Cognitive appraisal theory is the idea that people’s responses to a demand depend on how they mentally evaluate it. In this source, it means that the same workplace technology requirement can be seen either as a challenge that supports positive action or as a hindrance that leads to avoidance and negative outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac9625ed73219fddc1c1526993245c4e046339c7b8fc8b16df7a284264e75a31

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Shuang; Wang Yumei; Wang Xiao. To embrace or to avoid: the dual path effects of digital technology requirements on employees with different digital literacy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1676932; article XML SHA-256 e7221b284032b810ed96bfe219bb53ba7436db57eb41e2d979c1c633733104d8. “To embrace or to avoid: the dual path effects of digital technology requirements on employees with different digital literacy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1676932).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1676932). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive architecture
<a id="cognitive-architecture"></a>

Cognitive architecture is the layered organization of mental processing that governs how prior beliefs and new evidence are weighted and updated, especially under uncertainty and limited cognitive resources. In this source, it refers to a hierarchical system in which belief updating, learning about reliability, and adaptation to environmental uncertainty interact to shape judgment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31b4fa813f610de659459be2c1b23497f95ad1ad2c02e68b7c3bf32ede807a90

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kopp Bruno. Weighting Bayesian information in human judgment under uncertainty: a hierarchical theory of cognitive biases. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861515; article XML SHA-256 03c04497f76531cf8ec4091301fac013d87cee63e2fd5b83da75da084ce9fdcf. “Weighting Bayesian information in human judgment under uncertainty: a hierarchical theory of cognitive biases” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861515).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861515). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive assessment
<a id="cognitive-assessment"></a>

Cognitive assessment is the evaluation of a person's thinking abilities and difficulties by using tests of mental functions such as perception, learning, and reasoning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43873678ab133f4dfe29dac9a6791d753679ef9b7d9f8c33b772a1d610da6c96

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cognitive Assessment” (C62736).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Cognitive Assessment System
<a id="cognitive-assessment-system"></a>

The Cognitive Assessment System is a psychological assessment used to evaluate cognitive functioning through a cognitive-processing approach. In this source, the Das-Naglieri version was used to measure abilities such as planning, attention, and successive processing in children with ADHD.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 487777a2243be1331aa68ab0e3b7bb1293b02e62131bdb26880ccaf1b0798580

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fu Yanhong; Qin Zixi; Qin Ling; Zhang Hong; Liu Hairun; Huang Siyan; Li Dandan. Multidimensional factors associated with ADHD core symptoms in children: cognition, sleep, behavior, and demographics. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1658202; article XML SHA-256 2847c4a5276ff6da89cec54f1314533cad0ceba38bdc9fb5ca42c3d5419f100b. “Multidimensional factors associated with ADHD core symptoms in children: cognition, sleep, behavior, and demographics” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1658202).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1658202). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive behavior therapy
<a id="cognitive-behavior-therapy"></a>

Cognitive behavior therapy is a form of psychotherapy used for a range of mental disorders. It works by helping a person notice harmful or unhelpful thoughts and actions and replace them with more useful, constructive patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6cb2ef557a77c4528b85a2c105dd4b470cbb3553498d8cc183e3434c517da2c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cognitive Behavior Therapy” (C64345).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive complexity
<a id="cognitive-complexity"></a>

Cognitive complexity is the degree of mental demand involved in a task, especially when it requires coordinating multiple kinds of information and responses at the same time. In this source, it refers to the added challenge of managing auditory and visual input together while producing spoken output, which places heavier demands on attention and cognitive resources.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0c6a0178ce21ea40fa1191595950849f7842a0f2cc65ee9e2181e2478b0e5f72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Shanshan; Li Defeng; Lai Cheng Lei Victoria. Multimodal processing in simultaneous interpreting with text: Evidence from ear-eye-voice span and performance. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326527; article XML SHA-256 8bec8151c2f8c1729aac8b26fd9d8f3f7a2d6a14f16b6b05a190b29ed9a0400c. “Multimodal processing in simultaneous interpreting with text: Evidence from ear-eye-voice span and performance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326527).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326527). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive conditioning
<a id="cognitive-conditioning"></a>

Cognitive conditioning is the use of a mental or perceptual stimulus, such as listening to music or white noise, to place the brain in a particular activation state so that its effects on behavior can be modified, especially when paired with another form of stimulation. In this source, it refers to cognitive stimulation used after neurophysiological pre-conditioning to influence attention and other cognitive processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6dea4ae79a3be6099930282a826071a16d246103f1466fdc609876af08e6f4dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Picazio Silvia; Granata Chiara; Caltagirone Carlo; Petrosini Laura; Oliveri Massimiliano. Shaping pseudoneglect with transcranial cerebellar direct current stimulation and music listening. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00158; article XML SHA-256 b08a2bc40a6e1f8f7c3f7fd0e43f14cfab3317dab8726867d5a730dd30b201a1. “Shaping pseudoneglect with transcranial cerebellar direct current stimulation and music listening” (10.3389/fnhum.2015.00158).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00158). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive construct
<a id="cognitive-construct"></a>

A cognitive construct is a psychological characteristic related to mental ability. In measurement research, cognitive constructs are commonly treated as ability-based traits where higher levels of the underlying trait are expected to go with a greater likelihood of a given response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26df43b1b199f48d45c451115b27f94f1d20ec7742c676dc8814c42b17b3f5b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tay Louis; Ng Vincent. Ideal Point Modeling of Non-cognitive Constructs: Review and Recommendations for Research. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02423; article XML SHA-256 4be86e37a2745f15d26919e946a0be18354e2c22b070ee3b1aeaeaf66b7322db. “Ideal Point Modeling of Non-cognitive Constructs: Review and Recommendations for Research” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02423).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02423). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive control
<a id="cognitive-control"></a>

Cognitive control is a mental process that supports goal-directed behavior, including planning and monitoring actions. In this source, it includes abilities such as cognitive flexibility and inhibition, which can influence learning and academic performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2946ee0f28665e53f13c2ba28bfb74d95e9154f2bc42997dfdf98975919aa89f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Musullulu Hande; Garcia-Orza Javier; Gómez Vázquez Diana; Garcia-Sanz Sara. Cognitive control and metacognitive awareness: do they shape academic achievement in university students?. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1633996; article XML SHA-256 2cf0318e2dbac573bb47b166d94c411e0f8ccdf3007bcd4d6637dfa71df33b31. “Cognitive control and metacognitive awareness: do they shape academic achievement in university students?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1633996).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1633996). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive deconstruction
<a id="cognitive-deconstruction"></a>

Cognitive deconstruction is a theory that, after painful experiences such as social exclusion, a person may defensively loosen their usual sense of self and reality. This state is linked to a fragmented mental experience and weaker cognitive functioning, including slower time perception and reduced self-control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2fbec610bdf633235c62db4c7b342d3bbeda3fff491a52d764ab294f30aec2f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bahrami Radmehr; Borhani Khatereh. Excluded and myopic: Social exclusion increases temporal discounting. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290175; article XML SHA-256 062d408a6041dd13a58143e23bc481360bb89701c91666727d8e7bdea885464e. “Excluded and myopic: Social exclusion increases temporal discounting” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290175).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290175). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive development
<a id="cognitive-development"></a>

Cognitive development is the gradual growth of a person’s thinking abilities, including problem solving, memory, language, and understanding information from their environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f44a95d955f88b775c87a9af847e3b8eeee552496d9bbd30839c9ba596250511

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cognitive Development” (C81241).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive disorder
<a id="cognitive-disorder"></a>

Cognitive disorder is a group of psychiatric disorders marked by problems with thinking abilities or memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7037b2d451f92f092b9ef3ee6cf81b84fdd481100f506931cec03dd5a64a262c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cognitive Disorder” (C92196).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive dissonance
<a id="cognitive-dissonance"></a>

Cognitive dissonance is a motivational state that arises when a person holds inconsistent thoughts at the same time, or when a belief conflicts with what they do. It refers to the tension created by that mismatch.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8faa34c83d6398808c9e6d93da1e01848a6a97c3135362e680ae774235a604da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognitive Dissonance” (D003073).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003073). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive domain
<a id="cognitive-domain"></a>

In Bloom’s taxonomy, the cognitive domain is the area concerned with thinking and intellectual skills. It describes levels of cognition ranging from simple forms of thought to more complex ones and is used to assess students’ intellectual abilities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c9a6c559d461a1c28f9fdfc35f766cddca5c6b7ed4175d191c81da296e8c9b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mohammed Manal; Omar Nazlia. Question classification based on Bloom’s taxonomy cognitive domain using modified TF-IDF and word2vec. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0230442; article XML SHA-256 9d89931bf096c9b35167f6cbe85cb6168ca04a7ce8133e71f483a0a90e64eae8. “Question classification based on Bloom’s taxonomy cognitive domain using modified TF-IDF and word2vec” (10.1371/journal.pone.0230442).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230442). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive dysfunction
<a id="cognitive-dysfunction"></a>

Cognitive dysfunction is impaired or disrupted thinking. It refers broadly to difficulties in mental abilities and in processing information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c783fdbb401106d930f9e14d5806b94732376d28b834682da1ed0f40bfcc2b0b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cognitive Dysfunction” (C46083).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive electrophysiology
<a id="cognitive-electrophysiology"></a>

Cognitive electrophysiology is the study of brain electrical activity in relation to cognitive tasks or mental processes, typically using signals such as EEG. In this context, it refers to using neurophysiological recordings alongside other information to understand or screen for differences linked to cognition and neurodevelopment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7643b6dd3b9f3666809374b4e2815a4bb384c787b2ef7c7c2446b909f16e24f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sadi Sadikul Haque; Hossain Md Arman; Tawhid Md Nurul Ahad. Integrating socioeconomic context with multimodal EEG data for improved ADHD risk screening. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357213; article XML SHA-256 af44fa1bc2fd04b1c5d7e475677abe126f388dbc4823267ac0a142ca07933eca. “Integrating socioeconomic context with multimodal EEG data for improved ADHD risk screening” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357213).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357213). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire
<a id="cognitive-emotion-regulation-questionnaire"></a>

The Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire is a psychological assessment tool used to measure how people think about and mentally manage negative or stressful life events. It is intended to capture a range of cognitive emotion-regulation strategies, including more adaptive and more maladaptive responses, although research has raised concerns about how clearly its proposed subscales function as separate factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ace3102de7beae29dbb03e88d483997d1014df01f8d580820555a823dab10cb8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Flores-Kanter Pablo Ezequiel; Moretti Luciana; García-Batista Zoilo Emilio; Medrano Leonardo. Cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire: Evidence of internal structure through confirmatory factor modeling and exploratory structural equation modeling. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326319; article XML SHA-256 e9c4785017cc41b13d03772b547c0f1b3669ca62b1644df48666af333f9bd2ef. “Cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire: Evidence of internal structure through confirmatory factor modeling and exploratory structural equation modeling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326319).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326319). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive enhancer
<a id="cognitive-enhancer"></a>

A cognitive enhancer is a drug intended to improve learning or memory, often with the aim of reducing cognitive problems linked to dementias. Such drugs can work through different biological mechanisms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90d8a03719eeb10dd1a8e45ca82d4b5df4ede027ef9d228968cd3ae50303f1f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nootropic Agents” (D018697).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018697). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive flexibility
<a id="cognitive-flexibility"></a>

Cognitive flexibility is the ability to change how one thinks and acts when tasks or surroundings change. It involves adjusting mental and behavioral strategies effectively to meet new demands.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 754cd08c402774521bc740e0251f3294543eb0df2a92092cb6b3f68d33bc6517

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognitive Flexibility” (D000098282).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000098282). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive functioning
<a id="cognitive-functioning"></a>

Cognitive functioning refers to how well a person’s mental abilities are working in ways that affect learning, participation in treatment, and day-to-day recovery. In psychiatric settings, it can be measured through cognitive or neuropsychological assessment and may influence clinical planning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 207fb632cdd5ecd53a078ca42c2f35879129fcbe13619fdde5c7fe6441609ef9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Streel Emmanuel; Jones Madison; Iulita M. Florencia. Cognitive functioning as an underutilized determinant of treatment planning: a review in alcohol use disorder. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1913195; article XML SHA-256 77e5fbae373651a2369616a31c99623bef5fe8101c55d0342b54160676741d6d. “Cognitive functioning as an underutilized determinant of treatment planning: a review in alcohol use disorder” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1913195).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1913195). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive impairment
<a id="cognitive-impairment"></a>

Cognitive impairment means reduced cognitive function, such as difficulty with mental abilities involved in thinking. In this packet, it is discussed as a clinical feature that can be present or absent in people with schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e896a7b4fc1f8521559eccd34aa7740187151329cef9696530c391fd848d0bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Imre Okan; Kirkas Aysegul. The relationship between cognitive function and inflammatory-nutritional status in schizophrenia: cognitive impairment is inversely related to PNI and CALLY indices. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08021-0; article XML SHA-256 e72a9a03201700529ca79a1ee652f5277941cd009fac25f06a7d9dfe70bd74aa. “The relationship between cognitive function and inflammatory-nutritional status in schizophrenia: cognitive impairment is inversely related to PNI and CALLY indices” (10.1186/s12888-026-08021-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08021-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive impenetrability
<a id="cognitive-impenetrability"></a>

Cognitive impenetrability is the idea that perceptual processing operates automatically as a modular system and is not directly controlled by conscious thought or other higher-level cognition. In current discussion, the term is often contrasted with claims that top-down factors such as attention or memory can shape what is perceived, although strong evidence for this in a strict sense remains debated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 41ef631d5c48ba8ce6cb1af1cbd8a86185daeb0ad62fdd0ac678c95c906d49ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lammers Nikki A.; de Haan Edward H.; Pinto Yair. No Evidence of Narrowly Defined Cognitive Penetrability in Unambiguous Vision. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00852; article XML SHA-256 16d499eb2250cc8b1d754f296d28bca1856d2f9807dabeb25e6af3896a4d9020. “No Evidence of Narrowly Defined Cognitive Penetrability in Unambiguous Vision” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00852).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00852). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive intelligence
<a id="cognitive-intelligence"></a>

In this historical source, cognitive intelligence means the distinctly human capacity to go beyond simple recognition of objects and to think in abstractions. It includes forming concepts of a class or type by comparing experiences, grouping shared qualities, and setting aside differences rather than relying only on concrete mental images.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b90f4acb235e3a4e6bcfb8302c4c0428920f48cb6d96208052eaf863259e4d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-210000-222000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive interdependence
<a id="cognitive-interdependence"></a>

Cognitive interdependence is the degree to which a person mentally includes their romantic relationship in their sense of self. It reflects seeing oneself and one’s partner as a shared, collective “we” rather than as fully separate individuals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae05211b4d8a6b7e115a236476347d7acf953a36386ec0d82ae90b70dd96357b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lamarche Veronica M.; Rolison Jonathan J.. Hand-in-hand in the golden years: Cognitive interdependence, partner involvement in retirement planning, and the transition into retirement. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0261251; article XML SHA-256 460633399bd03b820e8dd1078d5ed82c49d1d589d6fa865fad7043b8f3882c27. “Hand-in-hand in the golden years: Cognitive interdependence, partner involvement in retirement planning, and the transition into retirement” (10.1371/journal.pone.0261251).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261251). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive load
<a id="cognitive-load"></a>

Cognitive load is the amount and type of mental effort involved in learning or performing a task. In cognitive load theory, it includes load from the material’s inherent complexity, load added by unhelpful instructional demands, and effort that supports building and automating useful mental structures for learning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f8615c0a8ccfebcd5fe734dad19cd86410ac4cbbb9cc1071f7b7951a5261498

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Yumeng. Optimizing cognitive load in Guzheng learning: a narrative review of demonstration, segmented practice, and feedback scaffolding. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881131; article XML SHA-256 35f02a9fa4ea413d6d04f823dcc28a64c79a434c0f74f025f8c83d8a43b8838f. “Optimizing cognitive load in Guzheng learning: a narrative review of demonstration, segmented practice, and feedback scaffolding” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881131).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881131). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive miser
<a id="cognitive-miser"></a>

Cognitive miser refers to the idea that people often rely on mental shortcuts, such as trust, credibility judgments, and perceptions of risks or benefits, instead of detailed knowledge when forming opinions or support. In this view, immediate judgments are shaped more by heuristics than by what a person objectively knows.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36139b4057c8b302d9077fc4627673ff8b06f6b73e1d1b0c434f7b5662547ccd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cheung Justin C; Ho Shirley S. Gauging support for autonomous delivery drones powered by artificial intelligence: A public survey in Singapore. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350394; article XML SHA-256 bb416e14c9102789fb9b7bfee1013e360a2954be0a7cead37c106ea4309ad3ae. “Gauging support for autonomous delivery drones powered by artificial intelligence: A public survey in Singapore” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350394).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350394). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive narrowing
<a id="cognitive-narrowing"></a>

Cognitive narrowing is a reduced, less thorough way of processing information during problem solving, marked by limited attention and disorganized exploration. In this study, it described the pattern shown by lower-resilience students, who examined less information deeply and were more likely to respond with random trial and error or give up when anxious.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 905cf58b50300649f70765da8227a1b2b64564243f83b712de7e7e25d98b01af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Zhenguo; Du Wenxiu; Zhao Huaiyan; Liu Qing; Xie Wanli. The influence of college students’ psychological resilience on problem solving: based on eye tracking technology. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1616452; article XML SHA-256 4b9af18f2923863f1903b26ec9b1c30413aaa28cbce820082477f0b8f250d619. “The influence of college students’ psychological resilience on problem solving: based on eye tracking technology” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1616452).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1616452). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive neuroscience
<a id="cognitive-neuroscience"></a>

Cognitive neuroscience is the study of mental processes and learning in relation to the parts of the brain linked with them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d23e3004bf9e228a9f0ccf743e08fe4993298b8c8d3975f34a80842774037e22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognitive Neuroscience” (D000066494).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000066494). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive operation
<a id="cognitive-operation"></a>

A cognitive operation is an intellectual mental act involved in grasping concepts and the relationships between them. In the source, this idea is contrasted with embodied understanding, which includes sensory, motor, and emotional processes rather than only abstract thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06fea4fe336060b84982d110baec3bb376f96f253550881d5cc2f3316ec40c14

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Johnson Mark. Embodied understanding. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00875; article XML SHA-256 ddb6a719ec2e90dc17d56964d70039a2d742f849aa012213eb818685b06ba4c0. “Embodied understanding” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00875).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00875). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive plasticity
<a id="cognitive-plasticity"></a>

Cognitive plasticity is the mind’s ability to improve or change cognitive performance through experience or training. In the source, it refers to older adults’ capacity to strengthen functions such as attention and alertness in ways that may help offset age-related decline.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 034a1767766f6bc2e33ca1a491e7cc9f55759a1ac51a175ca9b63f44a5eb1e13

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mayas Julia; Parmentier Fabrice B. R.; Andrés Pilar; Ballesteros Soledad. Plasticity of Attentional Functions in Older Adults after Non-Action Video Game Training: A Randomized Controlled Trial. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0092269; article XML SHA-256 47faff60da65245948fe4a8d5b073eed8a2a9dfa90f3cc318ee6c1af15b8540d. “Plasticity of Attentional Functions in Older Adults after Non-Action Video Game Training: A Randomized Controlled Trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0092269).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0092269). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive processing therapy
<a id="cognitive-processing-therapy"></a>

Cognitive processing therapy is a psychotherapy with established benefit for posttraumatic stress disorder, including chronic PTSD. In the source, it is described as a treatment that can be delivered in a massed format, meaning the full 12 sessions are completed on an accelerated schedule such as within 7 days.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6d959f04d6ebed8e2bdbdfc2114f6e7e7decb9e78b0aa0dc1b1e874ef15dc8b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meshkat Shakila; J Zeifman Richard; Stewart Kathleen; Janssen-Aguilar Reinhard; Lou Wendy; Jetly Rakesh; Monson Candice M; Bhat Venkat. Psilocybin-assisted massed cognitive processing therapy for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: Protocol for an open-label pilot feasibility trial. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313741; article XML SHA-256 3d45f634a38f2a168117d73f6c3d17105ff7203a4d810bea804ee30f439391d7. “Psilocybin-assisted massed cognitive processing therapy for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: Protocol for an open-label pilot feasibility trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313741).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313741). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## cognitive psychology
<a id="cognitive-psychology"></a>

Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies how mental processes work, including perception, attention, thinking, language, and memory, usually by drawing conclusions from behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71a7daf13d166cc6e2e8fee24a33d2c9dfe4eb17501e00b9fec8e2d347413641

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognitive Psychology” (D000090182).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000090182). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive rehabilitation
<a id="cognitive-rehabilitation"></a>

Cognitive rehabilitation is a rehabilitation approach focused on cognitive recovery. In this source, it refers to an early intervention examined in people with mild traumatic brain injury for its association with later cognitive, functional, and biomarker outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e07bb233825d9369814ec07457fd7d427b51e9c6740e98e171bc1b2210de2e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ren Yi; Wu Huiying; Lu Yumei; Zeng Qi; Su Qian. Association between early cognitive rehabilitation and long-term cognitive recovery in patients with mild traumatic brain injury: a retrospective cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1846518; article XML SHA-256 3684ffd3a8c8c40fce7e9decb7b186fbd485814f883c4058449109b16f4062b8. “Association between early cognitive rehabilitation and long-term cognitive recovery in patients with mild traumatic brain injury: a retrospective cohort study” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1846518).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1846518). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive remediation
<a id="cognitive-remediation"></a>

Cognitive remediation is a behavioral approach that aims to improve specific areas of learning. It does this through repeated practice along with strategies that help people compensate and adapt.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17ece5cde2ea0751ee03d2a789ade8ffc32a07d2556e9c287a12715d69c35501

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognitive Remediation” (D000072466).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000072466). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive reserve
<a id="cognitive-reserve"></a>

Cognitive reserve is the mental capacity that helps a person manage or bounce back from the effects of brain-related injury or a psychotic episode.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7755caad2737b49b1235c13f15ba4df3d87bae2a14d7345186e27285069e3742

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognitive Reserve” (D058245).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058245). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive restructuring
<a id="cognitive-restructuring"></a>

Cognitive restructuring is a counselling technique from cognitive behavioral therapy that helps a person notice, question, and change thought patterns and beliefs that contribute to stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07fa9a4db38da3b95c82fc0d654e8bee5f1f69e46ca5af9bc3db513ed1720dc3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognitive Restructuring” (D000088686).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000088686). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive schema
<a id="cognitive-schema"></a>

In this source, cognitive schema refers to a structured way of organizing understanding during learning, supported by the symbolic imagery in poetry. It is described as helping learners transfer what they have learned more effectively and with greater stability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4e96d5cd3030c6bfd313fc96fc1c6c29ad99cb350744387ef079672e1f18b5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Dawei; He Ping; Yan Huifen. The impact of cognitive schema on learning transfer ability and stability of classical Chinese poetry. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336135; article XML SHA-256 a15c67f4de16cce7c3155f8a2a2d92063c15a3815e9d6c098a4c65174f7ffd20. “The impact of cognitive schema on learning transfer ability and stability of classical Chinese poetry” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336135).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336135). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive science
<a id="cognitive-science"></a>

Cognitive science is the study of mental activities and the brain processes that make them possible. It draws on areas such as psychology, computer science, philosophy, and linguistics to understand how thinking works.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42d544a58c55b02f1b6da4d31df332c995f8419539275b7ee042414d06809d9f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognitive Science” (D019336).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019336). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive structure
<a id="cognitive-structure"></a>

Cognitive structure is the way a person interprets situations and organizes experience through beliefs and knowledge. In this sense, it helps shape mood and behavior by influencing how the person feels and acts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cda310d1704b1a6276378a4100b4f384f13ea93f612bf9ac83a62c36f03c789c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognitive Behavioral Therapy” (D015928).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015928). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive style
<a id="cognitive-style"></a>

Cognitive style is a personality-related way of processing information that can affect how well a person reasons. In this source, it is described through the contrast between field-independent and field-dependent styles, with field-independent people showing stronger analytical performance, especially on more complex reasoning problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bffb6603a4e71c68ca2b8fc2ead5f771f8484cea5951ea26bd9a9b5af4b1fe3f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yin Lin; Shi Zifu; Liu Mei; Chen Huohong. Effect of hit rate and cognitive style on Bayesian reasoning: evidence from eye movements. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1485283; article XML SHA-256 bd6dc3d3113ae48deba236f1987817870766f1b3cf8ff409816d09335d935023. “Effect of hit rate and cognitive style on Bayesian reasoning: evidence from eye movements” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1485283).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1485283). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive system
<a id="cognitive-system"></a>

In this article, the cognitive system is a theoretical model of an individual’s internal mental organization, treating cognitive, emotional, and valence-related markers as interacting parts of one composite system. It is described as the structure through which information is recursively processed and matched with incoming information in ways that may support cognitive activation and coordinated social effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cbaca9a56c0b44090cdcb480b774741cff1ee217210c901b891aa1bb8fcd81b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Khrennikov Andrei; Aspalter Christian; Zhan Likan. Quantum-like architecture of the social atom: mental marker coherence and the triple-resonance mechanism of cognitive activation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1882642; article XML SHA-256 15adcf95ace371f90da4ed553fb3853e1e201dd85cb7976f9d27eb28952720e3. “Quantum-like architecture of the social atom: mental marker coherence and the triple-resonance mechanism of cognitive activation” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1882642).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1882642). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive task analysis
<a id="cognitive-task-analysis"></a>

Cognitive task analysis is an approach used to study how people think and use knowledge while carrying out complex real-world work. In this packet, it is described as using knowledge-elicitation methods such as semi-structured interviews to uncover the cognitive challenges, adaptive skills, and flexible decision making involved in practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a268ce34853006719831dc41f495051983d2e2916836deadf27f0b3e3baf2552

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Taylor Jamie; Ashford Michael; Jefferson Matt. High performance coach cognition in the wild: using applied cognitive task analysis for practical insights–cognitive challenges and curriculum knowledge. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1154168; article XML SHA-256 0c256bf50ca5f9100a843091d963e68300c16fb471fce8d15d809747c8c6b336. “High performance coach cognition in the wild: using applied cognitive task analysis for practical insights–cognitive challenges and curriculum knowledge” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1154168).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1154168). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive therapy
<a id="cognitive-therapy"></a>

Cognitive therapy is a directive form of psychotherapy that focuses on how a person’s interpretation of situations shapes feelings and behavior. It works on the idea that beliefs and thinking patterns strongly influence mood and actions, and uses verbal and behavioral methods to identify and change negative thinking linked to problematic behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a51d4e30554e544fbe30b17147594c0767f6ca8044d2dc6b5103c202e7f602dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognitive Behavioral Therapy” (D015928).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015928). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive triad
<a id="cognitive-triad"></a>

The cognitive triad is a concept in cognition that refers to how a person thinks about three areas: the self, the world, and the future.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b89edbf52b3ec28c42f6ef9960318f5c30324179fa349f937875a8ff42e549ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Karakaya Arzu; Yıldız Guzel Nur; Şimşek Nuray. Development of the scale on the effects of sleep disorder on stress: validity and reliability study. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07099-2; article XML SHA-256 1e649f77c5a957461990f67d6532a263a608e24ff949403d0b51e10a211879b9. “Development of the scale on the effects of sleep disorder on stress: validity and reliability study” (10.1186/s12888-025-07099-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07099-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive vulnerability
<a id="cognitive-vulnerability"></a>

Cognitive vulnerability is a pattern of thinking that can increase a person’s risk for depression. In this source, early maladaptive schemas are described as an important example of such vulnerability factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4fb614ff294bc9bdf760ea85e3f669f806de6e7df42f2fa3c461a7fe0427dc0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hajri Ahlem; Karmous Abdennour; Laabidi Sirine; Khelifa Emira; Hajri Mohamed; Dhaouadi Tarak; Zalila Haifa; Maamri Amira. Antidepressant treatment is associated with changes in early maladaptive schemas in major depressive disorder: a prospective study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1865222; article XML SHA-256 063a34a040ca5ca11f1c388bd3bd8f6b6f4ae5185b080f6bf0e7a518a4abd0d8. “Antidepressant treatment is associated with changes in early maladaptive schemas in major depressive disorder: a prospective study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1865222).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1865222). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cognitive–affective personality system
<a id="cognitiveaffective-personality-system"></a>

The cognitive–affective personality system is a theory used to explain how a situation can trigger a chain of mental and emotional responses that shape later motivation and behavior. In this account, situational cues activate a person’s appraisals, which are then linked to outcomes such as engagement and performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 11ae28d4b955f9065d52ffdd308b854f1568be7c0bac01f7f97101811c34a692

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Tao. Illegitimate tasks and work role performance among engineering consulting professionals: integrating work–family boundary and cognitive–affective personality system theories. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1924102; article XML SHA-256 11d754c1a2a43eba98dbe4208741e10dc3a386ede979484e6dc1f28fd5b0ee54. “Illegitimate tasks and work role performance among engineering consulting professionals: integrating work–family boundary and cognitive–affective personality system theories” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1924102).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1924102). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Cohen’s d
<a id="cohens-d"></a>

Cohen’s d is a standardized effect size for the difference between means. It expresses how large a mean difference is relative to the standardizer chosen for that difference, helping researchers compare results and use them in cumulative research such as power analysis and meta-analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a86125ea8d40a25ffd4ce3e5e8a87a7df7d034a103751e5b0b9ab41fa075648f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Cohen’s kappa
<a id="cohens-kappa"></a>

Cohen’s kappa is a commonly used statistical measure of how much two raters agree, used to assess inter-rater reliability in clinical research. The source also notes that this measure has well-documented statistical limitations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2585b792cbb30065bf4960c38d49dd3426a663f3e9767f86327ed10ee1620fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wongpakaran Nahathai; Wongpakaran Tinakon; Wedding Danny; Gwet Kilem L. A comparison of Cohen’s Kappa and Gwet’s AC1 when calculating inter-rater reliability coefficients: a study conducted with personality disorder samples. 2013; DOI 10.1186/1471-2288-13-61; article XML SHA-256 a88828972a1735dc65132247b8d3ee33d4ceb1c5f5c7f91df66fd7cb6b5a10f4. “A comparison of Cohen’s Kappa and Gwet’s AC1 when calculating inter-rater reliability coefficients: a study conducted with personality disorder samples” (10.1186/1471-2288-13-61).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-13-61). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cohesion
<a id="cohesion"></a>

Cohesion is the strength of ties among members of a community and their shared sense of belonging and solidarity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7622ebd08470df0d46159067766102dcd7fb6c30b76fa5be8fd4c2044c37431

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Cohesion” (D000091782).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000091782). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cohort
<a id="cohort"></a>

In research, a cohort is a group of people who share a defining feature, such as having a particular condition, and are studied to examine how factors are associated with later outcomes. In a prospective cohort study, this group is followed forward over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d9d8c24b6bdf4a42c3404a82ce4a393cdb357f1f9a2ef7236af654621ab910e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sabljo Daniel; Fischer Simone; Berghaus Thomas M.; Linseisen Jakob; Meisinger Christa; Schmitz Timo. Association between beta-blocker and statin use and mental health in patients following pulmonary embolism: a prospective cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05187-w; article XML SHA-256 25fd928da301182dffc5e0c3c4850842742ab83f8fadec6672c1b0cd64ddeb9d. “Association between beta-blocker and statin use and mental health in patients following pulmonary embolism: a prospective cohort study” (10.1186/s40359-026-05187-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05187-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cohort study
<a id="cohort-study"></a>

A cohort study is an observational study that follows a group of people to examine whether a particular exposure or characteristic is associated with later outcomes. In this context, it means tracking patients over time to see whether medication use is linked with symptoms such as depression or anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53b4b2b2a8ca9db0f9077fecf5b638c17cab4bd70d6d216ebf6715247fbef6fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sabljo Daniel; Fischer Simone; Berghaus Thomas M.; Linseisen Jakob; Meisinger Christa; Schmitz Timo. Association between beta-blocker and statin use and mental health in patients following pulmonary embolism: a prospective cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05187-w; article XML SHA-256 25fd928da301182dffc5e0c3c4850842742ab83f8fadec6672c1b0cd64ddeb9d. “Association between beta-blocker and statin use and mental health in patients following pulmonary embolism: a prospective cohort study” (10.1186/s40359-026-05187-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05187-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coitus
<a id="coitus"></a>

Coitus is sexual intercourse between a man and a woman, and the term is used only for humans.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70d70f86f8297b438eedbd03b310ad02fcaa3820278dc77d738c1fcf12740e31

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Coitus” (D003075).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003075). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coitus interruptus
<a id="coitus-interruptus"></a>

Coitus interruptus is a method of contraception in which intercourse is deliberately stopped before ejaculation so that semen does not enter the vagina.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f04be3270f101769793fc959fb172398b449dcb31fc1f1b513bc51b334aa06f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Coitus Interruptus” (D003076).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003076). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cold cognition
<a id="cold-cognition"></a>

Cold cognition refers to thinking processes that are relatively independent of emotion, in contrast to hot cognition, which is emotion-laden. In this context, it describes cognitive processing that is not driven by emotional content.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dfd98c93c99710bf1c01b4a7a46ff33fe6d9ca401cd984a2aa09681ee41ec4ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Derakhshan Dorsa; Lipsman Nir; Feinstein Anthony; Levitt Anthony; Eizenman Moshe; Rabin Jennifer; Giacobbe Peter. Identification of cognitive predictors of remission in depression following limited effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on hot and cold cognitive systems. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1696560; article XML SHA-256 8a9925cf1aa6e077e6912a677b9c110019b753db9a62f565b7ae52b598e503a7. “Identification of cognitive predictors of remission in depression following limited effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on hot and cold cognitive systems” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1696560).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1696560). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cold spot
<a id="cold-spot"></a>

A cold spot is a small area of skin that is specifically responsive to cold stimulation. The term refers to one of the smallest localized points associated with sensing cold.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a620341dfa667fd45f6f0aeb9c6d4076486e04a79694979fd8db896991ac1bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: C3defs.htm” (ba7f9580cfb903b583a8).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C3defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coldness
<a id="coldness"></a>

Coldness is the subjective feeling of being cold. In this packet, it is listed as a symptom item on the Short Opiate Withdrawal Scale.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd8bcdbae9b1270caf4a2df4771c62987b9b3b3432090bf85146ff9d109025b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “SOWS Short - Feelings of Coldness” (C103754).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collaborative care
<a id="collaborative-care"></a>

Collaborative care is an evidence-based way of identifying and treating depression and anxiety within healthcare settings. In the provided source, it is described as a model used in pediatric and primary care and noted as having potential for delivery through telehealth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f6c9e1a8b082b971ca3bddc8848b8a01cd265baf30479556320fcb052e315ae5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vanderwood Karl; Joyner Jian; Little Virna. The effectiveness of collaborative care delivered via telehealth in a pediatric primary care population. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1240902; article XML SHA-256 54ba66eeef1a19d49df17123fd71d596e78b7dc22c51dd83ef0971d24aa05bf5. “The effectiveness of collaborative care delivered via telehealth in a pediatric primary care population” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1240902).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1240902). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collaborative empiricism
<a id="collaborative-empiricism"></a>

Collaborative empiricism is a way of working in cognitive behavioural therapy in which therapist and patient work together during structured sessions to examine and solve problems. It emphasizes a shared, joint approach between both people in therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c04708ece7169b275ceacd66fca334f2016f03ad92b34a5654ceb17d757d5a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Funada Satoshi; Watanabe Norio; Goto Takayuki; Negoro Hiromitsu; Akamatsu Shusuke; Ueno Kentaro; Uozumi Ryuji; Ichioka Kentaro; Segawa Takehiko; Akechi Tatsuo; Furukawa Toshiaki A; Ogawa Osamu. Cognitive behavioral therapy for overactive bladder in women: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12894-020-00697-0; article XML SHA-256 eb53c42fefc530a58d0ffb7b6e149996082c02f7d215a33e933dc6eafa9ac3b7. “Cognitive behavioral therapy for overactive bladder in women: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s12894-020-00697-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12894-020-00697-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collaborative filtering
<a id="collaborative-filtering"></a>

Collaborative filtering is a personalized recommendation method that uses a person’s past behavior or queries and compares them with similar users to suggest relevant items. In the source, it is described as a way to recommend research articles while adapting recommendations based on user similarity and changes in interests over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3fb45bf3aefad31a428c6aaf976036e82d06ece75eabfde3a66840447cd12eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [T R Mahesh; Vinoth Kumar V; Lim Se-Jung. UsCoTc: Improved Collaborative Filtering (CFL) recommendation methodology using user confidence, time context with impact factors for performance enhancement. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0282904; article XML SHA-256 c955224529f99a77a1388de35bae9c469f1abbe441662be21e79806131d8c973. “UsCoTc: Improved Collaborative Filtering (CFL) recommendation methodology using user confidence, time context with impact factors for performance enhancement” (10.1371/journal.pone.0282904).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282904). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collapsing
<a id="collapsing"></a>

In this psychology context, collapsing refers to boundaries or distinctions becoming less separate, such as between self and other or between past and present. It describes a merging in psychological meaning that makes something feel more personally relevant or immediate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d06bf2b037a9c2d0861d32da671edba9dfe5ec495c2681f5b7a45ca83824705c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Briones Marcelo R. S.. The evolutionary origin of the collective unconscious and the appeal of research on Neanderthals and other ancient humans. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857884; article XML SHA-256 020d5efbe4a84ef19036bc96319af61b99b64c75e86b6bd1cf167acb820b80bf. “The evolutionary origin of the collective unconscious and the appeal of research on Neanderthals and other ancient humans” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857884).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857884). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collateral
<a id="collateral"></a>

In diagnosis, collateral refers to information gathered from other sources besides the person being assessed, such as developmental history or supporting documentation. It is used to help anchor clinical judgment and strengthen diagnostic validity, especially when self-report or current presentation may be incomplete or unclear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b6ff31d5bf1088e6b24985f343aab7dc505573bdb28a1466bb55836885fe15b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guimarães Gabriela N F. Autism prevalence and the limits of diagnostic expansion: a perspective on diagnostic validity, adult assessment, and phenotypic stratification. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1917652; article XML SHA-256 6cfab6a57bb7d3e0b2cd69949dc746555aef2e1716e3741e54b94833d68f81ec. “Autism prevalence and the limits of diagnostic expansion: a perspective on diagnostic validity, adult assessment, and phenotypic stratification” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1917652).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1917652). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collateral heredity
<a id="collateral-heredity"></a>

Collateral heredity is inheritance as estimated between relatives who are not in a direct parent-to-child line, such as brothers. In the source, it is treated as the degree to which a trait shown in one such relative is expected to appear in another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66a373c7e253d65aeaea01b57284c62a113f4b3c2f6cf237cbba304f26ea2b99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Galton's Law” (Galton's).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Galton's). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collateral sulcus
<a id="collateral-sulcus"></a>

The collateral sulcus, also called the collateral fissure, is a long, deep groove on the lower tentorial surface of the brain. It lies beneath the posterior and descending horns of the lateral ventricle and runs from the back end of the brain to the tip of the temporal lobe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e3e1ae5e8be793eb13d4af815c45600d5af8ab979a7aa1eb7ffe2ff10500fa6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Collateral Fissure” (C32340).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collative properties
<a id="collative-properties"></a>

Collative properties are features of a stimulus—such as novelty, uncertainty, and complexity—that combine to create its arousal potential. In this context, they are the qualities that help shape emotional responses by influencing how much information or surprise a stimulus carries.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2314a9ca2d468e6eb9170323067b2fddf70efb133d52b7c73f43aed1adf610ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yanagisawa Hideyoshi. Free-Energy Model of Emotion Potential: Modeling Arousal Potential as Information Content Induced by Complexity and Novelty. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fncom.2021.698252; article XML SHA-256 4c2aa1824debe955eaf093e727d92cedfaa028fb9757fdee68244018f5feb8da. “Free-Energy Model of Emotion Potential: Modeling Arousal Potential as Information Content Induced by Complexity and Novelty” (10.3389/fncom.2021.698252).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fncom.2021.698252). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collective
<a id="collective"></a>

In this context, collective refers to experiences or psychological states that arise at the level of a group rather than a single person. It describes phenomena shaped by shared goals, coordinated interaction, mutual trust, and common emotional uplift or self-transcendence in communal settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d9d7d20a7ec6f8f03f66b6dda5528f4607d00189fe305f9d570536aadc89f09

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Langwei Isabella; Li Bin. The recognition problem in collective optimal experience: the identity of generation and recognition as a structural event. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861167; article XML SHA-256 3a1094a2862b066d23cf259d0b0228044d2d3aa30970f2cf3679d68087526352. “The recognition problem in collective optimal experience: the identity of generation and recognition as a structural event” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861167).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861167). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collective behavior
<a id="collective-behavior"></a>

Collective behavior is the behavior of a group of people that seems unified in their attitudes, feelings, and motivations. It refers to an aggregate acting as though its members share a common direction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 20baf9db6ceed368e8eeb13fb0810eb94c73b2933722585126d4ca995cfb7eff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mass Behavior” (D008399).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008399). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collective consciousness
<a id="collective-consciousness"></a>

Collective consciousness is consciousness considered in terms of what is shared by two or more people, such as common meanings, tendencies, or mental elements. In this source, it is treated as the same idea as general consciousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2960d74ccb2f0a0f76643bfcaaa205d36d3d87e78a760f94f9332da43ce35fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3024000-3036000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collective efficacy
<a id="collective-efficacy"></a>

Collective efficacy is a group’s shared belief that it can successfully carry out a task. It also includes the sense that the group can manage or restrain a member’s disruptive or rule-breaking behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 85715e2208e889f91468786a31e64b9472e0f4fd41e643dcbfdf818587a65997

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Collective Efficacy” (D000092885).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000092885). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collective experience
<a id="collective-experience"></a>

Collective experience is the shared psychological experience of a group or humanity as people face common conditions or events. In this source, it especially refers to how cultural narratives help people understand and organize shared responses to environmental change and related collective trauma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ebbf9f63383b8f9b10f9166c51546503ffcf7bbac009f6b89b23793f12fc2593

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Jianhua. Boundaries as taboo: a cultural-psychological model of human-nature relations in Japanese heterogeneous marriage narratives. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815276; article XML SHA-256 2b80c35bcbdc5b3b5a6f8d4b26ca7dffabb89afa58b101b72c293628403f8da7. “Boundaries as taboo: a cultural-psychological model of human-nature relations in Japanese heterogeneous marriage narratives” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815276).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815276). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collective movements
<a id="collective-movements"></a>

Collective movements are coordinated patterns of movement by members of a group. In the source, this refers to group movement sequences generated by simple local rules, such as one individual starting and others moving in turn based on proximity, which can reflect underlying social structure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 221e694d10a49b6094d2a8af04b7446b7d2ab5058d9d80e3d88b64870bd1c571

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Koda Hiroki; Arai Zin; Matsuda Ikki. Agent-based simulation for reconstructing social structure by observing collective movements with special reference to single-file movement. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243173; article XML SHA-256 b70a0d661aacc7c0137f4f67ad7377124b50872af98012d4597f975b50c904dd. “Agent-based simulation for reconstructing social structure by observing collective movements with special reference to single-file movement” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243173).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243173). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collective self
<a id="collective-self"></a>

In this historical source, collective self refers to the idea that a group may share a common self-consciousness. It appears as one meaning sometimes given to the social self, though the passage notes that this view was disputed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40c98773bbb6c2d0c70e6afcf685a18bf191fe49323ae369abf4af4e82bd2a3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3108000-3120000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collective unconscious
<a id="collective-unconscious"></a>

The collective unconscious is a Jungian idea referring to deep, shared symbolic patterns in the human mind that shape themes such as fear, social bonding, and hierarchy beyond individual experience. In this source, it is described as an evolved psychological structure that developed gradually in human ancestry and later became evident in symbolic thought and expression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a0419f3710fa5920913f7373221de3a92e7b0e9da52e4f2780f9fe7c505a42d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Briones Marcelo R. S.. The evolutionary origin of the collective unconscious and the appeal of research on Neanderthals and other ancient humans. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857884; article XML SHA-256 020d5efbe4a84ef19036bc96319af61b99b64c75e86b6bd1cf167acb820b80bf. “The evolutionary origin of the collective unconscious and the appeal of research on Neanderthals and other ancient humans” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857884).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857884). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collectivism
<a id="collectivism"></a>

Collectivism is a historical term for a form of theoretical socialism centered on public ownership of land and capital and public control of industry. In the source, it is also used more loosely for socialism or communism, especially in reference to French movements after about 1850.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42740fcb480c43bbf8db62c35a29e0cb3d10031e237b1ebc567f74efa118e44c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Collectivism” (Collectivism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C3defs.htm#Collectivism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## collinearity
<a id="collinearity"></a>

Collinearity is a situation in which measured variables are so strongly related that their unique associations become hard to separate in a statistical model. In this study context, high collinearity was taken as a sign of possible construct overlap and a reason to interpret unexpected coefficients cautiously.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3b0b5d90b9ed223b361f38ac899788ce82df7205cc95604595d67a9900cfe1ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Junfei; Huang Jinyan; Kumar Jai. Community of inquiry presences and undergraduates’ online learning outcomes: self-regulated learning as a pathway and knowledge-seeking intention as a boundary condition. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1895876; article XML SHA-256 66d2fa49c4c0d13211d137ce4b57618a3c43d190a8d4a06bff23ec80e6731278. “Community of inquiry presences and undergraduates’ online learning outcomes: self-regulated learning as a pathway and knowledge-seeking intention as a boundary condition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1895876).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1895876). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## colonialism
<a id="colonialism"></a>

Colonialism is the set of economic, political, and social policies through which an imperial power keeps or expands control over other lands or peoples. It also refers to the practice or belief in acquiring and holding colonies, especially as a historical pattern rather than mainly as an ideology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b20fc3afd5cc8912fffa0567483fc5e89a10f8c61f2c4bae5d6611363dfa16e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Colonialism” (D018595).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018595). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## colony
<a id="colony"></a>

In this historical source, colony can mean a group shaped by locality in social usage, a biologically organized group of relatively distinct living units, or in political philosophy a community of emigrants settled away from their mother country and still under its protection or government. It can also refer to such settlers as a distinct self-governing community.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a25a7d8080934bf188c1a10501067203477473f4da356d1df5474218e0796c9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Colony” (Colony).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C3defs.htm#Colony). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## color
<a id="color"></a>

Color is the visual quality of an object that comes from the absorption or reflection of particular wavelengths of light.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67d1fdb879d75af66dd649bcbfcc6645abbcfdd4047ed04f4e431893ea85d3df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Color” (D003116).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003116). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## color adaptation
<a id="color-adaptation"></a>

Color adaptation is a change in visual color perception after prolonged exposure to color-related input, so that later color judgments are biased in the opposite direction. In this source, the effect is shown not only after color experience itself but also after understanding language that strongly implies a particular color.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 645d344b86cc8d3a91d01f6482d44c53c1176072c9d024d392713791b59e168b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zheng Liling; Huang Ping; Zhong Xiao; Li Tianfeng; Mo Lei. Color adaptation induced from linguistic description of color. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0173755; article XML SHA-256 81db4e45837522322f779fe0a5b7c504d9409f12cae9e067ab1478d77801e6b9. “Color adaptation induced from linguistic description of color” (10.1371/journal.pone.0173755).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0173755). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## color attribute
<a id="color-attribute"></a>

A color attribute is a conceptual feature of an object that represents its color and can take specific values such as red or yellow. In language production, this feature can be especially important for objects strongly linked to a typical color, where it influences how easily the object’s name is retrieved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c4675acaa20c3eedbcb49c0a9db0bcd1666ce1eb0a1fb978644d69f620d3c418

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Redmann Alexandra; FitzPatrick Ian; Hellwig Frauke; Indefrey Peter. The use of conceptual components in language production: an ERP study. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00363; article XML SHA-256 9bd6d28105b5b702d4dae8969d2fd2a52c996299beca758a5b3e7e99e5b094d0. “The use of conceptual components in language production: an ERP study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00363).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00363). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## color blindness
<a id="color-blindness"></a>

Color blindness is an absence of, or problem with, perceiving colors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 871ea81d4084d972aee4ff0647ca50085e416b89d1993f81707a414aec65975c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Color Blindness” (C3891).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## color constancy
<a id="color-constancy"></a>

Color constancy is the ability to see an object’s surface color as relatively stable even when the lighting changes and alters the light reaching the eye. This perceptual stability helps support consistent recognition and memory for objects across different viewing conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddc7df9f8861d6f05f6b2a28938fe6d59e79f90d8f39253075851acdb80ba3b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Heidari-Gorji Hamed; Gil Rodriguez Raquel; Gegenfurtner Karl R.. Human-aligned evaluation of a pixel-wise DNN color constancy model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1809976; article XML SHA-256 69300aa3aca161998bd70b4450478402ba7e4731f6716fd5a13702424501c50c. “Human-aligned evaluation of a pixel-wise DNN color constancy model” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1809976).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1809976). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## color contrast
<a id="color-contrast"></a>

Color contrast is a difference in color between an object and other items in a visual scene that can make the object easier to pick out and identify. In referential communication, speakers may mention color to take advantage of this contrast even when color is not strictly needed to single out the object.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8f659f50eb2f74913b27f35b0f9de5dc473899d8bc6a7a485364926797fad09

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rubio-Fernández Paula. How Redundant Are Redundant Color Adjectives? An Efficiency-Based Analysis of Color Overspecification. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00153; article XML SHA-256 53630435284362a686ecb655e8f89c88308d3d3d2657a18382910516a4d0c6b5. “How Redundant Are Redundant Color Adjectives? An Efficiency-Based Analysis of Color Overspecification” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00153).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00153). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## color harmony
<a id="color-harmony"></a>

Color harmony is the experience of a color combination as pleasing or aesthetically positive, in contrast to color disharmony, which tends to evoke unpleasant reactions. In this source, it refers to how paired colors are judged for pleasantness and esthetic value during perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce50c2b0347e4228555033958f9daa43e6d254a051e0b0b4a86c1a9af4c5a31f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ikeda Takashi; Matsuyoshi Daisuke; Sawamoto Nobukatsu; Fukuyama Hidenao; Osaka Naoyuki. Color harmony represented by activity in the medial orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00382; article XML SHA-256 64da7a491901b2952cf92b83ea583ba4c568b9b15a2842a2f3f7394cdb16de4a. “Color harmony represented by activity in the medial orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala” (10.3389/fnhum.2015.00382).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00382). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## color mixture
<a id="color-mixture"></a>

Color mixture is the combining of colors to produce another perceived color. In the packet, it refers to normal trichromatic mixing relationships, including complementary color pairs that combine to appear white.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b9a52da771a0cf0c42ee2d8b44ef9fa94753eb9aa68c2abd99b33e61a3c7181d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pridmore Ralph W.. Orthogonal Relations and Color Constancy in Dichromatic Colorblindness. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0107035; article XML SHA-256 53c030f121c77d3e55fef12e72ee37d4bbac1b6d1037071cd5449661da8480e8. “Orthogonal Relations and Color Constancy in Dichromatic Colorblindness” (10.1371/journal.pone.0107035).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107035). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## color perception
<a id="color-perception"></a>

Color perception is the brain’s processing of color signals from the eyes in the visual cortex, turning them into meaningful representations. It depends on many neurons and is shaped not just by the wavelengths coming from an object, but also by surrounding colors and brightness contrast at its edges.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a28577c25f17c6afb80274731e1bcc47d042ec72a06360345c60a45bdd2dd69f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Color Perception” (D003118).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003118). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## color sensation
<a id="color-sensation"></a>

Color sensation is the final perceptual outcome of color vision. In this account, it refers to the experienced hues, especially the unique or pure hues red, yellow, green, and blue, which serve as the basic components for describing other hues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62da3f8e2694fc7ec7fa2f5fff455f14ef204ba2cc84b63a8407c68d31221793

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pridmore Ralph W.. Cone Photoreceptor Sensitivities and Unique Hue Chromatic Responses: Correlation and Causation Imply the Physiological Basis of Unique Hues. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0077134; article XML SHA-256 e56b32524e39d1949646ce828819bfd24a4915c06dade9eb1323116e375c4d37. “Cone Photoreceptor Sensitivities and Unique Hue Chromatic Responses: Correlation and Causation Imply the Physiological Basis of Unique Hues” (10.1371/journal.pone.0077134).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077134). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## color temperature
<a id="color-temperature"></a>

Color temperature is a measure, expressed in kelvin, of the light appearance produced by a source and can be adjusted across a range to reproduce different daylight-like conditions. In this context, changing color temperature is relevant because it can be paired with differing circadian effects on the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7174eb79d9b86c436438caeb9558a18b876990e54a31b561327173422a89395

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liang Jingjing; Cao Hui; Xu Donghua; Lu Xiaobing; Huang Feijiang; Atai Javid. A multi-functional nine channels full-spectrum light emitting diode color temperature palette. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327723; article XML SHA-256 715900886a1bbe3207f8c958eb4c1d883c243e98f7b183fe78fa0be8dfe8d7fe. “A multi-functional nine channels full-spectrum light emitting diode color temperature palette” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327723).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327723). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## color value
<a id="color-value"></a>

In a conceptual frame, a color value is the specific color linked to the color attribute of an object or concept, such as red. It can be a central part of how strongly color-diagnostic objects are represented and accessed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e62ec313f62dea7295060737baf20f9c4d9f473d0e7038e50fa856bb75678a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Redmann Alexandra; FitzPatrick Ian; Hellwig Frauke; Indefrey Peter. The use of conceptual components in language production: an ERP study. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00363; article XML SHA-256 9bd6d28105b5b702d4dae8969d2fd2a52c996299beca758a5b3e7e99e5b094d0. “The use of conceptual components in language production: an ERP study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00363).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00363). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## color vision
<a id="color-vision"></a>

Color vision is the eye’s ability to detect different wavelengths of light as colors under bright or daylight conditions. It depends on three types of cone cells in the retina that are tuned to different parts of the visible spectrum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8399df028a607b6c59e6ac851ab68ac88c29f7f4bbbc166befd1ec0ae9cb6069

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Color Vision” (D055253).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055253). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## color wheel
<a id="color-wheel"></a>

In mental health settings, a color wheel can refer to a nonverbal tool that asks a person to pick a color in answer to a question about their health or psychological state. The Manchester Color Wheel groups colors as positive, neutral, or negative and is used to help communicate mood or frame of mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6bcecd06743fb0a6f108f84ea55b152f91cb5124aeaf8e1b2c2d0711e115dc9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Carruthers Helen R; Magee Linda; Osborne Susan; Hall Linda K; Whorwell Peter J. The Manchester Color Wheel: validation in secondary school pupils. 2012; DOI 10.1186/1471-2288-12-136; article XML SHA-256 053f3deae2ef8dd3aac10bc5f09d5d099c2e0f1296387c8ed009fea249abacea. “The Manchester Color Wheel: validation in secondary school pupils” (10.1186/1471-2288-12-136).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-12-136). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Colored Progressive Matrices
<a id="colored-progressive-matrices"></a>

Colored Progressive Matrices is a measure used to assess intelligence, including in children. In the source, it was used to compare children’s percentile scores on intellectual performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4dc03cf7924bee8827da4412be4a47300c0772107ed1e777155ebdd9dfedbaf9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ittyerah Miriam. Handedness in low-birthweight children: Insights in lateralization. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1018913; article XML SHA-256 8b3699f55660fb0300c437c786fd6010bd427ca94282124563cc23b2f9368675. “Handedness in low-birthweight children: Insights in lateralization” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1018913).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1018913). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## colorimeter
<a id="colorimeter"></a>

A colorimeter is a device used to measure skin melanin as a melanin index. In this study, those measurements were used to examine how variation in melanin related to body temperature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 021f6e15a32353301d8aff5ed09f16cfd20c31119adf3b24eb7d26c164ab4215

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bongers Kale S; Tovar Santiago; Wiley Zanthia; Sumler Michele; Jablonski Nina G; Adamson Adewole S; Bhavani Sivasubramanium V. Skin melanin is associated with body temperature regulation in humans and mice. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334735; article XML SHA-256 50924009c75cf628732bbcd935470ae6dba818bd605d1b4c00e6cf35def93e58. “Skin melanin is associated with body temperature regulation in humans and mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334735).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334735). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## column
<a id="column"></a>

A column is an anatomical grouping of nerve elements, especially fibers or tracts, that runs lengthwise within the central nervous system while keeping a fairly consistent position and structure. The term is used particularly for the longitudinal fiber groups seen in the spinal cord.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 734396aa3d189bbd887cee6284eaa1f982d2f8d7e5474b1ac35044df4ace0b45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Column” (Column).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C3defs.htm#Column). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## columnar organization
<a id="columnar-organization"></a>

Columnar organization is the arrangement of the neocortex into cortical columns, which are understood as basic functional or computational units. In this view, the brain’s columns support processing through many units working in parallel.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59f22ab003aa0e6f49540a9deb7cc09c0c90b687b569aad39c884b0b6b7cabca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Roy Asim. The Theory of Localist Representation and of a Purely Abstract Cognitive System: The Evidence from Cortical Columns, Category Cells, and Multisensory Neurons. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00186; article XML SHA-256 d783192de03b57b83585db466ed588da1a41e2cae05a47935334371f6912115b. “The Theory of Localist Representation and of a Purely Abstract Cognitive System: The Evidence from Cortical Columns, Category Cells, and Multisensory Neurons” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00186).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00186). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coma
<a id="coma"></a>

Coma is a deep state of unconsciousness in which a person cannot be awakened, linked to markedly reduced brain activity. It generally occurs when both cerebral hemispheres or the brain stem reticular formation are injured or not functioning properly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1dfbf44b28a0dcddb8d6bdb3ef47a7b2fed504bd08f9322a5320e19e4f02ab8c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Coma” (D003128).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003128). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coma vigil
<a id="coma-vigil"></a>

Coma vigil is a syndrome in which a person is awake and has preserved sensorimotor pathways, but remains silent, inactive, and does not initiate voluntary movement. It is associated with dysfunction in both frontal lobes, especially the anterior cingulate region, and can severely impair communication and the ability to start motor actions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f21ca9581e7be0e5b890b6f7297c991f60146328c999f9972c76e417b16e8e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Akinetic Mutism” (D000405).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000405). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## combination tone
<a id="combination-tone"></a>

A combination tone is a tone heard along with two primary tones, understood in this historical account as arising within the ear rather than being present in the external sound itself. The source describes it as produced by asymmetrical vibration of the eardrum and middle-ear bones, and discusses it as closely related to beats.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b2a294f2cc021beb11d1b3c37ee7056faf8823037a34c800937102831aad8782

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hearing” (Hearing).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Hearing). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## combined therapy
<a id="combined-therapy"></a>

Combined therapy is the use of two treatments together rather than using either one alone. In this source, it refers to giving an iron-chelating drug plus an antioxidant together, which produced stronger improvement in brain-related problems than either treatment by itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0feb58a7e12929f7e3c93810b172d0c96627fe7d5d1b2233e248b3d3e2f3dcb1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sripetchwandee Jirapas; Pipatpiboon Noppamas; Chattipakorn Nipon; Chattipakorn Siriporn. Combined Therapy of Iron Chelator and Antioxidant Completely Restores Brain Dysfunction Induced by Iron Toxicity. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0085115; article XML SHA-256 8bce8e9673b65b7264eac592be0632fa13535958138533d0d077b653a49e727b. “Combined Therapy of Iron Chelator and Antioxidant Completely Restores Brain Dysfunction Induced by Iron Toxicity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0085115).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0085115). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## command style
<a id="command-style"></a>

Command style is a teacher-directed way of teaching in which learning is guided mainly through the teacher’s instructions or commands. In this study, it is contrasted with a reciprocal style that supports more active learner involvement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c4b5035f29eabfc7548f69806793a90a5b60a20969e23952e766bda35345a838

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rakha Ahmed Hassan. Application of 3D hologram technology combined with reciprocal style to learn some fundamental boxing skills. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0286054; article XML SHA-256 549c23b4f5f9ea9abdc21402309255dd411fe84ad600d249b00888da53234b1d. “Application of 3D hologram technology combined with reciprocal style to learn some fundamental boxing skills” (10.1371/journal.pone.0286054).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286054). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## commissure
<a id="commissure"></a>

A commissure is a bundle of nerve fibers that crosses from one side of the brain or spinal cord to the other, linking the two sides.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 04e019b1c81e2c70de670b8e7a7f7a384126fea3a40ba12d1fb2e802b4fe26dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Commissure” (C32349).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## common law
<a id="common-law"></a>

Common law is a legal system in which earlier court rulings and precedents help shape decisions in later cases. Judges have a central role because the law develops over time through their interpretations and its application to the particular facts of each case.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c99d9a8279fad92da6f7bb0a70cded9fad7452ee0c3a4d2ffea2b64a2f211aea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fernandes Carlos GO; Oliveira Erneson A; Pires Rilder S; Monteiro Neto João A; Pimentel Fh J Ernesto; Andrade Jr José S; Furtado Vasco. The US Caselaw as a living system. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324386; article XML SHA-256 33b0704a13884812e3f7a16acf59d3daeffee7dc3f6d14f07a15ad7c658e1f79. “The US Caselaw as a living system” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324386).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324386). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## common metric
<a id="common-metric"></a>

In this context, a common metric is the usual standard used to judge performance on a test. For phonemic verbal fluency, the common metric has been the total number of words produced, even though the source notes that this single measure may not capture the full complexity of performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8bbe5e958a62fc2132d3cfba0662443ba0c230021da454903b1cd36e923291d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Morkovina Olga; Ziberova Anastasia; Sapunova Olga; Manukyan Piruza; Sharapkova Anastasia. The evolution of phonemic verbal fluency test: bridging tradition with contemporary insights. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774256; article XML SHA-256 dfe636e5d69a0cd9b40f60c147f07b71e461e4438ac5959e7119935a800aa0c5. “The evolution of phonemic verbal fluency test: bridging tradition with contemporary insights” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774256).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774256). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## common region
<a id="common-region"></a>

Common region is an extrinsic perceptual grouping factor in which separate visual elements are enclosed within the same surrounding area, leading them to be perceived more as a group. In the cited study, placing targets within a single shared mask increased how often they disappeared and reappeared together, without changing overall disappearance time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: def70d773853e748652e60c548bd8efc2581c8556baa59e4924a811f6a9762f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Devyatko Dina; Pastukhov Alexander. Extrinsic grouping factors in motion-induced blindness. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0192133; article XML SHA-256 c0d38d4a429408057aa1315826fe1e8b22f6383d411eeab2ac954316991631b1. “Extrinsic grouping factors in motion-induced blindness” (10.1371/journal.pone.0192133).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192133). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## common trait
<a id="common-trait"></a>

In this historical usage, a common trait is the shared feature that unites different methods under one general label. Here it refers to what all introspective methods have in common: they are forms of scientific observation aimed at describing conscious experience rather than explaining its causes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f73643018ef22cc33655b09b8bc8e20a3515936409a6b4be171961587bb18dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Titchener, The Schema of Introspection, 1912. 1912 American Journal of Psychology 23, 485–508. “Titchener, The Schema of Introspection, 1912” (3df3e717981e5484759c).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/introspection.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/introspection.htm). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## commonality analysis
<a id="commonality-analysis"></a>

Commonality analysis is a way of examining how several factors relate to an outcome by separating what each factor contributes on its own from what it shares with other factors. In psychology research, it can be used to estimate the relative importance of different stressors and their overlapping links with well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 664ee5bf561324dae7a025811b536db1e27b3347b088bd6d2dbe3a1a05152172

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aegerter Katja Herrmann; Meyer Andrea H.; Gaab Jens; Ooi Yoon Phaik. Expatriation stressors and the well-being of accompanying partners: a commonality analysis approach. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1607178; article XML SHA-256 0bee9f59e8d843084b489c7c0fd48152e6f9a2d5ca53ee55c375ba0b98e62534. “Expatriation stressors and the well-being of accompanying partners: a commonality analysis approach” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1607178).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1607178). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## communicating hydrocephalus
<a id="communicating-hydrocephalus"></a>

Communicating hydrocephalus is a condition in which cerebrospinal fluid builds up abnormally in the brain’s ventricles because it is not being reabsorbed properly by the arachnoid granulations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad6feb0006a34e2221d067ab2f6ff389b567ff467e7f4de67725b6b81ff504dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Communicating Hydrocephalus” (C34501).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## communication
<a id="communication"></a>

Communication is the sharing or passing of ideas, attitudes, or beliefs between people or groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4645d2aa432831ba06ecb35fa3c7e5054f7968e6d3f7bb91750a6b932a1c4fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Communication” (D003142).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003142). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## communication apprehension
<a id="communication-apprehension"></a>

Communication apprehension is the degree of fear or anxiety a person feels about communicating with other people, whether the interaction is actually happening or only expected. In psychology and assessment contexts, it refers to worry about real or anticipated interpersonal communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bbc5ff99e6f4311aa4bb67480752ff8919b8e83f390ff2522a719c18017f03bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [de Araújo Dyego Carlos Souza Anacleto; Pereira Sylmara Nayara; dos Santos Willian Melo; dos Santos Menezes Pedro Wlisses; Rocha Kérilin Stancine dos Santos; Cerqueira-Santos Sabrina; Faro André; Mesquita Alessandra Rezende; de Lyra Divaldo Pereira. Brazilian version of the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension: Cross-cultural adaptation and psychometric evaluation among healthcare students. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0246075; article XML SHA-256 d06c997c0588ec5d4b6aad7515f84a9feecef2f47f2a1dd539b01bb5c89160aa. “Brazilian version of the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension: Cross-cultural adaptation and psychometric evaluation among healthcare students” (10.1371/journal.pone.0246075).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246075). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## communication channels
<a id="communication-channels"></a>

Communication channels are pathways for transmitting signals from an input to an output. Their efficiency can be described by channel capacity, which is the greatest mutual information between the signals sent and the signals received.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6c40f1410d81af5c055bbda43db290096dbf6afcb237a96a77cab77cc7dd8b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pregowska Agnieszka; Szczepanski Janusz; Wajnryb Eligiusz. Mutual information against correlations in binary communication channels. 2015; DOI 10.1186/s12868-015-0168-0; article XML SHA-256 f18c303110a049323dba9cc3e58a799ca884149e54bf5bbe3d443e32345253f1. “Mutual information against correlations in binary communication channels” (10.1186/s12868-015-0168-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-015-0168-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## communication disorder
<a id="communication-disorder"></a>

Communication disorder is a broad diagnostic category that includes conditions marked by a primary difficulty in communication abilities, especially pragmatic or social use of language. In the provided source, this category includes language disorders, speech sound disorders, childhood-onset fluency disorder (stuttering), and social (pragmatic) communication disorder, but not autism spectrum disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b183423f795d0925975f414452b891ae1d5e13694da2369622d4a5559a54f980

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yoshinaga Kiyohiro; Egawa Jun; Watanabe Yuichiro; Kasahara Hiroyuki; Sugimoto Atsunori; Someya Toshiyuki. Usefulness of the autism spectrum quotient (AQ) in screening for autism spectrum disorder and social communication disorder. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05362-y; article XML SHA-256 3ec5473172c562c775b6f6011c474723c3c149e8640b21ab4a7f02562e74b824. “Usefulness of the autism spectrum quotient (AQ) in screening for autism spectrum disorder and social communication disorder” (10.1186/s12888-023-05362-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05362-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Communication Disorders
<a id="communication-disorders"></a>

Communication disorders are problems with verbal or nonverbal communication. They can result from difficulties understanding or expressing language, cognitive impairment, psychiatric conditions, or hearing disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fd3ae9e4cb16f4029812c49e1d3c7881191fa111a69dd35568ada8e41039618

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Communication Disorders” (D003147).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003147). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## communication overload
<a id="communication-overload"></a>

Communication overload is a state in which a person has more verbal communication to take in during videoconferencing than they can comfortably process. In the source, it rises with more frequent videoconferencing and is linked to feeling overloaded with information and more fatigued by video meetings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f922de9a5b302d3748ca994bc10594259801c96e76e7ded3343488ac756c2b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Benjamin J.; Zhang Heng; Montag Christian. Too much to process? Exploring the relationships between communication and information overload and videoconference fatigue. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312376; article XML SHA-256 2465f2d957512e09f78cf77eed1272b226b3ded4470e47f05f28e2fc1d3e47c5. “Too much to process? Exploring the relationships between communication and information overload and videoconference fatigue” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312376).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312376). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## communication skills
<a id="communication-skills"></a>

Communication skills are abilities involved in speech, language, listening, and conversation. In this source, the term refers to an area that is evaluated as part of an adaptive behavior assessment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d158510c77ec27ed452c2e2436f83c0bfa80048ea0cfeecab717c99460705d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Communication Skills” (C121189).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## communication system
<a id="communication-system"></a>

A communication system in counselling is a direct, usually telephone-based service set up for immediate contact with trained personnel. It is used to provide information and help, including counselling, referrals, and urgent assistance in crises such as poisoning or suicidal threat.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e71558cb1000fab71344e57d79b74b566950b0b18a40756296acd511c523ac0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hotlines” (D015277).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015277). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## community care
<a id="community-care"></a>

In mental health, community care means providing intensive support outside hospital settings, in the community. In this context, it is used as an alternative to inpatient admission for adolescents in psychiatric crisis while helping them continue or return to everyday roles such as education, employment, or training.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de8f08a3b8b072cd2426370602561128252f6ab61d55a49eb927a34065f9814d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ougrin Dennis; Thaventhiran Thilipan; Wong Ben Hoi-Ching; Pilecka Izabela; Landau Sabine; Byford Sarah; Chu Petrina; Jafari Hassan; Heslin Margaret; Tassie Emma; Reavey Paula; Zundel Toby; Wait Mandy; Woolhouse Ruth; Mehdi Tauseef; Tolmac Jovanka; Clacey Joe; Wehncke Leon; Dobler Veronika Beatrice; Bevan-Jones Rhys. Intensive community care services for adolescents with acute psychiatric emergencies: trial feasibility findings from the pilot phase of a multi-centre randomised controlled trial. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07528-2; article XML SHA-256 3d66eb5ade7655d074fa62e442331c0ad590792a39cd57873dc8087c952bf295. “Intensive community care services for adolescents with acute psychiatric emergencies: trial feasibility findings from the pilot phase of a multi-centre randomised controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-025-07528-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07528-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## community-centered approach
<a id="community-centered-approach"></a>

A community-centered approach is a way of developing research or other work by involving the people most affected as equal partners from the start. It emphasizes lived experience, mutual learning, respect, and sustained engagement so community members can help identify priorities and shape the agenda.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18b069c9de163aa832ffe71bc9cd652180bce4aadd70e229a399123bf92d8ccc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Berrios Courtney; McBeth Macy; Bradley-Ewing Andrea; Schuetz Nikolaus; Campbell Annette; Talebizadeh Zohreh; Garrett Jeremy R; Falicov Tamara; Martinez Francisco; Rare Voices Advisory Group; Hurley Emily A. Developing a community-led rare disease ELSI research agenda. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s13023-023-02986-x; article XML SHA-256 cba2b045ffa89b84c9ca443f3f672911b4c6dcd9a4164a84d90c493138e1cc6a. “Developing a community-led rare disease ELSI research agenda” (10.1186/s13023-023-02986-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13023-023-02986-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## community integration
<a id="community-integration"></a>

Community integration refers to policies and programs that help people with disabilities or chronic illness get the support and social services they need to live within their communities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b70fb1a13feba6c5ce95c44511ad739c14f39050aee236805519571cc7362517

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Community Integration” (D062309).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D062309). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## community mental health
<a id="community-mental-health"></a>

Community mental health is support for people with mental health difficulties while they continue living in the community, rather than only in hospital settings. It commonly involves multidisciplinary outreach teams that provide personalized help such as managing symptoms, supporting families, assisting with daily living, linking people with medical and social services, and helping with crises, work, education, or relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0177a2fe24df7c66a924416750c51524a4850559c0b020c4c0d15b61422d149f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Iwanaga Mai; Usui Kaori; Sato Sayaka; Nakanishi Kiyoaki; Nishiuchi Erisa; Shimodaira Michiyo; So Yugan; Yamaguchi Sosei; Fujii Chiyo. Service use patterns in community mental health outreach: A sequence analysis of the first 12-month longitudinal data. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332437; article XML SHA-256 923d2c1ddbfeca17ac0214fffd9fe277535622201e454af22c797487a6663192. “Service use patterns in community mental health outreach: A sequence analysis of the first 12-month longitudinal data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332437).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332437). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## community mental health center
<a id="community-mental-health-center"></a>

A community mental health center is a psychiatric care facility organized around a community-based health approach.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9619829171d36725a83464de54b321088221db5b1032bb9f7db39181131ae31c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Community Mental Health Center” (C203747).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Community of Practice
<a id="community-of-practice"></a>

A community of practice is a core idea in learning and knowledge management: a repository in which knowledge is developed, maintained, and reproduced. It serves as a platform for sharing knowledge within an organization or among peers in other settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: edab9fdbd24e260c84b82c2f2bf1e6c4be31711a94b45fd4925364e07b786096

Wording review pending: The source-specific organisation/peers/other-settings phrasing can be replaced by an independent explanation.

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Community of Practice” (D000097163).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000097163). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## community prevention and intervention
<a id="community-prevention-and-intervention"></a>

Community prevention and intervention refers to early actions and support offered within a community to reduce risks such as self-harm and suicide behaviours. In this context, it emphasizes adequate care and strengthening social networks as an important source of protection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1767ee1466b6ee93ee2c6f4ed30ef050ca05c6bd9e51fb633042b94690b5e013

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Williamson Charlotte; Croak Bethany; Simms Amos; Fear Nicola T.; Sharp Marie-Louise; Stevelink Sharon A. M.. Risk and protective factors for self-harm and suicide behaviours among serving and ex-serving personnel of the UK Armed Forces, Canadian Armed Forces, Australian Defence Force and New Zealand Defence Force: A systematic review. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299239; article XML SHA-256 605791b42137a7fff09db56658176a5c6cbb2a59083c8bbfe64d5955f5193850. “Risk and protective factors for self-harm and suicide behaviours among serving and ex-serving personnel of the UK Armed Forces, Canadian Armed Forces, Australian Defence Force and New Zealand Defence Force: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299239).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299239). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## community residence
<a id="community-residence"></a>

Community residence means the kind of community or living area a person belongs to, used here as a community-level factor in research. In this packet, it refers to residence categories such as urban, nomadic, or rural.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c66add7eb4c2eb817453fe629c0038c159d8fb1fd9b96f2f91017a8217911e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ali Abdirahman Omer; Kahie Awo Mohamed; Dahir Muhyadin Yusuf; Kahie Suhaib Mohamed; Hassan Abdisalam Mahdi; Hossain Md. Moyazzem. Coverage and determinants of deworming uptake among under-five children in Somalia: A multilevel analysis of the 2020 SDHS data. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336429; article XML SHA-256 4ff7adf2ff0f13ff41e62d63de0d2a74b4fee7a5245598c7b2cdfc9ae091f251. “Coverage and determinants of deworming uptake among under-five children in Somalia: A multilevel analysis of the 2020 SDHS data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336429).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336429). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## community services
<a id="community-services"></a>

Community services are forms of support provided after discharge that help people live in the community rather than return to supervised residential care. In this context, the intensity and individualisation of these services may affect readmission rates and social functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe1c77f21f67630db07c2db62b9f20833f45cb37396cd04e3ebbe491f2beca5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sato Sayaka; Nakanishi Miharu; Ogawa Makoto; Abe Makiko; Yasuma Naonori; Kono Toshiaki; Igarashi Momoka; Iwanaga Mai; Kawaguchi Takayuki; Yamaguchi Sosei. Rehospitalisation rates after long-term follow-up of patients with severe mental illness admitted for more than one year: a systematic review. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05290-x; article XML SHA-256 a49169269300c6eb14e3a09280448a83d47efa6d9ce481ddd318ac88badb9743. “Rehospitalisation rates after long-term follow-up of patients with severe mental illness admitted for more than one year: a systematic review” (10.1186/s12888-023-05290-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05290-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## comparative analysis
<a id="comparative-analysis"></a>

Comparative analysis here means understanding something by comparing two kinds of being, especially self-existent or essential being with derived being. In the passage, it is the method used to describe the first cause by noting what creatures have in a limited way and then distinguishing the uncaused source from those limitations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 343fddd88c058051a5efb2a1b96679dadb2d33730dfcd564e34f0914dc520bc0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3339000-3351000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## comparative cognition
<a id="comparative-cognition"></a>

Comparative cognition is the study of thinking abilities across species, especially how nonhuman animals perform cognitive processes such as understanding similarities, analogies, and same/different relations. It examines the extent to which abilities often associated with human advanced cognition also appear in other species.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44b6f8329eca40bbf49c834a6ab5aaae0fe6e73d77a60537f1fa5bc3f6e34476

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Truppa Valentina; Piano Mortari Eva; Garofoli Duilio; Privitera Sara; Visalberghi Elisabetta. Same/Different Concept Learning by Capuchin Monkeys in Matching-to-Sample Tasks. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0023809; article XML SHA-256 53d5bec7280531b1fb6e30f4fba9c37038dd53c134f572b66eceed6209365242. “Same/Different Concept Learning by Capuchin Monkeys in Matching-to-Sample Tasks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0023809).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0023809). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## comparative judgment
<a id="comparative-judgment"></a>

Comparative judgment is the mind’s direct judging of how far apart or how similar impressions of the same kind are, such as tones or shades. In this historical account, it does not require mentally stepping through all the intermediate gradations, but rests on an immediate sense of relative difference or likeness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99ea6fb620215e3916ae683e5b874dcdb5a87d9238b8ff7b1cbfb16013ba7f5d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## comparative method
<a id="comparative-method"></a>

The comparative method is an approach that studies different peoples, times, or conditions side by side to trace relationships, movements, and the development and direction of customs, beliefs, and thought-habits. In anthropology, it is used both to show broad resemblances and important differences across human activities and to connect surviving or recorded practices with evidence from earlier societies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c2550a37e261d2cd57e941d30fac4d9bb41184bc44e4b9ad0a7781355b60338b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anthropology” (Anthropology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anthropology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## comparative psychology
<a id="comparative-psychology"></a>

Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology that studies animal behavior, focusing on how behaviors are alike and different in ways connected to evolution and development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 96958ad85afa31376882b39a26e512d1e009545310c0928ad88036f0f5787183

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Comparative Psychology” (C17029).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## comparative trial
<a id="comparative-trial"></a>

A comparative trial is a research study designed to compare two or more interventions by measuring how they differ on selected outcomes. In this packet, it refers to a randomized study that assigns participants to different splint types and compares their results over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e7eb3ee8b52b43427a5ee65e6566d0dc6ef4f8bf8b46f7a0ff0b7272692e9f8d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Leong Li Xian; Chai Siaw Chui; Howell Julianne W.; Mohd Rasdi Hanif Farhan; Abdul Rahman Nur Rahimawati. Relative motion splints versus metacarpophalangeal joint blocking splints in the management of trigger finger: Study protocol for a randomized comparative trial. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307033; article XML SHA-256 4956b0098620f57d7f82066ae94065525c8357f90131ce818dff014e026ffe63. “Relative motion splints versus metacarpophalangeal joint blocking splints in the management of trigger finger: Study protocol for a randomized comparative trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307033).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## comparison
<a id="comparison"></a>

In historical psychology, comparison is the act of attending to two or more things in order to notice how they are alike and how they differ. It is described as an active search for similarity within difference, or difference within similarity, often involving attention moving back and forth between what is being compared.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 986f19a51e04d7eae288edcebd0929baa572eabe0322e20ca58f1f9cc4643a92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Comparison” (Comparison).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C3defs.htm#Comparison). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## comparison level for alternatives
<a id="comparison-level-for-alternatives"></a>

Comparison level for alternatives is the idea of evaluating a current engagement or relationship against other possible options and deciding whether an alternative would be preferable. In this source, it refers to comparing existing professional involvement with potential alternatives and choosing among them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fc0dee5e826b92957d36b583e7dbeafda1082d727091632aa352788a9d54261f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Salins Naveen; Hughes Sean; Preston Nancy. Oncologists’ palliative care referral behaviour: testing utility of social exchange theory as an explanatory framework. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12904-024-01517-0; article XML SHA-256 f698e02a973765fe1ca80a380a917cb03a8a2e3a5efdb820cef70fb9fcb2cc1e. “Oncologists’ palliative care referral behaviour: testing utility of social exchange theory as an explanatory framework” (10.1186/s12904-024-01517-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12904-024-01517-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## comparison process
<a id="comparison-process"></a>

Comparison process is the way people evaluate themselves by using different standards, such as other people, their past or possible selves, personal criteria, or comparisons across attributes. In this research context, it includes how often these upward or downward comparisons are made and the emotional impact they have.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 576eddcc1c83a0823a148567c67f22592c934e19e908543551cdd711a85a9007

Sources:
- Drafting source: [McCarthy Peter A.; Meyer Thomas; Back Mitja D.; Morina Nexhmedin. How we compare: A new approach to assess aspects of the comparison process for appearance-based standards and their associations with individual differences in wellbeing and personality measures. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0280072; article XML SHA-256 3028074837ebacff55d5f3d96a319da8418cdb65073cb1ced99d34af3d429aeb. “How we compare: A new approach to assess aspects of the comparison process for appearance-based standards and their associations with individual differences in wellbeing and personality measures” (10.1371/journal.pone.0280072).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280072). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## comparison stimulus
<a id="comparison-stimulus"></a>

A comparison stimulus is another sensory input used alongside a target stimulus so the learner or nervous system can tell them apart. In this context, it is the contrasting stimulus against which responses to the target are compared, often functioning as the less relevant or distractor stimulus in discrimination learning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b649f2556841d56d84ab05ab9285dfecc9558d024459ee553632e757aa1a4415

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Spingath Elsie Y.; Kang Hyun Sug; Plummer Thane; Blake David T.. Different Neuroplasticity for Task Targets and Distractors. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0015342; article XML SHA-256 d68e49ceab8c74e621ae0d65910be885686c1454c9a723022bad264efdb123c2. “Different Neuroplasticity for Task Targets and Distractors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0015342).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0015342). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Compassion Fatigue
<a id="compassion-fatigue"></a>

Compassion fatigue is emotional distress that arises from repeatedly or over a long period showing compassion or empathy. It may occur in people who work in caregiving professions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1f6a40df88c95a933725ce94a4a69112a48d46fe59f8cf384f75c459a845d6ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Compassion Fatigue” (D000068376).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000068376). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## compassionate love
<a id="compassionate-love"></a>

Compassionate love is an awareness and understanding of suffering that involves feeling connected to another’s distress and being moved, emotionally and mentally, to help relieve it. In this packet, it is described especially as compassion directed toward vulnerable strangers or people in need.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 211a8ccf7459b0d0f19f52c3b9b17ebfe1aa705fa5342058f14193f693b0b6e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chiesi Francesca; Lau Chloe; Saklofske Donald H.. A revised short version of the compassionate love scale for humanity (CLS-H-SF): evidence from item response theory analyses and validity testing. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s40359-020-0386-9; article XML SHA-256 8a958a06acd079b2a1aa7efa596743f65f5503d546eb84e24cf554d80c3054e4. “A revised short version of the compassionate love scale for humanity (CLS-H-SF): evidence from item response theory analyses and validity testing” (10.1186/s40359-020-0386-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-020-0386-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## compatibility
<a id="compatibility"></a>

In social psychology, compatibility is a proposed partner quality referring to how well another person fits the broader needs someone hopes a romantic or sexual relationship will meet. It is described as a distinct aspect of mate preference beyond physical attractiveness, interpersonal warmth, and social status.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b89048d9dbbc299781e5aff1a5aca1b9aee22f913d4e2089ee247af54193b714

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jonason Peter Karl; March Evita. Moving beyond attraction, compassion, and competence: evidence for compatibility as a distinct component of mate preferences. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1725609; article XML SHA-256 d4e189b83bbd7c5a952ef4dbbc73767bf90b32fb9393f2649118bc46f8b062af. “Moving beyond attraction, compassion, and competence: evidence for compatibility as a distinct component of mate preferences” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1725609).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1725609). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Compazine
<a id="compazine"></a>

Compazine refers to prochlorperazine maleate, a synthetic phenothiazine drug. It has antiemetic and antipsychotic effects and also has antihistaminic and anticholinergic actions, partly by blocking dopamine D2 receptors in the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a65d53906203c10ea70f5d34bacdb15e5d5557503869121c8a3cb1fe74d7c7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Prochlorperazine Maleate” (C775).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## compensation
<a id="compensation"></a>

In this historical usage, compensation means offsetting one debt or claim against another. A defendant who is also owed something by the plaintiff may set that amount against the plaintiff’s demand, so that only any remaining balance is payable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd45c9cf63866cd22b03fbc236554b1bd50952ecba02a7bea87dae40c666f011

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Compensation” (Compensation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C3defs.htm#Compensation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## compensation effect
<a id="compensation-effect"></a>

The compensation effect is a pattern in intergroup judgment where people rate one group more favorably on one social dimension and the other group more favorably on another, especially on warmth and competence. It often appears in status differences, with higher-status groups seen as more competent but less warm and lower-status groups as warmer but less competent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 274ba860a184b081b7810a025578a57786d9f1d98201af7c3831c54a18e83dc5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dang Jianning; Liu Li; Liang Yuan; Ren Deyun. Expected Hierarchical Integration Reduces Perceptions of a Low Status Group as Less Competent than a High Status Group While Maintaining the Same Level of Perception of Warmth. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02068; article XML SHA-256 f09ea046766a4416a57f841e78b898edf253fb35dc213deb42c7d599416c8f16. “Expected Hierarchical Integration Reduces Perceptions of a Low Status Group as Less Competent than a High Status Group While Maintaining the Same Level of Perception of Warmth” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02068).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02068). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## compensatory eye movements
<a id="compensatory-eye-movements"></a>

Compensatory eye movements are reflex eye movements produced by signals from the balance organs of the inner ear that travel through brainstem pathways to the eye-movement nerve centers. They help keep the image on the retina stable when the head rotates.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d456666756636b3c338ffbf4abbbf73550adf59bb357e0f3e3a0eaf67466233

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reflex, Vestibulo-Ocular” (D012027).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012027). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## compensatory tracking
<a id="compensatory-tracking"></a>

Compensatory tracking is a closed-loop task used to study human control performance by having a person use feedback information to guide actions so their output follows a reference trajectory. It serves as a standard way to test how features of the feedback affect tracking performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61b10540354bce4d8149c3f57ebd1066cc458094690140672ad3f85d9e25e893

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Paredes Liliana P; Dosen Strahinja; Rattay Frank; Graimann Bernhard; Farina Dario. The impact of the stimulation frequency on closed-loop control with electrotactile feedback. 2015; DOI 10.1186/s12984-015-0022-8; article XML SHA-256 2a5d807803f01b24e1ffe4ccd4db84edf3d1a0ebf5a89d206a0ad354060331c8. “The impact of the stimulation frequency on closed-loop control with electrotactile feedback” (10.1186/s12984-015-0022-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12984-015-0022-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## competency-based instruction
<a id="competency-based-instruction"></a>

Competency-based instruction is a teaching approach that emphasizes developing learners’ practical abilities for responsible, engaged use of a tool or skill, rather than relying mainly on prohibitions. In this source, it refers to ethics teaching in AI-assisted translation that builds ethical literacy and critical use habits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d5f2acf1d4b0cad719a5dfaaf08f84fde7c5bdf7d8d8f53ac049bd928fe9eb7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Lingli; Li Qian. Ethical perceptions and learning engagement in AI-assisted translation: a behavioral psychology study of English learners. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739478; article XML SHA-256 f79f08e39e715481ff84336b8b3bd9604b4b8fcd1b6c0cd9187120b2cc806481. “Ethical perceptions and learning engagement in AI-assisted translation: a behavioral psychology study of English learners” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739478).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739478). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## competency evaluation
<a id="competency-evaluation"></a>

Competency evaluation is the assessment of how competent another person appears. In this social-judgment context, it refers to impression formation about someone’s ability, which can be influenced by factors such as emotions and visible mistakes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4188151cc50869ee74686b65e420e2abe5aca788852753b317d6d1a28c089f9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Saito Toshiki; Motoki Kosuke; Nouchi Rui; Kawashima Ryuta; Sugiura Motoaki. Does incidental pride increase competency evaluation of others who appear careless? Discrete positive emotions and impression formation. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0220883; article XML SHA-256 b6b34226bb6f60c6f15bb42d60c2adbd030c412d2ea42d977125d596393d1815. “Does incidental pride increase competency evaluation of others who appear careless? Discrete positive emotions and impression formation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0220883).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220883). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## competitive goals
<a id="competitive-goals"></a>

Competitive goals are aims focused on gaining personal influence or ownership in a shared task, such as shaping the final product to match one’s own perspective. In the source context, they exist alongside cooperative goals, which are aimed at improving the shared product together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 483ffef8df7aa25e4356ec72af83e64b03cd9a8fe63a04b46cf32e10a9a7eda2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Anand Santhanakrishnan; Arazy Ofer; Mandayam Narayan; Nov Oded. A game-theoretic analysis of Wikipedia’s peer production: The interplay between community’s governance and contributors’ interactions. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281725; article XML SHA-256 b2487395dcdd496481d7a8b77ea0261b6b0d50086ee547729790f8641fe4f94d. “A game-theoretic analysis of Wikipedia’s peer production: The interplay between community’s governance and contributors’ interactions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281725).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281725). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Competitive State Anxiety Inventory
<a id="competitive-state-anxiety-inventory"></a>

Competitive State Anxiety Inventory is a questionnaire used in sport psychology to assess an athlete’s anxiety as a temporary state around competition. In this context, it is used to examine the mental and physical sides of anxiety before events, along with self-confidence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fabe997cea73b343886d3b70f34655c49812200346a6974e2e30887a310a45bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Conde-Ripoll Rafael; Escudero-Tena Adrián; Bustamante-Sánchez Álvaro. Position and ranking influence in padel: somatic anxiety and self-confidence increase in competition for left-side and higher-ranked players when compared to pressure training. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1393963; article XML SHA-256 3a3082d05d83aaebf243352bd82a4dbb54b1cc5407d7c61270c390e661774e06. “Position and ranking influence in padel: somatic anxiety and self-confidence increase in competition for left-side and higher-ranked players when compared to pressure training” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1393963).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1393963). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## competitiveness
<a id="competitiveness"></a>

Competitiveness is a tendency to approach situations with a strong drive to compete, and it is described as one feature of the Type A behavior pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a652defc12dd745dbc927cc3468dbbf458000b0f601a73a2e0a7d518db0d090c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Type A Personality” (D014434).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014434). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## complement
<a id="complement"></a>

Complement is part of the immune system whose activation is controlled by regulatory proteins such as C1-inhibitor. In this source, it is discussed as a biological process that may affect how glioblastoma avoids immune attack.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cd9bb5ecf2f1db146e509f94b6c8bf71fe70ffe8afd944f5b8c799cd343f33af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Blomberg Linnea; Raba Leonora; Bengzon Johan; Osther Kurt; Nittby Redebrandt Henrietta. Overexpression of key complement regulators in glioblastoma. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349101; article XML SHA-256 76ec0f69db6775191624ff610b4fc5adf35ff449056becd7071e20e86961a514. “Overexpression of key complement regulators in glioblastoma” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349101).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349101). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## complementarity
<a id="complementarity"></a>

Complementarity is the probability rule that an event and its opposite should add up consistently, so judging one also constrains judgment of the other. In human judgment, people often follow this rule when the opposite is stated clearly, but they may violate it when wording, framing, or ambiguity changes how the task is understood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c7e388b3b5e69a5b983bd0b7113aeb20b6feef4083b357a5992e883d4fb92e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Imannezhad Pegah; Pothos Emmanuel M; Wills Andy J. Divergent patterns of probabilistic reasoning in humans and GPT-5. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782184; article XML SHA-256 d9a847f6546636705636f62300e065c00972a3930a5d7f51c01f3ff9a2676296. “Divergent patterns of probabilistic reasoning in humans and GPT-5” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782184).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782184). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## complementary class
<a id="complementary-class"></a>

In this context, a complementary class is an additional category of treatment target considered alongside the main ones already emphasized. Here it refers to neuroplasticity and synaptic mechanisms as another target class intended to help normalize synapse function and support cognition in Alzheimer’s disease and related neurodegenerative disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9742bc3ce40c7f15d01f5ffdbbe16bb3ac41ea7c5731b6d6229886225a6dc706

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jackson Johanna; Jambrina Enrique; Li Jennifer; Marston Hugh; Menzies Fiona; Phillips Keith; Gilmour Gary. Targeting the Synapse in Alzheimer’s Disease. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2019.00735; article XML SHA-256 2372b35a185c51e6592983d75a90a4144465423b6f852a26ff28615c87c04ae0. “Targeting the Synapse in Alzheimer’s Disease” (10.3389/fnins.2019.00735).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2019.00735). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## complete-case analysis
<a id="complete-case-analysis"></a>

Complete-case analysis is an approach to missing outcome data that uses only participants with complete information and leaves out those with missing values. In the source, it is presented as a common comparison method that can give biased results when missingness is linked to unobserved factors affecting the outcome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: af077dcf4d837c3fb76becd5db4d3e43f1e7aa696bffb5376d54c6d0d12ee172

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Koné Siaka; Bonfoh Bassirou; Dao Daouda; Koné Inza; Fink Günther. Heckman-type selection models to obtain unbiased estimates with missing measures outcome: theoretical considerations and an application to missing birth weight data. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s12874-019-0840-7; article XML SHA-256 63e0dd721c30077b7aad7e593bedf2242d586ef4e67771eb6e175804a7ceea1b. “Heckman-type selection models to obtain unbiased estimates with missing measures outcome: theoretical considerations and an application to missing birth weight data” (10.1186/s12874-019-0840-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-019-0840-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## completion test
<a id="completion-test"></a>

A completion test is a psychological assessment method in which a person is asked to finish incomplete prompts, especially sentences, so their responses can be used to infer underlying thoughts, feelings, or personality features. In psychology it is commonly treated as a projective technique because the open-ended task is intended to draw out relatively natural responses beyond fixed-choice questionnaires.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e50a887ec5e3d98b4468241f367e98a86b5d776bb4ff6bde9352bb95ee7daa24

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Yuchen; Lei Mengxiao; Zhang Hanyu; Zong Lu; Zhu Bin; Luo Hong. An intelligent agent for sentence completion test: creation and application in depression assessment. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1649905; article XML SHA-256 dfc99d8ca5b63cb0a627209126d7fb4a6e770cfbb7ae8f88cc8714da84e2cc74. “An intelligent agent for sentence completion test: creation and application in depression assessment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1649905).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1649905). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## complex
<a id="complex"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, a complex is something made up of parts that can be told apart but still belong together as one organized whole. It contrasts with something simple, and also with a mere aggregate whose parts are only collected rather than organically united.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90bd0fd7fc0acf6fe1ee0097c2371e59f29de0cbac6e58fbb87a4404f775786c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Complex” (Complex).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C3defs.htm#Complex). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## complex emotion
<a id="complex-emotion"></a>

A complex emotion is an emotional state such as jealousy, pride, or guilt that develops from combinations of basic emotions together with higher-level cognitive processes. Unlike basic emotions, it is also shaped by personal experience and social context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8d8bfea34f430273a1f760e1f01a7c1d3a14909c8f9db2ae76db9c09abf1487

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hassannataj Joloudari Javad; Maftoun Mohammad; Nakisa Bahareh; Alizadehsani Roohallah; Yadollahzadeh-Tabari Meisam; Gaftandzhieva Silvia. Complex emotion recognition system using basic emotions via facial expression, electroencephalogram, and electrocardiogram signals: a review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1682883; article XML SHA-256 2afe80da8ad125d0ff0d272e80a6c4db4298c24afe06567c3102fde0531e2d5b. “Complex emotion recognition system using basic emotions via facial expression, electroencephalogram, and electrocardiogram signals: a review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1682883).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1682883). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Complex Figure Test
<a id="complex-figure-test"></a>

The Complex Figure Test, commonly the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test, is a neuropsychological assessment of cognitive function in which a person first copies a complicated geometric drawing and later reproduces it from memory. It is used to examine abilities such as visuospatial construction, perceptual organization, executive functioning, and visual memory by judging how accurately and coherently the figure is reproduced.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 25043d5d6fa8ab0986cc9d066e66ab341dc365a3552b8549a7df6b431a114c4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Park Jin-Hyuck. Non-equivalence of sub-tasks of the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test with convolutional neural networks to discriminate mild cognitive impairment. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05622-5; article XML SHA-256 2d56a626929cfa820521ce5ac605ca23563e4347244a34b4ba43f419bdd75358. “Non-equivalence of sub-tasks of the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test with convolutional neural networks to discriminate mild cognitive impairment” (10.1186/s12888-024-05622-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05622-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## complex ideas
<a id="complex-ideas"></a>

In associationist psychology, complex ideas are mental contents formed when many simple ideas become linked through repeated association and combine into a single whole. When the combination is extensive, the resulting idea may no longer seem obviously related to its simpler components.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef0a0449fc687c3dcab0f477110a0dba2bba11e9eadb3f805ca11540c1b1cc83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Associationism” (Associationism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Associationism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## complex partial seizure
<a id="complex-partial-seizure"></a>

A complex partial seizure is a seizure that begins in one area of the brain and affects consciousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b71c30fc443b4c929ca16c51229f56ee783fd11c4f00569dedbc2a5daa9e0035

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Complex Partial Seizure” (C155290).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## complex sentence
<a id="complex-sentence"></a>

A complex sentence is a sentence with a layered grammatical structure, such as one that contains an embedded clause within the main sentence. In this context, it refers to sentence forms used to study how readers process syntax and meaning together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 04f8edf4569d4506b811ca64f751026911b3105342af4acced290eeed08da669

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Luyao; Yang Mingchuan; Gao Fei; Fang Zhengyuan; Wang Peng; Feng Liping. Mandarin Chinese L1 and L2 complex sentence reading reveals a consistent electrophysiological pattern of highly interactive syntactic and semantic processing: An ERP study. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1143062; article XML SHA-256 ee85278e7106c5faa0e7616d36f5a328f9271d505f26ca4436f5df519a26cf00. “Mandarin Chinese L1 and L2 complex sentence reading reveals a consistent electrophysiological pattern of highly interactive syntactic and semantic processing: An ERP study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1143062).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1143062). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## complexity hypothesis
<a id="complexity-hypothesis"></a>

In second-language writing research, the complexity hypothesis is the idea that differences between writing genres can be explained by how much cognitive demand or mental load each task places on the writer. Under this view, genre effects on linguistic features arise because some tasks are more cognitively complex than others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64f33511c3a3896243a293f3d7fd9cb9da83d406311c92f0bef7fe47cddf8a03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yixin; Jiang Jingyang. Task-based explanation for genre effects: Evidence from a dependency treebank. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290381; article XML SHA-256 a90858ba16df73beaf9cb48b9f60b0f97e49496652c412ca85a161785afb8537. “Task-based explanation for genre effects: Evidence from a dependency treebank” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290381).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290381). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## complexity theory
<a id="complexity-theory"></a>

Complexity theory is a way of understanding a system by focusing on how its parts relate to and influence one another, rather than studying each part separately. It examines how interactions, feedback, and self-organization among people, policies, interventions, and their surroundings can produce new patterns and changes over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3552e40abdfdcf1b45b5af4fabbd1d58b496ea3762a20afe6af5f092c88fde3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [O’Donnell Amy; Kaner Eileen; Hanratty Barbara; Gilvarry Eilish; Wigham Sarah; Jackson Katherine. Care professionals’ accounts of providing support and treatment for people with co-occurring alcohol use disorder and depression in the North East of England, UK: A qualitative study informed by complexity theory. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334524; article XML SHA-256 f85d80cdc4339c63ad39355e2d73fc71c951419c67edfd0e702c61d525db6a19. “Care professionals’ accounts of providing support and treatment for people with co-occurring alcohol use disorder and depression in the North East of England, UK: A qualitative study informed by complexity theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334524).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334524). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## complicated grief
<a id="complicated-grief"></a>

Complicated grief is grief after the death of a close person that involves poor adaptation to the loss. It may be linked with other mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, and suicidal thoughts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 05562b3b16f8a7d26a9456dc69e845eafbdc24a0f09426a67f957112b8b99e4f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Escobar-Agreda Stefan; Romero Albino Zoila; Contreras Pavel J; Cuba-Fuentes María Sofía. Complicated grief and its relationship with anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation in older adults in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru: a cross-sectional analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05412-5; article XML SHA-256 82ecd21a0ba8a09a8d5f67d2da346dbc000eee51105c3f013699270081df3e5f. “Complicated grief and its relationship with anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation in older adults in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru: a cross-sectional analysis” (10.1186/s12888-023-05412-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05412-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## complication
<a id="complication"></a>

In historical psychology, complication means the combining of partial contents into one simultaneous whole in perception or thought. It is used to distinguish a close fusion within a single presentation from association, which joins presentations that remain relatively independent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ad860fbb8a85e46cf44789a8682b66b05a534508b8e342795b356c16bb1e7f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Complication” (Complication).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C3defs.htm#Complication). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## component evaluation
<a id="component-evaluation"></a>

In this source, component evaluation means assessing a program through several distinct parts rather than a single overall outcome. It looks separately at effects on individuals, effects on the surrounding community, how operating context shapes results, and the costs involved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73f6ed0bcaf381897b5696f8dc079d8290a8808f7fcfc05e9c26a6c4b882d046

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cerdá Magdalena; Allen Bennett L.; Collins Alexandra B.; Behrends Czarina N.; Santacatterina Michele; Jent Victoria; Marshall Brandon D. L.. Study assessing the effectiveness of overdose prevention centers through evaluation research (SAFER): an overview of the study protocol. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12954-025-01211-1; article XML SHA-256 22e0fc8569adf7d114874b0f9cd48cd933b1465208c5bf612703fec75dcb8685. “Study assessing the effectiveness of overdose prevention centers through evaluation research (SAFER): an overview of the study protocol” (10.1186/s12954-025-01211-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-025-01211-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## composition of movement
<a id="composition-of-movement"></a>

Composition of movement refers to the overall mix of time a person spends across different movement behaviours in a 24-hour day, such as sleep, sedentary time, and physical activity. Because time is limited, more time in one behaviour means less in another, so these behaviours are understood together rather than separately.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1014e254dc0136a6cdf286bf3c3168fb1469b96baee8433b1ec36ca87a390885

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dale Rachel; O’Rourke Teresa; Nussbaumer-Streit Barbara; Probst Thomas. 24-hour movement behaviours and mental health in non-clinical populations: A systematic review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325445; article XML SHA-256 dc0e608c8b9c68f8188372b213dd8c40f1c3b9b3a2745fbb2146db2b66caa9d3. “24-hour movement behaviours and mental health in non-clinical populations: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325445).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325445). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## compound
<a id="compound"></a>

In this cognition context, a compound is a pair of separate words that combine into one meaningful, semantically coherent expression. Because the words fit together into a familiar whole, people tend to process and remember them more like a single item than like two unrelated words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a734bd44ffd8b53512d0550aa03c31c3a6fee420b97ea96086a20e1c76f718c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Peijie; Meng Yingfang; Liu Zejun. Target detection enhances relational processing of background items: evidence from associative recognition paradigms and EEG. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04717-w; article XML SHA-256 f503972eb08469211e2651711d3b1c0c4c8921b2c23465e233df57737f7dc02f. “Target detection enhances relational processing of background items: evidence from associative recognition paradigms and EEG” (10.1186/s40359-026-04717-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04717-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## compound eye
<a id="compound-eye"></a>

A compound eye is an arthropod eye made up of many facets, each associated with retinal elements around a crystalline cone. In historical accounts of vision, it was discussed as producing sight either from many tiny points that combine into one image or from many small complete images.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f20a7e1954f032c5e82e526928856aa2a5c5411b942af2623807ba2419c3242a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mosaic Theory (of vision)” (Mosaic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M5defs.htm#Mosaic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## comprehension
<a id="comprehension"></a>

Comprehension is understanding the meaning, nature, or importance of something. In psychology and counselling contexts, it can also refer to a patient’s or research participant’s understanding of information given orally or in writing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a617b7f0c8ab313b360520c8696889bc7349f80ecbcfc556e8c18eb059fb00b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Comprehension” (D032882).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D032882). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## comprehension test
<a id="comprehension-test"></a>

A comprehension test is an assessment used to measure how well a person understands what they read. In this context, it evaluates the ability to make sense of a passage by integrating its content with contextual cues, inference-making, and prior knowledge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e22edeeb4a16d107be6f5613e2393ade1dff3a34cd10500ef11d82ec0896c8d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lúcio Patrícia Silva; Lourenço Fausto Coutinho; Cogo-Moreira Hugo; Bandalos Deborah; de Carvalho Carolina Alves Ferreira; Kida Adriana de Souza Batista; de Ávila Clara Regina Brandão. Reading Comprehension Tests for Children: Test Equating and Specific Age-Interval Reports. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.662192; article XML SHA-256 ba271b020614db56ad5488f0a1b8ee0361f2a5e63851781769eaa96be833be78. “Reading Comprehension Tests for Children: Test Equating and Specific Age-Interval Reports” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.662192).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.662192). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## compulsion
<a id="compulsion"></a>

A compulsion is a hard-to-stop pattern of actions or ritual-like behavior that a person feels driven to do in order to reduce anxiety or keep it from happening.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 326416ebc0aa736491ae71620f829bbc4019dda565831e3dbb0d45a6ce86a9a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Compulsion” (C94241).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## compulsive eating
<a id="compulsive-eating"></a>

Compulsive eating is an abnormal pattern of eating behavior. In the source material, it is described as one form of disordered eating and may occur without reaching the level of an eating disorder diagnosis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8767db17e774abb9efdb3999532b1af0a5b075bba91ee98d324d8ec5fe5b554

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Disordered Eating” (C121669).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Compulsive Personality Disorder
<a id="compulsive-personality-disorder"></a>

Compulsive personality disorder is a disorder marked by restricted emotional expression and an excessively conventional, serious, formal, and stingy style. It also involves intense concern with details, rules, order, schedules, and lists, along with stubborn insistence on doing things one's own way, strained relationships, and indecision from fear of making mistakes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 2 · SHA-256: aed6d6197e09e6ec81cb5580160d2820f15e7b87d8c0277db488c70e05d643f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Compulsive Personality Disorder” (D003193).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003193). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## computational linguistics
<a id="computational-linguistics"></a>

Computational linguistics is the use of computer-based language analysis methods to study written or spoken language in a quantitative way. In this packet, it refers to techniques used to identify topics and assess the content and style of dissertation acknowledgments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 21da0218cfc26aa10941513d564a0e89884c559f59f0151d435c4c88ec652c2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Kexin; Han Jingwen; Zhuang Huibin. What do the differences and commonalities in doctoral dissertation acknowledgments across disciplines reveal?. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335035; article XML SHA-256 e4c848741604b4947074dcad269e1d452a4e532f462eadff6bbfea311cfab761. “What do the differences and commonalities in doctoral dissertation acknowledgments across disciplines reveal?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335035).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335035). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## computational metaphor
<a id="computational-metaphor"></a>

The computational metaphor is the view of mind as a closed system that processes symbols in a linear way. In this learning context, it refers to a traditional cognitivist model that is criticized as too limited for explaining complex, real-time, emotionally and socially shaped learning in dynamic situations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd7869dad49c0a1ea44ed20dd8c3232a0f6eb8cdc96050171e00e17efe566448

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Medina José Luis; Hervas Gabriel; Calduch Isaac; Silva Patricia; León Esther. Rethinking real-time learning in debriefing: liminality, microgenesis, and semiotic borders. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s41077-026-00436-9; article XML SHA-256 561bd50031e07fc1619d7bfe8c774ae0d00bf6afcbcdae024725a58fb51f77c1. “Rethinking real-time learning in debriefing: liminality, microgenesis, and semiotic borders” (10.1186/s41077-026-00436-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s41077-026-00436-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## computational model
<a id="computational-model"></a>

A computational model is a computer-based representation of a real system that uses mathematical equations and simulated conditions to predict how that system behaves. In the source, it is used to represent the human eye and estimate drug movement, concentration, and half-life under different physiological scenarios.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 48ce8ad90acc7282e3a403fb5e78bbc88ce4c875361d52aaf964d135795f396e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chowdhury Jabia Mostofa. Computational modeling of intravitreal ranibizumab kinetics: Predicting macular drug concentration and half-life. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348811; article XML SHA-256 487ab228f9e92e7a6ec419c8c6979dafb07e4906cf02f57dc3cf69d0bd55d38f. “Computational modeling of intravitreal ranibizumab kinetics: Predicting macular drug concentration and half-life” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348811).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348811). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## computer anxiety
<a id="computer-anxiety"></a>

Computer anxiety is anxiety related to computers that has been widely studied as a factor influencing whether people adopt digital tools. Research on this concept grew after the Digital Revolution of the 1980s and it is still considered relevant today.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c401f1e23a533166df84ef38be3fb0b288f3be774c06b4dadb26aada7e7f150

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lazar Iuliana Mihaela; Panisoara Georgeta; Panisoara Ion Ovidiu. Digital technology adoption scale in the blended learning context in higher education: Development, validation and testing of a specific tool. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0235957; article XML SHA-256 288ff0afed55074a18c18b3800fb002cbc2d9e12e1bd7e9ec315279938be817c. “Digital technology adoption scale in the blended learning context in higher education: Development, validation and testing of a specific tool” (10.1371/journal.pone.0235957).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235957). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## computer-assisted instruction
<a id="computer-assisted-instruction"></a>

Computer-assisted instruction is a self-directed learning method, often delivered online, in which a learner interacts with preprogrammed teaching materials.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c4547729bec7e7890f4c4821ce41bfc27655130f68c455b1a4c9220e04dc089

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Computer-Assisted Instruction” (D003194).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003194). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## computer simulation
<a id="computer-simulation"></a>

A computer simulation is a software-based model that reproduces how a system or organism might behave over time by applying programmed rules. In this source, it is used to generate and study the possible 3D movement paths of artificial worm-like forms on a grid.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5a680428ed197972373ce2b21765423b9ed992d1de2c9078f8d69ac0fb42aaf0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vaughan Neil. Mathematical model for worm path simulation in 3D. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358065; article XML SHA-256 eaaadddff638ca747f28188d27ebc6cd6c837072e88feefab19319b8a546991c. “Mathematical model for worm path simulation in 3D” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358065).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358065). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## computerized assessment
<a id="computerized-assessment"></a>

Computerized assessment is the use of a computer-based testing system to measure abilities or functions and score the results. In this source, it refers to a computerized working-memory test battery for young adults built from several tasks and a scoring norm to estimate overall working-memory capacity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8a1dd9c91e879c3efdc9f18b49f6f2067702390e53c722d44bd43140aaeac8d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ma Liang; Chang Lei; Chen Xiaoying; Zhou Renlai. Working memory test battery for young adults: Computerized working memory assessment. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0175047; article XML SHA-256 e99d4a02ae557a15eb74d21f73d328ea22ae2805a6c936f942bf8a7bee3cec96. “Working memory test battery for young adults: Computerized working memory assessment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0175047).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175047). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## computerized therapy
<a id="computerized-therapy"></a>

Computerized therapy is a low-intensity form of care based on cognitive-behavioral therapy and delivered through a computer rather than relying as heavily on direct therapist involvement. It is used to provide more accessible support, especially for mild to moderate mental health problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 70b286bc0f58f44d0ecdbe6f540a45ae7534cbf0e326e1e02671525f52d1f867

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Knopp-Hoffer Jasmin; Knowles Sarah; Bower Peter; Lovell Karina; Bee Penny E.. ‘One man’s medicine is another man’s poison’: a qualitative study of user perspectives on low intensity interventions for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD). 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12913-016-1433-3; article XML SHA-256 f602537c7f7e3f82bd3ddb0d8ce28258e9fef6f7fa3834473a5f51439b273aef. “‘One man’s medicine is another man’s poison’: a qualitative study of user perspectives on low intensity interventions for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)” (10.1186/s12913-016-1433-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-016-1433-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## COMT
<a id="comt"></a>

COMT is a human enzyme called catechol O-methyltransferase, produced from the COMT gene. It helps break down neurotransmitters as part of their metabolism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e7970633683b428620b106cdad2b5d32fae3b1c0c7b684f0ff05b477e3ce70e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Catechol O-Methyltransferase” (C16387).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## COMT gene
<a id="comt-gene"></a>

The COMT gene is a gene involved in breaking down catecholamine drugs and neurotransmitters.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26cd299d3ef0f9d494a776f05c153112a131cc1c0ae755ccd4f2f3f72baab527

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “COMT Gene” (C18589).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CON
<a id="con"></a>

CON refers to the uninjured comparison group in this study, used as the control group against which people with anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction were compared on nervous system and strength-related measures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c32a33b7f9b2719d208c63e7f49c9c6655339ffc032852ef0dce11266e6250d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim HoWon; Geschwender Cole; Lepley Adam S. Corticospinal tract structure and descending motor output following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: an exploratory multimodal neuroimaging assessment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1888579; article XML SHA-256 a9aceb4e9aaa9d8025cfadb5c46e45ddd0f130a166d556c0808160ce039a3b16. “Corticospinal tract structure and descending motor output following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: an exploratory multimodal neuroimaging assessment” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1888579).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1888579). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conarium
<a id="conarium"></a>

Conarium is a historical term for the pineal gland, also called the epiphysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b29642d7711546268be8c3e7036500628beb1e95e50b15bd04957abbc487866f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Epiphysis” (Epiphysis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Epiphysis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conation
<a id="conation"></a>

Conation is the conscious inclination or drive to act, typically considered part of a mental process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 440093d69809dee5e92dc3712f36709336e444b1b6148ac759cd5896892f71f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Conation” (C26440).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## concentration
<a id="concentration"></a>

Concentration is a state of sustained, exclusive attention focused on specific contents. In this state, what is attended to becomes stronger in consciousness while other contents are more strongly shut out, making concentration a matter of how intense the attention is.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2da23e1b5f9643db99960134c603e774fa308c6d20a1a9a55a48c15c408bd251

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Concentration” (Concentration).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Concentration). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## concept formation
<a id="concept-formation"></a>

Concept formation is a cognitive process in which general ideas are developed by identifying and combining the qualities, features, and relationships of objects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9fdc42c826b2e3206c1a99babb936709220464358cf13f58f99500d69f1f929c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Concept Formation” (D003210).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003210). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## concept hierarchy
<a id="concept-hierarchy"></a>

A concept hierarchy is an arrangement of related ideas into different levels of detail or granularity. In this kind of structure, each level captures distinct but complementary information, and understanding can be improved by linking information across levels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d947f43f1e2b1c2d92893a75e88b831a436edfcd423fd9da9e5e6067483bc05

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yip Kevin Y; Kim Philip M; McDermott Drew; Gerstein Mark. Multi-level learning: improving the prediction of protein, domain and residue interactions by allowing information flow between levels. 2009; DOI 10.1186/1471-2105-10-241; article XML SHA-256 6ee65138d3bacb9f6d55a806fe27566dd8463d835f192ea12b9319b691fba6db. “Multi-level learning: improving the prediction of protein, domain and residue interactions by allowing information flow between levels” (10.1186/1471-2105-10-241).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2105-10-241). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## concept learning
<a id="concept-learning"></a>

Concept learning is a cognitive process in which the mind forms general ideas by drawing together knowledge about the qualities, features, and relationships of objects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa779ef124d8c425e725b6d90b101d8e344b3c0acc3a59671ae45ddfae6e64e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Concept Formation” (D003210).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003210). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conceptual imagery
<a id="conceptual-imagery"></a>

Conceptual imagery is the mental representation of a concept that may arise after language has already been processed. In this context, it refers to a possible indirect route by which motor brain structures become active after understanding language, rather than being recruited directly by language processing itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ab34ea1d2e57f625800b7a7b08f10f5d203661b867eebe7d41923db8a5c4f25f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aravena Pia; Delevoye-Turrell Yvonne; Deprez Viviane; Cheylus Anne; Paulignan Yves; Frak Victor; Nazir Tatjana. Grip Force Reveals the Context Sensitivity of Language-Induced Motor Activity during “Action Words” Processing: Evidence from Sentential Negation. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0050287; article XML SHA-256 e6313c7c32880fac5f2a30093ebb5e128e6e26831ee4c79e980449724a471030. “Grip Force Reveals the Context Sensitivity of Language-Induced Motor Activity during “Action Words” Processing: Evidence from Sentential Negation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0050287).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050287). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conceptual model
<a id="conceptual-model"></a>

A conceptual model is an organized explanatory framework for understanding an ability or process. In this source, it refers to a general model of intertemporal decision-making ability that can be checked in a specific context, refined, and used to judge whether it applies there.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 982dbde5c7f6c58aa7225e58bea7adc4b4d5aa085bf535accc2074df8c7670b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Xingru; Zhang Chao; Liu Yidan; Zhou Ping. Development of a conceptual model of intertemporal decision-making ability for young and middle-aged stroke patients within physical activity: a qualitative study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877769; article XML SHA-256 d456b4b55e0a8640553b5b96eda35b300bf217f967ae7adca4e458de8ea74f25. “Development of a conceptual model of intertemporal decision-making ability for young and middle-aged stroke patients within physical activity: a qualitative study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877769).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877769). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conceptual replication
<a id="conceptual-replication"></a>

Conceptual replication is a follow-up study that tests the same underlying idea or effect as an earlier study but uses different tasks or measures. In the source example, the same power-performance question was examined with new performance tasks rather than repeating the original task exactly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43fcdd07a29be07a6176ee42e39ef612016724452cbfad2156a28dbe6be0f48d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cusack Margaret; Vezenkova Nadya; Gottschalk Christopher; Calin-Jageman Robert J.. Direct and Conceptual Replications of Burgmer & Englich (2012): Power May Have Little to No Effect on Motor Performance. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0140806; article XML SHA-256 e0aa2150f65b31a021378d6cb1af6e4e2af4871594aaa3190caba85c0f1c8d7b. “Direct and Conceptual Replications of Burgmer & Englich (2012): Power May Have Little to No Effect on Motor Performance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0140806).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0140806). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conceptual system
<a id="conceptual-system"></a>

A conceptual system is the way a person organizes ideas and meanings to understand themselves, other people, and the world. In this context, it refers to the person’s conceptual structure and their pattern of making sense of experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f680993131ca79bd94277ef34df12a8527c162ac32e854e3ae3fc20c7442b9f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wozniak Eleanor Elizabeth; Hare Dougal Julian; Gregg Lynsey; Wittkowski Anja. Construal of self as a mental health inpatient: a systematic review and narrative synthesis of repertory grid studies. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1431798; article XML SHA-256 75b1ecbd636333719c2b6a6ffedae73e565906bd040413824d96c4100d05d34a. “Construal of self as a mental health inpatient: a systematic review and narrative synthesis of repertory grid studies” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1431798).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1431798). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conceptualization
<a id="conceptualization"></a>

Conceptualization is a cognitive process of forming general ideas based on knowledge about the qualities, features, and relationships of objects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed160d5ed24be7d4edba01873941ee929977292fad1964836856b98bc7c22537

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Concept Formation” (D003210).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003210). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conclusion
<a id="conclusion"></a>

A conclusion is a position, opinion, or judgment someone arrives at after thinking something over.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8cb1549f6e4e9fca856e69ef518002fcc1059bebf9b9517a5369a2424139282d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Conclusion” (C54033).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## concomitance
<a id="concomitance"></a>

In this historical mind-body usage, concomitance means the parallel occurrence of mental and bodily events without either causing the other. It refers to the view that the two run together as different aspects or expressions of one underlying reality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c220d4b9e389b5f5082a03e5592a876227044ff033dd5088c6694427db2fbeef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Double Aspect Theory” (Double Aspect Theory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Double Aspect Theory). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## concordance rate
<a id="concordance-rate"></a>

Concordance rate is the proportion of cases in which two sources, such as a clinician and a decision-support system, give matching decisions or recommendations. It describes how often there is agreement overall, and may be calculated for any acceptable match or for the top choice only.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c2fdb45950b90f0d1a0f276007bda52d3b9db11f7958352fb648e28b21a998e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gómez de la Torre Juan Carlos; Frenkel Ari; Chavez-Lencinas Carlos; Rendon Alicia; Fabian Max; Caceres-DelAguila Jose Alonso; Hueda-Zavaleta Miguel. Comparison of OneChoice AI-based clinical decision support recommendations with infectious disease specialists and non-specialists for bacteremia treatment in Lima, Peru. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331266; article XML SHA-256 a41d45be6f616fa283fc357fc2923b9b2649a5b9f4a94acac99a1e584c696c38. “Comparison of OneChoice AI-based clinical decision support recommendations with infectious disease specialists and non-specialists for bacteremia treatment in Lima, Peru” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331266).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331266). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## concrete operation
<a id="concrete-operation"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, a concrete operation is the actual, conscious act of thinking as it occurs in a particular person, rather than thought considered only in the abstract. It refers to the subjective mental process itself in its relation to an object.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 88b155a9870fc5bf4a17a11772eadfb047c429c9381bbf372f027172e9d588b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2173500-2185500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## concrete operational stage
<a id="concrete-operational-stage"></a>

The concrete operational stage is described here as a developmental period, usually around ages 7 to 11, when children are thought to be especially ready to learn logical structures and algorithmic reasoning. In this source, it is presented as an important window for building problem-solving and early abstract thinking through activities such as coding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11f31fec5dd4fe828384f99d55059e3fb1c8cd6041073b7775fecf9724251851

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Xin; Wan Feixue; Dai JiaMin. Enhancing computational thinking through coding education in primary school students: an experimental study on the impact of early programming exposure on problem-solving skills. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1734482; article XML SHA-256 2b6121ccb2813044f3185ace5c755ec68c4f99d025b8b745bc61be680414598a. “Enhancing computational thinking through coding education in primary school students: an experimental study on the impact of early programming exposure on problem-solving skills” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1734482).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1734482). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## concrete word
<a id="concrete-word"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, a concrete word is a definite, specific word that can serve as the clear pivot for a chain of associated ideas. James contrasts this with subtler links between ideas that are harder to isolate and analyze.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa298f54e796884c9022cd3bb99cfd15a96c76585a74b71d53ebe6d7adf7b55d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## concreteness effect
<a id="concreteness-effect"></a>

The concreteness effect is the idea that concrete words are often processed more easily than abstract words. In this view, concrete language may be easier because it more directly engages perception- and action-related mental representations, although findings about the effect are not always consistent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1376d78bc736a8c311377b7aa6e89bbb24fc9b485a240ea71b367ec02a928b5f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bolognesi Marianna. Beyond concreteness: why word specificity is the missing piece in theories on embodied language comprehension. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1718655; article XML SHA-256 f7973bc6ecc203b78931d7359b72fd8b4a4f8f2551bb12a051b37d54416890af. “Beyond concreteness: why word specificity is the missing piece in theories on embodied language comprehension” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1718655).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1718655). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## concurrent validity
<a id="concurrent-validity"></a>

Concurrent validity is the extent to which a measure shows the expected relationship with another relevant measure assessed at the same time. In the packet, this is illustrated by the TAPAS showing a moderate association with weight stigma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e81390b598f3f8576d483aa7967f1ca356b13b60cdf49f1ea3a8cb64ae5d082e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lin Yi-Ching; Chen Jung-Sheng; Bevan Nadia; O’Brien Kerry S; Strong Carol; Tsai Meng-Che; Fung Xavier C C; Chen Ji-Kang; Lin I-Ching; Latner Janet D; Lin Chung-Ying. Chinese version of the Tendency to Avoid Physical Activity and Sport (TAPAS) scale: testing unidimensionality, measurement invariance, concurrent validity, and known-group validity among Taiwanese youths. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s40359-024-01870-y; article XML SHA-256 4454810ceb489ab1c374ae93b1daa00be7720efa6f96c7dfc73a016a9090ef02. “Chinese version of the Tendency to Avoid Physical Activity and Sport (TAPAS) scale: testing unidimensionality, measurement invariance, concurrent validity, and known-group validity among Taiwanese youths” (10.1186/s40359-024-01870-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01870-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## concussion
<a id="concussion"></a>

Concussion is a mild traumatic brain injury, often discussed in sports, that briefly disrupts normal brain function but can also leave subtle effects that last for months or years after obvious symptoms have gone away. Repeated concussions are linked with cumulative problems in brain and cognitive functions, including attention, motor learning, mood, sleep, and sensorimotor performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3f4fe7352c7f4e501cf20d20240eec4c29143514fcd5cd7ed7b38d3bbda3dd2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wilkerson Gary B; Joghataee Mohammad; Gupta Ashish. Virtual reality, machine learning, and statistical modeling reveal an association between multiple concussion history and impaired perceptual decision-making. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358042; article XML SHA-256 a35a6ce74487a5126db95d1328ad4368f43b5d00ed07a5726f81fb6e5ed5d7f2. “Virtual reality, machine learning, and statistical modeling reveal an association between multiple concussion history and impaired perceptual decision-making” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358042).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358042). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conditional clause
<a id="conditional-clause"></a>

A conditional clause is the part of a conditional sentence that states the condition. In this historical source, it is identified with the grammatical term protasis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 102f1897646150ae7978af5d3530dd610d55875c6892e4c2623f3240d46b3e9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2100000-2112000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conditional probability
<a id="conditional-probability"></a>

Conditional probability is the chance that one event happens when it is already known that another event has happened. It is written as P(A|B), meaning the probability of A given B.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c867e1aa63f00c428707e0b578b297e7d41b9b57a8f5fc97b1429ccb5a40b4ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Conditional Probability” (conditional_p.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/conditional_p.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conditioned
<a id="conditioned"></a>

In learning, conditioned refers to a response or reaction that is acquired when a stimulus that did not originally trigger it is repeatedly paired with another stimulus that does. It describes a relatively simple form of learned association.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d5e678b81b073ed098c4c3289f289f128f8e68a9285e0477d2bffeedaa84f0c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Conditioning” (C41258).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conditioned place preference
<a id="conditioned-place-preference"></a>

Conditioned place preference is a Pavlovian learning effect in which a place becomes linked with a drug’s rewarding effects, so the subject shows preference for that environment. In addiction research, it is used to reflect how drug-associated contexts can become cues that help sustain drug seeking, craving, or relapse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f55dbaba41e5ccfad835cfe11401c382d600fbde54521694789c28b034b6443

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ghadirzadeh Erfan; Gheibi Mobina; Siahposht-Khachaki Ali; Vahdati Helan Ehsan; Farvardin Mohammad; Shadi Shiva; Abdolkarimi Ali. The effect of intracerebroventricular injection of insulin-like growth factor-1 on morphine-induced conditioned place preference extinction and reinstatement; a behavioral and biochemical experimental study. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12993-025-00304-y; article XML SHA-256 1d287b7b43120d6ec34273da30b10d5c285439fa1ebb4cc6bbea96046af9dd6a. “The effect of intracerebroventricular injection of insulin-like growth factor-1 on morphine-induced conditioned place preference extinction and reinstatement; a behavioral and biochemical experimental study” (10.1186/s12993-025-00304-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-025-00304-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conditioned response
<a id="conditioned-response"></a>

A conditioned response is a learned reaction that occurs when a stimulus that originally could not produce that reaction gains the ability to do so through repeated pairing with another stimulus that already brings it about.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4d0493860028dce9c619ec54fef65f42d5657c819ee278aaf8d3a54db87f674

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Conditioning” (C41258).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conditioned suppression
<a id="conditioned-suppression"></a>

Conditioned suppression is a learned reduction in reward-seeking behavior when the situation has become associated with adverse conditions. In this packet, it refers specifically to decreased seeking of palatable food in an aversive context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 395bc22837c292fa2f964be2d9973810714729f56d1b5af7f1602c00396c9a1c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Patrono Enrico; Di Segni Matteo; Patella Loris; Andolina Diego; Valzania Alessandro; Latagliata Emanuele Claudio; Felsani Armando; Pompili Assunta; Gasbarri Antonella; Puglisi-Allegra Stefano; Ventura Rossella. When Chocolate Seeking Becomes Compulsion: Gene-Environment Interplay. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0120191; article XML SHA-256 1a75193dcdedd4e4caa6cd079086060d6379fc0bfb8fab3e8d0d84c6c95fc7f8. “When Chocolate Seeking Becomes Compulsion: Gene-Environment Interplay” (10.1371/journal.pone.0120191).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120191). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conditioning
<a id="conditioning"></a>

Conditioning is a relatively simple form of learning in which a stimulus that did not originally trigger a response comes to do so after being repeatedly paired with another stimulus that already produces that response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 121ffe2ee64d60afb4d1a7367d6e6be7e5b617cec6283783e2acfa7e260d7ed6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Conditioning” (C41258).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conditioning apparatus
<a id="conditioning-apparatus"></a>

A conditioning apparatus is an experimental device used in animal research to produce conditioning, such as fear conditioning. In this packet, it refers to equipment in which rats were exposed to electrical foot shocks to create a PTSD-like stress model.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5fc839978e09d97da35f7dde30d95b1b9edf319a38c3bcd13d64ef3168596037

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ebrahimkhani Zahra; behnoud Hamidreza; Kazemi Ameneh-Sadat; Yekta Batool Ghorbani. The impact of paternal PTSD-like stress on cognitive behavior and hippocampal BDNF expression in adolescent male and female rat offspring: modulatory effects of lithium. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12993-026-00324-2; article XML SHA-256 8b05c07640ae62e4b113cbec0308b983a8cf0959c10cea50df564386e7c148a5. “The impact of paternal PTSD-like stress on cognitive behavior and hippocampal BDNF expression in adolescent male and female rat offspring: modulatory effects of lithium” (10.1186/s12993-026-00324-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-026-00324-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Conditioning, Psychological
<a id="conditioning-psychological"></a>

Psychological conditioning is a basic kind of learning in which the link between a stimulus and a response is created, made stronger, or reduced.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 04a54aa2df67981c39f3eb0224d93af69445932505e07330aad23f56434c0f1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Conditioning, Psychological” (D003213).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003213). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conditioning therapy
<a id="conditioning-therapy"></a>

Conditioning therapy is a form of behavior therapy that uses principles of learning and conditioning to help change disordered or problematic behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b6608f24973c9c7ba19f589f25edb0c409c5340b4966ed3e648ff05bf1b7a2b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Behavior Therapy” (D001521).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001521). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## condom
<a id="condom"></a>

A condom is a sheath worn over the penis during sexual activity to help prevent pregnancy and reduce the spread of sexually transmitted disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53b96a2723d86447fd6948d5ecc9e8f84dc7e15cd22c5515447fe69d014fab97

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Condoms” (D017280).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017280). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conduct disorder
<a id="conduct-disorder"></a>

Conduct disorder is a diagnosis marked by an ongoing pattern of behavior in which a young person violates other people’s basic rights or major age-expected rules and social norms. It can involve aggression toward people or animals, damage to property, deceit or theft, and serious rule-breaking, with onset before age 18.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c2ac2c5ee53aac2808a8c8cf66059f507b1471790b74fd4e03c88a7c253ae31

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Conduct Disorder” (D019955).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019955). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conduction
<a id="conduction"></a>

In this context, conduction means the transmission of nerve impulses along axons. It is commonly indexed by nerve conduction velocity, a measure of how quickly signals travel, which reflects properties such as myelination and may relate to differences in cognitive functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0def4d0963ff41011ceaec0913c5b323d6c4bb2a7805c0e9512536ef94c2c1f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Almuklass Awad M.; Al Mutlaq Omar M.; Alharbi Muhannad; Alojaymi Ibrahim; AlSharif Abdullah; Alhazmi Qusai. The nerve conduction variables in relation to academic performance among male medical students at King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences: an exploratory observational study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1855183; article XML SHA-256 d547d7a641a4555ba4f1c3fb7c92a268f501db22f9bec49431e3f4093b2a8cf9. “The nerve conduction variables in relation to academic performance among male medical students at King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences: an exploratory observational study” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1855183).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1855183). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conduction time
<a id="conduction-time"></a>

Conduction time is the amount of time a nerve signal takes to travel between two measured response points along a pathway. In this source, it refers specifically to the interval between two sound-evoked responses in the auditory pathway.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 13e78ce359a023e4c8c0cfed4891a94d68e2e917de9bb550a8a296f52b7d2fb6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Xu-Jun; Lau Chi-Chuen. Central conduction time in auditory brainstem response and ear advantage in dichotic listening across menstrual cycle. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0187672; article XML SHA-256 cd05fadfc08bbdfb06e09800b9e06283eb65514091a01c851dc1f5bc413dcb65. “Central conduction time in auditory brainstem response and ear advantage in dichotic listening across menstrual cycle” (10.1371/journal.pone.0187672).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0187672). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conduction velocity
<a id="conduction-velocity"></a>

Conduction velocity is the speed and efficiency with which sensory nerve signals are carried along a pathway, such as from the ear to the auditory cortex. In this context, it depends on the coordinated action of neural and glial structures and processes, including axons, myelin, synapses, dendrites, and related chemical and electrical components.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b419e757f2b61e0381997eba867837d6219aabc4e9520a52ca2b1c18910ed25a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Berman Jeffrey I.; Bloy Luke; Blaskey Lisa; Jackel Carissa R.; Miller Judith S.; Ross Judith; Edgar J. Christopher; Roberts Timothy P. L.. Contributions to auditory system conduction velocity: insights with multi-modal neuroimaging and machine learning in children with ASD and XYY syndrome. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1057221; article XML SHA-256 d627779a7c35de1be9fc492802915c3469a1ad670a50da1c89579632e187672a. “Contributions to auditory system conduction velocity: insights with multi-modal neuroimaging and machine learning in children with ASD and XYY syndrome” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1057221).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1057221). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cone
<a id="cone"></a>

A cone is a light-sensitive cell in the retina that supports sharp visual detail and color vision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bb4d4efcbf58b8476c9cf569b50040cbc4d47a9594626a1a4212d8cb29825ee0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cone” (C12637).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cone opsin
<a id="cone-opsin"></a>

Cone opsin is a light-sensitive visual pigment found in cone photoreceptors of the retina. In the supplied source, the typical mammalian longwave-sensitive and shortwave-sensitive cone opsins are both present, and some cones contain both types.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 828c5e800135d7e74830bd054959eac57c80ee593ed321c46f29354020ecc788

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Peichl Leo; Meimann Sonja; Solovei Irina; Gügel Irene L.; Geiger Christina; Schauerte Nicole; Goździewska-Harłajczuk Karolina; Klećkowska-Nawrot Joanna E.; Wibbelt Gudrun; Haverkamp Silke. Eye features and retinal photoreceptors of the nocturnal aardvark ( Orycteropus afer , Tubulidentata ). 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314252; article XML SHA-256 eaf60a3007b325e03a1345d973232317582dcd90e50ac2723c76f0937e6342c3. “Eye features and retinal photoreceptors of the nocturnal aardvark ( Orycteropus afer , Tubulidentata )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314252).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314252). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## confidence interval
<a id="confidence-interval"></a>

A confidence interval is a range of values that is likely to include the population parameter being estimated. Different confidence levels reflect how likely the interval is to contain that parameter, and wider intervals indicate greater uncertainty about its value.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46ff4e0e9d9c06062bccf9ff7c06f50271b85625e4140e7dd5b356070a150255

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Confidence Interval” (confidence_interval.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/confidence_interval.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## confirmatory factor analysis
<a id="confirmatory-factor-analysis"></a>

Confirmatory factor analysis is a statistical method used to test whether data fit an expected factor structure in a measure. In this study, it was used to examine whether the stigma scale matched a proposed two-factor model and whether the model showed acceptable fit.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ce28de876f6a678b45101d5b23c16d8e6430d2e91f5e2c784692664e88000c6c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cwik Jan Christopher; Woud Marcella L; Blackwell Simon E; Teismann Tobias; Keita Ines; Margraf Jürgen. Attitudes towards people with mental disorders: results of a psychometric evaluation and confirmatory factor analysis of the stigma towards people with mental disorders (SToP-MD) scale. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04627-x; article XML SHA-256 b10bef9984d10600d387748c87145a7cbb77be00426df83021b1d7a2536fa07a. “Attitudes towards people with mental disorders: results of a psychometric evaluation and confirmatory factor analysis of the stigma towards people with mental disorders (SToP-MD) scale” (10.1186/s40359-026-04627-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04627-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## confirmatory research
<a id="confirmatory-research"></a>

Confirmatory research is research done after exploratory findings to test whether the observed patterns hold up when examined more directly. In this context, it is used to validate suggested gender-related gaze and body-image patterns with additional direct measures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 177d4ffcc56bb594f601637f5deb2f2e6b2ea5e7800fa2614dc7df0b333891ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shin Kyulee; Jeon Youngirl. Gender differences in gaze patterns to Instagram influencer body parts: predicted by subjective body image perception and negative affect. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857912; article XML SHA-256 05819f9e7c85ceee7fac470c726adb6d36ffd57dd876b3d12c7d24f31a339a4c. “Gender differences in gaze patterns to Instagram influencer body parts: predicted by subjective body image perception and negative affect” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857912).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857912). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conflict
<a id="conflict"></a>

In cognition, conflict is interference that arises when different aspects of information or processing are incompatible, making performance more difficult. It is studied through conflict effects such as the Stroop effect and may include components like perceptual conflict.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a5f73758275095a767f1dcacc08cbf4e0d610c430b3c66f149e105d8fedefbc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Yian; Wu Yanan; Yao Yuanqing; You Ke; Zhao Guangping. Isolating perceptual conflict: a theoretical and methodological analysis of the Task-Irrelevant Paradigm. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1603617; article XML SHA-256 ee4cbe7d1361066b043576ae5f1c7944b0b1155051fb5505a7d4ec986b82c306. “Isolating perceptual conflict: a theoretical and methodological analysis of the Task-Irrelevant Paradigm” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1603617).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1603617). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conflict behavior
<a id="conflict-behavior"></a>

Conflict behavior is group action that arises when people see different social classes as having opposed interests. In the class context described here, it often refers to collective actions by lower-status groups, such as protests, strikes, or other rights-claiming actions driven by unmet material interests, power concerns, or needs for respect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e0fe3752c56ed8e482b9fbc6a59a7d534687de91faaad070d4fde68fe529170e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Jia-Ling; Yan Lei; Zhang Yan-Hong; Gan Jin-Hua; Yang Lin-Chuan. Lower class competence stereotypes of the upper class increase class conflict: mediation by intergroup envy and moderation by upward social mobility belief. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1360951; article XML SHA-256 c1bd77d1a2220bdc9675cc9a7e2206aa671558bb27e7ba800ec5f070c0fc0f16. “Lower class competence stereotypes of the upper class increase class conflict: mediation by intergroup envy and moderation by upward social mobility belief” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1360951).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1360951). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conflict of interest
<a id="conflict-of-interest"></a>

A conflict of interest is a situation where someone’s official or professional decisions could be influenced, or seem influenced, by personal gain or private interests. It can involve both a real conflict and the appearance of one, especially when the person holds a position of trust.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5abbf5098e97cfa214f89e796f095afcc751dc9bafd01079e90cbe84fc100d8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Conflict of Interest” (D016265).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016265). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conflict resolution
<a id="conflict-resolution"></a>

Conflict resolution, in this psychology context, means the executive-function process of handling cognitive conflict so a person can process competing information and choose an appropriate response. It is described as a key part of executive function and involves both information processing and response selection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b688b95dd900044a1d15a9262ca9183704582bc1492529b8a082dd9d06888ac2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sun Ru-hong; Zhang Jia-zhao; Jin Sha-yu; Jiang Chen-guang; Gao Xue-zheng; Wang Jun; Zhou Zhen-he. Neural correlates of abnormal cognitive conflict resolution in major depression: An event-related potential study. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.989924; article XML SHA-256 d64e489cc76a97ce7b6dd26113b0bc1c91f39820ba69b1e9d2b8a51834f8d577. “Neural correlates of abnormal cognitive conflict resolution in major depression: An event-related potential study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.989924).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.989924). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conflict theory
<a id="conflict-theory"></a>

Conflict theory, in this social context, is the view that unequal power and control over valued resources create opposing interests between people or groups. Those asymmetries can promote competition, confrontation, mistrust, and power struggles, which increase conflict within a team.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 069ae5316e62a7e5fc7df0882c79422ff6ef145c7365d091e8d6a1bfe5a7748e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Shiwen; Furuoka Fumitaka; Zuo Xuelian. Why and how power disparity harm team performance. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1702275; article XML SHA-256 c955815a9e48be250289df8931dc27841424168c4d9a1d28b7f708f070d49266. “Why and how power disparity harm team performance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1702275).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1702275). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## confluence model
<a id="confluence-model"></a>

In cognition research, the confluence model is an account of object comparison in which the combined effect of color and shape congruency is expected to emerge only after the separate congruency effects for each feature. In the cited EEG context, this timing pattern is expected regardless of task.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7429223b439ff89c9d44bf692e00a9b97b8d117000ee89d6a43912f547ea807

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Ruiling; Hu Zhonghua; Debi Roberson; Zhang Lingcong; Li Hong; Liu Qiang. Neural Processes Underlying the“Same”-“Different” Judgment of Two Simultaneously Presented Objects- An EEG Study. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0081737; article XML SHA-256 76c0661ae6e6e808626c6c89f7bfda9f8f954d4af1039cb56e7f08363e3a3720. “Neural Processes Underlying the“Same”-“Different” Judgment of Two Simultaneously Presented Objects- An EEG Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0081737).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081737). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conformity
<a id="conformity"></a>

Conformity is the tendency to follow what other people are doing, even in crisis situations where doing so may not help and can sometimes worsen harm. In this context, it refers to people instinctively going along with the crowd rather than acting independently.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6acf22c9de2a915affff2ccdcaf854446672412e479c7d4bde4340a4ccb5cadb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Kexin; Gao Yang; Ni Yichen; Li Hong. Crisis conformity as affiliation defense under mortality salience: a TMT perspective. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1597502; article XML SHA-256 1bc722db482c2a53f6812c261fc2c68f58538590a050cd26ddeb440accbb6a31. “Crisis conformity as affiliation defense under mortality salience: a TMT perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1597502).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1597502). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## confound
<a id="confound"></a>

In this context, a confound is a source of distortion that makes a measure reflect something other than the psychological phenomenon it is meant to assess. The packet specifically describes a semantic confound, in which questionnaire scales may capture word-based familiarity or semantic associations instead of the underlying trait or state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 30fab52583e773b68d6451fc4c41b6bb4b3125b56adc08138c8c2769f4f0c298

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Xiangyu. What are we really measuring? The semantic confound in psychological scales and the case for theory-driven measurement. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870659; article XML SHA-256 f2bfd8c739f8aa2710be773128e0d01df18e5aa760693990637b920a9bff20b2. “What are we really measuring? The semantic confound in psychological scales and the case for theory-driven measurement” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870659).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870659). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## confounded effects
<a id="confounded-effects"></a>

Confounded effects are different influences mixed together in observed data so that they appear as a single pattern even though they arise from separate processes. In the source, developmental, evolutionary, and environmental influences on leaf shape are described as confounded because their hidden contributions overlap and change differently over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6550fe0e452e50231cd51222e7bf74f9d9d3dd157373e37db15daa41e8f96871

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Percival Sarah; Onyenedum Joyce G.; Chitwood Daniel H.; Husbands Aman Y.. Topological data analysis reveals core heteroblastic and ontogenetic programs embedded in leaves of grapevine (Vitaceae) and maracuyá (Passifloraceae). 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011845; article XML SHA-256 9b603daa20bf59c936a306bab2f6ba617a7fbb5154b2d897ce543977778e2e16. “Topological data analysis reveals core heteroblastic and ontogenetic programs embedded in leaves of grapevine (Vitaceae) and maracuyá (Passifloraceae)” (10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011845).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011845). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## confounding variable
<a id="confounding-variable"></a>

A confounding variable is a factor that is mixed together with the main variable being studied, making it hard to tell which one is actually causing the observed effect. In this context, frequency can act as a confounding variable if differences attributed to word order might instead be due to how common the sentence structure is.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9ae0cc6a6d54045ab11db6664bd64acb30515210edc95f930d104fe4b652468c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jap Bernard A. J.; Hsu Yu-Yin; Politzer-Ahles Stephen. Registered Report: Neural correlates of thematic role assignment for passives in Standard Indonesian. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322341; article XML SHA-256 378dc334052ee55de41a09f9ba7a5db1136e122ac9967eacd6ee7ba24e9193a2. “Registered Report: Neural correlates of thematic role assignment for passives in Standard Indonesian” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322341).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322341). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## confrontation
<a id="confrontation"></a>

Confrontation is a coping style in which a person actively faces a stressful situation and tries to deal with it. It is one of the cognitive and behavioral ways people respond to stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba7a9cd5f4cb9099a4672f1a033a640d702ceb550f592c7cdf15239985569e9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ma Lulu; Piao Ying; Zhou Yu; Wang Xiaohuan. The impact of stigma on post-traumatic growth in patients with enterostomy: the chain mediating effect of coping styles and self-care. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1891377; article XML SHA-256 4eb6d3b2fe208085ddf0fc46a3a36de1f49b64872c6c8ded2c15ab107f68e06e. “The impact of stigma on post-traumatic growth in patients with enterostomy: the chain mediating effect of coping styles and self-care” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1891377).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1891377). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## confusion
<a id="confusion"></a>

Confusion is a mental state marked by being bewildered, emotionally unsettled, unable to think clearly, and disoriented in perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4cec30f84e9a8551b187a0a723639253963e894ea6dcfa8b1bea759df6124a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Confusion” (D003221).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003221). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## confusion effect
<a id="confusion-effect"></a>

In this context, the confusion effect is the tendency to mistake one facial expression for another emotion when judging faces. It reflects reduced sensitivity in telling apart specific pairs of emotional expressions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48c663f7d6f7f914f7dbdd02201e7083ef4e874f1dcf23386fb0b426eb6f101a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mo Fan; Gu Jingjin; Zhao Ke; Fu Xiaolan. Confusion Effects of Facial Expression Recognition in Patients With Major Depressive Disorder and Healthy Controls. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.703888; article XML SHA-256 66a3b0169e12e69582afc9c5d61c873069d3926f38ba98cf4eac9225cffa5a32. “Confusion Effects of Facial Expression Recognition in Patients With Major Depressive Disorder and Healthy Controls” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.703888).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.703888). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## confusional state
<a id="confusional-state"></a>

A confusional state is a mental condition marked by bewilderment, emotional upset, unclear thinking, and difficulty staying oriented to what is being perceived.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1817594596a9c6a15d1fae2b5d08cfe80ffe1008fa758e1b21b6acf7b1a81c2a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Confusion” (D003221).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003221). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## congenital
<a id="congenital"></a>

Congenital refers to a characteristic that comes from heredity rather than being gained through a person’s life. A congenital trait does not have to be visible at birth, because it may appear later in development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1bf9bfd17f6eb79d922fd30766d9ef38fdf1f53f4f1a8863194757c27e477696

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Congenital” (Congenital).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Congenital). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## congenital cataract
<a id="congenital-cataract"></a>

Congenital cataract is a clouding of the eye’s lens that is present at birth, usually linked to genetic causes or environmental influences such as rubella infection during early pregnancy. It is a major treatable cause of childhood blindness and visual impairment and may be found on routine examination or when signs such as a white pupil or eye misalignment are noticed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7ab4c7851f3628071a4075ebb4c3c3e0140eb3b8f9264430951cf2fc38c29fc2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Shuo; Wang Jiaxing; Li Ying; Liu Ye; He Li; Xia Xiaobo. The role of primary intraocular lens implantation in the risk of secondary glaucoma following congenital cataract surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0214684; article XML SHA-256 fcb65bfbdc75bbc7eaac36cf9eb6f8b4ff36497931cb90fac1fa0547e247bf3e. “The role of primary intraocular lens implantation in the risk of secondary glaucoma following congenital cataract surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0214684).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214684). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## congenital character
<a id="congenital-character"></a>

A congenital character is a trait or property an organism has from the start, as part of its original endowment. In this historical usage, it is contrasted with acquired characters, though the source notes that in actual development most traits reflect both innate qualities and environmental influence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 995614368baee625868b4fad484c652d0395910b919d2293ca6c6458854f4991

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Acquired and Congenital Characters” (Acquired and Congenital Characters).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Acquired and Congenital Characters). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## congenital glaucoma
<a id="congenital-glaucoma"></a>

Congenital glaucoma, specifically primary congenital glaucoma, is a childhood form of glaucoma present early in life that can seriously impair visual acuity and visual development and is an important cause of blindness in children. Like other glaucomas, it can ultimately damage the optic nerve.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cd6f00b203e801ca7538f4c731b50759f6291842736b63244c89a33fb1ac09c3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shao Mingxi; Wan Yani; Li Yingzhu; Ma Yi; Ren Jun; Li Shengjie; Cao Wenjun. Association of oxidative stress biomarkers with primary congenital glaucoma. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328663; article XML SHA-256 0106964da0469e197df723bd4bbfd12544ca889d58f1af568190523cb4f4c031. “Association of oxidative stress biomarkers with primary congenital glaucoma” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328663).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328663). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## congenital hypothyroidism
<a id="congenital-hypothyroidism"></a>

Congenital hypothyroidism is a condition present in infancy or early childhood caused by too little thyroid hormone before birth. It can result from genetic or environmental causes, including problems in thyroid development, and may lead to major intellectual impairment along with delayed bone growth, short stature, and myxedema.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 52244c07e4b71b382d388d7ba3cf6f3d8e91354a0941c1abc46e90c299851071

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Congenital Hypothyroidism” (D003409).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003409). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## congenital rubella syndrome
<a id="congenital-rubella-syndrome"></a>

Congenital rubella syndrome is a condition in which a fetus is infected with rubella through the placenta, usually during the first trimester of pregnancy after maternal infection. It leads to developmental abnormalities in the newborn, which can include deafness, microcephaly, growth retardation, heart and eye problems, and intellectual impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b3b405f0930e4f4e12a425a3a76f90acdc01e2be802fe0160f31d271324ec99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Rubella Syndrome, Congenital” (D012410).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012410). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## congruence
<a id="congruence"></a>

In historical psychology and aesthetics, congruence refers to the agreement among parts of a whole. It stresses that nothing is out of place more than it stresses the presence of positively complementary elements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2eb06112e711f48f4a28142411be8d981a8d0865a36aeb4b7e720b593991bb4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Congruity” (Congruity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Congruity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conjoint analysis
<a id="conjoint-analysis"></a>

Conjoint analysis is an assessment method used to study how people value different combinations of features or choices by comparing their preferences across alternative scenarios. In this source, it is used to examine which mixes of vaccination statuses people prefer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9c8ac88d359b39bc2ec847f13ddb5e687c257711b7dd19faa2b9008fce5c24fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ohmura Hanako. Analysis of social combinations of COVID-19 vaccination: Evidence from a conjoint analysis. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0261426; article XML SHA-256 54602bae0344794b6385003bc4f2596953358ef989820ccb717a9df76c5afdec. “Analysis of social combinations of COVID-19 vaccination: Evidence from a conjoint analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0261426).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261426). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conjoint therapy
<a id="conjoint-therapy"></a>

Conjoint therapy is a form of therapy in which both members of a couple take part together, treating difficulties in a shared relational context rather than focusing only on one person alone. In the packet, it is described as a dyadic approach for PTSD that aims to improve both trauma-related and relationship outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09d247ef808f4d23f02263854c9d8b83da702d5a405f3314e55e645282f15f0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wagner Anne C.; Liebman Rachel E.; Mithoefer Ann T.; Mithoefer Michael C.; Monson Candice M.. Relational and Growth Outcomes Following Couples Therapy With MDMA for PTSD. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.702838; article XML SHA-256 1510923cd9d8cc97a107e6ff7fa8d28fb8fb2bc88ca6883dd8374d09165a3a4e. “Relational and Growth Outcomes Following Couples Therapy With MDMA for PTSD” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.702838).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.702838). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conjugate reinforcement
<a id="conjugate-reinforcement"></a>

Conjugate reinforcement is a learning paradigm used to assess learning and memory, described here in the form of a mobile conjugate reinforcement task given to infants.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f855cce500764790ce16c829e2792f82efc1e67245b2bc045fe03164dda2a9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Merz Emily C; Monk Catherine; Bansal Ravi; Sawardekar Siddhant; Lee Seonjoo; Feng Tianshu; Spann Marisa; Foss Sophie; McDonough Laraine; Werner Elizabeth; Peterson Bradley S. Neonatal brain metabolite concentrations: Associations with age, sex, and developmental outcomes. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243255; article XML SHA-256 d90fb9d7ddf1c6f6c1608fbd1f01995a226c617f57bfcc566689c085e514941c. “Neonatal brain metabolite concentrations: Associations with age, sex, and developmental outcomes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243255).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243255). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conjunction
<a id="conjunction"></a>

In cognitive judgments about probability, a conjunction is the combined occurrence of two events, such as A and B happening together. In research on conjunction fallacies, people may incorrectly judge this combined event as more likely than one or both of the single events.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1eb76750f44797573e349bccd034db2e3da907a78e4ebbde1716a0f09c1c06b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Imannezhad Pegah; Pothos Emmanuel M; Wills Andy J. Divergent patterns of probabilistic reasoning in humans and GPT-5. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782184; article XML SHA-256 d9a847f6546636705636f62300e065c00972a3930a5d7f51c01f3ff9a2676296. “Divergent patterns of probabilistic reasoning in humans and GPT-5” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782184).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782184). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conjunction search
<a id="conjunction-search"></a>

Conjunction search is a visual search task in which a person must find a target defined by a combination of features, such as a red X among red O’s and green X’s. It is used to study how the visual system binds features belonging to the same object while avoiding mistaken combinations across different objects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd23a408f09da4f752c19cc2887e4bac0993c931ad1a99b47a30090dd41acbed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dent Kevin; Allen Harriet A.; Braithwaite Jason J.; Humphreys Glyn W.. Parallel Distractor Rejection as a Binding Mechanism in Search. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00278; article XML SHA-256 6552742b6977e37211c5ae7cb363837f5a2098d6c63cf343cb888e6c688c70b5. “Parallel Distractor Rejection as a Binding Mechanism in Search” (10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00278).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00278). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## connate
<a id="connate"></a>

Connate is a historical term for something present from birth, especially a congenital trait or instinctive response that appears at birth or soon after. In this older usage, it can be narrower than congenital, referring specifically to inborn features that show themselves early rather than later.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 726b8f69e5307910361f33d16da6dc2eea54f909e6008186c8c4823fb6203cbd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Connate” (Connate).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Connate). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## connected discourse
<a id="connected-discourse"></a>

Connected discourse is spoken language at a broader, continuous level rather than isolated speech sounds or phonetic features. In this packet, it is described as one level of psycholinguistic structure that can be perceived by watching a talking face.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e6367d1ee0ecfd5555846a3878088b4ea7b641201cb892b83ff52604ad6ac99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Files Benjamin T.; Tjan Bosco S.; Jiang Jintao; Bernstein Lynne E.. Visual speech discrimination and identification of natural and synthetic consonant stimuli. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00878; article XML SHA-256 e3212addd1f7cfa48f6fc3273e38fb0ddaae27a24d96b625c6d0af8aeb437fdc. “Visual speech discrimination and identification of natural and synthetic consonant stimuli” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00878).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00878). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## connector neuron
<a id="connector-neuron"></a>

A connector neuron is a nerve cell in the central nervous system that carries signals between other neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a8469eaaf7023b8dc3ab3ba0e0b7cc29a88faf561524fecb3ff2aa5804be9a7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Interneuron” (C12625).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Conners’ Comprehensive Behavior Rating Scales
<a id="conners-comprehensive-behavior-rating-scales"></a>

Conners’ Comprehensive Behavior Rating Scales refers to a set of behavior rating scales used in this source to assess children’s behavioral and emotional problems. In the preschool sample described, it included areas such as hyperactivity, learning problems, conduct problems, anxiety, and psychosomatic problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e0b998500b5f4a3aace424f827f92c8b67e6df2006228d35892f797cdc3ac0a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zoromba Mohamed A.; Abdelgawad Doaa; Hashem Sahar; El-Gazar Heba; Abd El Aziz Magda Ahmed. Association between media exposure and behavioral problems among preschool children. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1080550; article XML SHA-256 ce5bed2511562317b558ab9bd289d005fb6a0c59dceb0e4b8654ef5465c1fa0f. “Association between media exposure and behavioral problems among preschool children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1080550).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1080550). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## connotative meaning
<a id="connotative-meaning"></a>

Connotative meaning is the emotional or evaluative sense a concept carries, apart from its literal definition. It can be reflected by where a person places the concept on opposite adjective scales such as good–bad.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab2571306e0e537c623228bedb0ead1fb5c7c0471b7497aa461435b00ba93351

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Semantic Differential” (D012659).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012659). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conscience
<a id="conscience"></a>

Conscience is the mix of thinking and feeling processes that becomes an internal moral guide for a person's behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9944382d90e3ffd002fdc79bdf618ea3aae6153f30dd156705c417422c9b4c26

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Conscience” (D003242).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003242). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conscientiousness
<a id="conscientiousness"></a>

Conscientiousness is a personal quality marked by self-control, organization, and steadiness in working toward long-term goals. In the source, it is described as being closely connected with how people understand and manage their emotions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f3d77741b32da544e2e2d5770e663d836f47a2644bfc10e2ac29351c16f8794

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sarikabak Murat; Ayranci Mert; Yalcin Ilimdar; Talaghir Laurentiu-Gabriel; Bentea Cristina-Corina. Unveiling the associations between conscientiousness and emotional intelligence in Paralympic athletes. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1477410; article XML SHA-256 93ce52b9ccde1f2aea9617eaa13666d48565f9a605283c7ecf6326ecbe2cb17b. “Unveiling the associations between conscientiousness and emotional intelligence in Paralympic athletes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1477410).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1477410). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conscious
<a id="conscious"></a>

Conscious means being awake and aware, with the ability to recognize what is going on around you and respond to it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dfac278f4e2def1150a832bf870c8709a25f88ec7badabe4d007a55b029e8d58

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Consciousness” (C37929).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conscious automatism
<a id="conscious-automatism"></a>

In historical psychology and philosophy of mind, conscious automatism refers to a view in which bodily or physical events form an unbroken causal sequence, while conscious events accompany them without acting back on the body. In the source, it is treated as closely related to psychophysical parallelism and near a guarded form of materialism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f4861ffab92ea68600e8791df3790ea27fea25062bceb4e0ae4e7ee4235555e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Double Aspect Theory” (Double Aspect Theory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Double Aspect Theory). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conscious intention
<a id="conscious-intention"></a>

In this historical source, conscious intention means acting with an explicit, aware purpose to produce a chosen outcome. It contrasts with selecting or preserving something for convenience or usefulness without any thought of deliberately altering the larger result.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 101ec7ee4e297930828ad840bbf14c70f7da933d3ceed1b4f9ec43f30ce26844

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Artificial Selection” (Artificial Selection).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Artificial Selection). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conscious moment
<a id="conscious-moment"></a>

A conscious moment is the intervening period in which consciousness weighs information from perceptual, motivational, cognitive, and emotional sources and produces will. In this view, that act of will then biases later neural activity toward carrying out the chosen goal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ebcd14532c19e2cc22a279dfc20aeba233e75ff79e9660e8cd722f718ceec1c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nussbaum David; Ibrahim Khadija. Neuronal function is necessary but not sufficient for consciousness: consciousness is necessary for will. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fnint.2012.00103; article XML SHA-256 101264156a29e01b4c4fd463b5636a8ec95d6885442e3666d43ccbc25f9793de. “Neuronal function is necessary but not sufficient for consciousness: consciousness is necessary for will” (10.3389/fnint.2012.00103).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2012.00103). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consciousness
<a id="consciousness"></a>

Consciousness is the state of being aware of yourself and of your surroundings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc0d421708ec11e994e842f32aae85e27d4d2cb55760d39bab10dbbd8f076f96

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Consciousness” (D003243).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003243). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consciousness of freedom
<a id="consciousness-of-freedom"></a>

In this historical source, consciousness of freedom means the felt awareness of oneself as freely initiating action. It is treated as a prospective aspect of experience, pointing to novelty and self-activity rather than being fully explained by looking back at causes and past events alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40c7ce4e9aa7eb1b0f28bba1f7ce0a2b66ad854f976b69c31b696755af4f0fc2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Origin versus Nature” (Origin versus Nature).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O2defs.htm#Origin versus Nature). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consciousness studies
<a id="consciousness-studies"></a>

In this source, consciousness studies refers to a mind-body medicine subarea within religion and spirituality. It focuses on non-behavioral spiritual or religious aspects and how they may relate to biological functioning or clinical conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 10a83d8a503f044e34d99b22b1b413576e1a0501c1637bed36ed500ca15d8bd8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Religion and Spirituality” (C15713).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consensus
<a id="consensus"></a>

Consensus is a shared view or general agreement within a group. It refers to the judgment accepted by most of the people involved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6823a08ae5878c3da25539d9a8657bc019eeefe31b9955587425850fddf21e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Consensus” (D032921).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D032921). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consent
<a id="consent"></a>

Consent is a voluntary act of will that allows something to happen. In this historical usage, it is distinguished from assent, which agrees with a proposition as a matter of belief rather than will.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7ea15114719a7a45415f0c12907cbdb761ef4d6d2fe93c26a21033a0304996c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Consent” (Consent).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Consent). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consentience
<a id="consentience"></a>

Consentience is a historical term for the felt unity of consciousness as grounded in sensation rather than in intellectual activity. It also refers to an unintellectual sense of self arising from the unnoticed combining of sensations, though the term was not in general use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6cf2fe30ae4bdac5e760f0325442408a1724299918e7251c2fdecf6849a6226a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Consentience” (Consentience).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Consentience). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consequent
<a id="consequent"></a>

Consequent refers to a type of slope in which the rock layers and the slope are aligned, with parallel strike and the same dip direction. In gentle-dip consequent slopes, this arrangement can make sliding along bedding planes more likely because friction between layers is low.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ab61e32057aaa042c285f80fe3e50027040f9e45debb643872c2451aa96a986

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Zhaofeng; Du Bin; Zhu Huadong; Jiang Yonglei; Wang Tengwen; Chen Wei; Zhao Yanlin; Wang Yuanzeng. Energy evolution and catastrophic instability of excavated consequent slopes: A cusp catastrophe-based criterion and gradient-anchoring reinforcement strategy. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354142; article XML SHA-256 b025be69bc7f6a756276c3a49b7830f27087695663f1e88e54b0d5bf521929d7. “Energy evolution and catastrophic instability of excavated consequent slopes: A cusp catastrophe-based criterion and gradient-anchoring reinforcement strategy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354142).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354142). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conservation
<a id="conservation"></a>

Conservation is the effort to protect biodiversity and prevent species decline or extinction. In this context, it can include measures that support population growth, genetic exchange, and genetic diversity, while also raising ethical questions about how such methods are used.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e7f7068816f67cba3ce4cae85d1a9eea545fea6fe758bf6562a74a670e2029b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Biasetti Pierfrancesco; Hildebrandt Thomas; Seet Steven; Stejskal Jan; Giardullo Paolo; Göritz Frank; Holtze Susanne; Galli Cesare; Šťastný Michal; de Mori Barbara. Perceptions of assisted reproductive technologies in wildlife conservation: Public expectations and ethical implications across three EU countries. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342094; article XML SHA-256 164301a4af3e13908b76cbcba49d8bb1538a53b062f54f5d84f9e6d6013292f3. “Perceptions of assisted reproductive technologies in wildlife conservation: Public expectations and ethical implications across three EU countries” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342094).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342094). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conservatism
<a id="conservatism"></a>

Conservatism is a strong attachment to what is old, customary, and familiar in beliefs, social life, religion, morals, and related areas. In a sociological sense, it means a habitual resistance to changes in institutions, customs, or manners.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 337c74d3f220bf01761f538d2c4ef416bc8811a43504c397af3cd629b82f1798

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Conservatism” (Conservatism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Conservatism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consideration
<a id="consideration"></a>

Consideration is the careful taking into account of relevant information when making a judgment or decision. In this context, it means including additional factors, such as comorbidities, because they may provide useful information for recognizing the main disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6953faa6903ac825c77085d893e82556308ec9b00e361f2af7660706ad9fc08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schmiegel Sophie; Marchi Hannah; Röchter Marvin-Hendrik; Rudwaleit Martin; Fuchs Christiane. Single-label and multi-label classification for disease recognition with special consideration of comorbidities. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12874-026-02934-w; article XML SHA-256 10660a8880f712fcda8331d53c360bbe95c717214a5ce4a28095844eaf264723. “Single-label and multi-label classification for disease recognition with special consideration of comorbidities” (10.1186/s12874-026-02934-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-026-02934-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consistency check
<a id="consistency-check"></a>

In this source, a consistency check is a statistical comparison between a newly arriving data instance and a check set to decide whether the instance is abnormal, rather than using a fixed threshold. The result is also used to update the validation set over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4a3e307f15a9148eaaa3ecc85e5a5acf1a32f61041518cfb1754e9d23094526

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Yansong; Wang Shuang; Sui He; Zhu Li. An ensemble learning method with GAN-based sampling and consistency check for anomaly detection of imbalanced data streams with concept drift. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0292140; article XML SHA-256 3e10351ff5df859de4d9e060dffe8fa1a2c7c2e0d778749a8483ee8d145390bf. “An ensemble learning method with GAN-based sampling and consistency check for anomaly detection of imbalanced data streams with concept drift” (10.1371/journal.pone.0292140).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292140). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consistent mapping
<a id="consistent-mapping"></a>

Consistent mapping is a task arrangement in which a given stimulus always requires the same response over time. In cognitive tasks, this stable stimulus-response relationship is linked to marked performance improvement after relatively brief practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76b8bf5d36e879cfa7cf07aa5c92f6f2dda5fd6dc83860f2246b2d2a11c3ad6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jansma Johan Martijn; van Raalten Tamar R.; Boessen Ruud; Neggers Sebastiaan F. W.; Jacobs Richard H. A. H.; Kahn René S.; Ramsey Nick F.. fMRI Guided rTMS Evidence for Reduced Left Prefrontal Involvement after Task Practice. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0080256; article XML SHA-256 677c0ac4f5936fdc7c32f1dd0da6d556d848448c14463d295b2026d0edd87632. “fMRI Guided rTMS Evidence for Reduced Left Prefrontal Involvement after Task Practice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0080256).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0080256). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consolidation hypothesis
<a id="consolidation-hypothesis"></a>

The consolidation hypothesis is the idea that emotion strengthens the later feeling of recollection because emotional experiences undergo a time-dependent memory-consolidation process that relies importantly on the hippocampus. In this view, the emotional advantage in recollective experience becomes more noticeable after a delay and is reduced when hippocampal function is impaired.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82e94f6165eae329ced26bff9a856cb4b8dbfe292daff80056bcaf43b7ba8bce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sharot Tali; Verfaellie Mieke; Yonelinas Andrew P.. How Emotion Strengthens the Recollective Experience: A Time-Dependent Hippocampal Process. 2007; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0001068; article XML SHA-256 fab3b8cb504b430d2d3bf52c706a62b0b2045a0b6636a1762bb8243b37f155ca. “How Emotion Strengthens the Recollective Experience: A Time-Dependent Hippocampal Process” (10.1371/journal.pone.0001068).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001068). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consonance
<a id="consonance"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, consonance is the relatively unified overall impression made by a compound tone or chord, as opposed to the more diverse impression called dissonance. It was commonly associated with pleasantness, and in musical harmony it referred to intervals counted as perfect or imperfect consonances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0bf146de77ae606026d8e5a48eba9c063e3617b9bdf0189befa033b14b592e20

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Consonance” (Consonance).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Consonance). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consonant
<a id="consonant"></a>

In this context, consonant refers to a type of sound or chord that listeners judge as pleasant in contrast to dissonant sounds, which are judged as unpleasant. The packet supports this meaning specifically for isolated piano-timbre chords used in affective neuroscience research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ceb17ed45bb008f582547f69739e3e14d9b081ae6d9378c2ac1062e613599732

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kirsanov Alexander; Koriakina Maria; Panasenko Denis; Nikishkina Uliana; Blagovechtchenski Evgeny. Electrophysiological and behavioural responses to consonant and dissonant piano chords as standardised affective stimuli. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1689067; article XML SHA-256 75642e02b884f1a594ee4e64c3653376b9dd286f82f26c0ad8cd0f81d2b0112d. “Electrophysiological and behavioural responses to consonant and dissonant piano chords as standardised affective stimuli” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1689067).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1689067). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conspecific
<a id="conspecific"></a>

Conspecific refers to another member of the same species. In this context, it means signals coming from other individuals of the fish’s own species.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bfd6da12ce6ec4a1cfe038692da4b2c243041930295a349385ebe9b32cf85c62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Milam Oak E; Marsat Gary. Spatial coding of conspecifics in the electrosensory system: Early segregation of information streams. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348018; article XML SHA-256 4e143bf5cc7f33bbea57496eeae5215cceaecce10881578decf8b65ec872fa11. “Spatial coding of conspecifics in the electrosensory system: Early segregation of information streams” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348018).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348018). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## constancy
<a id="constancy"></a>

Constancy, in this context, is the perceptual ability to experience an object’s surface color as stable even when the lighting changes and the light reaching the eye differs. This helps people keep a consistent sense of object color across many viewing conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7f3d5b5b986ce6840bd49eb45d976cc77a2cde7312033f31f4b2cba7fe01cf3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Heidari-Gorji Hamed; Gil Rodriguez Raquel; Gegenfurtner Karl R.. Human-aligned evaluation of a pixel-wise DNN color constancy model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1809976; article XML SHA-256 69300aa3aca161998bd70b4450478402ba7e4731f6716fd5a13702424501c50c. “Human-aligned evaluation of a pixel-wise DNN color constancy model” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1809976).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1809976). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## constancy scaling
<a id="constancy-scaling"></a>

Constancy scaling is the visual process of adjusting the apparent size of an object's retinal image using perceived distance so the object is seen as having a stable real-world size. If distance or depth is misperceived, this scaling can produce a mistaken size judgment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea34d0701eabb85d9acd2a60cbb316d636434f9a5e0b472ac180dd2198813bcf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zeman Astrid; Obst Oliver; Brooks Kevin R.; Rich Anina N.. The Müller-Lyer Illusion in a Computational Model of Biological Object Recognition. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0056126; article XML SHA-256 6850978840dd5f1a054e417f794b9db80d89c3abede0735262aea1ed6761ce6d. “The Müller-Lyer Illusion in a Computational Model of Biological Object Recognition” (10.1371/journal.pone.0056126).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056126). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## constant
<a id="constant"></a>

A constant is a value that stays the same and does not vary. In research methods, it is the opposite of a variable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d94219c8bee9f1ddde911ad1003e08da11664ff31700dd119ecf0d58735434f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Constant” (constant.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/constant.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## constant comparative analysis
<a id="constant-comparative-analysis"></a>

Constant comparative analysis is an inductive research method used in grounded theory in which material from different data sources is continually compared so a theoretical framework can be developed from participants’ experiences. In this study, it meant comparing interviews, observations, and texts to identify evolving patterns and processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a18211641b1a54d90a0fd23c8f2177ef51752036b82a495e3f0d508d63f2851d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fan Hongya; Xiang Weiqian. Characteristics of silence among Chinese people in intercultural communication: a proceduralized grounded theory analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1840234; article XML SHA-256 763cc76b82693afd03c712905b52416980be7399ceaafa407695f0111c5c433f. “Characteristics of silence among Chinese people in intercultural communication: a proceduralized grounded theory analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1840234).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1840234). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## constant error
<a id="constant-error"></a>

Constant error is the difference between the true magnitude and the average of a set of measurements or judgments. In psychology, it refers to a consistent tendency for perception or judgment to be, on average, too large or too small, so the error may be positive or negative.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 323e4f058ba158ab0c82e6841a576f94a134ec3df3f9d69bb682f1c3b6fb31ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Errors of Observation” (Errors).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Errors). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## constellation
<a id="constellation"></a>

In a diagnostic context, constellation means the particular grouping or pattern of symptoms that characterizes a disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 194e1eba27af99169c02df84dea24192b02d03ea0180c1b8cc66f38fd609b5e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paranoid Behavior” (D010258).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010258). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## constipation
<a id="constipation"></a>

Constipation is infrequent or difficult passing of stool. It can be linked with many causes, including low fiber intake, emotional or nervous disturbances, structural or body-wide disorders, medication effects, and infections.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 22392159a9ac1a6efababe8c233c03ade0a04fdfcd1368c589b7ddc39b02c463

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Constipation” (D003248).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003248). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## constituent
<a id="constituent"></a>

A constituent is a component part of something larger. In this context, it refers to one of the parts a decision scenario is divided into so it can be examined for judgment and decision-making.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d5b695a5c31759d933d58419ed176b065d64ee753ebc1940efb0d4427de4528

Sources:
- Drafting source: [McGuigan Brian; Andersson Linus; Holmström Stefan; Johansson Annika; Lundkvist Erik. Developing and preliminary testing of temporal occlusion decision scenarios in dynamic contexts: a three-step method. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893159; article XML SHA-256 86a53f1050031c12ca849dbce3fde32f434e368e24e3e19518449c5f9f1b75d1. “Developing and preliminary testing of temporal occlusion decision scenarios in dynamic contexts: a three-step method” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893159).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893159). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## constitution
<a id="constitution"></a>

Constitution is the full set of factors that determine a thing from within, as part of its own organic makeup. In this historical sense, it contrasts with influences that organize or direct something from outside.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a64ead8ab892754fa78acd2a83f06ba946f58fe45c54f97cadf473554bcd2aaf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Constitution” (Constitution).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Constitution). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## construct
<a id="construct"></a>

In this historical usage, a construct is a mental product in which the mind adds associated representative elements to what the senses directly give, forming the familiar object as experienced. It refers to how perception is supplemented by past associations rather than to a formally technical term.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61e76ebbf16de1d5f6be65e1809a5a2470b115ba302581850ce95e0e5ea730ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Construct” (Construct).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Construct). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## constructive thinking
<a id="constructive-thinking"></a>

Constructive thinking is a pattern of automatic habitual thoughts, both helpful and unhelpful, that influences how well a person approaches problems in a solution-focused way. Strong constructive thinking is linked with adaptive beliefs, better emotion management, and action-oriented coping, whereas weak constructive thinking involves maladaptive automatic ideas that can interfere with monitoring emotions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61f420099cb77b7dbaebfea86311e2b6013a7b51ac64a006a0877a69b838eeb8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Malambo Chipo; Klepačová Adéla; Brodská Kateřina; Clark Cain Craig Truman; Musálek Martin. Relationship among some coordinative and dynamic strength capabilities and constructive and conceptual thinking among preschool-age children. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1349884; article XML SHA-256 db53d45b57ae814f4db824fb64abe712302a2e96a57404ca5f456cbc0c40db87. “Relationship among some coordinative and dynamic strength capabilities and constructive and conceptual thinking among preschool-age children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1349884).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1349884). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consultant
<a id="consultant"></a>

A consultant is a professional whose main role is to support and advise managers about organizational dilemmas, drawing on different consulting methods and tools. The role can vary widely because consulting work is not uniform and its responsibilities are not always clearly defined.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e2a0cbbb9787e246bb564df18446cf83e065448e17d5a7fada9431328073e7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lachmi Rotem; Ben-Hador Batia; Brender-Ilan Yael. The impact of consultants’ power dynamics on clients’ self-efficacy and managerial stress. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1515277; article XML SHA-256 0315234a662c8278dd946b74be3771aba65b592886d91a589c2fa67adc4e78f6. “The impact of consultants’ power dynamics on clients’ self-efficacy and managerial stress” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1515277).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1515277). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consultee
<a id="consultee"></a>

A consultee is a family member who is asked to help with decisions about research participation for an adult who lacks the capacity to consent. In this role, the consultee acts as an alternative proxy decision-maker and may need information and support to make an informed choice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aef52b3b05cd021f82e01ee892cea9a812613579b2c79700f41d65222dda3fcc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shepherd Victoria; Wood Fiona; Gillies Katie; Martin Adam; O’Connell Abby; Hood Kerenza. Feasibility, effectiveness and costs of a decision support intervention for consultees and legal representatives of adults lacking capacity to consent (CONSULT): protocol for a randomised Study Within a Trial. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s13063-022-06887-5; article XML SHA-256 72216fb952a44e7b79083fdda395dd376a79bde2230061da266205dd260e286a. “Feasibility, effectiveness and costs of a decision support intervention for consultees and legal representatives of adults lacking capacity to consent (CONSULT): protocol for a randomised Study Within a Trial” (10.1186/s13063-022-06887-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-022-06887-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consulting
<a id="consulting"></a>

In this assessment context, consulting means seeking advice or feedback from relevant experts to help develop or refine a screening tool. Here, it refers to involving specialists in areas such as child psychology, developmental pediatrics, and psychometrics during scale development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e78b163ed7b18dab88c1d5c3021f404b811ef857d44e6b83d94702b8e73b4bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shao Zhi; Zhang Lin; Zhang Yaru; Guo Lei; Luo Yan; Meng Zhaoxue; Kuang Guifang; Hong Qi; Tian Xianyu; Wang Zhaohui; Zhao Qin; Tan Jianming. Development and validation of an early screening tool for young children with autism spectrum disorders: the checklist for Chinese toddlers with autism. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1810421; article XML SHA-256 723c4769b99e80e28db206f335ca58ba040406423980922c977c8db8febeda14. “Development and validation of an early screening tool for young children with autism spectrum disorders: the checklist for Chinese toddlers with autism” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1810421).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1810421). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consumer
<a id="consumer"></a>

A consumer is a person viewed as receiving or using the services of others. The term is an abstract way of looking at people in that role, since most people are both producers and consumers at different times.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 031d085a61c1a2d96d7639b8b626d4d317d60bb727470628250e7eec4b0039ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Consumer” (Consumer).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Consumer). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consumer characteristics
<a id="consumer-characteristics"></a>

Consumer characteristics are the personal attributes and tendencies of buyers that can help explain differences in how they judge, value, or choose products. In this source, the term includes demographic, socioeconomic, and behavioral factors such as sex, marital status, and time-related decision tendencies that were examined in relation to willingness to pay.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f3599e9a2f1be3665fe66e092a6b7bf4e0a08c48a1a61c474301d2a76d11790b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kadoya Yoshihiko; Khan Mostafa Saidur Rahim; Nabeshima Honoka; Kuramoto Yu; Kurita Yuichi. How surface texture affects consumers’ willingness to pay: Evidence from smartphone covers. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338004; article XML SHA-256 eff0c68cbcb21d0b2f18bd450f22885a0c8ea5442dec4f9a6e1d00fed0f0d057. “How surface texture affects consumers’ willingness to pay: Evidence from smartphone covers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338004).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338004). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consumer neuroscience
<a id="consumer-neuroscience"></a>

Consumer neuroscience is an approach to studying consumer behavior that looks at several levels at once, including what people choose, how they emotionally and cognitively react, and what captures their attention. In the source, this is done by combining behavioral measures with neurophysiological and attention-based measures such as skin conductance, electroencephalography, and eye-tracking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1202d985d46c4972ccabd34b56f315312bbaca3a9a2e25664af6ef363794a5e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Casiraghi Chiara; Chiarelli Simone; Gifuni Giuseppina; Fici Alessandro; Bilucaglia Marco; Jacomuzzi Alessandra Cecilia; Micheletto Valeria; Zito Margherita; Russo Vincenzo. How to nudge students toward healthier snacks? Consumer neuroscience insights on multisensory nudge interventions in university vending machines. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325804; article XML SHA-256 5e7b91fe2dbc1c12501d532306353772f6d194bcc1ea2887debe4c248096f963. “How to nudge students toward healthier snacks? Consumer neuroscience insights on multisensory nudge interventions in university vending machines” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325804).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325804). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consumer research
<a id="consumer-research"></a>

Consumer research is the study of how features of products or objects, including their look and feel, affect people’s thoughts, emotions, behaviour patterns, and purchasing decisions. In this context, it examines how design elements can shape consumer responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 516537a1fc9f2d1c0ed18504805cd34e8e083d3ccb07b971001e6258835cd22c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rehn-Groenendijk Jonas; Schuster Kai; Müller Helena; Chrysikou Evangelia. A process to foster pathology-related effects of design primes – how orthopedic patients might benefit from design features that influence health behaviour intention. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1211563; article XML SHA-256 fa97dfdd74c37365e15af03f28c238ab1386970d9b47db749067793bdad97b0e. “A process to foster pathology-related effects of design primes – how orthopedic patients might benefit from design features that influence health behaviour intention” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1211563).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1211563). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consumer survey
<a id="consumer-survey"></a>

A consumer survey is a study that gathers information from consumers about their use patterns and behaviour. In this source, it is used to compare patterns of use across countries and cities and to check reported intake and related habits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 78efa05b6961a568c4da85512ab355b7f06c5fcb72e376eb784cbb40000c822f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Restani Patrizia; Di Lorenzo Chiara; Garcia-Alvarez Alicia; Frigerio Gianfranco; Colombo Francesca; Maggi Franco M.; Milà-Villarroel Raimon; Serra-Majem Lluis. The PlantLIBRA consumer survey: Findings on the use of plant food supplements in Italy. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0190915; article XML SHA-256 f6ba36e5cdd56ba5b1e139fc2bc74cb7d6c3735ab2b6e5fc9c9099c3176db05e. “The PlantLIBRA consumer survey: Findings on the use of plant food supplements in Italy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0190915).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190915). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consummatory pleasure
<a id="consummatory-pleasure"></a>

Consummatory pleasure is the enjoyment a person feels in the present moment while an event or activity is happening. It is described as a distinct part of hedonic experience, separate from anticipatory pleasure, which concerns expected future enjoyment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7772ed466da7c680a3ec0807a23950ffca3a48981becf3b3b1cbe07dbc409504

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Xu; Zhang Yu-Ting; Huang Zhi-Jing; Chen Xue-Lei; Yuan Feng-Hui; Sun Xiao-Jun. Diminished Anticipatory and Consummatory Pleasure in Dysphoria: Evidence From an Experience Sampling Study. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02124; article XML SHA-256 36c5f60b9cca881aaac0acd2af551db63da373894ff4c16ee30010a055fcf347. “Diminished Anticipatory and Consummatory Pleasure in Dysphoria: Evidence From an Experience Sampling Study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02124).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02124). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## consummatory response
<a id="consummatory-response"></a>

A consummatory response is the behavior that occurs after a reward is received, such as the actions that follow delivery of reward water. In this source, it is contrasted with a reward-seeking response that leads to the reward.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec510866079126fc88c1e5211bcab21422eaef7b519886d47b38fa87e07d0762

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Saiki Akiko; Kimura Rie; Samura Toshikazu; Fujiwara-Tsukamoto Yoko; Sakai Yutaka; Isomura Yoshikazu. Different Modulation of Common Motor Information in Rat Primary and Secondary Motor Cortices. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0098662; article XML SHA-256 a897dddb9c846c77cfba6087e267d8707a475c2ec54e89dfe5390924a679f4f1. “Different Modulation of Common Motor Information in Rat Primary and Secondary Motor Cortices” (10.1371/journal.pone.0098662).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0098662). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contact comfort
<a id="contact-comfort"></a>

Contact comfort is the soothing effect of simple physical closeness or touch from another person, such as handholding. In this context, it can lessen perceived threat and help regulate negative emotional reactions, especially when the relationship is close and supportive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 664624ad08b7f46e9ca02a2e1d4b8ce274fd70d33542039e3ed319c2d8b81d42

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Johnson Susan M.; Moser Melissa Burgess; Beckes Lane; Smith Andra; Dalgleish Tracy; Halchuk Rebecca; Hasselmo Karen; Greenman Paul S.; Merali Zul; Coan James A.. Soothing the Threatened Brain: Leveraging Contact Comfort with Emotionally Focused Therapy. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0079314; article XML SHA-256 19f60536dde0c48682de35d76def41a7a9ea16ed31947aed3ee740994f0eb606. “Soothing the Threatened Brain: Leveraging Contact Comfort with Emotionally Focused Therapy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0079314).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079314). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contemporaneity
<a id="contemporaneity"></a>

Contemporaneity means occurring at the same time. In this historical psychology passage, it is used to say that thoughts happening simultaneously still do not merge when they belong to different personal minds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62ebc1be5fb6aa5a8ca9db274ee85c5c3b1fd842b51cfbf138e8a6a0fa251832

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## content
<a id="content"></a>

In historical psychology, content means whatever is present in consciousness when considered apart from its form, relations, or implications, and it can also mean any constituent of an experienced whole. The term was used as a neutral way to refer to what is in the mind, whether felt, perceived, or willed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b5b4258d10fcee1c53ab7b566aeb2d22d1953af3f931de02b949ac53d47c5f09

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Content” (Content).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Content). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## context reinstatement
<a id="context-reinstatement"></a>

Context reinstatement is the return of the same conditions present during learning when memory is later tested, such as the same place, color, odor, or other surrounding cues. In psychology, it refers to the finding that memory is often better when the test context matches the original study context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bb447f053c2ff89c424702153b5186382150078546e4e9c92f8441de1871ff8f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Festini Sara B.. Verbal working memory performance and proactive interference are largely unaffected by matching font color reinstatement. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1688942; article XML SHA-256 72a22d9ada4b393c1e748c9f909860d99978ed2015041ffd060a56989f4b3e2f. “Verbal working memory performance and proactive interference are largely unaffected by matching font color reinstatement” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1688942).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1688942). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contextual analysis
<a id="contextual-analysis"></a>

Contextual analysis is an approach to examining how surrounding social, institutional, and environmental conditions shape how well a group, program, or activity works. It looks beyond formal structure or procedures to identify outside influences that help or hinder effectiveness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8623f9656bf1e537f857ca3caf7f00b5251335f401408d93344d879a50c351b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Scott Kerry; George Asha S; Harvey Steven A; Mondal Shinjini; Patel Gupteswar; Ved Rajani; Garimella Surekha; Sheikh Kabir. Beyond form and functioning: Understanding how contextual factors influence village health committees in northern India. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0182982; article XML SHA-256 524c7d006bedd48fe9ab59b7f5adce3cb3bf9ee4f2bb0c0132c22fa96763bab8. “Beyond form and functioning: Understanding how contextual factors influence village health committees in northern India” (10.1371/journal.pone.0182982).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182982). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contextual association
<a id="contextual-association"></a>

Contextual association is the linking of an event or memory to the surrounding situation or environment in which it occurs. In psychology, it is discussed in relation to episodic memory and emotional processing, such as connecting fear or other emotional responses to a particular context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f69b10893c325aa18d134c1d6ec06955a17c8ca8347a69d9c43c5a7d0324b67a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Favaro Vanessa Manchim; Yonamine Maurício; Soares Juliana Carlota Kramer; Oliveira Maria Gabriela Menezes. Effects of Long-Term Ayahuasca Administration on Memory and Anxiety in Rats. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0145840; article XML SHA-256 c18f1c0e46f37b8981fcf300f7dc932800ee097206b403f00bdfaec926cd0891. “Effects of Long-Term Ayahuasca Administration on Memory and Anxiety in Rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0145840).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145840). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contextual interference effect
<a id="contextual-interference-effect"></a>

The contextual interference effect is a motor learning phenomenon about how the amount of variation or interference built into practice influences later performance. In the source discussed here, lower interference was linked to better improvement on a closed skill test, while moderate interference was linked to better transfer of the skill to match-play, suggesting the effect may be less straightforward for complex skills.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf89b00f2b3753fb127e83acb3ea4bc7bb64a97e582879664e115097f1639396

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Buszard Tim; Reid Machar; Krause Lyndon; Kovalchik Stephanie; Farrow Damian. Quantifying Contextual Interference and Its Effect on Skill Transfer in Skilled Youth Tennis Players. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01931; article XML SHA-256 81e43053e830bfe482e6e7575c11f0c8e9adcee9bd0813df82a28f1d6fe3b143. “Quantifying Contextual Interference and Its Effect on Skill Transfer in Skilled Youth Tennis Players” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01931).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01931). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contextualize
<a id="contextualize"></a>

To contextualize is to interpret an idea or model in relation to the specific group, setting, or culture in which it is being used. In social research, this means adjusting a general concept so it better reflects how meaning and behavior change across contexts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec837f1cd021a25f7404282cf3b0e0526a827fd5c3ed4b111bfc85157c97632b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yari Ali; Taghavifard Mohammad Taghi; Vanani Iman Raeesi. Understanding AI adoption through expert discourse: A UTAUT-based analysis on LinkedIn. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344013; article XML SHA-256 f1c54a697e8dc78678fe88240d22ce7b5acb0e7fb99292e6365704c10eb2c8f7. “Understanding AI adoption through expert discourse: A UTAUT-based analysis on LinkedIn” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344013).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344013). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contiguity
<a id="contiguity"></a>

In learning, contiguity means that different stimuli occur close together in time. In classical or Pavlovian conditioning, this temporal closeness can produce a learned response even when the response is not followed by rewarding or unpleasant consequences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2aafa8e3820d53a675e2452c372f26fd6c3d497693973f7f5551fefbc9a9bbd2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pavlovian Conditioning” (C41215).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contingency management
<a id="contingency-management"></a>

Contingency management is a behavioral approach that uses rewards to promote positive changes in behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ab3833cca13c142b0753efab4e439bfb1673471dd8043b484525cf0ba7a3e3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Contingency Management” (C94375).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contingent
<a id="contingent"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, contingent chiefly means conditioned or dependent on something else. The source also notes an older use meaning chance or fortuitous, but recommends limiting the term to the first sense.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42395a1c54ac2120cf25bf7f328198fa01eb53c7c3865a756a58034ba2e0312a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Contingent” (Contingent).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Contingent). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contingent negative variation
<a id="contingent-negative-variation"></a>

Contingent negative variation is a gradual increase in negative electrical activity in the brain’s cortex over time. It occurs when a person is preparing for an expected stimulus or response and reflects a state of readiness or anticipation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c3f53fdf6e1331c23f28bbf7e90645ff33e0e3d2b32addae78a925709ea9886

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Contingent Negative Variation” (D003265).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003265). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuing bond
<a id="continuing-bond"></a>

A continuing bond is the ongoing psychological connection a bereaved person has with someone who has died. In grief counselling, it refers to helping the survivor restore or strengthen that inner relationship when the death has disrupted it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 603c2b17d6b740778ec5b23737ecc2d4999c9918124303d090c7316bb58cb9f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jordan John R.. Lessons Learned: Forty Years of Clinical Work With Suicide Loss Survivors. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00766; article XML SHA-256 7a0e830f6fc6ada322547312f6dcaa688f8a9d1fc66634f9637f85fb2bc94a7d. “Lessons Learned: Forty Years of Clinical Work With Suicide Loss Survivors” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00766).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00766). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuing education
<a id="continuing-education"></a>

Continuing education refers to learning programs that update people on recent developments in their area of interest. These programs provide further knowledge but do not grant formal advanced academic standing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b4ecde453d478bee7cf6db743bdcf836594a5e64d551aae292981f28bf51d8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Education, Continuing” (D004496).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004496). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuing medical education
<a id="continuing-medical-education"></a>

Continuing medical education is ongoing educational programming for physicians that keeps them informed about recent advances in their area of practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26339c5fabbf26c0d81c1381157a48f0e0984f68953cfafe8bbcd91508c8d775

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Education, Medical, Continuing” (D004502).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004502). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuity
<a id="continuity"></a>

Continuity is relative sameness maintained across a series of changes, stages, or positions. An aspect of something is considered continuous to the extent that the conditions determining it remain unchanged.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5f5e18293fecc02850fe64a1287c627b47dcead565a26e1b82f0e717f2786a1d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Continuity” (Continuity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Continuity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuity hypothesis
<a id="continuity-hypothesis"></a>

The continuity hypothesis is the idea that thinking in dreams and thinking while awake are linked, so dream content reflects aspects of waking-life experience. Research described in the packet supports this connection especially for emotionally important experiences, while also noting that dreams can reorganize and fragment memories in normal ways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 412ebadf280a4e2c8d40691d415c37a54fa7a0c9e3901390a35532fd788a7fa5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Horton Caroline L.. Consciousness across Sleep and Wake: Discontinuity and Continuity of Memory Experiences As a Reflection of Consolidation Processes. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00159; article XML SHA-256 781c9ed98f2e0dd8ad23b53631aa6500cb64a5a7dd24cacbdf7ec30e4c17c7f3. “Consciousness across Sleep and Wake: Discontinuity and Continuity of Memory Experiences As a Reflection of Consolidation Processes” (10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00159).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00159). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuity of germ plasm
<a id="continuity-of-germ-plasm"></a>

In historical heredity theory, continuity of germ plasm is the doctrine that offspring resemble their parents because both develop from hereditary material of essentially the same structure and composition, passed through the parents rather than newly produced by them. It treats the germ substance as continuing from generation to generation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bb79a26be59579f74462cc77c595444e45ca6b797dee5ac370b948c1434e4a3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Heredity” (Heredity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H2defs.htm#Heredity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuous control
<a id="continuous-control"></a>

In this historical account of nervous function, continuous control means the ongoing inhibitory restraint that keeps nerve centres from acting except when properly stimulated and helps return them to rest afterward. It is described as a constant regulation exerted by higher centres on lower ones, or at the highest level by incoming sensory influences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1e5a02494097edfeca42c39b7460c15cf0622c2622197357db34411365cc40d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3979500-3991500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuous group
<a id="continuous-group"></a>

A continuous group is a subgroup whose pattern stays persistently high over time rather than remaining low or only slowly increasing. In this source, it refers to people with a high-risk, ongoing level of suicidal ideation across the study period.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d26b4b77d38b0e82736f739ff37dcdedc0ca2028b58fb3da1694db2c04e64fd8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nan Jiang; Salina Nen; Chong Sheau Tsuey; Jiang Hong-juan. Trajectory of suicidal ideation among medical students during the COVID-19 pandemic: the role of childhood trauma. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-04582-6; article XML SHA-256 4beb2e9f17f2257f0ca1767873483eb7f8a37987fc7cebf9052caa547f78a6a1. “Trajectory of suicidal ideation among medical students during the COVID-19 pandemic: the role of childhood trauma” (10.1186/s12888-023-04582-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04582-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuous improvement
<a id="continuous-improvement"></a>

Continuous improvement is the attitude or willingness to keep refining one’s work through repeated revision during learning or design so it gradually becomes better. In this context, it is viewed as supporting ongoing progress by helping increase success and reduce failure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66fd58456e3b3bd8afe39c1d8f36dc37aad1ffe1c68acb75ccb8f4a6de81d3fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qian Chen; Ye Jian-Hong; Zhang Lin; Wang Lei. The relationships among learning engagement, continuous improvement attitude and creativity performance: a study based on a C-STEAM course. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738042; article XML SHA-256 0a728efc82511c9c7a45958db5bf16061113fb456f4f10a86d6bdd0fa0cf6536. “The relationships among learning engagement, continuous improvement attitude and creativity performance: a study based on a C-STEAM course” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738042).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738042). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuous panel
<a id="continuous-panel"></a>

A continuous panel is an ongoing survey approach that follows data from the same panel of users over time rather than taking a single one-time snapshot. In this source, it refers to treating online behavior as an imperfect continuous panel survey to track changes in public interest or opinion over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a34ca3b2f9d93fd487e23f8907043e375952cdd14e4c56fe12880cfb164f5d1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Diaz Fernando; Gamon Michael; Hofman Jake M.; Kıcıman Emre; Rothschild David. Online and Social Media Data As an Imperfect Continuous Panel Survey. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0145406; article XML SHA-256 e9c03ad07686c4b4b2e641132f1b6bdab93c5539d4be848b7aff2f9c63ee0e5a. “Online and Social Media Data As an Imperfect Continuous Panel Survey” (10.1371/journal.pone.0145406).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145406). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuous performance test
<a id="continuous-performance-test"></a>

A continuous performance test is a computer-based attention assessment in which a person stays alert for target stimuli within a steady stream of distracting information over a sustained period. It produces measures such as correct detections, omission and commission errors, and reaction time variability, and is often used to help evaluate attention problems, including ADHD.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f439894d80c0f86898a332dd43ee3dff930612835b5edab634b2ba3c7ae03ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Oh Hyang-Kyeong; Cho Yoon Jae; Kim Jae-Jin; Shin Bokyoung; Kim Soo-Jeong; Park Soobin; Seok Jeong-Ho; Kim Soyeon; Kim Eunjoo. Advancing ecological validity and clinical utility in virtual reality-based continuous performance test: exploring the effects of task difficulty and environmental distractors. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1329221; article XML SHA-256 a46e6b876d07a1fd5d52474649fd3eb6aa7f5c2bdb1c72d7c7855a8308cb4b72. “Advancing ecological validity and clinical utility in virtual reality-based continuous performance test: exploring the effects of task difficulty and environmental distractors” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1329221).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1329221). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuous reinforcement
<a id="continuous-reinforcement"></a>

Continuous reinforcement is a learning schedule in which a behavior is rewarded every time it occurs, creating a complete link between the response and the reinforcer. It is contrasted with partial reinforcement, where rewards are given only some of the time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f733cdc79b1e8c5bf1da1f0208c8b3bf7d0ddc3eef0d1152c4be9215c2cbe05b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Segers Elien; Beckers Tom; Geurts Hilde; Claes Laurence; Danckaerts Marina; van der Oord Saskia. Working Memory and Reinforcement Schedule Jointly Determine Reinforcement Learning in Children: Potential Implications for Behavioral Parent Training. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00394; article XML SHA-256 102f5118f0f718f149815feb9d106482fb5133f0dcebbd845a0a8d32fb5ff02a. “Working Memory and Reinforcement Schedule Jointly Determine Reinforcement Learning in Children: Potential Implications for Behavioral Parent Training” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00394).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00394). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuous spectrum
<a id="continuous-spectrum"></a>

A continuous spectrum is a way of understanding a condition or trait as varying gradually across a range rather than falling into sharply separated categories. In the source, it refers to metabolic dysfunction progressing through degrees of change instead of only being identified by fixed cutoff points.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 306dae493f1e5cd2d022702db73fcf1a9bfcdbf96f1abcdb4f4d8d467c284d30

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yaikwawong Metha; Kamdee Khanittha; Chuengsamarn Somlak. Classification of pre-metabolic syndrome and metabolic syndrome using machine learning and routine clinical variables in Thai adults. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359283; article XML SHA-256 84aa5ded44bf5c6482a51ee3bdb76734fc85b759ce31ebdeae59f75ece5d7a11. “Classification of pre-metabolic syndrome and metabolic syndrome using machine learning and routine clinical variables in Thai adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359283).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359283). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuous variable
<a id="continuous-variable"></a>

A continuous variable is one that is typically counted or displayed using ranges of values rather than separate frequencies for each exact value. In frequency distributions, its occurrences are grouped into intervals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6c06514f40b9548d27e15cb6305974642e53d0496ec57cc90476a680f3dff07

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Frequency Distribution” (frequency_dist.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/frequency_dist.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## continuum of care
<a id="continuum-of-care"></a>

In maternal health, the continuum of care means providing connected care across the whole period of pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum stage rather than as separate services. This integrated approach is intended to keep care continuous, improve use of essential maternal health services, and support better outcomes for mothers and infants.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddc080d974498684b637696f699510a7afacce99cce5ab7f772a6940757e32cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ahmed Ritbano; Gebre Solomon; Demelash Minychil; Belachew Tamiru; Mohammed Abdurezak; Musema Abdulhakim; Sultan Mohammed. The continuum of care for maternal health in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305780; article XML SHA-256 a9809a53022c167736cd0bf9c13f90ae72e01aec9b5ac2c296b404da56dc7f07. “The continuum of care for maternal health in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305780).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305780). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contract
<a id="contract"></a>

A contract is an agreement in which two or more people express a shared intention that changes their legal relationship, creating a legal obligation rather than a mere promise. The word can also mean the written document that states the terms of that agreement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a529e4271b17fae3952e98d004e47f437a8c3017c5ee5f36781109a2ba400619

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Contract” (Contract).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Contract). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contraction
<a id="contraction"></a>

Contraction is the activation and shortening or tightening of a muscle that produces movement or changes body alignment. In this source, contraction of the tibialis anterior shifted foot structures upward, backward, and inward, temporarily raising the arch and moving the big toe toward a more inward position.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef55b1dc58984847f54d64074de4d23a740c79cd4dfba92610451aff19290cdd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aizu Naoki; Kito Takumi; Nishii Kazuhiro; Yamada Kouji. Effects of tibialis anterior contraction on the medial longitudinal arch and hallux valgus angle: A functional anatomical perspective. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350830; article XML SHA-256 dbd2b0093c6243908296aef17aa7b0d905ea467b888c350c1003f04b68c094ca. “Effects of tibialis anterior contraction on the medial longitudinal arch and hallux valgus angle: A functional anatomical perspective” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350830).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350830). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contradictory representation
<a id="contradictory-representation"></a>

In this historical source, contradictory representation means a clash or inconsistency among mental presentations or ideas. It is described as part of the disharmony that gives rise to doubt when belief seems possible but is not yet secured.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3a465b9a22be4edba1f5de47a48f54fb9ab3654a7716e5e9df0dd6811816a35

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Doubt” (Doubt).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Doubt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contralateral control
<a id="contralateral-control"></a>

Contralateral control refers to using the matching body part on the opposite side as the comparison condition in a study. In this packet, the eye opposite the treated eye served as the control and received the comparison injection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 82aa024a6f048b3175e209b037be5b6f39476c54a9c9389012d170051efab4e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Arrizabalaga Sebastian E; Uchida Nobuko; Curtis Allison; Tsukamoto Ann; Leng Theodore; Ryals Renee C. An improved formulation of human neural stem cells for the treatment of geographic atrophy. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355552; article XML SHA-256 73a70d0a2d46ceaa3eac7f8ddbf4ceb67b7e02399e6453b23a3b78c6b1bb68c7. “An improved formulation of human neural stem cells for the treatment of geographic atrophy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355552).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355552). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contralateral hemisphere
<a id="contralateral-hemisphere"></a>

The contralateral hemisphere is the brain hemisphere on the side opposite to the hand or body side being discussed. In motor research, it refers to the hemisphere opposite the moving hand when comparing brain activity across the two sides.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d28500b028d7e191ff77773a105a0b2e7c79d4011a36b5d87242fd2c9706fd6c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yokoyama Naoko; Ohtaka Chiaki; Kato Kouki; Kubo Hiroko; Nakata Hiroki. The difference in hemodynamic responses between dominant and non-dominant hands during muscle contraction and relaxation: An fNIRS study. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0220100; article XML SHA-256 92c016a0e5464f8333f71fc60c817a0f791b3d0b7ff32bc2f4131cab7bcf2cdc. “The difference in hemodynamic responses between dominant and non-dominant hands during muscle contraction and relaxation: An fNIRS study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0220100).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220100). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contrast
<a id="contrast"></a>

Contrast is the placing together of differing, especially opposite, qualities or amounts so that the features of one or both stand out more clearly. In historical psychological and aesthetic usage, the term was applied broadly across the arts, such as differences in form, light and colour, sound, tempo, and character.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 450cdea99531c5166b2ba61dc8c2d83e890e595fb6ecf253d165860a7d87071e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Contrast” (Contrast).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Contrast). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contrast coding
<a id="contrast-coding"></a>

Contrast coding is a way the visual system represents a scene by emphasizing differences between a location and its surrounding area rather than their absolute brightness. In the retina, center-surround receptive fields created by lateral inhibition support this efficient coding of spatial contrast.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6fc0efaab5384985c0fc734b70e38440cec64c89ebec10094292a8427bff080c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yeonan-Kim Jihyun; Bertalmío Marcelo. Retinal Lateral Inhibition Provides the Biological Basis of Long-Range Spatial Induction. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0168963; article XML SHA-256 dd134969d33b0453f8bc7fb22f438b52fab4a033635eafc9cba9b5ec282dfc5d. “Retinal Lateral Inhibition Provides the Biological Basis of Long-Range Spatial Induction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0168963).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0168963). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contrast effect
<a id="contrast-effect"></a>

In historical psychology, contrast effect refers to the way one feeling or perception is altered by another occurring at the same time or just before or after it. The term was used especially for affective changes, such as shifts between hope and fear or joy and sorrow, and also for visual effects seen between the two eyes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f691aaba5a52776c82ecfb7db77ccfaeb38ec1f56137cb901cc12cc1a9356fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: C4defs.htm” (ffd1bbd428b354054301).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contrast illusion
<a id="contrast-illusion"></a>

A contrast illusion is a perceptual effect in which nearby parts of a stimulus change how one part is seen, so that features such as brightness, color, or size appear different because of their context. In size-contrast forms such as the Ebbinghaus–Titchener illusion, surrounding elements can make a central object look larger or smaller than it would appear on its own.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cfea3c1c8f7e1b918582f6eeacffe7f69ee5396dd0309540b9b48e3b49a66d11

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gold Jason M.. Information processing correlates of a size-contrast illusion. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00142; article XML SHA-256 7831d2a903a1c5134e93608d22847a7b225a7fd7f30681ef4f474bf7e34b6d0c. “Information processing correlates of a size-contrast illusion” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00142).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00142). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contrast polarity
<a id="contrast-polarity"></a>

Contrast polarity is a visual feature that describes whether an element differs in luminance from its background in one direction or the opposite direction, often framed as “on” versus “off” polarity. In this source, it is treated as a property that can distinguish visual items, although numerosity judgments in the subitizing range were not found to depend on it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4033c1f27fa59748c2f9d3847044809fe0fc83f6f3def299411ca668c01e47a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gheorghiu Elena; Goldschmitt Dirk. Spatial and chromatic properties of numerosity estimation in isolation and context. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0274564; article XML SHA-256 09c9d2b0e94699118c7193bb622d7cc3001c7da0401371a4fc462ca89cd814a6. “Spatial and chromatic properties of numerosity estimation in isolation and context” (10.1371/journal.pone.0274564).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0274564). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Contrast Sensitivity
<a id="contrast-sensitivity"></a>

Contrast sensitivity is the ability to detect sharp visual boundaries and small differences in brightness in areas without clear edges. Measuring this visual function is used to evaluate visual acuity and to help detect eye disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 911bfda5facac508c9042edc7e1b338c0b2fc3dec04329d6b02d64f93a6ea368

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Contrast Sensitivity” (D015350).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015350). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contrecoup
<a id="contrecoup"></a>

Contrecoup refers to an injury where the damage occurs on the side opposite the place where the head was struck. In the brain, this commonly means a blow to the back of the head causes injury to the frontal lobes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9da04138e1124c075f6ab9ef254a108e6ead312362c0fc5ed24ce3336477f29e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Contrecoup Injury” (D056886).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D056886). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## contributing cause
<a id="contributing-cause"></a>

A contributing cause is a circumstance that helps bring about a disorder or outcome along with other factors, rather than being the single or main cause. In the passage, examples are conditions that add to the likelihood of mental disturbance during pregnancy or childbirth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8559648ee84baae818431b6885a27bb60589343d2b02ff7ff531bba68e8ce99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-1774500-1786500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## control
<a id="control"></a>

Control is the voluntary command of mind and body. In psychology, it refers especially to intentional regulation of movement, attention, and emotion, including both direct guidance of attention and guidance shaped through prior motives or mental contents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3ee93a6dcbf24a505487e1461e66bc006d9294cc32dc68a452a03e3a08ca7e2e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Control” (Control).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Control). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## control experiment
<a id="control-experiment"></a>

A control experiment is a test set up in conditions where the supposed cause cannot be acting, to see whether the expected effect still appears. It serves as a check on conclusions drawn from other experiments by helping separate the effect from the presumed cause.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e22c64911d23e4fb5835418b88dd43e264258719e6bab31451aaa32c05363730

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: C4defs.htm” (ffd1bbd428b354054301).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## control procedure
<a id="control-procedure"></a>

A control procedure is a method for regulating a system’s behavior so it reaches desired performance goals. In this source, it means an adaptive control method that continuously adjusts controller settings to improve stability, reject disturbances, and use control effort efficiently.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: efea43219dbc7f2379bed04572e844fc7181ca81c1829047e049f756e0759aa9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Saleem Omer; Iqbal Jamshed; Afzal Muhammad Shahzad. A robust variable-structure LQI controller for under-actuated systems via flexible online adaptation of performance-index weights. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0283079; article XML SHA-256 378dd88007938e8e963c6b2eb7961a31addcc95d9cca57bbb41c854799aa52f8. “A robust variable-structure LQI controller for under-actuated systems via flexible online adaptation of performance-index weights” (10.1371/journal.pone.0283079).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283079). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Controlled Oral Word Association Test
<a id="controlled-oral-word-association-test"></a>

The Controlled Oral Word Association Test is a psychological test used to assess executive functioning. In the provided source, it is described as a German-language version used alongside other measures of cognitive performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bff1eae6a1161f3f587ed680396b7b6d309f81d1d852f7e31e418a16e2520ccd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kaufmann Sabrina; Glass Änne; Kropp Peter; Müller-Hilke Brigitte. Semantic fluency including task switching predicts academic success in medical school. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0244456; article XML SHA-256 ef128ff2df78e391f80bff1d8217dd4c2f60bde4c67586d1e53a37f08a2d0290. “Semantic fluency including task switching predicts academic success in medical school” (10.1371/journal.pone.0244456).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244456). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## controlled processing
<a id="controlled-processing"></a>

Controlled processing is a conscious, deliberate form of thinking that is flexible but uses substantial mental resources. In social cognition, it is contrasted with more automatic processing, which is faster and less demanding but less flexible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 887bed23a4f9f17512878e884230c2f6176391af57a15c7889e4b7f70e709d01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kliemann Dorit; Rosenblau Gabriela; Bölte Sven; Heekeren Hauke R.; Dziobek Isabel. Face puzzle—two new video-based tasks for measuring explicit and implicit aspects of facial emotion recognition. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00376; article XML SHA-256 343be98f7f57573958995580a50b852d16a92c8c02426337f48c5016496086c5. “Face puzzle—two new video-based tasks for measuring explicit and implicit aspects of facial emotion recognition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00376).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00376). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## controlled trial
<a id="controlled-trial"></a>

A controlled trial is a study that compares the effects of one intervention with another on chosen outcomes. In a randomized controlled trial, participants are assigned to the comparison conditions by chance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 029dd6c468585dfa94ee8842b093bc99fcb1d613f1eb46238963efb23c1c08e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zheng YiKun; Mao KaiLin; Lin Lihan; Hu Guopeng. Comparative effects of Baduanjin and square dance on working memory, executive function performance, mood, and fatigue in older women: a randomized controlled trial. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1867615; article XML SHA-256 db4a1a558f970ac9fc5ec2b850d19cca572a9da3d804625fbce7b0e195b5ebe4. “Comparative effects of Baduanjin and square dance on working memory, executive function performance, mood, and fatigue in older women: a randomized controlled trial” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1867615).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1867615). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conventional antipsychotic
<a id="conventional-antipsychotic"></a>

Conventional antipsychotic refers to standard antipsychotic treatment used for schizophrenia. The packet indicates that some people do not respond well enough to this treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1aacbb31bc786eebd47744409a41c1d581ac19ac041c067b5c98891ca16310e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Johansen Jeppe Feigenberg; Nielsen Mette Ødegaard; Kragh Mette; Nielsen Jimmi. Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia vs. standard cognitive behavioral therapy for sleep and circadian disturbances in treatment-resistant schizophrenia: study protocol for the randomized controlled trial (COSTS). 2026; DOI 10.1186/s13063-026-09482-0; article XML SHA-256 1967e5c9063c8b3b920fb4a6972070f91f7f84b12c89aa6830034b1b27bf37f9. “Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia vs. standard cognitive behavioral therapy for sleep and circadian disturbances in treatment-resistant schizophrenia: study protocol for the randomized controlled trial (COSTS)” (10.1186/s13063-026-09482-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-026-09482-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conventional level
<a id="conventional-level"></a>

In Kohlberg’s model of moral development, the conventional level is a way of judging moral issues mainly by following laws, rules, and social order. It reflects moral reasoning centered on maintaining norms rather than on broader shared principles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 63644dbb3fd4f92bc86cb150063e1f660df7504381cb87ef3c86b2499148d42d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Prehn Kristin; Korczykowski Marc; Rao Hengyi; Fang Zhuo; Detre John A.; Robertson Diana C.. Neural Correlates of Post-Conventional Moral Reasoning: A Voxel-Based Morphometry Study. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0122914; article XML SHA-256 ccda93d4332bdc3f2564c68ff6e17f6ae7166eef760dbf1d0d6879ab3355f5e5. “Neural Correlates of Post-Conventional Moral Reasoning: A Voxel-Based Morphometry Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0122914).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0122914). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conventionalism
<a id="conventionalism"></a>

In this historical language context, conventionalism means reliance on shared social conventions to carry meaning, so less has to be marked explicitly in the form of words. It describes a more convention-dependent style, contrasted with forms that spell out each modification more directly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf05b3213d1a8d4efeb4d633c35c35431c0a98a046f18f4e38a3161768f7787b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Language” (Language).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Language). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## convergence
<a id="convergence"></a>

Convergence is the position or movement of the two eyes’ lines of regard so that they meet at one fixation point. In eye movements, this refers especially to turning the eyes inward so they intersect at a point in front of the eyes, such as when shifting focus from something farther away to something nearer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: dae15871447e78c2f8217e9312867ac985088e3b5147fdfd2685609488b2cb38

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Convergence” (Convergence).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Convergence). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## convergent production
<a id="convergent-production"></a>

Convergent production is the independent development of very similar, specialized ways of making things in different groups or places. In this source, it refers to stone-tool manufacturing methods that closely resemble one another even though they arose under different circumstances and may have served different purposes or meanings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e937b52a514ea2277c0d57e4c2a97c74619824c1b2b27f61540f566390c814cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Crassard Rémy; Charpentier Vincent; McCorriston Joy; Vosges Jérémie; Bouzid Sofiane; Petraglia Michael D. Fluted-point technology in Neolithic Arabia: An independent invention far from the Americas. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0236314; article XML SHA-256 6bb71826921d974573b23b11997fee566d8b1080d20f46700f3a6d0c9da84857. “Fluted-point technology in Neolithic Arabia: An independent invention far from the Americas” (10.1371/journal.pone.0236314).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236314). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## convergent validity
<a id="convergent-validity"></a>

Convergent validity is the extent to which a measure shows the expected relationship with other measures of similar or related constructs. In practice, it is supported when scores on a tool correspond with scores from other relevant assessments or related clinical ratings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ed06266480e902004dbdc1a4e3e838cc23def81627e8e56e55000f2c2522249

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Flores Ocasio Thairys; Rivera Nicole Melendez; Duconge Jorge; Venkataramanan Raman; González-Saiz Francisco; Santiago Darlene. Psychometric evaluation of the opiate dosage adequacy scale: reliability and convergent validity among non-European Spanish-speaking buprenorphine patients. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1644076; article XML SHA-256 2453d65472113e7a9c41af411f0446608f018a20f253fdb70fdb8f675239c5fe. “Psychometric evaluation of the opiate dosage adequacy scale: reliability and convergent validity among non-European Spanish-speaking buprenorphine patients” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1644076).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1644076). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conversational repair
<a id="conversational-repair"></a>

Conversational repair is the back-and-forth people use to deal with misunderstanding in an interaction so they can keep or restore shared understanding. It reflects how meaning is worked out together when something said is unclear, misheard, or interpreted differently.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3a3db7d1e23ecf1ed880ec4c82aa51104f5b5c3ddff43cf8671afb5bc4697e0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Goddard Alex; Gillespie Alex. Conversational repairs on Reddit: Widely initiated but often uncompleted. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316618; article XML SHA-256 82a40f34ad7fbc5846f6656acc7dfa6d16b41edf4d5ebba7c3117517028c801e. “Conversational repairs on Reddit: Widely initiated but often uncompleted” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316618).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316618). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conversion
<a id="conversion"></a>

In this context, conversion means a change in multiple sclerosis from the relapsing-remitting form to the secondary progressive form. The packet links cognitive function with the risk of this change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a73fceb44778062ed0a4c3e659515b96c4d5cee5324fe8b0fd9a2b4c26be085

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mirmosayyeb Omid; Mohammadi Ida; Rajai Firouzabadi Shahryar; Vaheb Saeed; Yazdan Panah Mohammad; Fuchs Tom A; Weinstock-Guttman Bianca; Shaygannejad Vahid. Cognitive function is associated with risk of conversion to secondary progressive multiple sclerosis: A cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344558; article XML SHA-256 2b6418805dd70e8ce852089bf73be71701d61fc9348cec5cde10f804f8393a83. “Cognitive function is associated with risk of conversion to secondary progressive multiple sclerosis: A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344558).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344558). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conversion disorder
<a id="conversion-disorder"></a>

Conversion disorder is a diagnosis in which a person has a loss or change in physical functioning that looks like a physical illness, but is understood as a direct expression of psychological conflict or need.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a26578b6f83915e4f7d9ff51afc2b33cf0b5e6aef3095c7826a041d69cc5378

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Conversion Disorder” (D003291).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003291). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## conversion therapy
<a id="conversion-therapy"></a>

Conversion therapy refers to conversion practices, also called sexual orientation and gender identity change efforts. In this source, it is described as a harmful and coercive form of spiritual abuse, often occurring in religious settings and associated with the need for urgent support for survivors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3b29258498126f51d08c0e891708efe11ce51bdefb25efbb6a30faf60b8896a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Roguski Michael; Atwool Nicola. Conversion practices in Aotearoa New Zealand: Developing a holistic response to spiritual abuse. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302163; article XML SHA-256 107cc221065e1335542796906e48dbf0514d287e5b834f2ddd78628997856585. “Conversion practices in Aotearoa New Zealand: Developing a holistic response to spiritual abuse” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302163).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302163). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## convulsant
<a id="convulsant"></a>

A convulsant is a substance that acts on the brain stem or spinal cord to trigger tonic or clonic convulsions, often by reducing the nervous system’s normal inhibitory control. These substances were once used to stimulate breathing or counter barbiturate overdose, but are now mainly used in research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd18e7d5147f50cc3876515df16accac970b7af8d96102d70da945eaeb8d8e77

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Convulsants” (D003292).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003292). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## convulsion
<a id="convulsion"></a>

A convulsion is a sudden, violent, involuntary contraction of muscles that serves no purposeful action. It may involve continuous tightening or repeated jerking with relaxation, and repeated convulsions are described as a fit, while a more limited involuntary contraction is called a spasm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 605b9cf61f6490db3cd0ba2e88d80573af9359d3d013259cb7f2e0d063f114cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Convulsion” (Convulsion).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Convulsion). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## convulsive therapy
<a id="convulsive-therapy"></a>

Convulsive therapy is a treatment in which convulsions are deliberately produced to treat mental disorders. It is used mainly for severe affective disorders and schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67e5f7b19e4adf9edbcbd62df75c0488ef18d12004ecb5193bf3eac2ea62e29d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Convulsive Therapy” (D003295).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003295). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cooing
<a id="cooing"></a>

Cooing is an early stage of language development in which an individual produces simple vocal sounds as communication abilities gradually become more complex through maturation and learning. It is one of the developmental steps that comes before later imitation of words and short sentences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ed09790852e751654d3c8eef4f2b20fcf443cf7a0df4aefb551b7f359c858d4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Language Development” (D007804).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007804). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cooperation
<a id="cooperation"></a>

Cooperation is the ability to work positively and trustfully with peers in social interactions. In adolescence, it is an important part of social-emotional competence and supports moral development, peer relationships, academic success, and social adjustment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb888dc50c09fc452ae306a4d2a05840604bca7dcf81cd9071114c7c9585804e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lv Yawen; Zhou Ziwen; Li Jinguo; Fang Fang; Wang Hongyu. Explainable machine learning unveils the key role of cooperation ability in school bullying and its gender-differentiated impact on cooperative atmosphere. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1784847; article XML SHA-256 11051178e731a76a9a119f128bcea658f2def48846a87ff2cb289424c9b7fcf0. “Explainable machine learning unveils the key role of cooperation ability in school bullying and its gender-differentiated impact on cooperative atmosphere” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1784847).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1784847). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cooperative education
<a id="cooperative-education"></a>

In this context, cooperative education refers to Sino-foreign educational programs created as part of the internationalisation and reform of education. They are meant to support students’ academic success and development of international skills, but can be challenging when students have difficulty adapting across cultures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4ab02f1be6c2dee4f54d63b1ff80780528a523c3bb03cecdaa3f3d4bd8ab80e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yan Yiwen; Mahdi Moudi; He Yuan. Bridging cultural divides: family support and psychological resilience as catalysts for student adaptability in Sino-foreign cooperative education. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1717876; article XML SHA-256 3ff263fa7206e19d42bff9a7f37fecaa9c1f415af93538a8e801d27ef268daa3. “Bridging cultural divides: family support and psychological resilience as catalysts for student adaptability in Sino-foreign cooperative education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1717876).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1717876). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cooperative play
<a id="cooperative-play"></a>

Cooperative play is behavior in a team setting that emphasizes helping teammates and working toward shared group goals rather than focusing only on one’s own individual performance. In this context, it contrasts with selfish play, where personal success is prioritized over actions that benefit the team.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 359e2ceff7a07cd02ffdbc6adaa64aa8179976793aa3344f20175f6a4abcce4f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Uhlmann Eric Luis; Barnes Christopher M.. Selfish Play Increases during High-Stakes NBA Games and Is Rewarded with More Lucrative Contracts. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0095745; article XML SHA-256 e89896b5fd576e7627056ce06bf30599a8bde0de21cedb8ce4493589a97d6d50. “Selfish Play Increases during High-Stakes NBA Games and Is Rewarded with More Lucrative Contracts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0095745).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0095745). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coordination
<a id="coordination"></a>

Coordination is the ability to organize and control body movements so actions are carried out smoothly and effectively. In this packet, it refers especially to motor coordination as it relates to balance, physical activity, and everyday functional performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c5cf4023e1eddcd919a57bb073d1f709d7992319a40cfc1a37413a582a157f2e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hullumani Sharath; Qureshi Irshad. Development, validation and effectiveness of a parents led neuromotor training module with AI-based movement analysis for improving motor proficiency and sports participation in children with developmental coordination disorder: a protocol for an assessor-blinded randomized superiority controlled trial. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1931622; article XML SHA-256 3f42ab5bc5e1e2e2dae4c4f991b31544537afb67afc286807149edf5cac6630b. “Development, validation and effectiveness of a parents led neuromotor training module with AI-based movement analysis for improving motor proficiency and sports participation in children with developmental coordination disorder: a protocol for an assessor-blinded randomized superiority controlled trial” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1931622).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1931622). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coparenting
<a id="coparenting"></a>

Coparenting is the way parents work together in their shared responsibility for raising a child, including whether they support or interfere with each other’s parenting. In family systems terms, it reflects how caregivers coordinate within a three-person family relationship that can help create a balanced environment for the child.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd739ae7f5108dfeb219519bb00657dc300da8b32dac4bbd22401ce01a2572f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Xuena; Huang Zhongqin; Zhong Jun; Wang Suqing; Yu Liping. Coparenting and children’s socio-emotional ability: the mediating role of parental stimulation. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1505267; article XML SHA-256 04866e3001cf7e79420c1a2db2f909e15fbad3d0edd7d8b7dc8b457be4f3e52d. “Coparenting and children’s socio-emotional ability: the mediating role of parental stimulation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1505267).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1505267). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## COPD
<a id="copd"></a>

COPD is a chronic lung disease in which airflow becomes persistently and progressively limited, but it is considered preventable and treatable. In cognition-related contexts, it is also recognized as a broader systemic condition because it can occur alongside other health problems, including cognitive impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f6b907df9d1014029be97e5f398d93c86b452e8892148750ce3d2f8be3dbfc95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jing Yuling; Mao Shuixiang. COPD and cognitive impairment: a review of associated factors and intervention strategies. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1714708; article XML SHA-256 092e376f0387435082d0482ee80ad5616c7d1e75581286a509757a3b475f42e3. “COPD and cognitive impairment: a review of associated factors and intervention strategies” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1714708).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1714708). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Copernican theory
<a id="copernican-theory"></a>

Copernican theory is the view that the daily apparent movement of the heavens comes from the earth turning on its axis, and that the seeming paths of the planets reflect their real motion around the sun, with the earth included in that system. In this sense, it is the basis of the heliocentric view.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01b7eda056080984b1bf4379bf6fb99cba5cf201251d48c085ab3008d8c5666c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Copernican Theory (after Copernicus)” (Copernican Theory (after Copernicus)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Copernican Theory (after Copernicus)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coping
<a id="coping"></a>

Coping is the mental and behavioral effort a person uses to handle situations they see as stressful or as going beyond their available resources. In this view, how stressful something feels depends partly on how the person judges the demands, their resources, and their options for responding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96926ac02fae2d1eab4c3d1f69d7041f14f0681115b6117c9a4b42c633fa9595

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yuchen; Lan Yanqing. The dual roles of social support and coping in music performance anxiety: a systematic review of evidence from music students and professional musicians. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1904694; article XML SHA-256 162f3656d8a7fc5694e9d33718cae06a58779f0c960ed0a6b3e8b96f8b1708ef. “The dual roles of social support and coping in music performance anxiety: a systematic review of evidence from music students and professional musicians” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1904694).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1904694). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coping behavior
<a id="coping-behavior"></a>

In this source, coping behavior means the observable ways partners in an intimate relationship respond to and handle stress together during their interactions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 939be98dae838497f5fdc88a77cd7852db1ecc92a030283e3320b5dd314ac16f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Weitkamp Katharina; Constam Jasmin; Bodenmann Guy. “That's just typical!” A qualitative video review study on the ecological validity of couples' stress conversations in the lab. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1497690; article XML SHA-256 ecc42166dbf184f1a5fdc1828a165d4bd26532ef3d00d93ad0596bbb6ff6906b. ““That's just typical!” A qualitative video review study on the ecological validity of couples' stress conversations in the lab” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1497690).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1497690). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coping potential
<a id="coping-potential"></a>

Coping potential is a person’s appraisal of how much personal control or ability they have to deal with events and actions. In appraisal theories of emotion, this judgment helps shape how positive or negative an emotion is and how strongly it is felt.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 912ffce839254c59af66981a0fa5a032847407f96897f885b0169fb2b7f589e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Becker Eva S.; Keller Melanie M.; Goetz Thomas; Frenzel Anne C.; Taxer Jamie L.. Antecedents of teachers’ emotions in the classroom: an intraindividual approach. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00635; article XML SHA-256 7e8a8ed2f08050bbe11e7bbe05a6ccf1270169d8a3c99462d3c64f8a3546bacc. “Antecedents of teachers’ emotions in the classroom: an intraindividual approach” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00635).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00635). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## copro-
<a id="copro"></a>

Copro- is a prefix used for something related to stool or feces, especially tests that detect antigens or DNA in stool samples. In this source, it appears in terms such as copro-ELISA and copro-DNA for diagnosing infection from fecal material.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e7d467543a3da986a8123efe6ce64ea8e720c5786643ab78af012cb3e42f091a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Khalifa Mervat M.; Abdel-Rahman Salma M.; Bakir Hanaa Y.; Othman Ragaa A.; El-Mokhtar Mohamed A.. Comparison of the diagnostic performance of microscopic examination, Copro-ELISA, and Copro-PCR in the diagnosis of Capillaria philippinensis infections. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0234746; article XML SHA-256 8e480c8962cd677d577acc74e1f89db477964de68203e71cfdcc8f717ef2ca66. “Comparison of the diagnostic performance of microscopic examination, Copro-ELISA, and Copro-PCR in the diagnosis of Capillaria philippinensis infections” (10.1371/journal.pone.0234746).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0234746). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coprolalia
<a id="coprolalia"></a>

Coprolalia is the involuntary, and possibly unconscious, uttering of obscene words as a symptom seen in hysteria and some other disorders. In this historical source, it is described as resembling a spasm or tic.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8a8c0e601cd31cbac8a2dc1a52ee0c48282690fa97031fb5cf35ef0757f0ad3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Coprolalia” (Coprolalia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Coprolalia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## copula
<a id="copula"></a>

Copula is the part of a statement that expresses assertion, either affirming or denying something. In simple categorical statements, this function is typically carried by “is” or “is not,” treated in logic as linking the subject and predicate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35ec9d539256fdb08735e7c5956fc399f5adae7d976b8c7ccf31327214180866

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Copula” (Copula).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Copula). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## copulation
<a id="copulation"></a>

Copulation is mating in non-human species, referring to sexual union between a male and a female.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 521986d57e2a2b22609c457443c2212d1beed759db7e31506e664157c0bc60af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Copulation” (D003307).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003307). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## copulatory lock
<a id="copulatory-lock"></a>

A copulatory lock is a brief period during mating when the male and female remain physically locked together as ejaculation occurs. In the source, this was observed as part of the mating behaviour of spiny mice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cc09ce42a6272fada08bd80a4e32d9a31558e7741d5a2f35206fcc6c20daed4e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [McKenna Jarrod; Bellofiore Nadia; Temple-Smith Peter. Good things come to those who mate: analysis of the mating behaviour in the menstruating rodent, Acomys cahirinus. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s40850-022-00112-1; article XML SHA-256 0b4036a5f1d951e9c2c38fdcaebc2520fd075a028ee30dbc20605bb82646ec5c. “Good things come to those who mate: analysis of the mating behaviour in the menstruating rodent, Acomys cahirinus” (10.1186/s40850-022-00112-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40850-022-00112-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## core conflictual relationship theme
<a id="core-conflictual-relationship-theme"></a>

Core conflictual relationship theme is a structured psychotherapy method for describing a person’s recurring interpersonal pattern. It is used as part of case formulation to help guide treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c36ec03074c4c55a93a7266a575260a2989c926ca83d2522a71ec822f56eb493

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tallberg Peter; Ulberg Randi; Johnsen Dahl Hanne-Sofie; Høglend Per Andreas. Core conflictual relationship theme: the reliability of a simplified scoring procedure. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12888-020-02558-4; article XML SHA-256 7a4b9982b25ec555bcc0bd957c8e3aabf131b233108a4402889b176e893da693. “Core conflictual relationship theme: the reliability of a simplified scoring procedure” (10.1186/s12888-020-02558-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02558-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## core emotion
<a id="core-emotion"></a>

A core emotion is an emotion treated as basic or central to an important psychological function. In this source, disgust is described as a core emotion because it has a key role in the behavioral immune system, which helps people avoid disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 84602bee5c7a7fde19ecb2f4a8822f4205116bc2fdcce49dfdb0c38b7bb2080b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zakrzewska Marta Zuzanna; Liuzza Marco Tullio; Lindholm Torun; Blomkvist Anna; Larsson Maria; Olofsson Jonas K.. An Overprotective Nose? Implicit Bias Is Positively Related to Individual Differences in Body Odor Disgust Sensitivity. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00301; article XML SHA-256 f45bdc5d082806442873c229c6b208e065a8401fcdef3c159986311343d68574. “An Overprotective Nose? Implicit Bias Is Positively Related to Individual Differences in Body Odor Disgust Sensitivity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00301).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00301). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## core hours
<a id="core-hours"></a>

Core hours are a measure of computing time used in a simulation study, based on the total processor-core time consumed across all runs. In this source, they refer to the combined computational effort needed to complete many simulations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abe491c33a14ec5f8421f389cd323acdd86a8c74092e03a6c63d34b96b2ab26c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Garimella Harsha T; Kraft Reuben H; Przekwas Andrzej J. Do blast induced skull flexures result in axonal deformation?. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0190881; article XML SHA-256 b53fe88a95723f4aa9911a3ad0ed1cab2c39e94e59b7ffb6d4be0518187cf8a2. “Do blast induced skull flexures result in axonal deformation?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0190881).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190881). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cornea
<a id="cornea"></a>

The cornea is the clear front part of the eye’s outer coat. It is made of five layers, continues into the sclera, and acts as the eye’s first surface for bending light.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75204fa112ae407c4fa6856fa24949eda4179779675ef435fdb9bad296291784

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cornea” (D003315).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003315). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Cornell Medical Index
<a id="cornell-medical-index"></a>

The Cornell Medical Index is a self-completed health questionnaire used to gather medical history information to support a medical interview. Its questions cover both physical symptoms and patterns of mood and feelings, and it has also been used in personality assessment and epidemiologic research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03d45338e3b25eb7e7d3d5dc323ba1b8fd70eedb2383f295c3550d15f41da51b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cornell Medical Index” (D003321).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003321). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cornu ammonis
<a id="cornu-ammonis"></a>

Cornu ammonis is the horn-shaped part of the brain known as the hippocampus. It is divided into four subareas, labeled CA1 through CA4.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38c48ad190771b55a1926c0e4491b7b1efe69eba6fb0ae2f6bc54b0694d64fd6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cornu Ammonis” (C32374).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corollary discharge
<a id="corollary-discharge"></a>

Corollary discharge is a mechanism thought to help the brain tell apart internally generated events from outside stimuli, such as distinguishing self-initiated sounds from external ones. In this context, it is studied through changes in evoked brain responses to self-generated auditory events.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08622d113ec5441190c110c0959d820e3b3952c4f8a76c0ebb9a3bc8a7ccb38f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liermann-Koch Constantin; Thielen Jan W; Chang Dae-In; Krieger-Strásky Richard; Kraff Oliver; Scherbaum Norbert; Sprooten Emma; Müller Bernhard W. Corollary discharge and efference copy mechanisms in schizophrenia and controls: The N1 and P2 evoked potential components differentially react to self-initiated tones in schizophrenia. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336046; article XML SHA-256 3b9cecb55ff1ddae75de4befb5577fccaadbf7680a45254148d4ed4a1907eb28. “Corollary discharge and efference copy mechanisms in schizophrenia and controls: The N1 and P2 evoked potential components differentially react to self-initiated tones in schizophrenia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336046).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336046). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coronary heart disease
<a id="coronary-heart-disease"></a>

Coronary heart disease is a group of heart conditions in which the coronary arteries become narrowed or blocked, usually because of atherosclerosis. It includes problems such as myocardial infarction, angina pectoris, and coronary artery disease, and is a major cause of illness and death.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f2ee4538a5dab25118eb9289899360a7f164714b12a57e3edd6451134863536

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Jinling; Pan Yi; Gao Qun; Zhuang Rui; Ma Liyong. Association of hyperuricemia with coronary heart disease: Protocol for an updated systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308719; article XML SHA-256 6c3a68133315a5bf97ce01b0f46796f72e2f82081a795de4886eca9af4cb77c2. “Association of hyperuricemia with coronary heart disease: Protocol for an updated systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308719).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308719). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corpora
<a id="corpora"></a>

Corpora are organized collections of language samples or texts that are assembled so researchers can study patterns of word use and communication. In this source, the corpora were two matched sets of research article abstracts used to compare writing styles between groups of authors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3e991b2163511e430676d85f064347902782f753e39f11fa441d04a8341954e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xie Shunuan; Guo Linxiang; Zhang Wen. A corpus-based comparison of stance markers in materials science research article abstracts by Chinese and English L1 authors. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344331; article XML SHA-256 852fc3b66b5e6ec7021647041c65f2e756472eabc7c2eb628eacaf4298e18061. “A corpus-based comparison of stance markers in materials science research article abstracts by Chinese and English L1 authors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344331).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344331). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corporal
<a id="corporal"></a>

In this context, corporal means involving the body in direct physical engagement. It refers to the bodily side of fighting and combative interaction as it is experienced in practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7ea8214fba00381406f13051eec789f52fbca95238807b405d9dd472931a6a87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lázaro Santos Yan; Gutiérrez-García Carlos; Barreira Cristiano Roque Antunes. Becoming a fighter: phenomenological dimensions of personal development in beginner martial arts and combat sports practitioners. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1910206; article XML SHA-256 6f8d0d328f711d7357fed5a1b0f414bcadc5fb1c04d92f0e05bc31b050a9f8c9. “Becoming a fighter: phenomenological dimensions of personal development in beginner martial arts and combat sports practitioners” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1910206).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1910206). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corporal punishment
<a id="corporal-punishment"></a>

Corporal punishment is punishment carried out on the body by inflicting physical pain or injury. In this historical source, it includes forms such as whipping, flogging, and the death penalty, and is described as becoming less central in modern penal systems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3798c13f447d7f980c453ca6ea26645f38cde578cc1dd8358881d73e14f76750

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2257500-2269500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corpus
<a id="corpus"></a>

Corpus is a Latin anatomical term meaning a body or organ, commonly used as part of compound names for bodily structures. In this usage it refers to a distinct anatomical part and not to a histological cell grouping such as a nucleus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e6a2c5e748ec1a63a32260eca6c02755689ee975b0e59857050fed79e408dd56

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Corpus” (Corpus).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Corpus). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corpus callosum
<a id="corpus-callosum"></a>

The corpus callosum is a broad band of densely myelinated nerve fibers deep within the longitudinal fissure that links matching areas of the cerebral cortex across the two hemispheres. It connects corresponding regions in all lobes so the hemispheres can communicate with each other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4bcf6e6ba5287046ca443b918b4613dd2c38152ee260b43f75b1d880b9ddff51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Corpus Callosum” (D003337).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003337). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corpus callosum agenesis
<a id="corpus-callosum-agenesis"></a>

Corpus callosum agenesis is a birth defect in which the corpus callosum is partly or completely absent. It can occur on its own or as part of a broader syndrome, and may be associated with problems in movement-related skills and intellectual disability that vary in severity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8dff9af84ffeb24c615d87ff0e137a5c7ad9f0717a87124ad3135fff7b76475

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Agenesis of Corpus Callosum” (D061085).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D061085). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corpus cavernosum
<a id="corpus-cavernosum"></a>

The corpus cavernosum is erectile tissue whose contractile and relaxation activity is regulated by nitric oxide and the RhoA/Rho-kinase signaling pathway. In the source, impaired relaxation of this tissue is described in diabetic mice along with reduced nitric oxide availability and increased oxidative stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47c00ac6783ea90393deac27f054d26aee28aee551b88dc3a1f2ce1c1ff34d2a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Priviero Fernanda B. M.; Toque Haroldo A. F.; Nunes Kenia Pedrosa; Priolli Denise G.; Teixeira Cleber E.; Webb R. Clinton. Impaired Corpus Cavernosum Relaxation Is Accompanied by Increased Oxidative Stress and Up-Regulation of the Rho-Kinase Pathway in Diabetic (Db/Db) Mice. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0156030; article XML SHA-256 21206bb751327f2ed3e352c8f209e40439c96aa7bb238351aff6e4ef88079799. “Impaired Corpus Cavernosum Relaxation Is Accompanied by Increased Oxidative Stress and Up-Regulation of the Rho-Kinase Pathway in Diabetic (Db/Db) Mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0156030).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0156030). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corpus mammillare
<a id="corpus-mammillare"></a>

Corpus mammillare, also called the mammillary body or nucleus mammillaris, is a cluster of cells located behind the infundibulum within the tuber cinereum. It is described here as the lower ending point of the columns of the fornix.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 310043ab50e7a0d6bd53333454bce0aa04846b2e7c1de42a245a06589ed1abe6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: B3defs.htm” (d9eb8eee52e9327abc9b).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B3defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corpus striatum
<a id="corpus-striatum"></a>

The corpus striatum is a brain region in each cerebral hemisphere, positioned in front of and to the side of the thalamus. It is made of striped gray and white matter, including the neostriatum and paleostriatum, with gray matter from the caudate nucleus and lentiform nucleus and white matter from the internal capsule.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 751f3769d93650e0df783896e908ac0c757c6177c7b64b0014bbb2f6e931fc64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Corpus Striatum” (D003342).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003342). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## correct rejection
<a id="correct-rejection"></a>

Correct rejection is a recognition-memory response in which a person correctly judges that a test item was not previously studied or presented. In false-memory research, it can also refer specifically to correctly rejecting a related lure, meaning a new item that feels familiar because it is linked to studied material.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0754a956b9517661f7b3571a4d60cb77ab3efb83cbd83a0af6f349f47917455c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cadavid Sara; Beato Maria Soledad. Memory Distortion and Its Avoidance: An Event-Related Potentials Study on False Recognition and Correct Rejection. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0164024; article XML SHA-256 564f769bf60fa1055744f9c2c18e4610ee3e7bd74a689bd1c000910f49c7d3d2. “Memory Distortion and Its Avoidance: An Event-Related Potentials Study on False Recognition and Correct Rejection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0164024).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0164024). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## correlate
<a id="correlate"></a>

A correlate is a feature that is linked with or tends to occur alongside another feature. In this biological context, it refers to a brain characteristic, such as a structural pattern, that is associated with a psychological or psychiatric manifestation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b299742c6af3331d6689761cafb48fa2efb2b33921f12c265e7b1a2e272c4aa4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Anqin; Xu Chunsheng; Liu Danqing; Jiang Man; Li Chuanfu. Neuroanatomical correlates of psychiatric manifestations in Wilson disease: the role of age. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1960346; article XML SHA-256 e59f43f0b9c19704371cf1e12f2afcc9f8ce75a6a64f596eab6c4633cd053bd8. “Neuroanatomical correlates of psychiatric manifestations in Wilson disease: the role of age” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1960346).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1960346). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## correlated samples
<a id="correlated-samples"></a>

Correlated samples are paired or linked sets of measurements in which the observations are related, such as two measurements taken from the same individuals. In this kind of comparison, analysis focuses on the difference scores between the matched measurements rather than treating the two sets of observations as independent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee6b7a654d416c78eec18a17f746b635cfe3efb1a0a3de2fb2186a8038fb2629

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## correlation analysis
<a id="correlation-analysis"></a>

Correlation analysis is a statistical method used to examine whether variables are related, such as whether biological markers are associated with the severity of anxiety or depression symptoms. It helps researchers study the pattern of association between measures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a27288dd2925a95f2a7722893167b79aa0590cfe3264a7fc762c7497be204184

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qiu Zhaodi; Huang Bifang; Zhou Hua; Huang Yinan; Liu Huiyu. Correlation analysis of serum galectin-3 combined with Th1/Th2-related cytokines and severe anxiety and depression symptoms in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1816398; article XML SHA-256 3193c6052535d8f02162f46d944178573f99adfefae626621dea3d1548e1fed6. “Correlation analysis of serum galectin-3 combined with Th1/Th2-related cytokines and severe anxiety and depression symptoms in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1816398).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1816398). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## correlation coefficient
<a id="correlation-coefficient"></a>

A correlation coefficient is a number that shows how strongly two sets of scores are related. In assessment, it can be used to describe things like a moderate positive association between measures or strong stability in scores over time when the value is high.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 113d981efb3ba937b7f8bbc2873d1920f6ffff6e8f96a442e152dc40fa780a7e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Esen Aygün Hanife; Aşıkcan Mehmet; Zeren Şerife Gonca. Development and psychometric validation of the soft skills scale for primary school students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1906409; article XML SHA-256 639421ba9e56134a308643d936f2601cc57067a8e256f9d35942cc8f68f7c976. “Development and psychometric validation of the soft skills scale for primary school students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1906409).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1906409). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## correspondence
<a id="correspondence"></a>

In ethics oversight, correspondence is the set of communications, important discussions, and other relevant information exchanged with an Institutional Review Board or Independent Ethics Committee.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82764b744c00b97cc347c9dc4662fa8ea4655dd8d0ed68c75f6e6178528f86d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Institutional Review Board - Independent Ethics Committee Communication Material” (C115608).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## correspondence bias
<a id="correspondence-bias"></a>

Correspondence bias is the tendency to explain another person’s behavior or performance as mainly reflecting their personal qualities, while giving too little weight to the situation or environment that helped shape the outcome. This can lead people to treat easier circumstances and higher apparent performance as signs of greater ability than they really are.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8a9d558169d868dc29c4eb35786918c37c03b24cc0da1e32ec6e967066589d2e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Swift Samuel A.; Moore Don A.; Sharek Zachariah S.; Gino Francesca. Inflated Applicants: Attribution Errors in Performance Evaluation by Professionals. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0069258; article XML SHA-256 c57ae2bf4cc66acd92828556d5ef5c8c71131ce08dc9ce66da68b7d4f6743f2c. “Inflated Applicants: Attribution Errors in Performance Evaluation by Professionals” (10.1371/journal.pone.0069258).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069258). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## correspondence problem
<a id="correspondence-problem"></a>

The correspondence problem is the challenge of explaining how a person or agent can make their own body match another’s observed body movements or posture, especially when they cannot directly observe their own body from the outside. In this context, it refers to how imitation becomes possible despite limited access to both self and other body configurations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a0ef73e9210de4f4b4db07d3b7edf02588be017710ac8588825f8b1d0a793b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Froese Tom; Lenay Charles; Ikegami Takashi. Imitation by social interaction? Analysis of a minimal agent-based model of the correspondence problem. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00202; article XML SHA-256 3c5919a24c614cfde0a83f4c196b39c0b98319b02f1695e17e62752aa232621c. “Imitation by social interaction? Analysis of a minimal agent-based model of the correspondence problem” (10.3389/fnhum.2012.00202).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00202). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corridor illusion
<a id="corridor-illusion"></a>

The corridor illusion is a visual size illusion in which two physically identical circles look different in size when one is shown at the near end of a corridor and the other at the far end. The circle placed farther away appears larger, reflecting a mismatch between perceived and actual size created by pictorial depth cues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07d559a6b19e7450b9a97e8e6ff7c5cbadf0f02663aa5fe58d1f2ad5aa9d4497

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mruczek Ryan E. B.; Fanelli Matthew; Kelly Sean; Caplovitz Gideon P.. The combination of target motion and dynamic changes in context greatly enhance visual size illusions. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2022.959367; article XML SHA-256 1bf335590df8ff4e833e761e1077d04518adaa1ce0d4aa2f654febe71bc4b58c. “The combination of target motion and dynamic changes in context greatly enhance visual size illusions” (10.3389/fnhum.2022.959367).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.959367). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corroboration
<a id="corroboration"></a>

Corroboration is confirmation or added support for a finding or idea from other observed evidence. In this historical psychiatric context, it refers to how observations in insanity were taken as supporting earlier conclusions about the localization of brain functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4fe19c7666573ca522af19d30da91ce33b876e76fd4adf841b476f55d275ebaf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Insanity (and Sanity)” (Insanity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Insanity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cortex
<a id="cortex"></a>

The cortex is the outer layer of the cerebrum, made up of neurons and unmyelinated nerve fibers. It supports memory, attention, consciousness, and other higher mental functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c2f21d242985db18cb2aee96e27f65c63d8ed47c5adf523430068f4967024812

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cortex” (C12443).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cortical activation
<a id="cortical-activation"></a>

Cortical activation is the level of activity in areas of the brain’s cortex while a person performs a task. In this context, it refers to task-related activity in regions such as the prefrontal and vestibular cortices, estimated from changes in oxygenated blood, and lower activation after practice may reflect more efficient cognitive-motor processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 30275492864200937bc1d0a8c104cec5a8fd61e1d5deb1229ea7983f3847c379

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Surkar Swati M; Lin Chia-Cheng; Trotter Brittany; Phinizy Tyler; Sylcott Brian. Effects of dual-task training on cognitive-motor learning and cortical activation: A non-randomized clinical trial in healthy young adults. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322036; article XML SHA-256 f29015a0445973b5dfd18d01280a305c53dc8aa823112cf5cd12fb5d75a2c5c3. “Effects of dual-task training on cognitive-motor learning and cortical activation: A non-randomized clinical trial in healthy young adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322036).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322036). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cortical area
<a id="cortical-area"></a>

A cortical area is a subdivision of the mammalian neocortex that is distinct from neighboring regions in both function and anatomy. These areas can often be told apart in brain tissue by differences in staining patterns or protein expression markers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aab05b0e74ae03cbc8247203ae0d19bf75b17910fa96e00b9ffb716fc52a6f74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Weed Natalie; Bakken Trygve; Graddis Nile; Gouwens Nathan; Millman Daniel; Hawrylycz Michael; Waters Jack. Identification of genetic markers for cortical areas using a Random Forest classification routine and the Allen Mouse Brain Atlas. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0212898; article XML SHA-256 55326ab0e46b3214849490708f2642fc4800752c420778891f808550a0fad93b. “Identification of genetic markers for cortical areas using a Random Forest classification routine and the Allen Mouse Brain Atlas” (10.1371/journal.pone.0212898).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212898). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cortical column
<a id="cortical-column"></a>

A cortical column is a functional unit in the cerebral cortex. In primary visual cortex (V1), it can be understood as a basic unit that processes mapped image patches independently and helps analyze local visual features such as contours, lines, and edges.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1aa1e7c73365cef80de70d62d511ec87e91cb451033f3ed0175f8e752b43df5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Songnian Zhao; Qi Zou; Zhen Jin; Guozheng Yao; Li Yao. Neural computation of visual imaging based on Kronecker product in the primary visual cortex. 2010; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-11-43; article XML SHA-256 4f73a25aa4754d35c17cd657ef01769683659283bb49123e64806e0591b0e166. “Neural computation of visual imaging based on Kronecker product in the primary visual cortex” (10.1186/1471-2202-11-43).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-11-43). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cortical dysplasia
<a id="cortical-dysplasia"></a>

Cortical dysplasia is a malformation of the brain’s cerebral cortex that happens when neurons do not migrate properly before birth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3766c083417003740931973a627583f90fec3855b48b2837a76aa73fb45dccab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cortical Dysplasia” (C42088).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cortical lamina
<a id="cortical-lamina"></a>

Cortical lamina are the six layers of the cerebral cortex. Within a cortical column, neural responses and computations are distributed across these different cortical depths.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca736eae9df94459e4e14af05b38bf110921708adbff140007bee95ea43fa179

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Olman Cheryl A.; Harel Noam; Feinberg David A.; He Sheng; Zhang Peng; Ugurbil Kamil; Yacoub Essa. Layer-Specific fMRI Reflects Different Neuronal Computations at Different Depths in Human V1. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0032536; article XML SHA-256 bc03516d63d1dafcf253e8fe4019002416b72f2f91d905630774048b991909c9. “Layer-Specific fMRI Reflects Different Neuronal Computations at Different Depths in Human V1” (10.1371/journal.pone.0032536).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0032536). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cortical lesion
<a id="cortical-lesion"></a>

A cortical lesion is an area of damage or abnormality in the brain’s cortex, especially the cerebral grey matter. In multiple sclerosis, these lesions can be seen with MRI, but detecting and distinguishing different cortical lesion types can be difficult and not always reliable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc229cfbdd0c497460560ced0316927dd3ebc7d9450e20c4f38204592ddf6588

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Faizy Tobias Djamsched; Thaler Christian; Ceyrowski Tim; Broocks Gabriel; Treffler Natascha; Sedlacik Jan; Stürner Klarissa; Stellmann Jan-Patrick; Heesen Christoph; Fiehler Jens; Siemonsen Susanne. Reliability of cortical lesion detection on double inversion recovery MRI applying the MAGNIMS-Criteria in multiple sclerosis patients within a 16-months period. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0172923; article XML SHA-256 133152946401042cabe61cc8052899214dbd1df92c911b932db0b18bb87f73a5. “Reliability of cortical lesion detection on double inversion recovery MRI applying the MAGNIMS-Criteria in multiple sclerosis patients within a 16-months period” (10.1371/journal.pone.0172923).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172923). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cortical localization
<a id="cortical-localization"></a>

Cortical localization is the modern view that different functions are tied to particular parts of the cerebral cortex. In this historical account, it begins with findings such as Broca’s identification of a speech centre and later experimental evidence that stimulating the cortex can activate movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3798cbca1abc41cf3be5df40fb61d1712d051ead09cf225a87b5815e7672aa56

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Localization (cerebral)” (Localization (cerebral)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Localization (cerebral)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cortical map
<a id="cortical-map"></a>

A cortical map is a topographic pattern in the cerebral cortex in which nearby neural locations are arranged to reflect nearby values or relationships in what those neurons represent. Such maps can vary in form, including linear, orientation-like, or clustered arrangements, and may be weak or difficult to detect when measurement resolution is limited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 60fad7d3b22313eda9e7367292509373e4fae0e99049601e16464602588ae0f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yarrow Stuart; Razak Khaleel A.; Seitz Aaron R.; Seriès Peggy. Detecting and Quantifying Topography in Neural Maps. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0087178; article XML SHA-256 78b3bd8ee124bbc4f002e05afc1ec4885f563be226a622f2d7f2c31d65347973. “Detecting and Quantifying Topography in Neural Maps” (10.1371/journal.pone.0087178).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0087178). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cortical neuron
<a id="cortical-neuron"></a>

A cortical neuron is a neuron studied as part of networks grown in culture that can show spontaneous spiking and bursting activity. In this source, cortical neurons are discussed for their intrinsic properties and for how their network activity changes under radiofrequency exposure or muscimol.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3006358f8ef9b711ff86e655bb47601550fdc7bbecd612ae4472d4ec9ca73c9c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lemercier Clément E; Garenne André; Poulletier de Gannes Florence; El Khoueiry Corinne; Arnaud-Cormos Delia; Levêque Philippe; Lagroye Isabelle; Percherancier Yann; Lewis Noëlle. Comparative study between radiofrequency-induced and muscimol-induced inhibition of cultured networks of cortical neuron. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0268605; article XML SHA-256 f938bda30a81786bb404f72e17bebd1fb841cbfcbce33a0d3df30f08b51a1013. “Comparative study between radiofrequency-induced and muscimol-induced inhibition of cultured networks of cortical neuron” (10.1371/journal.pone.0268605).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268605). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cortical potential
<a id="cortical-potential"></a>

In this source, a cortical potential is a measurable pattern of the brain cortex’s electrical activity linked to cognitive and motor processing during a task. Here it is discussed specifically as motor-related cortical potential, meaning activity seen around a movement response, including changes before and after the response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34f7723301373e94ace79211f015f0d0a7bf6955d9994d39259a8a5b167c983e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sanchez-Lopez Javier; Fernandez Thalia; Silva-Pereyra Juan; Martinez Mesa Juan A.; Di Russo Francesco. Differences in Visuo-Motor Control in Skilled vs. Novice Martial Arts Athletes during Sustained and Transient Attention Tasks: A Motor-Related Cortical Potential Study. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0091112; article XML SHA-256 54251b2122b45b51919ef5050e5ad654fe46ee36fb3f5c7788cf6c0c44c54fac. “Differences in Visuo-Motor Control in Skilled vs. Novice Martial Arts Athletes during Sustained and Transient Attention Tasks: A Motor-Related Cortical Potential Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0091112).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0091112). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cortical process
<a id="cortical-process"></a>

A cortical process is an activity or change occurring in the cerebral cortex that directly underlies conscious sensation, especially vision. In this historical usage, it is treated as the essential brain event for visual experience and spatial localization, with higher cortical areas further organizing these immediate sensory data into more complex perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b2b37223a4a9500006dabe7e8a90dced6bc95a7339345ffeeec8c5e93c82065d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4326000-4338000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corticofugal
<a id="corticofugal"></a>

Corticofugal refers to nerve fibers that travel outward from the cerebral cortex to lower brain regions and the spinal cord. In this packet, they are described as large longitudinal bundles on each side of the ventral midbrain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7c61dd2b57cd60ca7cb805ec22eada33afb333870964cdc0b7fb665658f9e6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Crus Cerebri” (C32409).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corticopetal
<a id="corticopetal"></a>

Corticopetal refers to nerve fibers or projections that travel toward the cerebral cortex from other brain regions. In this source, it describes basal forebrain pathways that send cholinergic input to visual cortical areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 388465d719212c02c510e0ec732be0976d68a1c53efdfcd5782c149f64d544a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huppé-Gourgues Frédéric; Jegouic Karim; Vaucher Elvire. Topographic Organization of Cholinergic Innervation From the Basal Forebrain to the Visual Cortex in the Rat. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fncir.2018.00019; article XML SHA-256 4e016620a28332d81dc161eb405bff2c656991b4b9d0ed451df96001b1ce886c. “Topographic Organization of Cholinergic Innervation From the Basal Forebrain to the Visual Cortex in the Rat” (10.3389/fncir.2018.00019).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fncir.2018.00019). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corticosteroid
<a id="corticosteroid"></a>

A corticosteroid is a steroid hormone made by the adrenal gland. The term is sometimes confused with cortisone, but cortisone is one naturally occurring corticosteroid-related substance rather than the whole group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3a38948412b46108b0b850829ced64030d767154fc3099615bd0f43a47056959

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chung Juliet; Ramtin Sina; Koehler Philip; Stache Stephen; Langman Charles; Hozack Brian; Ilyas Asif M. Patient perceptions and knowledge of corticosteroid injections: A cross-sectional survey study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344201; article XML SHA-256 596f1f2ecc4c9b2e1e61e6f4d882f4e3d74e9dbdb6959339a526f3bbcecf506d. “Patient perceptions and knowledge of corticosteroid injections: A cross-sectional survey study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344201).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344201). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corticotropin
<a id="corticotropin"></a>

Corticotropin, also called ACTH, is a hormone made by the anterior pituitary gland that signals the adrenal cortex to release steroid hormones, especially cortisone. These hormones help raise blood pressure as part of the body’s response to stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bce4de156db96de72127d304f748eaa2cade3f66c56da2477206d4e97645a92d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Recombinant Corticotropin” (C212).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## corticotropin-releasing factor
<a id="corticotropin-releasing-factor"></a>

Corticotropin-releasing factor is a small peptide hormone that promotes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone from the pituitary. It is mainly produced by hypothalamic neurons and is also made in some other tissues, including the placenta, adrenal medulla, and testis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8390490a6d83a3de59d22bb03835144bdabf5415c0a60a0a1119fb3bd5d1a5a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone” (D003346).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003346). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cortisone
<a id="cortisone"></a>

Cortisone is a hormone produced when cortisol is metabolized during the body’s stress response. It can be converted back into cortisol, and its level helps reflect how the body regulates glucocorticoid activity and processes stress-related hormone signals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d81b08240671aa9d5cbc458651dfab069405327f7142944a44fbe11568f56b2a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shen Shurui; Wang Weiliang; Su Shan; Liu Sihan; Shen Hao. Recognition of adaptive stress response patterns in adolescents based on multiple hair biomarkers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1720146; article XML SHA-256 f61a236675052846df30f8dadfe4c55343b12519f44cad6556789c772626b2f4. “Recognition of adaptive stress response patterns in adolescents based on multiple hair biomarkers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1720146).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1720146). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cosmetic surgery
<a id="cosmetic-surgery"></a>

Cosmetic surgery refers to surgical procedures sought to change appearance and sometimes to repair deformities that cause functional problems. In the psychology context, it is discussed as a choice that may be linked to self-esteem, body dissatisfaction, and social influences, while also carrying risks and possible complications.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4706f159c06520cb12df0ceb6ed35922f3060a8db39bfa6af075a48ca0ed415a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yunduan; Chen Hong; Zou Yan; Guo Yanshuo; Gao Liying; Xu Xinyu. Online selfie behavior and consideration of cosmetic surgery in teenage girls: The mediating roles of appearance comparisons and body dissatisfaction. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318245; article XML SHA-256 e6bf910a8602b70e40a54fae8a9ff96dd768ce04aafa7f8d78ef6a71a08404a6. “Online selfie behavior and consideration of cosmetic surgery in teenage girls: The mediating roles of appearance comparisons and body dissatisfaction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318245).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318245). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cosmic consciousness
<a id="cosmic-consciousness"></a>

In this historical source, cosmic consciousness means a conception of the Absolute as a single all-embracing consciousness that includes human, animal, and any other minds as parts. It is described as a unified experience that transcends time by holding all streams of temporal experience together in one consciousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fdbc6501ff9e9be6128c3d2da2ca7cfbaf436a57346a0214c88f3344415b5dfc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Absolute” (Absolute).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Absolute). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## counseling
<a id="counseling"></a>

Counseling is the process of giving advice and support to people who are dealing with educational or personal problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 12e7a519145bb03075299361a88ea02d2252e9d2a3833ede5a192a08e04a92c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Counseling” (D003376).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003376). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## counseling services
<a id="counseling-services"></a>

Counseling services, in this packet, refers to organized settings that provide mental health counseling for children.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b91c8574f3f9edeeb2ae0bb9903f480cb46b90066709d07de559d88822402eb8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Child Guidance Clinics” (D002661).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002661). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## counselor
<a id="counselor"></a>

A counselor is a person trained to give advice or instruction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 65f7ce35f1cd429532dbd72c71a148df714f2554a26b79243d7817baef565719

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Counselor” (C155697).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## counterfactual thinking
<a id="counterfactual-thinking"></a>

Counterfactual thinking is the mental ability to imagine how events could have happened differently from what actually occurred. It helps regulate emotions and behavior, and problems with it may make it harder to adjust actions and feelings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c766efa6b75068778d9a85989bd61b70c1883a9b67d63bc2e93aa8a783daf405

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tagini Sofia; Solca Federica; Torre Silvia; Brugnera Agostino; Ciammola Andrea; Mazzocco Ketti; Ferrucci Roberta; Silani Vincenzo; Pravettoni Gabriella; Poletti Barbara. Counterfactual thinking in psychiatric and neurological diseases: A scoping review. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0246388; article XML SHA-256 99ef930382e8829207e3d563c806e5704d69dbb4c779ad1ef7c5f0629baba6a2. “Counterfactual thinking in psychiatric and neurological diseases: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0246388).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246388). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## countermeasure
<a id="countermeasure"></a>

A countermeasure is a response or protective action used to reduce or offset a problem or harmful effect. In this context, contact with urban green space is presented as a restorative countermeasure for mental health burdens linked to rapid urbanisation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a933d95ec25b214657c3a4c316e4b1b69a8a99c98961b4408416a3e8b983ef65

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Rong; Weng Pei-ying; Miao Lvlin; Lin Zheng; Zhao Xia. Restorative effects of urban biodiversity: a study based on age differences using multigroup structural equation modeling. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1907289; article XML SHA-256 546982994c7ee2c414ef21712a9bd2ea3d4a2ad86a089aad7e4b724374f31f97. “Restorative effects of urban biodiversity: a study based on age differences using multigroup structural equation modeling” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1907289).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1907289). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## counterproductive work behavior
<a id="counterproductive-work-behavior"></a>

Counterproductive work behavior is deliberate employee behavior at work that is unethical, illegal, or otherwise unwanted and that harms the organization. It can waste organizational resources, damage trust and the work climate, and negatively affect both organizational functioning and employee well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f75dc943fdd6a5e9957b5da676bdf9cee83d39dfbba1659b14931fbab0450348

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cai Han; Wang Le; Jin Xiu. Leader’s Machiavellianism and employees’ counterproductive work behavior: testing a moderated mediation model. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1283509; article XML SHA-256 47abe65329c9f5b4ae24ad18065767d16e7c78a3f2274fe024c844fe695af815. “Leader’s Machiavellianism and employees’ counterproductive work behavior: testing a moderated mediation model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1283509).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1283509). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## countertransference
<a id="countertransference"></a>

Countertransference is a therapist’s emotional response to a patient, whether the therapist is aware of it or not. These reactions can affect and potentially interfere with treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 841170d25f6773291d002ad0d9799e38d1e8c83f4640670614cc3ab35c56253b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Countertransference” (D003379).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003379). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coupled oscillators
<a id="coupled-oscillators"></a>

Coupled oscillators are a dynamical model in which multiple rhythmic agents, such as metronomes or people coordinating a beat, influence one another and exchange energy so their timing can adapt and become synchronized. In psychology-related studies of coordination and learning, the model is used to describe how a person's internal sense of beat can interact with sound from others to shape shared tempo.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8fce3dae0798201ff9e2e5c29f71a87b2e6c8b4bdcf772ee25eb238d32906557

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lem Nolan; Fujioka Takako. Individual differences of limitation to extract beat from Kuramoto coupled oscillators: Transition from beat-based tapping to frequent tapping with weaker coupling. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0292059; article XML SHA-256 9ebf260b198136648d167a8fa3bf26020bf22f66a88788a8c9441c92e7fcc0bc. “Individual differences of limitation to extract beat from Kuramoto coupled oscillators: Transition from beat-based tapping to frequent tapping with weaker coupling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0292059).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292059). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## couples therapy
<a id="couples-therapy"></a>

Couples therapy is psychotherapy provided to people in a couple relationship. It can be used with married or unmarried couples, including same-sex or mixed-sex partners.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97dd0043900427c24f6594e43140cbd3d5040efd6a38cea832038f3bb983aef6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Couples Therapy” (D019546).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019546). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## courage
<a id="courage"></a>

Courage is a mental or emotional quality that helps a person act despite feeling danger, difficulty, or pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6f9c4e05782c0b20a24376811ec521400cfa00530b89e621746406684042a2c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Courage” (D066279).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066279). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## course
<a id="course"></a>

Course means how something unfolds over time, including its duration and the usual sequence or pattern it follows. It can also refer to an orderly series or a typical mode of action or behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad9a63a7d63ea59b1887927f428a8e31df0adb9b765f66fa0366c039f20e372c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Course” (C25379).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## courtship
<a id="courtship"></a>

Courtship refers to behaviors aimed at attracting another person's attention or winning their interest or favor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dcb7149d88cc32cebe80eae2a3b4c0faa1c616017dda1a1f9d915ee5a475f7ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Courtship” (D003380).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003380). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cover story
<a id="cover-story"></a>

A cover story is the scenario or framing used to present a problem or simulation. In this source, it is treated as a surface feature of a learning task, distinct from the deeper causal structure of how the system works.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 53fea20b672fe779e26af5f6100e3d59f344cc072b13bd58b46176f1719a2094

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kumar Medha; Dutt Varun. Experience in a Climate Microworld: Influence of Surface and Structure Learning, Problem Difficulty, and Decision Aids in Reducing Stock-Flow Misconceptions. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00299; article XML SHA-256 cd9d69c528d3b45b1a7c6b69474dbb7394a8e8e01777bff0e4b94934f155f2ca. “Experience in a Climate Microworld: Influence of Surface and Structure Learning, Problem Difficulty, and Decision Aids in Reducing Stock-Flow Misconceptions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00299).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00299). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## coverage
<a id="coverage"></a>

In this context, coverage means the way a topic is presented in media or broadcasts to an audience. It includes how information is portrayed and can shape public understanding and views about the topic.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26e7bf956e3802fd1a77869491c760e49377d787ae980e48beb60c879f37ecb0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sullivan Karen A.; Lappin Keeley. Concussion in live sport broadcast coverage: How do the public perceive it?. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358688; article XML SHA-256 10f00ab52e49e2623e21c47efd6f472e7d93fc8568e7a849248561f35b6c82df. “Concussion in live sport broadcast coverage: How do the public perceive it?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358688).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358688). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## covert
<a id="covert"></a>

Covert refers to hidden or not openly shown hostility, expressed in underlying attitudes rather than direct verbal or physical attack. In this context, it describes aggression that is indirect or concealed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2cd379c15d441beb64714ed6cfc580c8e48937d7059760d6f91a4c9d42c2ab6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aggression” (D000374).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000374). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## covert attention
<a id="covert-attention"></a>

Covert attention is directing attention to a stimulus without moving the eyes toward it. In the source context, it is contrasted with overt attention and is associated with lower signal-to-noise ratio in brain responses during a visual brain-computer interface task.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6cffd5a38525fcf0232fc9616b5c6ce1b4f187c9722060d8cd5f11cc288cc34e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [İşcan Zafer. Evaluation of long-range temporal correlations during overt and covert attention in a steady state visual evoked potential based brain-computer interface. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345793; article XML SHA-256 47ae1667d0021ab253e95c74143435400445e2642a5e1a9c7f491ec0f0a400a2. “Evaluation of long-range temporal correlations during overt and covert attention in a steady state visual evoked potential based brain-computer interface” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345793).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345793). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## covert speech
<a id="covert-speech"></a>

Covert speech is self-directed speech that occurs internally rather than aloud. In this context, it is considered a form of self-talk that can help a person build mental representations beyond immediate sensory experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ecf2c11d4ff19349abd294418115feb5b91d77a85584abcc97993e1cb3d60b27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Camminga Thomas F.; Hermans Daan; Segers Eliane; Vissers Constance T. W. M.. Beyond the Senses: How Self-Directed Speech and Word Meaning Structure Impact Executive Functioning and Theory of Mind in Individuals With Hearing and Language Problems. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.646181; article XML SHA-256 b5bfc408da33448425bad899295357c9303a5e963f2dbdc5171ef133dbc750ed. “Beyond the Senses: How Self-Directed Speech and Word Meaning Structure Impact Executive Functioning and Theory of Mind in Individuals With Hearing and Language Problems” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.646181).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.646181). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Cox regression analysis
<a id="cox-regression-analysis"></a>

Cox regression analysis is a statistical method used to test how individual factors are associated with prognosis, especially survival outcomes. In this context, it was used to screen genes linked to differences in survival and help build a prognostic model.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: dd05190cf3cc6c707578de61bf2a20e236daec3a1b115636d02cf41b6fa02424

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xue Yanfeng; Wang Yao; Huang Tianhao; Dong Yingjun; Tong Xin. Construction and validation of an anoikis-related prognostic model for lung adenocarcinoma based on bulk and single-cell transcriptomic data. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335788; article XML SHA-256 b27d1c9c100163a54b2156a321c0f164f04d2fa1eca1b26cf7cb98a700491aaf. “Construction and validation of an anoikis-related prognostic model for lung adenocarcinoma based on bulk and single-cell transcriptomic data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335788).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335788). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CP
<a id="cp"></a>

CP stands for cerebral palsy, described here as a lifelong physical disability. In this context, it is associated with social, psychological, and health inequalities, and older adults with CP may face fragmented community care that does not fully address their complex ageing needs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9742bcc6752cfad81af4e3027eefec4f668c073421799757e608422549ee0b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Smith Kimberley J.; Ranzato Erica; Creeger Miriam; Stevenson Valerie L.; Lowton Karen; Kilbride Cherry; Norris Meriel; Victor Christina; Budzynski Thelonious McCarthy; Livingstone Emma. The Cerebral Palsy Link Worker (CP LINK) study: Protocol for a feasibility study with integrated process evaluation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343206; article XML SHA-256 9e853081af18dca73f7c94536816b52ecea2e92a916aaf2c7a441978a2908ce1. “The Cerebral Palsy Link Worker (CP LINK) study: Protocol for a feasibility study with integrated process evaluation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343206).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343206). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CPA
<a id="cpa"></a>

CPA, or conditioned play audiometry, is a hearing test that uses conditioning so a child does a simple motor action when they hear a particular sound.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80b7b9704057c1eeab16540ed904445938ed0a9b89aa360ad1132eb2b5e24f3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Conditioned Play Audiometry” (C198348).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CPI
<a id="cpi"></a>

CPI stands for Consumer Price Index, also called the cost-of-living index. It is a financial statistic used to track how the prices of a representative set of goods change over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dec2c014f862c8b507759ec195248b4366b8833035dbb1056c8814373c3886b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “CPI” (CPI.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/CPI.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CPS
<a id="cps"></a>

CPS stands for the Claremont Purpose Scale, an assessment tool used to measure purpose in life. In this source, it refers to a version adapted and validated to better assess purpose in Arabic-speaking adolescents in ways that fit their cultural context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce85e900de101ce37ed09bcc6785c2bd2093bfb1775600c0c49edc390934228f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Noureddine Amir; Hallit Souheil; Malaeb Diana; Sakr Fouad; Dabbous Mariam; Cosgrove Tylor; Obeid Sahar; Fekih-Romdhane Feten; Moustafa Ahmed A.. Measurement of purpose in life among Arabic-speaking adolescents: psychometric properties of an Arabic-language version of the Claremont purpose scale (CPS). 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1583111; article XML SHA-256 b751dc5cd6a6b9102945753168bf56137a269a002f3ac014d67f5a041c75a0bf. “Measurement of purpose in life among Arabic-speaking adolescents: psychometric properties of an Arabic-language version of the Claremont purpose scale (CPS)” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1583111).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1583111). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CPT
<a id="cpt"></a>

In this source, CPT refers to conventional physiotherapy, used as the comparison treatment when studying effects on cognitive function in early geriatric rehabilitation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b15c4e9e3703cdccd6c61a3cbfb6aa66554bee24598c8ea990d6a5e356486037

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fränzel Katja; Koschate-Storm Jessica; Freiberger Ellen; Shigematsu Ryosuke; Zieschang Tania; Tietgen Svenja. Effects of Square-Stepping Exercise on cognitive function in early geriatric rehabilitation: A randomized controlled explorative study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338695; article XML SHA-256 642456562f25be24b5d06ce165eabcb35754c85835299c967152f9fefc12fda1. “Effects of Square-Stepping Exercise on cognitive function in early geriatric rehabilitation: A randomized controlled explorative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338695).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338695). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CR
<a id="cr"></a>

CR stands for cognitive reserve: the accumulated cognitive and brain resources built across the lifespan that can help explain why people with similar brain pathology show different levels of thinking ability. It is often inferred from life experiences such as education, complex work, and mentally stimulating activities, and its protective value may change across healthy aging and dementia stages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 298db208ed809f40131d93413b5f613a0d12afdc68d29807ea3cfbb98d2e25fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Serra Laura; Bonarota Sabrina; Caruso Giulia; Mancini Matteo; Sperati Sofia; Di Domenico Carlotta; Tamigi Federico Maria; Di Lorenzo Francesco; Ricci Francesco; Caltagirone Carlo; Koch Giacomo; Giove Federico; Bozzali Marco; Petrosini Laura. Stage-dependent effects of cognitive reserve on memory and brain structural integrity across the spectrum from healthy aging to Alzheimer’s disease. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830181; article XML SHA-256 7e3d4c3a6904e1fc8c4c9c9c8ba6831410812f694db80106c8fbcb313255bbe9. “Stage-dependent effects of cognitive reserve on memory and brain structural integrity across the spectrum from healthy aging to Alzheimer’s disease” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830181).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830181). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cramp
<a id="cramp"></a>

A cramp is a sustained, usually painful tightening of muscle fibers. It can happen on its own or as a sign of an underlying disease process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9621b8194a5f0659c6829d341606045e735547764f6d89fb010f743b0738908

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Muscle Cramp” (D009120).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009120). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cranial capacity
<a id="cranial-capacity"></a>

Cranial capacity is the spatial capacity of the skull: the amount it can contain. In historical anthropometric use, it refers to a physical measure of the skull’s internal space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 27bd38a36522f7a57ab95e53290fb3aa25f1a2da141464bc65805c6b58e40d9f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Capacity” (Capacity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Capacity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cranial electrical stimulation
<a id="cranial-electrical-stimulation"></a>

Cranial electrical stimulation is a biological procedure in which electrodes placed on the skin deliver a low-intensity pulsed electrical current through the scalp into the brain. It is used in treating conditions such as anxiety, depression, and chronic pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 993f13691c87043056b720fa31fb61ccb020742f01699f5141f084ca84415d34

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cranial Electrical Stimulation” (C116561).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cranial nerve
<a id="cranial-nerve"></a>

A cranial nerve is one of 12 matched pairs of nerves that begin in the brain stem.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e52e2a4db8dc5f584109bb8d811e3e5aaed3b5b92eebded1beff493291ee301

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cranial Nerve” (C12700).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## craniofacial anomaly
<a id="craniofacial-anomaly"></a>

A craniofacial anomaly is a congenital difference affecting the skull and face. In this packet, it refers to conditions such as cleft lip and/or cleft palate, which result from incomplete fusion of the lip or roof of the mouth during embryonic development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75a57bf198dda68b6401282d0f5ed88782fe75e886ef8a0bbb4d1e3329d50484

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alayyash Afnan; Alam Mohammad Khursheed; Rashid Mohammed Enamur; Mathew Asok; Di Blasio Marco; Ronsivalle Vincenzo; Cicciù Marco; Minervini Giuseppe. Prenatal incidence of cleft lip/palate and cocaine abuse in parents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12903-024-03884-9; article XML SHA-256 9c06b3017a350d28b933926a527ddad8149d8edcd871d8e82ba44a33584bebbc. “Prenatal incidence of cleft lip/palate and cocaine abuse in parents: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1186/s12903-024-03884-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-024-03884-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## craniography
<a id="craniography"></a>

Craniography is the study of the skull using charts, photographs, and projected images. In this historical usage, these methods were used to obtain measurement details that were not easily taken directly from the skull itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f22c93946968feca8c55929d174d3543ebb1e3b1f2d39dea2a08eeb6cb651562

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Craniology and Craniometry” (Craniology and Craniometry).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Craniology and Craniometry). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cranium
<a id="cranium"></a>

The cranium is the bony framework of the head, including the facial bones and the bones that surround the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0625602f70fb075e1d4d0d188086a81080f9bc734fa33974e4c426a752bce75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Skull” (D012886).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012886). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crank
<a id="crank"></a>

Crank is a name used for the smokable form of methamphetamine, a central nervous system stimulant with sympathomimetic effects. It is described as a drug of abuse and is also called crystal, crystal meth, ice, and speed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 335648f177a9f0eba63f3b515e49ac6a9febcebebe4159815594db10239fb4b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Methamphetamine” (D008694).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008694). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## craving
<a id="craving"></a>

Craving is a very strong, pressing, or unusually intense desire for something, such as food, alcohol, or drugs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e17a66d12f0b3a3a03f861102baa0c17a064264465ec3f508ccde5a630a2a087

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Craving” (D066249).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066249). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## craze
<a id="craze"></a>

In this historical source, a craze means an excessive, often fussy preoccupation with some idea, plan, or project. It suggests a fixed enthusiasm that may lead to endless scheming without practical result.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2916c05845f82ba11da96fd70bac179963dbe6fb45036ed2d0da41022b22a8e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2446500-2458500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## creatine kinase
<a id="creatine-kinase"></a>

Creatine kinase is an enzyme system involved in storing and moving high-energy phosphate groups in tissues whose energy needs are high and change rapidly. In the heart, it includes several forms in the cell fluid and mitochondria and helps link ATP use and production.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a52341d4514e73e08e0fa7b3fc54c151e7f88475e59b5c376ebd8b2f5dc14773

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Branovets Jelena; Soodla Kärol; Vendelin Marko; Birkedal Rikke. Rat and mouse cardiomyocytes show subtle differences in creatine kinase expression and compartmentalization. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0294718; article XML SHA-256 c833a76f88a2cca503e71d911f632780ac535bdeede035d497cdccf428cddda0. “Rat and mouse cardiomyocytes show subtle differences in creatine kinase expression and compartmentalization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0294718).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294718). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## creationism
<a id="creationism"></a>

Creationism is a religious-philosophical view that the world was brought into being by a Creator who remains distinct from the universe rather than being identical with it. In this historical sense, it may refer either to a single creative act or to ongoing creation through a series of acts, while still emphasizing the Creator’s transcendence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07d31d741c6dd506e73af6be5670050d6f604f210cadc36979cacedc3552d92e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Creationism” (Creationism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Creationism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## creative arts therapy
<a id="creative-arts-therapy"></a>

Creative arts therapy is an arts-based intervention that uses creative activities and different media in a supportive setting to promote engagement, reflection, and learning. In the source, it is described as a person-centered approach in which participants have autonomy over their creative activity while creative therapists offer guidance as needed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fd5693917a823b1fecc894281f32a3024d718eead9dc2711a2f17454452ff933

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Spee Blanca T. M.; Stap Thieme B.; Plijnaer Marjoke; Pasman Gert; Zeggio Sara; Duits Annelien; Crone Julia S.; Haeyen Suzanne; Pelowski Matthew; Bloem Bastiaan R.; Koksma Jan-Jurjen. Co-creating a person-centered creative engagement intervention for Parkinson's care. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1469120; article XML SHA-256 11284b3481d43beef339445036fbb8677ed3fb4f8ee782c90a7daa765b14b8c0. “Co-creating a person-centered creative engagement intervention for Parkinson's care” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1469120).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1469120). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## creative imagination
<a id="creative-imagination"></a>

Creative imagination is the ability to use imagination in pretend play through an “as-if” mode of experience. In this context, it is presented as a developmental capacity that can be restricted by early attachment trauma and that can help a child express otherwise hidden trauma-related experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e1b593462a1a092dd5e31652ee4c5890fd1a99abd4cda6d177cc248d5c097813

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meurs Patrick; Schäfer Dennis; Hesemans Stefanie; Çınar Dilan; Rickmeyer Constanze Christina; Hug Felicitas; Fischmann Tamara; Meyer Terry; Lebiger-Vogel Judith. Rethinking the role of the pretend play mode in mentalisation-focused psychoanalytic child therapy for adopted and foster children with attachment trauma: from a pre-mentalising mode to a developmental achievement and a milestone on the trajectory towards mentalisation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1695144; article XML SHA-256 6f54ce3720655845514f9e9762442529a09ac4b287e5548aecc87d522fd26137. “Rethinking the role of the pretend play mode in mentalisation-focused psychoanalytic child therapy for adopted and foster children with attachment trauma: from a pre-mentalising mode to a developmental achievement and a milestone on the trajectory towards mentalisation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1695144).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1695144). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## creative thinking
<a id="creative-thinking"></a>

Creative thinking is the ability to come up with new ideas or mental images.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4bc12d421044c9412fcc9ca19b64bd7671d2359932c89e762b67f14799c49789

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Creativity” (D003405).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003405). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## creativity
<a id="creativity"></a>

Creativity is the ability to come up with new ideas or mental images.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6214f51e3cf341b5f591bc26f7365b528e9f8c6db9660c6854f5840faa54fb20

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Creativity” (D003405).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003405). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## credentialing
<a id="credentialing"></a>

Credentialing is the formal recognition that a person has professional or technical competence. It can be shown through processes such as registration, certification, licensure, membership admission, or the awarding of a diploma or degree.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 37f5c69d216e0b2504c429ee665ab6af2e69a5a98a3bd175b7cf3618092bfe7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Credentialing” (D003406).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003406). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cretinism
<a id="cretinism"></a>

In this historical source, cretinism is described as a congenital or early-childhood condition linked to thyroid disease, marked by severe physical underdevelopment and intellectual impairment. The account also notes that it was thought to occur especially in certain mountain valleys and could vary from mild mental weakness to profound idiocy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71f69e6b34bb38f8ca416cb6d05311de73c6597e5f3ec781ac2a8034c745647d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Cretinism” (Cretinism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Cretinism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
<a id="creutzfeldtjakob-disease"></a>

Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease is a rare, transmissible brain disorder caused by prions that leads to progressive degeneration of brain tissue. It can involve sleep problems, personality change, language and movement difficulties, weakness, vision loss, and sudden muscle jerks, and it usually causes death within about a year after symptoms begin.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f81e3e9fdf0fecee4f485daa215fd149f78c0c34c701f54be48c172fd890976d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease” (C26802).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CRF
<a id="crf"></a>

CRF stands for cardiovascular fitness, referring to a person’s fitness in relation to the cardiovascular system. In this study context, it is examined alongside physical activity and daily movement behaviors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 276b3781432291218cd9236ac8f8b10d9fbe08504c34dc60f5254ca73dab837d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gu Dandong; Amin Zarmina; Oginni John; Mavoungou Jessh; Gao Zan. Physical activity determinants, 24-h movement behaviors, and cardiovascular fitness in young adults: an integrated theoretical model perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810709; article XML SHA-256 a9df585dda9721945c7db272497379f7edbe64b038b748e78320923d9987b5ab. “Physical activity determinants, 24-h movement behaviors, and cardiovascular fitness in young adults: an integrated theoretical model perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810709).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810709). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cri du chat syndrome
<a id="cri-du-chat-syndrome"></a>

Cri du chat syndrome is a genetic condition in infancy caused by loss of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. It is known for a high-pitched cry resembling a cat’s and commonly involves poor growth, a small head, major intellectual impairment, muscle stiffness and weakness affecting all four limbs, and several facial and genital differences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1af26fd2ab9c9e9fd473d466c264447083fb2e0443604230c12bcd7e076df94a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cri-du-Chat Syndrome” (D003410).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003410). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## criminal intent
<a id="criminal-intent"></a>

Criminal intent is the underlying intention behind a criminal act. In behavior analysis, it is treated as a shared factor across traditional and cyber crimes and may be inferred from patterns in a suspect’s behavior, including behavior reflected in digital evidence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c4c308db384ddd58e53edcf652091088ee1f0845a7a71eb5ba2aa9f1bd1c0199

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dananjana W Pawani; Arambawela Jithmi Sewwandi; Gonawala D G Samesha Navodi; Rathnayaka R K Gethmi Hasinika; Senarathne Amila Nuwan; Siriwardena S M Deemantha Nayanajith. Machine learning-based criminal behavior analysis for enhanced digital forensics. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332802; article XML SHA-256 5df47c75a5852352200326140e8781661ad0effe4afd10e4adabef3d03a899c9. “Machine learning-based criminal behavior analysis for enhanced digital forensics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332802).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332802). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## criminal responsibility
<a id="criminal-responsibility"></a>

Criminal responsibility is the legal question of whether a person can be held answerable for a crime, especially in relation to insanity. In this historical account, a person who becomes insane after the act may be barred from pleading, trial, judgment, or execution until mentally fit, because they cannot properly take part in their defence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c30bd71b36e2b14da294c4faef68e7d0427397daa90faf45a8ef72d605b6853d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1680000-1692000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## criminal type
<a id="criminal-type"></a>

In this historical usage, a criminal type is a supposed mental type: a group of individuals thought to share marked, typical features of mental constitution or ways of functioning. The term treats these features as group characteristics rather than as qualities unique to one person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 637059bb37ee297942d4c9eabbdbdd14554709a68dbc3dfa61a0189b8f0ab45f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4084500-4096500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## criminology
<a id="criminology"></a>

Criminology is the study of crime and people who commit crimes, with attention to how personality and social conditions may contribute to crime or help prevent it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18712c6d66c9b02f51ecf8aafae0d13e9559cb84b1a8b1daff5c65cc0bc7c5ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Criminology” (D003418).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003418). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crisis
<a id="crisis"></a>

In historical psychology and medicine, a crisis is the decisive turning point in an illness, especially when symptoms suddenly lessen after a fairly definite course and the change is taken to signal recovery or death. The term was later applied to mental disorders, and in older French use could also mean an attack or spell.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bfe274dbcc44a8b958c505f55006e026f405e1b3825efaa322ff03bae375bc0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Crisis” (Crisis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Crisis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Crisis Intervention
<a id="crisis-intervention"></a>

Crisis intervention is a short-term therapeutic response to an acute psychiatric emergency that aims to reduce immediate distress rather than provide a full cure. It can be used in places such as hospitals, the home, or wherever the crisis occurs, with attention to the person’s relationships, inner psychological state, and surroundings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b83d71229a97e2d9a58b6329677c850cd2b6bf79d7af9e3e6290637c87ed9a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Crisis Intervention” (D003419).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003419). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## crisis intervention service
<a id="crisis-intervention-service"></a>

A crisis intervention service is a service that provides immediate support to people in crisis, such as around suicidal thoughts or plans. In this packet, it refers to a free, confidential, around-the-clock text-based support service that can also capture information about crises that may never come to medical attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 287147a4268ebbe8b36734368a7a410e435ca317006cfe62e52d21168e1f0e9d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tripodi Ignacio J; Buda Greg; Meagher Margaret; Olson Elizabeth A. Medication-related suicide plans in children and adolescents: findings from crisis conversations. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40621-026-00691-4; article XML SHA-256 e5e1dde1364f98aae5869ef8de7a8eb58d96520f94fd8716b2e22aff622a6ea6. “Medication-related suicide plans in children and adolescents: findings from crisis conversations” (10.1186/s40621-026-00691-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40621-026-00691-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crisis management
<a id="crisis-management"></a>

Crisis management is the ability to respond effectively to emergencies, particularly in team-based situations. In this context, it includes both technical abilities and non-technical skills needed to manage urgent problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cfe125bc86dfdfd78724483341533cd48735237ca7a64a5b2894a5bea1b19528

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Komasawa Nobuyasu; Berg Benjamin W; Minami Toshiaki. Problem-based learning for anesthesia resident operating room crisis management training. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0207594; article XML SHA-256 8a7a96c14d7e89ad7addeb62d17fd4d5245f6dd995a6b2bbb84eeb0b8f33d37c. “Problem-based learning for anesthesia resident operating room crisis management training” (10.1371/journal.pone.0207594).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207594). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crisis team
<a id="crisis-team"></a>

A crisis team is a type of mental health crisis service that people may use when they are in acute emotional distress and need urgent help. In this context, it refers to services such as crisis or home treatment teams that provide support during a mental health crisis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1e523535e84afc7ab20080ae5e9ff82cf5fde71c022e230a1d78b13760ddee4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maconick Lucy; Ikhtabi Sarah; Broeckelmann Eva; Pitman Alexandra; Barnicot Kirsten; Billings Jo; Osborn David; Johnson Sonia. Crisis and acute mental health care for people who have been given a diagnosis of a ‘personality disorder’: a systematic review. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05119-7; article XML SHA-256 214b56c480a3f71d8ecb32a772643ff815a6efc4b29096f420be0ae50a9e253a. “Crisis and acute mental health care for people who have been given a diagnosis of a ‘personality disorder’: a systematic review” (10.1186/s12888-023-05119-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05119-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## criteria of evaluation
<a id="criteria-of-evaluation"></a>

Criteria of evaluation are verbalized, often abstract standards used in reflective processing to judge or interpret something. In this source, they are the basis for reflective emotions rather than the direct stimulus reactions seen in automatic emotions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e2eb813226772b43e098ae8166c4c132d81dc8e4f15cf7af76676cebf6f57eb0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Imbir Kamil Konrad; Jarymowicz Maria Teresa; Spustek Tomasz; Kuś Rafał; Żygierewicz Jarosław. Origin of Emotion Effects on ERP Correlates of Emotional Word Processing: The Emotion Duality Approach. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0126129; article XML SHA-256 992cae85031ba70d27175134d2f6ed9334316361d3abca7be0e2ea90ccead7b7. “Origin of Emotion Effects on ERP Correlates of Emotional Word Processing: The Emotion Duality Approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0126129).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0126129). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## criterion
<a id="criterion"></a>

A criterion is a standard or reference point used to make a judgment, compare things, or evaluate them. It serves as the basis against which something is assessed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 743bc5f2b518d88fab3e2439a567b72288bd497729a7c83d6a5d0f3386f79343

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Criterion” (C25466).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## criterion variable
<a id="criterion-variable"></a>

A criterion variable is the variable a regression analysis aims to predict. More generally, it is the dependent variable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e2c3ecb2cc3cbce87142a3bd6673526cf2fa8b08b122977757057eb4b63e6a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Criterion Variable” (criterion_variable.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/criterion_variable.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## critical
<a id="critical"></a>

In this psychology context, critical means especially important or influential, such as a developmental period when brain changes can have lasting effects on resilience and mental health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e331df1390576287f75797a0abc706123116095687deb1103cd619acf93cfd61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. The Teen Brain: 7 Things to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 15080e014a0d81e65219277b30fc356e20f42fc8d6b72609d7993e145431347f. “The Teen Brain: 7 Things to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/the-teen-brain-7-things-to-know).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/the-teen-brain-7-things-to-know). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## critical-incident stress debriefing
<a id="critical-incident-stress-debriefing"></a>

Critical-incident stress debriefing is a mental health or wellbeing intervention used after highly distressing work incidents to address people’s psychological stress responses. In the reviewed evidence, it was one of the interventions studied in uniformed service personnel, but its results were mixed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 125bcd8419432e6355888c308351404a0550f6c6deb785a129aef93f1f6df772

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eaton Jessica; Ellard Holly; Freeman Anita; Anderson Anna M; Chesters Heather; Arthurs Owen J; Simpson Alan. Mental health and wellbeing interventions for uniformed service personnel: a mixed methods systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12916-026-04811-1; article XML SHA-256 a47361b5e9c5c72b830ba25dccb530cd65ea342b0af795d1e57b545cd5b66674. “Mental health and wellbeing interventions for uniformed service personnel: a mixed methods systematic review” (10.1186/s12916-026-04811-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-026-04811-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## critical-incident technique
<a id="critical-incident-technique"></a>

The critical-incident technique is a research and assessment method used in psychology to study important, clearly defined events or situations. It gathers people’s accounts of these incidents, often through interviews or questionnaires, so their experiences and responses can be analyzed in context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddcd1751846144bc132db97fae6b1163c3e086be808661bdbca24b163be916f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Petiot Oriane; Kermarrec Gilles; Desbiens Jean-François; Visioli Jérôme. Using the Critical Incident Technique to explore situational emotional labor in sport psychology: methodological proposals. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1646782; article XML SHA-256 e4995d8d9629f0cd695f10aaf58dbed4424fd218cb28fbdd55d8799751b89141. “Using the Critical Incident Technique to explore situational emotional labor in sport psychology: methodological proposals” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1646782).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1646782). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## critical thinking
<a id="critical-thinking"></a>

Critical thinking is a higher-order thinking process that involves interpreting, analyzing, evaluating, and improving one’s reasoning about evidence, ideas, and methods. In psychology and education, it is described as important for cognitive development and engagement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2e10421587e6b9e3264ec292fe5bfead48336ef6f722871092912252eff1a5ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Yuzhen; Jiang Runjie; Zhang Keshun; Song Shuang. Dynamic relationships among first-year university students’ critical thinking, academic self-concept, and student engagement: a cross-lagged study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1846917; article XML SHA-256 0ee21f9c66bb24f902b57d353b2996f82730e63a69d8a770a8ca06dcfa84bc99. “Dynamic relationships among first-year university students’ critical thinking, academic self-concept, and student engagement: a cross-lagged study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1846917).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1846917). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## critical value
<a id="critical-value"></a>

In this context, critical value means the especially important usefulness of an approach or method for improving understanding or support. It refers to something being vital or central, not merely helpful.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cec89b0d3889ea3a6ac8dad5346bb01b61fecc9509777af0543c56eccc5eae67

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nemcová Lucia; Schreier Adam; Karousová Tereza; Kalenská Lucie; Bianchi Gabriel; Breide Maria; Lindegren Stina; Ballester-Arnal Rafael; Briken Peer; Chovanec Michal; Dixelius Sophie; Elipe-Miravet Marcel; Högström Lisann; Holmberg Johan; Korkutan Tarik; Metenko Jozef; Prantner Sabine; Zakreski Ellen; Rahm Christoffer; Klapilová Kateřina. Identity under threat: internal conflict and stigma in undetected child sexual abuse material users. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830667; article XML SHA-256 42aedaaff50d22947628d60c32af6c38a7cee363508d7f7be3d7d1a93358b143. “Identity under threat: internal conflict and stigma in undetected child sexual abuse material users” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830667).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830667). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CRM
<a id="crm"></a>

CRM stands for cardio-renal multimorbidity, meaning that cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease are present together in the same person. The term refers to these two conditions as linked and mutually influencing, with shared underlying processes and overlapping outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 773845660be7cfb53a222335704eb2af273aec156fad39ba1d8ca9d2c6d47e00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Qianshen; Xu Lingling; Fan Zhixing; Li Hongbo. Allostatic load and progression of cardio-renal multimorbidity: A UK biobank study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339576; article XML SHA-256 55e4fac459b892d6c8356b0a2bb597fa980549163946d5ff6653a09ea1c42af7. “Allostatic load and progression of cardio-renal multimorbidity: A UK biobank study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339576).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339576). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-adaptation
<a id="cross-adaptation"></a>

Cross-adaptation is a protective effect in which prior exposure to one mild stressor reduces the harmful impact of a different later stressor. In this source, mild heat shock made later metal exposure less damaging to neurobehavior in nematodes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 333ba80b3da23f54f092c09d84a989270f31a821da4fd0c66612514791570e08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ye Boping; Rui Qi; Wu Qiuli; Wang Dayong. Metallothioneins Are Required for Formation of Cross-Adaptation Response to Neurobehavioral Toxicity from Lead and Mercury Exposure in Nematodes. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0014052; article XML SHA-256 04d271c48a41f5f7236e029a547bb07293ab806bb8739c81f930d5721115af85. “Metallothioneins Are Required for Formation of Cross-Adaptation Response to Neurobehavioral Toxicity from Lead and Mercury Exposure in Nematodes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0014052).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0014052). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-correlation
<a id="cross-correlation"></a>

Cross-correlation is a method used to estimate how strongly two time-based signals are related, often in studies of behavioral or physiological synchrony. It produces a correlation value from -1 to 1 that indicates positive or negative coupling, but it works best when the relationship is roughly linear and the signals do not show problematic non-stationarity or strong autocorrelation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 349234965ec917d32f795e27d6527373dcc570c86a5e436e0a7fd88823176129

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tomashin Alon; Gordon Ilanit; Wallot Sebastian. Evaluating heart rate coupling with Multi-dimensional Recurrence Quantification Analysis (MdRQA) and Cross-Correlation (CC): Analytical decisions and implications. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356801; article XML SHA-256 a1062b4a27303a3b9e3c24976ddf64b89a2f3049a004178c4f26ae7977062c05. “Evaluating heart rate coupling with Multi-dimensional Recurrence Quantification Analysis (MdRQA) and Cross-Correlation (CC): Analytical decisions and implications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356801).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356801). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-cultural testing
<a id="cross-cultural-testing"></a>

Cross-cultural testing is the process of checking whether a questionnaire or other self-report measure still works appropriately when it is adapted for people from a different language or cultural background. It is used alongside translation and validation to support the measure’s suitability for non-English populations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 98958f7b0fb567d3cd2ec9b9ed9c103a9d1f785fe1a5c7f5a6de65dc85aa72ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Biben Vitriana; Arisanti Farida; Fitriana Efi; Maklun Erika; Miguna Vindy Margaretha; Alviani Nabilla Fikria. Assessing the validity and reliability of the Indonesian version of Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Global Health Scale v1.2. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12955-025-02336-4; article XML SHA-256 6f98d5ad8d115539f49dd60d26843f497c4a3404417090afdf54d2cc0983dc7e. “Assessing the validity and reliability of the Indonesian version of Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Global Health Scale v1.2” (10.1186/s12955-025-02336-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-025-02336-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-dependence
<a id="cross-dependence"></a>

Cross-dependence is the linked, mutually related pattern between developmental trajectories, where changes in one area are tied to changes in another rather than unfolding independently. In this context, it refers to how motor, visual, and vocal development may develop in intertwined ways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e71532173f549feecaaba52a7e7aa0f8152c5961c86da0d4f2c41d13aaf98216

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Laudańska Zuzanna; Malinowska-Korczak Anna; Babis Karolina; Mąka Szymon; Lozano Itziar; Marschik Peter B.; Zhang Dajie; Patsis Katerina; Szmytke Magdalena; Podstolak Monika; Araszkiewicz Weronika; Tomalski Przemysław. Sit and face the world: ontogenetic adaptation in infant vocal production and visual attention during the transition to independent sitting. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-02645-9; article XML SHA-256 a7f1b43775e3edda1df2fbba8348eaa14abd1f52127abeb460528d2eaf7dbbb1. “Sit and face the world: ontogenetic adaptation in infant vocal production and visual attention during the transition to independent sitting” (10.1186/s40359-025-02645-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02645-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-education
<a id="cross-education"></a>

Cross-education is the transfer of improvement in voluntary movement from one limb to the other, such as greater precision in one arm after practising with the opposite arm. In this source, it is treated as an effect of practice in motor performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 415a22d5db4d0aa0538d3d2c3e91eff62dc9ecddc624c67ae075f50071882dfb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-672000-684000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-eye
<a id="cross-eye"></a>

Cross-eye is a type of eye misalignment in which the eyes turn inward too much, making them appear crossed. It can happen when a problem such as lateral rectus muscle paralysis causes one eye to deviate inward during gaze.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e53674a6f9fa3f18901b3b369f7e67e00d0adcc74a67e226bcf212cdcac7d513

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Esotropia” (D004948).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004948). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-modal association
<a id="cross-modal-association"></a>

Cross-modal association is the linking of information from one sense with processing usually related to another sense. In the source example, tactile input during Braille reading or shape discrimination by the mouth was associated with activity in parietal and occipital cortical areas, suggesting shared tactile-visual processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f03911eb8598f117a870d7b28baf01b551072720ce8c394236be7e08825fc9fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kagawa Tomonori; Narita Noriyuki; Iwaki Sunao; Kawasaki Shingo; Kamiya Kazunobu; Minakuchi Shunsuke. Does Shape Discrimination by the Mouth Activate the Parietal and Occipital Lobes? – Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Study. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0108685; article XML SHA-256 022ec393674bb60e2bfa185a8f7bb2f1f41c74f76e579fa7c138c17e8ef10e53. “Does Shape Discrimination by the Mouth Activate the Parietal and Occipital Lobes? – Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0108685).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0108685). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-modal matching
<a id="cross-modal-matching"></a>

Cross-modal matching is the ability to connect information from one sense with corresponding information from another sense, such as linking a heard speech sound to the matching silent mouth movement. In this research context, it refers to recognizing that auditory and visual speech belong together even when they are presented one after the other rather than at the same time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fa704d291947c56861ce4b0dcf69863062c8f673baa376bbada35ef0d957a59c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kubicek Claudia; Hillairet de Boisferon Anne; Dupierrix Eve; Pascalis Olivier; Lœvenbruck Hélène; Gervain Judit; Schwarzer Gudrun. Cross-Modal Matching of Audio-Visual German and French Fluent Speech in Infancy. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0089275; article XML SHA-256 c5dcbaf31c82b25880927631c7e6c75d82bec270e92f3913d7aa3edc02264d59. “Cross-Modal Matching of Audio-Visual German and French Fluent Speech in Infancy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0089275).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089275). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-modal perception
<a id="cross-modal-perception"></a>

Cross-modal perception is perception that arises from combining information from different senses, especially hearing and vision, into one experience. In the context of visual music, the emotional impression can depend on how the auditory and visual signals fit together, and conflicting signals may make one sense dominate aspects of the perceived emotion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f6f1e1da697a174539dcf60faa7d10646fd90ee034209af68e56de3025997ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Irene Eunyoung; Latchoumane Charles-Francois V.; Jeong Jaeseung. Arousal Rules: An Empirical Investigation into the Aesthetic Experience of Cross-Modal Perception with Emotional Visual Music. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00440; article XML SHA-256 b406d65a71577773114d305fcebd63e23b1eb8140d68ea4f232bdb6c969de16d. “Arousal Rules: An Empirical Investigation into the Aesthetic Experience of Cross-Modal Perception with Emotional Visual Music” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00440).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00440). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-modal transfer
<a id="cross-modal-transfer"></a>

Cross-modal transfer is the carrying of information from one sensory modality to another, such as using what is heard to guide responses to what is seen. In this context, it refers to recognizing the same emotional information across different senses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0efe0c4808fdefd354f8990e267f2f5d61141fcc91f0ee410fdd95400a210be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Palama Amaya; Malsert Jennifer; Gentaz Edouard. Are 6-month-old human infants able to transfer emotional information (happy or angry) from voices to faces? An eye-tracking study. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0194579; article XML SHA-256 e0868de55020011de66cc4d8e8d40c5dfe6ef460f20ff3abd63e19d1da7fedec. “Are 6-month-old human infants able to transfer emotional information (happy or angry) from voices to faces? An eye-tracking study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0194579).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194579). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-modality matching
<a id="cross-modality-matching"></a>

Cross-modality matching is a psychophysical method in which a person adjusts one kind of sensory or physical dimension to match the perceived magnitude of another, such as changing line length to represent how loud a sound seems. It is used to track subjective intensity over time, though it can show systematic bias and is often checked by comparing it with the reverse task, magnitude production.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8184dcd7cd259460df92ab5da98f23c347ea845f0fbc3097d1aaf550d459e436

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schlittenlacher Josef; Ellermeier Wolfgang. Continuous Magnitude Production of Loudness. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.635557; article XML SHA-256 1f14f61e043e7dd8c338dd7683397350022083154de82547a4f6aad36474fcc7. “Continuous Magnitude Production of Loudness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.635557).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.635557). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-sectional analysis
<a id="cross-sectional-analysis"></a>

Cross-sectional analysis is the examination of measurements taken at a single point in time within a group to describe their status and explore how those measurements are related to other factors. In the source, it refers to assessing vitamin D levels at hospital discharge and testing their associations with characteristics such as age, season, health conditions, and location.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddb0f899f89dd5b83deaf7cc5ed00527fb26fc05d1002e7f1eb7d2e1039e9bbb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Phiri Tracy N.; Dumbura Cherlynn; Mutasa Kuda; Ngosa Deophine; Chuulu Nivea; Majo Florence D.; Rukobo Sandra; Bourke Claire D.; Amadi Beatrice; Bwakura-Dangarembizi Mutsa; Martineau Adrian R.; Prendergast Andrew J.; Kelly Paul. A cross‑sectional analysis of vitamin D status and associated factors in children recovering from severe acute malnutrition in Zambia and Zimbabwe. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355404; article XML SHA-256 931ee74f3b3165052cc0d941806a13a87baa375423ef36e80ee2ba7a0a9ac042. “A cross‑sectional analysis of vitamin D status and associated factors in children recovering from severe acute malnutrition in Zambia and Zimbabwe” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355404).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355404). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-sectional design
<a id="cross-sectional-design"></a>

A cross-sectional design is a research approach that can show how variables are related but does not allow firm conclusions about cause and effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 94880d0d3c446e7fb229e98b494e8908b58e12063631304630b067e8086c146b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wei Yuan; Lai Guan-Nan; Ji Cheng; Yang Xiao-Ming; Tie Chun-Yuan. Motivational climate in school sport and adolescent mental health: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1907748; article XML SHA-256 d6f8f5af20e95f0b33a5af7d255bf901712339ca3a561c2ba4208b8e24e6a5ae. “Motivational climate in school sport and adolescent mental health: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1907748).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1907748). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-tolerance
<a id="cross-tolerance"></a>

Cross-tolerance is when long-term use of one drug makes a person less responsive to the effects of other drugs that act in a similar way, such as other mu-receptor agonists. In this context, it can reduce physical dependence on those other drugs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5098d6acbd2c9565a9fb9fdf9841ff8b9a5782f6b23fe8f922d0b820a57c362f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Levomethadyl Acetate Hydrochloride” (C47583).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cross-validation
<a id="cross-validation"></a>

Cross-validation is a way of checking whether a measurement model or set of findings holds up beyond the data used to build it. In this packet, it refers to a calibration–holdout approach used during test validation to examine whether the revised model remains acceptable in a separate portion of the sample.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 36e7782ea53aaa75c4b914dec41710c11649edc9342cb2547a0a035bd15de640

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hsiao Tsung-Yuan; Tseng Wen-Ta. Validating a short-form strategy inventory for English as a foreign language learners: testing Oxford's strategy role flexibility theory. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1863208; article XML SHA-256 2de02b5ee5bff6aaaec01296ceb48223521858f57131c3d5ad63890aef4b0e2a. “Validating a short-form strategy inventory for English as a foreign language learners: testing Oxford's strategy role flexibility theory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1863208).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1863208). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crossed aphasia
<a id="crossed-aphasia"></a>

Crossed aphasia is aphasia associated with a right-sided brain lesion in a right-handed person. In the source case, it referred to chronic conduction aphasia linked to a right subcortical lesion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2209ca0a379e2d95da6e3068747d6315edd4edad8f5d27dd34c6b99bdca6c4f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Berthier Marcelo L.; De-Torres Irene; Paredes-Pacheco José; Roé-Vellvé Núria; Thurnhofer-Hemsi Karl; Torres-Prioris María J.; Alfaro Francisco; Moreno-Torres Ignacio; López-Barroso Diana; Dávila Guadalupe. Cholinergic Potentiation and Audiovisual Repetition-Imitation Therapy Improve Speech Production and Communication Deficits in a Person with Crossed Aphasia by Inducing Structural Plasticity in White Matter Tracts. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00304; article XML SHA-256 4af419b2f96028f5a97a55ae747f8420509de37d888dd749cd9d56b0e04f5655. “Cholinergic Potentiation and Audiovisual Repetition-Imitation Therapy Improve Speech Production and Communication Deficits in a Person with Crossed Aphasia by Inducing Structural Plasticity in White Matter Tracts” (10.3389/fnhum.2017.00304).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00304). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crossed disparity
<a id="crossed-disparity"></a>

Crossed disparity is a type of binocular disparity used to signal near space in three-dimensional vision. In the source, a negative crossed disparity value was used to make targets appear nearer than those defined by uncrossed disparity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 562bfab3db9145d8789db76ea1b928d2648cb9863339c5a647d15be9ebfb019c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Aijun; Li You; Zhang Ming; Chen Qi. The Role of Parieto-Occipital Junction in the Interaction between Dorsal and Ventral Streams in Disparity-Defined Near and Far Space Processing. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0151838; article XML SHA-256 26cf071bf085a5e159b3e94cb3f9bfb1d2a076fa06b09b2a75b40ad33a284394. “The Role of Parieto-Occipital Junction in the Interaction between Dorsal and Ventral Streams in Disparity-Defined Near and Far Space Processing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0151838).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151838). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Crouzon syndrome
<a id="crouzon-syndrome"></a>

Crouzon syndrome is an inherited biological condition in which some skull bones fuse too early, typically leading to a short, broad head shape along with underdevelopment of the upper jaw and prominent eyes. It can also be associated with problems such as sleep apnea, hydrocephalus, and negative psychosocial effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a46188c25d6a02b80d63ef33c6dea370671a5a1f605bdded9b0fd23e11f46858

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Holmes Greg; Zhang Lening; Rivera Joshua; Murphy Ryan; Assouline Claudia; Sullivan Lorraine; Oppeneer Todd; Jabs Ethylin Wang. C-type natriuretic peptide analog treatment of craniosynostosis in a Crouzon syndrome mouse model. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0201492; article XML SHA-256 25be71cbfd730c1785219f56b24d18e20dfd2cdd13b6040acffcb67d47472de4. “C-type natriuretic peptide analog treatment of craniosynostosis in a Crouzon syndrome mouse model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0201492).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201492). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crowd
<a id="crowd"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, a crowd is a group whose members act together in a relatively occasional and temporary way, rather than through more settled or enduring forms of social organization. In sociology, it is an incidental gathering held together by an external and short-lived bond; a more capricious and violent crowd was termed a mob.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3dfa70d8b4f7ece36f33ea58cfc0116f5a63915a8184b6a4b01c759e0e3f1b63

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Crowd” (Crowd).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Crowd). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crowding
<a id="crowding"></a>

Crowding is a situation in which too many human or animal individuals occupy the space available.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ff0ef7138ea0cd105955e9d9e5fcfb39669fd7a97a355edf694a4179d116d0c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Crowding” (D003441).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003441). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CRS
<a id="crs"></a>

CRS stands for clinical respiratory scoring, a visual method used to screen calves for signs of respiratory disease by checking features such as eye and nose discharge, ear position, cough frequency, and rectal temperature. In the source, it is described as a routine pre-transport assessment, but one with limited sensitivity as a screening tool.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: af48d3fb42e9803277daea8a265184f133cc02ee72f092a8c7ff9ce7e8b70ac8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Dijk Luca L; Siegmann Susanne; Field Niamh L; Sugrue Katie; van Reenen Cornelis G; Bokkers Eddie AM; Sayers Gearoid; Conneely Muireann. Comparison of thoracic ultrasonography (TUS), clinical respiratory scoring (CRS), and blood analysis to evaluate respiratory dysfunction in transported calves. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337418; article XML SHA-256 fcecbd121643d4c04b60fec10dc21e603cf2e1d66b57abbc9ee4f9364d7eb184. “Comparison of thoracic ultrasonography (TUS), clinical respiratory scoring (CRS), and blood analysis to evaluate respiratory dysfunction in transported calves” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337418).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337418). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crus cerebri
<a id="crus-cerebri"></a>

The crus cerebri is a pair of large bundles of descending nerve fibers on the front surface of the midbrain, one on each side of the midline. These fibers carry signals from the cerebral cortex to the tegmentum, pontine gray matter, and spinal cord.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b12a99073ad27e9ac84a8ec3444f63d19d23f69d66c47d8ab59f49e15b6606c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Crus Cerebri” (C32409).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crutch
<a id="crutch"></a>

In this educational psychology context, a crutch is a support that people depend on passively in place of using or developing their own learning and self-regulation processes. It contrasts with a scaffold, which is meant to strengthen planning, monitoring, and independent problem solving.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3e9e46c3c8c904a08fb5381c90dd4cacebdd6d7e5ee9d354af83dd1bcd3453eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hou Xiaojing; Liu Zhichun; Wang Guoqiang; Shi Nianfeng. Bridging awareness and behavior: decoding implicit metacognitive behaviors in AI-assisted programming via fine-grained log analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1790196; article XML SHA-256 53600bd7d3f6de2f1f7fd1543f4d1b9109df56c50686ddd961e42dc386fc3ef3. “Bridging awareness and behavior: decoding implicit metacognitive behaviors in AI-assisted programming via fine-grained log analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1790196).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1790196). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crying-cat syndrome
<a id="crying-cat-syndrome"></a>

Crying-cat syndrome is a genetic condition seen in infancy that results from deletion of the short arm of chromosome 5. It is associated with a cry resembling that of a cat, poor growth, very small head size, intellectual disability, spastic weakness in all four limbs, and characteristic facial and genital differences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6682f73427d2f92cd838dbf876778ed6ed6ce5c63e5436082eb158dddde6da44

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cri-du-Chat Syndrome” (D003410).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003410). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cryo-
<a id="cryo"></a>

Cryo- is a prefix used for things involving very low temperatures or frozen material, such as cutting or imaging tissue while it is frozen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d9f2f85e89b773131dd9a0f844b353dd13faa27d7719fd05cdb508201def1ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Snoddy Erin P.; Tang Tien T.; Fowlkes Natalie; Huynh Thomas; Brewer Savannah Kari J.; Contreras Alejandro; Reece Gregory; Brock Kristy K.. Development of an H&E on-block staining technique for collagen detection in cryo-fluorescence tomography imaging of frozen breast tissue samples. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324493; article XML SHA-256 56b39f22eb59ae8f85c2d79f4526f53eea321b57995d00bbd86289edfdb0187e. “Development of an H&E on-block staining technique for collagen detection in cryo-fluorescence tomography imaging of frozen breast tissue samples” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324493).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324493). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crypsis
<a id="crypsis"></a>

Crypsis is a concealment strategy in which an animal or its nest is harder for predators to see, helping lower the chance of detection. In this context, greater crypsis can improve survival but may reduce the animal’s ability to spot approaching predators.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 019be39babc6fec7df64dd34aa6c236aeb76cdba65b212469b87ceb325526960

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gómez-Serrano Miguel Ángel; López-López Pascual. Nest Site Selection by Kentish Plover Suggests a Trade-Off between Nest-Crypsis and Predator Detection Strategies. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0107121; article XML SHA-256 e702e14fcc821d88cf39b299cf8eb9e624fa1259f64c2da15073e8b60953145d. “Nest Site Selection by Kentish Plover Suggests a Trade-Off between Nest-Crypsis and Predator Detection Strategies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0107121).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107121). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crystal gazing
<a id="crystal-gazing"></a>

In this source, crystal gazing is mentioned as a ceremonial practice of early Egyptian religion. It is cited historically as one of the remote antecedents considered in accounts of hypnotism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3abb0e704d2af8b17b8d825b5e4f43e12a352476bcc3f0af59dc2fbdd7aca64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3465000-3477000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crystallization
<a id="crystallization"></a>

Crystallization is the formation of an ordered crystal from a purified substance in a supersaturated solution under conditions that encourage molecules to associate. In this context, it is a sought-after but uncommon outcome of laboratory trials, distinct from amorphous precipitation or no visible change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fb0c77dc1c3bc6da1e65a85e7f35d276aa45cae693e27cd6166ed866c8069c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bruno Andrew E.; Charbonneau Patrick; Newman Janet; Snell Edward H.; So David R.; Vanhoucke Vincent; Watkins Christopher J.; Williams Shawn; Wilson Julie. Classification of crystallization outcomes using deep convolutional neural networks. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0198883; article XML SHA-256 5571a8b41bca448d5ecf159d188dd761cb88448187fc914f99748f89c34bfbb6. “Classification of crystallization outcomes using deep convolutional neural networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0198883).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0198883). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## crystallized intelligence
<a id="crystallized-intelligence"></a>

Crystallized intelligence is the part of intelligence based on accumulated knowledge, such as word knowledge and vocabulary. In the source material, it is contrasted with fluid intelligence because it tends to stay relatively stable with age.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7c54017d948cd286e604e96d67752f06b214d384869b7db7115f33327c881a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brevik Erlend J.; Eikeland Rune A.; Lundervold Astri J.. Subthreshold Depressive Symptoms have a Negative Impact on Cognitive Functioning in Middle-Aged and Older Males. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00309; article XML SHA-256 8689c40a24fdfc279530e8f725da83a207b06518f8a6b410c14a36d0afa974ea. “Subthreshold Depressive Symptoms have a Negative Impact on Cognitive Functioning in Middle-Aged and Older Males” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00309).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00309). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CSA
<a id="csa"></a>

CSA, or central sleep apnea, is a sleep-related breathing problem in which breathing repeatedly stops during sleep because the brain’s breathing center responds less to carbon dioxide. This leads to alternating periods of stopped breathing and overbreathing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9f59140774da4a6af22fae96dcc354b6733d982b7589f0a64cb9568ac7e27be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Central Sleep Apnea” (C116046).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CSAI
<a id="csai"></a>

CSAI refers to a method that combines compressed sensing, parallel imaging, and AI-based reconstruction to produce high-quality MRI images more quickly. In the source, it is presented as a way to shorten scan time while maintaining image quality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b2b8801cf2feeef288ade4d2ebf967c43004d6a3c40bcfe25b0b47de25d867b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schmitt Joachim; Weidlich Dominik; Weiss Kilian; Stelter Jonathan; Montagnese Federica; Deschauer Marcus; Schoser Benedikt; Zimmer Claus; Karampinos Dimitrios C; Kirschke Jan S; Schlaeger Sarah. Deep learning-based acceleration of muscle water T2 mapping in patients with neuromuscular diseases by more than 50% - translating quantitative MRI from research to clinical routine. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318599; article XML SHA-256 2c336e340a145672284bb3c27feb15b10b208235d43b242382a318272339b28e. “Deep learning-based acceleration of muscle water T2 mapping in patients with neuromuscular diseases by more than 50% - translating quantitative MRI from research to clinical routine” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318599).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318599). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CSES
<a id="cses"></a>

CSEs are crime scene examiners, professionals who gather and interpret physical evidence to help reconstruct what happened at a crime scene. In psychology-related discussions, their role is notable because it involves sustained sensory, cognitive, and organizational stress while working closely with graphic or traumatic material.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d1d1ac8d9170c60d4c5d3f7223569bf34c320b12c847b3eb4c252a2767c2bf81

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ben Salah Zohra; Mickelsson Blomqvist Tony; Ghazinour Mehdi. Crime scene examiners' mental health: a scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1724579; article XML SHA-256 11d3fd53b6719aec25e002e674b08a9ea0644e02a4d1002fc2094e286c570344. “Crime scene examiners' mental health: a scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1724579).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1724579). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CSF
<a id="csf"></a>

CSF stands for cerebrospinal fluid, the liquid found in the brain’s ventricles, the space around the brain and spinal cord, and the spinal cord’s central canal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3cdaeb24d543cd3b5a2cbb3cf2bd5c8ad12375c3458c9b8ab3dcaa0ee9ca1c3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cerebrospinal Fluid” (C12692).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CSS
<a id="css"></a>

CSS refers to the China Social Survey, a nationally representative dataset used in social research. In this context, it provided data from 2021 to study older adults in China and links between ageism, life satisfaction, and social and leisure satisfaction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 197cf1203682954722ad8af139ec2330c2dc9cb17d76ecb5e033320b595f084e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Rongwang; Li Xiaoyan. Perceived age discrimination and life satisfaction among older adults in China: mediating roles of leisure and social satisfaction. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1744251; article XML SHA-256 3cf30e1b0de90eb96aa985ba2eda3389be43fde32ba5978abebf954e469ed61b. “Perceived age discrimination and life satisfaction among older adults in China: mediating roles of leisure and social satisfaction” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1744251).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1744251). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CT
<a id="ct"></a>

CT refers to a form of psychotherapy used for various mental disorders that focuses on recognizing harmful or unhelpful thoughts and behaviors and replacing them with more constructive ones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c80a0bba59f32734e02f796ae201c536711fe49a7e724aecee63cba52fffa830

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cognitive Behavior Therapy” (C64345).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CTD
<a id="ctd"></a>

CTD stands for critical thinking disposition, meaning a person’s tendency to engage with complex problems in an open-minded, reflective, and evidence-sensitive way. It describes a motivational and cognitive readiness to think critically rather than a specific skill itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e99cee3061c3473cb35e08e48fc06e10da74277eabb19769a89374048bfa2a9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao Yangyintao; Kamaruddin Azni Yati; Ladin Che Aleha; Ai Liangrui. Relationships among emotional intelligence, teacher professional identity, and critical thinking disposition in Chinese pre-service teachers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881577; article XML SHA-256 89d5e81249d819a32e07554686fb8c48f69cad8415a6c1d5cb090afd854acb17. “Relationships among emotional intelligence, teacher professional identity, and critical thinking disposition in Chinese pre-service teachers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881577).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881577). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CTI
<a id="cti"></a>

CTI refers to the Caregiver Task Inventory-45, a measure used to assess caregiving tasks. In the provided source, it was translated into Mandarin and evaluated for use with family caregivers of stroke survivors in China.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8812d8356bcdf55724dbf875ed1f0ee142e21c9bf5192bd63e3baf0a34c62e9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Qi; Johansson Linda; Mårtensson Jan; Zhao Yue; Årestedt Kristofer. Psychometric evaluation of the mandarin version of the caregiver task inventory (CTI-45) for family caregivers of stroke survivors. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-02970-z; article XML SHA-256 9a7b657a92ccbb55851073a1d3a1f864893d7e827b7265456b53139f53671b0d. “Psychometric evaluation of the mandarin version of the caregiver task inventory (CTI-45) for family caregivers of stroke survivors” (10.1186/s40359-025-02970-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02970-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CTS
<a id="cts"></a>

CTS stands for carpal tunnel syndrome, a condition in which the median nerve is compressed at the wrist. It commonly causes hand pain, tingling, or numbness, and in more severe cases can lead to weakness and reduced hand function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d27220ca368da6e4509083889b7094dcd4853ba872cc39c4492cc125fbfbd2f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Buntragulpoontawee Montana; Tongprasert Siam; Khorana Jiraporn; Kitisak Kittipong; Karinuntakul Waris; Pornjaksawan Sineenard; Phinyo Phichayut. The validation of the CTS-6 Evaluation Tool for diagnosing carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) in Thai wheelchair users. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319158; article XML SHA-256 ca51ca5129d9a4995b00c4e29528f60ec2e462af47c52e3818ad8db1ab0deaac. “The validation of the CTS-6 Evaluation Tool for diagnosing carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) in Thai wheelchair users” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319158).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319158). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CTT
<a id="ctt"></a>

CTT stands for Classical Test Theory, a psychometric approach used to evaluate how a test functions. In assessment research, it is used to examine features such as a measure’s factorial validity and dimensionality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d81ce383866401a7943bd24ecbf218a5cfffc49b2dd6a89d571c4a9bc9433bd6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sergi Maria Rita; Balsamo Michela; D’Ignazio Giorgia; Terrei Michela; Palumbo Rocco; Salvatore Gianpaolo; Carlucci Leonardo. Investigating the factor structure of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment: a qualitative review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1727202; article XML SHA-256 e64087f5db2f33b70dfd849724ade91ca5bcd996fb07fde56f3030735a088eea. “Investigating the factor structure of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment: a qualitative review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1727202).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1727202). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CTZ
<a id="ctz"></a>

CTZ stands for the chemoreceptor trigger zone, a central area in the area postrema where 5-HT3 receptors are located. It is involved in nausea and vomiting, including chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 130e8c8d1a2f3d742284f60d08769d9dafb68afce3d3722bf082d0e456ba1202

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Granisetron Hydrochloride Nasal Spray” (C124052).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cube model
<a id="cube-model"></a>

In this source, the cube model refers to P-Cube, a multi-step prediction approach designed to handle differences within a mixed population by first identifying distinct subgroups and then estimating outcomes within each subgroup. It is used to find subgroup-specific risk factors and give more personalized predictions than a single model applied to everyone together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aab05f295362320cb2f416de91fb84b3bc320b016ef3910bbadaf610715b5f87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Yunwei; Deng Danny; Muller Samuel; Wong Germaine; Yang Jean Yee Hwa. A Multi-Step Precision Pathway for Predicting Allograft Survival in Heterogeneous Cohorts of Kidney Transplant Recipients. 2023; DOI 10.3389/ti.2023.11338; article XML SHA-256 d41ecfd3bd3941cbf6d208366e49e9ac243a34a24d52caa74ed18dc0e444ef11. “A Multi-Step Precision Pathway for Predicting Allograft Survival in Heterogeneous Cohorts of Kidney Transplant Recipients” (10.3389/ti.2023.11338).](https://doi.org/10.3389/ti.2023.11338). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cue exposure
<a id="cue-exposure"></a>

Cue exposure is a conditioning-based treatment approach in which a person is repeatedly exposed to alcohol-related cues or settings without actually drinking alcohol. It is intended to reduce cue-triggered craving and some bodily reactions linked to those cues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6dcc7636229da9ea95805d38c3ff6393848831b5b1acb5419a4c7164c87fabba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Junjun; Chen Ming; Yan Junli; Wang Chaojun; Deng Hongdu; Wang Jiali; Gu Jiapeng; Wang Dan; Li Wenhui; Wang Chuansheng. Effects of virtual reality-based cue exposure therapy on craving and physiological responses in alcohol-dependent patients-a randomised controlled trial. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05426-z; article XML SHA-256 366d956480c305c537355b62cbabb0e6563fb1fa8fe7967c1bd419c2a3337f15. “Effects of virtual reality-based cue exposure therapy on craving and physiological responses in alcohol-dependent patients-a randomised controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-023-05426-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05426-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cued recall
<a id="cued-recall"></a>

Cued recall is a memory task in which a person is given a prompt to help retrieve learned information, such as hearing the first word of a pair and recalling the second. In the supplied example, it is used in a child memory assessment with repeated learning trials before later recall without cues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 861db58a514dfb2c7c22c43a674992d6a0f6066221a15883335d3f39409f1065

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Word Pairs Immediate” (C120332).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cued speech
<a id="cued-speech"></a>

Cued speech is a communication method used in speech and language rehabilitation that adds hand cues to spoken language so visually similar speech sounds can be told apart. It combines specific handshapes for consonants and hand positions near the face for vowels to support lipreading and improve phonological decoding, especially for children with hearing impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 160f4fceecbc5901368b3f13861c6ad2276ea13b2031c0ceac75211f5a4058f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Van Bogaert Lucie; Machart Laura; Gerber Silvain; Lœvenbruck Hélène; Vilain Anne; Consortium EULALIES Costa Maud Gillet-Perret Estelle MacLeod Andrea A. N. Meloni Geneviève Puissant Clarisse Rose Yvan Université Grenoble Alpes, France; CRTLA, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Grenoble Alpes, France; University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; Université Grenoble Alpes, France and Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada; Université Grenoble Alpes, France; Memorial University, Newfoundland, Canada. Speech rehabilitation in children with cochlear implants using a multisensory (French Cued Speech) or a hearing-focused (Auditory Verbal Therapy) approach. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1152516; article XML SHA-256 12493f14c958a12f4f738960891ab7e1a982cd6b8d9761fcedc02d50afe88daa. “Speech rehabilitation in children with cochlear implants using a multisensory (French Cued Speech) or a hearing-focused (Auditory Verbal Therapy) approach” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1152516).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1152516). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Cues
<a id="cues"></a>

Cues are signals that prompt an action or response. In psychology, they are the parts of what a person perceives that they have learned to react to.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 980e4c1b30415ca683ba7865c540ebcb87e4bd4f020d99edbb4ebb69839cc73d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Cues” (D003463).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003463). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## culpability
<a id="culpability"></a>

Culpability is the state of deserving moral blame for a wrong act. It differs from legal responsibility because a person may be legally responsible without being morally blameworthy, and moral culpability depends on the person having done the act with knowledge, or with the ability to have known, what they were doing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 906dfcf5ad5f7ba4777daa501352fde95c216f3baa55791b69c58a3dbd5d1d50

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Culpability” (Culpability).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Culpability). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cultural adaptability
<a id="cultural-adaptability"></a>

Cultural adaptability is a person’s ability to adjust to a new cultural environment. In this packet, it is described as socio-cultural adaptability, involving both cultural and psychological adjustment through learning how to function in the new setting and coping with the stress of change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83239d98217127bdab3ea2dbec53149312e66ce937a383e93155b8ff087a8e55

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yin Zilong; Zhao Yuhao; Wang Yuefang. How teachers’ caring behavior impacts the socio-cultural adaptability of international students: a chain mediation model. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1656033; article XML SHA-256 263c99d58c25f27ab05b9998596ae6469e5b013293570f6236a393dda259bbaf. “How teachers’ caring behavior impacts the socio-cultural adaptability of international students: a chain mediation model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1656033).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1656033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cultural anthropology
<a id="cultural-anthropology"></a>

Cultural anthropology is the study of the social patterns and cultural practices that people learn, share, and pass on within particular ethnic groups. It examines the causes, effects, and complexity of differences in human social life and culture.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6a86f2ebf7fa98675cce5209bae7b47cc9f910ecffe14839de820aa37237c18

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anthropology, Cultural” (D000884).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000884). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cultural blindness
<a id="cultural-blindness"></a>

Cultural blindness is an approach that treats culture as if it does not meaningfully affect people’s experiences or care. It is grounded in ideas of supposed universal applicability and assumptions about what is normal, which can make missing representation across race, sexual orientation, and social determinants of health seem acceptable and may reinforce this perspective.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a3ad070c223396ba0ef19c8df8fbfc1e1d30fe5abb1d1506407dde37b402fd37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Courtney R; Gilliland Kurt O; Beck Dallaghan Gary L; Tolleson-Rinehart Sue. Race, ethnicity, and gender representation in clinical case vignettes: a 20-year comparison between two institutions. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12909-022-03665-4; article XML SHA-256 77e1fa6ed36e6f56102474dbe74ac51e9e8d4b4a8a1e6005903a91e5650ac802. “Race, ethnicity, and gender representation in clinical case vignettes: a 20-year comparison between two institutions” (10.1186/s12909-022-03665-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-022-03665-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cultural deprivation
<a id="cultural-deprivation"></a>

Cultural deprivation is a lack of expected cultural experiences in a person’s environment that can hinder learning how to communicate and respond effectively in society. It is often considered in relation to language development and language use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 474c4f2463b9c4ddb4310170ee596da0a7af5eaeb84d784c479b36ecf51a0b35

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cultural Deprivation” (D003467).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003467). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cultural diversity
<a id="cultural-diversity"></a>

Cultural diversity is the presence of many distinct ethnic, racial, religious, or cultural groups within the same community, organization, or population.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f6bc05b986527e18e997ff2ef76315ef2e8780649c6e464d5afd2e06299e4a0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cultural Diversity” (D018864).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018864). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cultural drift
<a id="cultural-drift"></a>

Cultural drift is the increasing difference in learned cultural traits, such as song, between populations that are separated by distance or geographic barriers. In the source, it is described as a process that can strengthen the effects of isolation and limited gene flow between populations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e1d94951508380733f1195ad1bb4c021fa24ba88f5df21b053b325887c91612

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Camacho-Alpízar Andrés; Fuchs Eric J; Barrantes Gilbert. Effect of barriers and distance on song, genetic, and morphological divergence in the highland endemic Timberline Wren ( Thryorchilus browni , Troglodytidae). 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209508; article XML SHA-256 b06f774aee29f8fa74db8c675ccaf0918f1f1d19aa612db9a81403701a53b04d. “Effect of barriers and distance on song, genetic, and morphological divergence in the highland endemic Timberline Wren ( Thryorchilus browni , Troglodytidae)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209508).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209508). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cultural process
<a id="cultural-process"></a>

A cultural process is a patterned way that thinking and action are shaped through shared, culturally learned systems such as ways of sensing, attending, remembering, and responding. In this sense, behavior is not created from nothing, but emerges by reorganizing embodied experience within a common cultural framework.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75f2a16c4692f05788d6a2ea207ab32fd732fd7a66dbd6ae78b7ad17e31f6019

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marin-Bucio Diego; Danielsen Anne; Doumbia Noumouke; Polak Rainer. Memory in performance: kinesthetic and procedural dimensions of skill acquisition in dance improvisation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1751590; article XML SHA-256 27947dc3baeae280b828372c490923f840cc4fbc652e12b2934aff08885a6fb4. “Memory in performance: kinesthetic and procedural dimensions of skill acquisition in dance improvisation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1751590).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1751590). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cultural sensitivity
<a id="cultural-sensitivity"></a>

Cultural sensitivity is a learnable capacity for navigating cultural differences in diverse, globalized settings. In this source, it is treated as a skill closely linked with intercultural empathy and as especially important for teachers in bilingual or international classrooms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 785af64e4344aa01ff6a372c746711602867e564331d45d7128d57c54572a064

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Guan Zheng; Fan Yuying; Liao Zhongyuan. Integrating digital cultural detective games with social emotional learning to foster cultural sensitivity and intercultural empathy among kindergarten teachers: a mixed-methods study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1717522; article XML SHA-256 2d9956453e63eee4aa20560af3693d073881a5282a33035ad5e96fd1a6a31a60. “Integrating digital cultural detective games with social emotional learning to foster cultural sensitivity and intercultural empathy among kindergarten teachers: a mixed-methods study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1717522).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1717522). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cultural transmission
<a id="cultural-transmission"></a>

Cultural transmission is the passing of attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour patterns between people, especially across generations and through social networks. It can occur vertically within families, such as from parents and grandparents to children, and horizontally through peers, with the balance of these influences differing across traits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 934d920da5478296929308589cdb53c3fe8a9606c2f8ffbf6d708a9c437370de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tamariz Monica; Walker Bradley; Bennett Matthew; Segovia-Martín José; Fay Nicolas. Cultural transmission of attitudes and behaviours from parents, peers and grandparents. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341433; article XML SHA-256 42f25386bd3d239110c240694dda643ae7b66f1922d8e351d422116488252f06. “Cultural transmission of attitudes and behaviours from parents, peers and grandparents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341433).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341433). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## culture
<a id="culture"></a>

Culture is the shared set of behavior patterns that people learn and pass on socially through symbols. It includes things like customs, traditions, and language.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 895cd1f1bb9f22cbb3bfb51413c3ea4e17810f82aaaebcd593712a86bebd8c53

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Culture” (D003469).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003469). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## culture-free test
<a id="culture-free-test"></a>

A culture-free test is a laboratory method that identifies pathogens directly from a clinical sample without first growing them in culture. In the source, it refers to metagenomic next-generation sequencing used to broadly detect microbes and resistance genes from samples.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b532ff237a602791604642b48fca6e93530c18fcf5f3366d4b60e9c9568ef422

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Rong; Zhuang Yan; Xiao Zheng-hui; Li Cai-yun; Zhang Fan; Huang Wei-qing; Zhang Min; Peng Xiao-Ming; Liu Chao. Diagnosis and Surveillance of Neonatal Infections by Metagenomic Next-Generation Sequencing. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fmicb.2022.855988; article XML SHA-256 93cb982523ce2ee5e80e465ec9ea1e96fa24e0f7e0e2b6dc4e10e28d9c0df5d8. “Diagnosis and Surveillance of Neonatal Infections by Metagenomic Next-Generation Sequencing” (10.3389/fmicb.2022.855988).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.855988). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cumulative distribution function
<a id="cumulative-distribution-function"></a>

A cumulative distribution function is a way of describing how values are distributed in a population by showing, for any chosen value, how much of the population falls at or below it. In survey research, estimating this function helps researchers understand the distribution of a characteristic in a finite population, even when data come from complex sampling designs and some people do not respond.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c7c7ebd1f86d8672c9eaa21d38b03f9b41f7b04cfe1050b90228a658aba1fd98

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Abbas Mohsin; Ahmed Shehzad Muhammad; Khurram Haris; Rabia Mahwish. Estimation of the distribution function of a finite population utilizing auxiliary information in the context of non-response within complex survey sampling. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322660; article XML SHA-256 9c3a61a759d1cf35ec8e1d669b1efc53a3fc4ef5fbd5c1312102cf765c184a5d. “Estimation of the distribution function of a finite population utilizing auxiliary information in the context of non-response within complex survey sampling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322660).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322660). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cumulative frequency
<a id="cumulative-frequency"></a>

Cumulative frequency is the running total of frequencies across ordered classes or score ranges, found by adding each class frequency to all those that came before it. It shows how many observations have accumulated up to each point in the distribution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1d15431c0da45870fdaf87df957fcc74fef96163baaa3b7567372e1cb665cca5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Cumulative Frequency Polygon” (cumulative_frequency_poly.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/cumulative_frequency_poly.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cumulative frequency distribution
<a id="cumulative-frequency-distribution"></a>

A cumulative frequency distribution shows, for each value on the horizontal axis, how many observations fall at or below that value. It is used to display running totals across a set of scores or measurements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2548f7e9e5b6e183b0335534ce6910bbde3336474f76c7e51dd6e43e97483298

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Cumulative Frequency Distribution” (cumulative.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/cumulative.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cumulative rehearsal
<a id="cumulative-rehearsal"></a>

Cumulative rehearsal is a memory-maintenance strategy in which a person repeatedly rehearses material to help keep it active in working memory. In the supplied study, training in this strategy improved recall during a distracting delay, suggesting it supports remembering by encouraging rehearsal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dcfa7d2d13a40d6352d6931a39b29c75afc650bf0212105cec91a818ab15586f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Miller Sadie; McCulloch Samantha; Jarrold Christopher. The development of memory maintenance strategies: training cumulative rehearsal and interactive imagery in children aged between 5 and 9. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00524; article XML SHA-256 228edafb69fda48426b3c5c50d1d4d37c9ea3423b7b65e2ec1c6679630cf439b. “The development of memory maintenance strategies: training cumulative rehearsal and interactive imagery in children aged between 5 and 9” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00524).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00524). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cuneate nucleus
<a id="cuneate-nucleus"></a>

The cuneate nucleus is a brain structure involved in processing sensory input after median nerve injury. In this source, it is described as showing changes in neuronal activity marker expression and as helping transmit mechanical pain-related sensations toward the thalamus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8067c6b7e73878b6aac8c086b7c472ab8010d7912090101ed4e3d056e959006f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Seu-Hwa; Lue June-Horng; Hsiao Yung-Jung; Lai Shu-Mei; Wang Hsin-Ying; Lin Chi-Te; Chen Ya-Chin; Tsai Yi-Ju. Elevated galanin receptor type 2 primarily contributes to mechanical hypersensitivity after median nerve injury. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0199512; article XML SHA-256 bffe061372002e78311f2f6c148c0abe9f95aa3b6401e339f14737b274cef8e4. “Elevated galanin receptor type 2 primarily contributes to mechanical hypersensitivity after median nerve injury” (10.1371/journal.pone.0199512).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199512). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cupula
<a id="cupula"></a>

A cupula is a wedge-shaped gelatinous structure in the ampulla of each semicircular duct. The stereocilia of nearby sensory hair cells are embedded in it, allowing movement of endolymph during head rotation to be detected for balance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99efdd30dba86b32edda8f929f9995967282e4989d432e33f4c9e8d21b261ace

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hair Cells, Ampulla” (D054777).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D054777). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## curiosity
<a id="curiosity"></a>

Curiosity is a tendency to attend to things mainly in order to increase one’s knowledge, rather than for any practical use. The source also distinguishes simple attraction to novelty from a wish to learn or know for the sake of information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 742da4525197026e19eb094f3d67d0d9f16ac396bd9184f5f73d6637d32c087a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Curiosity” (Curiosity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Curiosity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## curriculum
<a id="curriculum"></a>

A curriculum is the course of study provided by an educational institution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f85139c6b51c76c73f8ca610407a27b075d4ee9f5493c64b5b432fe26ee9863e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Curriculum” (D003479).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003479). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## curve fitting
<a id="curve-fitting"></a>

Curve fitting is a mathematical method for finding the function that best matches a set of data points so the pattern in the data can be described. It is used to model the relationship between independent and dependent variables by reducing the difference between the function and the observed data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e4578bff447ca873baf12e21d25bd14d297648c584b224a4be1f55bb460d6721

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vianna Leonardo Silva; Gonçalves Alexandre Leopoldo; Souza João Artur. Analysis of learning curves in predictive modeling using exponential curve fitting with an asymptotic approach. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299811; article XML SHA-256 665952d19fb3afb3d46d317b918cb085edf54400e9c55f98f3cf691a9b0776b1. “Analysis of learning curves in predictive modeling using exponential curve fitting with an asymptotic approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299811).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299811). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## curvilinear regression
<a id="curvilinear-regression"></a>

Curvilinear regression is a form of regression analysis that examines relationships using model shapes such as quadratic, cubic, exponential, and logarithmic forms rather than relying only on a straight-line pattern. In the source, it is used to study and predict how one set of measurements relates to another when the relationship may be non-linear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 83424b4c4fd0507ed18b7adb71a0b29287cf7baae3d78b9bfd272b6bd4bacf68

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fazal Maria; Kanwal Salma; Raza Muhammad Taskeen; Razzaque Asima. Exploring entropy measures with topological indices on colorectal cancer drugs using curvilinear regression analysis and machine learning approaches. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327369; article XML SHA-256 ed0ff80cd6640478bf9ddc51624b3c0848f72d531698368660a6216e9a3622b6. “Exploring entropy measures with topological indices on colorectal cancer drugs using curvilinear regression analysis and machine learning approaches” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327369).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327369). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cusp catastrophe model
<a id="cusp-catastrophe-model"></a>

A cusp catastrophe model is a way of describing change that allows outcomes to shift suddenly and non-linearly between two states rather than changing gradually. In this context, it is used to examine how one factor can determine when a sharp jump in distress occurs, while another influences which distress state is more likely.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4b77ecffcf95a29900a0467b0fc40398f21ebf359b3bca34b9ea898cc9ccb6b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Benight Charles C.; Shoji Kotaro; Harwell Aaron; Felix Erika. Non-linear Dynamic Shifts in Distress After Wildfires: Further Tests of the Self-Regulation Shift Theory. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.551962; article XML SHA-256 ee01b398cd190953c75084c98e7c5713cb2dcb33c7731c00fc60411789427d66. “Non-linear Dynamic Shifts in Distress After Wildfires: Further Tests of the Self-Regulation Shift Theory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.551962).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.551962). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## custodial care
<a id="custodial-care"></a>

Custodial care is a traditional mental health nursing approach centered more on looking after and maintaining patients than on active, recovery-focused therapeutic work. In this context, it is contrasted with modern nursing practice that aims to support recovery and broader quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 39e60aaad6ba119a4dc2824b19cbfbd5e381f4399d9b7708c160a85ff43b636b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liao Zhizhen; Liu Wene; Yin Luojuan. The impact of nursing intervention on the quality of life of patients with major depressive disorder: a narrative review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1689832; article XML SHA-256 b958839129fb8b7c7dc70522bf35c730b0cfbb65e29ad44c009ae49d21a9703d. “The impact of nursing intervention on the quality of life of patients with major depressive disorder: a narrative review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1689832).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1689832). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## customer relationship management
<a id="customer-relationship-management"></a>

Customer relationship management is an approach organizations use to shape their communications and promotional efforts to individuals based on information they have gathered about them. In this context, it refers to tailored incentive or support messages used by leisure and fitness centers to encourage ongoing physical activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a65a76e2a7f0fc0ddda0e718a9b6ee5cc18ea57dc83c6d5e0f4708b8698ed6ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Newton Fiona J; Haregu Tilahun N; Newton Joshua D; Donovan Robert; Mahal Ajay; Mackenzie-Stewart Ruth; Ewing Michael T; Bauman Adrian; Manera Karine E; Smith Ben J. Effects of customer relationship management (CRM) strategies and socio-cognitive constructs on the physical activity of individuals with arthritis over time. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0292692; article XML SHA-256 340045fa287ef58f4db04d74bf4489e0e36f4817cf52e9ea40969a37a261dcc8. “Effects of customer relationship management (CRM) strategies and socio-cognitive constructs on the physical activity of individuals with arthritis over time” (10.1371/journal.pone.0292692).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292692). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cutoff score
<a id="cutoff-score"></a>

A cutoff score is the chosen point on a screening measure that is used to separate people into groups, such as likely having or not having a condition. The best cutoff can vary with the purpose of the test because different score thresholds change the balance between false positives, sensitivity, and specificity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: febe7f4b93cf0ef23064064f0f11780ce696f0aca6345796cb445e5cfac4823f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Cho-Hsiang; Lin Yi-Ting; Hsieh Ming H.; Hwang Tzung-Jeng. A re-evaluation study and literature review on AD8 as a screening tool for dementia. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321570; article XML SHA-256 46f4489bc0d3f068cc6bee6a150e379fd5da6b426e5ef01a97a7cdcd79e867b7. “A re-evaluation study and literature review on AD8 as a screening tool for dementia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321570).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321570). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CV
<a id="cv"></a>

CV stands for cyberbullying victimization, meaning being the target of bullying through digital or online means. In adolescents, it is associated with harmful psychological outcomes such as greater depression, lower self-esteem, and more academic burnout.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b2d4d4a2de6a9fbbe1288ecb04fbab5022ed4727a528e75906dfdd64d13e09a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Yanping; Dang Longxin; Tao Yuan. The longitudinal influence of cyberbullying victimization on depression, self-esteem and academic burnout among Chinese adolescents: mindfulness as a mediator. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1607473; article XML SHA-256 3a91efa6c75b2b6db9f1c3e6776bc5c23c3cd8c4c669b5401c8ed70d42c24dd0. “The longitudinal influence of cyberbullying victimization on depression, self-esteem and academic burnout among Chinese adolescents: mindfulness as a mediator” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1607473).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1607473). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CVA
<a id="cva"></a>

CVA refers to a stroke: a sudden loss of nervous system function caused by bleeding or blocked blood flow within brain tissue as part of a vascular event.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0554b93eeac68aa3df5015056348c3b17c6beca7ec775a7474a47e0b9e47f0d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Stroke” (C3390).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CWB
<a id="cwb"></a>

CWB stands for counterproductive work behavior: actions by employees that harm an organization or the people in it. It can include behaviors such as abuse, sabotage, withdrawal, theft, and in digital work settings, things like hiding information, manipulating or destroying data, or misusing technology resources.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5666624ebb85452904945cc3386351c2947a1d8514aff4e2b713099f254e8a40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qiu Ailin; Liu Yuming; Li Zhaoqi; Choi MyeongCheol. The double-edged role of creativity: silence mechanisms linking workplace incivility to counterproductive work behavior. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1788243; article XML SHA-256 135fe35df320111cbd8bcc4c5278211512099b991169f9eba3e7208592d3d243. “The double-edged role of creativity: silence mechanisms linking workplace incivility to counterproductive work behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1788243).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1788243). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cyberbullying
<a id="cyberbullying"></a>

Cyberbullying is bullying carried out through digital devices such as phones or computers. It involves sending, posting, or sharing harmful or untrue content about someone, and may also include exposing private information in ways that cause embarrassment or humiliation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a1471019fae95dc53e0b9a37682cc86516ca560f41b7db6f366ec192846947e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cyberbullying” (D000077224).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077224). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cybernetics
<a id="cybernetics"></a>

Cybernetics is a field of learning that combines ideas and research about communication and control in both living organisms and machines.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8813ccc908e3c8f294bd7279f41a4ea82e729321f6b10a81d7f681d14a8a4fb0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cybernetics” (D003491).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003491). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cycle
<a id="cycle"></a>

In learning, a cycle is a repeating sequence of phases through which experience is turned into learning. In the Kolb learning cycle described here, this process moves through experimentation, concretization, observation, and conceptualization, and can be shaped not only by an individual’s activity but also by group interaction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd0b1392b2cecbceedea76dfb890137e9b751cedab1c3b7fc4871efbd154709d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kronsted Christian; Henley Matthew; Giguere Miriam. Making sense together: participatory sensemaking, learning cycles, and group roles. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1746763; article XML SHA-256 373a5414866a257c9a7e59358ded25f9dabb5b14332948031edaf9687e49d652. “Making sense together: participatory sensemaking, learning cycles, and group roles” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1746763).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1746763). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cycle of violence
<a id="cycle-of-violence"></a>

Cycle of violence refers to the way violence can be passed from one generation to the next, so that exposure to violence in the family, such as interparental violence, is linked to a higher likelihood of later experiencing intimate partner violence. In this sense, early exposure can help sustain violence across relationships and over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 58748cd1ff5a1bc7297eb54a922207b58f4fcb40b5dbac4793293aa9893744a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Osborne Augustus; Sesay Umaru; Bangura Camilla; Fornah Lovel. Spatial mapping and determinants of intimate partner violence among married women in Sierra Leone: A cross-sectional study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325360; article XML SHA-256 cafc560b4bda10c10e13844c10b282a445ad252c8f2e85aedc4702b7141fab46. “Spatial mapping and determinants of intimate partner violence among married women in Sierra Leone: A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325360).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325360). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cyclic adenosine monophosphate
<a id="cyclic-adenosine-monophosphate"></a>

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is a signaling molecule made from adenosine triphosphate that acts as a second messenger inside cells, helping transmit cellular responses. In the psychology-related research described here, lower cAMP levels were reported in some studies of major depressive disorder and were discussed as a state-related biological finding linked to reduced metabolism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48adb80d16d5959b929d7868c7035bbbd87d4b29a5fcee6fa9322ac266f19dcf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tsiouris John A.; Flory Michael. Downregulation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate levels in leukocytes of hibernating captive black bears is similar to reported cyclic adenosine monophosphate findings in major depressive disorder. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1123279; article XML SHA-256 3ed99aa7dbe52433ccb96b84c8df29cb1e198dcc320e1d49f45e921adc8b1890. “Downregulation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate levels in leukocytes of hibernating captive black bears is similar to reported cyclic adenosine monophosphate findings in major depressive disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1123279).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1123279). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cyclic AMP
<a id="cyclic-amp"></a>

Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is a cell signaling molecule produced by transmembrane and soluble adenylyl cyclases. In neurons, it helps carry signals within localized cellular microdomains and can drive downstream processes such as protein kinase A activation and regulation of neurite growth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f95f77c38ddcc60e86b066a03ae0f299ea40cc6e7e9e3b022bd01b2a50527f8b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Armando Natalia G.; dos Santos Claro Paula A.; Fuertes Mariana; Arzt Eduardo; Silberstein Susana. Role of canonical and non-canonical cAMP sources in CRHR2α-dependent signaling. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0310699; article XML SHA-256 fb51035aa69a47e601cea81898a6ec6f4d0af36c7fb4de0b7f08802a61f6485a. “Role of canonical and non-canonical cAMP sources in CRHR2α-dependent signaling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0310699).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310699). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cyclic GMP
<a id="cyclic-gmp"></a>

Cyclic GMP is a guanine-containing nucleotide with a phosphate group linked to the sugar at both the 3' and 5' positions. In cells, it acts as a regulatory signal, often serving as a second messenger whose levels rise in response to some hormones and which can activate specific protein kinases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 462bdbb22e3c6ffac6486f467bed562a0a454e576a7869ebd3c0857792ff1021

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cyclic GMP” (D006152).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006152). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cyclobenzaprine
<a id="cyclobenzaprine"></a>

Cyclobenzaprine is a centrally acting skeletal muscle relaxant that also has antidepressant activity. It appears to work mainly in the brain stem, where it lowers somatic motor activity and helps reduce muscle spasms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca4fa446494f5871e0db9b230fdf7aca97709b36c6cba7df3b1b31e4e4697d01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cyclobenzaprine” (C28947).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cyclopean eye
<a id="cyclopean-eye"></a>

The cyclopean eye is an imagined single eye located in the middle of the forehead, used to describe how we mentally locate objects in space. It refers to the fact that visual directions are treated as if they came from one central eye rather than from two separate eyes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e4ade10620775639b6304268a1e586a377a32499175b08529cd0560f0dc4f62a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Cyclopean Eye” (Cyclopean Eye).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Cyclopean Eye). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cyclothymic disorder
<a id="cyclothymic-disorder"></a>

Cyclothymic disorder is a mood disorder marked by recurring periods of depression and hypomania. These shifts can be interrupted by times when mood is normal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3121e000fb2f579174cc7f459e785444842188482b900a493803164154c1f9d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cyclothymic Disorder” (D003527).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003527). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Cylert
<a id="cylert"></a>

Cylert is a central nervous system stimulant drug in the oxazolidine group, also known as pemoline. It has effects similar to other stimulants, though its exact action is unclear, and it was withdrawn from the U.S. market because it was linked to life-threatening liver failure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b2a75255867a2d665bdddc3693ecc62e9039e5fd1f6a938bdce2977e05ac9e5d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pemoline” (C47655).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## CYP
<a id="cyp"></a>

CYP stands for children and young people. In this context, it refers to younger populations discussed in relation to mental health and suicidal thoughts or behaviours.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 787b895b0e457da4896a44a27d45b107095a209c02c7fb1122a832abde7f4c96

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barker Lulu; Wang Samantha Sijing; Huda Md Nazmul; John James Rufus; Wu Weng Tong; Lin Ping-I Daniel; Eapen Valsamma. Community-based mental health interventions for reducing youth suicidal thoughts and behaviours: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07527-3; article XML SHA-256 707e94520ce2a7f6ba13c849c22c52389f4768df92cabf512b41d5fc9fdbd9cf. “Community-based mental health interventions for reducing youth suicidal thoughts and behaviours: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1186/s12888-025-07527-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07527-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cyproheptadine
<a id="cyproheptadine"></a>

Cyproheptadine is a medication that blocks serotonin and histamine H1 activity. It is used for itching and allergies, to stimulate appetite, and for dumping syndrome after stomach surgery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97da3853e8b578c528d616f0a1ccaada1469105703a83f9b7badabf74cc17727

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cyproheptadine” (D003533).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003533). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cytoarchitecture
<a id="cytoarchitecture"></a>

Cytoarchitecture refers to the microscopic structural organization of cells within a tissue. In this packet, gut cytoarchitecture means the cellular layout of the intestine as reflected by features such as villi, crypts, and barrier-related tissue structure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: aa313407b074e27bc7e333b042aab2cea02a886deff9cc91f6f3be76febd4214

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barnum Ella; Turck Jonathan L; Souza Karienn A; Mani Kathiresh Kumar; Pilla Rachel; Selvamani Amutha; Sohrabji Farida; Earnest David J. Sex differences in the effects of shift work-like schedules on gut microbiome and intestinal barrier in relation to stroke survival. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355842; article XML SHA-256 249548afc2b4bcb03a5f12ddc2e0c62ca182278b839c1546f25b4f27649c6e7f. “Sex differences in the effects of shift work-like schedules on gut microbiome and intestinal barrier in relation to stroke survival” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355842).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355842). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cytogenetic map
<a id="cytogenetic-map"></a>

A cytogenetic map is the microscope-visible banding pattern of a stained chromosome. The light and dark bands give each chromosome a distinctive look, which helps clinicians study chromosomes in a karyotype and detect chromosomal changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0ecb4a3fd3cb2faaf3c6a1c1fae99c756a0dfb366b65f953d48357f3523a490

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cytogenetic Map” (C15717).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cytokine
<a id="cytokine"></a>

A cytokine is an immune-system messenger involved in shaping T-helper cell development and regulating both adaptive and innate immune responses. Some cytokines promote inflammation, while others can dampen immune activity and may have neuroprotective effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36dd9363eeae460c77e0c502e7f23ead676beb2d5e10a240f94c51964d58ec54

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Junfang; Li Meixia; Cheng Long; Chai Jun; Zhai Shanshan. Shifting the paradigm in bipolar disorder: moving beyond conventional inflammatory markers to novel EBI3-containing heterodimeric cytokines. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759397; article XML SHA-256 b49cb7804ef3e2f3f15baafd49eeb4c33821df0427a75cdd877686e742b9cb78. “Shifting the paradigm in bipolar disorder: moving beyond conventional inflammatory markers to novel EBI3-containing heterodimeric cytokines” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759397).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759397). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cytology
<a id="cytology"></a>

Cytology is the science of the individual cell. It is contrasted with histology, which focuses more on cells in their relationships as they form tissues and organs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0d2ccf056c4a104981fcf39d1ab9f67cb9cbb8b0c81c37933d56976e5e41aaf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Cytology” (Cytology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Cytology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cytomegalovirus
<a id="cytomegalovirus"></a>

Cytomegalovirus is a common virus that can cause infections around the time of birth. In infants, infection may be present from birth or acquired after the first 3 weeks of life, often through breast milk, and it is usually without symptoms in full-term infants but can cause serious illness in preterm or very low birth weight infants.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7afbce5d5288a56428db08ae7b10fead00da7a1d5068af31f888146698a6a0be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qiao Zhihui; Bao Yingying; Zhu Jiajun. Postnatal cytomegalovirus infection and bronchopulmonary dysplasia in very low birth weight infants: Influence of diagnostic criteria and viral load in a propensity score–matched cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346905; article XML SHA-256 1b16742ec1796e3a580e1c29620bc25cd20115ca7dc6e014409dbf994b8afdbe. “Postnatal cytomegalovirus infection and bronchopulmonary dysplasia in very low birth weight infants: Influence of diagnostic criteria and viral load in a propensity score–matched cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346905).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346905). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## cytoplasm
<a id="cytoplasm"></a>

Cytoplasm is the protoplasmic material of the cell body, distinguished from the material of the nucleus. In this historical source, it is presented as a term introduced in 1882.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09f351715cc69fa9648092db45799f79d8861d17c6046bb1d942759a0fe255ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Cytoplasm” (Cytoplasm).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Cytoplasm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## d
<a id="d"></a>

Recognition discriminability is the ability to tell target words apart from distractor words during recognition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e495a8f014cdec595e2500a19285ea034ad36fa371d5b131c933bc0ad854e901

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Recognition Discriminability” (C185213).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## d prime
<a id="d-prime"></a>

D-prime is a score used in this study to measure performance on the N-Back working memory task. Higher or lower d-prime scores reflect differences in how well participants performed on that working memory measure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5244f690914bea13126be30780ab3b51a45ef9ed5e0af0be2702e5d26f52d0d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Özkara Basak; Schneider Raul; Cedden Gülay; von Stutterheim Christiane; Meyer Patric. The impact of bilingualism and code-switching on executive function performance. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1583441; article XML SHA-256 3de146294112ea606f9ed56d4eb2f4126ec91f959a59cffc49956aa7d2a8f659. “The impact of bilingualism and code-switching on executive function performance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1583441).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1583441). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DA
<a id="da"></a>

DA, or dynamic assessment, is an approach that combines assessment with instruction by using responsive, individualized mediation during the evaluation process. In the source context, it is described as a powerful way to assess learning while also supporting development, though traditional forms can be difficult to use at scale.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8b3032f8274c70d324e087ef631fbd3648cd2e7eb03b56aea2986f6ee484407a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ding Chaofeng; Li Xiaoyan. A mixed-methods study on the interplay between AI-assisted dynamic assessment, reading comprehension, and psychological adaptivity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798029; article XML SHA-256 74b4d1f659645cada98d2414da4ef924f97c4ce1d1b2537019541cdb2d17b354. “A mixed-methods study on the interplay between AI-assisted dynamic assessment, reading comprehension, and psychological adaptivity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798029).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798029). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dACC
<a id="dacc"></a>

dACC refers to the dorsal ACC, a key node in the anterior cingulate loop within frontostriatal circuitry. In this context, it is described as being involved in the cognitive processing of emotions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d5efcc44c807ba691b6cb7c2222b1a8a3d21a393b5522400ccfbb7def6e9d7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Steinholtz Linda; Persson Jonas; Thörnblom Elin; Wall Anders; Lubberink Mark; Fällmar David; Bodén Robert. Inhibitory neurotransmission in frontostriatal circuitry: implications for psychomotor and vegetative symptoms in depressive episodes. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08573-1; article XML SHA-256 1ad56be6a97246f9b8aea2962cea0d5c496c37871e297f9512464f4261586468. “Inhibitory neurotransmission in frontostriatal circuitry: implications for psychomotor and vegetative symptoms in depressive episodes” (10.1186/s12888-026-08573-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08573-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DAF
<a id="daf"></a>

DAF refers to delayed auditory feedback, a situation in which a person hears their own speech back after a short delay. In this condition, the mistimed rhythm between speaking and hearing that speech, together with the feedback’s speech content, can disrupt speech planning and production and increase speech errors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e353b3c45d403a5a632b265237f1cc427f08828acdbf2d515893f95f26293315

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bohland Jason W; Ocampo Alexander; Lassige Caitlin A; Freed Tess N; Heyne Matthias. The effects of delayed auditory feedback depend on both the rhythm and content of the feedback signal. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1889468; article XML SHA-256 a723e39d8e4e05f1082692bb4580774b99e29f94e1ea62ce1195d8ecdf670659. “The effects of delayed auditory feedback depend on both the rhythm and content of the feedback signal” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1889468).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1889468). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DAI
<a id="dai"></a>

DAI stands for dog-assisted interventions, also called dog-assisted services: organized activities or clinical applications that aim to support human wellbeing through interactions with dogs. In this context, the term also carries ethical concerns about protecting the dog’s welfare, individuality, and agency, with the handler’s skill and attention to the dog seen as central.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a7da45a12db905d73e0ad1b473058d50597f2a4d9dc73f761465141e16d0ebdf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Foltin Sandra. Agency denied: PADA and the perils of paternalistic dog care. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767922; article XML SHA-256 6dcbb28ab9ef383f6683466b2716f0f7a7f541f8ae92829f0c999ca122ddbd93. “Agency denied: PADA and the perils of paternalistic dog care” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767922).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767922). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DALYs
<a id="dalys"></a>

DALYs stands for disability-adjusted life years. In this source, it is used as a health measure tracked over time alongside mortality and incidence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b6cbad6da8aa0f5cd2c72d19ae2cbb9611fdf54cce7edbff746d82658c519557

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Zheng; Deng Ying; He Yuheng; Chen Yiyi; Qin Lu; Tian Jun; Lei Yuting; Zhou Yongzhao; Wan Zhi; Jia Dan. Trend of liver cancer attributable to alcohol use in China from 1992 to 2021: An age-period-cohort analysis study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343137; article XML SHA-256 9a4df9c459e6fa055c80967c5082abac52f8fb55c6671585bb5b3cbeb84444f3. “Trend of liver cancer attributable to alcohol use in China from 1992 to 2021: An age-period-cohort analysis study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343137).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343137). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dance therapy
<a id="dance-therapy"></a>

Dance therapy is a form of physical exercise that uses movement as a psychotherapeutic tool, based on the idea that body and mind are connected. It aims to support integration and can promote physical and mental health, with music sometimes adding motivation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ca6393c5444cea81efc3206a979834c97caf18f58c4d8f235259595326065cf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Silva da Costa Natália; Alves da Silva Amanda Suzane; de Melo-Neto João Simão. Effects of dance therapy in women with breast cancer: A systematic review protocol. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0257948; article XML SHA-256 0cb23e580713d4028febe6bf809daf92616dc56426c529b3fd522a02f3100a6d. “Effects of dance therapy in women with breast cancer: A systematic review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0257948).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257948). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dancing mania
<a id="dancing-mania"></a>

Dancing mania is a historical term for an abnormal, excessive tendency toward rhythmic movement, especially dancing, that spread in groups under special circumstances through nervous or mental contagion. It was described as sometimes occurring in large epidemics, with choreic, spasmodic movements, dazed awareness, hallucinations, and an overpowering urge to keep dancing even to exhaustion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42ea4fb72f656d9b9b7ad3b8a5375a20e6cbe987ec7b3451dba8726d192e6d37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dancing Mania” (Dancing Mania).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Dancing Mania). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Dandy–Walker syndrome
<a id="dandywalker-syndrome"></a>

Dandy–Walker syndrome is a congenital abnormality of the central nervous system in which midline parts of the cerebellum do not fully develop, the fourth ventricle becomes enlarged, and nearby brain coverings and venous structures are displaced upward. It can be associated with head enlargement, balance and walking problems, abnormal eye movements, and intellectual impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f19ebf097921b713ed062fd151583f7a0fed1e3fb45958a168553bf16e6b4b2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dandy-Walker Syndrome” (D003616).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003616). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dantrolene
<a id="dantrolene"></a>

Dantrolene is a skeletal muscle relaxant that reduces muscle contraction by disrupting the link between nerve activation and muscle fiber contraction. It is used for spasticity and other neuromuscular problems, and although its action is probably not in the central nervous system, it is often grouped with central muscle relaxants.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 74e6a7020adb475ba5f69b3ca8a331fe044ece24c6c1eb3afaa9183c3ef7d89d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dantrolene” (D003620).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003620). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Daoism
<a id="daoism"></a>

Daoism is presented here as a tradition of self-cultivation centered on transforming the heart-mind through embodied practice and changes in perspective. In this account, Daoist cultivation links bodily practice, awareness, qi, and spirit as connected aspects of a way of living.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 212dabee9f65ad2241ced71e8ccaaad49ba9b79c7394becbad51d6e626fbd8a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Junhong. Yan Hui and Zhuangzi: the way of spiritual healing in the twin peaks of Confucianism and Daoism. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770947; article XML SHA-256 24f4119e2b1f285397a109d9aadb9dabc4cc3103eccc6595d679fdae7fd58b90. “Yan Hui and Zhuangzi: the way of spiritual healing in the twin peaks of Confucianism and Daoism” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770947).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770947). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dark adaptation
<a id="dark-adaptation"></a>

Dark adaptation is the recovery of vision in low light after bright light has bleached the visual system. During this adjustment, visual sharpness may be reduced and performance on tasks can be affected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a3a79189577f6599c139770c04c39f7d13e292f9b89ac09ee8e4784961a6a7b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sheldon Elizabeth L; Hart Carla J; Wilkinson Anna; Soulsbury Carl; Ratcliffe Victoria F; Mills Daniel S. Working dogs in dynamic on-duty environments: The impact of dark adaptation, strobe lighting and acoustic distraction on task performance. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0295429; article XML SHA-256 f64e08a7bd90c148b8c3649845a6d4428a1df4bfb21d5790e2d53016a68f2b24. “Working dogs in dynamic on-duty environments: The impact of dark adaptation, strobe lighting and acoustic distraction on task performance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0295429).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295429). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Darwinism
<a id="darwinism"></a>

Darwinism is the name for the characteristic features of Charles Darwin’s theory of organic evolution. In stricter use, it refers especially to Darwin’s distinctive emphasis on natural selection, though the term is also often used more broadly for organic evolution in general or for human descent in particular.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18c3a2baedf265cea104f52e6a3935ce3977e5c31246810f04f5b96e6a9b543e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Darwinism” (Darwinism [from Charles Darwin]).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Darwinism [from Charles Darwin]). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DAS
<a id="das"></a>

DAS, in this context, stands for Dog-Assisted Services: informal, motivational interactions involving a dog in a helping role, but without specific therapeutic goals. It is described as one form of dog-assisted intervention aimed at supporting people’s health, educational, or psychosocial wellbeing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64e610233690118aa306f9f5f471e3f2fab5c7e79a239d6d75321a2c57b80d91

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Foltin Sandra. Agency denied: PADA and the perils of paternalistic dog care. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767922; article XML SHA-256 6dcbb28ab9ef383f6683466b2716f0f7a7f541f8ae92829f0c999ca122ddbd93. “Agency denied: PADA and the perils of paternalistic dog care” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767922).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767922). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DAST
<a id="dast"></a>

DAST stands for Drug Abuse Screening Test. It is a validated assessment tool used to evaluate substance use, particularly drug-related misuse, in clinical evaluations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c3cfde3d5960565ce0f139b8b85594eabd94a0d308458ceeb46d611bc4d6e93a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shakeel Hafiz Muhammad; Antoniou Grigorios; Adamou Marios. Integrating explainable AI with clinical features to enhance ADHD diagnostic understanding. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1706216; article XML SHA-256 a75d808ea42065ff0c84bfd1c7cf60ea328a67c075838f402f0a896ea70527cf. “Integrating explainable AI with clinical features to enhance ADHD diagnostic understanding” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1706216).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1706216). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## DAT
<a id="dat"></a>

DAT refers to the sodium-dependent dopamine transporter, a protein made by the SLC6A3 gene. It helps reduce dopamine signaling by transporting dopamine in a sodium-dependent way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b598ec1427a9c690ad054a927c52c6b08dbc886cc3430e1416379233687110ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sodium-Dependent Dopamine Transporter” (C113530).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## data
<a id="data"></a>

Data are a collection of values gathered so they can be analyzed statistically.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 076247f37198994433a07a6e1040f5e7dc9d24ccbc6066d11bfe59ca47fb6158

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Data” (data.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/data.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## data-driven processing
<a id="data-driven-processing"></a>

Data-driven processing is an analysis approach that does not start with a pre-set prediction about the expected response pattern. Instead, it looks for patterns that emerge from the data itself, which can reveal activity missed by predictor-based methods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc459fa803adc2b548ea7dfb04c26e9c6e2aedb8a9f21e37e2ccca54952dd159

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cauda Franco; Costa Tommaso; Diano Matteo; Duca Sergio; Torta Diana M. E.. Beyond the “Pain Matrix,” inter-run synchronization during mechanical nociceptive stimulation. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00265; article XML SHA-256 8af5f2a9f1a00afd586db6fcab2b3cae8e613db8ddcc0da935ddc9b611242df8. “Beyond the “Pain Matrix,” inter-run synchronization during mechanical nociceptive stimulation” (10.3389/fnhum.2014.00265).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00265). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## data mining
<a id="data-mining"></a>

Data mining is the use of computational models to analyze datasets and find patterns that can predict important outcomes. In this educational context, it means examining student data to forecast academic performance and identify factors that most strongly influence it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b77c68bf248730d026b40b72645011305ee758ad946f6aa5cb9943d0331367ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yin Qiang. Predicting student academic performance using TabPFN and SHAP: An interpretable machine learning approach. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328634; article XML SHA-256 1838505128d41494b75bd265ec5f3bdcc94afbebfd52c520db2fd1aaca2e7107. “Predicting student academic performance using TabPFN and SHAP: An interpretable machine learning approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328634).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328634). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## data screening
<a id="data-screening"></a>

Data screening is the step in a study review process where collected records are checked and sorted to decide which information or studies should be included before data are gathered in full. In the source context, this screening was done after removing duplicate records and was carried out by independent reviewers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fde0dc34d0fb26e182d2471a7005be169e56119207acc9c1aaca6047b8aa54fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Veiga Viviane Cordeiro; Peres Stela Verzinhasse; Ostolin Thatiane L V D P; Moraes Flavia Regina; Belucci Talita Rantin; Clara Carlos Afonso; Cavalcanti Alexandre Biasi; Chaddad-Neto Feres Eduardo Aparecido; Batistella Gabriel N de Rezende; Neville Iuri Santana; Baeta Alex M; Yamada Camilla Akemi Felizardo; on behalf of the TROMBOGLIO Study Group. Incidence of venous thromboembolism and bleeding in patients with malignant central nervous system neoplasm: Systematic review and meta-analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304682; article XML SHA-256 c0048d279341c02b16a40a328fd052e872d78b2501c055450753ecb23732c01d. “Incidence of venous thromboembolism and bleeding in patients with malignant central nervous system neoplasm: Systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304682).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304682). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dative
<a id="dative"></a>

Dative is a grammatical case marking the person or thing that an action is concerned with. In older case systems, it was one of the noun-form changes used to show a word’s relation to the verb in a sentence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e65a66093a5ab633460191c50205d8cd52bc98fc81cba57b826d17e83ba28445

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Declension” (Declension).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Declension). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## day blindness
<a id="day-blindness"></a>

Day blindness is a symptom, not a separate disorder, in which a person sees poorly in strong light and may see better in dim light or at night. A brief, normal form can happen when moving suddenly from darkness into bright light; the opposite condition is night blindness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 519ac899c159b30dddb5651c8817f43aa75f71cd0f62d7583fa0dd30a0bfc6ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Day-blindness” (Day-blindness).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Day-blindness). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## day hospital
<a id="day-hospital"></a>

A day hospital is a healthcare setting where people receive treatment and care during the daytime, often for mental health problems, and then go home in the evening and on weekends.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1a7d1805289a13dc45df32437fd9c456ed5be4138f4edc913e450154dd711096

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Day Hospital” (C222288).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## daylight vision
<a id="daylight-vision"></a>

Daylight vision is the eye’s visual function in bright light. It depends on the three types of cone cells in the retina, which respond to different parts of the visible color range.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe6d65c0bc08e2439ae0c4dfa273ffa90f31b8c698d8a668624aa45472a059d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Color Vision” (D055253).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055253). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## daymare
<a id="daymare"></a>

Daymare is a historical term for a brief spell of distress or terror like a nightmare that happens while a person is awake. The source notes that its cause was uncertain, though it was thought possibly related to disturbed blood flow in the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c61f64eacd39c8bfa692bda26ebc69b5a970ddaabb455f80d09bf40cc8b0f0cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Daymare” (Daymare).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Daymare). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DBS
<a id="dbs"></a>

DBS, or deep brain stimulation, is a highly invasive biological procedure that uses electrical stimulation for pain relief. It is mainly used to manage severe chronic pain when less invasive options have not worked.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4d37de9b7522c868f712b2fc39b9e216419bc73872001dfca1a0a99cccd0eab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Deep Brain Stimulation” (C21024).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dc
<a id="dc"></a>

DC stands for Doctor of Chiropractic, a professional doctoral degree earned after completing accredited chiropractic education. It prepares graduates in academic and clinical methods focused on diagnosis and treatment involving adjustment and manipulation of joints and nearby tissues, especially the spine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5c16698a3b0cdf039136f6d7493b77f1f74a228f61130a5948498da52a174c44

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Doctor of Chiropractic” (C39380).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## de Clérambault’s syndrome
<a id="de-clerambaults-syndrome"></a>

De Clérambault’s syndrome, or erotomania, is a rare delusional condition marked by a fixed false belief that another person is in love with the affected individual, often despite little or no actual relationship. The imagined admirer is commonly seen as having higher social or professional standing, and the belief may involve intense preoccupation and attributing one’s own feelings to that person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11dddfe2270e9429cb1387c5e93c0f3bfbaf1166023cfc38774d23efc8fd58e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alotti Nasri; Osvath Peter; Tenyi Tamas; Voros Viktor. Induced erotomania by online romance fraud - a novel form of de Clérambault’s syndrome. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05667-6; article XML SHA-256 f17fd476350ab77596e50b5df23e1ca717c0ba19ba2de919a8364182cfb44b3b. “Induced erotomania by online romance fraud - a novel form of de Clérambault’s syndrome” (10.1186/s12888-024-05667-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05667-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## de Lange syndrome
<a id="de-lange-syndrome"></a>

De Lange syndrome is a biological syndrome involving slowed growth, short stature, major intellectual disability, and a distinctive pattern of physical features affecting the head, face, neck, body hair, and hands. It can occur sporadically or be linked to autosomal dominant inheritance or duplication of part of chromosome 3.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb670a48f95abd502e1737bbcfd35507f09c98e8eff8839e55880a2057c7e44b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “De Lange Syndrome” (D003635).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003635). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DEA
<a id="dea"></a>

DEA, in this source, refers to an efficiency-analysis approach used to evaluate how effectively resources are allocated and to compare efficiency across regions. It is presented as a way to study both overall and component aspects of allocation efficiency and whether performance reaches an efficiency frontier.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2aacfd4e730adf0510835a14ffb1c299ea08931e2e0d0ba98f2c81c3dff83307

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ye Ziyu; Khanal Ribesh; Cao Zhiqiang. Studying on the efficiency of higher education resource allocation and its influencing factors in the western China using DEA-Malmquist and Tobit models. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334090; article XML SHA-256 cab243f7a6621af37453636279650df826b201bc4dd22b327178b643144b6a90. “Studying on the efficiency of higher education resource allocation and its influencing factors in the western China using DEA-Malmquist and Tobit models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334090).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334090). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deaf-mute
<a id="deaf-mute"></a>

A deaf-mute is a historical term for a deaf person who is also unable to speak. In the source, the term is discussed mainly in relation to education and communication, noting that people who are deaf and mute may rely on non-oral forms of language and expression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c00d73a861593f805447291c183148c222616ceb7d84526a3546469de8f34fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Bridgman, Laura, and Keller, Helen” (Bridgman, Laura, and Keller, Helen).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B2defs.htm#Bridgman, Laura, and Keller, Helen). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deafness
<a id="deafness"></a>

Deafness is a general term for complete loss of hearing in both ears.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70b357c61b9ace3fbb93b43a03774416a927b2010ef598cb9583b6efab986dba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Deafness” (D003638).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003638). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## death
<a id="death"></a>

Death is the irreversible end of all bodily functions, shown by the absence of spontaneous breathing and the complete loss of heart, blood circulation, and brain function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26ac08bf11439ba2c60fbd203c12e731179194f50803a528b46c25b0d3973cf9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Death” (D003643).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003643). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## death-anxiety scales
<a id="death-anxiety-scales"></a>

Death-anxiety scales are measures used to assess how much death anxiety a person has. In this context, death anxiety means fear and anxious distress related to thoughts of one’s own death or the death of relatives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 13241e8550482b48dd66ca69e06feb8a6f74d739c75018018a5e345ea5ed48a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rayatpisheh Fatemeh; Torabizadeh Camellia; Najafi Kalyani Majid; Farsi Zahra. Relationship between resilience and death anxiety of the older adults during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12877-023-04086-8; article XML SHA-256 fa11b55a000b56eccba2769a4b99dadc6610687ba6f0b593d3efd6d25574ae2a. “Relationship between resilience and death anxiety of the older adults during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic” (10.1186/s12877-023-04086-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-023-04086-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## death feigning
<a id="death-feigning"></a>

Death feigning is a response triggered by threat in which the body becomes completely limp and loses muscle strength. It refers to a tonic immobility reaction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1711b212b5925d52ac146a96d8358955a81a4caf7765d5c1d2d8aa657b6cdd5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Immobility Response, Tonic” (D046353).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D046353). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## death system
<a id="death-system"></a>

In this source, the death system refers to the FAS/FASL biological system, which has an important role in programmed cell death and in how cells avoid immune attack. The article also describes genetic variation in this system as potentially affecting susceptibility to neuroblastoma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18642d798dce4abcd8b5bd2eba434fd04e40e1ffd8bbdea0bb258d82836c4783

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Han Wei; Zhou Yuling; Zhong Rong; Wu Chen; Song Ranran; Liu Li; Zou Li; Qiao Yan; Zhai Kan; Chang Jiang; Huang Liming; Liu Li; Lu Xuzai; Lou Jiao; Yu Dianke; Tan Wen; Zhang Jinzhe; Wang Huanmin; Miao Xiaoping. Functional Polymorphisms in FAS/FASL System Increase the Risk of Neuroblastoma in Chinese Population. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0071656; article XML SHA-256 7e0737f36ec83b7779e992b5e60c56f7afce8b140c3f715138cc2eeccf4f22d5. “Functional Polymorphisms in FAS/FASL System Increase the Risk of Neuroblastoma in Chinese Population” (10.1371/journal.pone.0071656).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071656). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## debriefing
<a id="debriefing"></a>

Debriefing is a structured reflection after an experience, used to examine what happened and learn from it. It may be guided by a facilitator or done by learners themselves with supports such as recordings or a reflection framework.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96ca2e747374339d5f3bdc8f59e2ebf8c04be4309ffb6774a7f02c271291707b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sohlin Amalie Middelboe; Poulsen Anja; Hoffmann Ida Madeline; Gjærde Line Klingen; Lund Stine; Overbeck Gritt; Paulsen Lone; Chang Todd P.; Lee Joy Yeonjoo; Sørensen Jette Led; Kjærgaard Jesper. Self-guided versus facilitator-guided debriefing in immersive virtual reality simulation: Protocol for a randomized controlled non-inferiority trial assessing teamwork skills in medical students. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332309; article XML SHA-256 974754a22efee3004df0812d7491bf95ebc1949bdbe03d1116baaac85e77ab88. “Self-guided versus facilitator-guided debriefing in immersive virtual reality simulation: Protocol for a randomized controlled non-inferiority trial assessing teamwork skills in medical students” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332309).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332309). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## decentering
<a id="decentering"></a>

Decentering is a metacognitive process in which a person notices thoughts and emotions as temporary mental events rather than as direct facts about the self. It involves stepping back from distressing inner experiences, which can support a more balanced self-view and greater psychological flexibility.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea08140dbccb9d32e3dc39e292a458b74ab46c40b78786cc187b6e525854bd56

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kahraman Baran; Rader Lena; Gauggel Siegfried; Doernberg Nina; Mainz Verena; Weise Lorenz; Drueke Barbara. The role of decentering and self-compassion in self-esteem regulation: how meditation and metacognition shape the use of self-esteem regulation strategies. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791258; article XML SHA-256 a8d5386fbe30011a75b32d53de8fc589fdfe22c6e2821f13fbb13f70caedb5d3. “The role of decentering and self-compassion in self-esteem regulation: how meditation and metacognition shape the use of self-esteem regulation strategies” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791258).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791258). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## decentralized organization
<a id="decentralized-organization"></a>

In this context, decentralized organization means a network arrangement that is less centered on a single hub and more spread out across connections, resembling a line rather than a star. The packet describes it as a more random pattern linked with lower overall efficiency in the attention network.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 528ab816c1a03164899ca7fc50bb9d012a033c91a582fefcbc7e29fb974667cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yanpei; Tao Fuxiang; Zuo Chenyi; Kanji Maihefulaiti; Hu Mingming; Wang Daoyang. Disrupted Resting Frontal–Parietal Attention Network Topology Is Associated With a Clinical Measure in Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00300; article XML SHA-256 2dcdddf4e1585eb3321834de448e083b033fff1ca6420ecaeeb922004ad1ba1b. “Disrupted Resting Frontal–Parietal Attention Network Topology Is Associated With a Clinical Measure in Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00300).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00300). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deception
<a id="deception"></a>

Deception is the act of misleading someone or the state of being misled.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dafc8c37b6063253b3985eff12bcac1e1ccd2cbf4633f9c3dbdb6db5b779f7fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Deception” (D008192).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008192). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deception research
<a id="deception-research"></a>

Deception research is the study of lying and the factors linked to it, including how personal characteristics and life experiences relate to deceptive behavior. In this source, it refers especially to examining whether childhood adversity is associated with how often people tell everyday minor lies and more serious lies in adulthood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8aeb9f14ea9ac76451951c35802157acf2b3a5727e9479231db59ef9912edf76

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Markowitz David M. From vulnerability to duplicity: Examining the connection between childhood adversity and deception. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321666; article XML SHA-256 42e48633c0e05bbf71a47cf602bee5cbcadd80d06e5bda73b38d4a41ad854d96. “From vulnerability to duplicity: Examining the connection between childhood adversity and deception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321666).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321666). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## decile
<a id="decile"></a>

A decile is one of ten groups into which a set of observations or ranked cases is divided. In the historical usage here, it is a way of separating degrees or standings into ten parts for comparison.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea568288b1ba20dcb2d93ef461b2e88181abb3cf51592394903cca78b858edcd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-325500-337500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Decision Making
<a id="decision-making"></a>

Decision making is the mental process of making a selective intellectual judgment when faced with several complex options involving multiple factors. It usually leads to a chosen course of action or a settled idea.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b62cdf0c5ae95c965e4105c435b1cd9515a98b1b01cab8d86df56c6c074e3834

Wording review pending: The eight-word defining process clause retains source prose; use a more direct independent explanation.

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Decision Making” (D003657).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003657). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## decision rule
<a id="decision-rule"></a>

A decision rule is a principle or pattern an individual uses to choose how to act. In this reciprocity context, it refers to a way of deciding whether to cooperate, and some decision rules are simpler and require less cognitive effort than others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 020268ab125f5b10d6a098fc5a5b9252b3ee93354ce8d8c70c7ed306f22937ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Engelhardt Sacha C; Weladji Robert B; Holand Øystein; Røed Knut H; Nieminen Mauri. Evidence suggesting that reindeer mothers allonurse according to the direct reciprocity and generalized reciprocity decision rules. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0295497; article XML SHA-256 81e8777ab66bf1c2c7eec86376a4738bf701601d021b98e8f8a8c730e8840670. “Evidence suggesting that reindeer mothers allonurse according to the direct reciprocity and generalized reciprocity decision rules” (10.1371/journal.pone.0295497).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295497). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## decisional balance
<a id="decisional-balance"></a>

Decisional balance is the mental process of comparing the expected benefits and drawbacks of continuing a behavior versus stopping it. In behavior change contexts, it refers to how a person weighs possible gains, losses, self-approval, and effects on important others when deciding whether to change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 204652e02c308039c2b4e4cf42828adfa69f21c350f25ef913e4b5a726798e3d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [López-Torrecillas Francisca; López-Quirantes Eva María; Maldonado Antonio; Albein-Urios Natalia; Rueda Mª del Mar; Verdejo-Garcia Antonio. Decisional balance and processes of change in community-recruited with moderate-high versus mild severity of cannabis dependence. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0188476; article XML SHA-256 550fedfd01e029fc6961a8c52e0bd53ef3dd55613fb31a58216ae46477b1855f. “Decisional balance and processes of change in community-recruited with moderate-high versus mild severity of cannabis dependence” (10.1371/journal.pone.0188476).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188476). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## declarative
<a id="declarative"></a>

In psychology, declarative refers to the domain-general memory system called declarative memory. In this source, it is contrasted with procedural memory and described as a type of learning and memory that is linked to children’s math skills.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05c2ba5e679f657876564b781455d92e341aeea3e739a41bd20973e244d5a22a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Evans Tanya M; Lipscomb Daniel W; Earle F Sayako; Del Tufo Stephanie N; Lum Jarrad A G; Cutting Laurie E; Ullman Michael T. Declarative memory supports children’s math skills: A longitudinal study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304211; article XML SHA-256 7b4b8abd908b05a82c168a16815945350897eeb5f810ae93a6929749cc7abff4. “Declarative memory supports children’s math skills: A longitudinal study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304211).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304211). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## decoding
<a id="decoding"></a>

In cognition, decoding is the process of interpreting a message by linking features of the message to the internal state of the person communicating. In psycholinguistics, it is studied alongside encoding as part of how people select and make sense of messages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f94b5aecf7b7631b559ec37aab7e98f1b6ad1006c3bd4bb39e43229e20c2cf1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psycholinguistics” (D011578).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011578). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deconstruction
<a id="deconstruction"></a>

In this developmental psychology context, deconstruction means critically taking apart an accepted concept to uncover the assumptions, historical ideas, and power relations built into it. Here, it refers to examining the concept of development to show how adult-centered and linear views can justify treating children as deficient rather than as active participants in the present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5987fd046f4eb29fae8c8fc81cba0219749b1e0504a433fc16f7e1c358139a0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Yao; Yang Xi. The ontological inversion: transcending adultcentrism in the concept of development for the critical deconstruction of bleak pedagogy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794220; article XML SHA-256 d3d22ac55fa9289f04514c5d052c8e04702f8c5ffb137d7f04e397ca132701cb. “The ontological inversion: transcending adultcentrism in the concept of development for the critical deconstruction of bleak pedagogy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794220).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794220). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## decussation
<a id="decussation"></a>

Decussation is the crossing of nerve fibre pathways in the central nervous system at the midline, so that a pathway ends in centers of different levels on the opposite side. In this historical usage, it is contrasted with a commissure, which is taken to link corresponding centers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43c4d36463451132d7682d53efe929b2a36e64fe6329ff499a7bbf0a6a2045b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Decussation” (Decussation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Decussation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dedifferentiation
<a id="dedifferentiation"></a>

Dedifferentiation is the process by which a more specialized cell shifts back toward a less specialized, more plastic, progenitor-like state. In the source context, this change is linked to regained capacity for proliferation, migration, and later neuronal differentiation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6acf6271d9bfeba468005b6f170a52dfb9acd9eda3a8baabbb83a6542307e5ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Victoria-Chavez Rebeca; Lamas Monica. Targeted knockdown of DNA methyltransferase 3a (DNMT3a) unlocks dedifferentiation and neurogenic potential in mouse retinal Müller glia. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337891; article XML SHA-256 7866d57dd702b836f97e8025c33325f6ff85207d8ab19d7e35a5b1b447b037ab. “Targeted knockdown of DNA methyltransferase 3a (DNMT3a) unlocks dedifferentiation and neurogenic potential in mouse retinal Müller glia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337891).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337891). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deduction
<a id="deduction"></a>

Deduction is a form of indirect reasoning in which the conclusion is presented as necessarily following from the given propositions when their meaning and connection are understood. The term may refer to the mental process of working out that result, the relation between the starting points and the conclusion, or the conclusion itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dceaa2238f8d03f46cef68414c5b3eaf71c7386c2f4b404fbd23d5e76f980f3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Deduction” (Deduction).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Deduction). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deductive reasoning
<a id="deductive-reasoning"></a>

Deductive reasoning is reasoning treated in exact logic as drawing conclusions through logical relations among terms, especially in forms that can be analyzed symbolically. In this historical source, it is presented as the kind of reasoning to which Boole applied algebraic methods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d4f0e396e1db43a820dbd2330939571c76de3ecf7e74d68f310c74c689cd39a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Logic (exact)” (Logic (exact)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L4defs.htm#Logic (exact)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deep brain stimulation
<a id="deep-brain-stimulation"></a>

Deep brain stimulation is a biological therapy used for movement disorders, especially Parkinson disease, in which electrodes are surgically placed in specific brain areas, such as the thalamus, to deliver electrical stimulation. The electrodes are connected to a neurostimulator placed under the skin.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8129445953155f6f4ffad10941155f2debc0bdf0cef3ff44d10552c4d35679fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Deep Brain Stimulation” (D046690).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D046690). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deep processing
<a id="deep-processing"></a>

Deep processing is a thorough, detailed analysis of language input that works toward a full, unambiguous understanding of what a sentence means. In the source, it is contrasted with more superficial “good enough” processing and is described as being used when the task requires that level of analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1cc2e6dd709ad16338be717b27a2691fc16fa104a4652e144ae0d3eb360d29ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frances Candice. Good enough processing: what have we learned in the 20 years since Ferreira et al. (2002)?. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1323700; article XML SHA-256 47a559afca1df49d3ede57be9a227a015adba2a7b1c48c7a9d58ec83b41e8024. “Good enough processing: what have we learned in the 20 years since Ferreira et al. (2002)?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1323700).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1323700). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deep sleep
<a id="deep-sleep"></a>

Deep sleep is a stage of sleep marked by highly synchronized brain-wave activity on an electroencephalogram. These waves are very slow, occurring at about 0.5 to 2 cycles per second, and have a large amplitude.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64309a88d85453734f2ce4ac3a40285e1546b241e6475741089436f2477fba9d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep, Slow-Wave” (D000077310).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077310). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deep structure
<a id="deep-structure"></a>

Deep structure refers to the underlying psychological basis of a concept rather than its surface expressions such as norms, values, or behaviors. In this source, it means the basic motivational pattern proposed to underlie filial piety across contexts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1fd77dcec78a7a1820f296fd11465c6208006dcf5b8337b9731e6a6773c619fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bedford Olwen; Yeh Kuang-Hui. Evolution of the Conceptualization of Filial Piety in the Global Context: From Skin to Skeleton. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.570547; article XML SHA-256 4312e4c3e70b06d3691aedf46d6e1d9bc58fb4149d8210a33226e38632210f1d. “Evolution of the Conceptualization of Filial Piety in the Global Context: From Skin to Skeleton” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.570547).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.570547). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deep vein thrombosis
<a id="deep-vein-thrombosis"></a>

Deep vein thrombosis is a blood clot in the deep veins of the lower leg or other lower-extremity veins. It is usually investigated with compression ultrasonography, which may examine only the proximal veins or the whole leg.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f6f3e5f4289a981cd1f2d856fc48dcd4c73352d8fe05f5106a5950e1bde6443

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kraaijpoel Noémie; Carrier Marc; Le Gal Grégoire; McInnes Matthew D F; Salameh Jean-Paul; McGrath Trevor A; van Es Nick; Moher David; Büller Harry R; Bossuyt Patrick M; Leeflang Mariska M G. Diagnostic accuracy of three ultrasonography strategies for deep vein thrombosis of the lower extremity: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0228788; article XML SHA-256 d830e2dab2d65de2dba03d7d52620c1b4e3b7d030ef4bb4c1a5d14bdbd482d73. “Diagnostic accuracy of three ultrasonography strategies for deep vein thrombosis of the lower extremity: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0228788).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228788). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## default-mode network
<a id="default-mode-network"></a>

The default-mode network is a set of functionally connected brain regions that are more active when a person is at rest. In cognitive imaging studies, often using fMRI, this network becomes less active during tasks that require attention or goal-directed behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ccffc0b3954ae759155febdc6be39886bcf788ff11bfb92c8b5fe5b486686ed5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Default Mode Network” (D000082702).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000082702). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## defect theory
<a id="defect-theory"></a>

In this context, defect theory refers to the view that pituitary stalk interruption syndrome may arise from congenital genetic abnormalities rather than delivery-related injury alone. It suggests that a person’s genetic background or specific gene mutations may disrupt normal embryonic development and contribute to the syndrome’s later clinical differences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4e295cd2b54aca742bf7c720108dec86f6b5f91b428331af57a57f1e16685ad7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Shengjie; Qin Qiaozhen; Jiang Deyue; Xiao Yan; Ye Lingtong; Jiang Xiaoxia; Guo Qinghua. Re-analysis of gene mutations found in pituitary stalk interruption syndrome and a new hypothesis on the etiology. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fendo.2024.1338781; article XML SHA-256 de00b72c933893fbf1aaf7a32df7b99006ad37025bdde59421643ce9869b3f34. “Re-analysis of gene mutations found in pituitary stalk interruption syndrome and a new hypothesis on the etiology” (10.3389/fendo.2024.1338781).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2024.1338781). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## defensive behavior
<a id="defensive-behavior"></a>

Defensive behavior is a self-protective response to a perceived threat or risk. In this source, it refers specifically to people responding to air pollution by purchasing health insurance to reduce or transfer the expected health-related burden.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 431b3b60a0af14a4bd3df232820daf8f84e305e2644ca77d71f091140af045c3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Qingqing; Dong Xinping. Air pollution and defensive behavior: Evidence from transaction data in China. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307295; article XML SHA-256 bdcd9ce1c3f0f951289abea858010b829cc4851c8874ad11f24ae3ec4a47cc43. “Air pollution and defensive behavior: Evidence from transaction data in China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307295).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307295). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deferred imitation
<a id="deferred-imitation"></a>

Deferred imitation is copying an action after a delay, showing that the person remembered the action rather than repeating it immediately. In this context, it is used as an indicator of memory processes in very young children.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22a401af4a360a746b4b8fb79d5c60f050065f161dd0df21ec6972df05e2bdcf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Heimann Mikael; Edorsson Angelica; Sundqvist Annette; Koch Felix-Sebastian. Thirteen- to Sixteen-Months Old Infants Are Able to Imitate a Novel Act from Memory in Both Unfamiliar and Familiar Settings But Do Not Show Evidence of Rational Inferential Processes. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02186; article XML SHA-256 847b673112389ab9ddb5cacfc3288ab4e93a32d06e3ebe37474aba496a200b29. “Thirteen- to Sixteen-Months Old Infants Are Able to Imitate a Novel Act from Memory in Both Unfamiliar and Familiar Settings But Do Not Show Evidence of Rational Inferential Processes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02186).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02186). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## definition
<a id="definition"></a>

Definition is either the act of setting the limits of an idea so its meaning is made clear, or the statement that expresses that result. In traditional logic, it aims to mark what is essential to the thing thought about and to distinguish it from other things, rather than to include accidental features.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a5fe4e77995f6cb43d6d55185b9efeb8090a0e8476332e3e3bd9934839c0f7fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Definition” (Definition).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Definition). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deformity
<a id="deformity"></a>

In this context, deformity refers to a physical difference in facial structure, such as a jaw abnormality. Psychologically, it is important because it can strongly affect self-perception, appearance-related thinking, and psychosocial well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1aaaa6ef87577c2610d9e5997aa8375481dc4569eb728679efcf23c40e52c99a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Matsuzawa Kiki; Honma Motoyasu; Haga Shugo; Ogura Sumire; Masaoka Yuri; Izumizaki Masahiko; Nakano Haruhisa. Appearance-related attentional bias is associated with dysmorphic appearance concern in individuals with jaw deformity: an eye-tracking study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1739028; article XML SHA-256 f104760c4c843eec063889b85616f7e44214e5a26c10529eed46cfe61229016a. “Appearance-related attentional bias is associated with dysmorphic appearance concern in individuals with jaw deformity: an eye-tracking study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1739028).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1739028). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## degeneration
<a id="degeneration"></a>

In historical psychology and psychiatry, degeneration referred to a supposed mental or nervous decline viewed as a backward movement in human development. The term was used broadly and imprecisely for a mixed group of people thought to show inherited nervous weakness, mental abnormalities, eccentricity, criminality, or vulnerability to insanity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a674ce4c7775b6cda0976194f85809dfe7490ac4b6d53526483438eefe896d64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Degeneration” (Degeneration).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Degeneration). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## degrees of freedom
<a id="degrees-of-freedom"></a>

Degrees of freedom are the number of independent pieces of information available for a statistical estimate. They are generally found by taking the number of observed values and subtracting the number of parameters that had to be estimated along the way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c90294ba70104550f52ac95255139a1167d12f5260c02de2075ba948660310e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Degrees of Freedom” (df.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/df.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dehumanization
<a id="dehumanization"></a>

Dehumanization is the process in which a person or group is seen or treated as if they do not have normal human qualities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2f1b2ab5ec132fd835b19a5b47f5d27ee9e036063848c40eb718e8fc3dbebf28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dehumanization” (D032981).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D032981). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deinstitutionalization
<a id="deinstitutionalization"></a>

Deinstitutionalization is a rights-based shift in mental health policy away from institutional and coercive forms of care. In this context, it emphasizes support in place of involuntary hospitalization and restraint, along with greater participation and supported decision-making for people with lived experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e039f975c7172580c7d6d7eff4e7e5d9e17cc1ce39f19c0424f663729f8e060c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xue Qian; Chen Bo. Paradigm shifts in mental health legislation: a comparative analysis of WHO guidelines (2006 & 2023) and implications for future policies. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804522; article XML SHA-256 9576e1eb19a07d86963f8131537d35ec61046899bd7c20ad290e1bc3cec31cf4. “Paradigm shifts in mental health legislation: a comparative analysis of WHO guidelines (2006 & 2023) and implications for future policies” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804522).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804522). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deism
<a id="deism"></a>

Deism is a form of theism that treats God as separate from the world rather than as including the world in the idea of God.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 271d5ebb9414c8343d6b14b4d8b1d1ffd596708086887e7fd6e828927bb29b11

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Deism” (Deism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Deism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Deiters cells
<a id="deiters-cells"></a>

Deiters cells are supporting cells in the organ of Corti that help form the framework around the sensory hair cells involved in hearing. They are located among other supporting cell types on the outer side of the inner hair cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9bb9f15d509f2d1d345864a21196a0eb8831fc2150f4530f23e276158f4f839e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Labyrinth Supporting Cells” (D007760).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007760). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## déjà vu
<a id="deja-vu"></a>

Déjà vu is the subjective sense that something happening now, even though it is actually being experienced for the first time, has happened before.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09d6aa4cabe036bcb0d61b9c32bb452baf144a9c22a8825e4bd8b0c7c0cfc6fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Deja Vu” (D003690).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003690). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delayed auditory feedback
<a id="delayed-auditory-feedback"></a>

Delayed auditory feedback is an experimental condition in which a person hears their own speech played back with a short delay, usually through headphones. This delayed self-hearing often disrupts fluent speaking by slowing speech and increasing disfluencies or speech errors, and its effects depend not only on timing mismatch but also on the speech-like content of the feedback.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f18c38a84c21ce1249174aca02bf053674a197dd142dc1fc6709a5189a6d3b8c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bohland Jason W; Ocampo Alexander; Lassige Caitlin A; Freed Tess N; Heyne Matthias. The effects of delayed auditory feedback depend on both the rhythm and content of the feedback signal. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1889468; article XML SHA-256 a723e39d8e4e05f1082692bb4580774b99e29f94e1ea62ce1195d8ecdf670659. “The effects of delayed auditory feedback depend on both the rhythm and content of the feedback signal” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1889468).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1889468). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delayed matching to sample
<a id="delayed-matching-to-sample"></a>

Delayed matching to sample is a learning or memory task in which an organism is shown a sample stimulus and, after a delay period, must choose the matching stimulus. Performance on the task can be affected by events that occur during the delay, because they may disrupt how the sample is retained or used to guide the later choice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69ae5401be7f2eb1d85a4697233aaa3e629dbdf8761e9bdd87e245b953038b07

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kouwenhoven Marijn; Colombo Michael. The Differential Outcomes Effect in Pigeons ( Columba livia ): Is It Truly Anticipatory?. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0150510; article XML SHA-256 7f91cf058d33c03a17942253f9f6af4b97ded1a0800308faea60ceeea98441a0. “The Differential Outcomes Effect in Pigeons ( Columba livia ): Is It Truly Anticipatory?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0150510).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0150510). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delayed parenthood
<a id="delayed-parenthood"></a>

Delayed parenthood is the postponement of the decision to become a parent. In the psychology context described here, it is linked to how people see themselves, including lower confidence, a weaker sense of competence, and reduced parenting self-efficacy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f050214edafc0c4c90a32295b792cc4e461b7524c28727be1c93dbd8a947336c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Szcześniak Małgorzata; Falewicz Adam; Chmiel Marianna; Kroplewski Zdzisław. English validation of the Multidimensional Scale of Motives for Postponing Parenthood (MSMPP-18-EN): Factorial structure, psychometric properties, and correlates. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329404; article XML SHA-256 7f2d40ea81649bd1ab4945f3ba7416a9f51d028baeba7b838b4372a72e3e293e. “English validation of the Multidimensional Scale of Motives for Postponing Parenthood (MSMPP-18-EN): Factorial structure, psychometric properties, and correlates” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329404).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329404). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delayed recall
<a id="delayed-recall"></a>

Delayed recall is a memory task in which a person tries to remember words after doing other activities for a period of time. In the source packet, it involves recalling five previously repeated words, with category cues offered if they cannot be remembered freely.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96c369b0ed09e5e8f64955dfea54020cd2bae7fc2f0f9b73fe7787b9ef04083c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Montreal Cognitive Assessment Delayed Recall Test” (C162717).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delayed reflex
<a id="delayed-reflex"></a>

Delayed reflex refers to slower-than-expected development of reflex responses, meaning normal reflex behaviors appear later or mature more slowly during early development. In this packet, it is described as part of impaired reflex development in mouse pups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9da54c826c1434a9dac75093707d424c2bda053a62a28c38ad118caffc184b97

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kofman Ora; Lan Anat; Raykin Eynav; Zega Ksenija; Brodski Claude. Developmental and social deficits and enhanced sensitivity to prenatal chlorpyrifos in PON1 -/- mouse pups and adults. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0239738; article XML SHA-256 dcf1b517cdd40b7934cda792f7b84c1dfc2373823b0a07a8b1508dfbe295e427. “Developmental and social deficits and enhanced sensitivity to prenatal chlorpyrifos in PON1 -/- mouse pups and adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0239738).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239738). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delayed reinforcement
<a id="delayed-reinforcement"></a>

Delayed reinforcement is reinforcement in which an action’s outcome or reward comes after a time gap rather than immediately. This delay can make learning the action–outcome relationship harder for reinforcement learning systems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17e4ace872ee6676687619d85723d950f3bf645253acca3e11bae7ed13085176

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cardinal Rudolf N; Cheung Timothy HC. Nucleus accumbens core lesions retard instrumental learning and performance with delayed reinforcement in the rat. 2005; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-6-9; article XML SHA-256 64ec1da5490edd168ecf9ff6e6da6e53fa0021041ee91f6462dcb8e1eba320a8. “Nucleus accumbens core lesions retard instrumental learning and performance with delayed reinforcement in the rat” (10.1186/1471-2202-6-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-6-9). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deletion
<a id="deletion"></a>

In this source, deletion refers to the absence of genetic material from a gene. Specifically, spinal muscular atrophy is described as being caused when both copies of the SMN1 gene are deleted or otherwise lose normal function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 307d1662fd1739de8b50b3d8ab65644e8756aeddf3125263d6c29f3c0ffbc478

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Jiayi; Liu Yang; Yuan Annie; Ning Ke. Therapeutic strategies for spinal muscular atrophy: the history and future perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1833269; article XML SHA-256 b8eace0fa49d383ec7ce1f27cff38e2a7caf06f45c304988d64e5568dfbe21b3. “Therapeutic strategies for spinal muscular atrophy: the history and future perspective” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1833269).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1833269). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delinquency
<a id="delinquency"></a>

Juvenile delinquency refers to problem behavior in young people that is treated as an important public health concern and a target for prevention efforts. In this context, research examines how structured exercise and sport programs may help reduce it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 35222610e1b549f94fd82a2c8467f8b5fc1c0bfd64801597f323bde7e7f0db83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Jing; Chen Hongjin; Tian Mengdi. From body shaping to character formation: international research progress and mechanisms of exercise training interventions for juvenile delinquency. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1888577; article XML SHA-256 b87e9fbe327fc392a60335aacd260a8c545c0aae5b8907103b8bff06a1432b6b. “From body shaping to character formation: international research progress and mechanisms of exercise training interventions for juvenile delinquency” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1888577).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1888577). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## délire de négation
<a id="delire-de-negation"></a>

In this historical psychiatric term, a person in a delusional depressive state believes that they do not exist or are nobody, and may also believe that the world itself is unreal, destroyed, or gone. The source describes it as a marked form of depressive delirium appearing as an episode within melancholic states.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed35b51e70470d9480d00a28b78e358f106f3762e9cc11d11a482e162032c0a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Melancholia” (Melancholia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Melancholia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delirium
<a id="delirium"></a>

Delirium is a disorder marked by confusion, poor attention, disorientation, and disturbed perception such as illusions or hallucinations, often with agitation. In some cases it also includes overactivity of the autonomic nervous system and can arise from toxic or metabolic problems or from structural lesions in the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f7da9ad7e671fd2250660b96c5a106d39ec21c84c34640b2887d21ffaba8b3ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Delirium” (D003693).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003693). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delirium tremens
<a id="delirium-tremens"></a>

Delirium tremens is an acute mental disorder that can happen when a person who has been drinking alcohol chronically suddenly stops or sharply reduces use. It involves confusion, delusions, vivid hallucinations, tremor, agitation, insomnia, and overactivity of the autonomic nervous system such as increased blood pressure, faster heart rate, dilated pupils, and sweating, and it can sometimes be fatal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec3fb9be3c9813262fdf02dadffd7f3e1ffe973f6affeeadf021c1e580adb65b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alcohol Withdrawal Delirium” (D000430).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000430). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System
<a id="deliskaplan-executive-function-system"></a>

The Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System is a neuropsychological assessment used to examine executive functions, such as higher-level thinking skills involved in problem solving and decision making. In the supplied source, its Sorting Test is used to add assessment of executive functioning to broader cognitive testing for a more complete picture of cognitive difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 233e7eb38a5c9435b52a46db3291d311bf859e7d71809c4ab51d416c23d88dd8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Riccardi Alice; Puthenparampil Marco; Rinaldi Francesca; Ermani Mario; Perini Paola; Gallo Paolo. D-KEFS ST Failure Identifies Multiple Sclerosis Patients With Worse Objective and Self-Perceived Physical and Cognitive Disability. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00049; article XML SHA-256 72881432fb2eb4e8e0fd4717aeff18bdfdbaacbda1d23b34da6136fc3412d3fd. “D-KEFS ST Failure Identifies Multiple Sclerosis Patients With Worse Objective and Self-Perceived Physical and Cognitive Disability” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00049).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00049). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Delphi technique
<a id="delphi-technique"></a>

The Delphi technique is a method used to gather and refine agreement among experts. In this context, it is used to reach consensus on learning objectives and course content.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8379dd50f7a8da02e53a1451a7c9921d871fa48f5cd7f3ac1c40d080101245a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jafri Lena; Abid Muhammad Abbas; Rehman Javeria; Ahmed Sibtain; Abbas Ghazanfar; Ali Howrah; Kanani Fatima; Ali Usman; Alavi Nusrat; Aslam Farheen; Iqbal Sahar; Ijaz Aamir; Munir Muhammad Usman; Dildar Shabnam; Nawaz Syed Haider; Adnan Khushbakht; Khan Aysha Habib; Zubairi Adnan Mustafa; Siddiqui Imran. Development of a virtual classroom for pre-analytical phase of laboratory medicine for undergraduate medical students using the Delphi technique. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0264447; article XML SHA-256 cdf2cbe0e49cc5ed11e9d31f50ce633fe80a3cb3621c0f21ad55cc71b997ee9e. “Development of a virtual classroom for pre-analytical phase of laboratory medicine for undergraduate medical students using the Delphi technique” (10.1371/journal.pone.0264447).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264447). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delta
<a id="delta"></a>

In this context, delta refers to very slow brain waves in the 0.1 to 4 Hz range. They are commonly associated with unconscious states such as sleep and general anesthesia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd820e651bab721a1aad57874fd34acb9d9709069f430192256d381fb1ad1f87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pic Roca Clara; Bazregarzadeh Hanieh; Morisson Louis; Martin Antonio; Verdonck Olivier; Gibbs Steve; Lina Jean-Marc; Carrier Julie; Richebé Philippe; Duclos Catherine. Protocol for modulating anesthesia delta oscillations using closed loop auditory stimulation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1748528; article XML SHA-256 4985741abb0d8c64dcd63ff5afed2be0b1320be9d4b36aed737018a847ee1524. “Protocol for modulating anesthesia delta oscillations using closed loop auditory stimulation” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1748528).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1748528). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
<a id="delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol"></a>

Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC, is a psychoactive compound obtained from the resin of Cannabis sativa. It is regarded as the most active form and is associated with characteristic changes in mood and perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8003aee8b9921a65c8c206b8639e1db61204a0533a8cd79db593fc8817da7328

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dronabinol” (D013759).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013759). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delta opioid receptor
<a id="delta-opioid-receptor"></a>

The delta opioid receptor is a type of opioid receptor involved in pain-relieving effects. In the supplied study, pain relief produced through this receptor remained effective in a rat model of neuropathic pain and, unlike mu and kappa opioid receptor effects, did not appear to depend on microglial activation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0efa2b34b4785513a88b43a970b2e36c2a73210cf56cfca5699a53613a92b2a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mika Joanna; Popiolek-Barczyk Katarzyna; Rojewska Ewelina; Makuch Wioletta; Starowicz Katarzyna; Przewlocka Barbara. Delta-Opioid Receptor Analgesia Is Independent of Microglial Activation in a Rat Model of Neuropathic Pain. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0104420; article XML SHA-256 481deb5c2833e239af6f61a3f7dd100b60f49ec9f0900059c2453daf94a93a32. “Delta-Opioid Receptor Analgesia Is Independent of Microglial Activation in a Rat Model of Neuropathic Pain” (10.1371/journal.pone.0104420).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0104420). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delusion
<a id="delusion"></a>

A delusion is a false belief, or a perception shaped by a false belief, that tends to persist and may be supported by elaborate reasoning. In older psychopathology, it is distinguished from illusion and hallucination because it centers on a fixed false belief that the person cannot recognize as false.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02e2075eb17cb637ec8fd3ba3a246fb579955937f3649bf098954df00b26e6e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Delusion” (Delusion).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Delusion). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delusion of negation
<a id="delusion-of-negation"></a>

A delusion of negation is a morbid belief, described in historical psychiatry, in which a person denies the reality or existence of themselves, parts of their body, or the world around them. In the passage, it is presented as a severe form of melancholic negative thinking that can progress from feeling changed or emptied to believing one is dead or that nothing exists.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 740d7340b8a66e20621857bb47c3c41af9f42e05d84270b9f7bc62e004e7d77e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-619500-631500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delusional disorder
<a id="delusional-disorder"></a>

Delusional disorder is a mental disorder in which a person has one or more persistent beliefs that are false but not obviously impossible, lasting at least a month. These beliefs are not better explained by schizophrenia or a mood disorder, and outside the effects of the delusion, the person’s general psychosocial functioning is not markedly impaired.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: efbafaa477d1475c2094fe770cb92915ec8633c5c5512e44e3d2251efb4f91ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Delusional Disorder” (C94379).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delusional mania
<a id="delusional-mania"></a>

In this historical classification, delusional mania is a form of mania placed among states of mental exaltation. The term refers to manic excitement occurring with delusions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 81480318c195bdbfeff977c7f43efad4041b03a1cc3d750ce5acd05c0fd3fb1a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1323000-1335000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delusional parasitosis
<a id="delusional-parasitosis"></a>

Delusional parasitosis is a delusional disorder in which a person believes they are infested with insects or other parasites. It is often associated with crawling or itching skin sensations and skin damage from attempts to remove the imagined infestation, and it may occur on its own or as a result of another medical or psychiatric condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d8469eb8136b9035540e62da7d81158d45a0947b99c46a97a067afb84949d52

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Delusional Parasitosis” (D063726).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063726). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## delusional system
<a id="delusional-system"></a>

A delusional system is a fixed, lasting pattern of false beliefs, such as feeling persecuted or believing a partner is unfaithful, that does not change despite evidence. It can develop gradually while a person otherwise keeps clear, organized thinking, with emotions and behavior fitting the delusional beliefs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9acff9431d61556e19c014cac2b73434f495d9c88a46e13c0f358c7c909c76ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paranoid Disorders” (D010259).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010259). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## demand
<a id="demand"></a>

In this historical usage, demand means the amount of a commodity that buyers in a market are prepared to buy at a given price, or the rate at which they would buy it over time. It can also mean the purchasing power offered in exchange for the item, and it is distinguished from desire because demand refers to an actual market quantity rather than a feeling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3371e3f3003eba124db5aa226c96445ab717533c1545b6aba5fd1a0f9e7a470

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Demand” (Demand).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Demand). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## demandingness
<a id="demandingness"></a>

Demandingness is described here as a traditional family-related approach discussed in contrast to modern responsiveness, which is reflected in family closeness. In this context, it is part of a debate about which family pattern better supports students’ social and emotional development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 455e66ca2114f987ea14d383af513840c75791627e9740532b9ced8ca63a4244

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Gewei; Madzokere Amanda Wayne; Zhang Yi; Zhang Yanjun. Examining how emotional state, tolerance and closeness to others mediate the relationship between closeness to families and empathy in Chinese students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1723348; article XML SHA-256 42750cc64f59b8b78da1bb31d96c3bb86608a9221c57ae4a4a520c7582b905d9. “Examining how emotional state, tolerance and closeness to others mediate the relationship between closeness to families and empathy in Chinese students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1723348).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1723348). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dementia
<a id="dementia"></a>

Dementia is an acquired brain-based mental disorder marked by a decline in intellectual abilities severe enough to disrupt social or work functioning. It typically affects multiple areas such as memory, behavior, personality, judgment, attention, language, spatial abilities, abstract thinking, and other executive functions, usually progresses over time, and at first does not reduce consciousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4365007ee615f5c2e36e1913c81c5a33242aa27866eb30c75f0d2d0ae9cda134

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dementia” (D003704).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003704). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dementia paralytica
<a id="dementia-paralytica"></a>

Dementia paralytica, or general paralysis, is described as a progressive brain disease marked by characteristic tissue changes and often linked chiefly to syphilis. The passage presents it as affecting nervous, vascular, and supporting brain tissues, with degeneration especially prominent in motor regions and sometimes beginning with spinal symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3616282f1844eae259300850d4dd0c896f7c8ab14959823adf84fbd0c75a91f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1480500-1492500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Dementia Rating Scale
<a id="dementia-rating-scale"></a>

The Dementia Rating Scale, also called the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale, is a cognitive assessment used to measure overall cognitive functioning. In the supplied source, it is used as an outcome measure in studies of neuropsychological effects in Parkinson’s disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2c8a6e09e7c0352e15f0dd9f3e80162b00aedbead575839dedefd3522e75783

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ning Jing; Lv Xiujuan; You Jianyu; Zhou Xingyu; An Chengfei; Zhou Zhigang. Neuropsychological outcomes comparing deep brain stimulation and best medical treatment for Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587; article XML SHA-256 af971fb6a9b037c466d05ee91fa126e1c1ba634efe2ff3d6a458939cb778efd1. “Neuropsychological outcomes comparing deep brain stimulation and best medical treatment for Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Demerol
<a id="demerol"></a>

Demerol is meperidine hydrochloride, a synthetic opioid drug. It acts at opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects such as pain relief, sedation, euphoria, slowed breathing, pinpoint pupils, slowed heart rate, and physical dependence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bfdbf524cc2f54fe83aaaad7941d7dddbdabbe0540ccc6c6a5317e71ebdf05df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Meperidine Hydrochloride” (C635).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## democracy
<a id="democracy"></a>

Democracy is, in its basic sense, rule by the people. More specifically, it refers to a form of government in which control rests with the general body of the people rather than with wealth or privileged rank, and it is also sometimes used more loosely for the mass of the people themselves.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee9a3cb81cd11d550ee35b35d3f6df91cd723be6b26090267fb13cd507dfb605

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Democracy” (Democracy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Democracy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## demographic research
<a id="demographic-research"></a>

Demographic research is research used to understand population-related issues such as low fertility and the psychosocial factors linked with fertility intentions. In this context, it helps provide evidence that can inform policy development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cd32542b1bc80882dfd2d8465c5c356112382d11ecf569f78a81b836bf239eb5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Huanjun. The Invisible threshold of childbearing: an investigation of social trust and fertility intentions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1833532; article XML SHA-256 6772f46271efc4432047bb816d6f3c46fa9d6fc881d7b6303988a1b0dc8a6114. “The Invisible threshold of childbearing: an investigation of social trust and fertility intentions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1833532).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1833532). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## demography
<a id="demography"></a>

Demography is the statistical study and description of human populations, focusing on their physical condition rather than their social or moral qualities. It examines the state and changes of populations, especially through births, marriages, deaths, and migration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e2e1583134629fa726a72ed0c7b59b0706609390e004ec05b8982f3544b398f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Demography” (Demography).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Demography). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## demonic possession
<a id="demonic-possession"></a>

Demonic possession is the belief that abnormal behavior or a medical problem shows that a person is being controlled by a supernatural spirit or power. This idea was especially common in medieval religion and medicine and is also found in some tribal cultures today.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8a4573bb6d757b2239bc72a68ee43ec6e192c43c2291b97331b952702047cf81

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Spirit Possession” (D000067496).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067496). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## demonolatry
<a id="demonolatry"></a>

Demonolatry is the worship or appeasement of spirits, especially those regarded as harmful or evil. In historical usage, it usually refers less to devoted adoration than to attempts to avoid harm through propitiation, often linked with magical practices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d4f2b8aa209c6907157e9bf1c2facd9d4b82fd623dece5e510c625a31751ca7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Demonolatry” (Demonolatry).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Demonolatry). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## demonology
<a id="demonology"></a>

Demonology is the study or body of belief about demons, understood in a broad anthropological sense as beings between gods and humans. In historical accounts, such beings were often used to explain illness, trance states, nightmares, and other misfortunes, with their meaning changing across cultures and religious traditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2c87aba0499a8a45b8a69cedd1b5b47843df27f068da77284eb55308b4bf69a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Demonology” (Demonology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Demonology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## demonomania
<a id="demonomania"></a>

Demonomania is a historical term for a disordered mental state in which a person believes they are possessed by a demon. In older usage, demon possession could also mean the broader belief that demons caused certain illnesses or unusual behaviors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: feb10817cc1a3d775253cb9354e70b37e8dfa6473cb2b6724330eee0c1ad5dcb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Demonomania or Demon Possession” (Demonomania or Demon Possession).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Demonomania or Demon Possession). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## demonstration experiment
<a id="demonstration-experiment"></a>

A demonstration experiment is a study in which participants are shown an ostensive demonstration of an action by a model, and researchers assess what parts of the demonstrated behavior, such as the means used or the goal, are later copied. In this packet, it refers to using demonstration and comparison conditions to study imitation and the interpretation of communicative intent in toddlers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9ad0e3ac2cf61595f40d7bdb3b688feb13001fd8d0ceda5ea69f16f0c49861f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Flatebø Solveig; Óturai Gabriella; Hernik Mikołaj. No evidence for adult smartphone use affecting attribution of communicative intention in toddlers: Online imitation study using the Sock Ball Task. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300874; article XML SHA-256 42a23c830d2095bd951ee50a2ea6bb09488f7d63245d96ac6b65f95c3d7d52db. “No evidence for adult smartphone use affecting attribution of communicative intention in toddlers: Online imitation study using the Sock Ball Task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300874).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300874). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## demoralization
<a id="demoralization"></a>

Demoralization is the bringing in of moral or mental disorder. In this historical psychology source, it refers to a loss of orderly moral or mental functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75e12b1ee994d0076ef9746092ad486e510d22872b7ea3937e2f0aaa5ac30efc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Demoralization” (Demoralization).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Demoralization). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## demyelinating disease
<a id="demyelinating-disease"></a>

Demyelinating disease is a broad group of disorders in which the myelin covering of nerve fibers is damaged. Because myelin helps nerve impulses travel quickly in the central and peripheral nervous systems, this damage interferes with nerve signal transmission.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6346bc67336208be867c3fc3738de032fe52e2c04a18738d069e4d544ee27601

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Demyelinating Disorder” (C34527).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dendrite
<a id="dendrite"></a>

A dendrite is a long, branching part of a neuron that carries electrical signals from synapses toward the cell body. The term can also refer more generally to any structure with a similar branching form.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 199600fcee4c22fd08bf3e6d8481097063d29cbe318bd6f5ccc5704c58288ed2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dendrite” (C32447).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dendritic spine
<a id="dendritic-spine"></a>

A dendritic spine is a small, changeable projection from a dendrite whose shape and distribution shift with neuronal activity. These structures are important for memory and learning, and their forms vary along a continuum rather than fitting only a few fixed categories.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ca721b4820da1b7f8c36581056e7807c07ef7d5d026118c5f2b6ecca6fab529

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sharma Uma Shashi; LeDuc Philip R; Zhang Yongjie Jessica. A data-driven framework for modeling the dendritic spine continuum using dimensionality reduction and clustering toward understanding synaptic plasticity. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349775; article XML SHA-256 ffa689646ae36226f7223d32e96e817d69b8d4eda1e109e1a70898297d8f6089. “A data-driven framework for modeling the dendritic spine continuum using dimensionality reduction and clustering toward understanding synaptic plasticity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349775).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349775). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## density
<a id="density"></a>

Density is the amount of matter or mass contained within a given volume of a body. Historically, it was closely linked with the older idea of specific gravity, though density is the broader physical term because it does not depend on gravity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb1eefae80422f9408ee6af5fcd3a1e7f63278b8607d57b51c13d903ab73f438

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Density” (Density).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Density). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## density curve
<a id="density-curve"></a>

In this biological imaging context, a density curve is an analysis output used in digital subtraction angiography to provide information about flow within blood vessels. It has been described as relying on manual selection of the vasculature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2f41e25ea7739c2185943928a9de5f4ccadb152582c281e0bc51e33f7757bad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Han-Jui; Hong Jia-Sheng; Lin Chung-Jung; Kao Yi-Hsuan; Chang Feng-Chi; Luo Chao-Bao; Chu Wei-Fa. Automatic flow analysis of digital subtraction angiography using independent component analysis in patients with carotid stenosis. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0185330; article XML SHA-256 e43b3f192e4d4b27ac364365ae6dd2f36b23abb64bda97376eea0ca6a6921a39. “Automatic flow analysis of digital subtraction angiography using independent component analysis in patients with carotid stenosis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0185330).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185330). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## density function
<a id="density-function"></a>

A density function is a nonnegative mathematical rule used with a continuous random variable to find the probability of falling within a range of values, rather than at one exact value. Across all possible values, the total probability represented by the function is 1.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7f9a357e84a539f423aff97e78e4d96cfaaae6300fddd6de89cac9af8776e81

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Probability Density” (probability_density.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/probability_density.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dental age
<a id="dental-age"></a>

Dental age is an estimate of a person’s age drawn from features seen in dental radiographs, such as stages of tooth maturation or third molar development, rather than from their recorded birth date. It is used when chronological age cannot be verified, including for legal or forensic decisions such as judging whether someone is above or below 18 years.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f5187670303115d4fd893f4b4da9ba0ec67cb638c2b2e6c330dc3b85455a0925

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alsufyani Noura; Alowa Sawsan; Alrasheed Hend; Alqahtani Sakher. Radiographic legal age estimation based on third molar development using Machine-learning algorithms. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354704; article XML SHA-256 2f9c3844b66b29f90e140ef6958d685c1a7aa7931036648713dcdfcb6a26b249. “Radiographic legal age estimation based on third molar development using Machine-learning algorithms” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354704).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354704). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dentate gyrus
<a id="dentate-gyrus"></a>

The dentate gyrus is a region of gray matter located above the hippocampal gyrus. It has three layers, including a dense granule cell layer whose nerve fibers pass through the polymorphic layer and connect with pyramidal cell dendrites in the hippocampus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2e8b83b2a2dbb9c7330819cbfcbd73d1279b0c8e533134ae6346830d13193c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dentate Gyrus” (D018891).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018891). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dentate nucleus
<a id="dentate-nucleus"></a>

The dentate nucleus is a structure in the cerebellum. In the supplied source, it is discussed as a brain area where increased MRI signal intensity has been reported after repeated use of gadolinium-based contrast agents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d056701d444f95b92e09ac6a5438544f223c1cfd7e0fd568b5879c02b3a4f9a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Olchowy Cyprian; Cebulski Kamil; Łasecki Mateusz; Chaber Radosław; Olchowy Anna; Kałwak Krzysztof; Zaleska-Dorobisz Urszula. The presence of the gadolinium-based contrast agent depositions in the brain and symptoms of gadolinium neurotoxicity - A systematic review. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0171704; article XML SHA-256 1a347b4e4298134c9ea531a2c09133365d0e957300d02c660831d428730852d3. “The presence of the gadolinium-based contrast agent depositions in the brain and symptoms of gadolinium neurotoxicity - A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0171704).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171704). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Dentist-Patient Relations
<a id="dentist-patient-relations"></a>

Dentist-patient relations refers to the psychological aspects of the relationship between a dentist and a patient.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b958c5dacca20dd3432c21a084262c6393a4d9fb81064aa9cefd3f80d39f52d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Dentist-Patient Relations” (D003812).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003812). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deoxyribonucleic acid
<a id="deoxyribonucleic-acid"></a>

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the biological material that contains genes, which provide the instructions for making proteins that help build cells. DNA is inherited from biological parents and differs slightly between people, contributing to differences in appearance, personality, health, and some associations with mental disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 228e5ac9fbb22f3906c59f5397a0482f066b88fe661b3f6c21fb053c2d03ddda

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Looking at My Genes: What Can They Tell Me About My Mental Health?. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 e0a8e68cb501d46c5f874a27c2d5a30a84750d1a2237f7aef870195d127e7c4e. “Looking at My Genes: What Can They Tell Me About My Mental Health?” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/looking-at-my-genes).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/looking-at-my-genes). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Depacon
<a id="depacon"></a>

Depacon is valproate sodium, the sodium salt form of valproic acid, a biological substance with anti-epileptic activity. In the blood it is converted to valproate ion, and it appears to raise brain GABA activity and may also stabilize nerve cell membranes through effects on potassium channels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: afc1d97f24f526b92d8c71906b5075c2d87ec8ec85182536bb768e6b922a6fd3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Valproate Sodium” (C48029).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Depakene
<a id="depakene"></a>

Depakene is valproic acid, a synthetic chemical related to propylpentanoic acid that has antiepileptic effects. In the brain, it appears to raise levels of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and it has also been studied for possible antitumor and antiangiogenesis activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b0ee07e91a7c57fdb19fcb146a3e7d387d81f5fa516e59c72038d7d11d0d19b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Valproic Acid” (C29536).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Depakote
<a id="depakote"></a>

Depakote is a form of divalproex sodium, a compound made from sodium valproate and valproic acid that has anticonvulsant and antiepileptic effects. In the digestive tract it separates into valproate, which may raise brain levels of GABA and reduce repetitive nerve firing by affecting sodium channels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d51f0d948e76344401c83c7b05f2e58581189c5a273e0bb4a9f15dcae05f7e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Divalproex Sodium” (C28996).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dependence
<a id="dependence"></a>

In this historical source, dependence means any relation in which one thing is conditioned by or caused by another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: add2b450d98bb062feff229906c4e09da57f4da8e97e08bd1ec3587d49a01c02

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dependence” (Dependence).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Dependence). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dependency court
<a id="dependency-court"></a>

Dependency court, in this packet, refers to a civil court type discussed in contrast to criminal problem-solving courts within the Florida court system. The term is used for the court setting whose team members were surveyed about barriers to medications for opioid use disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb78f45b1170b55dd2456d4f37338358d298a7f3fc8b79e64c58ccfd1eaf4afc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ahmed Fatema Z; Andraka-Christou Barbara; Clark MH; Totaram Rachel; Atkins Danielle N; del Pozo Brandon. Barriers to medications for opioid use disorder in the court system: provider availability, provider “trustworthiness,” and cost. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s40352-022-00188-4; article XML SHA-256 b45eac47ce199ac51c642f3c9e2a657045dee981ed1a98a578e099f24409ecf9. “Barriers to medications for opioid use disorder in the court system: provider availability, provider “trustworthiness,” and cost” (10.1186/s40352-022-00188-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40352-022-00188-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Dependency, Psychological
<a id="dependency-psychological"></a>

Psychological dependency is a tendency to rely on other people for advice, guidance, or support.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bb7ab263df8b7495bbaa1c4b6789eda38d12e65d030b5a72dd3dc0abc60dc5c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Dependency, Psychological” (D003858).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003858). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dependent personality disorder
<a id="dependent-personality-disorder"></a>

Dependent personality disorder is a personality disorder marked by an ongoing, excessive need to be cared for, which leads to submissive, clingy behavior and fear of separation across different situations, starting by early adulthood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 299ff4fe43f1a25041230efe7b66698b687a876218d4206bf2592ddb633b7b5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dependent Personality Disorder” (D003859).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003859). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dependent samples
<a id="dependent-samples"></a>

In this context, dependent samples means groups of study participants who have substance dependence. The term is used to compare people with substance dependence to the general population in research on mood disorders and related outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 044c9a7a8db283a29ba74401294500e2f015da867897df7fe14f55df5677be70

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ross Joanne; Teesson Maree; Lejuez Carl; Mills Katherine; Kaye Sharlene; Brady Kathleen; Dore Glenys; Prior Katrina; Larkin Xanthe; Cassar Joanne; Ewer Philippa; Memedovic Sonja; Kihas Ivana; Masters Sarah Louise. The efficacy of behavioural activation treatment for co-occurring depression and substance use disorder (the activate study): a randomized controlled trial. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12888-016-0943-1; article XML SHA-256 6edf1ff12931badc654e54ac9e4ceb7d438c1b7b278d939890d91d75e51ad580. “The efficacy of behavioural activation treatment for co-occurring depression and substance use disorder (the activate study): a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-016-0943-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0943-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dependent variable
<a id="dependent-variable"></a>

A dependent variable is the outcome that is measured in an experiment. It is the variable used to observe the effects of the independent variable and is also called a dependent measure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8174c2355ea4cb62f5b712c0bf1c697aa9a77fb5bd5cfcd11835bfe16d74a727

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Dependent Variable” (dependent_variable.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/dependent_variable.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## depersonalization
<a id="depersonalization"></a>

Depersonalization is a state in which a person feels a sense of unreality about themselves or about their surroundings. It can occur in the context of several mental disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ffe4e501037ebbdc9f44eb3b7c3b163131e16bc2d6d30d17ac8e5190043e999f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Depersonalization” (D003861).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003861). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## depersonalization disorder
<a id="depersonalization-disorder"></a>

Depersonalization disorder is a mental condition marked by ongoing or repeated episodes of feeling detached from oneself, such as from one’s body or mental processes. During these experiences, the person still recognizes that the sense of unreality is only a feeling and not actually true.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cd35b5a9c85297bdee830fc1675558cc0bcb6d15a932228ebee3747bd3aad9f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Depersonalization Disorder” (C94331).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## depersonification
<a id="depersonification"></a>

In this historical usage, depersonification means treating nature as no longer person-like or spirit-like. It refers to the developed separation of ideas of self from ideas of nature, so that nature is understood instead through impersonal, mechanical categories.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a5018548b3a58a95551b9bfabc06addfd5f6930662c8efeecc6feae9011c619

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1627500-1639500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Deplin
<a id="deplin"></a>

Deplin refers to levomefolic acid, a nutritional supplement containing L-methylfolate, the biologically active form of vitamin B9. In the supplied source, it is described as having possible anti-cancer effects through effects on DNA methylation and tumor cell growth, and as being able to cross the blood-brain barrier.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f001ce72af7b2522957c9a8cdd5e98eaf1f954fc96252529a27abcbb9f4b1f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Levomefolic Acid” (C81119).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## depolarization
<a id="depolarization"></a>

In this source, depolarization refers to spreading depolarization, an electrophysiological event that can contribute to secondary brain injury in neurocritical care. It is distinguished from cortical spreading depression, which is the accompanying suppression of brain electrical activity rather than the depolarization event itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38624c0daa5595181fd5d7e75ce3534075ce9c3d83e4b2da377d9f44dacb11d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Peng; Liu Xianyun; Huang Jingcun; Tong Yu; Peng Xi. Spreading depolarization in neurocritical care: a review of SD’S pathophysiological continuum and clinical translation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1759247; article XML SHA-256 aaa1ec40306674ace071aaf4d3395419eea0618574881f7690aada9cc00b8d07. “Spreading depolarization in neurocritical care: a review of SD’S pathophysiological continuum and clinical translation” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1759247).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1759247). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## depression
<a id="depression"></a>

Depression is a depressive state that is usually moderate in intensity rather than a major depressive disorder. It can occur in the context of neurotic and psychotic disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e1105a3e47960d2dfc7a7f0fc1fc66ec4b34544ab5109e7d94b9a0ba83820156

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Depression” (D003863).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003863). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## depressive anxiety
<a id="depressive-anxiety"></a>

Depressive anxiety refers to a combination of depression and anxiety symptoms occurring together. In this packet, the term is used for perinatal symptoms during pregnancy and after birth that can persist or recur and may affect the mother–infant bond and child development if untreated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c25bbbb3422ad55acd180744c61accb295daeb8cb3831fe86a08f780e8df509d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gomà Marta; Arias-Pujol Eulàlia; Llairó Antònia; Prims Emma; Ferrer Josep; Sastre Laia; Glover Vivette; Nanzer Nathalie. The effectiveness of Parenthood-Centred Psychotherapy on perinatal maternal depressive-anxiety symptoms and child development in a disadvantaged population. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758157; article XML SHA-256 3970e2ead5898824b058ed137f0bb6c2bb85aa7c301f6e0b3a76d978d86bffe2. “The effectiveness of Parenthood-Centred Psychotherapy on perinatal maternal depressive-anxiety symptoms and child development in a disadvantaged population” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758157).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758157). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## depressive disorder
<a id="depressive-disorder"></a>

A depressive disorder is a mood disorder marked by a persistently low or unhappy mood, or by losing interest or pleasure in usual activities. The change in mood is a main feature and tends to last rather than being brief.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05b97c54373e1c356e2b6e6ddae80e367843340990f350dc2e04574a5eb3bc1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Depressive Disorder” (D003866).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003866). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Depressive Disorder, Treatment-Resistant
<a id="depressive-disorder-treatment-resistant"></a>

Treatment-resistant depressive disorder is depression that does not improve after multiple antidepressant treatment attempts. In this source, it means failing to respond to at least two trials of single antidepressants or to four or more trials using different antidepressant therapies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b666de0d3cbd45b6b91e42453d5094f928dfe89ad37ee31bfe6b145d0f79d33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Depressive Disorder, Treatment-Resistant” (D061218).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D061218). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## depressive episode
<a id="depressive-episode"></a>

A depressive episode is a period of depression that can be brought on in some people by physical and hormonal changes. In the source, this is described in connection with times such as pregnancy, the postpartum period, the menstrual cycle, and menopause.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3506b1b8e9bb3d2bdf52e18d001632514141fc2a45f2d2b36430e800294d8aaa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 5e865d35b1103be91b52db38911aadcdf861e23a0de4e1b3e1eeb01399b987b8. “Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## depressive spectrum
<a id="depressive-spectrum"></a>

Depressive spectrum refers to viewing depressive status as a continuum rather than a simple yes-or-no category. In this study context, it describes the clinical gradient running from healthy controls through subthreshold depression (SD) to major depressive disorder (MDD).

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 59b113d42377c9889e01ee9257eee44c68a1c07711387c688309c1676492aa02

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiang Di; Chen Weijing; Qin Nuo; Li Lijun; Wang Shuo; Zhang Ning; Huang Jin; He Jian; Wang Chunxue. Multimodal clinical, sleep, and autonomic correlates across the depressive spectrum: a cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1833260; article XML SHA-256 01bb35612d78b186d5a0d07f9798466679fb204a65f0b45cda6c167c87ab2e21. “Multimodal clinical, sleep, and autonomic correlates across the depressive spectrum: a cross-sectional study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1833260).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1833260). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## depressor nerve
<a id="depressor-nerve"></a>

In this historical usage, the depressor nerve is described as a branch of the vagus that carries signals from an overfilled left ventricle to the medulla, leading reflexly to widening of blood vessels and easing pressure on the heart. It is presented as part of the heart’s influence on vascular tone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8818b4707726145c7dd694436edb886e1ecb174b95790d5edddac8916001fd74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3013500-3025500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deprivation index
<a id="deprivation-index"></a>

A deprivation index is a combined measure that brings together multiple indicators of disadvantage to reflect deprivation more broadly than income alone. In this source, it is described for urban settings using non-income domains such as healthcare, education, housing, basic services, and infrastructure to represent the multidimensional nature of urban poverty.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f38142b9d242ce5b25a418fcf2519ad708703033ec06a05bcb9b19857aee90c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kakchapati Sampurna; Mainali Sitashma; de Siqueira-Filha Noemia Teixeira; Elsey Helen; Hicks Joseph Paul; Clark Andrew; Sehrin Farzana; Quayyum Zahidul; Ebenso Bassey; Baral Sushil Chandra. Study protocol for developing an urban deprivation index in Nepal: Data review, measurement, visualization and real-world application in urban poverty alleviation. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324837; article XML SHA-256 51fbc205a7746af4bd00fd1abc3612ed95acee12e68ed0881ef6c08e9c8a2afb. “Study protocol for developing an urban deprivation index in Nepal: Data review, measurement, visualization and real-world application in urban poverty alleviation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324837).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324837). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## depth perception
<a id="depth-perception"></a>

Depth perception is the ability to interpret the three-dimensional layout of the environment, supporting spatial awareness. It involves processing information about depth and distance so an individual can judge positions in space and navigate accordingly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 68020ce800d263c72dc05950eaffabe06a04b915d1a7d6d6dbbc71562a292a8b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dong Nuo; Tan Yuping; Wang Yuyuan; Chen Yumin; Xu Haibing. Characterization of depth perception information inferred from neuronal activity in primary visual cortex. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329788; article XML SHA-256 a00862d1a0436d1c0e88d528b1e2f27b0fb03c62a3de37224ebd1b6b57ef97bf. “Characterization of depth perception information inferred from neuronal activity in primary visual cortex” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329788).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329788). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## depth psychology
<a id="depth-psychology"></a>

Depth psychology is a psychoanalytic or psychodynamic approach that works with hard-to-express inner experience, such as feelings, bodily sensations, and fragmentary thoughts linked to significant events. In this context, it aims to help people form a more organized understanding of those experiences and their effects on current life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f08fa82e2023265f76618340ac80ad7eef1b56fcfb9a22316048ed4bcce7353d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [O’Brien Sheila; Boulanger Ghislaine; Yahalom Jonathan; Bhatt-Mackin Seamus; Goodman Marianne. Depth-oriented group psychotherapy for moral injury with military veterans: relational psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theory, mechanisms of action, and clinical implications. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1763407; article XML SHA-256 c81f5a125e2be4bc297d9b4a4128da749739144fe848766c3c7f8ed83372d9a1. “Depth-oriented group psychotherapy for moral injury with military veterans: relational psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theory, mechanisms of action, and clinical implications” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1763407).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1763407). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## depth therapy
<a id="depth-therapy"></a>

Depth therapy is a form of psychotherapy, such as psychoanalytic psychotherapy, that works with unconscious emotions and entrenched maladaptive patterns. In this source, it is described as providing a structured therapeutic approach for processing overwhelming feelings and supporting lasting relational change, especially when early relational trauma is involved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7b711c547c08e3874f487c5e16155cc664c587ba9e30b4b24549dd69e0cf0dfd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Albert Alexa E.; Back Anthony L.. Psychoanalytically informed MDMA-assisted therapy for pathological narcissism: a novel theoretical approach. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1529427; article XML SHA-256 1c23de637bbeff219a1cd51a70b81552c192b55486efa1baa5cb6b29758e881c. “Psychoanalytically informed MDMA-assisted therapy for pathological narcissism: a novel theoretical approach” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1529427).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1529427). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## derangement
<a id="derangement"></a>

In historical psychology and psychiatry, derangement refers to a mental state seen as insanity or a departure from normal soundness of reason. A person was described as deranged when a clear form of insanity or mental irresponsibility was thought to be present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc241ec34462f84d4719c0b42429f262011927bc8251e790727d4b58a1d3673c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Derangement” (Derangement).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Derangement). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## derealization
<a id="derealization"></a>

Derealization is a form of dissociation. In the supplied source, it is described as classically linked with trauma-related disorders and as increasingly reported in anxiety and depressive disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d35838aba995feddd103054fde25d71d7dda4feec677c5981b66d4d6fcdd3d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dunalska Anna; Lewandowska Aleksandra; Lichtarska Kinga; Szulc Agata; Jakubczyk Andrzej; Szejko Natalia. Co-occurrence of dissociation and anxiety and depressive disorders in adults: a scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1866005; article XML SHA-256 1491f88c1c1a687e9431bb287a2ab81e6ae028930ac2a152d9fbd0fb15add4c9. “Co-occurrence of dissociation and anxiety and depressive disorders in adults: a scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1866005).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1866005). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## derivation sample
<a id="derivation-sample"></a>

A derivation sample is the subset of participants used to develop a prediction score or model by identifying which factors to include and how much weight to give them. Its performance is then checked in a separate validation sample.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c908f94ba328f98956d8720cf82e0d83e94fac92a4fa256976f314b4388c0628

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guasch-Ferré Marta; Bulló Mònica; Costa Bernardo; Martínez-Gonzalez Miguel Ángel; Ibarrola-Jurado Núria; Estruch Ramon; Barrio Francisco; Salas-Salvadó Jordi; for the PREDI-PLAN Investigators. A Risk Score to Predict Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in an Elderly Spanish Mediterranean Population at High Cardiovascular Risk. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0033437; article XML SHA-256 70bfd4cd9a1fa20e35d1cebab5f3aed44eb2865cb52b4d0aac7a3369d72f058c. “A Risk Score to Predict Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in an Elderly Spanish Mediterranean Population at High Cardiovascular Risk” (10.1371/journal.pone.0033437).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0033437). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dermal sensation
<a id="dermal-sensation"></a>

Dermal sensation is a historical term for cutaneous sensation, meaning sensation that comes from the skin.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40feea222ec967a655a55114ef8ba743862bf5d00a81f492f76b7c41e21a8147

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dermal Sensation” (Dermal Sensation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dermal Sensation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dermatoglyphics
<a id="dermatoglyphics"></a>

Dermatoglyphics is the study of the ridge patterns on the skin of the fingers, palms, toes, and soles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea7863dcfd8391e5eae6177e7b81e5d42b46e5355e0cd3e38fb6e839ad798175

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dermatoglyphics” (D003878).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003878). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DES
<a id="des"></a>

DES stands for Dissociative Experiences Scale, a measure used to assess dissociative symptoms. In this context, it is mentioned as an instrument used in studies of dissociation in depression and anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 809866c6870bed93dfb69fee11c4bc7266f6c7f8c8eafdd45150f9c63ada0669

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dunalska Anna; Lewandowska Aleksandra; Lichtarska Kinga; Szulc Agata; Jakubczyk Andrzej; Szejko Natalia. Co-occurrence of dissociation and anxiety and depressive disorders in adults: a scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1866005; article XML SHA-256 1491f88c1c1a687e9431bb287a2ab81e6ae028930ac2a152d9fbd0fb15add4c9. “Co-occurrence of dissociation and anxiety and depressive disorders in adults: a scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1866005).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1866005). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## descending pathway
<a id="descending-pathway"></a>

A descending pathway is a nerve pathway that carries signals downward from brain areas to the spinal cord. In this source, it refers to the pathway from the locus coeruleus and subcoeruleus that helps inhibit pain signals and supports accurate coding of stimulus intensity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17f4765148cdc1816713ee620b49018fe7714c0915d2525aa63763fdcf48be13

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tsuruoka Masayoshi; Tamaki Junichiro; Maeda Masako; Hayashi Bunsho; Inoue Tomio. Biological implications of coeruleospinal inhibition of nociceptive processing in the spinal cord. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fnint.2012.00087; article XML SHA-256 f7b278efa9c0684e164e3a3379699afba781296d4ee95b79c9990aa418f3b8ca. “Biological implications of coeruleospinal inhibition of nociceptive processing in the spinal cord” (10.3389/fnint.2012.00087).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2012.00087). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## descriptive discriminant analysis
<a id="descriptive-discriminant-analysis"></a>

Descriptive discriminant analysis is a statistical approach used to examine how a set of measured variables separates or distinguishes between groups. In this context, it was used to show which patterns of scores best characterized differences between groups such as men and women or athletes and non-athletes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 33714ff333ce132d016711f2ce66b0eac284f8efbdb44814d4eed8b879b9bd1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Benau Erik M.; Wiatrowski Ryan; Timko C. Alix. Difficulties in Emotion Regulation, Alexithymia, and Social Phobia Are Associated With Disordered Eating in Male and Female Undergraduate Athletes. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01646; article XML SHA-256 1644ce7a26f685b3aa5716485d87ccb1b1d63c8b539a7039dfa529a23c87eac6. “Difficulties in Emotion Regulation, Alexithymia, and Social Phobia Are Associated With Disordered Eating in Male and Female Undergraduate Athletes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01646).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01646). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## descriptive grammar
<a id="descriptive-grammar"></a>

Descriptive grammar is the orderly description of language based on the forms and relationships words and expressions show in actual use. It contrasts with approaches that organize grammar by historical development or by broader principles about the mental life of language.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a05d2669178872dd8bc339e16604f6980af92b13c8dc74e81f086ea5b4f92ad2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Grammar” (Grammar).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G2defs.htm#Grammar). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## descriptive norm
<a id="descriptive-norm"></a>

A descriptive norm is the pattern of behavior that appears to be common in a group, which people may use as a guide for their own choices. In this context, it refers to conforming to what most people in an ingroup, outgroup, or overall set of people seem to do.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 506c5a2da7489d266deddeafceef1c3a1c643c4b52b06daff43ae5da8896ac91

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pryor Campbell; Perfors Amy; Howe Piers D. L.. Conformity to the descriptive norms of people with opposing political or social beliefs. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0219464; article XML SHA-256 f09dced81cea1c13a492fb221a304df298b3dbd13b118d2bb806fdb38c4cda7d. “Conformity to the descriptive norms of people with opposing political or social beliefs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0219464).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219464). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## descriptive science
<a id="descriptive-science"></a>

Descriptive science is science that explains things by looking backward at what has already happened and describing their earlier stages and observable course. In this contrast, it is the retrospective way of interpreting reality, as opposed to a prospective or forward-looking view.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc98dc23202c9a4dd0080e5508ca35f7a88c0136cc284d7f0de141df16fd6759

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1407000-1419000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## descriptive statistics
<a id="descriptive-statistics"></a>

Descriptive statistics are the part of statistics used to describe and summarize data. The term can also refer to summary values, such as the mean, standard deviation, or skewness, that characterize a distribution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 256e9e97b9cd4a6b0c6f09d3bd6a1b4864bc7a04584aa1cac3cdf8eaa86d2f8d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Descriptive Statistics” (descriptive_stat.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/descriptive_stat.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## desensitization
<a id="desensitization"></a>

Desensitization is the reduction of the emotional impact of distressing experiences or responses, such as upsetting memories, pain-related anxiety, or catastrophising about pain. In this context, it means making these reactions less intense so they have less influence on pain and affective symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 539d21f066f234f97f12957117aad33eb17efbfc148c0b6e513ff6f87e457af6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hermes Michelle; Schmidt Hannah; Beiner Eva; Renz Malika; Vock Stephanie; Karabulut Seda; Şahin-Çevik Didenur; Meyer-Lindenberg Andreas; Wieland Sebastian; Tesarz Jonas; Tost Heike; Treede Rolf-Detlef. A study design for modulating two components of the risk architecture of chronic pain: adverse life events and pain catastrophising. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884214; article XML SHA-256 9c2e4102d2e260979eb736a2bf5e41efd1951ba6ee7930acfdacf3d38d25dad2. “A study design for modulating two components of the risk architecture of chronic pain: adverse life events and pain catastrophising” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884214).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884214). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Desensitization, Psychologic
<a id="desensitization-psychologic"></a>

A psychological desensitization is a behavior therapy method that uses deep muscle relaxation while a person is exposed to anxiety-provoking situations in gradual steps. The relaxation is used to reduce or block the anxiety response to those stimuli.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d4d94515ab0cb55017e3597bd357d333825481ee68d3fbc4033b94370128841

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Desensitization, Psychologic” (D003887).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003887). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## desertion
<a id="desertion"></a>

Desertion is the act of leaving or abandoning the side, group, or cause to which one had belonged. In the historical passage here, it refers to a prominent member quitting one faction and thereby strengthening its opponents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9d2521fdefd84ee2167cc6e0c18261b1a7636de6a2f24e5928acb29b5ba1739d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mohammedanism” (Mohammedanism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M4defs.htm#Mohammedanism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## design
<a id="design"></a>

In this psychology context, design refers to the chosen visual makeup of something like a mascot, including features such as its type, body proportions, and eye size. These features are studied because they can influence where people look and how much they like what they see.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 014e6ac1faa35b12c2678a32a9705cf6dbd4f32cebc5c97f38e913bf5d0e44e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Chen; Lin Yuxi. Visual attention and subjective preference in mascot design: evidence from eye-tracking, ratings, and fsQCA. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748647; article XML SHA-256 35df1975413722743f267d0cc0cc518e0d59b58d79d7521572f4a4a52cb89612. “Visual attention and subjective preference in mascot design: evidence from eye-tracking, ratings, and fsQCA” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748647).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748647). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## design and behavior
<a id="design-and-behavior"></a>

In this context, design and behavior refers to the features of a robot’s appearance and actions, such as how its eyes move or make contact, that can shape how a person perceives and responds to it socially. These elements may affect whether human-robot interaction is processed more like interaction with another person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b4b2af592c0056d63eb4ca0bac828319d5b59af1a0fdde5e5855811be0389a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kelley Megan S.; Noah J. Adam; Zhang Xian; Scassellati Brian; Hirsch Joy. Comparison of Human Social Brain Activity During Eye-Contact With Another Human and a Humanoid Robot. 2021; DOI 10.3389/frobt.2020.599581; article XML SHA-256 101b48f3092646c15e91e57f75e8f59472cf549bad8e8f8c6c699fd0dee9c7f9. “Comparison of Human Social Brain Activity During Eye-Contact With Another Human and a Humanoid Robot” (10.3389/frobt.2020.599581).](https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2020.599581). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## design fluency test
<a id="design-fluency-test"></a>

The design fluency test is a cognitive task from the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System that is used to assess higher-level thinking, particularly metacognition. In the source, it is one of the measures used to compare cognitive functioning in youth soccer players.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe560717184c2c014b0981593feb874e1cb3d0c7804695ba433c50ecdae8ce4c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huijgen Barbara C. H.; Leemhuis Sander; Kok Niels M.; Verburgh Lot; Oosterlaan Jaap; Elferink-Gemser Marije T.; Visscher Chris. Cognitive Functions in Elite and Sub-Elite Youth Soccer Players Aged 13 to 17 Years. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0144580; article XML SHA-256 8a7fcf8d7708dad90e7ead448bbbffb8dedacbcaf97daf4707698e867f61e949. “Cognitive Functions in Elite and Sub-Elite Youth Soccer Players Aged 13 to 17 Years” (10.1371/journal.pone.0144580).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0144580). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## design trade-off
<a id="design-trade-off"></a>

A design trade-off is a situation where improving one aspect of a system creates a cost in another. In this study, giving richer guidance improved coordination, comfort, and task efficiency, but it was also linked with greater cognitive and physiological demand.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: baf6b12f3974fce6b206ec8a2c2e6f9519b1333ef2e43a5eb80bc6535561c562

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Biton Amir; Cohen Yuval; Shoval Shraga. Feedback modalities in human-cobot collaboration: experimental evaluation of performance, user experience, and physiological responses. 2026; DOI 10.3389/frobt.2026.1836165; article XML SHA-256 b003824ec7b8c5444b4e2d58545e3af237234e100524ea9631008a9346196874. “Feedback modalities in human-cobot collaboration: experimental evaluation of performance, user experience, and physiological responses” (10.3389/frobt.2026.1836165).](https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2026.1836165). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## desipramine
<a id="desipramine"></a>

Desipramine is a tricyclic dibenzazepine compound that enhances neurotransmission. It mainly works by blocking the reuptake of norepinephrine at neural synapses, and it also seems to affect serotonin transport and has minor anticholinergic activity through muscarinic receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8557909cf25dbe48c33bfcf22d4e8adfb988505e738383e6a09f565033e76d5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Desipramine” (D003891).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003891). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deskilling
<a id="deskilling"></a>

Deskilling is a loss or weakening of professional skills when repeated reliance on automation shifts important thinking and decision-making away from the practitioner. In psychology, it can mean reduced clinical judgment, diagnostic reasoning, or ethical autonomy as these abilities are used less often.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd7e6518400c7098f4bb3e2b45ab9aa91fe3162e181602a365daa3e6944b3cc4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Zyl Llewellyn E. The unintended negative consequences of artificial intelligence use for psychologists. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1729050; article XML SHA-256 4fae36878d847e321b66d6032a036cc0ee0215c96cf9c5776d9057f6582078ac. “The unintended negative consequences of artificial intelligence use for psychologists” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1729050).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1729050). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## despondency
<a id="despondency"></a>

Despondency is a state of low mood or emotional depression that can make a person view life more negatively.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 148a2a2f0fb35160c42ab979dee58c3a8a0d917059b6e4f3fe8f465371cc118a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Despondency” (C86064).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## desynchronization
<a id="desynchronization"></a>

In this context, desynchronization refers to a drop in the power of a brain rhythm seen on EEG during an event or task. For the mu rhythm, event-related desynchronization is the suppression of activity around 8–13 Hz during movement, making it a marker of motor execution and planning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de879465b94f344164c4c784a5240e00e41ec4adcee3788a1010fcaae18f5d51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ueda Masaya; Ueno Keita; Inoue Takao; Sakiyama Misao; Shiroma China; Ishii Ryouhei; Naito Yasuo. Detection of motor-related mu rhythm desynchronization by ear EEG. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321107; article XML SHA-256 f04fd1387f22d88fcc3b943b4f999b16f62bfd39433a9bf7e3a8c1629d4d88e5. “Detection of motor-related mu rhythm desynchronization by ear EEG” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321107).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321107). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Desyrel
<a id="desyrel"></a>

Desyrel is a brand name for trazodone hydrochloride, a medication with antidepressant and sedating effects. It appears to work mainly by reducing serotonin reuptake in the brain, which increases serotonin activity, and its calming effects are also linked to alpha-adrenergic and mild histamine H1 blocking actions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 87a1d9e05ce802ba3da9fc7fbb411f467d233cf727d8f7fd7d49e3a6efe4233d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Trazodone Hydrochloride” (C47767).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## detection task
<a id="detection-task"></a>

A detection task is a search-and-discrimination activity in which a dog is assessed on how well it identifies a target scent or sample and distinguishes it from non-targets. In this context, performance is described in terms such as sensitivity, specificity, or overall ability in the search task.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c36668070f922c9b05fc20086afbdf8fdd34481ca7063ac5ef2f416ef349766e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bistre Dabbah Sharyn; Mendl Michael; Guest Claire; Rooney Nicola J.. An exploratory study of associations between judgement bias, demographic and behavioural characteristics, and detection task performance in medical detection dogs. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320158; article XML SHA-256 b8769a6088bf28ba4334420efea716d148181014e1e2f66b881e8cf4b6f4754d. “An exploratory study of associations between judgement bias, demographic and behavioural characteristics, and detection task performance in medical detection dogs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320158).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320158). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## determinant
<a id="determinant"></a>

A determinant is a factor that has an important influence on an outcome or process. In this psychology context, cognitive functioning is described as a determinant because it can shape treatment engagement, learning, functional recovery, and treatment planning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: db146186f14f80041237b24e29224eadb8307b7b4195dbce7c515d9ce55860ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Streel Emmanuel; Jones Madison; Iulita M. Florencia. Cognitive functioning as an underutilized determinant of treatment planning: a review in alcohol use disorder. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1913195; article XML SHA-256 77e5fbae373651a2369616a31c99623bef5fe8101c55d0342b54160676741d6d. “Cognitive functioning as an underutilized determinant of treatment planning: a review in alcohol use disorder” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1913195).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1913195). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## determination coefficient
<a id="determination-coefficient"></a>

The determination coefficient, usually written as R², is a number used to compare models by showing how well estimated values match the observed data. In this context, a higher R² indicates a closer fit between the model and the measured growth values.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c86b64d87d845684c367b649d7d3af1c96c92ea40abf6bb0b6dc4ba7a71b9f4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Şengül Turgay; Çelik Şenol; Şengül Ahmet Yusuf; İnci Hakan; Şengül Ömer. Investigation of growth curves with different nonlinear models and MARS algorithm in broiler chickens. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307037; article XML SHA-256 bcf60cdbd1ef29cc447ed525aead44e65f963c61ecb01b70427e2ba694423ab7. “Investigation of growth curves with different nonlinear models and MARS algorithm in broiler chickens” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307037).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307037). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## determiner
<a id="determiner"></a>

A determiner is a function word placed with a noun, such as an article like “the.” In this psycholinguistic context, determiners can carry grammatical information such as gender and be used to test how noun structure is represented during word recognition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 723b16f6facec186a1f0a3255e9430944415c08bb13839fdc300e93ad3603818

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lorenz Antje; Beyersmann Elisabeth. Head-driven gender assignment in noun-noun compound recognition: Evidence from a determiner priming task in German. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348377; article XML SHA-256 e1e8514b93d9f68d44a74e6e94ab1bbd9fb28dc8ec93cd1f36b170ee2dbb93df. “Head-driven gender assignment in noun-noun compound recognition: Evidence from a determiner priming task in German” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348377).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348377). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## determinism
<a id="determinism"></a>

Determinism is the view that a person’s choice among different possible actions can always be completely explained by psychological conditions and other contributing factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 514a87b13b788fe7dbd46cf03740a1cb88f4c492e31970a0963da9983d729b4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Determinism” (Determinism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Determinism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deterrence
<a id="deterrence"></a>

Deterrence is the idea that people are more likely to follow rules when they believe violations will bring penalties. In this source, it is reflected in how awareness of the law shapes behavior through perceived certainty and perceived severity of sanctions, with certainty having the stronger influence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 094711c0fa03cb08656a2ba2fba873702037d6bfadffa73188d9861815af5979

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Xinyuan; Zhang Zhenyang. How legal awareness shapes developers’ data compliance behavior: A deterrence theory perspective. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356356; article XML SHA-256 e51aab7cf5226b115886c7a4e9e6c857f850e5b0baf68dc04f2fca82fe0ca1a6. “How legal awareness shapes developers’ data compliance behavior: A deterrence theory perspective” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356356).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356356). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deuteranopia
<a id="deuteranopia"></a>

Deuteranopia is a historical term proposed by v. Kries for what had earlier been called green-blindness. In this source, it is presented mainly as a change in naming rather than a fuller description of the condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a59bfe58248f7516fd6ba0aa81a58f08623d47e06ce33524e5938490383d2df7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Deuteranopia” (Deuteranopia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Deuteranopia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deutero-
<a id="deutero"></a>

In this historical usage, deutero- marks a mental disorder as secondary or indirectly produced rather than arising primarily in the central nervous system. It refers to disturbance brought about by another bodily factor, such as circulatory changes acting on the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64b072851412c860f40ae64b043eb9debd570e99acd644858f3a7b797c1d73b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3318000-3330000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deutoplasm
<a id="deutoplasm"></a>

Deutoplasm is a historical term for the yolk of an egg, understood as the part that nourishes the developing formative protoplasm. It was proposed as a term in the late 19th century.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd904a757647bf24daed6b72b6d98ff8dbd2311d6719aa996cbae0e30a9afb8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Deutoplasm” (Deutoplasm).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Deutoplasm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## devaluation
<a id="devaluation"></a>

Devaluation is the experience or expectation that a person’s language or language variety will be treated as less valuable, less authoritative, or less acceptable in a given social setting. In this context, it reflects how broader social hierarchies and norms can lower speakers’ expected recognition, belonging, self-worth, and participation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b19e4693fb6d428f4fac87fdf1f13b49e200482321695022324dcab5798d1dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Shuzhao; Zeng Jie; Zheng Xingpeng. Perceived language legitimacy as a psychological judgment: a conceptual analysis of recognition, belonging, and self-worth. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870995; article XML SHA-256 c6fdce5885b30240fa83425b3d9fef9f113c20fee8af47f1746f6e43bfc553c3. “Perceived language legitimacy as a psychological judgment: a conceptual analysis of recognition, belonging, and self-worth” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870995).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870995). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## development
<a id="development"></a>

In this context, development refers to adolescents’ growth within interconnected settings such as family and school that can support or limit it. Positive development is described as a multidimensional pattern including competence, resilience, adaptive functioning, and well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 23749b5ae64e25db12e923dff5c5c6fd7bd64adc6e335fc489a019b0ad6b4892

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xue Xiaoran; Weng Xiaofang; Gao Mengyu Miranda; Yang Wanting; Ding Rongqi; Cui Wei; Han Zhuo Rachel. Cultural comparison of positive development: network analyses of adolescents’ ecological systems in Mainland and non-Mainland China. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05106-z; article XML SHA-256 9f562ff437cc7a9b07cb666c5e1369956599c59b6be3beb68679546f01d6809f. “Cultural comparison of positive development: network analyses of adolescents’ ecological systems in Mainland and non-Mainland China” (10.1186/s40359-026-05106-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05106-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## developmental amnesia
<a id="developmental-amnesia"></a>

Developmental amnesia is amnesia that is present from development rather than starting in adulthood. In this source, it is described as involving memory impairment, while still allowing some close relationships to be formed and maintained.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d49a3cc60bbc6bd7c8ad1f20874dc20455cc62db51905b38a1b144a9d4159896

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Davidson Patrick S. R.; Drouin Héloïse; Kwan Donna; Moscovitch Morris; Rosenbaum R. Shayna. Memory as Social Glue: Close Interpersonal Relationships in Amnesic Patients. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00531; article XML SHA-256 6e89ed55cd84ed630838410477352c879971318b4d69eed657a1222b82d720b5. “Memory as Social Glue: Close Interpersonal Relationships in Amnesic Patients” (10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00531).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00531). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## developmental assessment
<a id="developmental-assessment"></a>

Developmental assessment is the evaluation of a child’s development using methods such as parent-completed questionnaires and individualized developmental scales. It is used to examine how a child is developing in areas such as language and social functioning, often by comparing developmental level with age or with other reference data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80844a8d44f4c576df21bb86a7df4be69a2642fc472d1d5a3bb35680e2693ee5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Otani Takashi; Kato Masaharu; Haraguchi Hisami; Goma Hideyo. Effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on infants’ development: analyzing the results of developmental assessments at ages 10–11 and 18–24 months. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1430135; article XML SHA-256 5b575f52a5c2d1584f59719820c4ac61e9724c8a3beef890d8622cd5a6f2ca3f. “Effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on infants’ development: analyzing the results of developmental assessments at ages 10–11 and 18–24 months” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1430135).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1430135). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## developmental coordination disorder
<a id="developmental-coordination-disorder"></a>

Developmental coordination disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder in which motor coordination is much weaker than expected for a person’s age and intellectual level. The motor problems are persistent and substantially interfere with everyday activities and school performance, and they may also be accompanied by cognitive and psychosocial difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d13ce900e6045faf310740b9fd747146b6283443074f883ca1355152ee437bee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ji Zhiguang; Wang Liyan; Lu Le; Zhang Chenping; Wang Hongbiao. Motor intervention therapy for children with developmental coordination disorder: from behavioral improvement to neuroplasticity mechanisms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1757488; article XML SHA-256 2fbb54076aaec78e1a33442e47728c2831b01ab7d357a1b481cde1a8b8d54f7d. “Motor intervention therapy for children with developmental coordination disorder: from behavioral improvement to neuroplasticity mechanisms” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1757488).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1757488). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## developmental dysgraphia
<a id="developmental-dysgraphia"></a>

Developmental dysgraphia is a developmental difficulty with writing and spelling that is closely related to developmental dyslexia. The source indicates that affected children can show different underlying cognitive patterns, including problems in phonological processing as well as auditory or visual processing linked to spelling ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3174a3a79285841031906d2ef668ac6123e0ea2005de86f1763931a27378994

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Döhla Diana; Willmes Klaus; Heim Stefan. Cognitive Profiles of Developmental Dysgraphia. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02006; article XML SHA-256 1952bff0988c02eb87c953e8184378a7e428d2ed690f169c81ac57ad80fee88d. “Cognitive Profiles of Developmental Dysgraphia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02006).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02006). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## developmental dyslexia
<a id="developmental-dyslexia"></a>

Developmental dyslexia is a cognitive disorder in which a person has much more difficulty understanding written or printed words than would be expected for their age, intelligence, and schooling, even though vision is intact. The reading problem is serious enough to interfere with school performance or everyday activities that depend on reading.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b8ae74a9efcfac134d45d99365c0514f0d591db5c2c36d205c0076d8af0b39b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dyslexia” (D004410).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004410). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## developmental language disorder
<a id="developmental-language-disorder"></a>

Developmental language disorder is a neurodevelopmental condition in which a child has lasting difficulties with language that significantly affect everyday communication, social participation, and learning. It often includes problems with vocabulary and may occur on its own or alongside other neurodevelopmental conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0618443bd4ffa1e284b43331c6d7af4eb8a79db1605cbd698614cb4cc6217a39

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ansari Rafiah; Chiat Shula; Cartwright Martin; Herman Ros. Vocabulary interventions for children with developmental language disorder: a systematic review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517311; article XML SHA-256 63b96e5ba4836d774372c81ea6222a187c195bb339b82a7c48391335ff330e14. “Vocabulary interventions for children with developmental language disorder: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517311).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517311). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## developmental milestone
<a id="developmental-milestone"></a>

A developmental milestone is a physical or behavioral sign that a child has reached a typical stage of growth or learned a skill expected by a certain age. These age-linked markers help show how a child is developing, and not reaching one on time can suggest developmental delay.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fdadcdc6f323dc0fc6d9545b8f69c5e99b0056b220feed3597ce194009f54b2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Developmental Milestone” (C90342).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## developmental psychology
<a id="developmental-psychology"></a>

Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that examines how mental processes and behavior change across the lifespan, from birth through old age.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6da725ea9bf4151d0d55e1cce5454ec17f75e3405136f1d1bb6b38fa338f945d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Developmental Psychology” (C18740).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## developmental psychopathology
<a id="developmental-psychopathology"></a>

Developmental psychopathology is an understanding of mental and behavioral problems in relation to a person’s development across the lifespan. In this packet, it is presented as part of a biopsychosocial, individualized view that considers how early adversity and other contributing factors shape later symptoms and difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a39428dd94446d3e244b78ba7a21409c660610716be34d6043a0f06842b1e2e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Parry Peter I.. Pediatric bipolar disorder versus developmental trauma and holistic assessment and care: the contribution of Dr. Ed Levin. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1541905; article XML SHA-256 e56463aa04d4c98d998486ee4951adef9f22b1ebf8ff6c6fb3f1efa6509ad1ed. “Pediatric bipolar disorder versus developmental trauma and holistic assessment and care: the contribution of Dr. Ed Levin” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1541905).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1541905). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## developmental quotient
<a id="developmental-quotient"></a>

Developmental quotient (DQ) is a measure used as a proxy for a child’s overall developmental functioning. It helps account for broader cognitive and developmental differences when studying other behavioral or biological outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9abb84e075a61074321bae01e9ad84f2800c451a11e1a9ac44672c332c61fabc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mascheroni Eleonora; Butti Niccolò; Mambretti Fabiana; Cordolcini Laura; Castagna Annalisa; Maucci Vittoria; Citterio Andrea; Bettinelli Alessandra; Montirosso Rosario. Exploring the relationship between OXTR DNA methylation and temperament in children with neurodevelopmental disabilities. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763938; article XML SHA-256 8a2ce88def05a6afd789e937e14bdde02eb194ee31d1d349fd49ef0d2d9f53b1. “Exploring the relationship between OXTR DNA methylation and temperament in children with neurodevelopmental disabilities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763938).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763938). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## developmental scale
<a id="developmental-scale"></a>

A developmental scale is a tool for assessing a child’s development across developmental areas. In this source, it refers to an individualized form of assessment, in contrast to a parent-completed developmental questionnaire, and different assessment methods may yield different results.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 527286319c9668975752038c0f51d3495e31cf70fb4d6206c13cdf3be02541a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Otani Takashi; Kato Masaharu; Haraguchi Hisami; Goma Hideyo. Effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on infants’ development: analyzing the results of developmental assessments at ages 10–11 and 18–24 months. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1430135; article XML SHA-256 5b575f52a5c2d1584f59719820c4ac61e9724c8a3beef890d8622cd5a6f2ca3f. “Effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on infants’ development: analyzing the results of developmental assessments at ages 10–11 and 18–24 months” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1430135).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1430135). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## developmental stage
<a id="developmental-stage"></a>

A developmental stage is a distinct phase in the course of growth or biological development. In the source, it refers to points such as birth, weaning, puberty, pregnancy, lactation, and dry periods that mark different states of mammary development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7144f320e25ca4d5a6b5274174f5aa5e30e818ca9b680afff55c49cf20515c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Field Sena L; Arendt Lisa M; Hernandez Laura L; Laporta Jimena. Characterizing serotonin expression throughout bovine mammary gland developmental stages and its relationship with 17β-estradiol at puberty. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319914; article XML SHA-256 6e417a26ac2404890c353ab06acd2c4fd229a2830050cda0b4b96bfaf812ea0b. “Characterizing serotonin expression throughout bovine mammary gland developmental stages and its relationship with 17β-estradiol at puberty” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319914).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319914). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## developmental task
<a id="developmental-task"></a>

A developmental task is a key age-related competency or area of growth that people are expected to achieve during a life stage, such as adolescence. In Havighurst’s framework, these tasks span domains like relationships, autonomy, career preparation, values, and social responsibility and support effective personal, social, and civic functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ebf1b41d69b2183c09cefbf7599b73d26a33c7861f658632e1265b745b70a03e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ofem Usani Joseph; Anake Paulina Mbua; Anyin Nnyenkpa Ntui; Mpoun Obibessong Vera; Abuo Cyril Bisong; David Ahmed Enemadukwu; Amushe Joseph; Esther-Wanibokom Otu Princess; Ukatu James. Adolescent developmental task accomplishment: a descriptive analysis of Havighurst's framework among secondary-school students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1775566; article XML SHA-256 58f070712deedd368ba60739faec626e86ff37581ac2331af87572e22dc9af54. “Adolescent developmental task accomplishment: a descriptive analysis of Havighurst's framework among secondary-school students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1775566).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1775566). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Developmental Test of Visual–Motor Integration
<a id="developmental-test-of-visualmotor-integration"></a>

The Developmental Test of Visual–Motor Integration is an assessment used to measure visual-motor integration, or how well a child coordinates visual information with fine-motor responses. In the cited source, it is also used to assess related abilities such as visual perception and motor coordination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2b18d95d152f6f58af3aa886545faef60285f5f53113b3900ebaca3adcabe62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nordin Naufal; Pui Juan Woi; Samsudin Nurul Umira. Associations between visual-motor integration, pencil grip patterns, and holistic academic performance among school children. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351641; article XML SHA-256 35cdd55960b7422618eff8f2d9dccc2c22d53b88e94f0644893ad578d3526d12. “Associations between visual-motor integration, pencil grip patterns, and holistic academic performance among school children” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351641).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351641). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deviance
<a id="deviance"></a>

Deviance refers to behavior described as departing from social or legal norms, often discussed in terms of incidents that communities try to regulate. In this context, it is viewed as behavior that may be reduced through legal education and greater public awareness of rights and obligations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5fcbc949e0e9419bf19d653f9be23026309c54d2d7428c8467990b8a02110465

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu He; Li Jun. Enhancing public legal awareness in regulating normative deviance: a social psychological evaluation of legal education. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1856345; article XML SHA-256 af9265547fa8616a4c485bf5239af0f473a6afd5508a4e41fdeacbf442e98864. “Enhancing public legal awareness in regulating normative deviance: a social psychological evaluation of legal education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1856345).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1856345). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deviance information criterion
<a id="deviance-information-criterion"></a>

Deviance information criterion is a statistical measure used in Bayesian modeling to evaluate how well a model fits the data and to compare candidate models so the best-fitting one can be chosen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e411146274566e30a43cc0bd3465ee5c1cd162ed26e90911763ecdb1e5ff3130

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Ming; Li Zheng; Lu Jun; Zhang Lijun; Li Yimei; Zhang Liangliang. Spatial-temporal Bayesian accelerated failure time models for survival endpoints with applications to prostate cancer registry data. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12874-024-02201-w; article XML SHA-256 603c8d940e9a7f50df6124da1fd0a7181876b70b2c1707bb551958dfa1a54c87. “Spatial-temporal Bayesian accelerated failure time models for survival endpoints with applications to prostate cancer registry data” (10.1186/s12874-024-02201-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-024-02201-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deviation
<a id="deviation"></a>

Deviation is a turning away from a usual or given position. In this historical usage, it especially refers to abnormal turning of the eyes, including a persistent turning of both eyes to one side or the misalignment that can occur when one eye muscle is paralyzed; this may lead to double vision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e96ae2e9d76c550caf4a5f99e901cfdb71ce96fdcc04ebc5b1bbeaf90a7367ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Deviation” (Deviation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Deviation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## deviation score
<a id="deviation-score"></a>

A deviation score is a score stated as its distance from a reference value, usually the mean. It is typically found by subtracting the mean from each original score, so the result shows how far above or below the mean that score is.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b24c497fa32b29baa9be375e9db861c86a96cdaee971351d1f72be1f496f6b02

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Deviation Scores” (deviation_scores.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/deviation_scores.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DEX
<a id="dex"></a>

DEX refers to dexmedetomidine, a selective alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonist with sedative effects. In the source, it is discussed as an anesthetic-related drug that has been associated with lower rates of delirium and cognitive decline in older adults, although it is not suitable by itself for general anesthesia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d90e3868dba24d7fcbed447ad57158c7f4794efa045ab49897a7d7f3aec61cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xie Zheng; Fong Robert; Fox Aaron P. Studies in rats of a target specific and reversible general anesthetic with a favorable safety profile. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335589; article XML SHA-256 75e39c3e494662b5e103e617bc5e4e133f5cbe610c16a444f846b0ca839482f3. “Studies in rats of a target specific and reversible general anesthetic with a favorable safety profile” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335589).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335589). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dexamphetamine
<a id="dexamphetamine"></a>

Dexamphetamine, also called dextroamphetamine, is the d-form of amphetamine. It is a central nervous system stimulant and sympathomimetic that has been used for narcolepsy and attention deficit and hyperactivity problems, and it also has abuse potential and can produce psychosis-like effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d12a09350b098f9046d95817c3b95810234c5579f904f439fe6b0072427029c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dextroamphetamine” (D003913).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003913). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## Dexedrine
<a id="dexedrine"></a>

Dexedrine is a stimulant drug form of dextroamphetamine that increases brain chemicals such as noradrenaline and dopamine, which can raise alertness, activity, and appetite suppression. It has dependence risk and can increase heart rate and blood pressure, and it is used for narcolepsy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 584a1d9f85252ec358614e40c33436a4638a4ac5b21133ed385be836526c149b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dextroamphetamine Sulfate” (C47482).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dexterity test
<a id="dexterity-test"></a>

A dexterity test is a hands-on assessment of fine motor manipulation, such as placing specially shaped pegs into holes on a pegboard. This kind of test can be useful for detecting differences linked to damage affecting one side of the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 620f0b9eada227989a69584257a019d2b77a4ee392d7e1527b3dcdca01be32ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Grooved Pegboard Test” (C85394).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dextrality
<a id="dextrality"></a>

Dextrality means right-handedness, especially the dominance or greater use of the right hand. In a broader historical sense, it can also mean handed asymmetry in general, with right- and left-handedness treated as particular forms of this difference.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: feed40d26d55e7423efa1d2b7bd2e108b9024334b6b094014bf54b4c478bb803

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dextrality” (Dextrality).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dextrality). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dextroamphetamine
<a id="dextroamphetamine"></a>

Dextroamphetamine is a form of amphetamine that acts as a central nervous system stimulant and sympathomimetic. It has been used for narcolepsy and attention-related hyperactivity problems, and it can also be misused and can produce psychosis-like effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7ba2134032a8655796a89a6ac44d0a1c6cd8f0c83d8f42700fbb176f94f1b066

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dextroamphetamine” (D003913).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003913). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## dextromethorphan
<a id="dextromethorphan"></a>

Dextromethorphan is a compound that binds strongly in several brain regions, including the cough center in the medulla. In biological terms, it blocks NMDA receptor channels in a non-competitive way and is widely used as a cough suppressant, while also being used in research on glutamate receptors and neurotoxicity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b426239b161726ed973cc6599a0d771aa2358ab671b435bf8b116787c47bffec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dextromethorphan” (D003915).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003915). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dharma
<a id="dharma"></a>

In this historical source on Jaina thought, dharma is one of the six basic realities and is described as the principle characterized by motion. It is paired with a-dharma, the principle characterized by immobility, and both are said to extend only through the visible world.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d4baa9a5500a7e418e6900145a8cafd247225c07dd14692b2005b4d1ad53385

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1312500-1324500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DHT
<a id="dht"></a>

DHT refers to the Diabetes Health Tracer dataset, a collection of diabetes-related observations used to train and compare machine-learning models for predicting diabetes. In this source, it includes 2,877 cases described by nine features.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9714b54406b50c7d744f57340707db097f835edc7bb3f740c46dc90ac125cf82

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Noman Muhammad; Hanif Maria; Hameed Abdul; Babar Muhammad; Qureshi Basit. Machine learning-driven Diabetes Health Tracer (DHT): Optimizing prognosis using RaSK_GraDe and RaSK_GraDeL models. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327661; article XML SHA-256 f94868b8056885488075e3540cf047d4c21492abc544196035f3dc6626cd58a5. “Machine learning-driven Diabetes Health Tracer (DHT): Optimizing prognosis using RaSK_GraDe and RaSK_GraDeL models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327661).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327661). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diabetes insipidus
<a id="diabetes-insipidus"></a>

Diabetes insipidus is a biological disease marked by frequent urination, passing large amounts of dilute urine, and excessive thirst. It can result from too little antidiuretic hormone, poor kidney response to that hormone, or problems in hypothalamic control of thirst.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16519b3639fd247a70d59fa42398f7b142d68aaa2df062f001715d0dc363aa74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Diabetes Insipidus” (D003919).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003919). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diabetic retinopathy
<a id="diabetic-retinopathy"></a>

Diabetic retinopathy is a retinal disease that develops as a complication of diabetes mellitus. It involves progressive damage to the retina’s small blood vessels, including changes such as aneurysms, retinal swelling, and abnormal new blood vessel growth in the eye.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5cae18cbcbac5554abfc9add3f322ea86ee5f1d969084675540a12a42a6f591

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Diabetic Retinopathy” (D003930).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003930). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diacetylmorphine
<a id="diacetylmorphine"></a>

Diacetylmorphine, also known as heroin, is an opium-derived narcotic painkiller that can lead to habit formation. In the United States, it is a controlled substance and its sale is prohibited by federal law.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c078ad522420bca990487bcdb75740c7f26e4cb9254b76eed92c76587558d0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Heroin” (D003932).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003932). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diadochokinesis
<a id="diadochokinesis"></a>

Diadochokinesis refers to rapidly alternating voluntary movements. In cerebellar disease, the force and rhythm of these movements can be impaired as part of cerebellar ataxia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f9c701e7afa3f3de389a3bf694fb5644825a5500c4b23a8f9fd6b221d85c38e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebellar Ataxia” (D002524).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002524). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diagnosis
<a id="diagnosis"></a>

Diagnosis is the process of deciding what disease or disorder is present by interpreting its symptoms. In differential diagnosis, symptoms are compared across similar conditions so they can be told apart; this is especially important, and often more difficult, in mental disorders because normal mental traits vary widely.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22dc428faca3fad17177141cfb5c5a0f670b7e1bcab521b2f1b77245d7af7994

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Diagnosis” (Diagnosis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Diagnosis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diagnostic audiometry
<a id="diagnostic-audiometry"></a>

Diagnostic audiometry is a clinical hearing assessment used to evaluate a person’s hearing status. In the source, it refers to testing done by a licensed audiologist in a soundproof room using standard audiometric procedures and accepted technical standards.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd588074decd77e22457745a52a6dc31a6c86e03ac7f0f2f2a7fefaa3405c922

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ghosn Batoul; Azadbakht Leila; Esmaeilpour Mohammad Reza Monazzam; Esmaillzadeh Ahmad. The association between dietary total antioxidant capacity and hearing loss: results from the Tehran employees Cohort Study. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12889-024-18108-6; article XML SHA-256 de6e2b7a0466bdb3fb06b6510f3350ae279323c234347d97296b11b845b932af. “The association between dietary total antioxidant capacity and hearing loss: results from the Tehran employees Cohort Study” (10.1186/s12889-024-18108-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18108-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diagnostic center
<a id="diagnostic-center"></a>

A diagnostic center is a specialized hospital or clinic unit where people are assessed with diagnostic tests for a particular health concern. In this source, it refers to a prenatal service that performs procedures such as amniocentesis and chromosome testing and provides related genetic counseling to guide reproductive decisions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cccd88a6a43ca3826877ad911d9eea23632f55043a91922b0ab6340928571b28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wei Shiyu; Yuan Yuan; Tu Suhua; Pang Chunrong; Chen Maomei; Ren Min. Karyotyping with amniotic fluid in 6,572 pregnant women and pregnancy outcomes——A single-center retrospective study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324744; article XML SHA-256 a900efbd280bd5458edb89611e7f67928ea1d2481fe4bde7573092cf1fa367b7. “Karyotyping with amniotic fluid in 6,572 pregnant women and pregnancy outcomes——A single-center retrospective study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324744).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324744). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diagnostic formulation
<a id="diagnostic-formulation"></a>

Diagnostic formulation is the more complete assessment used to work out a diagnosis, as distinct from a brief screening check. In this context, it means choosing assessment tools suited to forming a fuller picture of cognitive problems and their effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc68aac781b54fb572071c8bb62190de051ff245dec5e3d202cc6a10df813fe2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mijajlović Milija D; Pavlović Aleksandra; Brainin Michael; Heiss Wolf-Dieter; Quinn Terence J; Ihle-Hansen Hege B; Hermann Dirk M; Assayag Einor Ben; Richard Edo; Thiel Alexander; Kliper Efrat; Shin Yong-Il; Kim Yun-Hee; Choi SeongHye; Jung San; Lee Yeong-Bae; Sinanović Osman; Levine Deborah A; Schlesinger Ilana; Mead Gillian; Milošević Vuk; Leys Didier; Hagberg Guri; Ursin Marie Helene; Teuschl Yvonne; Prokopenko Semyon; Mozheyko Elena; Bezdenezhnykh Anna; Matz Karl; Aleksić Vuk; Muresanu DafinFior; Korczyn Amos D; Bornstein Natan M. Post-stroke dementia – a comprehensive review. 2017; DOI 10.1186/s12916-017-0779-7; article XML SHA-256 9cbaebe1ff8044860c55d580d3f1675ca34e1e7a0c423d60c229dcd6a10b8936. “Post-stroke dementia – a comprehensive review” (10.1186/s12916-017-0779-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-017-0779-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diagnostic test
<a id="diagnostic-test"></a>

A diagnostic test is a method used to detect whether a person likely has a particular condition by classifying cases as present or absent. Its performance is judged by how accurately it identifies true cases and non-cases, such as through sensitivity, specificity, and overall discrimination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 006963a870fe0656433936aff2a1e318923d2e2a6df1238597410f1d740141d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Mengyang; Zheng Yandie; Long Xingfa. Applications of machine learning algorithms to detect digital addiction: a meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1789188; article XML SHA-256 cbcb137e04b663584a3b71390a136bde6a704846a02a767c04e1c08518c33f93. “Applications of machine learning algorithms to detect digital addiction: a meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1789188).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1789188). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dialectic
<a id="dialectic"></a>

Dialectic refers to reasoning or argument, or to a connected line of argument. In later idealist philosophy, especially after Hegel, it can also mean the logical unfolding of thought or another process as it repeatedly takes shape in symbolic or material forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 947eb137f5e4a766c9494f46beca4d5691ba740a26f91c996eaa263d496e10be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dialectic” (Dialectic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dialectic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dialectical behavior therapy
<a id="dialectical-behavior-therapy"></a>

Dialectical behavior therapy is a flexible, stage-based form of therapy that draws on behavior therapy, cognitive behavior therapy, and mindfulness. It aims to support both acceptance and change at the same time, particularly for people who are hard to treat.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b2009df9e44f9ab8de350a0c77895559e8138d64881203ded38b6bfccbb3420e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dialectical Behavior Therapy” (D000077252).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077252). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dialogue
<a id="dialogue"></a>

Dialogue is an exchange in which two parties carry on a meaningful, coherent conversation. In the visual form described here, the conversation is tied to an image, and each question and answer depends on what has already been said.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 61c1e931d5b60e55fafef0c827315ef502f969967b93eef6a701f054e03f728c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Verheyen Lara; Botoko Ekila Jérôme; Nevens Jens; Van Eecke Paul; Beuls Katrien. Neuro-symbolic procedural semantics for explainable visual dialogue. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323098; article XML SHA-256 b55056c675a3db54701f8ca064eb0038f55866baf9238301b72c3af0735f426c. “Neuro-symbolic procedural semantics for explainable visual dialogue” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323098).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323098). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dialysis dementia
<a id="dialysis-dementia"></a>

Dialysis dementia is a severe brain disorder linked to buildup of aluminum in the brain from dialysis fluid made with poorly purified water, and it is often fatal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7412af8882120c64e8f1334e4018b4955eeb39d6f1337db7de9186fe8e027003

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dialysis Encephalopathy” (C50531).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diamorphine
<a id="diamorphine"></a>

Diamorphine, also known as heroin, is a narcotic pain-relieving drug derived from opium. It can lead to habit formation and is classified as a controlled substance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3550150ce2cc3eea4a05f1d599b0e6e123563edd62303bcbffd3d45ce3338b09

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Heroin” (D003932).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003932). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dianoia
<a id="dianoia"></a>

In this historical philosophical usage, dianoia means rational thought, especially discursive or demonstrative thinking. In the packet, it is contrasted with mere sense on one side and with opinion or seeming on the other as a higher, reason-governed form of thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b89f1d6a533196078fa5cf8525c8a6fb481a28f836ba5796cf337af5d9c0584d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Opinion (in philosophy)” (Opinion (in philosophy)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Opinion (in philosophy)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diary method
<a id="diary-method"></a>

The diary method is a research approach in which participants record their experiences or states repeatedly over a short period, such as each day. In this source, it is used to study day-to-day changes and reduce errors that can happen when people try to remember past experiences later.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f547b4ec015f0264af8b21bceeb90f660d86c85754a64b96167c6093e914c583

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Han Han; Yu Xinyu; Li Huxi; Sun Nana. The bidirectional relationship between depression and perceived social support among college freshmen: evidence from longitudinal and daily diary methods. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1676105; article XML SHA-256 fc5ac80850ac0f9a9460b16e0e10a5955330df9afad0e850d4caf9f2f41b776c. “The bidirectional relationship between depression and perceived social support among college freshmen: evidence from longitudinal and daily diary methods” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1676105).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1676105). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diaschisis
<a id="diaschisis"></a>

Diaschisis is reduced or lost function in a part of the brain that remains structurally intact but is located away from the site of a brain lesion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1039e46dc6fd5391d4f61718137a41f4b0298378782c80f327963652122ea717

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Diaschisis” (D000087505).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000087505). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diatonic
<a id="diatonic"></a>

Diatonic refers to the natural series of musical tones represented by the notes beginning from C, as described in connection with the major scale. In this historical source, it names the ordinary tonal sequence underlying that scale.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99b64803a7ff8c4477cc81382cf7d1e7e6a85fa003d8ed82d8cef5ee0fac3b64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Major” (Major).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M1defs.htm#Major). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diazepam
<a id="diazepam"></a>

Diazepam is a benzodiazepine drug with anti-anxiety, sedative, sleep-inducing, and anticonvulsant effects. It works by enhancing the inhibitory action of GABA at its receptor, which reduces neuronal excitability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3366741ef9128f4d6fba5c28cbb76753659a02953df1631d1b5232b445e09e83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Diazepam” (C28982).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diazepam-binding inhibitor
<a id="diazepam-binding-inhibitor"></a>

Diazepam-binding inhibitor is a small protein present in both the central nervous system and the rest of the body that can displace diazepam from a recognition site on GABA receptors. It also carries certain fatty acid–related molecules and helps regulate lipid metabolism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fd3cf6911361f0bdff963d7ff8aaa50ecfb77646e73b7b961c82ed2c38128d4f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Diazepam Binding Inhibitor” (D026261).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D026261). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DIC
<a id="dic"></a>

DIC refers to digital infrastructure construction, meaning the development of interconnected and intelligent urban infrastructure based on technologies such as advanced communications, artificial intelligence, and cloud computing. In this context, it is described as a basis for smart urban transformation and for strengthening a city’s ability to respond to and recover from risks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e42aeca506b89919b0b70531c171c2b8484baa4cd014d70303a0d89edcc85541

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Bo; Shi Ruyi; Wang Yibao. Digitalization and resilience enhancement: How digital infrastructure construction affects urban resilience. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339790; article XML SHA-256 b05d2aaaf4d923058802f934d3674788abf586f4366d37f3697e19c7464bdb65. “Digitalization and resilience enhancement: How digital infrastructure construction affects urban resilience” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339790).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339790). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dichoptic stimulation
<a id="dichoptic-stimulation"></a>

Dichoptic stimulation is a viewing condition in which each eye is shown a different image at the same retinal location. Because the two images cannot be fused, perception may alternate between them, with one eye’s image dominating awareness while the other is temporarily suppressed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 37849372a3e126620aa16383908b2eea8c746a587e6a30fedf26ed91ecfcd359

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mustonen Terhi; Nuutinen Mikko; Vainio Lari; Häkkinen Jukka. Upper nasal hemifield location and nonspatial auditory tones accelerate visual detection during dichoptic viewing. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0199962; article XML SHA-256 956e3a30c926cb069b77c39aac3eebffa118c4504869868c1ea2817d4d7fc070. “Upper nasal hemifield location and nonspatial auditory tones accelerate visual detection during dichoptic viewing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0199962).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199962). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dichotic
<a id="dichotic"></a>

Dichotic describes a listening situation in which different sounds are presented to each ear at the same time. In psychology, it is used to study how the brain processes and favors auditory information from one ear or hemisphere over the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8ef8590eb0441b7b0dad371d4cf015388193710c8b9074c3bef60ae0b4b6b97

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Knobloch Simon; Haul Philipp; Rusche Saskia; Paland Heiko; Zokai Darius; Haaf Moritz; Rauh Jonas; Mulert Christoph; Leicht Gregor. Dichotic turncoats: Lateralization of auditory processing in two dichotic listening tasks using melodies and syllables. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333510; article XML SHA-256 ce0630108605af469857327ba0d2ab59b4204baf064e60223977aafd752f1730. “Dichotic turncoats: Lateralization of auditory processing in two dichotic listening tasks using melodies and syllables” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333510).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333510). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dichotic listening
<a id="dichotic-listening"></a>

Dichotic listening is a noninvasive testing method used to examine which brain hemisphere is more dominant for language or speech processing. In psychology and clinical assessment, it is also used as a standard tool for evaluating developmental auditory and language disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f7616b16869fecfdccd6c52f4e0e5d0ce0113b2b101c424e277a9091bba737f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Westerhausen René; Samuelsen Fredrik. An optimal dichotic-listening paradigm for the assessment of hemispheric dominance for speech processing. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0234665; article XML SHA-256 3e7afebea02d97d3439a8eafdc172eaa600458e7ce48341e1009ea6c627775c3. “An optimal dichotic-listening paradigm for the assessment of hemispheric dominance for speech processing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0234665).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0234665). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dichotomous thinking
<a id="dichotomous-thinking"></a>

Dichotomous thinking is the tendency to sort things, people, or events into two opposing categories. It reduces complex reality to an either-or, black-and-white view, which can simplify decisions by lowering mental effort.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 65adfd16eec077f9548ff536330966a9ef610f75ae1d87f574e2df71c24fc4e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu James Shyan-Tau; Kremen Claire; Zhao Jiaying. How does framing influence preference for multiple solutions to societal problems?. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285793; article XML SHA-256 29506c6e7dfe35fcc1b1766e1a524376a5b87b910b22c7f1bf1071b913e71e88. “How does framing influence preference for multiple solutions to societal problems?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285793).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285793). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dichotomous variable
<a id="dichotomous-variable"></a>

A dichotomous variable is a variable with two possible states or categories, such as healthy versus ill. In the source context, people are grouped according to which of the two states they are in.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb174566a4219048d9a35eae2c7a75b6dd58437e33671b45b471181d300303ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brinks Ralph; Landwehr Sandra. Change Rates and Prevalence of a Dichotomous Variable: Simulations and Applications. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0118955; article XML SHA-256 343eac64aff445117b25e28b5ce396b674124481e1c5277be1f20ca08d76a0d9. “Change Rates and Prevalence of a Dichotomous Variable: Simulations and Applications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0118955).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118955). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dichromatism
<a id="dichromatism"></a>

Dichromatism is a form of abnormal colour vision in which the range of colour differences a person can perceive is effectively reduced to two basic colour components instead of the fuller normal range. In this older usage, it refers to a partial colour-blindness affecting how the spectrum is distinguished.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca332a6bc675de779fa93fd368eb7bdf79efb88b372581edeeb73d3f36e1de18

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dichromatism” (Dichromatism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dichromatism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diencephalon
<a id="diencephalon"></a>

The diencephalon is a paired rear portion of the developing forebrain. It gives rise to the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and subthalamus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b77400e6bf7d4b0b200c43b40058360919995500854e1507ae60e5bc11d327f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Diencephalon” (D004027).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004027). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diethylpropion
<a id="diethylpropion"></a>

Diethylpropion is a stimulant drug related to amphetamines that reduces appetite and is used for anti-obesity effects. It acts by increasing catecholamine activity, especially dopamine and norepinephrine, which helps suppress hunger and may also influence brain signals involved in food intake and body weight regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36267f5f62e1c9745ddc4c12dc3ff5607621d8a3bf5c4c8e8aa1b82123071532

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Diethylpropion” (C61721).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dieting
<a id="dieting"></a>

Dieting is the deliberate control of eating as part of a weight-loss effort. In this source, it is described as something many men view negatively, often as a repeated cycle influenced by motivation, lifestyle pressures, and misinformation about diets.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4b31c98ccea17d46e2d684eb2a117ed83316bd41d28c7fb675366dae5c7d497b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cortnage Mark; Lillis Joseph; Roberts Justin. Male perceptions and experiences of weight loss initiatives: Considerations for sustainable lifestyle practices. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348158; article XML SHA-256 cb2e6c9f42437df48b4cf34575d25502dcc76c37c4634a6aa505694a036c419d. “Male perceptions and experiences of weight loss initiatives: Considerations for sustainable lifestyle practices” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348158).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348158). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## difference score
<a id="difference-score"></a>

A difference score is the value obtained by subtracting one measurement from another, so the analysis focuses on the change or discrepancy between them. In correlated or repeated-measures data, these scores are treated as a variable of their own and can be tested against zero or summarized by their mean and standard deviation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3173b5f9d3ab0011b8942d9b9ecd5411eb78644bc3fd443d23e363e6ae1dc195

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## difference tone
<a id="difference-tone"></a>

A difference tone, or Tartini’s tone, is a combination tone heard in relation to two primary tones and described as the stronger of the two combination tones. It is usually taken to have a vibration rate equal to the difference between the rates of the two primary tones, though the source also notes that under different conditions one of two such tones may be heard.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0073250f1984531e336c10eb5d67869e85ab4efdbe52ac25b027ec6344d0314

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Difference Tone” (Difference Tone).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Difference Tone). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## differential effect
<a id="differential-effect"></a>

Differential effect is the difference in how two forms of stimulation influence the same physiological response. In this source, it refers to the unequal impact of femoral nerve versus quadriceps muscle stimulation on soleus activity, especially the stronger excitatory effect of nerve stimulation on the H-reflex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 81cb5095be5145a86f8862269d79d18c75fc959fb7fa306cbd9f1c021516e364

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cuadra Cristian; Wolf Steven L.; Lyle Mark A.. Differential effect of heteronymous feedback from femoral nerve and quadriceps muscle stimulation onto soleus H-reflex. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290078; article XML SHA-256 828f4ac82ad5c0efce9eb7553453985524eaa3196249cfe7f85a10056af6f5d8. “Differential effect of heteronymous feedback from femoral nerve and quadriceps muscle stimulation onto soleus H-reflex” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290078).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290078). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## differential psychology
<a id="differential-psychology"></a>

Differential psychology is the area of psychology that studies how people differ from one another across traits and abilities such as cognitive intelligence, emotional intelligence, personality, and creativity. It also examines how these different individual differences are related and overlap.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9d5fca42167177aaacde44dae179b3364322199317369f21b36e7b96fc90f5a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zadorozhny Bogdan S; Petrides K V; Yang Jinyan; van der Linden Dimitri. The shared variance amongst the measures of individual differences and trait EI: a meta-meta-analytic comparison. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1635847; article XML SHA-256 53d3618896466c0da9db2d2e3407b7b8af6929b4905066ccbf0f7c4ba59da0da. “The shared variance amongst the measures of individual differences and trait EI: a meta-meta-analytic comparison” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1635847).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1635847). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## differential reinforcement of low rate
<a id="differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate"></a>

Differential reinforcement of low rate is an operant learning procedure in which reward is available only when responses are kept infrequent, typically by waiting a fixed amount of time before responding. Responding too often lowers performance because it reduces access to reinforcement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 58406cfaa305ed3e070938d5e3c1f9d471058333f1bd436a5c112e18fa875d48

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jones Stephanie G; Paletz Elliott M; Obermeyer William H; Hannan Ciaran T; Benca Ruth M. Seasonal influences on sleep and executive function in the migratory White-crowned Sparrow ( Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii ). 2010; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-11-87; article XML SHA-256 7093246fb98cc548c8d814c4ab728e53c2760e8d5386eecdb9bd5d52cf9352ae. “Seasonal influences on sleep and executive function in the migratory White-crowned Sparrow ( Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii )” (10.1186/1471-2202-11-87).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-11-87). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## differential validity
<a id="differential-validity"></a>

Differential validity is the extent to which a test or assessment predicts outcomes differently across subgroups rather than equally well for everyone. In this source, it refers to dynamic assessment having stronger predictive value for students with intellectual or reading disabilities than for students with socio-cultural disadvantage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9eceb11a0e29a550a5916e746bc507a320d318490009f53099416d430e977ecd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Navarro Juan-José; Lara Laura. Dynamic Assessment of Reading Difficulties: Predictive and Incremental Validity on Attitude toward Reading and the Use of Dialogue/Participation Strategies in Classroom Activities. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00173; article XML SHA-256 c05ded3657af0ccc8d2cdea203ecb0ad4e84ab683e63e1cecb955cc3067fe9dc. “Dynamic Assessment of Reading Difficulties: Predictive and Incremental Validity on Attitude toward Reading and the Use of Dialogue/Participation Strategies in Classroom Activities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00173).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00173). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diffraction grating
<a id="diffraction-grating"></a>

A diffraction grating is a device from which light or other radiation can be reflected so that waves of different periods are dispersed into different directions. In this way it is used to produce a spectrum, separating the radiation into distinct colour bands or lines.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8e90554238b7d0d2d2867976bcba7cfc2c82994bd3d51f82ab6d94f9336589f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3213000-3225000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diffuse axonal injury
<a id="diffuse-axonal-injury"></a>

Diffuse axonal injury is a common result of blunt head trauma in which axons are widely damaged throughout the brain. It can be associated with neurobehavioral problems, a persistent vegetative state, dementia, and other disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2cb813fe7f77fc3bcdbb7d5822f2182fb387407216412adca57d86ade664eaa5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Diffuse Axonal Injury” (D020833).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020833). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diffusion
<a id="diffusion"></a>

Diffusion is the spread of information through a social system as people’s actions, such as sharing, commenting, or liking, influence how widely and quickly attention moves. In social media settings, diffusion can be strengthened by repeated sharing and weakened when attention is diverted or split across competing posts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e9953993e87ed09f7c9c8570fa7f0587ffe771ea9e97ebd9d985a323f9f9eb6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Wen; Jing Zhe; Guo Yue. Forecasting user engagement and competing cascades in social media diffusion: A Hawkes-Transformer approach. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354472; article XML SHA-256 00a05c27c1cbfbf49e34aefc598c588c466ee34f6af7381385f8a3b5e081c7b9. “Forecasting user engagement and competing cascades in social media diffusion: A Hawkes-Transformer approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354472).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354472). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diffusion magnetic resonance imaging
<a id="diffusion-magnetic-resonance-imaging"></a>

Diffusion magnetic resonance imaging is an MRI-based method that assesses tissue by measuring how molecules such as water move within it. Changes in this movement, often summarized by the apparent diffusion coefficient, can reflect the tissue’s underlying microstructure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3290c6a11f2f4f15d36dc9e224ace9c0ee9f92c7c0a5847894b664918d562048

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Diffusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging” (D038524).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D038524). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diffusion model
<a id="diffusion-model"></a>

A diffusion model, here the Drift Diffusion Model, is a way of analyzing decision-making that aims to reveal the cognitive processes behind a choice rather than only the final behavior. It can be used to study how people weigh options such as immediate versus delayed outcomes in different contexts like gains and losses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 308e8dfc0dad52f733d0cc64682f9959647e437a77af3be922c66dd8b939a06c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Hao; Kader Gavin; Zhang Huoyin; Zhao Haijian; Pan Wanke; Lei Peng. Decomposing decision mechanisms in female substance use disorder: drift diffusion modeling of context-dependent biases in gain and loss processing. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07200-9; article XML SHA-256 11adb9676c28969c8d469897ccce69c25bfda277518208b37fb4887f9b382c5f. “Decomposing decision mechanisms in female substance use disorder: drift diffusion modeling of context-dependent biases in gain and loss processing” (10.1186/s12888-025-07200-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07200-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diffusion process
<a id="diffusion-process"></a>

A diffusion process is the way knowledge or information spreads through a network of people, groups, or places by means of their communication links. In this context, it refers to how educational messages, experiences, and insights move among tourism sites, visitors, and the wider public.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 51715dd217cccf2faadb6154b7c0bc0926f9ba73423a659ed2844850e500a517

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Jiehua; Peng Peng; Wei Dongping; Deng Zhijun. The research of knowledge diffusion network model for Tourism Destination-Public ecological civilization. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0310112; article XML SHA-256 a1baa5145485a511fd85cc2b38e61e889a4cd24874fc0cf3f9c6d3843249b01a. “The research of knowledge diffusion network model for Tourism Destination-Public ecological civilization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0310112).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310112). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diffusion tensor imaging
<a id="diffusion-tensor-imaging"></a>

Diffusion tensor imaging is a form of diffusion-weighted MRI that tracks how water moves in three dimensions. It is mainly used to visualize the brain’s white matter by showing the direction, location, and degree of organization of neural tracts, which can reveal small structural differences or changes linked to disease or treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e34d55b67adac807a0b760b60d01fdd87f97c94cc85d1fabf349c7c98327111a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Diffusion Tensor Imaging” (C64862).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## digit span
<a id="digit-span"></a>

Digit span is an assessment subtest in which a person repeats number sequences in the same order, in reverse order, or in ascending order. It is used to measure abilities such as working memory, attention, mental manipulation, cognitive flexibility, rote memory and learning, and encoding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6355349b053ef94c84639931eff510a2ec3cbc33852a471e50e3f893140e91a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Digit Span Subtest (WAIS-IV)” (C120365).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Digit Symbol
<a id="digit-symbol"></a>

Digit Symbol usually refers to the digit-symbol substitution task, a test task in which performance is used to assess executive functioning. In the supplied source, it is presented as a computerized task used to study brain activity and cognitive symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 24a7831856136042c17596f75abd06128f71dcf7e0f0a0c50dedfcd4d61ceeb4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mizuno Akiko; Karim Helmet Talib; Ly Maria J.; Lopresti Brian J.; Cohen Ann D.; Ali Areej A.; Mathis Chester A.; Klunk William E.; Aizenstein Howard J.; Snitz Beth E.. Low thalamic activity during a digit-symbol substitution task is associated with symptoms of subjective cognitive decline. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1242822; article XML SHA-256 9ed57ba3eb34fe33bb23523d748e3b44a2aa48ee04906d8db5b534a583492f53. “Low thalamic activity during a digit-symbol substitution task is associated with symptoms of subjective cognitive decline” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1242822).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1242822). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## digital divide
<a id="digital-divide"></a>

Digital divide is the gap in how people engage with digital technology, shaped by unequal resources such as knowledge, support, information, and money. It can involve differences in motivation to use technology, access to devices and internet infrastructure, digital skills, and the extent of technology use, and these gaps can restrict participation in everyday social life and reinforce existing inequalities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 111e9d7d43c2cd59201a43ec24560e00215c8422ce1676e62ea045d0467a3853

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lau Bobo Hi-Po; Shum Eric Ngai-Yin; Kwok Alex Pak-Ki; Liu Ben Chi-Pun; Chan Alex Chi-Keung; Kwan Rick Yiu-Cho; Fong Steve Fu-Fai; Lam Gigi; Tsang Chung-Kin; Leung Daniel Dick-Man; Cheung Johnson Chun-Sing; Chow Jason Tak-Sang; Wong Paulina Pui-Yun; Gietel-Basten Stuart. Revealing the nuances of ‘Grey Digital Divide’ in Hong Kong: A latent profile analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326413; article XML SHA-256 d094f9da36828a3cfdcae217224c546e3c1018789685f135710158c7a276e3cd. “Revealing the nuances of ‘Grey Digital Divide’ in Hong Kong: A latent profile analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326413).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326413). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## digraph
<a id="digraph"></a>

A digraph is a directed graph, meaning a network model in which links have a specified direction. In the source, it refers to a graph used to represent directional relationships in spatial and time-related data, such as how influences can move from one city to another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 34deaa4398f0dfc47c6cab274721388563960b8728b98567e0b455154bf139d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Li; Tang Qianhui; Wang Xiaoyi; Xu Jiping; Zhao Zhiyao; Zhang Huiyan; Yu Jiabin; Sun Qian; Bai Yuting; Jin Xuebo; Ning Chaoran. Spatio-temporal data prediction of multiple air pollutants in multi-cities based on 4D digraph convolutional neural network. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0287781; article XML SHA-256 5a727a533f5dd7bbd7357a1257b931559cb00af7f30dcb2b76c4e7de596454eb. “Spatio-temporal data prediction of multiple air pollutants in multi-cities based on 4D digraph convolutional neural network” (10.1371/journal.pone.0287781).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287781). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dihydroergotamine
<a id="dihydroergotamine"></a>

Dihydroergotamine is a drug that, in this source, was identified as a multi-targeting compound in a virtual screening study of FDA-approved drugs against multiple SARS-CoV-2 proteins. The article presents it in the context of drug repurposing and polypharmacology for possible antiviral use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f5f95026436922a70e2ce00f276f46e95379d0166bac34ec1d90f1e013b7606

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jamir Esther; Sarma Himakshi; Priyadarsinee Lipsa; Kiewhuo Kikrusenuo; Nagamani Selvaraman; Sastry G. Narahari. Polypharmacology guided drug repositioning approach for SARS-CoV2. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0289890; article XML SHA-256 802178d47a1466314a36546fd2bb0c7226713aa06572f5d5366085f015bcd084. “Polypharmacology guided drug repositioning approach for SARS-CoV2” (10.1371/journal.pone.0289890).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289890). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dihydrotestosterone
<a id="dihydrotestosterone"></a>

Dihydrotestosterone refers to reduced metabolites of testosterone, including 5α- and 5β-dihydrotestosterone, which are androgens. In this source, these compounds are described as having vasodilatory effects, and 5β-dihydrotestosterone is noted as lacking genomic effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3167c984ab608f6cfee06215ca908ba585e2bc8d15fd4538d86ddec1b9b3f76a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sánchez-Fernández David; Eguibar Aritz; López Cristina; Cuesta Ángel M; Albiñana Virginia; Rogers-Ezewuike Soline; Gómez-Rivas Juan A; Saldaña Laura; Botella Luisa M; Ferrer Mercedes. Effect of 5β-dihydrotestosterone on vasodilator function and on cell proliferation. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312080; article XML SHA-256 6b5cc6161682c578bc5e930643f80eea5fe6d17febde619a6b72bcceb8d282ab. “Effect of 5β-dihydrotestosterone on vasodilator function and on cell proliferation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312080).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312080). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Dilantin
<a id="dilantin"></a>

Dilantin is phenytoin sodium, a non-sedating antiepileptic drug used to reduce seizure activity. It works by helping stabilize neurons in the motor cortex and limiting repeated nerve firing and spread of seizure signals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64878857eb1ae6fed6da921635a9d910d7d8b21ccb320cc5e657b10cd3341b2c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Phenytoin Sodium” (C48011).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dilemma
<a id="dilemma"></a>

A dilemma is a form of reasoning that combines a hypothetical statement with an either-or statement, so that more than one possible condition leads to the same conclusion. In older and popular use, it also means being forced between two alternatives, often where either choice leads to an unwelcome result.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 78b9cbbb6210cb7967809ac91d864993a8ecf8124c74cb5c34c1a40254c583ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dilemma” (Dilemma).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dilemma). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dimensionality
<a id="dimensionality"></a>

In this context, dimensionality refers to how many variables or features are used to represent complex data. Dimensionality reduction means transforming many measured features into a smaller set of low-dimensional representations so patterns, structure, and relationships can be examined more clearly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 93d80db18e1bafb1c3ab6c2b08e719c50de098024c213175d36b0531f1182ddb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sharma Uma Shashi; LeDuc Philip R; Zhang Yongjie Jessica. A data-driven framework for modeling the dendritic spine continuum using dimensionality reduction and clustering toward understanding synaptic plasticity. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349775; article XML SHA-256 ffa689646ae36226f7223d32e96e817d69b8d4eda1e109e1a70898297d8f6089. “A data-driven framework for modeling the dendritic spine continuum using dimensionality reduction and clustering toward understanding synaptic plasticity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349775).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349775). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dimensions of consciousness
<a id="dimensions-of-consciousness"></a>

Dimensions of consciousness are the different aspects of conscious experience that may need separate explanation rather than a single account. In this usage, the term refers to complementary features of lived experience—such as cognitive access, self-related awareness, intrinsic felt experience, intentionality, temporality, and embodied situatedness—that different theories of consciousness may each illuminate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4cceb70f6246d1b43b82ea66c9cb42d5fa965aa9b9c519c85919e78772191415

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pae Hongju. Reflective analysis on empirical theories in consciousness. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1571098; article XML SHA-256 2ba9a3586b8ebe48c4bd3a34914f67e65208b8fbbc5441439df09ca25144471e. “Reflective analysis on empirical theories in consciousness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1571098).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1571098). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dimethyltryptamine
<a id="dimethyltryptamine"></a>

Dimethyltryptamine is a naturally occurring indoleamine found in several plant species and in very small amounts in mammalian brain, blood, and urine. It is a serotonergic hallucinogen that can act on certain serotonin receptors as either an agonist or an antagonist.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82e96c05d98cb9742004b0ad20e8b2bfbec8c3d133dbc25f8b61b5ac76fd9d31

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “N,N-Dimethyltryptamine” (D004130).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004130). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diminished responsibility
<a id="diminished-responsibility"></a>

In this historical usage, diminished responsibility refers to a state in which a person still knows the difference between right and wrong but, because of a psychopathic condition, is considered practically unable to choose or act according to the right. It was used in contrast to legal views that treated responsibility as absent only when that moral distinction could not be recognized at all.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d772f4633a03d73abac5c0bd431014e162ef6aa9b66ae124b8f1c23cc690b8ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Moral Insanity” (Moral Insanity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M4defs.htm#Moral Insanity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dimorphism
<a id="dimorphism"></a>

Dimorphism is the division of members of a plant or animal species into two distinct or somewhat different forms. A common example is sexual dimorphism, in which males and females differ in structure or other characteristics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6fa4d6e07f0d27f2451758286d89db4273d3a93aab715410566b7ca93fa45be7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dimorphism” (Dimorphism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dimorphism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dioptrics
<a id="dioptrics"></a>

Dioptrics is the branch of optics concerned with the refraction of light, as distinct from catoptrics, which deals with reflection. In this older usage, a diopter is the unit for lens power, based on a lens with a focal length of 1 metre.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 19abc606be34844d1a940bf63bda0a7d885badd30553c2c0dd3926f276723dc3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dioptrics” (Dioptrics).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dioptrics). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diplacusis
<a id="diplacusis"></a>

Diplacusis is a difference in how the two ears perceive the pitch of the same sound when each ear is heard separately. The source notes that this difference varies across people, may be as large as about a quarter-tone, and can also occur in connection with pathological conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dff45562775f85427f4678d1dffd69b777d570812b834e73bfcd6ca386b09ae4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Binaural Hearing” (Binaural Hearing).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Binaural Hearing). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Diplomacy
<a id="diplomacy"></a>

Diplomacy is the art and practice of carrying out negotiations between people, nations, or other parties such as organizations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 294b8cc8d6a9310948ba24be4c44ac2adb864bb87b10f73efe48fffd8a94bb58

Wording review pending: A ten-word ordered list and linking prose reproduce the source formulation rather than an unavoidable technical name.

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Diplomacy” (D000067551).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067551). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diplopia
<a id="diplopia"></a>

Diplopia is double vision: a visual symptom in which one object is seen as two. It can occur with problems affecting the eyes, the nerves that move the eyes, or certain brain areas involved in vision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e1a3a3f0c6ea6bdf44a667148250558425469e81ab005f0d0c50123892d7458e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Diplopia” (D004172).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004172). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dipsomania
<a id="dipsomania"></a>

Dipsomania is a historical term for an uncontrollable urge to drink alcohol, along with the disturbed mental state associated with excessive drinking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d5a9c1332ec6dc4c7d60dc07bbc72b9ef452c269914bb8d994cdd83b8f3faa7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dipsomania” (Dipsomania).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dipsomania). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## direct aggression
<a id="direct-aggression"></a>

Direct aggression is a form of cyber dating abuse in which someone acts online to openly harm their partner. It is distinguished from cyber control and monitoring, which involves controlling or watching a partner rather than explicitly trying to hurt them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa66f360fede42d2c25f8cdb17941be20c7a24c78d4fd4f74069d24f4a62e7b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ritchie Rebecca; Limniou Maria; Gordts Sarah. Greater toxic online disinhibition and lower consistent online self-presentation contribute to the perpetration of cyber dating abuse. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1716617; article XML SHA-256 031c2088a8e540b8257d457cae1d45c0d25ac351a303eb37299c5f509b3492be. “Greater toxic online disinhibition and lower consistent online self-presentation contribute to the perpetration of cyber dating abuse” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1716617).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1716617). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## direct correlation
<a id="direct-correlation"></a>

Direct correlation means a straightforward association between two factors, where one is linked with the other rather than the link depending on some additional condition. In the packet, it refers to perceived natural environment being associated with individual well-being in this direct way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0bf5dff6ef1fd2a6116c41d8af2e76f61cec7fa50047db8e7fa7310548728e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chengxia Xiong; Jing Jin. Associations of perceived natural and social environments with subjective well-being among Chinese older adults: a cross-sectional study of gender differences. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880057; article XML SHA-256 1ed7a80a247479440e839c96d7dad19cd608d2247ce82f1a99d56a0832b39697. “Associations of perceived natural and social environments with subjective well-being among Chinese older adults: a cross-sectional study of gender differences” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880057).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880057). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## direct object
<a id="direct-object"></a>

In this historical usage, a direct object is the immediate aim or focus of a tendency to action, such as others' interest in altruistic conduct or self-interest in egoistic conduct. It refers to what the action is directly directed toward.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f32827f42a28445dc3eafec590b07c38030248920b4a4a1847b574dcad593e2c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Altruism (in ethics)” (Altruism (in ethics)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Altruism (in ethics)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## direct observation
<a id="direct-observation"></a>

Direct observation is a treatment approach in which a patient is watched directly while taking medication or receiving care. It is used to lower the chance that treatment will be interrupted and to help ensure the patient follows the treatment plan.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9dcfb5c198150427f5a63f3d99166c62a51b31b9fa0906a1750c8ef7d50ea21c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Directly Observed Therapy” (D023801).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D023801). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## direct perception
<a id="direct-perception"></a>

In this historical theological usage, direct perception means immediate knowledge of God’s nature or essence, not knowledge reached indirectly through reflection or reasoning. The source says such perception is not available to people in this life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc41acff820d0518e67cceca1e8c3e9042efb94404b38a1c4c4696527817df79

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Agnosticism (in theology)” (Agnosticism (in theology)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Agnosticism (in theology)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## direct reflex
<a id="direct-reflex"></a>

A direct reflex is a reflex pathway in the spinal cord in which an incoming sensory fibre sends a collateral directly to cells in the ventral horn, forming a direct reflex arc to a motor neuron. In this historical usage, it is contrasted with an indirect reflex path that passes through an intercalary cell.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e23f3f596bede7fe161274fc3eedde844cfeabd15ee9372b498ce9ecd7087fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3297000-3309000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## direct relationship
<a id="direct-relationship"></a>

A direct relationship is an association between two variables considered on its own, before accounting for indirect pathways or intervening psychological processes. In this context, it refers to the positive link found between perceived educational opportunity fairness and social trust.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7a10bca53645ebbcc42c3d1c31d5f2d90ffcd533138a434fb4987c45c43c8457

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hou Huijuan; Wu Ruqiao; Wang Dongliang. The relationship between perceived educational opportunity fairness and social trust: an empirical study based on cognition, emotion and developmental expectation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876898; article XML SHA-256 c26948bacf9638fc49705bc9e952ca915c453767e9ea5d008be8c9516bff04cf. “The relationship between perceived educational opportunity fairness and social trust: an empirical study based on cognition, emotion and developmental expectation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876898).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876898). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## direct replication
<a id="direct-replication"></a>

Direct replication is a repeat of an earlier experiment that closely follows the original study design to check whether the same finding appears again. In psychological research, it is used to test the reproducibility of a reported effect, especially when the result is novel or surprising.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 26de9e2e15ba1910a769392fcc36f0d46c27990e4f11d5042b0934de7701c7dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mah Eric Y.; Grannon Kelly E. L.; Campbell Alison; Tamburri Nicholas; Jamieson Randall K.; Lindsay D. Stephen. A direct replication and extension of Popp and Serra (2016, experiment 1): better free recall and worse cued recall of animal names than object names, accounting for semantic similarity. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1146200; article XML SHA-256 05e818dcf5fe3d288fd14e43447665d0cdc119f1f4049cba608bc5bb4ed5c548. “A direct replication and extension of Popp and Serra (2016, experiment 1): better free recall and worse cued recall of animal names than object names, accounting for semantic similarity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1146200).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1146200). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## direct scaling
<a id="direct-scaling"></a>

Direct scaling is the multiplicative increase of a neuron’s synaptic input, so that both the average level and variability of the net current are scaled together. In the balanced excitation-inhibition range described here, this produces an immediate proportional amplification of spiking responses that can track rapid input changes without depending on earlier spiking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 164cac636d05035fb3eeb52afa1950ff4496012ab58fd2cdcf3255319f9219e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reuveni Iris; Ghosh Sourav; Barkai Edi. Real Time Multiplicative Memory Amplification Mediated by Whole-Cell Scaling of Synaptic Response in Key Neurons. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005306; article XML SHA-256 11f122f8f59bd2181c99efc2f8f78994d47fc7a3a1d232dd6d9898b80a739b19. “Real Time Multiplicative Memory Amplification Mediated by Whole-Cell Scaling of Synaptic Response in Key Neurons” (10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005306).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005306). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## direct selection
<a id="direct-selection"></a>

In historical evolutionary discussion, direct selection means selection that acts immediately on the trait or material in question, rather than producing it indirectly as a by-product of other changes. In the passage, it is contrasted with Darwin’s view that some features, such as mutual sterility, arise incidentally instead of being directly selected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d315707f24b75bb1952f2abf01ec4efefd9f545ff251b7716e227af10e01f9cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-787500-799500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## direct suggestion
<a id="direct-suggestion"></a>

Direct suggestion is a suggestion in which an idea is conveyed straight to the mind through spoken words and accepted there. In this historical account, it is contrasted with indirect suggestion, where the mind forms the idea from an impression it receives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fdbc5e9650f54264018a3c9f1374a91147ce47d87979beafff1d4c0658a64c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-2803500-2815500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## directed forgetting
<a id="directed-forgetting"></a>

Directed forgetting is the intentional effort to reduce later remembering of particular information. It is an active form of forgetting used to keep no-longer-relevant or outdated material from interfering with current thinking and recall.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d612c3253012f92238e8efe3108fbfe7d910537ccb7c5a144e2eef22e55c0a46

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bastin Christine; Feyers Dorothée; Majerus Steve; Balteau Evelyne; Degueldre Christian; Luxen André; Maquet Pierre; Salmon Eric; Collette Fabienne. The Neural Substrates of Memory Suppression: A fMRI Exploration of Directed Forgetting. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0029905; article XML SHA-256 9eba53bafb82dd4a841f9350b3aec0980c37f51c31b8d5e3e9a679010554193b. “The Neural Substrates of Memory Suppression: A fMRI Exploration of Directed Forgetting” (10.1371/journal.pone.0029905).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029905). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## directed thinking
<a id="directed-thinking"></a>

Directed thinking is thinking that is organised around reaching a goal. In the packet, it refers to goal-focused thought that includes both a sense of personal agency and the ability to identify possible routes or plans for achieving that goal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c96af48490b7582b532eb8c860f4dafbed90c9ae7adc4b28a341cd205187390

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Berry Clio; Acharya Nishi; Crowter Lucie. The light at the end of the tunnel? A systematic review of higher education student experiences of hope. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304596; article XML SHA-256 c282b996a865ff2f0f0dea41d834d15acbe9a6e11d85a0b9754606db238e6df0. “The light at the end of the tunnel? A systematic review of higher education student experiences of hope” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304596).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304596). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## directedness
<a id="directedness"></a>

Directedness refers to behavior that is oriented toward a particular target. In this packet, human directedness means how much an animal’s behavior is aimed at or focused on a human.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0e0caeb0dfc8bc249e61627b7516a08a64af11e0b3266c4a2cf208c5e08085c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Capitain Svenja; Marshall-Pescini Sarah; Wirobski Gwendolyn; Teichmann Tabea; Range Friederike. Deference or sociability? Insights from dogs’ and wolves’ human-directed behavior in a food-conflict task. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1854682; article XML SHA-256 6bbd3d08f1adaecb2d20b3f9f7feaa3bacfdc0b71cab5aa40e23e3921d229302. “Deference or sociability? Insights from dogs’ and wolves’ human-directed behavior in a food-conflict task” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1854682).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1854682). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## directional hypothesis
<a id="directional-hypothesis"></a>

A directional hypothesis is a prediction that an effect or relationship will go in a specified direction, such as expecting one factor to positively influence another. In the source study, it referred to predicting positive influences of attitudes, norms, and perceived control on intention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e80b081479ef91b966c5f34f2b65e9b1e9c9b44b0ef7402380dd65b13e83a55a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Spitzer Lisa; Mueller Stefanie. Registered report: Survey on attitudes and experiences regarding preregistration in psychological research. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281086; article XML SHA-256 4430d1f9339c69354dd5caa02df607f3b357ba69cb551fe9bd78b3738fcd8a4a. “Registered report: Survey on attitudes and experiences regarding preregistration in psychological research” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281086).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281086). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## directional test
<a id="directional-test"></a>

A directional test is a significance test that calculates probability for results as extreme as the observed one in only one specified direction, such as values larger than the null-hypothesized parameter. It is the same as a one-tailed test or one-tailed probability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 95e54da3cb44ead3827002eb5e32c182360a7c7ed7a4292e4075f1bec4bd2308

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “One Tailed” (one_tailed.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/one_tailed.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## directive counseling
<a id="directive-counseling"></a>

Directive counseling is a counseling approach in which the professional takes an active part in the client’s decision-making process by giving advice, guidance, or recommendations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e751641c0352ff8672e7958ea07b140db9267f39f3a77c9b6c95e94355a6c3f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Directive Counseling” (D037001).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D037001). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Directly Observed Therapy
<a id="directly-observed-therapy"></a>

Directly observed therapy is a treatment approach in which a patient is watched while taking medication or receiving treatment. Its purpose is to lower the chance that treatment will be interrupted and to help ensure the treatment is followed as prescribed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dfedd366804ff28431dc090099ec3e3e7a45c37f1f76995ae5df009e4e6d0aae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Directly Observed Therapy” (D023801).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D023801). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## director
<a id="director"></a>

In this framework, a director is the person on the production side who organizes scene design choices in film or television to shape the viewer’s unfolding expectations, arousal, and emotional response. The director does this by combining formal elements such as camera use, framing, editing, lighting, sound, and cueing to guide a target emotional trajectory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b0d65d339cb711fd1b39d02b9a988c59802b45eb287679bef71667206e66196

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jeong Youngtaek. The predictive–affective loop for directors: a target-state design framework for audiovisual directing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1760222; article XML SHA-256 0cecd29cde53cfb196a02f361842c0dc48923c8a117d3b5b2ee2fa3124787170. “The predictive–affective loop for directors: a target-state design framework for audiovisual directing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1760222).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1760222). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DIS
<a id="dis"></a>

DIS here refers to digital interventions: psychological treatments provided through digital platforms such as computers, the internet, smartphones, tablets, virtual reality, or wearable devices. They use established therapy methods in a digital format and can make mental health support more accessible and acceptable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 56d5eb7f052a6293edfd35b464073cc08c49b44277a372ca6f1e9cf5eea95692

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yang; Zhang Zeng-yun-ou; He Li-ping; Zhou Xiao-qiu; Yu Bo; Huang Xue-min; Yang Dan; Xia Deng-mei; Wang Dan. Efficacy of digital interventions in social anxiety disorder: a systematic review and Bayesian network meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883150; article XML SHA-256 8f95b21f152abea12f38e832b154e5a96700ff79d38ffcb4de115c3726f8680c. “Efficacy of digital interventions in social anxiety disorder: a systematic review and Bayesian network meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883150).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883150). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disability
<a id="disability"></a>

A disability is a physical or mental impairment that gets in the way of a person's ability to do the activities they want to do.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05a93fa927b8c78bebd89e278c7544fe3b3aabb6080098c806ce84e1cf20173e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Disability” (C21007).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disability evaluation
<a id="disability-evaluation"></a>

Disability evaluation is the process of deciding how severe a person’s physical, mental, or emotional disability is. The result is used to determine legal eligibility for disability-related benefits, income support, Social Security, or workers’ compensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2351ddf16c38c647e1171d72a0dbb93ff2d52a74396deee16c78f0fed8f1bdf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Disability Evaluation” (D004185).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004185). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disaggregation
<a id="disaggregation"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, disaggregation means a more severe form of pathological dissociation in which the usual unity of conscious thought breaks apart. Part of mental life becomes separated from the rest, so the person in a normal state may not know what occurred in the abnormal state and may have only dim awareness while in it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4ec5ad839a61728f3a56f7d7d773877f366c3dfbb3816e5249a6166762b366f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dissociation (and Disaggregation, pathological)” (Dissociation (and Disaggregation, pathological)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dissociation (and Disaggregation, pathological)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disaster
<a id="disaster"></a>

A disaster is a catastrophic natural event, such as one arising from atmospheric, geological, or hydrological causes, that leads to deaths, property loss, and disruption of communities and their environments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9d2f005a37016c9d18b314a1295c49c1966c19a7feba868122777a5f64fa5e24

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Natural Disaster” (C199396).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disavowal
<a id="disavowal"></a>

Disavowal refers to an author withdrawing or denying their involvement in carrying out research or in writing up the study’s results. In this source, it is used in the context of publication retraction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac79807c241c843939e2212c2bd019f2d66bf786f7f3aba7383b22b801bc8176

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retraction of Publication as Topic” (D012180).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012180). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discharge rate
<a id="discharge-rate"></a>

Discharge rate is the rate at which a neuron fires during stimulation. In this context, it refers to the strength of the neuron’s overall response as measured by its mean firing rate, which can vary separately from oscillatory modulation tied to the stimulus frequency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4fe70ebfdc4828a05673e3409de6403acf2b2deb1b724aaa853dbdfcdaf43fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wypych Marek; Nagy Attila; Mochol Gabriela; Foik Andrzej; Benedek György; Waleszczyk Wioletta J.. Spectral Characteristics of Phase Sensitivity and Discharge Rate of Neurons in the Ascending Tectofugal Visual System. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0103557; article XML SHA-256 fbaa881c457d67b0f8d1be17196476dbf0b682aaf4c9a90a6bdb82c02d27afdb. “Spectral Characteristics of Phase Sensitivity and Discharge Rate of Neurons in the Ascending Tectofugal Visual System” (10.1371/journal.pone.0103557).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103557). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discipline
<a id="discipline"></a>

Discipline is the use of actions or rules to encourage appropriate behavior and conduct, such as setting limits, using controls, or giving time out.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 195686dd07681db360a42d50ebc1b9c71296f3c2d97ca4bafe295ab3474913d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Discipline” (C17716).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discontinuity hypothesis
<a id="discontinuity-hypothesis"></a>

The discontinuity hypothesis is the idea that people with a repressive coping style are not initially insensitive to threat: they show early responsiveness to threatening information, but this does not lead to stronger later memory for it. In this view, their processing of threat changes across time, with later memory for threatening material becoming relatively weak.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a1454a11a185d87c6934296ea3876e37f4c086643b5e528941a1ecd26ac2d0d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rauch Astrid Veronika; ter Horst Lena; Paul Victoria Gabriele; Bauer Jochen; Dannlowski Udo; Konrad Carsten; Ohrmann Patricia; Kugel Harald; Egloff Boris; Arolt Volker; Suslow Thomas. Influence of Repressive Coping Style on Cortical Activation during Encoding of Angry Faces. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0112398; article XML SHA-256 ae0738372e75dcb6f4f79a016eb73fe7af92b5ab720041efdca96666e8b9aa4e. “Influence of Repressive Coping Style on Cortical Activation during Encoding of Angry Faces” (10.1371/journal.pone.0112398).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112398). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discourse analysis
<a id="discourse-analysis"></a>

Discourse analysis is a way of studying language in texts to see how word choice, tone, speaking position, and what is left unsaid help express, reinforce, or challenge social norms. In psychology-related work, it can be used to show how everyday communication shapes shared expectations and limited forms of resistance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ecb1b695b9606e830ac66be7ec4be7d2dee60a6fcddecbd5d1a5612496b1da77

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Qingqing; Zhang Xin; Liu Taixuan. A feminist critical discourse analysis of gender norms on Chinese social media: Empirical insights from WeChat public accounts. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338967; article XML SHA-256 42fd340a7c2599d546c5f462a9b48a05c1aa063ad09f75773130a345540a1bc1. “A feminist critical discourse analysis of gender norms on Chinese social media: Empirical insights from WeChat public accounts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338967).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338967). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discovery
<a id="discovery"></a>

Discovery is the process, or the outcome of the process, of arriving at a new truth, fact, or relation among facts that was not already part of accepted knowledge. It implies both an earlier idea or hypothesis and the later showing that this idea is objectively true, so it is closely linked with proof.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9db6d0b53462ce64ecdbb91af61e3edd65f27e27d423cf0a2db6be0e784a211

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Discovery” (Discovery).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Discovery). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discovery learning
<a id="discovery-learning"></a>

Discovery learning is a learning approach in which learners actively search, explore, and make decisions for themselves, often through inquiry. It works best when the teacher carefully guides the process with supports such as questioning, explanations, feedback, and scaffolding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38543f3a300df1cd17996ea373ac0db83cff97df31288dfa09e7324d25565545

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Newell Karl M.; Rovegno Inez. Teaching Children’s Motor Skills for Team Games Through Guided Discovery: How Constraints Enhance Learning. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.724848; article XML SHA-256 ccf0d1744eed920c80ab1c592648d291df01ce7474b9b1a5ee01e34a5ac35c1f. “Teaching Children’s Motor Skills for Team Games Through Guided Discovery: How Constraints Enhance Learning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.724848).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.724848). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discrete
<a id="discrete"></a>

In this historical source, discrete means separate or discontinuous. In logic, it refers to things that differ in a specific way while still falling together under a broader general category.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da5d26d1da1072c980474959a46fc386f8bb589625af5666f8acaf56812fa8c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Discrete” (Discrete).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Discrete). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discrete control
<a id="discrete-control"></a>

Discrete control is a control approach that uses a limited set of separate action options, such as different management strategies or policies, rather than a continuous range of adjustments. In the source context, a feedback system switches among these distinct options to guide outcomes under uncertainty.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ddab2129e6b9245177dc0d9477cc7eb3051b1ce9815dc8a9d5d3316886214427

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Smith Phoebe; Guiver Chris. Learning under uncertainty—Conservation of populations and persistence of dynamic resources through adaptive switching feedback controllers. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349236; article XML SHA-256 52a32b838f6862cfe53fc8017b13417030926c53c934e8cd498edd086a4a9978. “Learning under uncertainty—Conservation of populations and persistence of dynamic resources through adaptive switching feedback controllers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349236).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349236). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discrete trial
<a id="discrete-trial"></a>

In this context, a discrete trial is a task format in which symbols or words are presented and named one at a time rather than in a continuous series. It is contrasted with serial naming and is used to examine more isolated, whole-item processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09355e859f9326195c8431de24f88a0830f77a37ec2f8bd41a59e943f08f1c05

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Altani Angeliki; Protopapas Athanassios; Georgiou George K.. Using Serial and Discrete Digit Naming to Unravel Word Reading Processes. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00524; article XML SHA-256 bd54f6b542ff00f550d3cca6b05f25b3d32b4ae195beba704bd1bad7a0e3f9c4. “Using Serial and Discrete Digit Naming to Unravel Word Reading Processes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00524).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00524). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discrete variable
<a id="discrete-variable"></a>

A discrete variable is a variable that can take only a limited set of distinct values rather than any value along a continuum. All qualitative variables are discrete, and some quantitative variables are also discrete, although variables with many possible separate values may sometimes be treated as continuous in practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 855e84cc925ff1455249942bc1c0dceeee72b519cffe4320b76d524ddbbb54ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Discrete Variables” (discrete_variables.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/discrete_variables.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discriminant analysis
<a id="discriminant-analysis"></a>

Discriminant analysis is a statistical method used when the outcome variable has distinct categories. It focuses on distinguishing between groups of observed data and assigning new observations to those groups, and it may be used as an alternative to regression analysis in some situations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 517d79022961f054891045811899b45279c05551e156b428cc28d86966a79bd9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Discriminant Analysis” (D016002).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016002). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discriminant validity
<a id="discriminant-validity"></a>

Discriminant validity is the extent to which a measure can be shown to assess a concept that is distinct from the concept measured by another scale. In psychology, it is used to test whether two instruments that are often treated as different really reflect separate underlying constructs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0b20f3695b15cec145113ad76e15a415d251e51ab58bd5e1a986fbfca8657911

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aarø Leif Edvard; Knapstad Marit; Smith Otto Robert. Positive mental wellbeing or symptoms of depression? Discriminant validity of the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-06922-0; article XML SHA-256 299839a1dc9ecd2ad22b10b3883f42ce70fb3ad972a425caa0cb0a3e98037811. “Positive mental wellbeing or symptoms of depression? Discriminant validity of the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale” (10.1186/s12888-025-06922-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-06922-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discrimination
<a id="discrimination"></a>

In historical psychology, discrimination means judging that two or more things differ, with each being noticed as separate from the surrounding experience. The term was also used for awareness of difference in successive sensations, especially in experimental settings as sense discrimination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7824fab01a5bab919e5fc115f1535eef665ccc03530bc7bff79bb12b4a6e4c14

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Discrimination” (Discrimination).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Discrimination). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discrimination learning
<a id="discrimination-learning"></a>

Discrimination learning is learning shown by being able to react differently to different stimuli. In plain terms, it means learning to tell things apart and respond to each one in a distinct way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e9a1806b396750f0f1c5e22868b9f8e6610aafe48b913397e5b1a3659a034ce2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Discrimination Learning” (D004193).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004193). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Discrimination, Psychological
<a id="discrimination-psychological"></a>

Psychological discrimination is responding differently to different stimuli.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ad29fc44297c00829afe5d10813f1d3c536dd808e3b6677177cbd518cd8ee76e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Discrimination, Psychological” (D004192).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004192). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discriminative learning
<a id="discriminative-learning"></a>

Discriminative learning is learning shown by being able to respond differently to different stimuli. It involves distinguishing among stimuli rather than reacting the same way to all of them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4681ac22e55a06e93d9a42ed491c9a734825b91e871a7ba5b2237d6899b615be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Discrimination Learning” (D004193).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004193). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## discriminative response
<a id="discriminative-response"></a>

A discriminative response is an action made selectively, only when a stimulus matches a required condition rather than on every trial. In the study context, it meant responding only to a moving stimulus headed toward a pre-defined target area, adding a decision about whether to act.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b98d76723ed9d19377e091ab15de4e975682b9f8ad9265c468f657f74d6378d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sun Yu; Jang Dukchan; Park Sangbum. Perception-action coupling during discriminative interceptive actions. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1526153; article XML SHA-256 75c85555447b641ac4af85a12963a7ffda903c4f1edc4299475e28c78ef39eed. “Perception-action coupling during discriminative interceptive actions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1526153).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1526153). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disease
<a id="disease"></a>

Disease means a morbid departure from normal health in mind or body, and more specifically a set of unhealthy conditions affecting the same part and showing similar symptoms. A historical distinction separates organic disease, where some bodily structure is damaged or abnormal, from functional disease, where a part acts irregularly without visible structural change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d490f823c02bdbfd60deb30a87f9832b76691c421540b71c7ca4a1bcce8401e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Disease” (Disease).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Disease). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disease management
<a id="disease-management"></a>

Disease management is a broad way of coordinating the full process of care for a disease. It often emphasizes prevention, patient counselling and education, and outpatient care instead of more costly hospital and acute care, while considering how suitable or unsuitable treatment affects both outcomes and overall cost.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc125dd185baa30ffdf86c3c5886b0ff207ae1e29b48ee44afa161ba3ed531bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Disease Management” (D019468).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019468). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disenfranchised grief
<a id="disenfranchised-grief"></a>

Disenfranchised grief is grief that a person feels but society restricts, minimizes, or does not fully recognize as acceptable to express. It can happen when the loss is not widely acknowledged, such as the death of a patient, student, stillborn baby, or animal companion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce44fe82ab2aaa4ed8e7f2cdc84d3307abb1b54805d54422ba884e306a9e27f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Disenfranchised Grief” (D000076605).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000076605). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disengaged family
<a id="disengaged-family"></a>

A disengaged family is a pattern of family dysfunction marked by overly separate or unbalanced boundaries between family members. In this kind of family system, the weak connectedness can contribute to poorer family communication and may be linked to worse perceived mental health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c35300a19144603e8fde56ed9df91529e742b7c258f430e588b49e253ca69e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shon En-Jung; Lee Lena. Structural equation modeling for the effects of family dysfunctions and communication on perceived mental health status among under/graduate students in the U.S.. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0301914; article XML SHA-256 c7db1b0d7b4f7a5135ca2374281e40475ba8355730e392d6eb5b9e92bbfb0e0d. “Structural equation modeling for the effects of family dysfunctions and communication on perceived mental health status among under/graduate students in the U.S.” (10.1371/journal.pone.0301914).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301914). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disengagement
<a id="disengagement"></a>

In this historical psychology passage, disengagement means the giving off or release of heat. It is used to describe the idea that mental or brain activity is accompanied by a local rise in temperature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31fc7f53f3a435cf58243180481180db96a0c07e0bc77c39b5ae9ffcdab47104

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disequilibrium
<a id="disequilibrium"></a>

Disequilibrium is a state of imbalance or departure from equilibrium. It refers to deviations from a stable level that may either gradually return toward balance over time or persist if shocks have lasting effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6af0e7fb6d7501e89032e4607cfe6c1667ab049e6b7c240e0a4195a8542c4fde

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Monge Manuel; Hurtado Rafael; Infante Juan. Time trends and persistence of the return difference between growth and value investment strategies. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332690; article XML SHA-256 37b9ea0f6da8281f790b81c7f680076dbd17613a4039b991cb13ac237bc720e1. “Time trends and persistence of the return difference between growth and value investment strategies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332690).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332690). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disgust
<a id="disgust"></a>

Disgust is a feeling of revulsion or strong disapproval triggered by something experienced as unpleasant or offensive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61599ffefaf10d7c356fb873db5b24a70599e6a67837331a7499a52b9c3dbcf6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Disgust” (D000078382).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000078382). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dishabituation
<a id="dishabituation"></a>

Dishabituation is the return of an orienting response after it has weakened through repeated exposure, triggered by changing to a new or novel stimulus. In this context, it means that a response reduced by habituation becomes re-established when something different is presented.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 981f1bed90d383fdeed5a6d9a90d2d58c9e810cf87f65192c855bfb540d232c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aerdker Sophie; Feng Jing; Schöner Gregor. Habituation and Dishabituation in Motor Behavior: Experiment and Neural Dynamic Model. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.717669; article XML SHA-256 db9fa7fb5c1d43f2499ee1f2e31163b9b8d1363bb5f063846b5e920d31502977. “Habituation and Dishabituation in Motor Behavior: Experiment and Neural Dynamic Model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.717669).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.717669). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disidentification
<a id="disidentification"></a>

Disidentification is an active psychological distancing from a group that matters to a person’s self-concept. The person still formally belongs to the group, but internally feels separate from it, sees themself as different from other members, and is dissatisfied with belonging. It is more than simply not identifying with the group, because it reflects a distinct negative state of separation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa5f98363ab322636098de7976ad67cf172c8be66730916f469dba6ab5a00227

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bierle Isabel; Becker Julia C.; Nakao Gen; Heine Steven J.. Shame and anger differentially predict disidentification between collectivistic and individualistic societies. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0289918; article XML SHA-256 bc656c964eebb84b2d6ab86f67821eaf681b85253e85cb5ea4f9918954b717ff. “Shame and anger differentially predict disidentification between collectivistic and individualistic societies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0289918).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289918). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disinformation
<a id="disinformation"></a>

Disinformation is false information that is intentionally, and often secretly, spread to shape public opinion or hide the truth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 316a7aae8f133cb3df75da4f375dd30bd8d01f8ee6479ef69fc7d386665b9382

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Disinformation” (D000087862).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000087862). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disinhibition
<a id="disinhibition"></a>

Disinhibition is behavior that is unusually unrestrained and may go against typical social norms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9547a8dcf5a86fc6ec67be86747b54097f0672811a326dbeae6928bae9f1655

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Disinhibition” (C117253).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disintegration
<a id="disintegration"></a>

Disintegration is a general term for breaking down or declining from an earlier, more organized condition, including forms of decay, decomposition, or demoralization. In this historical source, it refers broadly to loss of wholeness or organization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 758315721eea1c95603e3bec304ebaa845c2c63649dfe672b1a44c76314060b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Disintegration” (Disintegration).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Disintegration). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disjoint sets
<a id="disjoint-sets"></a>

Disjoint sets are groups that do not overlap, so the elements or variables in one set are different from those in the other. In the source context, two datasets can describe the same phenomenon while measuring separate, nonshared variables.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 739ac66e7fcf3a64fb4b3039ea02720884b055dbc518c623381b055a6796fc15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Raharinirina Nomenjanahary Alexia; Sunkara Vikram; von Kleist Max; Fackeldey Konstantin; Weber Marcus. Multi-Input data ASsembly for joint Analysis (MIASA): A framework for the joint analysis of disjoint sets of variables. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302425; article XML SHA-256 d80e7483f84cae83ce786cd3dd8f90bc7462d62ab4d0783bfe58b70e6adc71ba. “Multi-Input data ASsembly for joint Analysis (MIASA): A framework for the joint analysis of disjoint sets of variables” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302425).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302425). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dismissive attachment
<a id="dismissive-attachment"></a>

Dismissive attachment is an insecure attachment style. In the supplied source, it is described as being particularly associated with dysfunctional processing of emotion regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c6afb58c6338010534897266ffe85bbe3a78e6f95046c18ab601b095c85353d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Romeo Annunziata; Di Tella Marialaura; Ghiggia Ada; Tesio Valentina; Fusaro Enrico; Geminiani Giuliano Carlo; Castelli Lorys. Attachment style and parental bonding: Relationships with fibromyalgia and alexithymia. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0231674; article XML SHA-256 2799f253fbe5f0a5be68987d46db9b0e31817c84c2fc772420fc5c7a4637e087. “Attachment style and parental bonding: Relationships with fibromyalgia and alexithymia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0231674).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231674). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disorder
<a id="disorder"></a>

A disorder is an abnormal condition of the body or mind that leads to discomfort, impaired functioning, or distress for the affected person or people around them. The term is often used broadly for problems such as injuries, disabilities, syndromes, symptoms, unusual behaviors, or atypical bodily or mental functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d2c69346a0527f8febb6ad90556d64dedcadc8a40806fdfcca54859134099dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Disease or Disorder” (C2991).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disorders of excessive somnolence
<a id="disorders-of-excessive-somnolence"></a>

Disorders of excessive somnolence are conditions marked by unusually strong sleepiness during times when a person would normally be awake, and this can interfere with thinking and mental performance. They include primary hypersomnia conditions as well as forms caused by another known factor, such as substances, mental disorders, or sleep apnea.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1192d92804dac4e7d434843aedab274d9034d2b0e2118c76e000b8026504a748

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Disorders of Excessive Somnolence” (D006970).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006970). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep
<a id="disorders-of-initiating-and-maintaining-sleep"></a>

Disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep are conditions in which a person has difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or both. They can occur on their own or alongside another medical or mental health condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3f444abe94b22b096e301755285d548c0cf897b1fc5135233ff84b988afe117d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders” (D007319).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007319). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disorganized attachment
<a id="disorganized-attachment"></a>

Disorganized attachment is a type of infant attachment discussed as being linked to later controlling behavior in relationships. In the source, some children with disorganized attachment are associated with more punitive-controlling behavior, while others are associated with more caregiving-controlling behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5d8147b3ecd749bfa1db3c11536b6edce867c95cad266968a63edef67591c05e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Zhi; Hygen Beate W.; Widaman Keith F.; Berg-Nielsen Turid S.; Wichstrøm Lars; Belsky Jay. Disorganization, COMT , and Children's Social Behavior: The Norwegian Hypothesis of Legacy of Disorganized Attachment. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01013; article XML SHA-256 1655da15d4cb72072ac7e4e30df3a152ab4eb23c6edb2cafc66e417f13f8bfa3. “Disorganization, COMT , and Children's Social Behavior: The Norwegian Hypothesis of Legacy of Disorganized Attachment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01013).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01013). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disorganized behavior
<a id="disorganized-behavior"></a>

Disorganized behavior refers to behavior that appears poorly organized or odd, sometimes showing unusual mannerisms, grimacing, or other striking behavioral oddities. In the packet, it is described as one of the features seen in a disorganized form of schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da7fbc833dc5149beb8109b46aa721f9403967c0967a2603bf807dd236ca101e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Disorganized Type Schizophrenia” (C35005).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disorganized schizophrenia
<a id="disorganized-schizophrenia"></a>

Disorganized schizophrenia is a subtype of schizophrenia marked by disorganized speech and behavior along with flat or inappropriate emotional expression. It may also involve grimacing, mannerisms, and other unusual behaviors, without meeting the pattern described for the catatonic type.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90883ba4c0fcf9410012a485c03b8eea11c4e7c7896a80db71e26d3dd2fd45d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Disorganized Type Schizophrenia” (C35005).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disorganized speech
<a id="disorganized-speech"></a>

Disorganized speech is a prominent language disturbance in schizophrenia in which speech loses coherence as it unfolds, showing disrupted use of context from one part of discourse to the next. In plain terms, the person’s speech becomes increasingly hard to predict or follow because global meaning is not being maintained.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 329093d04d25c3ca7bdea1819d024483132114947898d6d2403282bd1c5fe280

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ryu Seunghyong; Kim Ju-Wan; Jhon Min; Chung Young-Chul; Kim Seok Jun; Lee Suehyun; Kim Jae-Min; Kim Sung-Wan. Tracking the dynamic breakdown of contextual coherence in schizophrenia using language models. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848956; article XML SHA-256 23cb84b0bcc5a5c15564a03e8cb7da131983a90153ea29b77fce0fe454b51cad. “Tracking the dynamic breakdown of contextual coherence in schizophrenia using language models” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848956).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848956). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disorientation
<a id="disorientation"></a>

Disorientation is a loss of correct direction in which an individual moves away from its natural route instead of toward the intended destination. In the source context, it refers to sea turtle hatchlings being drawn off the path to the ocean, often by artificial light that interferes with normal navigation cues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7859a98816d7467722957c5d5eec495f91d5a848a47cce2326c446b63dbfecee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [McNally Kerry L; Oakley Carly; Davila Megan; Farinelli Sarah. Disorientation patterns of loggerhead sea turtle ( Caretta caretta ) hatchlings in Pinellas County, Florida, USA. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347104; article XML SHA-256 344b1e75224c409cb8bf7ec0c10f1c007caa0eabc7c84ccf529e3c57f2c2abf1. “Disorientation patterns of loggerhead sea turtle ( Caretta caretta ) hatchlings in Pinellas County, Florida, USA” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347104).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347104). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disparate sensations
<a id="disparate-sensations"></a>

Disparate sensations are sensations that differ in kind, especially sensations belonging to different senses. They are contrasted with similar sensations because there is no gradual series of intermediate steps or continuous transition from one to the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dcb011bda22d39fbddc42b8325240578ef44090d07bf6198e8605845e0bd8417

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Disparate” (Disparate).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Disparate). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dispersal
<a id="dispersal"></a>

Dispersal is the spreading of the seeds, eggs, embryos, or spores of plants and relatively fixed animals across a wider area. In this historical usage, it happens through forces such as wind, water currents, or animals, and some species have structures that help or limit that spread.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43e4345e317d69e4bb95542df634b0512aa662c56ac6714eab210c05065a6b4a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dispersal” (Dispersal).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dispersal). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## display
<a id="display"></a>

In this context, a display is the visual presentation format used to show facial-expression information to an observer. It can present very sparse moving cues, such as a point-light display made of a few markers, or a fuller view of the face in a full-light condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c519819c83b0c8a530cf636905cdf1e959120ffa719316cf1f08b6122be9d3bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Costa Sara; Schiano Lomoriello Arianna; Straulino Elisa; Betti Sonia; Ghislandi Anita; Maffei Antonio; Caruana Fausto; Ferrari Pier Francesco; Sartori Luisa; Sessa Paola. Recognition of facial expressions from minimal five-point-light displays. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813559; article XML SHA-256 884de43e2b042999360ba4078c919d2238655410bf10b4a37a2a0c2727f46308. “Recognition of facial expressions from minimal five-point-light displays” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813559).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813559). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## display design
<a id="display-design"></a>

In this context, display design means arranging a vibrotactile display so it works effectively for real-time use. It involves choosing features such as where tactors are placed, how many are used, what type they are, and other stimulus characteristics that can affect reaction time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01ea970e6e901d6cd2641b72aa7199415a894a7a3e68c6b59fe75e8bffc2a9e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bao Tian; Su Lydia; Kinnaird Catherine; Kabeto Mohammed; Shull Peter B; Sienko Kathleen H. Vibrotactile display design: Quantifying the importance of age and various factors on reaction times. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0219737; article XML SHA-256 5edc2c1d9167c34bdcca08494a5b7d0593d9308991c006d75aab1abf687d2677. “Vibrotactile display design: Quantifying the importance of age and various factors on reaction times” (10.1371/journal.pone.0219737).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219737). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disposition
<a id="disposition"></a>

In historical psychology, disposition means a pre-existing mental or nervous tendency—either inborn or formed by past experience—that helps shape later mental processes. It has a preparatory influence on what comes next, such as expectation, and can refer broadly to both native tendencies and acquired habits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c3c70b6a3568327a1688828c15d8f48b4635edbcac3c862c0ac66a38864bb0fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Disposition” (Disposition).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Disposition). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disruptive behavior
<a id="disruptive-behavior"></a>

In this source, disruptive behavior refers to a cluster of behavior problems represented by hyperactivity, aggression, and conduct problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 759b039eafec99a7d4959ea7e6d3e9475d16417067d5ac00bfdaaaf4b3e76c40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Externalizing Problems Composite Score” (C121300).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disruptive behavior disorder
<a id="disruptive-behavior-disorder"></a>

Disruptive behavior disorder is a DSM category of disorders typically identified in infancy, childhood, or adolescence. It involves a pattern of not behaving cooperatively.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83b1c18ae466ce475e5278ce38ac52e55a1ce8be78a5338825a680c8815a91ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Disruptive Behavior Disorder” (C99753).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Disruptive, Impulse Control, and Conduct Disorders
<a id="disruptive-impulse-control-and-conduct-disorders"></a>

Disruptive, impulse control, and conduct disorders are disorders marked by a failure to resist an impulse, drive, or temptation to carry out an act that harms the person or others. People typically feel rising tension beforehand and then pleasure, gratification, or relief from that tension when the act is committed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 831f0119c825c628f69cd576f0cfad00d7fc5a30f0b0a6e8bac7b5d805efec95

Wording review pending: The nine-word impulse/drive/temptation construction retains source sentence structure; rewrite the definition rather than swapping isolated words.

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Disruptive, Impulse Control, and Conduct Disorders” (D007174).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007174). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
<a id="disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder"></a>

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder is a mental health condition in children or adolescents marked by persistent irritability or anger along with frequent, intense temper outbursts. These symptoms are more severe than an ordinary bad mood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09e0f2b41dabfdcb20ca32bf117477c8847d24cc27805dcf3d4f138455d0d5ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 2f1e06df6de4eaffe8d6a05ad39220c840ff0b6e8aaec6f86c36cc150507fdf3. “Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dissent
<a id="dissent"></a>

In this historical source, dissent means not agreeing or expressing opposition rather than assent or consent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4bda0b39a0f9a0339e1c1f7b15be2e64f5859be03a2c212a3fae5683380a64ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dissent” (Dissent).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dissent). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dissociated state
<a id="dissociated-state"></a>

A dissociated state is a mental condition in which the usual flow and integration of conscious thought seem to break apart, so that part of experience is separated from the rest. In this state, the person in their ordinary condition may not know what occurred during the dissociated period, while in the dissociated condition they may be only dimly aware of their surroundings and usual personality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c52481867fbe881f94c8e0cf71f869a807ac349aed023038966225ae315f98e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dissociation (and Disaggregation, pathological)” (Dissociation (and Disaggregation, pathological)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dissociation (and Disaggregation, pathological)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dissociation
<a id="dissociation"></a>

In historical psychology, dissociation means the process of coming to distinguish separate parts within an experience that had previously been taken as an undivided whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71fe337d35eefe10536710047c55bab54ed9b84683313bd9483cd1ced426b4ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dissociation” (Dissociation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dissociation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dissociative amnesia
<a id="dissociative-amnesia"></a>

Dissociative amnesia is a disorder in which a person has a backward-looking gap in memory for important personal information, often linked to traumatic or highly stressful experiences. The memory loss is much greater than ordinary forgetting and is not due to substance use or a medical condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b8c10a26357b3a73a862a29c9976a4d232995ebde0c2c76fa054ae454de6e73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dissociative Amnesia” (C94328).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dissociative disorders
<a id="dissociative-disorders"></a>

Dissociative disorders are conditions marked by sudden, temporary changes in the mind’s usual ability to keep consciousness integrated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b73d4a92c7e79b3484da58e4c9dd8622b24f0e6760de5917762b49e5d9140d5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dissociative Disorders” (D004213).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004213). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dissociative identity disorder
<a id="dissociative-identity-disorder"></a>

Dissociative identity disorder is a dissociative disorder in which one person has two or more distinct personalities. These personalities are described as complex and integrated, with their own memories, behavior patterns, and social relationships, and shifts between them happen suddenly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2c749218ee8dad3035a6f99661e8a973b6677aeb720b1842bdc8c563e3007b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dissociative Identity Disorder” (D009105).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009105). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dissonance reduction
<a id="dissonance-reduction"></a>

Dissonance reduction is the process of easing the psychological discomfort that arises when a person holds inconsistent related thoughts or behaves in ways that conflict with their attitudes. People may reduce this discomfort by changing an attitude, minimizing the importance of the inconsistency, weakening the original attitude, or denying responsibility for the behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45182a24ad14450fee5310e566e8a0cf461f9aa2ac97ee1e638a522740f648f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cancino-Montecinos Sebastian; Björklund Fredrik; Lindholm Torun. Dissonance reduction as emotion regulation: Attitude change is related to positive emotions in the induced compliance paradigm. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209012; article XML SHA-256 7f30c9fa1a6843049da3d09a73566dfd087c21a2bedf419d6e7f201a014e14e6. “Dissonance reduction as emotion regulation: Attitude change is related to positive emotions in the induced compliance paradigm” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209012).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209012). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distal effect
<a id="distal-effect"></a>

In this context, a distal effect is the outside-world result or goal an action is directed toward, such as where a pass is meant to go. It refers to the environmental outcome whose fit with the seen action can shape anticipation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d0f1059cc150c5493f8c31c92c4bf99dd6919cc66d124d5f5ad9ef2e2e89b5af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Anderson Dior N.; Gottwald Victoria M.; Lawrence Gavin P.. Representational Momentum in the Expertise Context: Support for the Theory of Event Coding as an Explanation for Action Anticipation. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01838; article XML SHA-256 80ec280d2e32565421274bed122d8b11cf77e8427e59d336d2f0ef991b837180. “Representational Momentum in the Expertise Context: Support for the Theory of Event Coding as an Explanation for Action Anticipation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01838).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01838). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distance learning
<a id="distance-learning"></a>

Distance learning is a form of education in which students and teachers are in different locations and teaching is carried out through communication technologies such as cable links, telephone lines, or computer networks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6dfe4bdc1b47d97c14a7d02f975f1559d8b10b84deb9fdd0ec5bdefc60a8634f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Distance Learning” (C18157).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distance perception
<a id="distance-perception"></a>

Distance perception is the ability to recognize how far away something is, either through memory-based thought or through sensory processing shaped by prior experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d871904c507c43f30fd6adff7830339797985d1c3a39010111a8202bcf5e4c83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Distance Perception” (D004215).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004215). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distance vision
<a id="distance-vision"></a>

Distance vision is an aspect of eyesight related to seeing and recognizing people from across a room. In this context, it refers to how much difficulty a person has doing that because of their eyesight.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9fb5f7120c07a31abc7be0ca66d22e643b0d0ba98067e5cf7ae64aa18081b990

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “VFQ25-Interviewer Administered Format - Difficulty Recognizing People You Know” (C112763).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distractor
<a id="distractor"></a>

In this learning and memory task, a distractor is a second dot array shown after the child learns the original pattern and before being asked to reproduce the first one. It serves as an intervening item between learning and recall of the initial array.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e27d00ba0dc030f63ae9da06db809abd3d69330946dccff4929f6ff2ec1d5ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dot Locations Learning” (C120323).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distractor task
<a id="distractor-task"></a>

A distractor task is an activity inserted after an initial prompt to create a delay before the main outcome is measured. In this research context, it is used between a death-related or neutral prompt and the later attitude ratings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c7d854a9745dc1399258b5ef8a7da0359c189a83b93216ea271f82134528388

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Treger Stanislav; Benau Erik M.; Timko C. Alix. Not so terrifying after all? A set of failed replications of the mortality salience effects of Terror Management Theory. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285267; article XML SHA-256 7da7d3313e812bf3a809cfc5c35e99fad1a7a6495ee3fccdc40f51e9ffaa4fd9. “Not so terrifying after all? A set of failed replications of the mortality salience effects of Terror Management Theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285267).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285267). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distress
<a id="distress"></a>

Distress is a state of physical or psychological stress that goes beyond a person’s usual ability to adapt or cope.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e92b3850471921b7b21f5c6f3b16ceaf01fa536335553bde75a0e0385369a6c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Distress” (C37942).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distributed cognition
<a id="distributed-cognition"></a>

Distributed cognition is the idea that thinking and skilled action are not carried only by processes inside the mind, but are spread across the person, the tool, the object being worked on, and the surrounding context. In this view, tools and other artifacts do not just stand for concepts; they also help organize and guide practical action toward a goal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 994ff50c1974a05ae340995d4e2c4d385bcb5c94f20efb4f086839fc2473b98c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baber Chris; Parekh Manish; Cengiz Tulin G.. Tool use as distributed cognition: how tools help, hinder and define manual skill. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00116; article XML SHA-256 c485912fcc16d756099d9d9e5477ab42da37ada6c0daa3dbbd33bbca3c89b6a1. “Tool use as distributed cognition: how tools help, hinder and define manual skill” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00116).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00116). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distributed knowledge
<a id="distributed-knowledge"></a>

Distributed knowledge is information or understanding that is spread across different people rather than held by one person alone. In collaborative work, it becomes easier to use when tools help people compare what knowledge is shared and what knowledge is unique to particular team members.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4fdd55b003996a71c33edfb1243fda84aa3559f6b4d04f6c099097173f200f26

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hynek Nicole; Albert Dietrich. Comparing distributed knowledge: the effects of visualization format and comparison strategy on task performance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1684634; article XML SHA-256 8f8e826aabbf6fb1ae5d44a7c715ec3b4ba78623c280cc3080ef52f06cc0562d. “Comparing distributed knowledge: the effects of visualization format and comparison strategy on task performance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1684634).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1684634). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distributed practice
<a id="distributed-practice"></a>

Distributed practice is a learning approach in which the same amount of study or practice time is spread across multiple sessions instead of being completed in one session. Research described in the packet indicates it tends to support stronger long-term performance than massed practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 048859e413daba926cfb9c17c6cd364c86ae5502d8b5bc7df232959a1f0166c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barzagar Nazari Katharina; Ebersbach Mirjam. Distributed Practice: Rarely Realized in Self-Regulated Mathematical Learning. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02170; article XML SHA-256 b99c4fcdf9d54a659cb2ba9d0884ce719687777d0dc9d77af20bb73f53b53f1c. “Distributed Practice: Rarely Realized in Self-Regulated Mathematical Learning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02170).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02170). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distributed processing
<a id="distributed-processing"></a>

Distributed processing is the idea that mental information is represented by patterns of activity spread across many neurons rather than stored in a single place. In this view, cognition arises from large neural populations working in parallel, which helps explain recognition, attention, memory, language, and the way function can remain partly intact when input is noisy or the system is damaged.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 20cc5b8d41fb97b90afc7b5d9e94b8185ff5a9bb7078379d31f8c1e0ee9f8ae7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nadeau Stephen E.. Neural Population Dynamics and Cognitive Function. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00050; article XML SHA-256 4e8dcda47a9b4cf23729c6ff08507f96e5473ece4102111d6a7fdf844eb86f32. “Neural Population Dynamics and Cognitive Function” (10.3389/fnhum.2020.00050).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00050). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distributed representation
<a id="distributed-representation"></a>

A distributed representation is a data-driven way of encoding an item as a vector in many dimensions rather than with a single hand-chosen feature. This kind of representation is learned from data so that the resulting features capture useful properties of the item and can improve later analysis or classification.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9d7e0a31be5fc47ff0824d9975e62574f56d17fdc92f6c82d5448f5f52eb2a4b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Asgari Ehsaneddin; Mofrad Mohammad R. K.. Continuous Distributed Representation of Biological Sequences for Deep Proteomics and Genomics. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0141287; article XML SHA-256 9484645d02955d0ac412e4dd0c787e9b898e3e18f9e7ef529bde6a472b018a34. “Continuous Distributed Representation of Biological Sequences for Deep Proteomics and Genomics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0141287).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141287). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distribution
<a id="distribution"></a>

In research methods, a distribution describes how often different values occur in a set of data. For observed data this is a frequency distribution, and for continuous data the values are usually grouped; distributions can also be represented by mathematical forms such as the normal distribution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8326e3c0ef9f71d42bd650f181c2e50ad9eae24b7fac637c61be462009ff7fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Distribution” (distribution.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/distribution.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distribution function
<a id="distribution-function"></a>

A distribution function used in research methods to represent rare events or the sampling distribution of isolated counts across time or space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 960ec63320b4f0a6d15a64a2b74ef3069c1b30be9615737d6ac8d40162531126

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Poisson Distribution” (D016012).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016012). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## distributive justice
<a id="distributive-justice"></a>

In this historical usage, distributive justice refers to a fair or equal allotment of things among persons, understood through a proportional relation rather than simple numerical equality. The source supports only this brief, analogy-based sense.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9cdb7c2a2186914732903da2725831ff90f271dec0933ba8dd5a9bf902ae03a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Analogy” (Analogy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Analogy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## disulfiram
<a id="disulfiram"></a>

Disulfiram is a medication used to deter alcohol use by changing how the body processes alcohol. If a person drinks alcohol after taking it, acetaldehyde builds up and can cause unpleasant reactions such as flushing, nausea, breathing difficulty, and low blood pressure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b42dddc1ae8fe8c63fcbf5367f8bf31e645fa6e92358c4eb9307cfc7dc20f8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Disulfiram” (D004221).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004221). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diurnal
<a id="diurnal"></a>

Diurnal refers to occurring during the daytime while a person is awake. In this context, diurnal enuresis means involuntary urine discharge during the day after the age when urinary control would normally be expected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b7dac271ffa41cbf5657b0a57e58691dd6ffd938a293d18e7455a435b9372135

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Enuresis” (D004775).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004775). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Diurnal Enuresis
<a id="diurnal-enuresis"></a>

Diurnal enuresis is involuntary urination during the day while a person is awake.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c0690c5b77f79b2303d95d24dd569ae29ac9430a04f50ad6ffa366f2b595f79

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Diurnal Enuresis” (D053207).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D053207). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diurnal rhythm
<a id="diurnal-rhythm"></a>

Diurnal rhythm is the pattern of change in a biological measure across the day and night. In this packet, it refers to daily timing and level changes in melatonin secretion, such as when the peak occurs and how levels differ between nighttime and daytime.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0350672e13e513efabbceab47f4995f473dd8aa566048e1a7719977d0db2a02c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Xue-Qin; Wang De-Quan; Bao Yan-Ping; Liu Jia-Jia; Chen Jie; Wu Shao-Wei; Luk Hsuan-Nu; Yu Ling; Sun Wei; Yang Yong; Wang Xue-Hua; Lu Lin; Deng Jia-Hui; Li Su-Xia. Preliminary Study on Changes of Sleep EEG Power and Plasma Melatonin in Male Patients With Major Depressive Disorder After 8 Weeks Treatment. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.736318; article XML SHA-256 c715b8747ab78eb89c9de9142d2ae1f9cac420321cb431e98157c5a22fce5106. “Preliminary Study on Changes of Sleep EEG Power and Plasma Melatonin in Male Patients With Major Depressive Disorder After 8 Weeks Treatment” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.736318).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.736318). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## divagation
<a id="divagation"></a>

Divagation is a wandering away from the point in speech or in thinking, marked by rambling or going astray. In historical psychological usage, it refers to discursiveness of thought or talk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 756376be79e79fbbe50d1c7cc1288a36e7ed3e11ad77062635138c1530e70045

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2278500-2290500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## divalproex sodium
<a id="divalproex-sodium"></a>

Divalproex sodium is a chemical form of valproate used for anticonvulsant and antiepileptic effects. In the body it separates to valproate ion and may reduce seizure-related nerve activity by increasing brain GABA and by limiting repetitive neuronal firing through effects on sodium channels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3340b1d040c7b34cdf2d69d2008f2860a7048613752a5db4eddf9d8217f8114

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Divalproex Sodium” (C28996).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## divergence
<a id="divergence"></a>

In this diagnostic context, divergence means differences between groups or conditions rather than overlap. Here, it refers to ways autism spectrum disorder and developmental language disorder can show distinct structural language patterns across areas such as phonology, grammar, meaning, and narrative.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 191dd1de0be6216f540b7821786de72f93739d2ccaa718c28b276698a4c5abad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Doghadze Irine; Gagoshidze Tamar. Structural language profiles in children with autism spectrum disorder and developmental language disorder: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920573; article XML SHA-256 324ed562851935f75562629f906cb1362dfb9a539645fec4f4f37d111610a389. “Structural language profiles in children with autism spectrum disorder and developmental language disorder: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920573).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920573). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## divergent evolution
<a id="divergent-evolution"></a>

Divergent evolution is the development of different lines from a common ancestry. In this source, it is described as depending on isolation, meaning a population is split into separate groups so they no longer interbreed and can change in different directions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 754b2ee7f5869eac6b91be4767ebad2f20d6ff3f8fd444c6c9c611e82430ac59

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Isolation” (Isolation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Isolation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## divergent strabismus
<a id="divergent-strabismus"></a>

Divergent strabismus is an eye misalignment in which the visual axes turn outward instead of lining up normally. It can occur when weakness of the medial rectus leaves the lateral rectus relatively unopposed, causing the affected eye to drift laterally.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a6be07638cb5904dc9dcfe8befe864e905896e6de68cee23705b981c9bc2aa9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Exotropia” (D005099).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005099). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## divergent thinking
<a id="divergent-thinking"></a>

Divergent thinking is the ability to produce many different, original ideas or responses to a prompt. It emphasizes generating ideas broadly, including speed, variety, uniqueness, and developing ideas further, and is an important part of creativity and solving new problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 972350db27cd37b2e38e491ce0ca438f1f2e77d8fab275d62375d83be4b36cf9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Taylor Christa L.; Zaghi Arash Esmaili. The interplay of ADHD characteristics and executive functioning with the GPA and divergent thinking of engineering students: A conceptual replication and extension. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.937153; article XML SHA-256 13499b6c3296406cd7a50c19cbc14873c5d565b4e86275c1af05a2365c35038c. “The interplay of ADHD characteristics and executive functioning with the GPA and divergent thinking of engineering students: A conceptual replication and extension” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.937153).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.937153). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diversion program
<a id="diversion-program"></a>

A diversion program is a structured support service for individuals and families dealing with problems such as substance misuse, behavior difficulties, or legal troubles. It typically provides guidance, referrals, case management, advocacy, and short-term support to help people understand their problems, connect with suitable services, and work toward positive change while protecting public safety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7905c277c1d127b6ff7eccb2e228115fbf627c957458280a4d3a1ab770502a37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Diversion Program” (C41190).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diversity
<a id="diversity"></a>

Diversity is variation in traits, behaviors, or expressions among individuals or parts of a system. In this source, it is described as beneficial when it is bounded rather than unlimited, because some variation can preserve options and improve how a group functions collectively.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ac201ea6754d1fb6248cd02ed1dc3971f1773f558deb0782de28c76c318ca67

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pringle Todd A; Stramer Lyle; Robinson Michael D. Bounded personality diversity boosts collective intelligence: a swarm optimization approach. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774466; article XML SHA-256 0b2b7db34cbb1dc81d38ac2abdfb9a692da5d7d840916b3bcdedb87d2c547706. “Bounded personality diversity boosts collective intelligence: a swarm optimization approach” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774466).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774466). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## divination
<a id="divination"></a>

Divination is a form of magic in which a person seeks knowledge from a superhuman source by magical means. It commonly works by reading signs, omens, chance events, or symbolic features of things such as animals, dreams, bodily marks, or other accidental details.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd97845852a9c6da7f00809b5360b2f02426b5c7812127c71bc14de2f775d6b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Magic (1) and (2) Divination” (Magic (1) and (2) Divination).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M1defs.htm#Magic (1) and (2) Divination). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## divine right
<a id="divine-right"></a>

Divine right is the idea that authority is granted by God. It is especially used for the doctrine that kings rule by God’s appointment rather than by the consent of the people, a view that was notably prominent in 17th-century England.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 376af94b17931ea0ccd097df965737500e49f33ad4271efba02cf560619ab9d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Divine Right” (Divine Right).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Divine Right). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## diviner’s sage
<a id="diviners-sage"></a>

Diviner’s sage is a hallucinogenic plant, Salvia divinorum, traditionally used in ritual ceremonies and known for producing salvinorin A. In psychology-related contexts, it may be discussed because salvinorin A has powerful dissociative effects and acts on the kappa-opioid receptor, which is involved in pain, mood, memory, learning, and emotional control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec365421ab0fa2c2e1bc54aa3b2d7ddc70abc9ae832ace5f9361427e08927d44

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ford Scott A; Ness Rob W; Kwon Moonhyuk; Ro Dae-Kyun; Phillips Michael A. A chromosome level reference genome of Diviner’s sage ( Salvia divinorum ) provides insight into salvinorin A biosynthesis. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12870-024-05633-0; article XML SHA-256 b3b47ceef4d0badf1f8e0b0559bf7dccb45f06f85b05730f900e598bb6451348. “A chromosome level reference genome of Diviner’s sage ( Salvia divinorum ) provides insight into salvinorin A biosynthesis” (10.1186/s12870-024-05633-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-024-05633-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## divorce
<a id="divorce"></a>

Divorce is the legal ending of a marriage that is officially recognized.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a030c4345612eccfd98289cd6a6722a0cfc13f1d8775a6472986bd970831291f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Divorce” (D004243).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004243). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dizziness
<a id="dizziness"></a>

Dizziness is a sensation of spinning, unsteadiness, and spatial confusion. It can be brought on by bodily rotation, sudden head movement, motion such as being on a boat, heights, disturbances of the ear, or stomachic and toxic causes such as alcohol and other poisons, and it is distinguished from nausea, though the two may occur together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00dcc486abd491cb83aa04f4eababd6c8e1731abaf103405514aa35bafdd9c4f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dizziness” (Dizziness).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dizziness). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DLPFC
<a id="dlpfc"></a>

DLPFC refers to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, an upper area of the prefrontal cortex that includes the front parts of the superior and middle frontal gyri. It is involved in executive function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e3afe37c0c34dd6dd927ea45592cc5c19659c2461b292d91a5575c8178e877f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex” (D000087643).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000087643). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DMN
<a id="dmn"></a>

DMN refers to the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, a nucleus in the brain located within the medulla oblongata.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c81b48ef805616c1fdf9f9d7b868998e3ce021b42a5fa9820edfc1626e89fcea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dorsal Motor Nucleus of the Vagus” (C12934).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dMRI
<a id="dmri"></a>

dMRI is an MRI-based imaging method that collects images at different b-values, usually with fewer low b-value images and more high b-value images. These measurements are used for later fiber tract tracing and structural analysis, and differences in acquisition methods can affect data quality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 413074c563b871d02355e6b29566ed5a40949273f8d8b93d77672bb82363d31d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Guolan; Xue Xiaohong; Chen Yifei; Liu Hao; Li Haifang; Wang Qianshan. RISNet: A variable multi-modal image feature fusion adversarial neural network for generating specific dMRI images. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329653; article XML SHA-256 1461041b8cb60b8fb9fe95129c4cab90f3d43fc4c6c99005224bdb469b10593d. “RISNet: A variable multi-modal image feature fusion adversarial neural network for generating specific dMRI images” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329653).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329653). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DNA methylation
<a id="dna-methylation"></a>

DNA methylation is a common epigenetic change in which methyl groups are added to DNA bases, which can influence how strongly a gene is transcribed and expressed. In this context, methylation of the BDNF gene can alter BDNF protein production and thereby affect neural processes linked to cognition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4cc46f3f3a78a6958b46fcab72beb2e1ebd0734d8b2cf7bacc368159155f429

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Lin; Lv Bing; Ma Zihan. Multilayered regulation of BDNF DNA methylation in PTSD: a review from molecular mechanisms to trans generational inheritance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1734160; article XML SHA-256 12cf6e0d9676fde406e0c7927b5235b4bd86651ba09c0ebb6b2569df49590eac. “Multilayered regulation of BDNF DNA methylation in PTSD: a review from molecular mechanisms to trans generational inheritance” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1734160).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1734160). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## doctrine of double effect
<a id="doctrine-of-double-effect"></a>

The doctrine of double effect is an ethical guideline for judging when it may be morally acceptable to do something aimed at a good outcome while knowing it may also cause harm. In this view, the act must not be wrong in itself, the harm must not be intended, the good must not be produced through the harm, and the good should be weighty enough in relation to the harm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70e2a3c1abc9fd9d6349b69fe4a925bbf62dc0b55f1cecb43c5293b0205d217f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Double Effect Principle” (D034723).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D034723). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dogmatism
<a id="dogmatism"></a>

Dogmatism is a philosophical stance that begins from accepted principles rather than proving them first. In a broader sense, it refers to uncritical thinking that relies on unnecessary assumptions, and it has also been used for the pre-Kantian philosophy associated especially with Christian Wolff.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a5493f506e90b2a8ae31a7cd187eacd4c1b392f3ff541f2e6c20e3b29f802244

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dogmatism” (Dogmatism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Dogmatism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dolichocephalic
<a id="dolichocephalic"></a>

In historical usage, dolichocephalic means long-headed, referring to a skull or head whose width is relatively small compared with its front-to-back length. It is the opposite of brachycephalic and was described as having a cephalic index well below the usual range, typically under 75:100.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ebee56b21920bb03e025fe05c3ac31cb1deb913375126332e7ebaf0632aa8b37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dolichocephalic” (Dolichocephalic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Dolichocephalic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## doll play
<a id="doll-play"></a>

Doll play is pretend play with dolls, often treated as a social form of play because it can prompt children to create characters, perspectives, and imagined social situations, whether alone or with others. In the source, it is described as a play pattern that may help children practice social understanding, including thinking about other people’s beliefs and internal states.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bcc7932dbc08296c16294012c28d36940c36d961970926d98e35ce3181dfe127

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gerson Sarah A; Keating Jennifer; Hashmi Salim; Vanderwert Ross E. Doll play improves false belief reasoning: Evidence from a randomized-control trial. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343698; article XML SHA-256 2831fa462f9158957c41e2657289108b3b9c0912daa093a631fa0dc9b75b95d3. “Doll play improves false belief reasoning: Evidence from a randomized-control trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343698).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343698). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Dolophine
<a id="dolophine"></a>

Dolophine is methadone hydrochloride, a synthetic opioid drug that acts on brain and nervous system opioid receptors in ways similar to morphine. It can produce pain relief as well as effects such as euphoria, sedation, slowed breathing, pinpoint pupils, slowed heart rate, and physical dependence; compared with heroin, withdrawal tends to start more slowly, last longer, and be less severe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70d2fac3f4796bf9b36e587856862bc2d76f15dfcea88635a5a49bd3e8bab585

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Methadone Hydrochloride” (C638).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## domain
<a id="domain"></a>

In this educational psychology context, a domain is a specific area of functioning or content, such as mathematics, rather than a broad belief about education in general. A domain-specific belief is tied to that particular area.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8c5774b2d5c240983537f990f34570895440df71e35b148d85e314fd038bc46a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Meicheng. Domain-specific and generalised motivational pathways to STEM degree attainment: a 10-year longitudinal mediation analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1898011; article XML SHA-256 32c9a597d6cf1b9bc24e28523c7f6173c9bdf0fcee6bfe9c9360c31f29edf962. “Domain-specific and generalised motivational pathways to STEM degree attainment: a 10-year longitudinal mediation analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1898011).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1898011). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## domain identification
<a id="domain-identification"></a>

Domain identification is an early step in developing an assessment or survey in which the main topic areas to be measured are identified so items can be created for each area. In the source, it refers to deciding the key sections of the questionnaire before content validation and pilot testing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7667cbcfe34de3dee3eb238bbdc0799e1c35c4863ad6d903da826dde92b97aab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alkhiyami Dania Ihsan; Higazy Alya Salah; Saad Mohamed Omar. A survey on the knowledge and attitudes of pharmacists towards the application of antimicrobial therapeutic drug monitoring and its challenges in Qatar. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297699; article XML SHA-256 e5521616ac60c07921f028143e4ed00a5e565e285a0a09ee8d23b6dc3fe70fd1. “A survey on the knowledge and attitudes of pharmacists towards the application of antimicrobial therapeutic drug monitoring and its challenges in Qatar” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297699).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297699). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## domestic violence
<a id="domestic-violence"></a>

Domestic violence is a repeated pattern of abuse within a relationship in which one partner uses behavior to gain or keep power and control over the other. It can involve physical, sexual, emotional, economic, or psychological acts or threats, including intimidation, manipulation, humiliation, isolation, coercion, or causing harm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1c279ce69a6723911cfab17ddaa1eee96087ad137829d94a44897741bcd82445

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Domestic Violence” (D017579).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017579). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## domestication
<a id="domestication"></a>

Domestication is the process by which wild organisms give rise to cultivated forms through human-associated selection and breeding. In this packet, it refers to the origin of cultivated bananas from wild relatives, with diversity also expanding after initial domestication through later hybridization and introgression from local wild populations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f89b82d7f6ff94a4611d377578eaa94cfbdd7ae5c7cb0e8debc39ceb4ce30c11

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Perrier Xavier; Sachter-Smith Gabriel; Breton Catherine; Rivallan Ronan; Jacquemoud-Collet Jean-Pierre; Dubois Cécile; Sardos Julie; Bakry Frédéric; Chabannes Matthieu; Lý Ngọc-Sâm; Haevermans Thomas; Triệu Tiến-Dũng; Insisiengmay Oudomphone; Zhang Ting; Iskra-Caruana Marie-Line; Jenny Christophe. Beyond domestication: The unexpected contribution of native Musa wild relatives to cultivated banana diversity in Mainland Southeast Asia. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352247; article XML SHA-256 cfb041cf7cdffd7cc1c13ed9a7401c65f3ee436516d6ba11b843ad84a1416fb6. “Beyond domestication: The unexpected contribution of native Musa wild relatives to cultivated banana diversity in Mainland Southeast Asia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352247).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352247). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dominance
<a id="dominance"></a>

Cerebral dominance is the tendency for one brain hemisphere to be more dominant than the other for certain cerebral functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0efdbf5316675ac87e390e2f4b958ee67b9e92376bce6d11d2438340ae8e9fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dominance, Cerebral” (D004292).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004292). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dominance hierarchy
<a id="dominance-hierarchy"></a>

A dominance hierarchy is the social arrangement within a group based on the relative dominance rank of its members. It describes who holds higher or lower social status in relation to others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4b96ca0faeda94b6cb802297fc46d741461352c9366d796f060ce36eac7fb4a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Dominance” (D012930).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012930). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Dominance-Subordination
<a id="dominance-subordination"></a>

Dominance-subordination is a relationship between individuals in which one person threatens or becomes aggressive and the other stays passive or tries to escape.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 366ed5925bb6a5de562632b4e9d05cccea2f7a2c8251d121d9f3da26faf8c0da

Wording review pending: The seven-word behavioural contrast reproduces the source sequence; explain the interaction in different prose.

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Dominance-Subordination” (D004291).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004291). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dominance–submission
<a id="dominancesubmission"></a>

Dominance–submission is a relational dimension along which people communicate relative power or deference in an interaction. It is conveyed through nonverbal signals such as facial expression, head movement, posture, and vocal qualities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ea336b4c5b7b6e180eff845b5fe06a40d146a7f3b7d0b1f9c8ad4544fffa0663

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Burgoon Judee K.; Wang Xinran; Chen Xunyu; Pentland Steven J.; Dunbar Norah E.. Nonverbal Behaviors “Speak” Relational Messages of Dominance, Trust, and Composure. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624177; article XML SHA-256 105a7e015e08809fe768beeaa80df505e3fc3ccfa19fe4777cd5c7826e95a737. “Nonverbal Behaviors “Speak” Relational Messages of Dominance, Trust, and Composure” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624177).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624177). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## donepezil
<a id="donepezil"></a>

Donepezil is a drug that blocks acetylcholinesterase in a selective, reversible way, with effects mainly in the central nervous system. It is used in managing mild to moderate dementia in Alzheimer disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31b41fc4e207853a5e8a529cd32de0c615b87f570f6506c0d377f5528c9b7d4a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Donepezil” (D000077265).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077265). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dong quai
<a id="dong-quai"></a>

Dong quai is an herbal extract from the root of Angelica sinensis. It is described as having possible anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, vasodilating, estrogen-like, and antitumor effects, with plant compounds that may relax smooth muscle, widen blood vessels, reduce free radicals, and affect blood clotting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b38cf487890a25716df89bc4bc2fdf9b4669274b38fb9c8d6c16ed450a66a5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Angelica sinensis Root Extract” (C60817).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DOP
<a id="dop"></a>

DOP stands for differential outcomes procedure, a learning method in which different correct responses are linked to different specific rewards. It is used to strengthen discriminative learning and recognition memory by building expectations about the outcome tied to each response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d726b3ab337cff055a432367f2cbcd50239b4eab43298f54c465e3a66dc3980f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [García-Pérez Ángel; Carmona Isabel; Estévez Angeles F.. The use of the differential outcomes procedure for the recognition of facial expressions of complex emotions and its electrophysiological correlates. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1421688; article XML SHA-256 deb480d8b987acf70d964e9412bb25dcc28d77daa3e19cbc44088bd394fd8538. “The use of the differential outcomes procedure for the recognition of facial expressions of complex emotions and its electrophysiological correlates” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1421688).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1421688). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dopa
<a id="dopa"></a>

In this packet, DOPA refers to L-DOPA, a chemical precursor of dopamine used in dopamine replacement therapy for Parkinson’s disease. It is used to help reduce motor problems related to loss or dysfunction of dopamine neurons, but it can also produce treatment-related involuntary movements known as L-DOPA-induced dyskinesias.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2f4cff16f18500bb3c8facd9c231e9b176fff76563256968f278041e666253ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chambers Nicole E.; Hall Dominic; Kaplan Morgan; Garan Sarah; Eichner Tyler; Moehle Mark S.. M 5 positive allosteric modulation alleviates parkinsonian motor deficits. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345115; article XML SHA-256 448748fdf9aadbba665945171dacf5e6d1963ea265c5bf54a1602d34bed515e4. “M 5 positive allosteric modulation alleviates parkinsonian motor deficits” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345115).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345115). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dopa decarboxylase
<a id="dopa-decarboxylase"></a>

Dopa decarboxylase is an enzyme that converts DOPA into dopamine. It is clinically important in the treatment of Parkinson's disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a4956c9d2827af259d745db45b2864b48439446d4d9e69bfd9b8458eda0d9f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dopa Decarboxylase” (D004296).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004296). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dopamine
<a id="dopamine"></a>

Dopamine is a catecholamine neurotransmitter in the brain. It is made from tyrosine, serves as a precursor to norepinephrine and epinephrine, and plays an important role in the brain systems that regulate movement through its actions at dopamine receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e353cafc8ad7436ecb45c00e150f156940cb40268ecf335fa86effc8e660025

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dopamine” (D004298).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004298). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dopamine hypothesis
<a id="dopamine-hypothesis"></a>

The dopamine hypothesis is the idea that schizophrenia involves abnormal dopamine activity, especially in mesolimbic and prefrontal brain regions. In its revised form, it treats dopamine changes as important but not the only factor, alongside other neurotransmitter alterations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4bae2c6ae9825252afd716cdc0e13dae83d9aadaf11e0ebe6698e8bbf726b102

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brisch Ralf; Saniotis Arthur; Wolf Rainer; Bielau Hendrik; Bernstein Hans-Gert; Steiner Johann; Bogerts Bernhard; Braun Katharina; Jankowski Zbigniew; Kumaratilake Jaliya; Henneberg Maciej; Gos Tomasz. The Role of Dopamine in Schizophrenia from a Neurobiological and Evolutionary Perspective: Old Fashioned, but Still in Vogue. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00047; article XML SHA-256 b66232bdabccd351a18f8608ad9c27ac6b3478155f3867b565d6a18474049970. “The Role of Dopamine in Schizophrenia from a Neurobiological and Evolutionary Perspective: Old Fashioned, but Still in Vogue” (10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00047).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00047). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dopamine receptor
<a id="dopamine-receptor"></a>

A dopamine receptor is one of a family of cell receptors that mainly bind dopamine and belong to the G protein-coupled receptor group. They play a role in neuroendocrine signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e646be9ae1d7ab044eb166c5c16070702e2aaebd8d578c402e2d982308146cbb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dopamine Receptor” (C17066).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dopamine-receptor agonist
<a id="dopamine-receptor-agonist"></a>

A dopamine-receptor agonist is a drug that attaches to dopamine receptors and turns them on, producing dopamine-like activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc30236acb4be12527763d7457c56f88365f4f4eeb06648939453e9490fb47f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dopamine Agonists” (D018491).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018491). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dopamine-receptor antagonist
<a id="dopamine-receptor-antagonist"></a>

A dopamine-receptor antagonist is a drug that attaches to dopamine receptors without turning them on, which blocks dopamine and similar drugs from having their effects. Many antipsychotic medicines work this way, and these drugs have also been used for nausea and vomiting, Tourette syndrome, and hiccup.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7aa8c5cd04b0afab9dff08a27f78f7623080ff561195c2a6c3fe048bac4e3591

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dopamine Antagonists” (D018492).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018492). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dopamine system
<a id="dopamine-system"></a>

The dopamine system is the set of brain structures and connections involved in dopamine function. In this source, it especially refers to dopamine-related activity, structure, and connectivity in the substantia nigra pars compacta and ventral tegmental area, including aspects beyond synaptic transmission.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 91cc0307a2b3950d1b51c1557cddb4b16d796d6e0407bc3dce86c87f7cd3dfcb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schulz Julia; Zimmermann Juliana; Sorg Christian; Menegaux Aurore; Brandl Felix. Magnetic resonance imaging of the dopamine system in schizophrenia – A scoping review. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.925476; article XML SHA-256 bccc02a6825eea452216911b7e50aa4e646cea5aa4f53470d971cd884ee06aa0. “Magnetic resonance imaging of the dopamine system in schizophrenia – A scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.925476).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.925476). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dopaminergic
<a id="dopaminergic"></a>

Dopaminergic means relating to dopamine or to receptors that respond to dopamine. In the packet, dopamine is described as a naturally occurring catecholamine and precursor of norepinephrine and epinephrine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53e78e5eb599e71f7227633b6e99d91e0895271ca5d843694d71d810daa728c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dopamine Hydrochloride” (C455).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Dopar
<a id="dopar"></a>

Dopar is levodopa, an amino acid substance that serves as a precursor to dopamine. It can enter the brain and be converted into dopamine, helping make up for low dopamine levels in Parkinson’s disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5cf1223a68b051a03248a13da3b3d3492bdb2d79489a1ff5b57190487d274761

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Levodopa” (C611).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dorsal
<a id="dorsal"></a>

In this context, dorsal refers to the dorsal visual pathway, a brain system involved in aspects of visual processing such as visual timing. The source contrasts dorsal pathways with ventral pathways and notes that problems in dorsal functioning may contribute to cognitive difficulties after mild traumatic brain injury.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a793f27047ec1ee9382541b2e966ff262215a7be530b0557f3f3b9fe87a781f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lawton Teri; Shelley-Tremblay John; Lee Roland R; Huang Ming-Xiong. Retraining dorsal visual pathways improves cognitive skills and executive control networks following mild traumatic brain injury. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1698605; article XML SHA-256 c06b317df31f5daaf08e3f1a82ad791e3b419d4abf7d3d5882f5139b3c560d22. “Retraining dorsal visual pathways improves cognitive skills and executive control networks following mild traumatic brain injury” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1698605).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1698605). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dorsal anterior cingulate cortex
<a id="dorsal-anterior-cingulate-cortex"></a>

The dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) is a deeper cortical brain region that can be targeted in neuromodulation research. In the supplied source, it is the stimulation target being studied in schizophrenia to see whether changing activity in this area may help with negative symptoms and cognitive difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59300cdf3e2cabe164978ad8fdc2753c4a958121ca75a565e897fa29312578a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Fan; Long Manling; Li Xin; Zeng Zixuan; Ma Sha; Zhou Shupei; Zhang Lulu; Gong Hengfen; Huang Jingjing. Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex-targeted transcranial temporal interference stimulation for negative symptoms and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia: a participant- and assessor-blinded, sham-controlled randomized controlled trial protocol. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1915709; article XML SHA-256 97f0e2331a68ca384e76a7e62249c6c159126d2126fd0c4cbca612d8d28c0a17. “Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex-targeted transcranial temporal interference stimulation for negative symptoms and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia: a participant- and assessor-blinded, sham-controlled randomized controlled trial protocol” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1915709).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1915709). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## dorsal column
<a id="dorsal-column"></a>

The dorsal column is a bundle of nerve fibers in the back part of the spinal cord that carries sensory information upward. In this usage, it refers to the medial tract above the mid-thoracic region that conveys sensation from the lower half of the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bea0ca9b08708e47ae25622ec2a5a45a4156b24eab166e909ea9292ed79b28be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tract of Goll” (C33799).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dorsal horn
<a id="dorsal-horn"></a>

The dorsal horn is one of the three central columns of the spinal cord. It consists of gray matter in spinal laminae I through VI.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf64bc0da3113845d9a575f4aca9f30a7c8375e7041ed45a96b64c855279f4df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Spinal Cord Dorsal Horn” (D066148).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066148). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dorsolateral
<a id="dorsolateral"></a>

In this context, dorsolateral refers to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a prefrontal brain region. The packet describes this region as important for cognitive-motor integration because it exerts top-down regulation over the primary motor cortex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a918691941938c3f84ad488afda5c016d81eec672760c6e3e79a592954d10e99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lin Xiang-Ming; Xue Yi-Shan; Liu Yu-Han; Hong Rui; Xu Wan-Rong; Li Tian-Cheng; Jiang Jia-Wei; Liu Ying-Rong; Li Ying; Wang Ben-Guo. Functional properties of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex to primary motor cortex connectivity: a dual-site TMS study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1776794; article XML SHA-256 afda3233a756a5a8aaf9bd43a67cafd2dd666f496d9e2a6c7f2bdb998bb94aa5. “Functional properties of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex to primary motor cortex connectivity: a dual-site TMS study” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1776794).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1776794). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dorsolateral column
<a id="dorsolateral-column"></a>

The dorsolateral column usually refers here to the dorsolateral periaqueductal gray, a midbrain area involved in processing threatening and other strongly aversive experiences. In learning research, it is described as helping link life-threatening events to fear learning through its connections with hypothalamic and thalamic pathways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71c32ca329d1e09ae3d2e10288d637ec9cc1f39eefaa82ae181eb113ebef9e63

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kincheski Grasielle C.; Mota-Ortiz Sandra R.; Pavesi Eloisa; Canteras Newton S.; Carobrez Antônio P.. The Dorsolateral Periaqueductal Gray and Its Role in Mediating Fear Learning to Life Threatening Events. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0050361; article XML SHA-256 46184049765ff223efb2ec1acef17cb5a668796c217587b3e4bfa6fa4b1e4996. “The Dorsolateral Periaqueductal Gray and Its Role in Mediating Fear Learning to Life Threatening Events” (10.1371/journal.pone.0050361).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050361). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
<a id="dorsolateral-prefrontal-cortex"></a>

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is the upper part of the prefrontal cortex, including the front portions of the superior and middle frontal gyri. It plays a role in executive function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 479b045087df22231ac78d954a6f13828ae27a4abd8afef7d2c8fa33bef257c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex” (D000087643).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000087643). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dorsomedial nucleus
<a id="dorsomedial-nucleus"></a>

The dorsomedial nucleus is the largest medial nucleus of the thalamus. It is extensively connected with most of the other thalamic nuclei.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fdf511537768bd103057125cc7e281acc9dcff531a31b4bf0e49eb73fe68f2be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mediodorsal Thalamic Nucleus” (D020645).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020645). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dorsoventral
<a id="dorsoventral"></a>

Dorsoventral refers to the developmental patterning or positioning of structures along the dorsoventral dimension. In the packet, it describes a constrained aspect of where genital papilla precursors are placed during development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e11aba0c4d1b22d790ce3f521ad5c282add383856819562de3d2bf02b16d61b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kiontke Karin; Kolysh Simone; Ng Rocio; Fitch David H. A.. Developmental constraints in the repeated evolution of male tail characters in rhabditid and diplogastrid nematodes. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348186; article XML SHA-256 767287b3ad0ac82716cb060ffada71f32fb226ad7bd6a3b3e73decb37f4e91ac. “Developmental constraints in the repeated evolution of male tail characters in rhabditid and diplogastrid nematodes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348186).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348186). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dose–response relationship
<a id="doseresponse-relationship"></a>

A dose–response relationship is the pattern linking how much of an intervention is given, such as its intensity, frequency, or duration, with the size or nature of its effects. In this context, it refers to how different amounts of exercise may relate to changes in sleep quality in people with depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1b81fcfbe9a8f046fe3ec93361cd72ea2fe3cc1531e65c9ad2f8f650b520aec6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Ziqi; Mao Sujie; Wang Yaxin; Yang Huimin; Liu Chang; Wu Jiahe; Kang Jianxin. Dose–response relationship of exercise interventions on sleep quality in patients with depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1795196; article XML SHA-256 b00548c2f0bccd71690509b6e9f409d4699302aab4ccc6934e80cfbc8f3def18. “Dose–response relationship of exercise interventions on sleep quality in patients with depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1795196).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1795196). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## double-aspect theory
<a id="double-aspect-theory"></a>

Double-aspect theory is a historical view of the mind-body relation holding that mental events and bodily events are parallel expressions of one underlying reality. It treats conscious and physical processes as different but not reducible to each other, and denies that mind and body directly cause one another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e21563315cf933923a036a68501881ea9dd0c9fa989ac2dff739a9b2ef44b857

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Double Aspect Theory” (Double Aspect Theory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Double Aspect Theory). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## double bind
<a id="double-bind"></a>

A double bind is a social situation in which a person is pressured to meet two conflicting expectations at the same time. In the example described here, women in male-dominated settings are expected to show traditionally masculine qualities while also maintaining feminine ones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 214399f007dcf3ecec377849d301b6e5d2ef7649a39f01540d594f577b307918

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Ming; Wang Guofeng; Zhao Ruinan. “Double Bind” with a twist: A corpus-assisted discourse study of gender performances of male and female entrepreneurs on Twitter (now X). 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331400; article XML SHA-256 21803c7dad3ec15dcf470c414ec2ff4cc30c5ae23d3aab002180257a95d5baee. ““Double Bind” with a twist: A corpus-assisted discourse study of gender performances of male and female entrepreneurs on Twitter (now X)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331400).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331400). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## double consciousness
<a id="double-consciousness"></a>

In this historical usage, double consciousness means a division of mental life into two distinct states or personalities, such as an ordinary state and a somnambulistic or abnormal one. The secondary state may appear organised and rational, yet what happens in it may be forgotten in the ordinary state, while the secondary state can include awareness of the person’s wider life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f6e4720841ce22404a8ccc7f5c6b91fccc2941775bc0640a65824aa92cba65b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2320500-2332500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## double dissociation
<a id="double-dissociation"></a>

A double dissociation is a pattern in which two related abilities can be disrupted separately, so that one manipulation mainly impairs the first ability while a different manipulation mainly impairs the second. In psychology, this kind of finding is used to show that the two functions depend on partly independent processes rather than a single shared one.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e842e2003ce80bb3593090acff86671117ae11ff83755b27543fdf2bc742a5a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Matthews Nestor; Welch Leslie; Festa Elena K.; Bruno Anthony A.. Double dissociation in radial and rotational motion sensitivity. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0246094; article XML SHA-256 efa9387fb602e515b9f8cbf5860371ec775c3fa76ed042a77c3ff576ff9c5b03. “Double dissociation in radial and rotational motion sensitivity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0246094).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246094). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## double insanity
<a id="double-insanity"></a>

Historically, double insanity meant a form of communicated or shared mental disorder involving two people, such as a pair who come to show the same delusions or hallucinations. In this usage, one person’s disturbed beliefs may influence the other, or both may become affected from a common cause and then intensify each other’s condition through sympathy and imitation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df17edf207769b4ea47a4ca797ecac850e5d90b7f871e66b87fa4ac9f522226d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1375500-1387500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## double personality
<a id="double-personality"></a>

Double personality was a historical term for a state in which one person appeared to have two separate and independent streams of thought and mental functioning. In each state, memory was limited to earlier episodes of that same state and excluded what happened in the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d593a6a84c4a9e230c6f04fede03f4ea730966823b9ddf40154081ae6f25d4f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1522500-1534500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## double-simultaneous stimulation
<a id="double-simultaneous-stimulation"></a>

Double-simultaneous stimulation is the presentation of two sensory stimuli at the same time, typically one on each side of the body or space, to examine whether a person notices both together. In patients with unilateral brain damage, it can reveal extinction, where the stimulus on the side opposite the lesion is missed when both are given simultaneously.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 48342f61e27c2202af2f9920605fb85d63ebb9248da3049aec1bf02c965c911a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sambo Chiara F.; Vallar Giuseppe; Fortis Paola; Ronchi Roberta; Posteraro Lucio; Forster Bettina; Maravita Angelo. Visual and spatial modulation of tactile extinction: behavioural and electrophysiological evidence. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00217; article XML SHA-256 2e714e313572d6ded86691b485583ab24bf11d87ab80fe9085ae17afedeaaaea. “Visual and spatial modulation of tactile extinction: behavioural and electrophysiological evidence” (10.3389/fnhum.2012.00217).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00217). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## double vision
<a id="double-vision"></a>

Double vision is a visual symptom in which one object is seen as two instead of one. It can occur with problems affecting the eyes’ focusing or alignment, the nerves that control eye movements, or parts of the brain involved in vision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6fef6fb9101e7f54245361917793d536a990b8bfb02fb57aca3339993ebcf51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Diplopia” (D004172).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004172). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## doubling
<a id="doubling"></a>

In this context, doubling means increasing the number of stimulated fingers from one to two to examine how somatosensory signals combine. The source describes it as producing only a small improvement in detection and a moderate increase in neural response, consistent with summation across digits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7979143d5e8d215769ba86206a83bc69c16f8321ec3dd25bbeaccbed7ed5ff7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wei Shasha; Wade Alex R; Preston Catherine EJ; Baker Daniel H. Signal combination in flutter vibration perception. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350140; article XML SHA-256 d8ec8ace4ee8511646e5b8c43c65292689b79227ea213ed01314285a90e09f18. “Signal combination in flutter vibration perception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350140).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350140). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## doubt
<a id="doubt"></a>

Doubt is a mental state in which belief seems possible, but a person has not yet reached conviction. It reflects a mismatch or conflict among ideas, often along with a sense that the evidence is not sufficient.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b8165bca2662f0cc5800af4a9e440ad177c2592f85df7f934419f4f5688b196

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Doubt” (Doubt).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Doubt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## doula
<a id="doula"></a>

A doula is a trained woman who gives emotional and psychological support to another woman during labor and delivery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 15f3dbc952951ea1de515c20c9dc97fba46ba53d01c4ba09aeb6e9bf148b5ddc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Doula” (C205849).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Down syndrome
<a id="down-syndrome"></a>

Down syndrome is a chromosome disorder caused by an extra chromosome 21 or its equivalent. It is associated with a characteristic pattern of physical features, moderate to severe intellectual disability, and increased risk of certain medical problems including heart and gastrointestinal abnormalities, leukemia, and early-onset Alzheimer disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ebf9eb0e9eebe83d7ef6e2246bdb11ae4dd24ed696496c1c4588e102ccc37441

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Down Syndrome” (D004314).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004314). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## downward mobility
<a id="downward-mobility"></a>

Downward mobility is movement to a worse social status over time. In social psychology, it can also refer to beliefs that people or groups can fall on the social ladder, considered as distinct from beliefs about upward mobility.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47f80da0477efa734a4dd3e71dc3342a4d316c73d2f8fb786d07b23b5ecb275d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Matamoros-Lima Juan; Willis Guillermo B.; Moya Miguel. Rising and falling on the social ladder: The bidimensional social mobility beliefs scale. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0294676; article XML SHA-256 2d6b66000e106c567ab9eacf759a67448fc2bc8d14d5148a22282bb1a74b4d32. “Rising and falling on the social ladder: The bidimensional social mobility beliefs scale” (10.1371/journal.pone.0294676).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294676). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dowry
<a id="dowry"></a>

Dowry is a marriage-related transfer or demand, often involving money, gold, or other assets, within the marriage arrangement. In the supplied source, it is described as a common practice in South Asia and India that is linked to violence against women, including domestic, emotional, and other gender-based violence, especially when payment is demanded, delayed, or judged insufficient.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b44de129a7e68266e86b360f4bf91a42d23f9bb642bbd64cff92199fe7000f61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Srivastava Shobhit; Kumar Pradeep; Muhammad T.; Govindu Manideep; Ali Waad. Dowry demand, perception of wife-beating, decision making power and associated partner violence among married adolescent girls: A cross-sectional analytical study in India. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312341; article XML SHA-256 8561dcc80c848ec1d3a21eaf058b0bb8312af7f85f9ac2b55d117a1448033b04. “Dowry demand, perception of wife-beating, decision making power and associated partner violence among married adolescent girls: A cross-sectional analytical study in India” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312341).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312341). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## doxepin
<a id="doxepin"></a>

Doxepin is a tricyclic dibenzoxepin compound with several biological effects. It appears to work partly by reducing the reuptake of monoamine neurotransmitters at presynaptic terminals, and it also has anticholinergic effects and blocks histamine H1 and H2 receptor activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cbbb2191920640bc21e914509049e8754013ddf01a8919f0d604ee9b1c9bf8f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Doxepin” (D004316).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004316). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DQ
<a id="dq"></a>

DQ stands for developmental quotient. In this context, it is a measure used as a proxy for a child’s overall developmental functioning, helping account for broader cognitive and developmental differences in analyses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: af05c5bb00e79a135f9c42e2ca3f6eea9219f34c1b58c79c8fbddacc069dbfc7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mascheroni Eleonora; Butti Niccolò; Mambretti Fabiana; Cordolcini Laura; Castagna Annalisa; Maucci Vittoria; Citterio Andrea; Bettinelli Alessandra; Montirosso Rosario. Exploring the relationship between OXTR DNA methylation and temperament in children with neurodevelopmental disabilities. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763938; article XML SHA-256 8a2ce88def05a6afd789e937e14bdde02eb194ee31d1d349fd49ef0d2d9f53b1. “Exploring the relationship between OXTR DNA methylation and temperament in children with neurodevelopmental disabilities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763938).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763938). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DRA
<a id="dra"></a>

DRA stands for dopamine receptor agonists, a type of medication considered in this study as a second-line add-on to levodopa for people with Parkinson’s disease. Here, it is one of the two treatment options compared when building individualized therapy decision rules.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 859a2e8e91c7642077c51814be1cf77b2d504d227dd79d357cd4ad25ac30db23

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pham Cuong T.; Schneider Ruth B.; Venuto Charles S.; Smith Greta; Brehm Zachary P.; McDermott Michael P.; Ertefaie Ashkan. An application of weighted support vector machines to individualized second-line therapy selection after levodopa in Parkinson’s disease. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1859515; article XML SHA-256 ad7b17e34549740c560ee2bb3c183cbf7c2102d2c472c40c1358526511243470. “An application of weighted support vector machines to individualized second-line therapy selection after levodopa in Parkinson’s disease” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1859515).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1859515). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drama therapy
<a id="drama-therapy"></a>

Drama therapy is the intentional use of drama or theatrical methods to support therapeutic aims. It is used to help with symptom reduction, promote emotional, cognitive, and physical integration, and encourage personal growth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2ade7dd421e4b6a1d538df60edfc140cb4a4afd7165052d3cbe89e1eb0873fb1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Korde Žanete; Šuriņa Sanita; Mārtinsone Kristīne. Research trends in drama therapy: a bibliometric analysis based on Scopus. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1327656; article XML SHA-256 dbde5991cfa298d37ae75740426b814da9b975a99a3b2d76f1317b80f3267b7a. “Research trends in drama therapy: a bibliometric analysis based on Scopus” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1327656).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1327656). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dramatization
<a id="dramatization"></a>

In this packet, dramatization refers to presenting oneself or one’s emotions in an exaggerated, theatrical way. It appears here as a behavior associated with attention seeking and overly intense but shallow emotional expression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83dbf392cec4a6ec02f4f453e0ad0d861154569e486d83566fae28e8fde3ccbd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Histrionic Personality Disorder” (C92634).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DRC
<a id="drc"></a>

DRC stands for the Democratic Republic of Congo, the country identified here as the setting for renewed armed violence, displacement, trauma, and related psychological distress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c604cd11ac2a3d55e7dfe28660d53d60a86d3e804bba043a296bbd90f5527c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cikuru Justin; Kaganda Philippe; Blavier Adélaïde; Foucart Jennifer. Post-traumatic stress disorder and body satisfaction among patients at Ruhigita clinic, Bukavu (DRC): an observational study. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1704684; article XML SHA-256 985602108cc64b3035932b74939f223c6b8bd414c2ec80602406f9e5b8c29e1f. “Post-traumatic stress disorder and body satisfaction among patients at Ruhigita clinic, Bukavu (DRC): an observational study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1704684).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1704684). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dread
<a id="dread"></a>

Dread is a lasting sense of anxiety that can disrupt daily life. In the mental health context of generalized anxiety disorder, it refers to more than ordinary worry and may continue for months or years.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e5d9ddc1fcbdb9aa6096a4269853c6e7753004f5d4787c08dd6942ae691d44e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 77e8e3f9797bdd3e545d836e3c7a022d849dbcb9046d75b9663fada09c613399. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dream
<a id="dream"></a>

A dream is a conscious mental process that occurs during sleep. In this historical source, the nature of dreaming is presented as uncertain in many respects, including attention, movement, mental control, bodily conditions, and whether dreamless sleep is possible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe5311e62995f186e6175ff70f289934ceb03d6e1d62604862731e9c023ecee6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dream” (Dream).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Dream). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dream analysis
<a id="dream-analysis"></a>

Dream analysis is the examination of reported dreams to study their features and organization. In this source, it refers to comparing dream reports by measures such as report length and word-graph structure to assess differences in dream complexity and between REM and non-REM sleep.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e63e3a4803fa8e426802f4cfe0f8b359c7c9443cc7d71a166e65a14bee1e75a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Martin Joshua M.; Andriano Danyal Wainstein; Mota Natalia B.; Mota-Rolim Sergio A.; Araújo John Fontenele; Solms Mark; Ribeiro Sidarta. Structural differences between REM and non-REM dream reports assessed by graph analysis. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0228903; article XML SHA-256 142433e2f722f71a7f25cb7f9e5045da4f281ceedf5447edc86f1f8a0a9b3325. “Structural differences between REM and non-REM dream reports assessed by graph analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0228903).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228903). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dream content
<a id="dream-content"></a>

Dream content is what a person reports experiencing in a dream, such as its themes, images, events, or associations. It can be described and grouped into patterns for analysis, including shared types of bad dreams or nightmares.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e007644919d740db7e3d8998745cd17d8527a120ef04ad27bb55a6a0b879ad0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pesonen Anu-Katriina; Lipsanen Jari; Halonen Risto; Elovainio Marko; Sandman Nils; Mäkelä Juha-Matti; Antila Minea; Béchard Deni; Ollila Hanna M.; Kuula Liisa. Pandemic Dreams: Network Analysis of Dream Content During the COVID-19 Lockdown. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573961; article XML SHA-256 b66d1df4dbfcce5b737302b6cb7bcf7f8bd51a7389be97a17e136c55f5d378a1. “Pandemic Dreams: Network Analysis of Dream Content During the COVID-19 Lockdown” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573961).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573961). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dream incorporation
<a id="dream-incorporation"></a>

Dream incorporation is the appearance of recently learned or newly acquired information in dream content. In psychology, the term is often used for the extent to which dreams reflect material from recent learning experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba77a013d6d755d782247c3d2ce66c498f7d2f197f89dd1ab888968befa86cdc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fogel Stuart M.; Ray Laura B.; Sergeeva Valya; De Koninck Joseph; Owen Adrian M.. A Novel Approach to Dream Content Analysis Reveals Links Between Learning-Related Dream Incorporation and Cognitive Abilities. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01398; article XML SHA-256 be24c4b6da869f2edfeff432422ee79f8938bab7e001588a31286adc5ded9467. “A Novel Approach to Dream Content Analysis Reveals Links Between Learning-Related Dream Incorporation and Cognitive Abilities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01398).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01398). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dream-work
<a id="dream-work"></a>

Dream-work, in Bion’s account of alpha-functioning, is the mental activity that forms meaningful links to inner and outer experience. It helps create a contact-barrier that separates conscious awareness from the unconscious mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 571a44d16a0231044b21d3d7fd33370fb93deb2af4600686710e462a045c43ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mellor Matthew John. Making Worlds in a Waking Dream: Where Bion Intersects Friston on the Shaping and Breaking of Psychic Reality. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01674; article XML SHA-256 fc7723d9fd0450ae833a3927d0e272b7b70e5ef80c5eb85215d33baef19e00b2. “Making Worlds in a Waking Dream: Where Bion Intersects Friston on the Shaping and Breaking of Psychic Reality” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01674).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01674). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dreamy state
<a id="dreamy-state"></a>

In historical psychiatric writing, a dreamy state is a pre-epileptic mental condition marked by altered experience, often with hallucinations, illusions, or related false beliefs. It was described as a mixed, dreamlike disturbance that could come before a seizure and could shape actions carried out later in an automatic state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98c9d13ca404274116ee729441d469709eb5056d78525b93ab2ea00d145ce8ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2625000-2637000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dressing apraxia
<a id="dressing-apraxia"></a>

Dressing apraxia is a form of apraxia in which a person cannot carry out the previously learned act of putting on clothes even though the problem is not due to basic motor or sensory loss. It reflects difficulty mentally organizing the actions needed for dressing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7cb0dee8eef1d396c9bad95eb4af8a6ac95cf3753d33dc5ff0b1da2ccd75603e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Apraxias” (D001072).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001072). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DRGs
<a id="drgs"></a>

DRGs refers here to dorsal root ganglion stimulation, a neurostimulation procedure used to help control chronic neuropathic pain that has been hard to treat. It works by delivering stimulation through implanted electrodes and an internal pulse generator, with an external component also involved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 557abf0b8f1c4d50733f43bbf2a445c04b91fd26fe2734a97692f44ff465185d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dorsal Root Ganglion Stimulation” (C202304).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drift
<a id="drift"></a>

In psychological and educational assessment, drift usually means item parameter drift: a change over time in an anchor item’s measurement properties, especially its difficulty and sometimes its discrimination. This weakens the assumption that the item works the same way across test forms or administrations and can bias score linking and interpretation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f5610068e524d85ec1cc34bf074a1c8c29c2007bf5f3b1e8eb56abb3400c99b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bilicioglu Gunes Ayse; Zeybekoglu Yesil Serife. Examining the joint impact of missing data mechanisms and item parameter drift on the accuracy of item response theory-based test equating. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353665; article XML SHA-256 a4f0e87ec5577cf3ff002a96cdbd12c3369465e1f1d19e7fc920ca831c940ae1. “Examining the joint impact of missing data mechanisms and item parameter drift on the accuracy of item response theory-based test equating” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353665).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353665). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drill
<a id="drill"></a>

In learning, drill refers to repeated practice used as part of a behavioral approach to strengthen specific learning skills. It may be combined with adaptive or compensatory methods to help improve targeted areas of learning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45828b2232c2c33c89fe8f6719918fcdf76f19fbe58aa76ebb5328b3eca3bfd9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognitive Remediation” (D000072466).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000072466). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drive
<a id="drive"></a>

Drive is an internal state of activation that must be present before a particular stimulus can trigger a related kind of response. For example, hunger has to reach a certain level before food leads to eating.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c2b4c95310b4048418d6c73287071c900ba44f5d68fd92d1bee7916c69e43119

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Drive” (D004328).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004328). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drive theory
<a id="drive-theory"></a>

In this source, drive theory is a motivational framework, presented as an updated Freudian account, that explains addictive behavior as an effort to make up for an underlying biological deficit. It describes addiction as arising from a lack of a specific signaling molecule, with the behavior serving a compensatory drive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 181102e2edcaa6557f464e80259d8d62ff68118a529dadc6514be88b68ad9bd1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kirsch Michael. Give me five! A modern perspective on addiction from the up-dated Freudian drive theory. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1562619; article XML SHA-256 1a282b199b21aa05847944bb9a1119030902ed093eb100413cf8a1f672c739f9. “Give me five! A modern perspective on addiction from the up-dated Freudian drive theory” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1562619).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1562619). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## driver training
<a id="driver-training"></a>

Driver training is a structured program that teaches a person how to safely learn to operate a motor vehicle and work toward gaining a driver’s licence. In this source, it refers to an autism-specific training approach designed to improve driving performance and support independent community mobility.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d5ff211c5c15af0e156040454e9fa7f8ddd31c5a7a66d3958ee8702efe42a8a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vindin Priscilla; Cordier Reinie; Wilson Nathan J; Parsons Lauren; Lee Hoe. Development and feasibility of a driving training program for Autistic student drivers. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324934; article XML SHA-256 e36e49eb3ea01da3c3b4dd7b6877482b8057daa6797dedade3d49f97079878c7. “Development and feasibility of a driving training program for Autistic student drivers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324934).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324934). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dronabinol
<a id="dronabinol"></a>

Dronabinol is a psychoactive substance obtained from the resin of Cannabis sativa. Its delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) form is described as the most active and is linked with changes in mood and perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1278bdb1877e2e0a2ce3395b0199fe70e60591f950fbdfdf4de19f3b0648220b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dronabinol” (D013759).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013759). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drone
<a id="drone"></a>

In this historical source, a drone is the male hive bee, cited as an example of parthenogenesis because it develops from an unfertilized egg. The term is used in discussing reproduction rather than a psychological process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb50e8938e8091d22d6139f73c3f0ba9782d69680a946e2da31bca01576a1225

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1501500-1513500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## droperidol
<a id="droperidol"></a>

Droperidol is a butyrophenone drug with effects broadly similar to haloperidol. In mental health and medical settings, it has been used to reduce agitation in acute psychoses and also to help produce a calm, cooperative state, as well as to prevent nausea and vomiting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d4e818ef5d9b15361a357cb862d8d79efea9cefe16e514ae12cca6bebb212a03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Droperidol” (D004329).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004329). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dropout
<a id="dropout"></a>

In a mental health research context, dropout means that a participant has chosen to leave a study, either completely or from part of it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 74e47fa669b5ce66c63dde8d4db1f2565a955b2f76b279d907ecf5534d34366d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Withdrawal by Subject” (C49634).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DRS
<a id="drs"></a>

DRS refers to the Disability Rating Scale, a standardized measure used to track overall functional change during recovery after moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. It looks at areas such as alertness and responsiveness, cognitive ability for self-care, dependence on others, and psychosocial adaptation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5bf8efa40c699e7654492ca2686edf9e41100f8986f0b4af19bade3962fc7085

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Disability Rating Scale Clinical Classification” (C115796).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drug
<a id="drug"></a>

In this mental health context, a drug is a medication that a health care provider may prescribe to help reduce symptoms. Examples mentioned here include stimulants, antidepressants, and atypical antipsychotics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 908cec1524569b9785261678f0340e799b332fda3099af3d5cc227d98990b19e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 2f1e06df6de4eaffe8d6a05ad39220c840ff0b6e8aaec6f86c36cc150507fdf3. “Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drug abuse
<a id="drug-abuse"></a>

Drug abuse is using a drug for purposes other than its intended use, or using it in ways or amounts that differ from directions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 04722b758d9c41a2426cf18769bd8e26c51cda80b97dec601e0b576110d4e7f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Drug Abuse” (C16522).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drug addiction
<a id="drug-addiction"></a>

Drug addiction is an older term for drug dependence, a condition in which a person develops a mental and sometimes physical reliance on a drug. It involves a strong urge to keep taking the drug regularly or from time to time to get its effects or sometimes to avoid discomfort when it is absent, and tolerance may or may not occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2dd9fa73d9387cb01fa1f31a3f0d23cc581492e4c13e3b92811239789f3de744

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Drug Dependence” (C3894).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drug court
<a id="drug-court"></a>

A drug court is a criminal justice program that diverts people with substance use disorders away from incarceration and into treatment. These programs are used in the US and other countries, although their effects on outcomes such as repeat offending and substance-related health harms remain debated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 91fe67d9c96553248b910016568e4a8768e10c743f87c3dddd895c5507c48ceb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Virtanen Suvi; Aaltonen Mikko; Latvala Antti; Forsman Mats; Lichtenstein Paul; Chang Zheng. Effectiveness of substance use disorder treatment as an alternative to imprisonment. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05734-y; article XML SHA-256 c393cf6ebab9860006919b3c2e744a9fc4c0504fc8bd996c21e81b287f85259f. “Effectiveness of substance use disorder treatment as an alternative to imprisonment” (10.1186/s12888-024-05734-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05734-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drug dependence
<a id="drug-dependence"></a>

Drug dependence is a mental, and sometimes physical, state that develops through interaction with a drug and is marked by a strong drive to keep taking it regularly or from time to time for its psychological effects or to avoid discomfort when it is not available. Tolerance may be present or absent, and dependence can involve more than one drug.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9584a3f5ae03eefa45bce46e455448c2417698fc81e02db56d313c2213faac6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Drug Dependence” (C3894).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drug-induced parkinsonism
<a id="drug-induced-parkinsonism"></a>

Drug-induced parkinsonism is a movement disorder caused by antipsychotic medication and is the most common movement problem linked to these drugs. It usually affects both sides of the body similarly, although some people show unequal involvement from one side to the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ec6a54fa5921f6bc14257a8bc408fc9fb56bd6758211021b17346c219041a51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pieters Lydia E.; Bakker P. Roberto; van Harten Peter N.. Asymmetric Drug-Induced Parkinsonism and Psychopathology: A Prospective Naturalistic Study in Long-Stay Psychiatric Patients. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00018; article XML SHA-256 55549cf4661965483b536588654072e70395686c2d6d06a153b779688ade4e6f. “Asymmetric Drug-Induced Parkinsonism and Psychopathology: A Prospective Naturalistic Study in Long-Stay Psychiatric Patients” (10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00018).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00018). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drug interactions
<a id="drug-interactions"></a>

Drug interactions are effects that can occur when two drugs are used together, potentially changing how well treatment works or affecting safety. In the source context, this is especially relevant in polypharmacy, such as combining cardiovascular medicines with antidepressants, where co-medication may create risks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f36fab6f6ff9f03dcc0fe86767dcf54db927c1a3653d659d741e9113a8d528a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Tie Hua; Jin Tian Yu; Wang Xi Wei; Wang Ling. Drug-Drug interactions prediction calculations between cardiovascular drugs and antidepressants for discovering the potential co-medication risks. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316021; article XML SHA-256 7a5a84644ed868983d9692e72ad5f9a612eea1e1a23fc11dd1729a9170ec557a. “Drug-Drug interactions prediction calculations between cardiovascular drugs and antidepressants for discovering the potential co-medication risks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316021).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316021). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drug metabolism
<a id="drug-metabolism"></a>

Drug metabolism is the body’s processing of a medication, especially in the liver, which can change how effective it is and how toxic it becomes. By turning a drug into other compounds, metabolism can lower or raise risks such as harmful side effects, including effects that depend on drug–drug interactions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1fd6e00bb904ea2cd77dcaf5de0959bbc624bac069613cdc0e6eaa76b2dc4a9f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Horiuchi Shinichiro; Koda Nanae; Ikeda Yui; Tanaka Yuto; Masuo Yusuke; Kato Yukio; Yamazaki Daiju. Examination of common culture medium for human hepatocytes and engineered heart tissue: Towards an evaluation of cardiotoxicity associated with hepatic drug metabolism in vitro. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315997; article XML SHA-256 0f93d5653056509536034368dc0bfcf626cf51eae9587a3a471c7dcd4fbb558c. “Examination of common culture medium for human hepatocytes and engineered heart tissue: Towards an evaluation of cardiotoxicity associated with hepatic drug metabolism in vitro” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315997).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315997). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drug-seeking behavior
<a id="drug-seeking-behavior"></a>

Drug-seeking behavior is actions a person takes to get substances, whether those substances are legal or illegal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b402d847de5a0ac801ba0c60e7c69e3c4d84d3e63a98572b231f93e5848ab255

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Drug-Seeking Behavior” (D058999).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058999). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drug self-administration
<a id="drug-self-administration"></a>

Drug self-administration is a research method in which subjects obtain an addictive drug through their own behavior, allowing investigators to study behavioral, neurobiological, and genetic aspects of addiction. In this context, measures such as drug-taking responses and locomotor activity can be examined as related but distinct indicators.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e6d0bf2fb494f3faeb26c7092db2503e15c02b31a9464b0e622ba14b0fb4298

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Jian-Jun; Kong Qingyao. Locomotor activity: A distinctive index in morphine self-administration in rats. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0174272; article XML SHA-256 832d716bdbf392fea2b1a0eff44ea5bda6f9439a1d2c0cbe0bde4816250218ef. “Locomotor activity: A distinctive index in morphine self-administration in rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0174272).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174272). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drug tolerance
<a id="drug-tolerance"></a>

Drug tolerance is a reduced response to a drug after it has been used repeatedly, so larger amounts are needed to produce the same effect that a smaller amount once did. It can result from changes in how the body processes the drug or from cellular, physiological, or behavioral adaptation to its effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e9eb49ddb3c85c8a23682a3db70d5ddfb030223d692f691d07c7848a6f9e6a8f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Drug Tolerance” (C21130).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## drug withdrawal
<a id="drug-withdrawal"></a>

Drug withdrawal is a substance-specific brain and body syndrome that can occur when use of an addictive drug is stopped or reduced. It can involve a range of physical and psychological symptoms, often distressing or painful, such as craving, anxiety, low mood, sleep problems, nausea, sweating, body aches, tremors, hallucinations, or convulsions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 710b3d026367a3f8217c042f8428ae2f0e56593be9add1991fe548ea3bdddfcb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Substance Withdrawal Syndrome” (C35046).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DSM–5
<a id="dsm5"></a>

DSM-5 is the 2013 fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association. It serves as a reference that lists recognized mental health disorders in children and adults, along with their diagnostic criteria and related statistical information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fbcba2ba6f1fc2f13ef435e4d50c7fa7c7ab981b1d7b1730f29b6d2e5ec320dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition” (C147964).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DST
<a id="dst"></a>

DST means digital screen time: the amount of time a person spends in front of electronic device screens. It includes screen use on devices such as smartphones, tablets, computers, television, and video games for activities like communication, social media, gaming, streaming, online learning, and meetings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d93e3869aa2565e765e029ef6a879e59529f04e1fa2f8898fe48bc5ee1864dce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kaewpradit Kamollada; Ngamchaliew Pitchayanont; Buathong Napakkawat. Digital screen time usage, prevalence of excessive digital screen time, and its association with mental health, sleep quality, and academic performance among Southern University students. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1535631; article XML SHA-256 8ce2af344c36f1585611d76cd64c90b30ce7695292e2e20bfa5ec4238bb78551. “Digital screen time usage, prevalence of excessive digital screen time, and its association with mental health, sleep quality, and academic performance among Southern University students” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1535631).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1535631). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DTD
<a id="dtd"></a>

DTD stands for difficult-to-treat depression, a broad term for depressive conditions that still cause major problems despite usual treatment. It describes suboptimal results related to treatment failure, including lack of response, intolerance, non-acceptance, or contraindications across treatment options.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e920cd3deaf7956b7c54eb62f6cfb960a9fa7df3aea8e0c1ac3c58641abff8ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Murao Masami; Matsumoto Yasuyuki; Kurihara Mariko; Oe Yuki; Nagashima Izumi; Hayasaka Tomonari; Tsuboi Takashi; Watanabe Koichiro; Sakurai Hitoshi. Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of suspected difficult-to-treat depression. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1371242; article XML SHA-256 2b78e07a4b7981eda1db2ddfe8cec9b35f6905a7f06bb161a6b8425162cb5bbb. “Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of suspected difficult-to-treat depression” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1371242).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1371242). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DTI
<a id="dti"></a>

DTI, or diffusion tensor imaging, is a diffusion-weighted MRI method that charts water movement in three dimensions. It is mainly used to visualize the brain’s white matter pathways and assess features of neural tracts such as their directional pattern and position, helping show subtle structural changes related to neuropathology or treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4e81716a9e050a44f27b60420180f6d8898a74dad852270dc8485460252127a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Diffusion Tensor Imaging” (C64862).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dual-action antidepressant
<a id="dual-action-antidepressant"></a>

A dual-action antidepressant is an antidepressant described here as working on several pathways in the brain rather than just one. In this source, venlafaxine is given as an example and is said to affect brain areas linked with heightened anxiety and hyper-arousal in post-traumatic stress disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c10e6c5f2896608535de4da631ceb6a61a6cee7047c2f06bc695d8e67263dbb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sonne Charlotte; Carlsson Jessica; Elklit Ask; Mortensen Erik Lykke; Ekstrøm Morten. Treatment of traumatized refugees with Sertraline versus Venlafaxine in combination with psychotherapy – study protocol for a randomized clinical trial. 2013; DOI 10.1186/1745-6215-14-137; article XML SHA-256 66c92402d26bc8bbef7db7e6cb47548f6e2f4bdc609034d8aaf861f0c1e46d4c. “Treatment of traumatized refugees with Sertraline versus Venlafaxine in combination with psychotherapy – study protocol for a randomized clinical trial” (10.1186/1745-6215-14-137).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-6215-14-137). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dual-attitude model
<a id="dual-attitude-model"></a>

The dual-attitude model proposes that people can hold two attitudes about the same subject at once: a more deliberate, openly reported attitude and a more automatic, less conscious attitude. In this study, it is used to explain how psychotherapists could report especially positive views about mental illness while still showing negative implicit bias that may be shaped by broader social influences and be harder to change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 34f4185e2eae0a089520066145749a2de323c2be8a128f308ce9f50db12638c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stoll Elena; Jakobsen Greta; Hörz-Sagstetter Susanne; Nething Emily; Tomczyk Samuel. Blind spots of psychotherapists? Implicit and explicit mental illness stigma in psychotherapists, psychology students, and laypersons. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1759801; article XML SHA-256 c7c24f80d1dde5f7a5ad6d996d6a2892a3995d2ca6e3c886ce0130463c44a7ca. “Blind spots of psychotherapists? Implicit and explicit mental illness stigma in psychotherapists, psychology students, and laypersons” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1759801).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1759801). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dual careers
<a id="dual-careers"></a>

Dual careers are a career-management approach in which a performing artist develops an alternative line of work alongside artistic training or practice, so they are better prepared to shift direction if needed. In this context, it is presented as a way to support a more sustainable career by reducing vulnerability to the short-term and unstable nature of artistic work.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba121d88696b189a4e3128a364d7cf6a44c2d9f93fdd1744b08da6b94b6a3b61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mizera-Pęczek Patrycja; Krasnova Anna; Sasin Magdalena; Sieczych-Kukawska Aleksandra. Dual careers as sustainable careers for performing artists in times of crisis. A contextual approach to the construct of a sustainable arts career. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314933; article XML SHA-256 b4031b4624cf0720c37ba0ea920c01513d973eb75aa8012e9b7a6aaed2c3947d. “Dual careers as sustainable careers for performing artists in times of crisis. A contextual approach to the construct of a sustainable arts career” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314933).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314933). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dual coding theory
<a id="dual-coding-theory"></a>

Dual coding theory is the idea that learning and memory are strengthened when information is presented in both verbal and visual forms. In this framework, linking words or sounds with images can improve understanding and recall.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a824152fb3e736566a2fd7ff0406cd987e89b34b5771cf414a31987bf532602

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kalender Barış. Enhancing letter recognition in first graders with embedded picture mnemonics: insights from cognitive load and dual coding theories. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1726843; article XML SHA-256 7708cf2b1fd98e243c210a8c7f5afbde7598ba55f8223574270b8eac26ec0ac3. “Enhancing letter recognition in first graders with embedded picture mnemonics: insights from cognitive load and dual coding theories” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1726843).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1726843). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dual consciousness
<a id="dual-consciousness"></a>

Dual consciousness is a historical term for a marked split between two states of awareness or personality, especially described in relation to somnambulism. In this older usage, a person could appear rational in the second state yet have different memory and self-experience across the two states, with the condition viewed as a complete form of somnambulism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c7c590b8c9b54cd772552871fbe9dd7f9f10b703dc64e708d9503b619612306

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2320500-2332500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dual diagnosis
<a id="dual-diagnosis"></a>

Dual diagnosis means the presence of both a substance use disorder and a psychiatric disorder in the same person. It refers to recognizing that these conditions often occur together, with psychiatric problems varying in severity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad1538c748865ac15af7509406b94dee72987b3eb22e05744d2477a1c2a9ab85

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Diagnosis, Dual (Psychiatry)” (D017831).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017831). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## dual process theory
<a id="dual-process-theory"></a>

Dual process theory is a framework for understanding choice and other mental activity by distinguishing between two broad kinds of processing: fast, intuitive, low-effort processing and slower, more deliberate, effortful processing. It also recognizes that real decision making can involve a combination of these two kinds of processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ace05225b75557350d8944fc8bb705e7627b03c7ab304bf20c29d260ba2169a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lindberg Kreg; Stemmer Kathrin. Choice experiment selection of tourism destinations in a dual process theory framework: The role of decision style and potential to promote deliberation. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0270531; article XML SHA-256 a0b315ce1fed83c59c47271b1a70cbb2dd37c23934d8ee30f38dd411dfa71daa. “Choice experiment selection of tourism destinations in a dual process theory framework: The role of decision style and potential to promote deliberation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0270531).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270531). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dual relationship
<a id="dual-relationship"></a>

In this source, a dual relationship means a two-way association in which each factor is related to changes in the other. Here it refers to a bidirectional link between children’s dental caries and growth measures such as weight and height.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dbbdbc34c56004fc3406d856870931f4e1d4ffcb59952e46db58acf5f62294a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shen Anqi; Bernabé Eduardo; Sabbah Wael. The bidirectional relationship between weight, height and dental caries among preschool children in China. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0216227; article XML SHA-256 1c77e63c36acc026dec262dea2306adc9e56183e85a023f76fc8483862f8eab6. “The bidirectional relationship between weight, height and dental caries among preschool children in China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0216227).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216227). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dual representation
<a id="dual-representation"></a>

Dual representation is the ability to understand that something can be both an object in its own right and a symbol for something else. In children’s learning, this means grasping that a picture or touch-screen image is itself a thing to interact with while also standing for something in the real world.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 43c8f7ceb87185933c2345261167a82b35e2a251db9ba945f3747e3e832b98d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sheehan Kelly J.; Uttal David H.. Children’s Learning from Touch Screens: A Dual Representation Perspective. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01220; article XML SHA-256 4c9fc8a4751c4d7c780b0ed97ed0c0de3183e9f34a52357a9ffa3241d64ee9b5. “Children’s Learning from Touch Screens: A Dual Representation Perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01220).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01220). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dual-task performance
<a id="dual-task-performance"></a>

Dual-task performance refers to how well a person carries out two tasks at the same time. It is used to compare performance under simultaneous-task conditions as a measure of multitasking behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07c962edf3ce2d76f00b3a824b515c596ed34caae6ace2b56acd4c63cbaf0d43

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dual-Task Tests” (D000099111).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000099111). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Duchenne muscular dystrophy
<a id="duchenne-muscular-dystrophy"></a>

Duchenne muscular dystrophy is an inherited X-linked muscle disorder in which the body cannot make dystrophin, a protein needed to help keep muscle cell membranes stable. It causes ongoing muscle breakdown and repair, with weakness beginning in the muscles closer to the trunk in early childhood, and may also involve enlarged-appearing muscles, heart disease, and a higher rate of impaired mentation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36ef01cce07221a2fc5fc1a2a30fe2c78c57d535a6c8c981702f162c3df82cc7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne” (D020388).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020388). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Duchenne smile
<a id="duchenne-smile"></a>

A Duchenne smile is an apparently genuine smile marked by the combined activation of the cheek-lifting zygomaticus major muscle and the eye-area orbicularis oculi muscle. In this source, it is contrasted with a weaker non-Duchenne smile, which shows less or no involvement of the eye-area muscle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9014ab10f932c92a7470317787a65b4cedd7920b52c5f400938fa366fe6ea9a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fino Edita; Menegatti Michela; Avenanti Alessio; Rubini Monica. Reading of ingroup politicians’ smiles triggers smiling in the corner of one’s eyes. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290590; article XML SHA-256 8dc196c8345d8f5f643d29a5a20c1f8b9b730036f294cc02778937ebee18753a. “Reading of ingroup politicians’ smiles triggers smiling in the corner of one’s eyes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290590).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290590). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ductus deferens
<a id="ductus-deferens"></a>

The ductus deferens is an anatomical structure in the male lower urogenital tract, seen alongside organs such as the prostate, seminal vesicles, and urinary bladder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 863cac7af23dd93d2f3e01dd463de728844ab8b4b0783a1ec207480044196949

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Limkar Ajinkya R; Sharma Simran M; Ricke William A. High-resolution ex vivo nanoCT reveals 3D architecture of the adult male mouse lower urogenital tract. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326004; article XML SHA-256 7025b1a325e19cd46af60d98d349cd56d97b99196a8c88d0a7257593d030e9f3. “High-resolution ex vivo nanoCT reveals 3D architecture of the adult male mouse lower urogenital tract” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326004).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326004). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## due process
<a id="due-process"></a>

Due process refers to the regular administration of law through the established procedures of the courts. In this historical legal-psychiatric context, it means that a person cannot be deprived of life or property without a proper judicial proceeding, including formal claims, a chance to reply, and a judge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 52299e4fc1e70e55835ffd683c49140e3f3fd22772aaa501e4f2e9954678bea6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-504000-516000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dura mater
<a id="dura-mater"></a>

The dura mater is the outermost of the three membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. It is a tough, fibrous layer made of connective tissue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 889df68e73d7bb7b72608446db746f44732931292e7b88525dff2509a5f9c663

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dura Mater” (D004388).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004388). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## durable power of attorney
<a id="durable-power-of-attorney"></a>

A durable power of attorney is described here as a type of advance care plan used in end-of-life planning. In this context, it relates to having another person represent a patient’s wishes and make medical decisions on the patient’s behalf.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 074c8b6116e66407ac32c9964814e17a17febe64133adf243c350322ed12f2f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kurita Keiko; Lachs Mark S; Adelman Ronald D; Siegler Eugenia L; Reid M Cary; Prigerson Holly G. Mild cognitive dysfunction of caregivers and its association with care recipients’ end-of-life plans and preferences. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0196147; article XML SHA-256 b15abd24ff83c1c55e762dc95cf7a60834642f472afe38f22735e12099f31479. “Mild cognitive dysfunction of caregivers and its association with care recipients’ end-of-life plans and preferences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0196147).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196147). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Duragesic
<a id="duragesic"></a>

Duragesic refers to fentanyl, a synthetic opioid that has pain-relieving and anesthetic effects. It acts in the central nervous system by activating mu opioid receptors, which reduces neuronal excitability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f199e9aa967607b6dff16cb240e9226c6f32305c3cccb096435279a04dfd909

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fentanyl” (C494).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## duration of untreated illness
<a id="duration-of-untreated-illness"></a>

Duration of untreated illness is the length of time a person lives with an illness before receiving appropriate care or treatment. In this context, it refers to delays in getting mental health care for psychosis, which can be prolonged when help-seeking pathways are complex or services are hard to access.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 95b8442783be4bde046c38923a1cdf005233b583a6682f70cbe551717172c3d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tsehay Mekonnen; Kelkile Teshome Shibre; Fekadu Wubalem; Cohen Alex; Misganaw Eleni; Hanlon Charlotte. Mapping potential community resources and care pathways for earlier identification and recovery-oriented intervention for people with psychosis in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297891; article XML SHA-256 4daec8792f0edad9d3cef38d5cf05f3b6350a0468df2af60a69241018e345512. “Mapping potential community resources and care pathways for earlier identification and recovery-oriented intervention for people with psychosis in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297891).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297891). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## duress
<a id="duress"></a>

Duress is pressure or compulsion exerted by another person, especially in a legal sense that could provide grounds for relief. In this historical passage, it is contrasted with incapacity arising from insanity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 831e51b69ee3bcd412732b2e822151e9033601758e0d1b4031425575f65d8669

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1522500-1534500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DVT
<a id="dvt"></a>

DVT stands for deep vein thrombosis, a condition in which a blood clot forms in a deep vein, most often in the lower limbs. It is important because it can lead to pulmonary embolism and post-thrombotic syndrome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 51a4b35f6bc2fcd18f4b6f9b01171d74d30355cc5b5e46fadd35a1be39107970

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Teresa; Hisham Shunmugam Ranita; Tan Samantha Ying Ying; Goh Sheron Sir Loon; Yan Yet Yen; Ng Kwan Hoong. Artificial intelligence in the diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351558; article XML SHA-256 34ae7e1fe533abf4b1d85ddbf77da9f3c04485e0f4a431ce30eef2aafdace8b7. “Artificial intelligence in the diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351558).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351558). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dwarfism
<a id="dwarfism"></a>

Dwarfism is a marked reduction in body size within a population. In the source packet, it is described as a body-size shift often linked to isolation and to ecological or genetic pressures such as limited resources, extreme climates, founder effects, genetic drift, and local adaptation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e02bbcddf98cc1befb90072c9ae6527f70407e616cb718ea10ae1087d1c99f84

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lahti Megan E; Latta, IV Leigh C; Pfrender Michael E; Brodie Edmund D. Isolated dwarfism and sexual dimorphism in a mainland population of the greater short-horned lizard ( Phrynosoma hernandesi ) and the Great Plains toad ( Anaxyrus cognatus ). 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339275; article XML SHA-256 bd1a794705dada4adc03af0c007d39cd31edff52c46c8612a055200a40ead661. “Isolated dwarfism and sexual dimorphism in a mainland population of the greater short-horned lizard ( Phrynosoma hernandesi ) and the Great Plains toad ( Anaxyrus cognatus )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339275).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339275). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Dx
<a id="dx"></a>

Dx means diagnosis: the process of examining signs and symptoms to identify whether a disease, condition, or injury is present and what it is. It can also mean the brief conclusion reached from that evaluation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e115a67102f4576b0bc3777b2a76a167c485625b980204312a05e933779592b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Diagnosis Assessment” (C15220).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dyad
<a id="dyad"></a>

A dyad is a pair of people in a relationship where each person’s traits, actions, and experiences can affect both themselves and the other person. In care settings, it often refers to a care recipient and an informal carer who rely on and influence one another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fa23290e61b5636c73e6dc9f51fc350124cacbf2771f3667622aae93ee868aa7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Arakelyan Stella; Gilarova Michaela; Ding Mozhu; Jaiswal Atul; Anand Atul; Modig Karin; Kristiansen Maria; Lillekroken Daniela; Shenkin Susan D.; Manthorpe Jill; Guthrie Bruce. Effectiveness of dyadic interventions in improving outcomes for adults with multiple long-term conditions and/or frailty and their informal carers: A systematic review protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333728; article XML SHA-256 2f0c37a9d9c55e3d8b9bf557f7edcd082fd287c699eaa9760d39336ed4e42eb5. “Effectiveness of dyadic interventions in improving outcomes for adults with multiple long-term conditions and/or frailty and their informal carers: A systematic review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333728).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333728). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dyadic relationship
<a id="dyadic-relationship"></a>

A dyadic relationship is a social relationship between two people, understood as an ongoing interaction in which each person affects the other. In this view, the relationship’s quality depends on how the pair’s shared pattern of relating fits with each person’s way of maintaining individuality while also connecting with the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ff803fb1c64e187a9a268580fdba3fca9d2aa42649d17f9c30f9a8fb392254e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kyselo Miriam; Tschacher Wolfgang. An enactive and dynamical systems theory account of dyadic relationships. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00452; article XML SHA-256 7f44c6ef08cf2b299d28ce0e0e44cbc87385dd1d9f5ad9f04bb750f82caa0f96. “An enactive and dynamical systems theory account of dyadic relationships” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00452).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00452). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dynamic assessment
<a id="dynamic-assessment"></a>

Dynamic assessment is an approach to evaluation, based in Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, that looks at a learner’s developmental potential by examining how they perform when guided or supported. It focuses on learning within the zone of proximal development rather than only on what the person can do independently.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b944a4466c1af465b25650a77a2fdf81ebb2430264ed9dc1c29021c9f8c85cdf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ding Chaofeng; Li Xiaoyan. A mixed-methods study on the interplay between AI-assisted dynamic assessment, reading comprehension, and psychological adaptivity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798029; article XML SHA-256 74b4d1f659645cada98d2414da4ef924f97c4ce1d1b2537019541cdb2d17b354. “A mixed-methods study on the interplay between AI-assisted dynamic assessment, reading comprehension, and psychological adaptivity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798029).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798029). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dynamic equilibrium
<a id="dynamic-equilibrium"></a>

In this historical source, dynamic equilibrium means a proposed balance point defined by equal rates of ongoing activity rather than by fixed amounts. The example given is a “normal price” at which production and consumption proceed at the same rate, though the source notes that finding such a balance is complex and uncertain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3bef6d6599ce343c80149d8b1ebd42303d8c6ea6db84718e56a85bf0433c0ffc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Equilibrium (in economics)” (Equilibrium(economics)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Equilibrium(economics)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dynamic psychotherapy
<a id="dynamic-psychotherapy"></a>

Dynamic psychotherapy is a psychotherapeutic approach that works with unconscious emotions and conflicts, with attention to how these shape emotional responses, relationships, and bodily symptoms. It aims to help people recognize and work through avoided feelings and unresolved experiences that may be affecting current functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 12238353f6f7002b20ba9898280e122f61e333d95980b2a468ccbf35bd75f660

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shafiei Faezeh; Dehghani Mahmood; Lavasani Fahimeh Fathali; Manouchehri Mehdi; Mokhtare Marjan. Intensive short-term dynamic psychotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome: a randomized controlled trial examining improvements in emotion regulation, defense mechanisms, quality of life, and IBS symptoms. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1293150; article XML SHA-256 736590b680e914d399abbcb73ca241e29a650d89a0792f38dee800d41d08b23f. “Intensive short-term dynamic psychotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome: a randomized controlled trial examining improvements in emotion regulation, defense mechanisms, quality of life, and IBS symptoms” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1293150).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1293150). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dynamic skill theory
<a id="dynamic-skill-theory"></a>

Dynamic skill theory is a theory of cognitive development that views skills in action and thought, including speech and gestures, as developing through hierarchically ordered levels. Higher-level abilities are built by combining lower-level skills across sensorimotor, representational, and abstract tiers, and this growth is not simply linear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3040cdd3bbfca253f2da2858ae5819b256a3d30c0243ad6c1d112f581b733c71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [De Jonge-Hoekstra Lisette; Van der Steen Steffie; Van Geert Paul; Cox Ralf F. A.. Asymmetric Dynamic Attunement of Speech and Gestures in the Construction of Children’s Understanding. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00473; article XML SHA-256 78f15daad92de3c89e9a91236823edcceeeaf4218876722e0dec1ffbf71d9709. “Asymmetric Dynamic Attunement of Speech and Gestures in the Construction of Children’s Understanding” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00473).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00473). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dynamic system
<a id="dynamic-system"></a>

A dynamic system is a changing environment or process whose conditions vary over time, so prediction methods must adjust as those conditions shift. In the packet, the term refers to systems analyzed for tracking and forecasting in situations where fixed parameters may not work well when circumstances change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e09d3ddd6c09777c673b214c893eca1580a625ae7072038fc27ca01196dbe1ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Khan Junaid; Zaman Umar; Lee Eunkyu; Balobaid Awatef Salim; Aburasain R Y; Bilal Muhammad; Kim Kyungsup. Optimizing prediction accuracy in dynamic systems through neural network integration with Kalman and alpha-beta filters. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311734; article XML SHA-256 8270c231bfd4439807757c8ab41702e91555bf25e2021cc94a28a11d6ee61b63. “Optimizing prediction accuracy in dynamic systems through neural network integration with Kalman and alpha-beta filters” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311734).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311734). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dynamic touch
<a id="dynamic-touch"></a>

Dynamic touch is the perception of properties of an object, such as its length, through active, forceful handling rather than by seeing it. In the source, it is studied by having a person wield an unseen object and judge it from the mechanical information available during movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c00b2f1c40f0617d7828db8301329eaba0a66febc649a703c3876886f07b07dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Avelar Bruna S; Mancini Marisa C; Fonseca Sergio T; Kelty-Stephen Damian G; de Miranda Débora M; Romano-Silva Marco Aurélio; de Araújo Priscila A; Silva Paula L. Fractal fluctuations in exploratory movements predict differences in dynamic touch capabilities between children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and typical development. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0217200; article XML SHA-256 9227720a34d2a77746b4477f9d05e6c836e983dbeb27185830828de29a5c1e11. “Fractal fluctuations in exploratory movements predict differences in dynamic touch capabilities between children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and typical development” (10.1371/journal.pone.0217200).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217200). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dynamic trait
<a id="dynamic-trait"></a>

A dynamic trait is a characteristic whose expression changes as conditions in the environment change, rather than staying fixed. It is best understood by looking at the pattern of responses across changing situations, not by a single summary measure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b5da6c4004f8a4c61d1a0f53812924321efac3adbcc4cf62d77f228498a85838

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stegeman Gregory W; Medina Denise; Cutter Asher D; Ryu William S. Neuro-genetic plasticity of Caenorhabditis elegans behavioral thermal tolerance. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s12868-019-0510-z; article XML SHA-256 529b7d62ccc030c0feab9adcc2064067b1455037996b63816c704b6a7fe2e6c8. “Neuro-genetic plasticity of Caenorhabditis elegans behavioral thermal tolerance” (10.1186/s12868-019-0510-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-019-0510-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dynamic visual display
<a id="dynamic-visual-display"></a>

A dynamic visual display is a visual stimulus that changes over time, such as moving patterns that provide motion information. In this context, it refers to the changing visual scene whose spatiotemporal motion patterns help shape how an ambiguous event is perceived.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3a8b8e00a25b9818b63f9d2cbc2e6f619d2eb6f7e88f8c5c1f5c318308663dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Parise Cesare V; Ernst Marc O. Noise, multisensory integration, and previous response in perceptual disambiguation. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005546; article XML SHA-256 bc6a10e076c9f09f9edb8d5b5645546dc5a41d6d4dbf3a30a45cad06688d5531. “Noise, multisensory integration, and previous response in perceptual disambiguation” (10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005546).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005546). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dynamics
<a id="dynamics"></a>

In this historical source, dynamics means the science of the laws of motion of bodies as determined by forces. The term is also described there as being broadened to cover both parts of theoretical mechanics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 41282cf2980316f3a8c9b90b5201f7944abd14141e39b442ef8ca7e2c3079436

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dynamics” (Dynamics).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Dynamics). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dynamogenesis
<a id="dynamogenesis"></a>

Dynamogenesis is the principle that changes in sensory stimulation are reflected in corresponding changes in muscular tension or movement. In psychological terms, it was also used for the idea that changes in sensory consciousness tend to be followed by changes in motor consciousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14787c8a9f5f8524bedb9324ff84bf4035ab978b924764eaf47e90324f515704

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dynamogenesis” (Dynamogenesis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Dynamogenesis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dys-
<a id="dys"></a>

Dys- is a prefix used to show that a function or activity is impaired, defective, or difficult. In a more specific historical sense, it points to troubled performance rather than complete absence of ability or an excessive amount of it, and may emphasize difficulty rather than a distorted form of action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d2bc79184ddd104e00d60311cad9e1598722de9afc143ee58fa8c0bd41586ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dys-” (Dys-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Dys-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dysarthria
<a id="dysarthria"></a>

Dysarthria is a motor speech problem in which speech sounds are not articulated clearly because the muscles of the face, tongue, larynx, or pharynx are not working together properly. It can occur with disorders affecting the nerves or brain systems that control these muscles, while language abilities themselves remain intact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f20d3a3f4100392e885af591f3712d88d410e55fa9dd3b399322fc5dd50a05ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dysarthria” (D004401).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004401). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dysautonomia
<a id="dysautonomia"></a>

Dysautonomia is a disorder of the autonomic nervous system that can affect either the sympathetic or parasympathetic system, and it may be acute or long-lasting. It can occur on its own, from degeneration in the central nervous system, or secondarily with conditions such as diabetes or alcoholism; chronic cases often worsen over time and tend to have a poor outlook.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: efcb6e27111ceddbf1fc561d08ba9e145efe223b2ddd062006af3e3f7df6aa5f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dysautonomia” (C53439).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dyscalculia
<a id="dyscalculia"></a>

Dyscalculia is an impaired ability to understand or work with numerical concepts. In this source, it refers to difficulties linked to a neurological lesion, as part of a syndrome such as Gerstmann syndrome, or acquired after brain damage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4087a5957537a0fe15cb357fd3640abb46cdc99deb0342a0fd29d3df98c2ff7e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dyscalculia” (D060705).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D060705). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dysesthesia
<a id="dysesthesia"></a>

Dysesthesia is a condition in which sensory perception is distorted, causing sensations that feel abnormal and unpleasant.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 15a2a0f79e8c8d694abd3f6b8436d88831be671a55926f539ec56a1a23057080

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dysesthesia, CTCAE” (C143421).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dysgeusia
<a id="dysgeusia"></a>

Dysgeusia is an altered sense of taste, with changes that can be mild or severe. It can include markedly distorted taste quality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef4cc873d143abd89f1ced1a72193fd8b3edb4c9ab3e705a26c14807982f3161

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dysgeusia” (D004408).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004408). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dysgraphia
<a id="dysgraphia"></a>

Dysgraphia is a neurological disorder that affects handwriting ability. In children it may occur along with other learning disabilities, and in adults it can be linked to damage in the parietal lobe after trauma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc25554cf99924ea7c072505b1482acf3a25334ce8dca256334d5e63b3463dd7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dysgraphia” (C182452).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dyslexia
<a id="dyslexia"></a>

Dyslexia is a cognitive disorder involving difficulty understanding written or printed words and phrases even though vision is intact. It can be developmental or acquired, and in developmental dyslexia the reading difficulty is much greater than expected for the person’s age, measured intelligence, and schooling, often interfering with school performance or daily activities that depend on reading.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b9378de41fe2d3ce2a124ff43ed26833a67669befde56cabf07272c217cd655a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dyslexia” (D004410).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004410). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dyslogia
<a id="dyslogia"></a>

Dyslogia is a historical term suggested as an alternative name for alogia: an inability to speak that is attributed to an intellectual or thought-formation disorder rather than to aphasia. In this usage, speech is not acquired or becomes impossible because of a mental difficulty.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70c27e2c7b78b238f14e47826374c3805eaf965c93b06ba849cc6df4b404f137

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Alogia” (Alogia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Alogia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dysmetria
<a id="dysmetria"></a>

Dysmetria is a movement coordination problem in which actions are not smoothly controlled, so a person may overshoot or undershoot a target. It can sometimes be a sign of cerebellar cognitive dysfunction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: edcd505086a16df7a126b431c14fe7da99dd81cbf9498cd47be2b6df6649568a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dysmetria” (C181003).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dysnomia
<a id="dysnomia"></a>

Dysnomia is a language problem in which a person cannot name people or objects even though they recognize them correctly and may be able to describe them. It is associated with damage in the dominant brain hemisphere, especially in language-related areas of the temporal lobe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 184e3f48ef232d8d199b1cdfb667c6a24ac83f1f06d3ca4a4cab68b4f89a6bf2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anomia” (D000849).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000849). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dyspareunia
<a id="dyspareunia"></a>

Dyspareunia is recurring genital pain linked to sexual intercourse, occurring before, during, or after sex. It can affect males or females.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df4e87b9b31cae79547cf43794c328ac060c9fcbf63eb127cd71cdec2a5a1b4e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dyspareunia” (D004414).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004414). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dysphagia
<a id="dysphagia"></a>

Dysphagia is difficulty swallowing. It is a symptom that can occur with neurological conditions, cancers of the mouth or throat, or injuries affecting the head and neck.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46f06a6a28093a33c8dc558c0cf1936159cf44cff7a00dcdc2f2200d87e84435

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dysphagia” (C2980).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dysphasia
<a id="dysphasia"></a>

Dysphasia is a problem with verbal communication, affecting a person’s ability to use or understand spoken language. It often happens as a result of brain damage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c8e317f8965497bb11cb64c2b611cfff8286b4b95fe26d9e94df2248305fab1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dysphasia” (C35546).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dysphrasia
<a id="dysphrasia"></a>

In this historical source, dysphrasia refers to a disorder of speech in which a person forms or uses words incorrectly, including making abnormal new words. It is described as one of the speech disturbances noted in mental disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da1442a5935e3a3fd8e29a89a260b0cf8d776ebd299d46ce887b86d6745143db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2184000-2196000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dysregulation
<a id="dysregulation"></a>

Dysregulation is a disturbance in the normal control of a body or brain system, such as the stress-response and neuroendocrine pathways. In this context, it is linked to problems with memory, executive functioning, and emotional regulation, and may contribute directly to worsening brain function by disrupting important neural circuits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 400c12d95599c563dc1016275622543b98a7bbe530ca2d8ca9aa8bb292834608

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gong Han; Liu Dan; Wang Xiang-Zheng; Rao Jia-Sheng; Du Xiao-Xia. Central neuroendocrine dysregulation in ischaemic stroke sequelae: pathophysiological mechanisms—a narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1836343; article XML SHA-256 e82d7feec47e61b327debef2a9a82caff1cc9f4772511dec36e0e7db8eb7e327. “Central neuroendocrine dysregulation in ischaemic stroke sequelae: pathophysiological mechanisms—a narrative review” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1836343).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1836343). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dysthymia
<a id="dysthymia"></a>

Dysthymia is a long-lasting depressed mood that is present for most of the day on more days than not for at least 2 years, or 1 year in children. It also includes at least two associated problems such as changes in appetite or sleep, low energy, low self-esteem, poor concentration or decision-making, or hopelessness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4bd344e33454068a917fb1d68a51e49a60a4da3ecc6f0fb60225e5baceff9227

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dysthymic Disorder” (D019263).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019263). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dysthymic disorder
<a id="dysthymic-disorder"></a>

Dysthymic disorder is a diagnosis involving a persistent depressed mood present through much of the day on more days than not over a long period, typically 2 years and 1 year in children. The low mood is accompanied by at least two associated problems such as appetite or sleep disturbance, low energy, reduced self-esteem, trouble concentrating or deciding, or hopelessness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76f46621f0a4e9ab8e30e4f9bbae13d12df4e2dcc3fb1c30ff6467a59514af9c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dysthymic Disorder” (D019263).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019263). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dystonia
<a id="dystonia"></a>

Dystonia is an abnormal posture or body position caused by simultaneous contraction of muscles that normally work against each other in the same body region. It most often involves the large muscles of the trunk and the areas around the shoulders and hips, and it may occur in repeated or ongoing episodes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44cfd11f8d56b04bdb1ec3aaf1ecd33cfb9dd6b0abef63776779cb0f5b66518e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dystonia” (D004421).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004421). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dystrophia myotonica
<a id="dystrophia-myotonica"></a>

Dystrophia myotonica is a neuromuscular disorder marked by gradually worsening muscle wasting, myotonia, and other body-system atrophy. Mild intellectual disability can also occur, and forms of the disorder are associated with abnormal DNA repeat expansions in the DMPK gene or the zinc finger protein-9 gene.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 161cd6af0c20db7fa6a5f930cd9d2c76b1df1eee40d4ae0d6a7ab245676b91bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Myotonic Dystrophy” (D009223).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009223). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## dystrophin
<a id="dystrophin"></a>

Dystrophin is a protein made by the DMD gene that is found mainly in muscle, but also in the retina and brain. In psychology-related research, loss of the brain form of dystrophin has been linked with cognitive and behavioral changes, including altered responses to stress and problems in synapse development and organization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c67a35b55b78a262b3606f77c4d0b5b525d20756043be098bb7798420bb1aec6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Caudal Dorian; François Virginie; Lafoux Aude; Ledevin Mireille; Anegon Ignacio; Le Guiner Caroline; Larcher Thibaut; Huchet Corinne. Characterization of brain dystrophins absence and impact in dystrophin-deficient Dmd mdx rat model. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0230083; article XML SHA-256 ac84a3c5a1d8edee2f2e0d904d298026cbeadc2faa07fd07c2743c0f62ff4883. “Characterization of brain dystrophins absence and impact in dystrophin-deficient Dmd mdx rat model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0230083).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230083). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## DZ twins
<a id="dz-twins"></a>

DZ twins are dizygotic twins. In the source, they are one of the two twin groups compared with monozygotic twins to study genetic influences on working-memory-related brain connectivity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53276a03c7dbcd289380f2e216d744382acb8b0814ab4d871817e2da306eb476

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fatemi Maryam; Daliri Mohammad Reza. Genetic control of dynamic brain network reconfiguration during working memory. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339570; article XML SHA-256 a127d2655308df49ba24cce09723d3ddf9d060622776873580a8159c83f8d954. “Genetic control of dynamic brain network reconfiguration during working memory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339570).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339570). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## E
<a id="e"></a>

Historically, E was used in several technical ways: in logic it marked a universal negative statement, and in experimental psychology it stood for excitation or a stimulus measured in varying amounts such as pressure, sound, or light. The term also appeared in Avenarius’s empiriocriticism in the expression E-values.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3f34ffe2e0652bbd55db1faae2b02b142437b6e9628699361409e7947e0504f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “E” (E).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#E). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## e-therapy
<a id="e-therapy"></a>

E-therapy is counselling provided through electronic communication or other methods that do not involve meeting face to face.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73d0aa01eea9a4da638e633fbe4d4c8ea8a2ff08ccc12953d2540d44c8ca73eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Distance Counseling” (D000068237).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000068237). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EAP
<a id="eap"></a>

EAP stands for English for Academic Purposes, referring to English materials or instruction designed for academic study. In this context, it involves adapting reading texts to learners’ proficiency while keeping the academic content accurate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e6eddb14b4bc3db4893e5f2c69fe6ebfccc2f1a871a23a68b2e1efe0f3075a60

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Xuewei. From unified to differentiated materials: generative AI–supported adaptation of EAP reading materials. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887565; article XML SHA-256 635c699f13fc760ceaa84577830cdccb342a850765d74d96216d791cc87b08fc. “From unified to differentiated materials: generative AI–supported adaptation of EAP reading materials” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887565).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887565). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ear
<a id="ear"></a>

The ear is the body system for hearing and balance. It includes the outer, middle, and inner ear, changing sound vibrations into nerve signals for the central nervous system, while the inner ear also helps maintain equilibrium through vestibular signals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d1cd7197aa747f9cb9183c134e6d0b67d53aa37891ba3eb23a3d07d70f1d5b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ear” (D004423).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004423). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ear canal
<a id="ear-canal"></a>

The ear canal is the outer part of the ear canal located outside the eardrum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab02e0f4f15bee4039cea88bb23b3a17af31567137c8c90a48832502bba21e1c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “External Auditory Canal” (C12498).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eardrum
<a id="eardrum"></a>

The eardrum, or tympanic membrane, is a thin membrane between the outer ear canal and the middle ear. It moves with changes in air pressure and helps pass sound vibrations to the small bones of the middle ear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b97b5dec4f54929133dc8f0e21bb6757a04005c8776e79a3772fa4e11a7e6c8c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tympanic Membrane” (C12502).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## early bilingualism
<a id="early-bilingualism"></a>

Early bilingualism is growing up with two languages from infancy. In the source material, it is linked to a later decline in infants’ broad language-discrimination abilities, so bilingual infants can continue distinguishing between languages or signs at ages when monolingual infants often no longer do.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a5a142eca064d98985ce00f8b4c2fc4e930dfddbb6d3b0d814a5fd487f01be6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kandel Sonia; Burfin Sabine; Méary David; Ruiz-Tada Elisa; Costa Albert; Pascalis Olivier. The Impact of Early Bilingualism on Face Recognition Processes. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01080; article XML SHA-256 b8d9ab42f090beca17acd33cfa8cdfbcc4c6d7502ca0e4847594c152b750b1d6. “The Impact of Early Bilingualism on Face Recognition Processes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01080).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01080). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## early-onset Alzheimer’s disease
<a id="early-onset-alzheimers-disease"></a>

Early-onset Alzheimer’s disease is Alzheimer’s disease beginning before age 65. In this source, it is described as having a different clinical profile from later-onset Alzheimer’s disease, with more widespread disruption of functional brain organization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6da962068015418411e223c38f3f87386182b1f9a18ca771cdc22013b06ffdda

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Adriaanse Sofie M.; Binnewijzend Maja A. A.; Ossenkoppele Rik; Tijms Betty M.; van der Flier Wiesje M.; Koene Teddy; Smits Lieke L.; Wink Alle Meije; Scheltens Philip; van Berckel Bart N. M.; Barkhof Frederik. Widespread Disruption of Functional Brain Organization in Early-Onset Alzheimer’s Disease. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0102995; article XML SHA-256 8b1599d6618536fc1769175c273d544e3e8b9cb0a7ffcab94fd29fe329d01c68. “Widespread Disruption of Functional Brain Organization in Early-Onset Alzheimer’s Disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0102995).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102995). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eating disorder
<a id="eating-disorder"></a>

An eating disorder is a broad category of psychological disorders marked by abnormal eating behavior. These patterns can lead to physical effects from eating too much or from not taking in enough food.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08f30b55b1f7e6581686e4143df91be80e17f2d5994aa0ee6458a9b44651271d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Eating Disorder” (C89332).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Ebbinghaus illusion
<a id="ebbinghaus-illusion"></a>

The Ebbinghaus illusion is a visual size illusion in which the surrounding context changes how large a central object appears. In this effect, a central circle can seem to change size in the opposite direction to changes in nearby surrounding circles, showing that perceived size is influenced by contextual visual cues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c9c2457535c49eb63d964845e1fc9acc75af6a408c0869b17da42ff31db36c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mruczek Ryan E. B.; Blair Christopher D.; Strother Lars; Caplovitz Gideon P.. The Dynamic Ebbinghaus: motion dynamics greatly enhance the classic contextual size illusion. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00077; article XML SHA-256 72858852591a1896f345f66e0dc0b232e1d27bab451ec2ece9f84820996456e9. “The Dynamic Ebbinghaus: motion dynamics greatly enhance the classic contextual size illusion” (10.3389/fnhum.2015.00077).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00077). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EBP
<a id="ebp"></a>

EBP stands for evidence-based practice. It is an approach in which practitioners and organisations consult the available evidence to guide interventions, with the expectation that this will improve outcomes and may reduce overall costs, although it can require time and resources that might otherwise go directly to action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bbc8c0044f65ba6dc4ce0745249c8f1d549ce67d72435314365ad7dbf4f8c3e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Christie Alec P.; Martin Philip A.; Taylor Nigel G.. The impact and return-on-investment of evidence-based practice in conservation and environmental management: A machine learning-assisted scoping review protocol. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326521; article XML SHA-256 075bff04a5e99f313601c278677cb5aa4605bcb2f75480214f6bad6fe665e65f. “The impact and return-on-investment of evidence-based practice in conservation and environmental management: A machine learning-assisted scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326521).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326521). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EBV
<a id="ebv"></a>

EBV is a human virus that infects B cells. It is thought to cause infectious mononucleosis and is strongly linked with oral hairy leukoplakia, Burkitt lymphoma, and other cancers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c0e453574cf436cca832e85f860cc3c17425bc0b57fea0d9490024716e7bd2be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Herpesvirus 4, Human” (D004854).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004854). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eCB
<a id="ecb"></a>

eCB refers to the endocannabinoid system. In this context, it is a body system whose disruption has been suggested as a possible factor in the development of psychosis and as a target for new antipsychotic treatments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f359ce4a8b9c177eb858b97ac15816df233373ba767523be42dc0d02d0b880ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bortoletto Riccardo; Piscitelli Fabiana; Candolo Anna; Bhattacharyya Sagnik; Balestrieri Matteo; Colizzi Marco. Questioning the role of palmitoylethanolamide in psychosis: a systematic review of clinical and preclinical evidence. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1231710; article XML SHA-256 2ec779bceb2b5697634b717088c2d8d92717dcc7649e4f04cae00743e92edd9d. “Questioning the role of palmitoylethanolamide in psychosis: a systematic review of clinical and preclinical evidence” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1231710).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1231710). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eccentric projection
<a id="eccentric-projection"></a>

Eccentric projection is the tendency for a sensation caused by stimulation of a nerve pathway, rather than its end organ, to be experienced as if it came from the nerve’s peripheral ending. In historical psychology, it is treated as a form of nervous projection and distinguished from using projection to mean general localization in space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50f1b2e4be703d432567672ff0689f9ae1affe9234e41dfb970769bbf27e30a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Eccentric Projection” (Eccentric Projection).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Eccentric Projection). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ECG
<a id="ecg"></a>

ECG stands for electrocardiogram, a non-invasive test that records the heart’s electrical activity and is used to help detect cardiac abnormalities. In this context, ECG signals can be analyzed by computer models using both their waveform shape over time and their frequency-related features to support diagnosis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a29de46f1a53b07721ef3c3bfb4431c043f24e94cc2384ed78435a0bc17f910b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Malik Abdoul; Aras Selim. A lightweight hybrid framework integrating convolutional neural networks and fast Fourier transform for reliable and calibrated ECG-based cardiac abnormality detection. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354834; article XML SHA-256 7612e92f9b59ac694233db402fd311d430c661e2195008cdd61f860cc5598882. “A lightweight hybrid framework integrating convolutional neural networks and fast Fourier transform for reliable and calibrated ECG-based cardiac abnormality detection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354834).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354834). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## echolalia
<a id="echolalia"></a>

Echolalia is the involuntary, parrot-like repetition of a word, phrase, or song that was just heard, typically without meaningful purpose. It can occur in conditions such as transcortical aphasia, schizophrenia, and other disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02fea45173d96a4f48966d670b67face08431d909dbad926976c2740fa6dbd18

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Echolalia” (D004454).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004454). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## echolocation
<a id="echolocation"></a>

Echolocation is a way some animals orient themselves by producing high-frequency sounds and using the returning echoes to detect their surroundings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df704b1b46452a489c29cbe6da1be185b8ea1177602a2f994f2853510ac2116e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Echolocation” (D004455).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004455). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## echophrasia
<a id="echophrasia"></a>

Echophrasia is the automatic, parrot-like repeating of words, phrases, or songs that were just heard, without clear meaning. It may appear alongside conditions such as transcortical aphasia, schizophrenia, or other disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e9b4e9a47b859c928b4657168d5e240a462d351b49995fe49c97f0b810e9502

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Echolalia” (D004454).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004454). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eclampsia
<a id="eclampsia"></a>

Eclampsia is a historical term for a type of convulsion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2ac7983b5b4104a9f69948ceb0661bbfe65d77d7f907d5ea11da2f9bc433efb0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Eclampsia” (Eclampsia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Eclampsia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eclecticism
<a id="eclecticism"></a>

Eclecticism is the practice of building a philosophical position by selecting and combining ideas thought to be true from different systems. Historically, the term can be critical, suggesting a patchwork of chosen views rather than a fully unified philosophy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae5f421bf6b026fbc5a3b8d0b777ff55d61e677e06eaf75651a6f5c5247df8ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Eclecticism” (Eclecticism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Eclecticism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ECochG
<a id="ecochg"></a>

ECochG, or electrocochleography, is a test that records the electrical activity produced by the inner ear and auditory nerve in response to brief sounds using electrodes placed on or near the ear. It has been used to help assess inner-ear disorders and is also used during cochlear implant surgery to monitor cochlear function in real time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b225edf1faf0d8154bb65cfb21c495605e58c73ecc46b0659fa8d00d422270b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cooper Jaimee; Mittal Jeenu; Zalta Max; DiStefano Nicholas; Klassen Delany L; McKenna Keelin; Godur Dimitri A; Monterrubio Andrea; Moosa Moeed; Mittal Rahul; Eshraghi Adrien A. Bridging the gap: A systematic review of intraoperative electrocochleography during cochlear implantation and preservation of residual hearing. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323493; article XML SHA-256 94e5bdcafdbb389bd9a1b5f01c5f1a766cfa05c3cc97b95bc7604b1d262b480c. “Bridging the gap: A systematic review of intraoperative electrocochleography during cochlear implantation and preservation of residual hearing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323493).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323493). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ECoG
<a id="ecog"></a>

ECoG, or electrocorticography, is a procedure that records the electrical activity of the cerebral cortex using electrodes placed directly on the exposed surface of the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 79f4668c3ac4916e9ff3439f0a3ad462a257cfb6524fdd9e28b7234e067c19f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Electrocorticography” (C116664).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ecological fallacy
<a id="ecological-fallacy"></a>

Ecological fallacy is a bias that can arise when researchers use aggregated group-level data to draw conclusions about causal relationships at the individual level. In this context, patterns seen for households, neighbourhoods, cities, or regions may not reflect what is true for the people within them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 21e7f1f44aeeef24e64c833a301839f70954ae62370caae0813699bd201ebe65

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kakampakou Lydia; Stokes Jonathan; Hoehn Andreas; de Kamps Marc; Lawniczak Wiktoria; Arnold Kellyn F; Hensor Elizabeth M A; Heppenstall Alison J; Gilthorpe Mark S. Simulating hierarchical data to assess the utility of ecological versus multilevel analyses in obtaining individual-level causal effects. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12874-025-02504-6; article XML SHA-256 d1ff78be42745c4e5977ed18d0697f32bed8b2aa8c5356eab9ed1ba5ee9f556e. “Simulating hierarchical data to assess the utility of ecological versus multilevel analyses in obtaining individual-level causal effects” (10.1186/s12874-025-02504-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-025-02504-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Ecological Momentary Assessment
<a id="ecological-momentary-assessment"></a>

Ecological momentary assessment is the repeated reporting by a participant of symptoms, feelings, behavior, and thoughts close to when they are experienced and within the participant’s natural environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 90c8e19db1c0e9fe7cf2a7ebb87084bbbfe7e1ddb4c9976db5a710fc7f70e5d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Ecological Momentary Assessment” (D000072860).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000072860). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ecological perspective
<a id="ecological-perspective"></a>

In this source, an ecological perspective means understanding learning as shaped by interacting cognitive, social, and material elements of the learner’s environment. It looks at how thinking and study approaches, relationships and collaboration, and features of the learning setting together influence students’ experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce9275773d1e043bf1da7cc4cf97c990f46634882a0a08c77c45c87719a9e04e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Han Feifei. Learning experience of domestic and international students in blended courses: An ecological perspective. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285389; article XML SHA-256 a705c7f39f077439b879492172f6f961157d7a6f7a70be3cd73e501510cf4e5d. “Learning experience of domestic and international students in blended courses: An ecological perspective” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285389).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285389). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ecological psychology
<a id="ecological-psychology"></a>

Ecological psychology is an approach to mind and behavior that views perception and action as continuous and studies people in relation to their environments rather than as isolated individuals. It emphasizes affordances—opportunities for action in the environment—and treats cognition as embodied and situated rather than based on internal representations alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9e01965c7004f7de7dc59d19bec8c0cbc6263beba013f0a8a263aeea11bfd117

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lobo Lorena; Heras-Escribano Manuel; Travieso David. The History and Philosophy of Ecological Psychology. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02228; article XML SHA-256 5707ece97a5695b5903d4b47e835712ce413404909cecc69afc07af4e083d364. “The History and Philosophy of Ecological Psychology” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02228).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02228). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ecological validity
<a id="ecological-validity"></a>

Ecological validity is the extent to which an assessment reflects people’s behavior and experience in real-world settings. In this context, it refers to studying people in their natural environments rather than relying only on recall or artificial situations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cc9e8b6fa0b0e14677fc26fc457908dafbed07fe6485d37a7be71f31a5619f3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ecological Momentary Assessment” (C150385).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ecology
<a id="ecology"></a>

In this context, ecology means the ethical and cultural setting that shapes how a psychological practice works. It refers to the surrounding conditions that can change the function or effects of practices that might otherwise look similar.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c942236ba08898c89cae3cd6f5fbde9468dac5e771a4a624bf0731f87ff845d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mei Yukun; Li Jiyu; Phuchomsri Sarawadee. From Buddhist meditation to psychological well-being: an ethical-cultural training ecology model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1938434; article XML SHA-256 362d682779f6944dee2f60524354ea3b680d5ce0c34a9b79eaef36ec2d1975ee. “From Buddhist meditation to psychological well-being: an ethical-cultural training ecology model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1938434).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1938434). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## economic model
<a id="economic-model"></a>

An economic model is a statistical representation of how goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed, including financial factors. It is used to describe and analyze economic activity in a structured way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59ad86a8ea6064f08c214613fd43f871decb911ee9c489c34d1c45b6110b22e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Models, Economic” (D018803).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018803). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ecosystem
<a id="ecosystem"></a>

In this context, an ecosystem is the wider network around an AI foundation software platform, including the platform itself and independent projects that interact with it. It is described as a system whose health depends on factors such as scale, diversity, balance, dependence, innovation, and governance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b818ff22e113e11ed203e18123029d67344637b87ca564fcde9f8363e36676f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Bingyang; Yi Yongxi. Can tiered open-source mandates optimize innovation? A differential game study osn platform vs. independent project dynamics in foundation software ecosystems. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340713; article XML SHA-256 b48f85dfab46642739d3a263da446805aa309a29929288955de262f342caa662. “Can tiered open-source mandates optimize innovation? A differential game study osn platform vs. independent project dynamics in foundation software ecosystems” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340713).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340713). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ECS
<a id="ecs"></a>

ECS stands for Embodied Cognition Scale, a measure developed to assess embodied cognition in Chinese university students. It is intended to reflect the idea that thinking is shaped by bodily movement, perception, and interaction with the environment, while also incorporating culturally relevant body–mind unity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cd2ed81d722e0601ad061e273f138d2a296024e48c92708781116fb182238386

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zheng Ziyu; Wang Yu; Zhao Jian. Development and validation of the embodied cognition scale for Chinese university students. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1682631; article XML SHA-256 d37313fabc7711262d93f0c96c9c712bef72a3ec9c6e031fad2b78180acf3419. “Development and validation of the embodied cognition scale for Chinese university students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1682631).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1682631). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ecstatic trance
<a id="ecstatic-trance"></a>

Ecstatic trance is a trance-like state of prolonged semi-consciousness or profound sleep in which the person also shows the mental attitude and facial expression associated with ecstasy. The term is used when trance is accompanied by this distinctly ecstatic mental state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1634f6178d32724172b405f3fab15f0cf75fdf247ca09bf67e1625e516093ea7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3307500-3319500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ECT
<a id="ect"></a>

ECT, or electroconvulsive therapy, is a treatment procedure that passes brief electrical currents through the brain through electrodes to produce a controlled seizure. It is used for severe mental illness that has been difficult to treat, including depression, mania, and catatonia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7968847ad5d5502a3bad31eb0cdbcae41cffa98a33f3977ac708cb3502ca4cbc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Electroconvulsive Therapy” (C93303).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ectoderm
<a id="ectoderm"></a>

Ectoderm is the embryo’s outer germ layer. It develops into the epidermis and neural tissue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3384d010f6e368666b37cf859610594d71913f62ec4d1901089841d8203b70df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ectoderm” (C12703).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ectoplasm
<a id="ectoplasm"></a>

Ectoplasm is the outer layer of the protoplasm in some plant and animal cells. In historical usage, it was first noted in certain single-celled organisms and later applied more broadly to tissue cells of higher plants and animals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a1f580ffeac6c7096ee4c84cddfb76f253dea412ee0c41339cb641f35d2c149

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ectoplasm” (Ectoplasm).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Ectoplasm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ED
<a id="ed"></a>

ED stands for eating disorders, a group of problems involving disturbed eating and body image concerns. In the supplied source, ED is discussed as occurring across racial and ethnic groups, with differences in risk factors, presentation, and access to diagnosis and treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7fa86671e6595aaab804de2e82307a74a79e3cc7956c31d330e075f44fbc8ae8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Acle Ashley. Colorism and eating disorders (ED) among BIPOC: expanding the skin tone trauma model to conceptualize a pathway. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1811526; article XML SHA-256 829d20446562196a2099848bd09fcd18584e5f080eaac5f3615d72d0415b768a. “Colorism and eating disorders (ED) among BIPOC: expanding the skin tone trauma model to conceptualize a pathway” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1811526).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1811526). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## edge
<a id="edge"></a>

In this network-analysis context, an edge is the connection between two nodes that represents an observed association between them. Its weight shows the direction and strength of that association, such as a small negative link.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 51aec68a492a7a53394ff836948f52173fc35f778cce39a81b69fd663c1aaadd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Chunguo; Xia Ruixue; Zhang Fen. Family external social support as a bridge to humanistic care: a cross-sectional network analysis with exploratory gender comparison in college students. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04887-7; article XML SHA-256 ea7cbf72042e4a5bfcfaaa5b0a155192621f3b7fc301c78df5e1d12241dc3863. “Family external social support as a bridge to humanistic care: a cross-sectional network analysis with exploratory gender comparison in college students” (10.1186/s40359-026-04887-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04887-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Edinger–Westphal nucleus
<a id="edingerwestphal-nucleus"></a>

The Edinger–Westphal nucleus is a nucleus within the oculomotor nuclear complex. It is linked with eye-movement functions and with adaptation to stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6912f120ac26c2e8bc2faa226559b2b4095fd7332e6105cefb1779208b1bdfc2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Edinger-Westphal Nucleus” (D065839).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065839). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EDR
<a id="edr"></a>

EDR stands for effective detection radius, the estimated distance around a static passive acoustic monitoring device within which its detection performance is summarized. It is the distance where missed detections close to the detector balance recorded detections farther away, within a set maximum range, and it can be used to estimate the area effectively monitored.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8a861d46d62d72317c66fdd9a6fb6389d240e96292aeff7437298c7d3a088f0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Todd Nicole R. E.; Kavanagh Ailbhe S.; Jessopp Mark J.; Verboom Willem; Rogan Emer. Can you hear me? Playback experiment highlights detection range differences between commonly used PAM devices: C-POD, F-POD and SoundTrap. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320925; article XML SHA-256 08de762e37e0baa25a315e72e25d17932c6117451fbf4b1a72878a8688f05b56. “Can you hear me? Playback experiment highlights detection range differences between commonly used PAM devices: C-POD, F-POD and SoundTrap” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320925).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320925). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## educable
<a id="educable"></a>

In this historical usage, educable means capable of being taught because the child has developed enough brain power for mental activity and attention. The passage also implies that this capacity depends on good physical condition and is limited in duration in young children.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b0a4766cd3878fcd4610bfcecd6667ab79a1fa14a3ffb8f5e8f6be179049ff8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2709000-2721000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## education
<a id="education"></a>

Education is the gaining of knowledge through instruction in a formal course of study.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e480012c26481cbd1d2547a61caa17ab9c4e671048e8027aae2ff6ccf9e524a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Education” (D004493).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004493). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## educational attainment level
<a id="educational-attainment-level"></a>

Educational attainment level is a measure of how much formal education a person has completed. In this packet, it refers to the mother’s level of completed education as a factor related to a child’s later educational risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d78f6779f58e9a0136f6d3aaf28ada7c2ce3c1f2b0e839d85825b35c4ac1ba4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Samantha J.; Woodward Lianne J.; Henderson Jacqueline M. T.. Educational achievement at age 9.5 years of children born to mothers maintained on methadone during pregnancy. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0223685; article XML SHA-256 e36aff045326dee2357eb654e03fa7a44e7e5bd463ce5a466679bd75e523bd62. “Educational achievement at age 9.5 years of children born to mothers maintained on methadone during pregnancy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0223685).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223685). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## educational measurement
<a id="educational-measurement"></a>

Educational measurement is the assessment of academic or school-related achievement. It includes both testing and the development of tests.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f685b38db79da01db15acee26a5b2cdde16fbb82ccc9668a835b14034e0ed0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Educational Measurement” (D004521).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004521). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## educational neuroscience
<a id="educational-neuroscience"></a>

Educational neuroscience is an area of research that connects neuroscience with psychology and education to inform teaching and learning. In the school context, it focuses on translating findings about brain-related processes such as attention, executive functions, and neuroplasticity into educational applications and practice, often through collaboration between researchers and educators.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9a4840e2f47f8c6d5c1f9f0efe461f925c6fa9af71aed40c9d0c9df71475f19

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fante Chiara; Manganello Flavio. Neuroscience meets the classroom: a scoping review of translational research in educational neuroscience (2015–2025). 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1853717; article XML SHA-256 e8369b4bed5fad4455359e518416115d997acaf327691652f5f00651f155edd1. “Neuroscience meets the classroom: a scoping review of translational research in educational neuroscience (2015–2025)” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1853717).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1853717). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## educational program
<a id="educational-program"></a>

An educational program is an organized learning effort designed to build knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and to improve people’s ability to apply what they have learned in real settings. In this context, it refers to training intended to strengthen nurses’ evidence-based practice knowledge, attitudes, and actions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31c31eef67ab92d585b51c2c27fd9ef2e047a4ec976336ed76a7f1b334f6b702

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mehammed-Ameen Omed Hamarasheed; Abdulla Salih Ahmed. Effect of an educational program on the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of hospital nurses regarding evidence-based practice: A quasi-experimental study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347252; article XML SHA-256 feabb31a80f9f2d8cc9ad238c87cf772f7b91451a3ec90948206e9ff1012e5e6. “Effect of an educational program on the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of hospital nurses regarding evidence-based practice: A quasi-experimental study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347252).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347252). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## educational psychology
<a id="educational-psychology"></a>

Educational psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on teaching methods and on assessing students’ academic ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bdd4a521cacf0bd923f57e668ef64865675ef062d698da805ad101d50c2a1619

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Educational Psychology” (C17030).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## educational tests
<a id="educational-tests"></a>

Educational tests are assessments used in education in which people’s answers, and sometimes how long they take to respond, can be analyzed. The source indicates that these tests may measure more than one underlying ability or trait and can also show broader general effects across test items.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 334b2d715400c42e9fdfc9fff2d897baa54b87a6e5151ad3012c68f824f4c080

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Xiaojun; Jiao Yuyue; Huang ZhengZheng; Liu TieChuan. Joint Modeling of Response Accuracy and Time in Between-Item Multidimensional Tests Based on Bi-Factor Model. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.763959; article XML SHA-256 ec193290ba68ce3734fa1bb1e57090f34dd4bfedc74b2a7e608678cc0d295fcf. “Joint Modeling of Response Accuracy and Time in Between-Item Multidimensional Tests Based on Bi-Factor Model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.763959).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.763959). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Edwards syndrome
<a id="edwards-syndrome"></a>

Edwards syndrome is a genetic syndrome caused by having a full extra copy of chromosome 18. It is associated with major physical abnormalities, severe intellectual impairment, and a life expectancy that is usually under one year.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c74f9a61c88e9846cc2e458c264c63ddb7357bf770a2c6d67da1eb76ddd175f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Complete Trisomy 18 Syndrome” (C101362).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EE
<a id="ee"></a>

EE stands for environmental enrichment, a non-drug approach that gives an organism a more stimulating setting with greater sensory, thinking, movement, and social experiences. In research, it is used to influence brain and body processes and may help reduce stress-related changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0462b77a4df9581580d41bbf147ad5ced95e6607103e3dd69d86050e5020b3c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kang Seung Ju; Nam Hyeong Ju; Song Min Kyung. Environmental enrichment attenuates chronic stress–induced disruptions in the gut microbiota, intestinal barrier, and brain. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355857; article XML SHA-256 9147031b7c0e9d1d5fde212ccc4362884a35877e6c7e3ddca6c97d8be12f20a4. “Environmental enrichment attenuates chronic stress–induced disruptions in the gut microbiota, intestinal barrier, and brain” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355857).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355857). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EEG
<a id="eeg"></a>

EEG, or electroencephalography, is the recording of the brain’s electrical activity using electrodes placed on the scalp, on the brain’s surface, or within brain tissue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 448dce992aa2cb17cf56e1b9222fae9abb3e2fc998df6420a140e29a0498c5f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Electroencephalography” (D004569).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004569). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EFA
<a id="efa"></a>

EFA stands for exploratory factor analysis, a statistical method used in early scale development to examine how questionnaire items cluster together and to help decide which items should be retained. In this study, it was used before confirmatory factor analysis to check the structure of the scale items.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0fdc9bdbc9fe7062da9e70382ec6dc29388d83f2160e73825eb76824c1e57e53

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Dongying; Wang Zheyuan. When leadership turns covert: conceptualizing and developing a scale for Leader’s Manipulative Workplace Behavior. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803662; article XML SHA-256 1f2a275ec3278f2e857e5370caabb84a295b3b33077dc5402a8996492135dfaf. “When leadership turns covert: conceptualizing and developing a scale for Leader’s Manipulative Workplace Behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803662).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803662). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## effect size
<a id="effect-size"></a>

Effect size is a statistical measure used in psychological research to describe how large a difference or effect is. Some effect sizes summarize differences in average scores, while others reflect how much two whole distributions overlap, so the choice of index affects what aspect of the data is being described.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e5e6c6c4b09cc50809b074bd04f308f2d946827fc412f18c2ea878fcfa45a56

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Perugini Ambra; Calignano Giulia; Pastore Massimiliano. Not normal: a simulation study comparing effect sizes for skewed psychological data. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771029; article XML SHA-256 5fb9d7aa119274cab0ccd87aa61e5611f7605d4f9d4acb78040464e2b4484a0d. “Not normal: a simulation study comparing effect sizes for skewed psychological data” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771029).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771029). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## effective dose
<a id="effective-dose"></a>

In this context, effective dose means the amount and nature of an exercise program needed to produce a meaningful cognitive benefit. It includes not only physical exposure such as frequency, duration, volume, intensity, and program length, but may also involve the task’s cognitive and motor demands; the source notes that a precise cognitive exercise dose has not yet been established.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1683f6413e71957270bc7505c6353e277209e29bbea258ba81d8e03ab4fe48e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [De Bartolo Daniela; Baleca Liliana; Salera Claudia; Lucidi Fabio. Rethinking exercise dose for cognitive ageing: a systematic review and meta-analysis of physical dose and cognitive–motor demands. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1906526; article XML SHA-256 68b338a0afcd476828406b967e6dd6ba9443b86b80ed77cb938824159f76ec29. “Rethinking exercise dose for cognitive ageing: a systematic review and meta-analysis of physical dose and cognitive–motor demands” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1906526).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1906526). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## effectiveness evaluation
<a id="effectiveness-evaluation"></a>

Effectiveness evaluation is a systematic assessment of how well a system or process performs in a specific situation. It examines capability, efficiency, and the degree to which intended goals are achieved, often to support comparison, validation, and optimization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3ad80b0476ab9b912a523bff2c4a9199496a55e4137ee5a71b376178d14dbd62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yan Junlian; Zhang Daowen; Luo Qirui; Yang Jixiang; Xu Lei; Xu Hao; Zhang Yihong. Effectiveness evaluation of connected and automated vehicles’ driving loop: Node weights and driving reliability. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325837; article XML SHA-256 2e7f318137d66be9a62d4df292480ceef15d15ada01986f077f5c4f622fe54bd. “Effectiveness evaluation of connected and automated vehicles’ driving loop: Node weights and driving reliability” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325837).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325837). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## effector
<a id="effector"></a>

In this context, an effector is the moving body part, such as a limb, whose biomechanical properties help shape how beat and meter are perceived. In body percussion, the effector is also the instrument, because the same body part both moves and produces the sound.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39014a5965ca941a952a5dcff1e06855b9a253b8a4b084fb06564eb3c998d370

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Romero-Naranjo Francisco Javier. Body percussion and the biomechanical calibration of musical meter: the somatic externalization of meter hypothesis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905062; article XML SHA-256 c4e4d6c8fae6f346925ea6d15a2bf3b227293f321dc4d52074a277027f656bfd. “Body percussion and the biomechanical calibration of musical meter: the somatic externalization of meter hypothesis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905062).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905062). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## effeminacy
<a id="effeminacy"></a>

In this historical usage, effeminacy means the presence in a male of traits of mind or character regarded as feminine, especially qualities seen as more delicate or conventionally associated with women. The source distinguishes it from “feminism,” which it uses for broader physical as well as mental resemblance to the female type, and notes that an extreme form was then classified under sexual inversion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11f071206f0593e90f73fc917e4963dd13fc1fbc896c310ef522abae6aa04f5b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Effeminacy” (Effeminacy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Effeminacy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## efference copy
<a id="efference-copy"></a>

Efference copy is a mechanism involved when a person initiates an action, helping the brain tell apart self-generated sensory events from stimuli coming from outside. In this context, it is discussed together with corollary discharge as part of how responses to self-produced sounds may be reduced or modulated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b371928777e50aa479c63f4cd54da467fdddd7f1a6222dda4428ffdf499b12e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liermann-Koch Constantin; Thielen Jan W; Chang Dae-In; Krieger-Strásky Richard; Kraff Oliver; Scherbaum Norbert; Sprooten Emma; Müller Bernhard W. Corollary discharge and efference copy mechanisms in schizophrenia and controls: The N1 and P2 evoked potential components differentially react to self-initiated tones in schizophrenia. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336046; article XML SHA-256 3b9cecb55ff1ddae75de4befb5577fccaadbf7680a45254148d4ed4a1907eb28. “Corollary discharge and efference copy mechanisms in schizophrenia and controls: The N1 and P2 evoked potential components differentially react to self-initiated tones in schizophrenia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336046).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336046). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## efferent
<a id="efferent"></a>

Efferent refers to nerves that carry signals outward from the central nervous system, and it can also refer to the outgoing impulses themselves. It contrasts with afferent, which refers to transmission toward the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9603e82fb3c265a164faf804d19004e8485b0951a7de7c7c2ebcc64f26c8e4a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Efferent” (Efferent).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Efferent). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## efferent neuron
<a id="efferent-neuron"></a>

An efferent neuron is a nerve cell that carries signals outward from the central nervous system to muscles, glands, and internal organs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e5582cbc03d2715b22ecba5444ad237c066521434763254a403edeb1fbaa8c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Efferent Neuron” (C12643).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## efficiency
<a id="efficiency"></a>

Efficiency is how much output is achieved for a given amount of effort, energy, or other resources. It can also mean the amount of effort or resources produced relative to the energy spent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1a99795e7c1e2e958de63cb574075adf986f4fe62f78b395c0edcfb4754ee11

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Efficiency” (D004526).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004526). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## effluvium
<a id="effluvium"></a>

In this historical usage, effluvium means a material outflow or emanation thought to produce certain effects. The source mentions it as the kind of material agency once proposed to explain electrical phenomena.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 913fde1d79b99d127023300b5ba2bab11e606df245ced4fb4574b5cc357b9d37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Matter and Form” (Matter and Form).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M1defs.htm#Matter and Form). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## effort justification
<a id="effort-justification"></a>

Effort justification is a cognitive dissonance idea that putting in more effort can lead a person to value the outcome or reward more. In this paradigm, the subjective feeling of greater effort is linked to increased reward valuation, including on implicit measures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c4b95070b6f436e1af653a4c8a4c1e99ffbc116f154092f084436fcad749519

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Harmon-Jones Eddie; Clarke Daniel; Paul Katharina; Harmon-Jones Cindy. The Effect of Perceived Effort on Reward Valuation: Taking the Reward Positivity (RewP) to Dissonance Theory. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00157; article XML SHA-256 d2fe763ea16eeeb7d0dac968740ffa61aa2cae3b3f8ec173cbec89f50d006362. “The Effect of Perceived Effort on Reward Valuation: Taking the Reward Positivity (RewP) to Dissonance Theory” (10.3389/fnhum.2020.00157).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00157). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## effort syndrome
<a id="effort-syndrome"></a>

Effort syndrome is a condition in which even slight physical exertion leads to symptoms such as palpitations, shortness of breath, labored breathing, and a sense of discomfort or strain. It can also involve dizziness, shakiness, sweating, and insomnia, and is commonly viewed as a form of anxiety disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02146d8e5d1c9fbe25b6131af310513d1a6ad37ece0962ca185d64488b5ff861

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurocirculatory Asthenia” (D009449).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009449). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## effortfulness
<a id="effortfulness"></a>

Effortfulness refers to the increased mental work needed when a signal is hard to extract, such as speech in a complex background. In this view, more cognitive resources are used for basic acoustic and phonological processing, leaving fewer resources available for deeper semantic processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1fcbff3f369676f125d27c1383754be1754673589027b858a7f2e1d0e6b88e52

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dekerle Marie; Boulenger Véronique; Hoen Michel; Meunier Fanny. Multi-talker background and semantic priming effect. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00878; article XML SHA-256 facfc98a48e94226ce45c7bef31cbebdb677c8decdd9047745f4ffbb0d99813e. “Multi-talker background and semantic priming effect” (10.3389/fnhum.2014.00878).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00878). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## effortless attention
<a id="effortless-attention"></a>

In James’s account, effortless attention is the usual, smooth form of attending in which thought follows its natural course without strain or a sense of willful reinforcement. It contrasts with effortful attention, which is felt when competing interests interrupt this easy flow and attention must be held against distraction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9cb5ccc6111303d0ac1839468597e9d6eb7ba158ed2f18cee3c94f0c364af950

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EFT
<a id="eft"></a>

EFT, or Emotional Freedom Techniques, is an energy psychology approach that combines acupoint tapping with cognitive, bodily, and exposure-based elements. In the research literature, Clinical EFT usually means a standardized, manualized form that uses set procedures and therapist-guided, trauma-informed regulation rather than informal self-help tapping.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba906a2df94d08097c0eada8ed14f140cea8f7eeb60169424eb75929fee0aaad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schwarz R.; Stapleton P.. Theoretical and clinical insights into the psychological mechanisms and active ingredients of emotional freedom techniques. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1672132; article XML SHA-256 ad27b760b567d1d4da2f3dca43528468b895a198f10b2100ec0b6403e1bd369f. “Theoretical and clinical insights into the psychological mechanisms and active ingredients of emotional freedom techniques” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1672132).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1672132). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## egersis
<a id="egersis"></a>

Egersis means intense wakefulness. It refers to a state of being strongly or unusually awake.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b0b4aea68e1b32a98cbef1d0d8e26b590a8d3c7480ce2107497f59f3849088bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2457000-2469000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ego
<a id="ego"></a>

In psychology, the ego is the conscious part of personality that balances instinctive urges, internalized moral and social restraints, and the demands of reality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b01681bb8c6109a9ce8de4e70911f9c7aafbe0363694a21e33bc251917f451f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ego” (D004532).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004532). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ego-centered network
<a id="ego-centered-network"></a>

An ego-centered network is a way of mapping a network from the viewpoint of one focal person or role. In the source, coordinators used ego-centered network maps to show how the surrounding network of connected actors was developing over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 778083e81e74cc0c7d334f6965e186dbb37aba82b5526aa9a455dfcc3ed5a267

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Voss Stephan; Bauer Julia; Jung-Sievers Caroline; Moore Graham; Rehfuess Eva; Rhein Valerie Zu; Coenen Michaela. Process evaluation of an integrated community-based intervention for promoting health equity in children in a new residential development area. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s13690-024-01246-z; article XML SHA-256 be77aa49cd2b4ac381ed885967d2925116620bb9043a29a0ebea713b1854a754. “Process evaluation of an integrated community-based intervention for promoting health equity in children in a new residential development area” (10.1186/s13690-024-01246-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-024-01246-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ego defense
<a id="ego-defense"></a>

An ego defense is an unconscious way the ego reduces conflict between the id and superego. It reflects how a person manages conflict and stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d352fb6e64f0cf720cc4e3c3e273d095afa7050a335bbf1ae17557d7650a113

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Parekh Maria A; Majeed Hina; Khan Tuba R; Khan Anum B; Khalid Salman; Khwaja Nadia M; Khalid Roha; Khan Mohammad A; Rizqui Ibrahim M; Jehan Imtiaz. Ego defense mechanisms in Pakistani medical students: a cross sectional analysis. 2010; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-10-12; article XML SHA-256 48e890aebdbf709856f4f660f0472fed46e819c94e2034a63b80076ce7a77691. “Ego defense mechanisms in Pakistani medical students: a cross sectional analysis” (10.1186/1471-244x-10-12).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-10-12). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ego depletion
<a id="ego-depletion"></a>

Ego depletion is the idea that using self-control or self-regulation on one task can temporarily reduce a person’s ability to regulate themselves well on a later task. It is based on the view that self-resources such as attention, willpower, and cognitive energy are limited and can be used up for a time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4cefa8f96dc6e464865747eaf4d798f219ee74c81b0d4acedb6d3e9887285e7f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Genç Turhan Funda; Kuşdil Muharrem Ersin. A systematic review of ego depletion phenomenon in group-based hierarchical relations. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569692; article XML SHA-256 fe4dff2aab1081e950dc28648fdd6666a7ddb6f1d6a2cc059e23897d0b925501. “A systematic review of ego depletion phenomenon in group-based hierarchical relations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569692).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569692). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ego integrity versus despair
<a id="ego-integrity-versus-despair"></a>

In Erikson’s theory, ego integrity versus despair is the final psychosocial stage of late adulthood, when people look back on their lives and try to see them as coherent, meaningful, and worthwhile. Resolving this tension toward ego integrity involves accepting both successes and failures with self-acceptance and inner peace, whereas despair reflects difficulty doing so.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ac2cb2bedbc436e9c746937de3be8ff1eb4172da8c1ab4732099d00fc80fadb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Talu Ertuğrul. Life satisfaction, regret, and death reflection among older adults in Turkey: a qualitative study within Erikson’s framework of ego integrity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745222; article XML SHA-256 c570716f4c33e1b5f8fc9f10f51d6343efa6941b5db28e08af6eb336b47f5b06. “Life satisfaction, regret, and death reflection among older adults in Turkey: a qualitative study within Erikson’s framework of ego integrity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745222).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745222). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ego resiliency
<a id="ego-resiliency"></a>

Ego resiliency is a personality trait describing a person’s ability to adjust flexibly and effectively to internal and external stressors as circumstances change. It is closely tied to self-regulation and supports healthy functioning even under difficult conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e80fddd428ddea34682ca30d1b2089259e61c82580399e4c3044959e169f294

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dębska-Janus Małgorzata; Dębski Paweł; Nawrocka Agnieszka; Polechoński Jacek; Madejczyk Wojciech; Badura-Brzoza Karina. Exploring the connection between ego-resiliency and health behaviors: a cross-sectional study of Polish health sciences students. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05617-2; article XML SHA-256 061d98078c8c68b1545c3ff1c44ccd1dc9779ca17bf0bfb024e7e56f6e708203. “Exploring the connection between ego-resiliency and health behaviors: a cross-sectional study of Polish health sciences students” (10.1186/s12888-024-05617-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05617-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ego state
<a id="ego-state"></a>

In transactional analysis, an ego state is the parent-like, child-like, or adult-like mode a person is operating from in a social interaction. Identifying which ego state is involved is used to help understand behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16f6d366867da1eb65d2c87bf364d28290ecf93c5233483e5d7c8f4562e292fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Transactional Analysis” (D014152).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014152). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ego-syntonic
<a id="ego-syntonic"></a>

Ego-syntonic describes symptoms or patterns that are experienced as fitting with the person’s way of coping rather than feeling alien to them. Because they can feel reinforcing, they may be linked with resistance to treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6efa8031dceb28f31faf5d3985a49a378759ffa7e11ff8a2c9826f1003627881

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Halmi Katherine A. Perplexities of treatment resistence in eating disorders. 2013; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-13-292; article XML SHA-256 22849dfd06f8520b899caa93f538e3356439033cdb466c2c368cdc466aa02c70. “Perplexities of treatment resistence in eating disorders” (10.1186/1471-244x-13-292).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-13-292). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## egocentrism
<a id="egocentrism"></a>

Egocentrism is a self-focused way of thinking in which a person is mainly preoccupied with their own needs, abilities, wishes, desires, or preferences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 278f8d0d98b6af58be117e901878589adb07012d4b13f064b6d64c9eb9cee062

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Egocentrism” (D000078663).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000078663). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## egoism
<a id="egoism"></a>

Egoism is an attitude or disposition in which a person's conscious aim is their own personal advantage. In this historical source, egotism is also used in the same sense.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9eff77d9a75fb09083fcb391d29bc0d53f0c45e8f7da3d4bdc64bd4809c7de64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Egoism” (Egoism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Egoism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eighth cranial nerve
<a id="eighth-cranial-nerve"></a>

The eighth cranial nerve is the vestibulocochlear nerve. It has one part involved in hearing and another that carries information about balance and head position.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 58b1194148e526f190237c7c4705e1649196817a8a5fd81597b080cd5d07d45b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vestibulocochlear Nerve” (D000159).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000159). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Einstellung
<a id="einstellung"></a>

Einstellung is an attitude or readiness of mind or body for a particular kind of attention or action. In mental life, it mainly means a directed state of attention and, more broadly, a person’s settled tendencies or interests.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ecb4d189f7766c1b4492afae98c614946ac2088d8f8e6d46cdff948ed50d4f55

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Attitude” (Attitude).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Attitude). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## either–or thinking
<a id="eitheror-thinking"></a>

Either–or thinking is a way of viewing a situation as if there are only two opposing options, so that one benefit seems possible only at the cost of the other. In this packet, it refers to treating enjoyment and skill learning in physical education as mutually exclusive instead of potentially working together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39a96f6c30ba74d34768edd2cd13d54667ad80ce31955b6f564b9eae773910c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xue Yu. The spiral symbiosis of skill and interest: the psychological mechanism of their synergistic development in PE classes. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791070; article XML SHA-256 26cd9eac8ac95c8a8f3d0316bcc831a916d3c8f42a4398a5c20052167cd9e834. “The spiral symbiosis of skill and interest: the psychological mechanism of their synergistic development in PE classes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791070).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791070). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## elaboration-likelihood model
<a id="elaboration-likelihood-model"></a>

The elaboration-likelihood model is a framework used to study how information and external cues shape consumer decision-making and behavior. In this packet, it is applied to explain how features of product information presentation can influence purchasing decisions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a09b5f33c85f4a5e0f592f0ca8b58463eb861e93a95b94450c8c6fef8f3e1dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fang Meiyu; Deng Ziling; Guo Junhui. The effects of external cues on cross-border e-commerce product sales: An application of the elaboration likelihood model. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293462; article XML SHA-256 7e0b73e3b1f01f94946d4a0b54dfeb239a23cb272d6199bb0023fdc0004a9c05. “The effects of external cues on cross-border e-commerce product sales: An application of the elaboration likelihood model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293462).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293462). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Elavil
<a id="elavil"></a>

Elavil refers to amitriptyline hydrochloride, a tricyclic antidepressant. It acts in the central nervous system by limiting the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin, raising their signaling levels, and it may also have pain-relieving effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31606beb0299dd77148f46fa3a8f5bbd947bb05bcf7f9aef7e9c33cf20223b75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Amitriptyline Hydrochloride” (C28819).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Eldepryl
<a id="eldepryl"></a>

Eldepryl is selegiline hydrochloride, a drug with antiparkinsonian effects. It selectively blocks MAO-B mainly in the brain, which raises the activity of neurotransmitters such as catecholamines, serotonin, and dopamine and can improve motor function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 49285646868c1be568f8a9ee38cc47c0617241d108554d751fd872cf4c4140c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Selegiline Hydrochloride” (C47714).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## elder abuse
<a id="elder-abuse"></a>

Elder abuse is the mistreatment, exploitation, or abandonment of an older person. It can be emotional, nutritional, financial, or physical and is often carried out by family members or institutional staff.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 53afe49f616119742d6aa53a419ef506f18384143df589dbf63c29aefe53d0e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Elder Abuse” (D004552).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004552). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## electrical activity of the brain
<a id="electrical-activity-of-the-brain"></a>

A procedure for studying the brain’s electrical activity by placing electrodes on the scalp and recording the signals as an electroencephalogram (EEG). It is used to help evaluate brain damage, epilepsy, and other brain-related problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 468de7667c1fa7bef7214ee0611183e8b37f3d4f19aee88436993170777e5ed2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Electroencephalography” (C38054).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electrical stimulation
<a id="electrical-stimulation"></a>

Electrical stimulation is a method that delivers low-intensity direct or alternating electrical current through electrodes placed on the scalp or skin. In transcranial forms, the current is thought to alter brain cell activity and communication, and different forms can influence cortical processing in ways that may affect behavior and performance on cognitive or motor tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0cb6b95b7e1c3ddd1e045b0375cdf26393e547aa43c988175fbd0e5f437fcf07

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van der Groen Onno; Rafique Sara A.; Willmot Nick; Murphy Margaret G.; Tisnovsky Eulalia; Brunyé Tad T.. Transcutaneous and transcranial electrical stimulation for enhancing military performance: an update and systematic review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1501209; article XML SHA-256 a4413d5cb1df73efa7709d16359adbea4c25d5ce0c564270f24699cf3046a17c. “Transcutaneous and transcranial electrical stimulation for enhancing military performance: an update and systematic review” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1501209).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1501209). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electrical stimulation of the cortex
<a id="electrical-stimulation-of-the-cortex"></a>

Electrical stimulation of the cortex is the direct application of electrical current to the brain’s outer layer to trigger cortical responses and study how activity travels between brain areas. In the source, it is used to evoke cortico-cortical activity and compare its high-frequency patterns with those produced by peripheral nerve stimulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c4163a61c0a7d10df37ac68c03958b22d49bc9f92a0e0e69da6e346912d3eaa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kobayashi Katsuya; Matsumoto Riki; Matsuhashi Masao; Usami Kiyohide; Shimotake Akihiro; Kunieda Takeharu; Kikuchi Takayuki; Mikuni Nobuhiro; Miyamoto Susumu; Fukuyama Hidenao; Takahashi Ryosuke; Ikeda Akio. Different Mode of Afferents Determines the Frequency Range of High Frequency Activities in the Human Brain: Direct Electrocorticographic Comparison between Peripheral Nerve and Direct Cortical Stimulation. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0130461; article XML SHA-256 ee5098f556c0c8146fefa7ae028964442bfbb55b732164a05657d8e3828ebc49. “Different Mode of Afferents Determines the Frequency Range of High Frequency Activities in the Human Brain: Direct Electrocorticographic Comparison between Peripheral Nerve and Direct Cortical Stimulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0130461).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130461). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electrical synapse
<a id="electrical-synapse"></a>

An electrical synapse is a type of junction between cells where signals pass directly from one cell to another through their shared cytoplasm by way of gap junctions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0003e1a4c0f59d61757a4e1f1a43bcbada5d9c1dd3c6c9057a29153a874a364

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Electrical Synapse” (C32498).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electrical transcranial stimulation
<a id="electrical-transcranial-stimulation"></a>

Electrical transcranial stimulation is a low-current method that applies electricity through electrodes on the scalp to influence activity in the brain’s outer tissues. The amount of current that reaches the cortex can vary greatly between people and also depends on electrode size and placement, with skull bone differences contributing to this variability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f46f45d672f0e7b89e89c81a14a53786cd64575f2d0ce8878db8d7379fdd981b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Russell Michael; Goodman Theodore; Wang Qiang; Groshong Bennett; Lyeth Bruce G.. Gender Differences in Current Received during Transcranial Electrical Stimulation. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00104; article XML SHA-256 971434bbfc577a7f389ae0b8964a794f88703552f3f800ef091a27808f655d6f. “Gender Differences in Current Received during Transcranial Electrical Stimulation” (10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00104).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00104). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electrocardiogram
<a id="electrocardiogram"></a>

An electrocardiogram, or ECG, is a non-invasive and relatively low-cost test that records heart-related electrical activity and is widely used to help identify cardiovascular disease. In learning contexts, ECG data are also used for computer-based classification and anomaly detection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d5b52fba623255f3a196716c07e8102d63fc2fe03dd0c92bd5773352ba5b0ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Ya; Yang Yujie; Gan Jianhuang; Li Xiangjie; Yuan Jing; Zhao Wei. A lightweight and robust method for electrocardiogram anomaly detection and localization using multi-scale masked autoencoder. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343571; article XML SHA-256 b88148d628a6fc7c9b0d6acde6cdf142e95eb4fcfc1265368d806f77a5859000. “A lightweight and robust method for electrocardiogram anomaly detection and localization using multi-scale masked autoencoder” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343571).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343571). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electrocochleography
<a id="electrocochleography"></a>

Electrocochleography is an electrophysiological method used during cochlear implant surgery to monitor cochlear responses while the electrode is being inserted. It is used to give immediate feedback that may help reduce injury to the inner ear and support preservation of any remaining natural hearing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 800e3cc93975f8611383d0b0b84df281e2ce208e9f2e9aa52203a47e78dc8cec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cooper Jaimee; Mittal Jeenu; Zalta Max; DiStefano Nicholas; Klassen Delany L; McKenna Keelin; Godur Dimitri A; Monterrubio Andrea; Moosa Moeed; Mittal Rahul; Eshraghi Adrien A. Bridging the gap: A systematic review of intraoperative electrocochleography during cochlear implantation and preservation of residual hearing. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323493; article XML SHA-256 94e5bdcafdbb389bd9a1b5f01c5f1a766cfa05c3cc97b95bc7604b1d262b480c. “Bridging the gap: A systematic review of intraoperative electrocochleography during cochlear implantation and preservation of residual hearing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323493).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323493). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electroconvulsive therapy
<a id="electroconvulsive-therapy"></a>

Electroconvulsive therapy is a treatment that deliberately produces seizures by using electricity. It is used mainly for severe mood disorders and schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3e9584d8ba212a1db7b4832de2166a71fbb2cfd53c7ec9911683bfc44ed45807

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Electroconvulsive Therapy” (D004565).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004565). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electrocorticography
<a id="electrocorticography"></a>

Electrocorticography is a way of recording the brain’s electrical activity by placing electrodes directly on the surface of the cerebral cortex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c9820f4513e74502f39c07170c48b13d218772484e8e3ab45a9b088eccc97c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Electrocorticography” (D000069280).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000069280). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electrode placement
<a id="electrode-placement"></a>

Electrode placement is the chosen arrangement of electrodes on the body or scalp when delivering electrical stimulation. In galvanic vestibular stimulation, different placements such as using electrodes at the mastoids can change how current enters the head and how strongly it affects vestibular structures, which can alter the resulting sensations or body sway.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c8676e8b0ba8b7f0febb1cb786d610e5155d333b4dba1f4b0ae06d2a95c45019

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Truong Dennis Q; Thomas Chris; Ira Sanjidah; Valter Yishai; Clark Torin K; Datta Abhishek. Unpacking Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation using simulations and relating current flow to reported motions: Comparison across common and specialized electrode placements. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0309007; article XML SHA-256 95d949b8b3d8077c25845be4033fe6f0883093bb2d0dc50577409932bb58c292. “Unpacking Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation using simulations and relating current flow to reported motions: Comparison across common and specialized electrode placements” (10.1371/journal.pone.0309007).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309007). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electrodermal response
<a id="electrodermal-response"></a>

Electrodermal response is a change in the skin’s electrical resistance that occurs with emotion and in some other conditions. It is also called galvanic skin response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bdbe1d97d5651779646e0d9122b490ce57fe78d61b7f24ce305611612cf4b823

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Galvanic Skin Response” (D005712).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005712). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electroencephalography
<a id="electroencephalography"></a>

Electroencephalography is a method for measuring the brain’s electrical activity with electrodes placed on the scalp, on the brain itself, or in brain tissue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7816b1761ec56f832a786ebdcaf295f1dcb041287831a0b655716430a203c8d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Electroencephalography” (D004569).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004569). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electrolyte imbalance
<a id="electrolyte-imbalance"></a>

Electrolyte imbalance means abnormal electrolyte levels in the body. In this context, it refers to disturbances that can develop in newborns during birth asphyxia because of hypoxia and metabolic problems, and that may worsen the illness and contribute to poor outcomes, including later neurological damage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9869cd1231e6e10308a63079a817c045dbf05ca1a7e40c8844d1a2092711b41e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yusuf Bahari; Ediamu Tom; Odoch Simon; Issa Ali Zeinab; H Abshir Yasin Ahmed; Farah Abdulahi Abdirizak; Hersi Abishir Mohamud; Owjama Ahmed; M Yusuf Hamdi; Abdi Said Zakaria; Hakizimana Theoneste; Elfakey Walyeldin; Ndeezi Grace. Electrolyte imbalance in Asphyxiated term neonates: Incidence, predictors, and outcomes from a prospective cohort study in Northern Uganda. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336549; article XML SHA-256 485ece631b940859ba592f16fd545f0fcbf57c2cfde9d4cbf12136ea87d103e5. “Electrolyte imbalance in Asphyxiated term neonates: Incidence, predictors, and outcomes from a prospective cohort study in Northern Uganda” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336549).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336549). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electromyography
<a id="electromyography"></a>

Electromyography is a method for recording and studying the electrical activity of muscles, including at rest and during voluntary movement. In this packet, surface electromyography is described as a neuromuscular assessment tool used to examine features such as muscle fatigue, fasciculation patterns, motor unit activity, and signal complexity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a310eb15b9b8cc4066ef05d436a3aead0434534f61d46b6108704324f71544d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fernandes Ana Paula Mendonça; Bertucci Borges Luiz Henrique; de Holanda Ledycnarf Januário; Bezerra Bruno Henrique e Silva; Lopes Anna Clara Sales Miranda; da Silva Maria Clara Fernandes; Valentim Ricardo A de M; Bougrain Laurent; Vasiljevic Gabriel Alves Mendes; Rodrigues Lindquist Ana Raquel. Applications of electromyography in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: A systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350029; article XML SHA-256 3e3fced71e567b7ae05b714ba1db3ebdb965ffa27d8a436724f5b342a21f91fc. “Applications of electromyography in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350029).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350029). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electronarcosis
<a id="electronarcosis"></a>

Electronarcosis is a state of deep stupor caused by passing an electric current through the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 32ff1215169dc2df563e0bf4c9ba47b62a9fa600f0bc8f400a72b4f8e5d0c307

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Electronarcosis” (D004580).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004580). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electronic nose
<a id="electronic-nose"></a>

An electronic nose is a device that imitates how the mammalian sense of smell works by using multiple sensors, signal processing, and recognition algorithms to detect and identify odors. It is used to create odor patterns from complex smells for tasks such as rapid, noninvasive detection and monitoring.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0023e1493f3fd28cdd71e78f3e4711c5c3c1f7b45bc5b9ba89fb1d89bf096acb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Jia; Zhang Jinglei; Zhang Shaoqi; Li Kaiwei; Li Xiang; Zhang Shuo; Gu Hang; Chen Zhen; Liu Chao; Zhang Nan; Sun Tong. Interfered feature elimination coupled with feature group selection for wound infection detection by electronic nose. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327748; article XML SHA-256 72fe9be16c9d719e02e033ec00a2fb0f8565cf8c2d4817aa5caa51e58b71e2c1. “Interfered feature elimination coupled with feature group selection for wound infection detection by electronic nose” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327748).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327748). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electronystagmography
<a id="electronystagmography"></a>

Electronystagmography is a method for recording nystagmus by measuring changes in the eye’s electrical field that arise from the difference in electrical potential between the cornea and the retina.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 628b4cdcdf3abbb2baa3c416845e33cc708966fc98cb05be3d835f314e6ee07c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Electronystagmography” (D004584).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004584). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electrooculography
<a id="electrooculography"></a>

Electrooculography is a biological recording of the resting electrical potential between the cornea and retina while the eyes move a set distance right and left under dark and light adaptation. The change in this potential with light adaptation is used to assess the retinal pigment epithelium.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80588816cde52d169948115bcc23e68574befbdd8e8d55faddb1241f2835309d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Electrooculography” (D004585).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004585). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electrophysiologic audiometry
<a id="electrophysiologic-audiometry"></a>

Electrophysiologic audiometry is a hearing test method that records the brain’s electrical responses to sound. By averaging ongoing brain-wave activity, it makes a characteristic response pattern to the sound easier to detect; it is also called evoked response audiometry or electric response audiometry.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 062294e09ed12832615649b6c71fcc15c4750cfdc4baf9f0d6fe620c3a609ec1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Audiometry, Evoked Response” (D001300).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001300). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electrophysiology
<a id="electrophysiology"></a>

Electrophysiology is the study of how electrical activity is produced and behaves in living organisms, especially in the nervous system. It also includes studying how electricity affects living tissue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6202cfd6498d8ffe1604658c2ca297f25b70dbfd26d1a13a8dce7a83100ecdbf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Electrophysiology” (D004594).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004594). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electroretinography
<a id="electroretinography"></a>

Electroretinography is a method for recording the retina’s electrical responses after it is stimulated by light.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 94fa14bc63445141b3c7990933dc8710ad8434d7af3fecc1f60d41fbf232c5bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Electroretinography” (D004596).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004596). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electroshock therapy
<a id="electroshock-therapy"></a>

Electroshock therapy is a treatment that uses electricity to produce convulsions. It is mainly used for severe mood disorders and schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2e5437ad3257d937f55309ae716359a6e001fb219e858361238708eceedde84a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Electroconvulsive Therapy” (D004565).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004565). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## electrotherapy
<a id="electrotherapy"></a>

Electrotherapy is the use of electrical current as a treatment in ways that do not produce noticeable heat. It can involve stimulating nerves or muscles, passing current into the body, or using mild interrupted current to make the skin less sensitive to pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6deea8fbe9e12099bc0203bbfd37eb81918da9431861c0f7fe2d8e20597609a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Electric Stimulation Therapy” (D004599).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004599). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## element
<a id="element"></a>

An element is something that cannot be analyzed into simpler parts within the limits of a given inquiry. In historical usage, it can mean the basic materials thought to make up the world or, in logic, the simplest idea contained within a larger concept or system of ideas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f415260bb5b1d72577acce6ef640a2dcef9a15f1a8af4e3775cf62ee5c8bf46

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Element” (Element).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Element). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## elevated plus maze
<a id="elevated-plus-maze"></a>

The elevated plus maze is an animal maze test using a raised platform with four arms arranged like a plus sign, where the animal starts in the center and can choose among the arms. It is based on animals’ tendency to avoid open, elevated arms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 570e580072dada7fe658669579ec26f8136513a2dbc0a79cb59cee31d942c2ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Elevated Plus Maze Test” (D000082564).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000082564). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eleventh cranial nerve
<a id="eleventh-cranial-nerve"></a>

The eleventh cranial nerve, also called the accessory nerve, begins in the medulla and cervical spinal cord. Its cranial part joins the vagus nerve and carries motor signals to muscles of the larynx, while its spinal part supplies the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 55e981d98c1dbaadbd8361f77ecbf93395979c972170147d15dfbb6772ae5c01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Accessory Nerve” (D000055).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000055). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## elicitation
<a id="elicitation"></a>

In psychology, elicitation is the process of bringing out a targeted response, such as an emotion, by presenting a stimulus designed to evoke it. In research on emotion, this often means using culturally relevant materials to produce and study specific feelings and their intensity or pleasantness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 78bf304086b4094c28b2d1e8dfd0e3bd29ab4765515a295f304a16ed4c2b651c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yousefi Milad; Amani Rad Jamal. Building bridges to emotion: Developing a standardized film-based emotion elicitation tool for Iranian culture. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343598; article XML SHA-256 5c72fb2d9be76b5c1c5738e2442409d736a07c90431dc14a820ea0703ba5ed86. “Building bridges to emotion: Developing a standardized film-based emotion elicitation tool for Iranian culture” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343598).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343598). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Elimination Disorders
<a id="elimination-disorders"></a>

Elimination disorders are mental health conditions involving problems with excretion that are typically identified in infancy or childhood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ab66f87c55f11ca1ce0030f361a9a4d63d0fd1aabf1da58dad1ad0ccfe0a76a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Elimination Disorders” (D019960).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019960). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## elision
<a id="elision"></a>

Elision means the leaving out or dropping of letters in writing. In this historical psychological context, it is described as a sign of mental imperfection when seen along with other writing errors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39ec0d9152e0b902c27588a5090fb72f8157903b5d4d963c6e26fed526532cb8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3444000-3456000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ellipsis
<a id="ellipsis"></a>

In this historical logical usage, ellipsis means a shortening of language in which a fuller statement is left partly unexpressed but understood. The passage illustrates it by noting that a single word such as “if” can stand for a more complete relation or assertion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0032f4ed256776f285a01ad90bb418386513d0f94716e39adc912a28a1415733

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2089500-2101500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ELM
<a id="elm"></a>

ELM stands for extreme learning machine, a neural network approach described here as using only one hidden layer instead of deeper networks in a physics-informed framework. In this context, it is trained directly from a combined loss based on equations and conditions using least-squares optimisation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2b16138cc6425365c50c838db47c9cf6bb3132d0eef57dc1aca1d2e214aae07

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pang Chuan-Qin; Zhang Zhu-Hao; Chen Si-Han; Yue Hong-Ya; Zhang Yu. Physics-informed extreme learning machine (PIELM) for consolidation around an expanded cylindrical cavity. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329789; article XML SHA-256 711972c3985f2a4a31d6a51ae91ada9ffa5e13010cdc1ec52e9d32d8f99b8f66. “Physics-informed extreme learning machine (PIELM) for consolidation around an expanded cylindrical cavity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329789).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329789). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EMA
<a id="ema"></a>

EMA, or ecological momentary assessment, is a clinical psychology method that repeatedly samples a person’s current behaviors and experiences in real time while they are in their everyday environment. It is used to reduce errors from later recall, capture more natural information, and examine short-term processes that affect behavior in real-world settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 632fae8eee373f9fb87dfab8d2b3eb955643158506906b253bed5d690233121b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ecological Momentary Assessment” (C150385).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## embarrassment
<a id="embarrassment"></a>

Embarrassment is an unpleasant emotional state that happens when a person’s inadequacy, guilt, or a socially unacceptable act or trait is seen by others or revealed to them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 182755b2209b2ade8e31a18ec6ef0a936be0ed2fa350598e0f61680f6f3b19ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Embarrassment” (C62187).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Embedded Figures Test
<a id="embedded-figures-test"></a>

The Embedded Figures Test is a measure used to study field dependence and field independence, a cognitive-style dimension involving how people perceive and solve problems. In this context, higher scores are linked with stronger local processing, meaning better identification of features within a larger whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 675257560a665c83f34a58d317b62faf4dd6f2c42b49f55031850002a723d903

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hao Xin; Wang Kangcheng; Li Wenfu; Yang Wenjing; Wei Dongtao; Qiu Jiang; Zhang Qinglin. Individual Differences in Brain Structure and Resting Brain Function Underlie Cognitive Styles: Evidence from the Embedded Figures Test. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0078089; article XML SHA-256 52bfaadad8e84b562f63908824790a126ef2c1532afc0139a8a33f11c3d0edf1. “Individual Differences in Brain Structure and Resting Brain Function Underlie Cognitive Styles: Evidence from the Embedded Figures Test” (10.1371/journal.pone.0078089).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0078089). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## embodied cognition
<a id="embodied-cognition"></a>

Embodied cognition is the view that thinking is not confined to the brain alone but is distributed across the body and the surrounding environment. On this view, tools, spaces, and other contextual features can become part of the cognitive system, shaping understanding and reorganizing mental activity during perception and action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39392741ccc6febd567c47fd80a87906ffcd66a0d4f161f9cd963de9d5480b00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zheng Ziyu; Wang Yu; Zhao Jian. Development and validation of the embodied cognition scale for Chinese university students. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1682631; article XML SHA-256 d37313fabc7711262d93f0c96c9c712bef72a3ec9c6e031fad2b78180acf3419. “Development and validation of the embodied cognition scale for Chinese university students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1682631).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1682631). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## embolic stroke
<a id="embolic-stroke"></a>

An embolic stroke is an ischemic stroke caused by a clot, embolus, or other blockage that forms outside the brain and then travels to blood vessels supplying the brain, reducing blood flow there. When the clot comes from the heart, it is often called a cardioembolic stroke.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a77cf66506d7e7ff3e6f2f799428ddb13b573b0933e9c1865226b6742a531530

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Embolic Stroke” (D000083262).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000083262). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## embolism
<a id="embolism"></a>

In this source, embolism refers specifically to pulmonary embolism, a serious form of venous thromboembolism that can occur after surgery. It is described as a potentially fatal postoperative complication, with risk linked here to cancer-related increased clotting and postoperative immobility.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7c56344965cdad1275097ed313c38f673b05753917d382c1f9976bc7a2c976e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gong Bo; Liu Shenshen; Chen Shaomin; Yu Lei; Liu Lei; Tan Li. Association between preoperative chronic steroid use and pulmonary embolism in adult tumor craniotomy: Linking role of platelet-to-white blood cell ratio. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355416; article XML SHA-256 b3c6b4df9af4271cb038a0d34c5450b8f5f5e5a8dfb232885b8f44fa88a79f99. “Association between preoperative chronic steroid use and pulmonary embolism in adult tumor craniotomy: Linking role of platelet-to-white blood cell ratio” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355416).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355416). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## embryo
<a id="embryo"></a>

An embryo is a developing animal before its tissues and organs are fully formed and distinct. In botany, the term also refers to the rudimentary plant within a seed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2ea740cc1f93094b14ae4252ec1f8bca517beef43394ed17bb6628c2042d61b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Embryo” (Embryo).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Embryo). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## embryology
<a id="embryology"></a>

Embryology is the study of the changes an animal undergoes as it develops from the ovum until its tissues and organs are fully differentiated. In this narrower sense, it focuses on development before the adult state is reached.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b70c3551644f918cd83c9221d492c89e91576f3a3418f5b35a05a15227eb273

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Embryology” (Embryology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Embryology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EMDR
<a id="emdr"></a>

EMDR is a technique intended to help the brain process disturbing memories and experiences through stimulation thought to resemble neural activity during REM sleep. It uses guided side-to-side eye movements or alternating taps to promote information processing and connections among neural networks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ead11026805140a5f003285ed9288888f6e49614e19334acfc09f7c0e10843aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing” (D057169).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D057169). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emergence
<a id="emergence"></a>

Emergence is the recovery period after general anesthesia when awareness returns gradually, with different aspects of consciousness coming back at different speeds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 56cc6b7946110a09f9a4172abebf6ef50ba66bef600afb15bf5c3ca016981c6a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anesthesia Recovery Period” (D000762).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000762). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Emergency Services, Psychiatric
<a id="emergency-services-psychiatric"></a>

Psychiatric emergency services are organized services that give immediate mental health care to people experiencing acute psychological disturbance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d19b952520db5ea28533aa5b9e7c34f13e9240e59da422b00f8b12b1908f28c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Emergency Services, Psychiatric” (D004637).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004637). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## emerging adulthood
<a id="emerging-adulthood"></a>

Emerging adulthood is the developmental period from about ages 18 to 29. It involves major psychological and social changes during the transition into adult life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec9d33c9f2e15d2e105212b1a9583a44b7dd6e8570d793af58a2d3cdf97b1ccd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hanımoğlu Egemen. Life satisfaction in emerging adulthood: a longitudinal study of social support, resilience, and gender differences. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1602140; article XML SHA-256 cdca6fe8ce6f4610bf598442929f25959f32ae72b04e48a6c2828ae876a96cdc. “Life satisfaction in emerging adulthood: a longitudinal study of social support, resilience, and gender differences” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1602140).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1602140). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EMG
<a id="emg"></a>

EMG refers to electromyography signals, which measure muscle activation over time and can be analyzed for features such as amplitude, waveform shape, and overlap between muscles. In motor learning research, EMG is used to study how muscles work together, including co-contraction of opposing muscles during movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 268c3c93e6857e1bfdb7297d49daca59b4560ed53bc5028d1777d09fd3d0ef92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Carey Hannah D.; De Groote Friedl; Sawers Andrew. A comparative analysis of co-contraction indices using synthetic EMG data: Implications for selection and interpretation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343081; article XML SHA-256 92f5fc2f314ae137828e6250f4f7959b13d8dbdeb2dea749c75646332180f1e3. “A comparative analysis of co-contraction indices using synthetic EMG data: Implications for selection and interpretation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343081).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343081). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emic
<a id="emic"></a>

Emic refers to an approach that studies behavior or practices from within a particular culture, emphasizing how local social and cultural meanings shape them. In psychology and related social research, it means understanding a topic in the terms of the people and setting being studied rather than treating it as the same across cultures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7af8bf18f82433ca3772ee54c916c1913123cec2e526ce4b43b84e8cc1d76030

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zaki Nour M; Shehata Maya A; Nasr Jana A. The changing landscape of discipline in Egypt: a descriptive and predictive study across two generations. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05008-0; article XML SHA-256 130d30096256db7989a9f878cf2a7bf3d26983d212db73d298831ce7d89b7e5a. “The changing landscape of discipline in Egypt: a descriptive and predictive study across two generations” (10.1186/s40359-026-05008-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05008-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emic–etic distinction
<a id="emicetic-distinction"></a>

The emic–etic distinction is a way of understanding behaviour or experience from two standpoints: an insider view and an outsider view. In this usage, emic refers to people’s own account of their experiences, while etic refers to how another person or observer describes those experiences or behaviour.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4a926e611b52698604a39e879da115f1e1330d5c1d136d1fa94475c3a1388eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Berner-Rodoreda Astrid; Baum Nina; Wachinger Jonas; Zangerl Kathrin; Hoegl Henriette; Bärnighausen Till. Taking emic and etic to the family level: interlinking parents’ and children’s COVID-19 views and experiences in Germany. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12889-024-18983-z; article XML SHA-256 a2799186dfe8a787b3c39aa31ee8065cb488919ab436edc17b8687095424fcfc. “Taking emic and etic to the family level: interlinking parents’ and children’s COVID-19 views and experiences in Germany” (10.1186/s12889-024-18983-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18983-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Emmert’s law
<a id="emmerts-law"></a>

Emmert’s law is a perceptual principle stating that when two parts of an image have the same retinal size, their apparent extent changes with their registered distance. In this account, the part seen as nearer is represented as smaller or shrunken, which can contribute to visual illusions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7bf8055dc8c12ca9bfa8e7dc19bb243f119acb5a582dcc93145950fba16b7c4a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Talasli Umur; Inan Asli Bahar. Applying Emmert’s Law to the Poggendorff illusion. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00531; article XML SHA-256 40e2c4d27a2f1cba7125c24605a49b0152e64793b1a4463c6d9436c3f14370fd. “Applying Emmert’s Law to the Poggendorff illusion” (10.3389/fnhum.2015.00531).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00531). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emmetropia
<a id="emmetropia"></a>

Emmetropia is the normal optical condition of the eye in which images are focused correctly on the retina.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7934622630b2204eef6448fc9d77e60e426f2a87923b7a380884ef0ebf302545

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Emmetropia” (D058453).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058453). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotion
<a id="emotion"></a>

Emotion is the part of consciousness concerned with feeling or affect. It can be understood as a strong feeling or aroused mental state directed at a particular object and involving bodily and behavioral changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 52cbe3a4f65349e34fb1ea2cffc74fc5e1ee266805e59b9ca05cd5a3f790d6aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Emotion” (C54266).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotion-focused coping
<a id="emotion-focused-coping"></a>

Emotion-focused coping is a way of dealing with stress that centers on a person’s emotional reactions and attention to the self rather than directly changing the stressful situation. It can be helpful when it supports emotional processing or seeking support, but it can be unhelpful when it promotes avoidance, passivity, or self-blame.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8a4d30b94192d47642a47962d758f5bcbc65ca6f9b0c10881820dca7ee4614c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kovács Lilla Nóra; Katzinger Eva; Yi Sunghwan; Demetrovics Zsolt; Maraz Aniko; Kökönyei Gyöngyi. Emotion-focused coping mediates the relationship between COVID-related distress and compulsive buying. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0274458; article XML SHA-256 482564238e2d07e4b3a4dfe857bce76895035b004c1aa961fabf1cfca6b2271d. “Emotion-focused coping mediates the relationship between COVID-related distress and compulsive buying” (10.1371/journal.pone.0274458).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0274458). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Emotion-Focused Therapy
<a id="emotion-focused-therapy"></a>

Emotion-Focused Therapy is an intervention that uses open expression of feelings along with coaching to increase awareness of emotional experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 2 · SHA-256: db4d67ef583821d68cc188d1adbd11e8cf2fafb9360c35b978ba2a2b291d08ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Emotion-Focused Therapy” (D000071441).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000071441). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotion regulation
<a id="emotion-regulation"></a>

Emotion regulation is the way people influence their emotional responses, including how strong they are, how long they last, whether they feel positive or negative, and how they are expressed. It can happen before or after an emotion arises, and may increase or decrease both positive and negative emotions either consciously or unconsciously.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01a38845a6cf5075b3fcbf35fb63df8680ddc1a48905e874574e39bbc55e2568

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Emotional Regulation” (D000080103).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000080103). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional abuse
<a id="emotional-abuse"></a>

Emotional abuse is a form of nonphysical abuse involving a deliberate, repeated pattern of harmful actions by one person toward another. These actions damage the other person’s emotions, behavior, and overall mental well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9af5ce9c65c7dc70a615fafe9db18bf4a5b0dbedd0dd9f39336b1ef0a22d4df4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Emotional Abuse” (D000085202).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000085202). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional adjustment
<a id="emotional-adjustment"></a>

Emotional adjustment is the psychological process of adapting to an important emotional event or stimulus. It refers to how a person mentally and emotionally accommodates a significant experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3ac64d422df19618d9764f6976dddd0797126db77fcf28aa71d74b907bd5702a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Emotional Adjustment” (D000066498).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000066498). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional charge
<a id="emotional-charge"></a>

Emotional charge is the emotional quality carried by a stimulus, such as music, that gives it a positive or negative feeling tone. In this context, it refers to the valence of the music’s emotional impact and how that emotional tone can influence thinking and creative performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5d8430e13ac8d3b86fb816297c0df61abf1c578892524364de058f348a2ffdb0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xiao Xinyao; Tan Junying; Liu Xiaolin; Zheng Maoping. The dual effect of background music on creativity: perspectives of music preference and cognitive interference. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1247133; article XML SHA-256 b11b65246d60c3b2f795ce89d06c0ca087f300f5c2a1feefae1028b8b637bc28. “The dual effect of background music on creativity: perspectives of music preference and cognitive interference” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1247133).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1247133). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional cognition
<a id="emotional-cognition"></a>

Emotional cognition is the mental ability to understand emotions, including recognizing emotional signals such as facial expressions. In children, it is reflected in how well they identify others’ emotions and use that information in social interaction and adaptation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f23935ea98f205c4bcb2f78c0db180705e846d86b5df8f29604f2ade893812ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yihan; Luo Qian; Zhang Yuanmeng; Zhao Ke. Synchrony or asynchrony: development of facial expression recognition from childhood to adolescence based on large-scale evidence. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1379652; article XML SHA-256 723d33c769c13496ffc18cb5788fb3f785102d1d757dfedebbd04d00b1420210. “Synchrony or asynchrony: development of facial expression recognition from childhood to adolescence based on large-scale evidence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1379652).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1379652). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional conflict
<a id="emotional-conflict"></a>

Emotional conflict is a form of cognitive interference in which emotionally meaningful but irrelevant information makes it harder to process the information that matters for the task. It is often studied with mismatched emotional cues, such as a face and a word that convey different feelings, which can lead to slower or less accurate responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f2d05190e99c4dbd2a588e5df1cdc39ff114a8eb1bc228f547934177ac44ab2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Yang; Zhao Yan; Cheng Shiping. Distinct effects of monetary versus social reward magnitudes on the emotional congruency effect in subclinical depression: a word-face Stroop study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767155; article XML SHA-256 4a9b08b7fd22bb309a04265e7bee0cc769825a47567c2518b7f7f29bbbf2124b. “Distinct effects of monetary versus social reward magnitudes on the emotional congruency effect in subclinical depression: a word-face Stroop study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767155).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767155). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional content
<a id="emotional-content"></a>

Emotional content is the emotion-related meaning carried by a stimulus or message, such as an emoji, face, picture, or word. It refers to how much feeling is conveyed and can be described in terms such as emotionality, pleasantness or unpleasantness (valence), and level of activation (arousal), often depending on context when the signal is ambiguous.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5f39e33f7b5ecc792cb730d073bb6a82438d60fae126d5933155bf51d35ed432

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fischer Brigitte; Herbert Cornelia. Emoji as Affective Symbols: Affective Judgments of Emoji, Emoticons, and Human Faces Varying in Emotional Content. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.645173; article XML SHA-256 7781091edb591d0495896f53b551001c514cadde37556dbb90e4b55f03480b19. “Emoji as Affective Symbols: Affective Judgments of Emoji, Emoticons, and Human Faces Varying in Emotional Content” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.645173).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.645173). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional deprivation
<a id="emotional-deprivation"></a>

Emotional deprivation is an early maladaptive schema involving a lasting sense that one’s emotional needs were not adequately met, for example through unmet needs or subtle forms of neglect in early development. In this context, it is understood as a schema-level vulnerability linked with later emotion regulation difficulties and psychological distress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 90bcf9f420274b8117a720ec4c3facdf61c06922b5aaef29aa03a5daece724ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Major Jutta; Matuz András; Moezzi Mehdi; Lengyel Zsuzsanna; Birkás Béla; Gács Boróka. Beyond trauma: Schema-driven psychological burden in psoriasis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338947; article XML SHA-256 7d011eedc624557cc412fdb01bbf3169ac75f6da50d1d5a1bf16473520ed65d8. “Beyond trauma: Schema-driven psychological burden in psoriasis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338947).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338947). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## emotional deterioration
<a id="emotional-deterioration"></a>

Emotional deterioration is a worsening in a person’s emotional valence over time, meaning their moment-to-moment feelings shift in a more negative direction during an ongoing interaction. In the source packet, it refers to this negative emotional shift being more likely after low-quality AI responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed715ff077fb0c29618a1a9fb5a3ac51f4db5e1c68ad534c1c1ccf290c77a3ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Yiming Taclis; Liu Ting; Pang Patrick; Kan Ho Yin. Decoding dynamic emotional valence in GenAI interactions: insights from covariate-dependent Markov chains. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783364; article XML SHA-256 a97b7121a656cd712b8c23f679872709ffb080f025d7922ff93ff74c42909445. “Decoding dynamic emotional valence in GenAI interactions: insights from covariate-dependent Markov chains” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783364).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783364). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional development
<a id="emotional-development"></a>

Emotional development is the growth of a child’s inner emotional capacities, including emotional autonomy, empathic expression, and the ability to adapt socially. In this packet, it is described as something that can be weakened when parenting creates hidden emotional pressure, leading a child to seem outwardly compliant while internally showing distress, inhibition, anxiety, or reduced sense of agency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8eba33f0b43f83235fa763a34e42b3f1efedca70db7647f33ecd4823187659fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jin Lei; Jiang Xinyi; Guo Feng. From parental psychological control to hidden emotional pressure: a multimodal review of children's socio-emotional development. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900170; article XML SHA-256 f080d03c725742830e8b28b1b7444f5a684af3fe218f7f2720d81000f402df20. “From parental psychological control to hidden emotional pressure: a multimodal review of children's socio-emotional development” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900170).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900170). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional disposition
<a id="emotional-disposition"></a>

Emotional disposition is a lasting mental tendency to experience particular emotions when a certain object is encountered. The exact emotion can change with the circumstances in which that object appears.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fcc1e39cccdcbc23f2866556f07d93311a5aac6688a4a6aecaa5d9d76b878c6e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Emotional Disposition” (Emotional Disposition).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Emotional Disposition). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional disturbance
<a id="emotional-disturbance"></a>

Emotional disturbance is an IDEA disability classification used in schools. In this source, it is described as the category most commonly linked with behavioral difficulties and school disciplinary action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: aad2be8dd989f2e98f0aa16ef01f378186cca3fe07c5d41c995bc333085159c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Beck Wells Melissa. Disciplinary removal patterns among students with other health impairments and emotional disturbance: A three-year descriptive analysis of IDEA Part B data. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346338; article XML SHA-256 e49d4d1efc78440f296a7456d58641c5fb043da2acf777c0c0663653aa18a0cd. “Disciplinary removal patterns among students with other health impairments and emotional disturbance: A three-year descriptive analysis of IDEA Part B data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346338).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346338). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional divorce
<a id="emotional-divorce"></a>

Emotional divorce is a state in which spouses continue living together and carrying out marital roles, but are effectively separated in emotional and relational ways. It is marked by distance, lack of intimacy, and reduced love, trust, respect, or concern between partners, and it has been linked with poorer mental health such as greater depression, anxiety, and loneliness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 41af03456449d16b873e3320a9ca0b86f711bd1bcb5306d643f2c27c6c2a8846

Sources:
- Drafting source: [AL-shahrani Hend Faye; Hammad Mohammad Ahmed. Impact of emotional divorce on the mental health of married women in Saudi Arabia. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293285; article XML SHA-256 eb53a6a269a9c9689e85294f29bd0fe4fea4c2e2496db495f9298384cc883261. “Impact of emotional divorce on the mental health of married women in Saudi Arabia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293285).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293285). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional expression
<a id="emotional-expression"></a>

Emotional expression is the characteristic bodily change that happens along with an emotion. When these changes chiefly involve the face, they are called facial expression; historically, psychologists debated whether the feeling comes first and causes the bodily expression, or whether the bodily changes are what give rise to the felt emotion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db6386ce9faa196da32c6dab9390248ce20696c2f16ab136d764ceab962f9446

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Emotional Expression” (Emotional Expression).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Emotional Expression). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional insight
<a id="emotional-insight"></a>

Emotional insight is a clearer understanding of one’s own emotions, including recognizing feelings and reflecting on emotional and behavioral patterns. In this context, it refers to greater awareness of what someone is feeling and how those feelings relate to their responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03c821eb60d518137bbcd5f246c853a9a541db7726e4c4129f87b0e16dc18224

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Leijse Merel M L; van Dam Levi; Bouwmeester Samantha; van der Pol Thimo M; Breuk René; Popma Arne. ‘I gotta Feeling’: Exploring the effects of a smartphone app (Feelee) to enhance adolescents’ emotion regulation in forensic outpatient settings: A multiple single-case experimental design. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332111; article XML SHA-256 5c1a47e96bc9f48410745c8ba6414a32b95918ffd41907a4a5e9b829193c2bf6. “‘I gotta Feeling’: Exploring the effects of a smartphone app (Feelee) to enhance adolescents’ emotion regulation in forensic outpatient settings: A multiple single-case experimental design” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332111).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332111). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional instability
<a id="emotional-instability"></a>

Emotional instability is a pattern of emotions changing quickly and intensely, with sudden dramatic shifts in mood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2715c423f242caba2b5dbd3da25c66c91e663281d6e9f6043178163773bf13ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Labile Affect” (C168306).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional intelligence
<a id="emotional-intelligence"></a>

Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and manage emotions and to use emotional understanding to support thinking and handle tasks effectively. It includes capacities such as empathy, self-awareness, self-regulation, self-motivation, and social skill, and reflects how well a person relates to others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8a9ee02c7b88d2cf168035bcc726737f90b9c2d892ca2765e599cf4629cf8963

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Emotional Intelligence” (D056348).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D056348). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional maturity
<a id="emotional-maturity"></a>

Emotional maturity is the psychological development that can occur as late adolescents grow older, marked in this study by becoming less neurotic, less anxious, less depressive, and more extraverted. It is described as part of broader social and emotional maturation linked to changes in brain systems involved in emotional processing and social cognition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 60f7bd5896e9d29275aea8beff0f3672e6c8eb52efcb1c40c7ec5df332641985

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tamura Miyuki; Moriguchi Yoshiya; Higuchi Shigekazu; Hida Akiko; Enomoto Minori; Umezawa Jun; Mishima Kazuo. Neural Network Development in Late Adolescents during Observation of Risk-Taking Action. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0039527; article XML SHA-256 4520c4aed5948e66bda63396456e60fb784f5538343af62b7f8392ef06ebe42a. “Neural Network Development in Late Adolescents during Observation of Risk-Taking Action” (10.1371/journal.pone.0039527).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039527). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional memory
<a id="emotional-memory"></a>

In this historical usage, emotional memory refers to a recollection of the past in which the parts of an experience hold a fairly equal interest because they are all felt as belonging to one’s past. James contrasts it with more usual remembering, where only certain especially interesting details stand out above the rest.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c84c2077f51c8bb75e6b3c624be8cf40d8b5a448268de3605c3ae11351f693e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional processing theory
<a id="emotional-processing-theory"></a>

Emotional processing theory is a view of exposure-based therapy that says improvement happens as conditioned fear links weaken and a person’s fear or distress decreases during an exposure session and across repeated sessions. In this account, habituation within and between sessions is a key process behind treatment effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a62d6993da15e21c77375b5410e3283fc8b1b015e955973e9a97b957e63b11a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Elsner Björn; Jacobi Tanja; Kischkel Eva; Schulze Daniel; Reuter Benedikt. Mechanisms of exposure and response prevention in obsessive-compulsive disorder: effects of habituation and expectancy violation on short-term outcome in cognitive behavioral therapy. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-03701-z; article XML SHA-256 20cd8915f635547f691fcc4e00c32006aea99d4c594485fe30f2d6918e4bb527. “Mechanisms of exposure and response prevention in obsessive-compulsive disorder: effects of habituation and expectancy violation on short-term outcome in cognitive behavioral therapy” (10.1186/s12888-022-03701-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-03701-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional quotient
<a id="emotional-quotient"></a>

Emotional quotient refers to personal, emotional, and social skills involved in adapting to and coping with environmental demands and pressures. In this context, it is treated as a way of describing abilities linked to later success, health, and psychological well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e9e6707b858cf5093ed5bd94fb9e2a01417a3e74a709a93a83636a4d377bd336

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sánchez-Teruel David; Robles-Bello María Auxiliadora; Camacho-Conde José Antonio. Assessment of emotional intelligence in adults with down syndrome: Psychometric properties of the Emotional Quotient Inventory. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0236087; article XML SHA-256 7ea009e063e4f2ea2bf5bbc8c41d6c225a328720169899786d5da69142548c38. “Assessment of emotional intelligence in adults with down syndrome: Psychometric properties of the Emotional Quotient Inventory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0236087).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236087). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional release
<a id="emotional-release"></a>

In this packet, emotional release refers to the expression of pent-up resentments and prejudices, often connected to grievances about the social system. It is described specifically in the context of violent crowd behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d34064cbf88ca2b6956187833d7a94c1a46960a8056d6bef21f69bef07e89049

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Riots” (D012305).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012305). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional stability
<a id="emotional-stability"></a>

Emotional stability is a Big Five personality trait describing how strong and changeable a person’s emotional reactions are when facing stress, setbacks, or negative feelings. Higher emotional stability means steadier emotions and greater resilience, which can help limit worsening anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 010b3fee66235b7be41bedc7c3c7b15f308db8b932321a5f69b7aa23df1ae2b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yuntai; Han Jiangtao; Mei Yukun; Lin Shiyi; Gong Guodong; Zheng Fengqiong; He Songkai; Sun Jian. Dynamic interactions among anxiety, emotional stability, and mindfulness: a cross-lagged panel network analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1740018; article XML SHA-256 16739cfcadfafe486fdb2194947aba1187d286f15fc46dfda8d4defc93e443b1. “Dynamic interactions among anxiety, emotional stability, and mindfulness: a cross-lagged panel network analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1740018).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1740018). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional support
<a id="emotional-support"></a>

Emotional support is the caring, encouraging side of an interpersonal relationship that provides emotional companionship within a supportive social environment. In this source, it is described as an important factor in helping athletes maintain continuity in training and pursue success.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a6a7c42bba67b49e1eba8940738e06f3351fe8c6ecab09da558c7aed09d98496

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Mengfen; Chen Jiawei; Liu Yang; Zheng Bo; Han Xinjie; Zhou Zeng. Can coach emotional support motivate college athletes to train disligently? A moderated mediation model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1790913; article XML SHA-256 a293bd118f90abc06b7eeaffa3b1344fcf4eda4024f8c2c72779c023e6b9b30f. “Can coach emotional support motivate college athletes to train disligently? A moderated mediation model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1790913).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1790913). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional unconscious
<a id="emotional-unconscious"></a>

Emotional unconscious refers to emotional processing that occurs outside conscious awareness and can influence how people organize and connect information during learning. In this source, it is described as part of the unnoticed mental activity involved in integrating verbal and visual material.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 796a0ee9a264f3b114dd9ba016b64b9f190b949bfb534d462dccdbfc0c5f34fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kuldas Seffetullah; Ismail Hairul Nizam; Hashim Shahabuddin; Bakar Zainudin Abu. Unconscious learning processes: mental integration of verbal and pictorial instructional materials. 2013; DOI 10.1186/2193-1801-2-105; article XML SHA-256 7eb64a03af48f7cd358bb15a15ae5b8e299d9dc328790bb7523f9ba7bd824710. “Unconscious learning processes: mental integration of verbal and pictorial instructional materials” (10.1186/2193-1801-2-105).](https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-105). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotional valence
<a id="emotional-valence"></a>

Emotional valence is the emotional quality of a stimulus or experience in terms of whether it is positive, neutral, or negative. In cognition, it is used to describe an emotional factor that can influence processes such as attention and memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 15637d01d2a513335898b4f014119d98766963d8f10c1779867e9636f8a437b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xie Qinling; Zhang Meina; Wang Yiyuan; Wang Di; Huang Fajie. The attentional boost effect in individuals prone to depression: a Remember/Know analysis based on emotional valence and material type. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1661870; article XML SHA-256 830550af5a0c133cf4d3532ba4c777ee151b6d249e158f9c5667e10b06853797. “The attentional boost effect in individuals prone to depression: a Remember/Know analysis based on emotional valence and material type” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1661870).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1661870). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emotive imagery
<a id="emotive-imagery"></a>

Emotive imagery is a communication approach that uses vivid, emotionally engaging elements such as personal case descriptions and pictures to shape how people perceive risk. In this context, it is presented as a form of storytelling that may increase willingness to vaccinate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c88bc7042d8b3ddf6720396c691ca42b1ae55952227aeca7e122f35adeb75356

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Avelino-Silva Vivian I; Ferreira-Silva Sofia Natalia; Soares Maria Eduarda Muniz; Vasconcelos Ricardo; Fujita Luiz; Medeiros Tainah; Barbieri Carolina Luisa Alves; Couto Marcia Thereza. Say it right: measuring the impact of different communication strategies on the decision to get vaccinated. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12889-023-16047-2; article XML SHA-256 a611b0ad10e1264805d087907fa67d7178dd3f1d6b4ba72b17eeea5cbec9f09f. “Say it right: measuring the impact of different communication strategies on the decision to get vaccinated” (10.1186/s12889-023-16047-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16047-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## empathic failure
<a id="empathic-failure"></a>

Empathic failure is a breakdown in a clinician’s felt ability to attune to or connect with a patient during the clinical encounter. In this source, it is described as a key experiential aspect of praecox feeling and as a subjective disruption in empathic attunement that may contribute to recognizing schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01612bbef387f6fc691711334cdd4ee5e86a163ab87272e0e9fb3f85afb8bf58

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fonzi Laura; Pallagrosi Mauro; Carlone Cristiano; Picardi Angelo. Discrimination between schizophrenia and other psychotic conditions by clinician’s difficulty in attunement: a reappraisal of the Praecox Feeling concept. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1534377; article XML SHA-256 c3e44cb6a6533f5da031245d5a82de8b3a7b609b796c10927502680f6a1a6ec0. “Discrimination between schizophrenia and other psychotic conditions by clinician’s difficulty in attunement: a reappraisal of the Praecox Feeling concept” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1534377).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1534377). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## empathy
<a id="empathy"></a>

Empathy is a person’s clear, thoughtful awareness of another person’s feelings and behavior. Unlike sympathy, it is presented as more objective and may include caring, shown through concern for another person’s well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1716079383d01b03c717bf2d2460bc087d9981b009b6b3da8242eee28f3d1437

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Empathy” (D004645).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004645). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## empathy-altruism hypothesis
<a id="empathy-altruism-hypothesis"></a>

The empathy-altruism hypothesis is the idea that empathy toward other people is a necessary basis for altruistic behavior. In plain terms, it proposes that feeling or understanding another person’s emotions helps motivate actions intended to benefit them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4bf886e85c3f92bfb0773f8f5d153bf204c18863ae8a85d60f87d901bde1b310

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Neaman Alexander; Pensini Pamela; Navarro-Villarroel Claudia; Ermakov Dmitry S.; Castro Mónica. Helping people, neglecting soil: contrasting effects of emotional empathy with humans on altruistic behaviour and soil conservation in a population of Chilean farmers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1843293; article XML SHA-256 97cd8f3c5e7825c4ba0e2c1245fcfe8c409c09a74f99fd411c7889c6db8e2b67. “Helping people, neglecting soil: contrasting effects of emotional empathy with humans on altruistic behaviour and soil conservation in a population of Chilean farmers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1843293).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1843293). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## empathy training
<a id="empathy-training"></a>

Empathy training is organized instruction designed to help service workers strengthen empathy in their interactions with the people they serve. In the reviewed literature, it commonly aims to build skills such as communication, relationship building, emotional resilience, and counselling-related skills.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1794aa4124661996eb3ff245f97b2cbba8046a4183d4666955f764b46b3d0a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lajante Mathieu; Del Prete Marzia; Sasseville Beatrice; Rouleau Geneviève; Gagnon Marie-Pierre; Pelletier Normand. Empathy training for service employees: A mixed-methods systematic review. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0289793; article XML SHA-256 46587a6ea88c31b7c944e1b2c55f9a7a91900f861d5daa7689b14821a25677f1. “Empathy training for service employees: A mixed-methods systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0289793).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289793). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## empirical grounding
<a id="empirical-grounding"></a>

Empirical grounding is the practice of basing clinical understanding on observable evidence from real therapy interactions rather than relying mainly on abstract interpretation. In this context, it means attending to what can be seen and studied in sessions, including subtle nonverbal processes that may be hard to put into words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b524d93d5651e5bf7ec5ac7784fafd4dcb373a4a2062ce5559d934a491eb49fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hoff Cecilie Hillestad; Strømme Hanne. The unbearable lightness of laughting: a reflexive thematic analysis of smiles and laughter in five psychotherapy training processes. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1720110; article XML SHA-256 69c3e220f8f1fb0f795b915a38ad401d0ef56ff62c5a5dc122d5d15fdb50579e. “The unbearable lightness of laughting: a reflexive thematic analysis of smiles and laughter in five psychotherapy training processes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1720110).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1720110). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## empirical knowledge
<a id="empirical-knowledge"></a>

Empirical knowledge is knowledge that comes from experience rather than from theory alone. In this historical usage, it means knowledge derived from experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0cd000b0aa821df1e4e3223eece119c138f4145b30401910d770ba477f368458

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Empirical” (Empirical).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Empirical). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## empirical method
<a id="empirical-method"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, the empirical method means investigating mind by starting with experience as it is actually found in consciousness, rather than assuming supposedly simple elements first and building upward from them. It begins with the fact that thought is occurring and analyzes it, instead of taking isolated sensations as the starting point.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aac5668f1a0faac2cf994d814a42a2df905811a475dc92ab6d6c134844c68ee2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## empirical self
<a id="empirical-self"></a>

In this historical philosophical-psychological usage, the empirical self is the self as it appears within consciousness, especially as the inner self known in contrast with the outer world and as existing in time. The passage presents it as one side of the subject-object distinction that occurs within consciousness rather than between consciousness and something wholly outside it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b42b2a487c911fd6373dabeaef9470e60322e25b192d783491c05a2506da65a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3139500-3151500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## empirical validity
<a id="empirical-validity"></a>

Empirical validity is the extent to which a measure is supported by observed data, such as whether it shows the expected statistical relationship with the outcomes it is supposed to help explain or predict. In this packet, it refers to judging a measure by how well it performs in real-world analyses compared with alternative measures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 68135ca0f4102ab8bd8a714f57ceaaa4ed6f1003d79866190bcb1daaa4942151

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vogel Matt; Lee Heeyoung; Kaser Taylor; Kim Yoobin. Misappropriating vulnerability: Assessing the utility of the social vulnerability index as a predictor of firearm violence. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355673; article XML SHA-256 4b49ca9d7a45d8903d5e306c0ec09dc3537f4f0bb49345c7d930b6d668821a8e. “Misappropriating vulnerability: Assessing the utility of the social vulnerability index as a predictor of firearm violence” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355673).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355673). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## empiricism
<a id="empiricism"></a>

Empiricism is a historical approach that emphasizes knowledge gained from observation and experience rather than searching for ultimate underlying causes. In this view, understanding comes from one’s own observations, what others have learned, and drawing parallels between similar cases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a25239bf1b0d3e4e436b9bceee0a042321d0854abe40d8a334bf0e95ad34213a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Empiricism” (D019348).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019348). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## employment psychology
<a id="employment-psychology"></a>

Employment psychology refers to the feelings, attitudes, and mental tendencies people have about getting a job, such as confusion, anxiety, pessimism, or a preference for stable work. In this study context, it describes how university students’ views of the job market shape their employment choices and intentions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 33cf37e787ea3fa2b5fe9c18e0fd91681a17140494d40ef9769399afdad3596a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zheng Sining; Yan Yanfen. Changes in employment psychology of Chinese university students during the two stages of COVID-19 control and their impacts on their employment intentions. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1447103; article XML SHA-256 2c3a07d3e2b1f74995b6d7d0f9cbd69ca099a4835b2d97f3b18a224754e842cc. “Changes in employment psychology of Chinese university students during the two stages of COVID-19 control and their impacts on their employment intentions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1447103).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1447103). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## empowerment
<a id="empowerment"></a>

Empowerment is the process of strengthening a person’s or group’s ability to make their own choices and turn those choices into actions that achieve their chosen goals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb6345ac4696dd6891c793828fca8bdfa8efb73d6f966af42870e0502d041fb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Empowerment” (D000079102).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000079102). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## empty-chair technique
<a id="empty-chair-technique"></a>

The empty-chair technique is a Gestalt therapy method in which a person speaks in dialogue with an imagined other person or with a part of themselves. It is used to help bring out, examine, and work through emotions or inner conflicts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6befab592bb97f58de346af8e2223f7a42b10c8aa5f5cc1a2d2272a46399036d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yoo Kieun; Kim Eunha. Qualitative study on the virtual reality-based empty-chair technique in middle-aged South Korean men. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1559171; article XML SHA-256 7528b4af3dc2a64157e6eee12cafd6961a8c1b9878b97a30e3998c2d29b9b604. “Qualitative study on the virtual reality-based empty-chair technique in middle-aged South Korean men” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1559171).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1559171). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## empyreumatic
<a id="empyreumatic"></a>

In this packet, empyreumatic refers to a form of Sophora alopecuroides oil made by vacuum distillation. The term is used here as part of the name of a plant-derived oil that has been used traditionally for skin conditions such as eczema, psoriasis vulgaris, and neurodermatitis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cff358fa64a8d3b54f8669a5a332d0f06e4db239d2e2812b5bffeb17fb7cce14

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cheng Xiuli; Zhou Xiangyu; Wang Wenping; Chen Jing; Cao Yikun; Wen Jia; Hu Jin. Nanotechnology-driven nanoemulsion gel for enhanced transdermal delivery of Sophora alopecuroides L. empyreumatic oil: formulation optimization, and anti-biofilm efficacy. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fbioe.2025.1586924; article XML SHA-256 aca995011aecc815098251b3b190752b61764faf4e69dc2e38c31f45cb0d4ac6. “Nanotechnology-driven nanoemulsion gel for enhanced transdermal delivery of Sophora alopecuroides L. empyreumatic oil: formulation optimization, and anti-biofilm efficacy” (10.3389/fbioe.2025.1586924).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2025.1586924). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EMR
<a id="emr"></a>

EMR, or endoscopic mucosal resection, is an endoscopic procedure used in the gastrointestinal tract to find and outline superficial mucosal lesions, lift them with a submucosal injection, and help remove them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a112e2c20a5d6abe64706236b7bf87e121900dd3367b8ec1bc4907eea0f2a69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Endoscopic Mucosal Resection” (C103242).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## emulation
<a id="emulation"></a>

In this historical educational sense, emulation means the desire and effort to match or outdo another person, taking the form of competitive imitation or rivalry. The source describes it as a teaching principle used to stimulate effort, while also warning that it can shift attention away from learning itself toward personal competition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ebb4894359f118044b7288710299183c5f7b3f5b0c0ee8df74168216f3749bf7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Emulation (in education)” (Emulation (in education)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Emulation (in education)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## enactment
<a id="enactment"></a>

Enactment is the act of making a law, or the law that results from that process. In historical usage, it refers to a legislative act that becomes effective after formal approval by the proper governing authority.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3eebed12dc9b249c89af87c73da6a5d55e70ff302fd126a0c0d6b51f04afa558

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Enactment” (Enactment).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Enactment). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## encephalitis
<a id="encephalitis"></a>

Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain. It can result from infections, autoimmune activity, toxins, or other causes, and viruses are a fairly common cause.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34519ef17756a70727ac3a3340c03b02ffffcfe78af56aa5d869bcc5131c7543

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Encephalitis” (D004660).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004660). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## encephalocele
<a id="encephalocele"></a>

Encephalocele is a condition in which brain tissue pushes out through a defect in the skull that may be present at birth or acquired later. It often appears as a bulging mass, and the amount and location of the protruding tissue affect the kind and severity of neurological problems, which can include visual, developmental, and lasting motor difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9fb208fc5dd65c1acd7ae8e903684d8e8e95123dbd905a70922b4cfa1e85f1fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Encephalocele” (D004677).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004677). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## encephalomalacia
<a id="encephalomalacia"></a>

Encephalomalacia is the softening or loss of brain tissue after damage such as reduced blood flow, infarction, infection, head injury, or other brain injury. The term may also be used to describe brain tissue that appears less firm with blurred outer margins on gross examination after an infarct.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6bebce1941d45719f3e259c1e9d3399577716ceebd77512f0e951586f1c6c23a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Encephalomalacia” (D004678).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004678). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## encephalomyelitis
<a id="encephalomyelitis"></a>

Encephalomyelitis is a general term for inflammation affecting both the brain and spinal cord. It is often used for infectious illness, but it can also refer to autoimmune or toxic-metabolic causes, and its use overlaps considerably with encephalitis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8314ba0a5f0689f09dac79f3c74603acc20ee15a6c89bbb25e946ab7a3fb5609

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Encephalomyelitis” (D004679).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004679). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## encephalon
<a id="encephalon"></a>

Encephalon is the portion of the central nervous system located within the skull. In development it arises from the neural tube and includes forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain regions; in the mature state it includes the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem structures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e725cd4ef2977eeca2f94cb623ca55ce481f1e4fda7f3ae409d0df1b1876b425

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brain” (D001921).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001921). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## encephalopathy
<a id="encephalopathy"></a>

Encephalopathy is a disorder that affects how the brain works and/or its structure. It can result from illnesses such as liver or kidney disease, as well as from medications, chemicals, or injuries.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cca4976f4ac4c187d94535512e6b1da730b94e490cdfc275100a198a748f091f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Encephalopathy” (C26920).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## encoding strategy
<a id="encoding-strategy"></a>

An encoding strategy is a way of helping information enter memory by organizing or linking it in a meaningful way. In the packet, this refers especially to a semantic approach that uses associations to connect new information with a person’s own context, which can support long-term recall.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bf2fbfeaffe8f72779d0c5d3cee9e1fe1a04aa24606572913a9aaafcca753f61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mraz Hannah; Tong Choy-Ying; Liu Karen P. Y.. Semantic-based memory-encoding strategy and cognitive stimulation in enhancing cognitive function and daily task performance for older adults with mild cognitive impairment: A pilot non-randomised cluster controlled trial. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0283449; article XML SHA-256 d1932c111abd6678fd20a2d57fc283b517cf1af8138fdf9b9754ac529bcdf525. “Semantic-based memory-encoding strategy and cognitive stimulation in enhancing cognitive function and daily task performance for older adults with mild cognitive impairment: A pilot non-randomised cluster controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0283449).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283449). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## encopresis
<a id="encopresis"></a>

Encopresis is fecal incontinence that is not caused by a physical defect or medical illness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ab364838b05f3f51797b59131e4d643b2ffadc62cac9572e720b323171994c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Encopresis” (D004688).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004688). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## encounter
<a id="encounter"></a>

In this educational psychology context, an encounter refers to coming across AI-generated information unexpectedly and without planning while interacting with an AI system. It includes unanticipated recommendations, discoveries during assisted searching, or extra information that goes beyond the user’s original question.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3206ed9adf15950b3490738ebe563f34fca785ef9824b7620b39c68e24067860

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Zongshuang; Song Mingxia. AI information encounters and university students’ digital burnout: the mediating role of cognitive flexibility and the moderating effect of AI learning trust. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1897395; article XML SHA-256 2bc812581d37564b2410c1fa58c227a614f508bc308f4368594ab549b33148c4. “AI information encounters and university students’ digital burnout: the mediating role of cognitive flexibility and the moderating effect of AI learning trust” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1897395).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1897395). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## end feet
<a id="end-feet"></a>

End feet are the terminal extensions of astrocyte processes in the central nervous system. They help form the glial limiting membrane and contribute directly and indirectly to the blood-brain barrier.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aaf31afdaa9e3ba5a854446b3de8ca797a80c9ee21814e38755ec4f8a7f6ad55

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Astrocytes” (D001253).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001253). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## end of life
<a id="end-of-life"></a>

End of life here refers to death: the irreversible end of all body functions, shown by no spontaneous breathing and complete loss of heart, blood circulation, and brain function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 77a002035cefa0328b21f32d16c6f2031785f570d50ad4932a03a5363b9ed7e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Death” (D003643).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003643). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## end organ
<a id="end-organ"></a>

An end organ is an organ at the end of a pathway of nervous conduction. In usual usage it means the peripheral ending, and it may either start a nerve discharge, receive one, or do both.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16e3cad302c9a3e733ac7bda2389c4c8ec24a4166b7c1aa28e0403006969ab6c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “End-organ” (End-organ).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#End-organ). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## end plate
<a id="end-plate"></a>

An end plate is the terminal structure of a motor nerve where it is embedded in a muscle fiber.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 27f71defa9e755bef2d0d403a9897390eb12fc6552b6f5ffc07c9c85826029b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “End-plate” (End-plate).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#End-plate). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endarterectomy
<a id="endarterectomy"></a>

Endarterectomy, in this context carotid endarterectomy, is a revascularization surgery used in people with major carotid artery atherosclerosis to lower stroke risk by helping restore the brain’s blood and oxygen supply. In cognitive research, it is also examined for possible effects on brain function and cognitive abilities after surgery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e45931b42d8fe0afca213b0932a96b4bc7c46369a3be233d2e86a0549785d6ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kukkonen Tiia; Liuha Sanna; Leukkunen Juha; Lapinkero Hanna-Maija; Rouvinen Ilmari; Monto Simo; Parviainen Tiina. Feasibility of MEG in assessing task-related oscillatory markers and evaluating cognitive changes in recently symptomatic carotid endarterectomy patients: A pilot study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343689; article XML SHA-256 5aaa3d87864de943cbdbaf6bb2f00b6d3569bea9fb3eb2c80c93e7b787063dad. “Feasibility of MEG in assessing task-related oscillatory markers and evaluating cognitive changes in recently symptomatic carotid endarterectomy patients: A pilot study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343689).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343689). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endocrine
<a id="endocrine"></a>

Endocrine refers to the body system of glands and organs that make hormones and release them into the bloodstream. These hormones help regulate functions such as growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, and responses to stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 902e480b8ce28cd65ed1743b5ae1cc5a60dcb936fb8d48c451b747597acbca19

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Endocrine System” (C12705).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endoderm
<a id="endoderm"></a>

Endoderm is the inner cell layer in coelenterate animals and the inner one of the embryo’s two earliest cell layers in mammals. In historical usage, it was often called the hypoblast.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1350f74b1acf454dd9d0b8cfeec2b49b58072423f59e96c771988b9edc536c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Endoderm” (Endoderm).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Endoderm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endogamy
<a id="endogamy"></a>

Endogamy is the custom or rule that forbids marriage outside one’s own tribe, meaning marriage is kept within the group. In this historical source, it is presented as the opposite of exogamy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e59e685b62b28bc734242a8d4b38700064c8f303a46cfd055087fea9b8efb1b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Exogamy” (Exogamy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Exogamy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endogenous attention
<a id="endogenous-attention"></a>

Endogenous attention is voluntary, sustained, goal-directed attention that people intentionally direct according to their current aims. It is a top-down process that selects goal-relevant information for further processing, often requiring effort, such as deliberately focusing on a particular location.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5da829af0bcbeb746d97d0b62a40b568babe8f1cc85263dcb42fd7c42ce2013e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nguyen Kieu Ngoc; Watanabe Takeo; Andersen George John. Role of endogenous and exogenous attention in task-relevant visual perceptual learning. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0237912; article XML SHA-256 fd615def82987d4e0b7d8b8c295d3af65e673ffb4d581c00c0a3bae391383c9b. “Role of endogenous and exogenous attention in task-relevant visual perceptual learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0237912).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237912). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endogenous cannabinoid
<a id="endogenous-cannabinoid"></a>

An endogenous cannabinoid is a naturally produced body chemical that acts as a ligand for the endocannabinoid system. In this signaling system, such internal compounds help regulate homeostasis and adaptive responses, including functions related to anxiety, cognition, pain sensation, and other nervous system processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3d210a42548f47bb5b71d45037302bfb26d539545e7ff3e5cb04f4648964ccab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moellmer Samantha A; Hagen Olivia L; Farhang Parsa A; Duke Victoria R; Fallon Meghan E; Hinds Monica T; McCarty Owen J T; Lo Jamie O; Nakayama Karina H. Effects of in utero delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) exposure on fetal and infant musculoskeletal development in a preclinical nonhuman primate model. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0306868; article XML SHA-256 f3b5aa8d464ced61171e28e0d10a57d4f4ef6b8673b17e4590c7f0980ca35fec. “Effects of in utero delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) exposure on fetal and infant musculoskeletal development in a preclinical nonhuman primate model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0306868).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306868). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endogenous cue
<a id="endogenous-cue"></a>

An endogenous cue is a signal that guides attention through a person’s goals, expectations, or learned knowledge rather than through the cue’s immediate physical salience. In this source, emotional information can function as an endogenous cue when people know it predicts where a target is likely to appear and use that association to direct attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e984d3b75c2c4e545e30caf03a6ea8bf643d4e29a89d4b7ab857572ded2e2249

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xue Xiaojuan; Pourtois Gilles. Neither exogenous, nor endogenous: Evidence for a distinct role of negative emotion during attentional control. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319888; article XML SHA-256 c466ecff22ff3747190da12c9c36b6446650d51f6c7374b81c2b7f31db934f6e. “Neither exogenous, nor endogenous: Evidence for a distinct role of negative emotion during attentional control” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319888).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319888). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endogenous rhythm
<a id="endogenous-rhythm"></a>

An endogenous rhythm is a repeating biological pattern produced within the body rather than driven directly by outside conditions. In this source, melatonin secretion is described as an endogenous rhythm controlled by the circadian clock.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: deabfa3f35571ea0f74af151751beb8119fcb675f7eb13551598f73290d16900

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Menassol Jean-Baptiste; Tautou Claire; Collet Armelle; Chesneau Didier; Lomet Didier; Dupont Joëlle; Malpaux Benoît; Scaramuzzi Rex J. The effect of an intracerebroventricular injection of metformin or AICAR on the plasma concentrations of melatonin in the ewe: potential involvement of AMPK?. 2011; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-12-76; article XML SHA-256 52d8ca01dc2c23f6154fb1bea3df6f88525b51a012413cf001b7d441e496c0e0. “The effect of an intracerebroventricular injection of metformin or AICAR on the plasma concentrations of melatonin in the ewe: potential involvement of AMPK?” (10.1186/1471-2202-12-76).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-12-76). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endogenous variable
<a id="endogenous-variable"></a>

An endogenous variable is the outcome being explained within a model. In this study, the endogenous variables were the different aspects of children’s written production whose variation was predicted by skills such as transcription, oral language, and executive functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f6835ba06e4956353478ce2851529f330fb38f940f33882549aba7110911c090

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiménez Juan E.; Balade Jennifer; García Eduardo; Chen Becky Xi. Understanding the pathways to text generation: A longitudinal study on executive functions, oral language, and transcription skills from kindergarten to first grade. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315748; article XML SHA-256 70c77fd1192057ef75af570f43c904fdb56aa8e6aefcea96c1c6c20624ca0379. “Understanding the pathways to text generation: A longitudinal study on executive functions, oral language, and transcription skills from kindergarten to first grade” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315748).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315748). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endolymph
<a id="endolymph"></a>

Endolymph is the fluid within the inner ear whose volume can expand under aldosterone-related effects. In this study context, changes in endolymph volume are linked to inner ear ion balance and motion sickness-like responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e46c8a89bdfc8562cfb543b7d9f142cce3f39bc0fd155c25192a03bf1196275

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Qian-Cheng; Ji Wei; Li Xia; Ge Jian-Gang; Xu Li-Hua; Jiang Zheng-Lin. Atrial natriuretic peptide may inhibit motion sickness through reducing aldosterone-induced increase in endolymph volume of the inner ear. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359426; article XML SHA-256 45cefe967ff1e9642c2b921859b225bb5707519a2412138e84e6c7a3157c0eed. “Atrial natriuretic peptide may inhibit motion sickness through reducing aldosterone-induced increase in endolymph volume of the inner ear” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359426).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359426). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endolymphatic potential
<a id="endolymphatic-potential"></a>

Endolymphatic potential is an electrical potential in the inner ear that serves as the main force driving the sensory transduction involved in hearing. In this process, potassium ions are the main charge carrier.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b23f9615b536e6e58c155984eb3b42eaf579e5d54640608bba548072b82191c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lv Jun; Fu Xiaolong; Li Yige; Hong Guodong; Li Peipei; Lin Jing; Xun Youfang; Fang Lucheng; Weng Weibin; Yue Rongyu; Li Geng-Lin; Guan Bing; Li He; Huang Yideng; Chai Renjie. Deletion of Kcnj16 in Mice Does Not Alter Auditory Function. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fcell.2021.630361; article XML SHA-256 1f878d0b5939f455f3802b1df828805df6f1b070a76608251a41210923f0d0ae. “Deletion of Kcnj16 in Mice Does Not Alter Auditory Function” (10.3389/fcell.2021.630361).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2021.630361). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endometrium
<a id="endometrium"></a>

The endometrium is the tissue lining of the uterus. In this source, it is described as a tissue that becomes receptive to conceptus signals during the peri-implantation period and includes glandular epithelial and stromal cells that can show molecular and inflammatory responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9c12d2b6f8e7f484eb20580952a8922ff6d823752253fa0e19cbb2e0eef2d301

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Denis Marine; Dembélé Doulaye; Richard Christophe; Leduc Marie; Pez Maud; Reinaud Pierrette; Dubois Olivier; Kiefer Hélène; Jammes Hélène; Gelin Valérie; Constant Fabienne; Vialard François; Foucras Gilles; Germon Pierre; Charpigny Gilles; Sandra Olivier; Raliou Mariam. Ageing-driven molecular and functional changes in the bovine endometrium. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332176; article XML SHA-256 079c2882d30147fefb2e56b7995192469cd8397be1173151e9bbf2d91d724798. “Ageing-driven molecular and functional changes in the bovine endometrium” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332176).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332176). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endophenotype
<a id="endophenotype"></a>

An endophenotype is a measurable neurobiological, physiological, cognitive, or social-cognitive marker that serves as an intermediate link between a disorder’s underlying polygenic basis and its clinical symptoms. In psychology and psychiatry research, it refers to a marker expected to be heritable, relatively independent of current illness state, and to run within families alongside the disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05f3c8bcd787753b77e82b54a62d50e280f0173d60a43235cd106340d24ba8e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Garcia Ricardo R; Aliste Francisco; Soto Guillermo. Schizophrenia endophenotypes: a review of neurophysiological, neuropsychological, and social cognition markers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1740394; article XML SHA-256 39fd50fa71906d2e309895b68bf5e3db62b46c3f5647237611528823ebd2faf8. “Schizophrenia endophenotypes: a review of neurophysiological, neuropsychological, and social cognition markers” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1740394).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1740394). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endoplasm
<a id="endoplasm"></a>

In this historical botanical sense, endoplasm is the inner protoplasm of a plant cell that undergoes streaming movements during cyclosis. It may move back and forth along protoplasmic strands or flow in one direction within the surrounding ectoplasmic layer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80c0062d0a0c3fd441b0978da545c1c3e8f897d510bac46fd8d7fce11b7dfa6b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Cyclosis (in botany)” (Cyclosis (in botany)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Cyclosis (in botany)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endorphin
<a id="endorphin"></a>

Endorphin here refers to an endogenous opioid, especially β-endorphin, a substance made in parts of the brain and pituitary that acts on mu opioid receptors. It helps regulate mood, stress responses, and emotional functioning, and lower activity has been proposed as contributing to symptoms such as reduced pleasure and emotional blunting in depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec441b8d34300f02e0b1410ab009800051102715564ba49551c2d94af1d2209c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kirsch Michael. Updated Freudian drive theory: childhood trauma, epigenetics, serotonin and beta endorphin. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1827617; article XML SHA-256 34af8cd2d496136183291b6e67a96ae987dd9d9a75b393fa81ebf6e9b1a8f4bf. “Updated Freudian drive theory: childhood trauma, epigenetics, serotonin and beta endorphin” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1827617).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1827617). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## endowment effect
<a id="endowment-effect"></a>

The endowment effect is the tendency in an exchange situation for people to keep an item they have been given rather than swap it for an equivalent one. In the source, this refusal to exchange is described as depending in part on the social meaning of the item, such as whether it is understood as a gift within a particular cultural context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4381d05e83446d08f1e0deb3aa1bb44348ee13cff4850fed4816d91838dc9bfb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baratgin Jean; Godin Patrice; Jamet Frank. How the Custom Suppresses the Endowment Effect: Exchange Paradigm in Kanak Country. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.785721; article XML SHA-256 5bf10acd39259a53910ba08c21113f64fe46da8332ad3e50b1242503a0784ca3. “How the Custom Suppresses the Endowment Effect: Exchange Paradigm in Kanak Country” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.785721).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.785721). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## energy drink
<a id="energy-drink"></a>

An energy drink is a beverage that higher education students often consume in the hope of improving concentration and academic performance. In this context, its claimed mental or academic benefits are not yet clearly supported by scientific evidence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 84ae6aac7d18c3ffb85e4836fc24cfcf588ddfc8c8f4dd06a479960accdf9e2d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Oliveira Batista Danyla Rafaela; C. Silva Kaio Vinicius; Torres Miguel; Pires da Costa Woska; Monfort-Pañego Manuel; E. Silva Priscilla Rayanne; Noll Matias. Effects of energy drinks on mental health and academic performance of university students: A systematic review and meta-analysis protocol. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319533; article XML SHA-256 30c7dde26db535b9d3c99214700042a717bb334308363c7a80acdd68dc1e4617. “Effects of energy drinks on mental health and academic performance of university students: A systematic review and meta-analysis protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319533).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319533). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## engineering psychology
<a id="engineering-psychology"></a>

Engineering psychology is a branch of applied psychology that focuses on how machines are designed, how people and machines interact, and how machines influence human behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f39641273af20ace2afecf1921516dbfadde7b545b79ab87fb14c68a05a91a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Engineering Psychology” (C16549).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## English as a second language
<a id="english-as-a-second-language"></a>

English as a second language refers to learning English when it is not the learner’s first language. In this context, it describes children whose primary language was Cantonese and who were learning English afterward.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 538a1960aaeb1fe8abaf5524f87969f8e2455f80f90f320153e48ed890e3f98b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Choi William; Tong Xiuli; Singh Leher. From Lexical Tone to Lexical Stress: A Cross-Language Mediation Model for Cantonese Children Learning English as a Second Language. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00492; article XML SHA-256 719722803b6cbf3786925bafe15a9e097c9c7ee0be8202b0c1a9dac712870651. “From Lexical Tone to Lexical Stress: A Cross-Language Mediation Model for Cantonese Children Learning English as a Second Language” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00492).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00492). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## enhancement
<a id="enhancement"></a>

In cognition, enhancement means improving or trying to improve cognitive abilities or performance. In this packet, it refers to the use of an intervention for that purpose.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b0e4f4496f54c4d231f3afa6a4e49e39a37ece2c789974e161e6f2c9daa0549

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Timashkov Andrey; Andreev Sergey; Safonova Anna; Zangieva Samira; Kadieva Dzerassa; Zinchenko Oksana. The inconsistent effects of tDCS in rehabilitation and cognitive enhancement: sources of variability and paths to personalization. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1817726; article XML SHA-256 d78efbb7aea62c9e0fcfa0abc57f8c6c72c8cb7e34c88b12f225011d5622f503. “The inconsistent effects of tDCS in rehabilitation and cognitive enhancement: sources of variability and paths to personalization” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1817726).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1817726). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Enlon
<a id="enlon"></a>

Enlon refers to edrophonium chloride, a short-acting drug that blocks acetylcholinesterase and thereby strengthens the effects of acetylcholine. In the eye, this can increase parasympathetic activity, improve fluid drainage, and lower intraocular pressure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8a8c76cecbc9dcc13d7b3de42a76ec696b9cedcc836a1ffe3563bfa83d14b79f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Edrophonium Chloride” (C47507).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## entelechy
<a id="entelechy"></a>

In Aristotle’s historical use, entelechy is the fully realized form or perfected state that develops from a germ or potential being. It contrasts with mere potentiality by referring to what the thing is meant to become as its form is achieved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 226e635d5915e5333ceaf4637d4e23dd21174dc5503102ee3f751d5d3e8a5f78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Matter and Form” (Matter and Form).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M1defs.htm#Matter and Form). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## entitlement
<a id="entitlement"></a>

Entitlement, in this psychology context, means a belief that one deserves benefits or advantages whether or not they have earned them. It involves expecting special treatment, feeling exempt from ordinary social obligations, and pursuing undeserved resources in self-focused ways, sometimes at others’ expense.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16695c6284375da214cf329282e701bd2c4930b58c84f083df126d1bdce19272

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Çağış Zafer Güney. Initial psychometric properties of the national entitlement scale and its association with social dominance orientation and psychological sense of global community. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04826-6; article XML SHA-256 9fc93289fb6298016a5722469ea993ea4ca5f80e0d4352ebe326606a4ba7d8b7. “Initial psychometric properties of the national entitlement scale and its association with social dominance orientation and psychological sense of global community” (10.1186/s40359-026-04826-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04826-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## entoptic
<a id="entoptic"></a>

Entoptic refers to visual appearances that arise from processes within the eye itself rather than from objects in the outside world. The term is used for such internally produced sights, including effects caused by structures or activity in the eye casting patterns or sensations into vision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b27a475f6387861130b2795d6384bd0f21eb06bf4423a12d086be01c8fbf68c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Entoptic Phenomena” (Entoptic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Entoptic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## entorhinal cortex
<a id="entorhinal-cortex"></a>

The entorhinal cortex is a region of cerebral cortex on the inner side of the parahippocampal gyrus, just behind the uncus’s olfactory cortex. It is the main starting point of nerve fibers that project to the hippocampal formation through the perforant pathway.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e19fa63be431d775495c48c9d0aa224134e78ec2cb3830c18ab508c869ee4f24

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Entorhinal Cortex” (D018728).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018728). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## entrainment
<a id="entrainment"></a>

Entrainment is the synchronization of brain activity to an external rhythmic stimulus, such as flickering light. In this context, it means brainwaves begin to match the timing or frequency of the repeated sensory input.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e6592a03b5ceed0ed67676f4a9f2796f0dba2f0a632dc621b4c613d1e44195a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alamalhoda MohammadAmin; Leesch Friederike; Giovanetti Francesca; Dunne Eoghan; Pilloni Giuseppina; Caffrey Mark; O’Keeffe Jack; Venturino Alessandro; Ferretti Maria Teresa. Exploring neural entrainment and synchrony in response to repeated 60 Hz flickering white light in healthy volunteers. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332310; article XML SHA-256 b160e468854e2c2cd37c2825057a020b5806a125b5385a48b86bf5911d194d7b. “Exploring neural entrainment and synchrony in response to repeated 60 Hz flickering white light in healthy volunteers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332310).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332310). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## entrapment
<a id="entrapment"></a>

Entrapment here refers to compression of the median nerve within the carpal tunnel of the wrist. It can be linked with repetitive strain, injury, pregnancy, rheumatoid arthritis, and some other conditions, and may cause burning pain, tingling, reduced sensation, or wasting of the thenar muscles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef03f22ae1fd2049292730f079345a61348b5064136d87e3c50ed7dedd70f817

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Carpal Tunnel Syndrome” (D002349).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002349). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Enuresis
<a id="enuresis"></a>

Enuresis is the involuntary release of urine after the age when bladder control would normally be expected. It may happen during the day while awake or at night during sleep, and it can occur in children or adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 518ee4efa4edc531f06f937f3f183383df1b297b0e0014affbb469d475ee8705

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Enuresis” (D004775).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004775). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## environment
<a id="environment"></a>

Environment is the total set of outside conditions and circumstances that affect an organism at any point in its life. The term can also be used more broadly for relations within the organism itself, and in a figurative way for influences on mental life, such as social or moral surroundings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62876261d04950a761ebd22143e43ccff16c1d1324d2a313b2fae3d59250bdb8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Environment” (Environment).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Environment). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## environmental attitudes
<a id="environmental-attitudes"></a>

Environmental attitudes are a person’s relatively lasting evaluations and concerns about the physical environment. They involve cognitive, emotional, motivational, perceptual, and behavioral orientations toward environmental issues and are used as an indicator of behaviors that may help or harm environmental quality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b62b8892481c238e3080646134d591736c91a2e96c26e32c30b8b06a0d1788c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [AlMenhali Entesar Ali; Khalid Khalizani; Iyanna Shilpa. Testing the psychometric properties of the Environmental Attitudes Inventory on undergraduate students in the Arab context: A test-retest approach. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0195250; article XML SHA-256 827e38eb448527011c7d3bc7d58af08d80ad4ce182db9e00e868cf6cba0ff9e7. “Testing the psychometric properties of the Environmental Attitudes Inventory on undergraduate students in the Arab context: A test-retest approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0195250).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195250). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## environmental cognition
<a id="environmental-cognition"></a>

Environmental cognition is a person’s understanding and awareness of environmental issues and sustainability-related ideas. In this packet, it refers to the knowledge component of environmental learning, alongside feelings about the environment and environmentally related behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd0fad2c5e9fe9a8a020baeb5256d87166db88dc00b5d9f9b61568b339e210fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Al-Barakat Ali; AlAli Rommel; Al-Hosan Amani Mohammed; Alghamdi Muna Saad; Abdullatif Ali; Zaher Ashraf. Enhancing children's environmental cognition, affect, and behavior through project-based STEM learning toward the SDGs. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880850; article XML SHA-256 a6a4ad8f4489aadcbfbdc3aa0f1e965269d1efea9a54a6c7e82bf65d4f8573c4. “Enhancing children's environmental cognition, affect, and behavior through project-based STEM learning toward the SDGs” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880850).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880850). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## environmental education
<a id="environmental-education"></a>

Environmental education is education about ecology and the environment that aims to improve students’ awareness, attitudes, and capacity for environmental protection. In the supplied source, it is described as influencing environmental attitudes through curriculum, classroom instruction, and social norms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17f880fcc5b594bbfb9e841d4e7afa981beafe061472b9d48654bf729a3c66c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yibo; Yang Dongli; Liu Siyuan. The impact of environmental education at Chinese Universities on college students’ environmental attitudes. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299231; article XML SHA-256 994a916fbd9332ab10df44a484b0a3346ae0bfa6303b6f11404c312ce7b2a5e4. “The impact of environmental education at Chinese Universities on college students’ environmental attitudes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299231).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299231). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## environmental enrichment
<a id="environmental-enrichment"></a>

Environmental enrichment is a setting that adds social and nonliving stimulation to an organism’s surroundings. In the supplied source, it is described as increasing activity-related synaptic plasticity and improving behavior and memory, including reversing memory problems linked to social isolation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e7634db26cd47361ffa1dd3caa5e4579ff39c2fc262a43bcb2ed12d67155521

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sowndharya Swamynathan; Rajan Koilmani Emmanuvel. Environmental enrichment improves social isolation-induced memory impairment: The possible role of ITSN1-Reelin-AMPA receptor signaling pathway. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0294354; article XML SHA-256 6b012f4ec1317e46ca6715880892fe3c46d178c18e04d3a6e8f91d2c07d33946. “Environmental enrichment improves social isolation-induced memory impairment: The possible role of ITSN1-Reelin-AMPA receptor signaling pathway” (10.1371/journal.pone.0294354).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294354). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## environmental hazards
<a id="environmental-hazards"></a>

Environmental hazards are features of a care setting that can increase the risk of safety problems. In psychiatric inpatient units, they are described as an important factor influencing patient safety outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 945d099b094c1f6e8716d3a0c595067392940ebb0b69e0351769073761687444

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Russotto Sophia; Conti Andrea; Masini Alice; Tempia Valenta Silvia; Vanhaecht Kris; Mira José Joaquin; Panella Massimiliano. Patient safety incidents in the psychiatric inpatient setting: determinants, consequences, and strategies. A systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1703768; article XML SHA-256 14506a0242fea9ebd7fe1c0fd7f35ae9138b82400dcad296e50626588029b599. “Patient safety incidents in the psychiatric inpatient setting: determinants, consequences, and strategies. A systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1703768).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1703768). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## environmental justice
<a id="environmental-justice"></a>

Environmental justice is the principle that all people, regardless of race, color, national origin, or income, should be treated fairly and have a real voice in how environmental laws, regulations, and policies are created, carried out, and enforced.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cded8de5df92d1e18b3889fda9a65453f86bc329a666d6ee10a23f08c5b3964d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Environmental Justice” (D000091383).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000091383). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## environmental modifications
<a id="environmental-modifications"></a>

Environmental modifications are deliberate changes to a physical setting to improve conditions for the people using it. In the source packet, this means altering outdoor residential spaces with features such as walls, enclosed areas, and windbreak planting to reduce harmful wind effects and increase comfort.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 07bcd6236d8d983b4e40f2345cf7014f124939ae6a0ae066fb5b70e5078fbfbf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xue Wen; Guo Xiaojun; Chen Xiaodan; Wang Yuanfeng; Chai Rui; Wang Yichao; Xia Yu; Cai Qianjun. Research on wind comfort regulation strategies for public spaces in aged residential communities of cold regions during windy spring seasons. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331653; article XML SHA-256 6997f0329ebaf6221c090cd288146cff14babe1086e98cb5188e333c8ef18a49. “Research on wind comfort regulation strategies for public spaces in aged residential communities of cold regions during windy spring seasons” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331653).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331653). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## environmental noise
<a id="environmental-noise"></a>

Environmental noise is noise present in the surrounding environment; infrasonic noise is one type of it. In the source material, this kind of noise is described as having harmful effects on the body and as being able to impair learning, memory, and other cognitive functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aabcb404ca651149c4551bea737e2c7a66376cfd789eeed987cf95471d332baa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Wei; Yin Jue; Gao Bei-Yao; Lu Xi; Duan Ya-Jing; Liu Xu-Yan; Li Ming-Zhen; Jiang Shan. Inhibition of astroglial hemichannels ameliorates infrasonic noise induced short-term learning and memory impairment. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12993-023-00226-7; article XML SHA-256 6d8ea16349ef67228a6af02460badcab64a93aa8cd288a330c6d898a82f7c5e2. “Inhibition of astroglial hemichannels ameliorates infrasonic noise induced short-term learning and memory impairment” (10.1186/s12993-023-00226-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-023-00226-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Environmental Psychology
<a id="environmental-psychology"></a>

Environmental psychology is the study of how people interact with both built surroundings and the natural world. It also looks at behaviors that discourage or support sustainable, climate-healthy, and nature-supporting choices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0a33f1cd5f6ce8501f37bcbfcd0362366b12bb6d87ef358454cadd9ea3bafce

Wording review pending: The unusual climate-healthy/nature-supporting formulation is source-specific language, not an indispensable technical name.

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Environmental Psychology” (D000069551).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000069551). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## environmental stress
<a id="environmental-stress"></a>

Environmental stress is psychological strain that develops through ongoing exposure to everyday conditions in a person’s surroundings rather than only from major life events. In urban life, these repeated and hard-to-control exposures can build up over time and affect mental health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c230a94463c69180b3bfcf6cc7a39655b4511c6fe404b2e0e6e25a0b5a7370dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Haoxian; Meng Yifei; Du Hongyu; Feng Xiaobo; Xu Yanqing. Perceived commuting stress, residential nighttime light, and mental health: an environmental stress perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817776; article XML SHA-256 0c51714276f7ab29f583c459eb28ba5a8626fc9da56db54a0211df98b6139759. “Perceived commuting stress, residential nighttime light, and mental health: an environmental stress perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817776).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817776). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## environmentalism
<a id="environmentalism"></a>

Environmentalism, in this context, is an attitude-and-behaviour domain treated as a cultural trait. The packet indicates that people’s environmentalism tends to resemble that of parents and peers, suggesting both family-based and peer-related social transmission.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11a904cd9dc5290571d7506131244c1dfa9095f1c38118967dc43042c8c9ab2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tamariz Monica; Walker Bradley; Bennett Matthew; Segovia-Martín José; Fay Nicolas. Cultural transmission of attitudes and behaviours from parents, peers and grandparents. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341433; article XML SHA-256 42f25386bd3d239110c240694dda643ae7b66f1922d8e351d422116488252f06. “Cultural transmission of attitudes and behaviours from parents, peers and grandparents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341433).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341433). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## envy
<a id="envy"></a>

Envy is the feeling stirred when another person is seen enjoying something that one would want for oneself. In this historical account, it differs from jealousy because envy centers on the fortunate person alone, without the added sense that a valued relationship has been taken from oneself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f9129951015a9bcb6ccb037dae42f37fd4bdddd3109e98656f59179c1bc84f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Jealousy and Envy” (Jealousy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/J1defs.htm#Jealousy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EOG
<a id="eog"></a>

EOG, or electrooculography, is a biological test that measures the eye’s resting electrical signal between the cornea and retina while the eyes move a fixed amount in dark- and light-adapted conditions. How much this signal rises in light is used to check the health of the retinal pigment epithelium.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f950778e4c6fb1044626cdd62d1fcc402cf1b13bdbcc7a5632b3ac681924863d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Electrooculography” (D004585).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004585). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EP
<a id="ep"></a>

EP is a chemotherapy regimen made up of etoposide and cisplatin. It is used to treat several kinds of cancer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47896779c32ca020071178608153a9f75c7f145a9ca7c2ae69df9da06a5214aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “EP Regimen” (C63382).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ependyma
<a id="ependyma"></a>

Ependyma is a thin membrane that lines the brain’s cerebral ventricles and the central canal of the spinal cord.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8f31ea322947f5fb0cc38b4799bb0b6449eb76352756ad749d02443def9a111

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ependyma” (D004805).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004805). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ependymal cell
<a id="ependymal-cell"></a>

An ependymal cell is a cell that develops from radial glial cells lining the brain’s ventricles during early postnatal development. These cells form a flattened lining with multiple motile cilia and are important for the barrier between brain tissue and cerebrospinal fluid and for moving cerebrospinal fluid.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa4f51d0d8892dbedb0cc93ce4be9989f4ab4e8ed542d9abae6e5128c4fc1066

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Muniz-Talavera Hilmarie; Schmidt Jennifer V.. The mouse Jhy gene regulates ependymal cell differentiation and ciliogenesis. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0184957; article XML SHA-256 ae9d545c3fc9ffe8de96a850ad234bf48f65bf225bee456f1e1ec49fbbc891ab. “The mouse Jhy gene regulates ependymal cell differentiation and ciliogenesis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0184957).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184957). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ependymoma
<a id="ependymoma"></a>

Ependymoma is a glioma that develops from ependymal cells lining the brain’s ventricular system or the central canal of the spinal cord. It can occur inside the skull or in the spine, tending to be more often malignant in children when intracranial and more often benign in adults when intraspinal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7dec4786317c2f177494bd066f6ecc672832f70d379ccf0a66ef7b2a8bdd6616

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ependymoma” (D004806).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004806). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ephemeral
<a id="ephemeral"></a>

In this context, ephemeral refers to environmental conditions or resource patches that are short-lived and change over time, so they may only be available briefly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9f75606cf7b967c54b59b4a6916d3ad8f3062d0b78c847b65598a37c101c191c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gallagher Austin J.; Byrnes Evan B.; Skubel Rachel A.; Raymond Brian; Romeiro Joe; Cooke Steven J.; Street Garrett M.; Hammerschlag Neil. Linking physiological state to movement dynamics in an open ocean predator, the blue shark ( Prionace glauca). 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337589; article XML SHA-256 66e34a323a7454ef71aa95065d45b7b8bf0504470b97f08e41aff5b6b2bfdf7a. “Linking physiological state to movement dynamics in an open ocean predator, the blue shark ( Prionace glauca)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337589).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337589). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epidemiology
<a id="epidemiology"></a>

Epidemiology is the study of what causes disease outbreaks in human populations, how often they occur, and how they typically spread or behave. It also examines how host, agent, and environmental factors interact in the distribution and control of disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14b5ca2da6b4a24580140dc5615e97cd72fb922b0b471fc6caf2b50bf677066a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Epidemiology” (D004813).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004813). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epidural hematoma
<a id="epidural-hematoma"></a>

Epidural hematoma, described here as acute epidural hematoma (AEDH), is a brain injury finding seen in people with traumatic brain injury. In this source, it is identified as a factor associated with in-hospital death and with unfavorable outcomes 6 months after injury.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5088144f88273c1e3f2418a32a92c669d8765a9665dba3f08718f345167f96cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maeda Yukihiro; Ichikawa Rie; Misawa Jimpei; Shibuya Akiko; Hishiki Teruyoshi; Maeda Takeshi; Yoshino Atsuo; Kondo Yoshiaki. External validation of the TRISS, CRASH, and IMPACT prognostic models in severe traumatic brain injury in Japan. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0221791; article XML SHA-256 4cbd2d1d90a8038dfeb6015f9ecd72ac92d8261ae2f845ca8e37517153a15289. “External validation of the TRISS, CRASH, and IMPACT prognostic models in severe traumatic brain injury in Japan” (10.1371/journal.pone.0221791).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221791). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epigenesis
<a id="epigenesis"></a>

Epigenesis is the view that, during embryonic development, structures and traits are newly produced as differentiation proceeds rather than simply unfolding from forms already present in the germ. It is contrasted with preformation, which holds that these characters were already there in miniature or fixed form.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 63222c7fa708a439e9784461791972db8647f3fbf846568fe15813df2b1a7205

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Epigenesis” (Epigenesis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Epigenesis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epigenetic landscape
<a id="epigenetic-landscape"></a>

Epigenetic landscape refers to the overall pattern of epigenetic changes affecting gene regulation in cells, such as DNA methylation and histone modifications. In this context, it describes shifts in those marks that are linked to changes in gene expression and cellular function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f644104fdb3c2710b5108796c5d429e33e0ccd41badde275de9f9aaceea14f5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rump Katharina; Holtkamp Caroline; Bergmann Lars; Nowak Hartmuth; Unterberg Matthias; Orlowski Jennifer; Thon Patrick; Bazzi Zainab; Bazzi Maha; Adamzik Michael; Koos Björn; Rahmel Tim. Midazolam impacts acetyl—And butyrylcholinesterase genes: An epigenetic explanation for postoperative delirium?. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0271119; article XML SHA-256 d99516ab92c0b76133b1340ae7b88372687b0b6c09e01a063437c0e8115a6685. “Midazolam impacts acetyl—And butyrylcholinesterase genes: An epigenetic explanation for postoperative delirium?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0271119).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0271119). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epilepsy
<a id="epilepsy"></a>

Epilepsy is a disorder in which a person has repeated episodes of disturbed brain function caused by sudden, excessive, and disorganized firing of brain cells. These episodes can differ in their features, causes, where they start in the brain, how they spread, and when they tend to occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e0bd100f3a1628e621853f5f74d53104d61de68e5cb16ce7ed3b1845c8fb8c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Epilepsy” (D004827).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004827). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epileptic furor
<a id="epileptic-furor"></a>

In historical psychiatric usage, epileptic furor refers to a disturbed mental state that may occur after an epileptic seizure and can be marked by violent acts. It describes a form of epileptic delirium or insanity recognized in older terminology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 203ff567cf7d1118043deb7fa6750f07dec3160af8048e9c40060d32817b59f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1953000-1965000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epileptiform seizure
<a id="epileptiform-seizure"></a>

In this historical source, an epileptiform seizure is a seizure resembling epilepsy, ranging from brief pallor, confusion, or small muscle twitches to major convulsive attacks. Consciousness may be partly or fully lost, and the attack is often followed by temporary weakness or paralysis in the affected parts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3d14505b12c1988aa01d23bdc64ae8ac8dd86ba862340451ed044b19958364f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3076500-3088500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epileptogenic
<a id="epileptogenic"></a>

Epileptogenic refers to brain tissue, especially in the cerebral cortex, that is capable of generating or driving epileptic seizures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf36483af77ff58a68a1ce11aca3efea6527a0376ebe658f095becf60a7f03f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hemispherectomy” (D038421).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D038421). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epinephrine
<a id="epinephrine"></a>

Epinephrine is a hormone released by the adrenal medulla that activates both major adrenergic receptor systems. It boosts cardiac activity, tightens blood vessels in much of the body, relaxes the digestive tract, and opens the airways and blood vessels supplying the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f924e2f1ef3858cb1c32d9e175f27510ff737f4f72596603bbb70cb5f9b330e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Epinephrine” (D004837).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004837). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epiphany
<a id="epiphany"></a>

Epiphany is the Christian feast marking the manifestation of God through Christ to humankind. In early Eastern usage it was linked with Christ’s baptism and observed on January 6, while in the Western Church it was associated instead with the visit of the Wise Men.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 467e071e0b85ec93be1ab03216ab7d6e8be3d3f60d4194f0770c4a33d638b257

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Epiphany” (Epiphany).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Epiphany). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epiphenomenon
<a id="epiphenomenon"></a>

An epiphenomenon is a secondary effect or accompanying feature of a process that is viewed as incidental and not influencing how the process continues. In historical psychology, the term was used especially in mind-body theory to describe consciousness as a by-product of brain activity that does not act back on the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e9487563290d65425711f066152d59adf912e928e6c658638a51e2483f00ef00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Epiphenomenon” (Epiphenomenon).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Epiphenomenon). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## episodic memory
<a id="episodic-memory"></a>

Episodic memory is a kind of declarative memory for personal experiences and events. It differs from memory for general facts or knowledge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0dbdd081f928584dc5b05b9ba06132f1a4071f0f3f240fc61b201bd9bbf05914

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Memory, Episodic” (D061212).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D061212). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epistemic value
<a id="epistemic-value"></a>

Epistemic value is the extent to which a learning activity is seen as worthwhile for gaining knowledge or making visible learning progress. In this study, it refers to learners’ sense that practicing with AI is not just interactive, but genuinely useful for learning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 058634c1fe2e293fac281dc2c70e40e4df2e1a840ff1472624521df93998efbe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Jingwen; Wang Fei. When AI becomes a language partner: a moderated serial mediation model of AIGC-supported communicative task engagement and learning enjoyment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1903870; article XML SHA-256 eae99406a5dfe6ea14189c0c7e2637f9e824491f651e96ae0d42d956c6bdc2c8. “When AI becomes a language partner: a moderated serial mediation model of AIGC-supported communicative task engagement and learning enjoyment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1903870).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1903870). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epistemology
<a id="epistemology"></a>

Epistemology is the theory of knowledge: the study of where knowledge comes from, what it is, and what its limits are. It also examines how ordinary and scientific thought interpret the world and asks what, if anything, knowledge shows about reality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e792d85fc1975fce9f0c1a5418e940b3ecc6bce6649bcbfa9e249942c775f2c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Epistemology” (Epistemology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Epistemology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epithalamus
<a id="epithalamus"></a>

The epithalamus is the upper back part of the diencephalon, a region of the brain. It generally includes the habenular nuclei and their fiber pathways, the pineal body, and the epithelial roof of the third ventricle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2daae340cce2c144d5a43158555a18830599aef101cad09911d3ea673fbe9a6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Epithalamus” (D019261).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019261). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## epithelium
<a id="epithelium"></a>

Epithelium is the layer of cells that covers the body’s exposed surfaces and lines its natural cavities. The term is also used for the cellular lining of serous, lymphatic, and vascular channels and cavities, including those that do not open to the outside.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ffc5913063ad7fee88b34cbf173ebd575c721f4149195798721928cfae0fa2d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Epithelium” (Epithelium).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Epithelium). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EPP
<a id="epp"></a>

EPP stands for early-phase psychosis, referring to people in the early stage or early course of a psychotic illness. In this context, it describes a cohort or sample studied soon after illness onset.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e9e5e0a17fb5a9cb80dd304c503cb5ea975bcee0e3f37894c8326723a3b77f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Seward Maxwell; Puiras Esther; Toba-Oluboka Temi; Crocker Candice E; Tibbo Philip G; Dempster Kara. Elevated glutamine but not glutamate is associated with clozapine eligibility in an early psychosis sample. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1762696; article XML SHA-256 6233c1f2a5e7617445ce97465d2edeb51be708f9cd6afadc8ceb851f0497fa64. “Elevated glutamine but not glutamate is associated with clozapine eligibility in an early psychosis sample” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1762696).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1762696). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EPQ
<a id="epq"></a>

EPQ usually refers to the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, a personality measure that includes neuroticism as one of its main dimensions. In this context, neuroticism refers to a stable tendency toward emotional instability, stronger reactions to negative events, and difficulty controlling impulses and emotions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4a8defd920670ad466baa70c259221361d9d4c2c2d8a266da1829ee5daa57ba3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ma Hui; Zhang Jing; Wang Tiandao; Huang Fang; Li Lei. From anxiety and depression to non-suicidal self-injury in youths: the mediating effect of neuroticism and the moderating effect of thyroid hormones. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857915; article XML SHA-256 02bdb308e328b63c5160836745093c16fca9691782ba1540d3d2125a52f42c78. “From anxiety and depression to non-suicidal self-injury in youths: the mediating effect of neuroticism and the moderating effect of thyroid hormones” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857915).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857915). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EPS
<a id="eps"></a>

EPS, or extrapyramidal syndrome, is a group of movement problems caused by dysfunction in brain motor pathways that help control muscle tone, posture, and coordinated movement. It can include dystonia, akathisia, parkinsonism-like slowing and tremor, and tardive dyskinesia with involuntary movements, and may arise in neurological conditions or as a medication side effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0aeb71212198e49a7421518902cc51131e466b56be49ca6a17637ddff305f1dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Ziwen; Shi Huicong; Guan Chengbin; Li Xin-Min; Xu Haiyun. Phytomedicines in preclinical and clinical research on antipsychotics-induced EPS/EPS-like behaviors: therapeutic effects and neurobiological mechanisms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1836674; article XML SHA-256 a5bef6039b360664a892a05d064f80f7291caa50ef407ab0cb3282797bcb3519. “Phytomedicines in preclinical and clinical research on antipsychotics-induced EPS/EPS-like behaviors: therapeutic effects and neurobiological mechanisms” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1836674).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1836674). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Epstein–Barr virus
<a id="epsteinbarr-virus"></a>

Epstein–Barr virus is a human lymphocryptovirus that targets B lymphocytes. It is considered a cause of infectious mononucleosis and has a strong link to oral hairy leukoplakia, Burkitt lymphoma, and other cancers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f54283ebcbc8daf0f7e0e19ad30b8c48c70c34d534547824e67824e42ce1189

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Herpesvirus 4, Human” (D004854).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004854). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## EQ
<a id="eq"></a>

EQ stands for Empathy Quotient, a simple-to-use measure of empathy that has been translated into many languages. It is used in adults and is intended to reflect empathy as a multifaceted construct.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16ae059f66497d98543a49f22871be1f35fff821995440e07fe6cb21341e7b5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wo Su Woan; Mumfahir Ria Heryani; Tan Cher Yi; Phillips Louise; Yong Min Hooi. Assessing empathy in adults: A Malay language validation and measurement invariance of the Empathy Quotient (M-EQ). 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349335; article XML SHA-256 7585804fc99671ecbd31c73116903403ceecde8808e1d6b49541d9cdbb5ac5b1. “Assessing empathy in adults: A Malay language validation and measurement invariance of the Empathy Quotient (M-EQ)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349335).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349335). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## equal opportunity
<a id="equal-opportunity"></a>

Equal opportunity refers to a setting in which people have comparable chances to enter, advance, and achieve regardless of gender. In the source context, a field may appear balanced in overall participation yet still fail to provide equal opportunity if women remain underrepresented in senior roles or their professional advancement does not match their contributions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b09a743ee452535f77216a7fe76a0e5cf7f5d61c70449d121090bd301f813f2e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Addessi Elsa; Borgi Marta; Palagi Elisabetta. Is Primatology an Equal-Opportunity Discipline?. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0030458; article XML SHA-256 4e2bb48fc97dbf4707188987bcd38eb5b582a67cfe39ba900f544f7d53b6547a. “Is Primatology an Equal-Opportunity Discipline?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0030458).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030458). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## equal weighting
<a id="equal-weighting"></a>

Equal weighting is a way of combining several measured factors into one overall score by giving each factor the same importance. In the source, it is used to build a comprehensive growth indicator from separate growth measures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cb68fc9eec7190c82f8c960334dd7593b15a020fb9a43680ca5cd416558f58c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gong Rongxin; Zhang Haina; Lu Xianghui; Wan Haolong; Zhang Yue; Luo Xin; Zhang Jie; Xie Rongxiu. An integrated UAV growth monitoring model of Cinnamomum camphora based on whale optimization algorithm. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299362; article XML SHA-256 cc9e7e53eb64cef5b73cf9234a7de84171dd76d99fa5da39334069300245c7a3. “An integrated UAV growth monitoring model of Cinnamomum camphora based on whale optimization algorithm” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299362).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299362). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## equilibration
<a id="equilibration"></a>

Equilibration is the function of sensing the body's balance and orientation. In this historical source, it refers to signals—especially from parts of the ear, together with skin, muscles, and eyes—that inform a person about body position at rest and the direction of movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4584a9066b3fa64aab6c090a6290d21f13654c8f8ad9c5e702e834e1c01dc69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hearing” (Hearing).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Hearing). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## equine-assisted psychotherapy
<a id="equine-assisted-psychotherapy"></a>

Equine-assisted psychotherapy is a form of psychotherapy that uses a horse and/or the horse’s movement as part of the therapeutic process. It is included within equine-assisted therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d069c9677c0b0157fcf16023035297dfd9870ca372b58649b14103bc19377fcb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Equine-Assisted Therapy” (D056147).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D056147). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Equine-Assisted Therapy
<a id="equine-assisted-therapy"></a>

Equine-assisted therapy is therapy that uses a horse and/or the horse’s movement to support the therapeutic process. It includes forms such as equine-assisted psychotherapy, horseback riding, and hippotherapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 00cb93ef1dabd513239608560ac12930d48b8aa96c366629bc78dcab9bac885c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Equine-Assisted Therapy” (D056147).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D056147). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## equipment automation
<a id="equipment-automation"></a>

Equipment automation is the use of machines or automated systems to support or take over tasks that people would otherwise do by hand with tools, reagents, or instruments. In research settings, it is used to improve consistency, efficiency, safety, and movement toward clinical application, although it can also reduce flexibility and become outdated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44b2732f06b5bcc09939b981728cd3ed42ad7857a185edb40aa7c918530c36bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Holland Ian; Davies Jamie A.. Automation in the Life Science Research Laboratory. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fbioe.2020.571777; article XML SHA-256 32498570762572ef9802923055c40c435d8ac349c46b2ddd9e1278849392916c. “Automation in the Life Science Research Laboratory” (10.3389/fbioe.2020.571777).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2020.571777). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## equity theory
<a id="equity-theory"></a>

Equity theory is the idea that people judge an exchange as fair when what each person puts in and gets out are in proportion. It treats perceived input–outcome balance as a main basis for deciding whether a situation is just or unjust.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a721bb35c37ce7637c418c5d608670886f96ea9635afc80d8ce9e0a8bb930d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Arvanitis Alexios; Hantzi Alexandra. Equity Theory Ratios as Causal Schemas. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01257; article XML SHA-256 a118938584a8bdcec0bc42072e70bb1af3e09377936b1c14242b9de4726ec6a8. “Equity Theory Ratios as Causal Schemas” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01257).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01257). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## equivalence
<a id="equivalence"></a>

In this learning context, equivalence is a learned link between different stimuli because they lead to the same outcome or consequence. Once this shared relationship is learned, a person can group those stimuli together and use that similarity to remember old associations and extend them to new ones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1887922e3ed57474b3a459238045a9a834155f32d3bf5592afeef3ff103b9d06

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tót Kálmán; Harcsa-Pintér Noémi; Eördegh Gabriella; Bodosi Balázs; Nagy Attila. Semantic content of visual stimuli has a greater impact on associative equivalence learning than stimulus modality. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1882538; article XML SHA-256 f95a6f1eedf812e4e1cf8fd43cffedbeebb754214f71b3824cd3e8712c31b277. “Semantic content of visual stimuli has a greater impact on associative equivalence learning than stimulus modality” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1882538).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1882538). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## equivalency test
<a id="equivalency-test"></a>

An equivalency test is a statistical test used to show that repeated measurements or different raters are similar enough to be considered practically the same within preset limits. In this study, it tested whether the confidence intervals for differences in repeated measures stayed inside an a priori equivalence range, allowing rejection of non-equivalence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d919389737ad11e9dea6b2a52aa077cfbc8e9392d26ed1ad667da4d26bfcce25

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ayers Gregory D.; Cohen Allison S.; Bae Seong-Woo; Wen Xiaoxia; Pollard Alyssa; Sharma Shilpa; Claus Trey; Payne Adria; Geng Ling; Zhao Ping; Tantawy Mohammed Noor; Gammon Seth T.; Manning H. Charles. Reproducibility and repeatability of 18 F-( 2S , 4R )-4-fluoroglutamine PET imaging in preclinical oncology models. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313123; article XML SHA-256 947b3c5964a50572724a8f66222f1875ed61dd43a2473acb0f7429fcf7ebd941. “Reproducibility and repeatability of 18 F-( 2S , 4R )-4-fluoroglutamine PET imaging in preclinical oncology models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313123).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313123). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## equivalent form
<a id="equivalent-form"></a>

In this historical logic usage, an equivalent form is a restatement of a proposition into another wording that has the same logical force. The passage uses it especially for recasting universal and particular propositions into standardized forms so their implications about occurrence or existence can be more clearly seen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f483c437e2db586fa3463512b8a6e015134d180e9ecb51017e3224d3b87fea4e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2079000-2091000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ER
<a id="er"></a>

ER refers to a subject area used for submitting and organizing information about environmental and social factors that may affect a person’s disease or medical condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4ab2b60e59f63619effdcb5927c19ce60cba0f78d8df5529e678b147ef5dab9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Environmental and Social Factors Domain” (C173157).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## erectile dysfunction
<a id="erectile-dysfunction"></a>

Erectile dysfunction is difficulty or inability in a male to have a penile erection. It can result from psychological causes or from problems in the body's organs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8daf28cada1bd5c4b326288348db401fd6d0def27ac9c7e6cf6ba0ea9566b1a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Erectile Dysfunction” (D007172).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007172). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## erethism
<a id="erethism"></a>

Erethism is an unusually heightened state of irritability in some part of the body. In historical psychology and medicine, the term was often used for an irritable condition of the brain or nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d620289463c49381bc18f40b62c5d6b243cdf8e1c51a6f1cdf4d4fc4e03aff3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Erethism” (Erethism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Erethism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ERF
<a id="erf"></a>

ERF stands for event-related field. In this context, it refers to an approach for studying the timing and spatial distribution of brain activity that is evoked while a person comprehends continuous speech.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 52be1b3630268dbf24dd7935b6d57a11f06e5c828447a784727a3fd3adf8ece3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhozhikashvili Natalia; Sysoeva Olga V; Makarova Elizaveta; Martynova Olga V. Semantics and syntax effects on event-related fields during speech comprehension: a MEG study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1759177; article XML SHA-256 0264ff3d5207aeb2763561b8d46eb998b631f09dce69bb54036ef80cdf028d9d. “Semantics and syntax effects on event-related fields during speech comprehension: a MEG study” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1759177).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1759177). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## erg
<a id="erg"></a>

ERG refers to electroretinography, a noninvasive test that uses thin fiber electrodes placed on the cornea to measure how retinal cells conduct electrical signals when stimulated by light.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2511a17ab4aed8eab4ab1e302bc3546de37e2112ea2a3c0e712b0b98256ed597

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Electroretinography” (C225447).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ergative
<a id="ergative"></a>

Ergative refers to a type of case alignment in language that contrasts with nominative alignment. In the source, ergative patterns showed distinct neurophysiological processing, with effects influenced by the transitivity of light verbs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3d001181be7fa8ca490353beebfcea6def404802357bd0e83e8185874f33ba64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mathew Anna Merin; Muralikrishnan R.; Gulati Mahima; Bhattamishra Shikha; Choudhary Kamal Kumar. Processing ergativity in compound light verb constructions: electrophysiological evidence from Hindi. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1593289; article XML SHA-256 e5156bd7836a8f5f8631f5a9bf16c35482a06b381c08c77f45191efeacc70663. “Processing ergativity in compound light verb constructions: electrophysiological evidence from Hindi” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1593289).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1593289). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ergonomics
<a id="ergonomics"></a>

Ergonomics is the science of designing tools, machines, and built environments to fit the physical, bodily, and psychological needs of the people who use them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70dfd8af13561ad4351c9f147541b90cdfcbbc58f40d633d1f5c899c299dab68

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ergonomics” (D006804).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006804). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ergotamine
<a id="ergotamine"></a>

Ergotamine is a substance from ergot that narrows blood vessels and acts on serotonin systems. It has been used to help control migraines and to stimulate uterine contractions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b694ca13fa0c914c4fb356b5545bf7611324014b58c2ea6009c231dcd3704c9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ergotamine” (D004878).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004878). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Eriksen flankers task
<a id="eriksen-flankers-task"></a>

The Eriksen flankers task is a neurocognitive test in which a person responds to target visual information while ignoring surrounding distracting information. It is used to assess selective visual attention and is also used to examine response inhibition, often through reaction time and accuracy on congruent versus conflicting displays.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b268f820bfd9ee1e70ff9b4ac2e81633e61115917c9433c1e228cadfc0f1d9a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Grinberg Adam; Hanzlíková Ivana; Lehnert Michal; Abdollahipour Reza. The impact of maturation level, not chronological age, on attentional control: implications for sports injury prevention in female adolescents. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s13102-024-00984-5; article XML SHA-256 d8151a77cdca222ce08087cfbcca850173fa76e54753d0176ecafc1af0b7e166. “The impact of maturation level, not chronological age, on attentional control: implications for sports injury prevention in female adolescents” (10.1186/s13102-024-00984-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-024-00984-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## erogenous zone
<a id="erogenous-zone"></a>

An erogenous zone is a body area where touch is especially likely to be felt as pleasurable or sexually arousing. In this context, it refers to the body location itself as one factor that can contribute to erotic sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 772f201d44fc7985ad6bfe4f51d816cc78c92012c93604c7e4887ca3ba2c7a5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Panagiotopoulou Elena; Filippetti Maria Laura; Gentsch Antje; Fotopoulou Aikaterini. Dissociable sources of erogeneity in social touch: Imagining and perceiving C-Tactile optimal touch in erogenous zones. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0203039; article XML SHA-256 ecec9c11f67f82631f7ea8a1b3fc38cf08cd666247f3aa2af1dfe20de4f79c47. “Dissociable sources of erogeneity in social touch: Imagining and perceiving C-Tactile optimal touch in erogenous zones” (10.1371/journal.pone.0203039).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203039). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Eros
<a id="eros"></a>

Eros is the principle of love in Neo-Platonism and mysticism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb1cdafd41233dbb27ad74cb482ad70896c55c04530edc9b8de86fa9904bffdc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Eros” (Eros).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Eros). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## erotogenic
<a id="erotogenic"></a>

Erotogenic describes touch or body areas that tend to produce erotic or sexually arousing sensations. In this context, it refers to the erotic quality of touch, which can be shaped both by where the body is touched and by how the touch is delivered.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67cf28cde0a0fdc434839fa52e161277f9a04d07216dd048b11b4b761c4f56a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Panagiotopoulou Elena; Filippetti Maria Laura; Gentsch Antje; Fotopoulou Aikaterini. Dissociable sources of erogeneity in social touch: Imagining and perceiving C-Tactile optimal touch in erogenous zones. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0203039; article XML SHA-256 ecec9c11f67f82631f7ea8a1b3fc38cf08cd666247f3aa2af1dfe20de4f79c47. “Dissociable sources of erogeneity in social touch: Imagining and perceiving C-Tactile optimal touch in erogenous zones” (10.1371/journal.pone.0203039).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203039). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## erotomania
<a id="erotomania"></a>

Erotomania is a historical term for a symptom seen in different mental disorders, marked by an unhealthy and intense romantic or sexual fixation on the opposite sex, with emphasis on fantasy and emotion more than physical desire. In older usage, it could also mean excessive sexual passion generally, overlapping with terms such as nymphomania in women and satyriasis in men.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6d512ec79c018d4705a8851e95e8b58be17ff40bbaea578dbf912895978c54b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Erotomania or Eroticomania” (Erotomania).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Erotomania). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ERP
<a id="erp"></a>

ERP, or event-related potential, is a measure of brain electrical activity recorded from the scalp in response to a specific stimulus or targeted brain event. It is derived by averaging repeated EEG recordings and is used to examine the timing of sensory and cognitive processes, with applications in psychological and clinical assessment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 541c8073ca88987be4b19a91333caba31dbc443013ec87d5bf327ce4fc479015

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Zhaojin; Duan Lijuan; Liu Lei; Zhao Xixi; Wang Changming. YOLOBT: a novel ERP bad trial detection network dynamically adjusting based on global signal quality. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1714086; article XML SHA-256 86bb3986f9aabb181b82cc4acb0d3766ab3033b4495a243c83cdda8596e4df38. “YOLOBT: a novel ERP bad trial detection network dynamically adjusting based on global signal quality” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1714086).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1714086). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## error analysis
<a id="error-analysis"></a>

Error analysis is the examination of how predicted speech sounds differ from target sounds so that patterns of mistakes can be identified and summarized. In this context, it is used at the phoneme level to describe confusion patterns, transition-related features, and other interpretable measures of speech performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b0a2297d3d1a816b5335a312ce09cf3b2752f339da28d5f849e2baa862756fb7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Saligram Chethana; Shrivastava Vishal; Speights Marisha. Foundations for pediatric vocal biomarkers: age-aware phoneme recognition and latent-space error analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1802703; article XML SHA-256 1226f118a4f76d7586ca058d3166ccd3fb0078e9028cc9579e4127e9e9812c30. “Foundations for pediatric vocal biomarkers: age-aware phoneme recognition and latent-space error analysis” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1802703).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1802703). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## error of refraction
<a id="error-of-refraction"></a>

An error of refraction is an eye condition in which light does not focus correctly on the retina.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05b9490dad721ec8911127f07257fe1367879dc38f08ae795c167ae91aa72d58

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ametropia” (C34371).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## error sum of squares
<a id="error-sum-of-squares"></a>

Error sum of squares is a statistical quantity that adds up squared prediction errors in linear regression. In analysis of variance, it refers to the squared variation not explained by the relevant group means, including the subjects-by-treatment interaction in within-subject designs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9bce251998a73aaae27e9a09f22f740871e37b1fc76926079f4b88076c432ef7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Sum of Squares Error” (sse.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/sse.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## error variance
<a id="error-variance"></a>

Error variance is variation in measurement results that comes from methodological or unwanted influences rather than the true thing being measured. In this source, examples include background assay signals, hemoglobin in serum, differences in plate-coating procedures, and differences between standards, all of which can reduce reproducibility.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cd2bb3c55a2dcc0348634cb13f6188b3b91e33938399fbadff8a221c8f90c87a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Heinzel Sebastian; Gold Maike; Deuschle Christian; Bernhard Felix; Maetzler Walter; Berg Daniela; Dodel Richard. Naturally Occurring Alpha-Synuclein Autoantibodies in Parkinson’s Disease: Sources of (Error) Variance in Biomarker Assays. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0114566; article XML SHA-256 74a99740d0ce1d7ce4cb652fec9a6039e54bf79f3d1b395a51b1782565b02d45. “Naturally Occurring Alpha-Synuclein Autoantibodies in Parkinson’s Disease: Sources of (Error) Variance in Biomarker Assays” (10.1371/journal.pone.0114566).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0114566). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## errorless learning
<a id="errorless-learning"></a>

Errorless learning is a learning mode designed to reduce or avoid mistakes during acquisition. In the source, it is contrasted with errorful learning as a lower-conflict condition with less interfering material at later recognition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1affa7627d00aefedf2696903e559204d2c042ea1e94fa9e55df7abad1c41a09

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hammer Anke; Kordon Andreas; Heldmann Marcus; Zurowski Bartosz; Münte Thomas F.. Brain Potentials of Conflict and Error-Likelihood Following Errorful and Errorless Learning in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. 2009; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0006553; article XML SHA-256 507e183ff0d68868a34e106c4cb3e527b0ddc81239b63df184ee31c701314d69. “Brain Potentials of Conflict and Error-Likelihood Following Errorful and Errorless Learning in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder” (10.1371/journal.pone.0006553).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006553). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## erythropoietin
<a id="erythropoietin"></a>

Erythropoietin is a glycoprotein best known for its role in erythropoiesis, the production of red blood cells. In the supplied source, it is also discussed as having a possible role in retinal disease processes in diabetes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 30f69df53b3f674343b276a5f7e72a5205b6a4da9e148d13a46ebe6491c6c487

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wise Ingrid A.; Berry Siska Dupont; McKenzie Alisa; Steel Jason C.; Edwards Katie; Efron Nathan; Layton Christopher J.; Ramlogan-Steel Charmaine A.. Exploring systemic erythropoietin in diabetic retinopathy: Longitudinal associations and biomarker potential in the LANDMark cohort. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358455; article XML SHA-256 f9fbb643636019827575ed281778e589cd22343da92430a2ca2afa5bcb5ea9a3. “Exploring systemic erythropoietin in diabetic retinopathy: Longitudinal associations and biomarker potential in the LANDMark cohort” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358455).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358455). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ESB
<a id="esb"></a>

ESB stands for early spring breeding. In the source, it describes amphibian species that breed immediately after emerging from winter hibernation, with migration toward breeding sites beginning in autumn.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cdf53e6c1ffac37256f73f587147fd0675fd8844c6126b6168c6981dc28080c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Miwa Tokio. Autumn protogyny and spring protandry: Mechanisms and adaptive significance in a Japanese headwater frog, Rana sakuraii. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320076; article XML SHA-256 a5c42efd02e6843a1013710caaf6ae8597a0cb50e800b5e4d8d25ee49f80ed88. “Autumn protogyny and spring protandry: Mechanisms and adaptive significance in a Japanese headwater frog, Rana sakuraii” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320076).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320076). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## escape mechanism
<a id="escape-mechanism"></a>

In this biological context, an escape mechanism is a way tumor cells avoid detection or destruction by the immune system. Here, it refers to tumor cells shedding parts of MICA and MICB from their surface so NKG2D-expressing immune cells are less able to recognize them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86ef2b2fd5e69fa1a7c93888038290ad3e7deda17b9397fa9e164358fcab3940

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Allogeneic iPSC-derived CD58KO Anti-MICA/MICB CAR-ADR-expressing T-cells FT836” (C222766).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## escapism
<a id="escapism"></a>

Escapism is the use of gaming as a way to get psychological relief or to mentally get away from real-life concerns. In mental health research, it is described as a major motive for gaming that can be linked with either helpful outcomes or problematic gaming, depending in part on how well a person shifts back to everyday life after play.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a76199ed1df5e06aa1a706ee954a7aee6aad93d40de1cec023569f25d9151168

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Strojny Agnieszka; Strojny Paweł. Post-gaming return to reality: a key factor in predicting the positive and negative outcomes of escapism. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1735108; article XML SHA-256 36a24e389ff8607271a235e58521e69b22f623eea39250692ae8198c6ec4f340. “Post-gaming return to reality: a key factor in predicting the positive and negative outcomes of escapism” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1735108).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1735108). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Eskalith
<a id="eskalith"></a>

Eskalith refers to lithium carbonate, a lithium salt with mood-stabilizing and antimanic effects. Its exact mood-related action is not fully established, but it affects nerve-cell sodium transport, neurotransmitter release, cellular signaling, and inositol metabolism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3617d7844f10b3f4e85058e43ef49978971cf52ca1c6077fe497804409da6b52

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lithium Carbonate” (C1318).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ESL
<a id="esl"></a>

ESL stands for English as a Second Language. In this context, it refers to teaching and learning English for people whose first language is not English.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8521d491d01ffff011395f637a4a53bfe34df1a75909190bf1bab29af32bced0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chun Teo Woon; Yunus Melor Md. Factors affecting Malaysian ESL teachers' behavioral intentions for technology use in the post-COVID-19 era. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1127272; article XML SHA-256 63afceb8e19489598312899511c2aa3fd7b85c0f21e25afea2d05220271be8a6. “Factors affecting Malaysian ESL teachers' behavioral intentions for technology use in the post-COVID-19 era” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1127272).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1127272). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ESM
<a id="esm"></a>

ESM refers to direct electrocortical stimulation, a functional brain-mapping method in which electrical stimulation is applied to exposed areas of the cortex and those areas are identified based on the person’s responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 199527a28c49b1213343408e9cd92528ba48471a37853c6fbddcde0d028f344b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Direct Electrocortical Stimulation” (C116562).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## esotropia
<a id="esotropia"></a>

Esotropia is a type of eye misalignment in which the eyes turn inward too much, creating a crossed-eye appearance. It can occur when one eye deviates inward abnormally during attempted gaze, such as with lateral rectus muscle paralysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5f589e61f0a77b2eb81533559fe821f12351fc025e1ba1ee132985ccf2efa6a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Esotropia” (D004948).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004948). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## esprit de corps
<a id="esprit-de-corps"></a>

Esprit de corps is a group member’s awareness of the interests shared by the group. In a broader social sense, it can also mean the outward signs or effects of that shared group-mindedness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 74746381c1f197f318ad3c84cd75fef92999ba47d2d4b77de2e9e9d32373d434

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Esprit de Corps” (Esprit).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Esprit). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## essence
<a id="essence"></a>

Essence is the fixed, necessary nature of a thing, contrasted with its accidental features. In historical philosophical usage, it can also refer to what makes an individual thing what it is, though some later writers used it much like substance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c933477bc77d3a0a495c20ad682dfd3a58d3f308ffbe55068d3b5e567343fd5b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Essence” (Essence).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Essence). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## essential hypertension
<a id="essential-hypertension"></a>

Essential hypertension is a common worldwide form of high blood pressure that is a major health problem. It is associated with a greater risk of coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, and heart failure, and genetic variation in the vitamin D receptor has been linked to its development in some cases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c35d1df99dca0f0cab588929007e1ee3f87736ddbd8f6e8855a72ef219d26d92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dakota Iwan; Adda’i Muhamad Fajri; Maulana Rido; Ivan Ignatius; Sukmawan Renan; Widyantoro Bambang. Association between vitamin D receptor gene polymorphism and essential hypertension: An updated systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314886; article XML SHA-256 5759ddf325c9657630135f976192eb963dec23fe82e38ce892cf4cf319df3b54. “Association between vitamin D receptor gene polymorphism and essential hypertension: An updated systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314886).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314886). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## essential property
<a id="essential-property"></a>

In this historical passage, an essential property means a basic feature without which a living being would not exist as such. The text uses assimilation of food, including digestion and nutrition, as the most fundamental example of this kind of property.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 57f5fd33bd6fe5a42ce88fc7d4e82b32aa770b8922133eff850914fd91a2e0cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1480500-1492500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## essential tremor
<a id="essential-tremor"></a>

Essential tremor is a relatively common movement disorder marked by a characteristic tremor pattern, especially affecting the hands, arms, and neck, sometimes causing a shaking or nodding head. It is often mild but can become disabling, and in some families it runs in an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f94107dbd80868f5db7e057eb5fe95bf9292a51823e1f8dbfda5de52b9d45bd2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Essential Tremor” (D020329).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020329). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## estazolam
<a id="estazolam"></a>

Estazolam is a triazolo-benzodiazepine drug with anxiety-reducing, anticonvulsant, sleep-inducing, and muscle-relaxing effects. It acts in the central nervous system by binding to a GABA receptor site separate from the main GABA binding site, which promotes chloride entry into neurons and lowers their excitability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5504442c57f1957fccb28b504cfdc29107a7670a86a2afee3c9626d618382230

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Estazolam” (C47520).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## estimate
<a id="estimate"></a>

In research, an estimate is a calculated value used to represent an unknown quantity. The packet describes estimates obtained with methods such as maximum likelihood or Bayesian analysis, often alongside an interval that reflects uncertainty about the value.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6297c5d91741f521213e00b77ecfb7d177a6420cff7ce934b0fc4c88db063c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alyami Salem A; Hassan Amal S; Elbatal Ibrahim; Albalawi Olayan; Elgarhy Mohammed; El-Saeed Ahmed R. Bayesian and non-bayesian analysis for stress-strength model based on progressively first failure censoring with applications. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312937; article XML SHA-256 90608828910e1599ea08fb430d25134c0e241c99565093cfbfe8aebb81727f3b. “Bayesian and non-bayesian analysis for stress-strength model based on progressively first failure censoring with applications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312937).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312937). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## estimator
<a id="estimator"></a>

An estimator is a statistical method used to infer a population value, such as a mean, from sample data. In this source, it refers to using study data together with related auxiliary variables to produce a more precise estimate of the population mean.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 01b68d5cdbe1a9233b853aad9bd332ac6eb5bcf8f8033eddc441709d0968e319

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Iqbal Kanwal; Raza Syed Muhammad Muslim; Mahmood Tahir; Riaz Muhammad. Exploring mixture estimators in stratified random sampling. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307607; article XML SHA-256 fe246b01ba17e4cf9d6d9048a8f4d5d6ff886a3486c910193f781e875cd9bacd. “Exploring mixture estimators in stratified random sampling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307607).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307607). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## estrangement
<a id="estrangement"></a>

Estrangement is a sense of being cut off or disconnected in cultural environments a person experiences as foreign, unpredictable, or unacceptable. It describes feeling socially alienated from the surrounding setting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 461ef9f74e6681aa9564313209a1aca4e33754c85f2ec15c084f9f0c3650f44d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Alienation” (D012918).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012918). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## estrogen
<a id="estrogen"></a>

Estrogen refers to a group of hormones, including estrone and 17β-estradiol, that can be present in blood and also made within the brain as neuroestrogens. In the brain, they help regulate social behavior and cognition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc6fdcf3059b141031fd2f47c14729c1a1c6a28a45a21d3039aa83fd045a2a6e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jalabert Cecilia; Liu Megan Q; Soma Kiran K. Estrogen profiling in blood and brain: Effects of season and an aggressive interaction in a songbird. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326727; article XML SHA-256 0ab55133193e6a078d85a1013370a7aba97e8ae1ae4e58c7a1df27b6f5a6e5ee. “Estrogen profiling in blood and brain: Effects of season and an aggressive interaction in a songbird” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326727).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326727). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## estrogen antagonist
<a id="estrogen-antagonist"></a>

An estrogen antagonist is a substance that opposes or blocks the effects of estrogen. In this study context, it was used to test whether estrogen was one of the diffusible signals influencing brain development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44bdea630edb8d00a8fc12191898ed3c5b514b6735cff41bb68ed170fd5ea159

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Qiong; Zhang Xuebo; Zhao Yueliu; Zhou Xin; Sun Lina; Zeng Shaoju; Zuo Mingxue; Zhang Xinwen. Sexual Differences in Cell Proliferation in the Ventricular Zone, Cell Migration and Differentiation in the HVC of Juvenile Bengalese Finch. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0097403; article XML SHA-256 9c8f3d170b3ae728f53b5a15ab94ff7f2618494eec7d263cf8a19cbd65d806dc. “Sexual Differences in Cell Proliferation in the Ventricular Zone, Cell Migration and Differentiation in the HVC of Juvenile Bengalese Finch” (10.1371/journal.pone.0097403).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0097403). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## estrogen replacement therapy
<a id="estrogen-replacement-therapy"></a>

Estrogen replacement therapy is the use of estrogen as a replacement hormone treatment. In the supplied source, it is described as being associated in population studies with a lower risk of Alzheimer’s disease, but a higher risk of breast cancer and some cardiovascular disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70d51e56dc08bbd78e1aa7af2651629da8b4e5babd3b5e5ef8e115c50178b1ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gutierrez-Zepeda Astrid; Santell Ross; Wu Zhixin; Brown Marishka; Wu YanJue; Khan Ikhlas; Link Christopher D; Zhao Baolu; Luo Yuan. Soy isoflavone glycitein protects against beta amyloid-induced toxicity and oxidative stress in transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans. 2005; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-6-54; article XML SHA-256 e599cba9e98507622967ae61dc8cc8555ee839ed6a23c7762475c91b0834aff5. “Soy isoflavone glycitein protects against beta amyloid-induced toxicity and oxidative stress in transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans” (10.1186/1471-2202-6-54).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-6-54). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## estrone
<a id="estrone"></a>

Estrone is one of the estrogens, a group of hormones that can be measured in blood and brain tissue. In the supplied study, it was one of the only estrogens detected in both blood and brain samples.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46939ddf147e58a5314e88def69a22f79180da55be81de0fcd2eee73bbf2d7a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jalabert Cecilia; Liu Megan Q; Soma Kiran K. Estrogen profiling in blood and brain: Effects of season and an aggressive interaction in a songbird. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326727; article XML SHA-256 0ab55133193e6a078d85a1013370a7aba97e8ae1ae4e58c7a1df27b6f5a6e5ee. “Estrogen profiling in blood and brain: Effects of season and an aggressive interaction in a songbird” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326727).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326727). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## estrous cycle
<a id="estrous-cycle"></a>

The estrous cycle is the repeating pattern of physical and behavioral changes in non-primate female mammals that go into estrus. It usually includes four or five phases linked to hormonal status.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dee8e7152c42f3eabd431ed5d18c4ff0d02d3bd3bc40e7e2789a401cbe8eea75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Estrous Cycle” (D030762).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D030762). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eszopiclone
<a id="eszopiclone"></a>

Eszopiclone is a nonbenzodiazepine sedative-hypnotic drug used to promote sleep. It acts on the GABA-A receptor complex in the central nervous system, increasing inhibitory signaling that reduces neuronal activity and helps induce sleep, with little significant anxiety-reducing effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8945a792b3ff4099da5ca30bc9eb61775ded9486309c01f618d9c14da8291208

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Eszopiclone” (C65545).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eta squared
<a id="eta-squared"></a>

Eta squared (η²) is a standardized effect size that describes how much of the variance in an outcome is explained by an effect. In psychology research, it is used to show the magnitude or practical importance of findings, not just whether they are statistically significant.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc7fb08a5bd71ab3d4ad309f8b4e71415a9c09c8d5761fa86012fbbfe5bc16f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethanol
<a id="ethanol"></a>

Ethanol is a clear, colorless liquid that is quickly absorbed from the digestive system and distributed throughout the body. It is the main alcohol in alcoholic beverages and is also used as a disinfectant, solvent, and preservative.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54479b2217df84d9125ac1a800d21297a7f452e1022d4016397bffbe7a53b88c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ethanol” (D000431).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000431). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethchlorvynol
<a id="ethchlorvynol"></a>

Ethchlorvynol is a sedative-hypnotic substance in the tertiary carbinol class. It appears to reduce central nervous system activity by acting at the benzodiazepine–GABA-A chloride channel receptor complex, which increases chloride entry into neurons and lowers their excitability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c763b29a7a92afbe38944f94e6b7804467041c006ded55a78f22d6e0b56f79c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ethchlorvynol” (C61758).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ether
<a id="ether"></a>

Ether is an organic chemical with an oxygen atom linking two carbon atoms. The term can also refer more specifically to diethyl ether, a volatile liquid once important as an anesthetic and noted for stimulant effects in the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bc549d0d1172e955f7b5538678290334e537157019dbc67e9bc1142753f6756a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ether” (C29819).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethical conflict
<a id="ethical-conflict"></a>

Ethical conflict is a situation in which a person faces a dilemma between competing duties, so that some breach of duty seems unavoidable and one must choose the lesser violation. In this historical discussion, it also raises the question of whether moral rules are absolute or relative in their application.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 91f3d9fdfb2ccf0bc9c5bfc974db272671eca69752a11f3e7bd16381cd673093

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4305000-4317000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethical dilemma
<a id="ethical-dilemma"></a>

An ethical dilemma is a situation where two moral principles come into conflict, making it hard to choose a course of action. Hypothetical examples of these conflicts are also used to examine a person's moral beliefs or moral reasoning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e40d56b864e505a78c46bf16854876e00d54c8f8649772e8ab1e391256ff85d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ethical Dilemmas” (D000098463).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000098463). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethical judgment
<a id="ethical-judgment"></a>

In this historical source, ethical judgment means assessing conduct by how far it serves the greatest happiness of the greatest number. It is presented as the standard used within ethics, including both morality and public questions of law.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1afea19cfe96d9d1e93168bc760220329de8e4b135a7cd7b9063bdd6268b63f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Bentham, Jeremy” (Bentham, Jeremy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Bentham, Jeremy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethics
<a id="ethics"></a>

Ethics is the set of ideals or rules about what is considered good in human character and behavior, and it also refers to the study of moral principles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93d4b0dcb5e58f9c8604f0e8631c50cb2a1aaf645797a09ed479dc8cbe6e2c61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ethics” (D004989).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004989). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethnic bias
<a id="ethnic-bias"></a>

Ethnic bias is a tendency to favor or judge people differently because of their ethnic group. It can be implicit or explicit and may shape beliefs about traits such as warmth, competence, or likely compliance, contributing to unequal decisions and outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d74a0be74a19c37cf401f430133c4e831949aa3a6c53fd738c48ad2cc38a0203

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cormack Donna; Harris Ricci; Stanley James; Lacey Cameron; Jones Rhys; Curtis Elana. Ethnic bias amongst medical students in Aotearoa/New Zealand: Findings from the Bias and Decision Making in Medicine (BDMM) study. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0201168; article XML SHA-256 ed95227f842ce69b5d244d6496ddb3c2e7d8f9609a1e1544dc02faeed122aca2. “Ethnic bias amongst medical students in Aotearoa/New Zealand: Findings from the Bias and Decision Making in Medicine (BDMM) study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0201168).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201168). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethnic group
<a id="ethnic-group"></a>

An ethnic group is a social group whose members share a distinctive cultural and social tradition that is passed across generations. People in the group typically share a common history, origin, identity, and similar life experiences or habits, and may also share genetic heritage that can shape patterns of health and disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f5635039db7277874aa90b401f2e684367ae147692b73a049b6b31c2530f45b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ethnic Group” (C16564).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethnic socialization
<a id="ethnic-socialization"></a>

Ethnic socialization is the ongoing process by which parents and other caregivers communicate information, values, and viewpoints about race and ethnicity to children. It is a multifaceted part of everyday parenting and family life, including messages that can foster cultural pride, prepare children for bias, encourage caution toward other groups, or emphasize equality and skills for functioning in the broader society.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1801096181ac113c27a9d1b2f2a7239ca4bce9c5c42c9314759c2e09f5850129

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Quick Kaitlin N; Mendez Smith Julia; Coard Stephanie Irby; Jensen Michaeline. Parental/caregiver racial-ethnic socialization during early childhood: a meta-ethnographic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1716005; article XML SHA-256 8198f1a4546a70cd01e00e0d363613021a5f39d5f0033790bb707cc27cd114ad. “Parental/caregiver racial-ethnic socialization during early childhood: a meta-ethnographic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1716005).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1716005). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethnicity
<a id="ethnicity"></a>

Ethnicity refers to a group identity based on shared cultural heritage that distinguishes people from others across social relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3cf260c0d107e96f9ade9f7d520c7b4a06ceb43ab2b5c6f7112556abe332eb44

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ethnicity” (D005006).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005006). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethnocentrism
<a id="ethnocentrism"></a>

Consumer ethnocentrism is the belief that buying products made in one’s own country is the right and more morally acceptable choice than buying foreign goods. In this context, it relates to preference for domestic brands and loyalty to products associated with the home country, and may also connect with identity and materialistic motives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c569aab4fbbe70a5c92da74a3547cb12d998674c1513b616fe8dc245c4665396

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Štefko Róbert; Rigelský Martin; Ondrijová Ivana; Kráľová Lenka. Exploring the relationship between materialism, consumer ethnocentrism, and compulsive buying. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1680164; article XML SHA-256 dfb06ceb350f56170421302c02de1bb16230eb4c091e5baa0c48a56dd970c2fc. “Exploring the relationship between materialism, consumer ethnocentrism, and compulsive buying” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1680164).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1680164). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Ethnopsychology
<a id="ethnopsychology"></a>

Ethnopsychology is the comparative study of psychology across different ethnic and cultural groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e1ccd5d29453464802d0164dbca1b5cb7548c8329b043ba9b14eca8cc4afbcfa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Ethnopsychology” (D005008).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005008). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethogram
<a id="ethogram"></a>

An ethogram is a standardized system for describing and classifying an animal’s behaviours so they can be observed and recorded consistently. It organizes distinct behaviour units, often into broader categories, to support more objective and reproducible behavioural research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1d375bc47835e6d04f68dd3c778710573899a9a9928db6f9c4877cb7693d6406

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brotier Héloïse; Alba-Gonzalez Pablo; Kannan Prameek; Geffen Eli; Ilany Amiyaal; Koren Lee. Developing objective tools to study rock hyrax ( Procavia capensis ) behaviour in the field. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343302; article XML SHA-256 ae8137704455f3501d329489eeb574a2deced9ba359c6d9898ba3b7faeaa70fb. “Developing objective tools to study rock hyrax ( Procavia capensis ) behaviour in the field” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343302).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343302). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Ethology
<a id="ethology"></a>

Ethology is the discipline concerned with studying animal behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9bb6abbf39222ef527f856bb7df88be135caac890e581a3ee4f0da1f4d1132ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Ethology” (D005010).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005010). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethos
<a id="ethos"></a>

Ethos is the moral character or disposition of a person, especially the shared moral temper of a community as expressed in its usual patterns of behaviour. It points to underlying character rather than merely outward custom.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 118fef4d772c1f9fd2d53d4578c3a067c29c862fe1e2d5f66c831ff6afd2b624

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ethos” (Ethos).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Ethos). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethosuximide
<a id="ethosuximide"></a>

Ethosuximide is an anticonvulsant succinimide that helps prevent seizures by stabilizing nerve activity in the brain. Its action is not fully understood, but it likely works in part by blocking T-type calcium channels in thalamic neurons and reducing burst firing in thalamocortical pathways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f189bbb9bbc149a902f135e19a8adc2460f6230c375b4ff2387d3e990174ecf4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ethosuximide” (C47523).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethotoin
<a id="ethotoin"></a>

Ethotoin is an anticonvulsant medicine used for anti-epileptic effects. It appears to act on sodium and calcium movement across nerve cell membranes, helping reduce abnormal neuronal firing and limit the spread of seizure activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 379c9960cd8a167fc13f087841d4a77ba3617a155a1a78160e015d2b93822f7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ethotoin” (C47524).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ethyl alcohol
<a id="ethyl-alcohol"></a>

Ethyl alcohol is a fermented, volatile chemical substance that slows central nervous system activity. It also promotes fluid loss by reducing antidiuretic hormone and can act as a disinfectant by breaking down proteins in microorganisms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 151116c12c7b4427d8190db279391b83e3a9703b843f2e6a7ca0d46c404b4d64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alcohol” (C2190).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## etic
<a id="etic"></a>

Etic refers to a researcher- or outsider-based perspective used to describe or study a topic. It emphasizes interpretations developed from outside the lived experience being examined.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8472e40463901456f831dc63d7c01f083739dc55290ed27080edd31b552e7be7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Patel Maitri; Kumar Navin. “It helps me cope”: a meta-ethnographic synthesis on lived experiences of spiritual bypassing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852417; article XML SHA-256 b92144ed9440489bbc3e511b6fda8cf03fe60d204c3cb0c74bbf90c804b351da. ““It helps me cope”: a meta-ethnographic synthesis on lived experiences of spiritual bypassing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852417).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852417). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## etiology
<a id="etiology"></a>

Etiology is the study of causes. In historical usage, it can mean the study of cause and effect in philosophy, the causes of organic and mental disease in medicine, and in biology the origin and development of living beings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62e4d3ec57aa839b0433418b82d55ad8be4a69c81185564ee7995cf1037ddd9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Etiology” (Etiology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Etiology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ETS
<a id="ets"></a>

ETS stands for the Expectation for Treatment Scale, a brief general assessment used to measure patients’ expectations about the outcomes of treatment. It is designed to be easy to administer and focuses specifically on outcome expectations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8743467bd20b6fd70f5fe78bfff201de6cdc22de55f436d5ef08b4cb8df6afba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mohamed Walid; Hall Michelle; Barth Jürgen; Hendrick Paul. Arabic translation, cross-cultural adaptation, and validation of the Expectation for Treatment Scale (ETS) in patients with musculoskeletal disorders. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346025; article XML SHA-256 f55e6a1c1df8517846194c96d0b73c6b1b14af013e751c0627bc57fde993c133. “Arabic translation, cross-cultural adaptation, and validation of the Expectation for Treatment Scale (ETS) in patients with musculoskeletal disorders” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346025).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346025). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## etymology
<a id="etymology"></a>

Etymology is the study of a word’s history, tracing how its form and meaning have developed back toward its origin. It also refers to the word-history itself, including cases where a word has been borrowed from another language.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac46e4e44b8216d611ebc346b531981bfbd3347adbad6027be6f5dd3ffaa5fed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Etymology” (Etymology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Etymology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eudaimonic well-being
<a id="eudaimonic-well-being"></a>

Eudaimonic well-being is a form of well-being concerned with how well a person is functioning and how fully they are realizing their potential. It is considered distinct from subjective well-being, which focuses more on life satisfaction and positive or negative feelings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 296ce5cb23081d3e17ef2deb8792d109d1c0fea557e5ec36834a5946441aa3e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kosugi Teppei; Ninomiya Akira; Nagaoka Maki; Hashimoto Zenta; Sawada Kyosuke; Park Sunre; Fujisawa Daisuke; Mimura Masaru; Sado Mitsuhiro. Effectiveness of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Improving Subjective and Eudaimonic Well-Being in Healthy Individuals: A Randomized Controlled Trial. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.700916; article XML SHA-256 2ca9d611077654e8b5634abce4ed7166cea68e0805f21046f0cbc7d4e9dc66c7. “Effectiveness of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Improving Subjective and Eudaimonic Well-Being in Healthy Individuals: A Randomized Controlled Trial” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.700916).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.700916). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eunuch
<a id="eunuch"></a>

Historically, a eunuch is a castrated male. In this source, the term is associated with retaining a boyish voice and with the incomplete development of adult male physical characteristics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4c69d6a6b81b02db876ebdb774e951b5d35c3cf92b644d9bb0e7047a2199cbf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-871500-883500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## euphoria
<a id="euphoria"></a>

Euphoria is an unusually intense sense of physical and emotional well-being that does not match the situation or events around the person. It is usually psychological in origin, but it can also occur with brain disease or toxic states.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f2e1ece4788c885f85c01adf79d753e88ef61d3c507be04d10388b9deb55c63

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Euphoria” (D005059).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005059). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eusociality
<a id="eusociality"></a>

Eusociality is a highly organized social system in which reproduction is divided between reproductive members, such as queens, and non-reproductive workers. The workers give up having their own offspring and instead help raise close genetic relatives, often their siblings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 690fe49cb24e307614809eaa41298ffcea35d254bf0b28e790a3ac74eb01ebea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gruber Jodie; Field Jeremy. Male survivorship and the evolution of eusociality in partially bivoltine sweat bees. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0276428; article XML SHA-256 b7961ae233f41292784226331a0ee79ad30b02b56d0bbd6e0b1c5571080ed9d3. “Male survivorship and the evolution of eusociality in partially bivoltine sweat bees” (10.1371/journal.pone.0276428).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276428). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## evaluation
<a id="evaluation"></a>

In psychology and related applied settings, evaluation is the systematic study of whether change has occurred and how it develops over time in response to an intervention, program, or organizational process. In this source, evaluation is framed as most valid when it examines change as an unfolding, phase-structured process rather than only comparing before-and-after scores.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4b3404f20278e8fead59898e3d610a6534e0ca16cc3223927f2cc97d74535d37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mohiyeddini Changiz. Piecewise latent growth modeling as the methodological standard for evaluation research. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1830316; article XML SHA-256 e5d8dbf7b7981979e91a174b99577337675fbf673390383b41696b9bb6add004. “Piecewise latent growth modeling as the methodological standard for evaluation research” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1830316).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1830316). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## evaluation apprehension
<a id="evaluation-apprehension"></a>

Evaluation apprehension is worry or fear about being judged negatively by others. In idea-generation settings, it can make people less willing to share unconventional or risky ideas, and anonymity is often described as a way to reduce it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2ddf0b429183a7a90ec8ffc6edfbdc1871abb180badd58bf47576e1dc6f7e4a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wöllner Theresa; Schweisfurth Tim G; Brem Alexander. The impact of mixed-anonymity on brainstorming performance: Evidence from field experiments. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354236; article XML SHA-256 62ceba87213c110054ca88c86ba12b623e632194ff4350fb0f333e76e5359c63. “The impact of mixed-anonymity on brainstorming performance: Evidence from field experiments” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354236).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354236). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## evaluation research
<a id="evaluation-research"></a>

Evaluation research is the study of whether and how change occurs in applied settings such as clinical care, psychotherapy, education, or organizations. In this source, it is described as needing methods that track change as an ongoing, phase-structured process over time rather than treating it as a simple before-and-after event.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c8377ad58152a853fd38d19b1e2a7bcfd60a8fd00b5e162760f1cfe4d727641

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mohiyeddini Changiz. Piecewise latent growth modeling as the methodological standard for evaluation research. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1830316; article XML SHA-256 e5d8dbf7b7981979e91a174b99577337675fbf673390383b41696b9bb6add004. “Piecewise latent growth modeling as the methodological standard for evaluation research” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1830316).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1830316). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## evaluative ratings
<a id="evaluative-ratings"></a>

Evaluative ratings are participants’ judgments about how to assess an event or a person’s behavior after it is observed or remembered. In this study, they referred to ratings such as how inappropriate or severe the professor’s behavior seemed and how harsh a punishment was recommended.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5ea2186322dc85748a1147d8adc06461e77850c80146d904972005d1154cba9d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Battista Fabiana; Lanciano Tiziana; Zappimpulso Pasquale; Puleo Federico; Mangiulli Ivan; Curci Antonietta. False memories and biased judgments for physical touch: the role of misinformation on eyewitness reports. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1724728; article XML SHA-256 2a934987af443d2acb1b6ac09a673111958b78f3b6a00125e631f760185e95cc. “False memories and biased judgments for physical touch: the role of misinformation on eyewitness reports” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1724728).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1724728). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## evaluator
<a id="evaluator"></a>

In this embodied-cognition model, an evaluator is one of three proposed cognitive dyads and refers to a pattern of sensorimotor functioning involved in how actions are controlled and perceived. The evaluator is described as part of normal social attunement in the model, while an extreme evaluator is proposed as a form of mis-attunement linked to psychiatric difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 347bc3bfef5652b77b2a565ae777bafa8382ac012ad555b53c9438e3fe99559e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kumar Amit. Unique models of embodied cognition and eco-social niches proposed to validate hypothesis of social attunement and mis-attunement with a focus on autism. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1562061; article XML SHA-256 4ac9aeefc2f44bf4fb4e42f8205796037ef3510151fc3daf169fc5d82b33c42a. “Unique models of embodied cognition and eco-social niches proposed to validate hypothesis of social attunement and mis-attunement with a focus on autism” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1562061).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1562061). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## evaluator credibility
<a id="evaluator-credibility"></a>

Evaluator credibility is the perceived credibility or creditworthiness of the person who provides a comment or evaluation. In this source, it is treated as one feature of buyer comments and is linked to stronger purchase intention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4c97c6e798b6c90a0caa47a3f91c5456cd324e90ac953db93bd7701c8f5616cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Feng Qun; Wang Yan; Chen Chuanhao; Dong Zhengnan; Shi Xuejun. Effect of Homebuyer Comment on Green Housing Purchase Intention—Mediation Role of Psychological Distance. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.568451; article XML SHA-256 83046713b9936be4444b3edd2505563c8524776e17221ea858c87f1554187ebe. “Effect of Homebuyer Comment on Green Housing Purchase Intention—Mediation Role of Psychological Distance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.568451).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.568451). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## event
<a id="event"></a>

An event is any change in the world of fact, including objective observable changes and sequences. In common usage, an event is usually understood as something occurring in time and connected with other happenings in a temporal series.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 235bca607e807edd459ab747b06e510eff21bf697256284cde3afedf8b2253d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Event” (Event).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Event). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## event memory
<a id="event-memory"></a>

Event memory is a memory representation of a consciously experienced event, including objects or actions embedded in emotional, spatial, and temporal context. In this source, it is described as an allocentric event code formed by the hippocampus and linked into sequences that make up episodic memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 21857c382676c04547e01c2d5d85c7d30eab3b7eea4bda8cfc089ac1cbc93718

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Behrendt Ralf-Peter. Conscious Experience and Episodic Memory: Hippocampus at the Crossroads. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00304; article XML SHA-256 6400237a3338eedaab6285837aa14e7d951c689e3fd33bb919d9a319a5a1646d. “Conscious Experience and Episodic Memory: Hippocampus at the Crossroads” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00304).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00304). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## event-related potential
<a id="event-related-potential"></a>

An event-related potential is a neurophysiological measure used to study cognitive processing. In this packet, it refers to brain-response patterns described by features such as amplitude, latency, global field power, and topographic distribution, which can reveal processing differences even when behaviour looks similar.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b71289706058711b9f6b08882bf26881fa87c95919182120c8b7fbe8bad0bd34

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nanova Plamenka. Neurophysiological sex differences in mental rotation in young adults: a narrative review of event-related potentials. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1777556; article XML SHA-256 38b8dae3dc14a84ca6bccb096975cb66d441c3acb73c33c4e7667f9828dacda9. “Neurophysiological sex differences in mental rotation in young adults: a narrative review of event-related potentials” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1777556).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1777556). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## everyday creativity
<a id="everyday-creativity"></a>

Everyday creativity is creativity as it appears in ordinary daily life and situations. It refers to creative thought or behavior shown across routine events and activities, rather than only in exceptional or formal creative work.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fc1536f5df5081db5695458a22c36c56009c511ae594f2b93400b60606132a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Han Wei; Feng Xue; Zhang Mi; Peng Kaiping; Zhang Dan. Mood States and Everyday Creativity: Employing an Experience Sampling Method and a Day Reconstruction Method. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01698; article XML SHA-256 efd58e22307ebb049fea53ccd520a12417a496c9bd6e031dc5b41519c96c8778. “Mood States and Everyday Creativity: Employing an Experience Sampling Method and a Day Reconstruction Method” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01698).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01698). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## everyday racism
<a id="everyday-racism"></a>

Everyday racism is the routine unequal treatment of people or reduced access to opportunities because of their group membership, such as their origin or ethnicity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 68cc8cd1b4fd2d764a175e5276dc963fd90a168bf708f8d5c090d83315da07a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Racism” (D063505).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063505). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## evidence-based practice
<a id="evidence-based-practice"></a>

Evidence-based practice is an approach to decision-making and professional work that uses the best available evidence to guide actions and identify best practice. It began in healthcare and medicine and has since been applied in other fields.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 667f8a079b1546529b13982c5da636dc76d5483eb919187613543f01a40a8911

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Christie Alec P.; Martin Philip A.; Taylor Nigel G.. The impact and return-on-investment of evidence-based practice in conservation and environmental management: A machine learning-assisted scoping review protocol. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326521; article XML SHA-256 075bff04a5e99f313601c278677cb5aa4605bcb2f75480214f6bad6fe665e65f. “The impact and return-on-investment of evidence-based practice in conservation and environmental management: A machine learning-assisted scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326521).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326521). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## evil eye
<a id="evil-eye"></a>

The evil eye is a widespread belief that some people can cause harm to others simply by directing their gaze at them. In historical psychology writing, it is treated as part of the broader group of beliefs and practices associated with magic or sorcery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae0623d6503a711c4c3cfb9e118df6e434ec6e9d7f20503ef0d5871c6b55cc5f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Evil Eye” (EvilE).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#EvilE). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## evoked potential
<a id="evoked-potential"></a>

An evoked potential is an electrical signal measured from a nerve, muscle, sensory receptor, or part of the central nervous system after stimulation. Different forms are identified by the kind of system stimulated, such as auditory, visual, somatosensory, or motor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb4d765c5296227600e7bf3331d620b58802473d815c0dfc2585153520aef225

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Evoked Potentials” (D005071).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005071). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## evolution of consciousness
<a id="evolution-of-consciousness"></a>

In this historical usage, evolution of consciousness means the observed development of mental life over time, especially as a way of seeing how knowledge and concepts arise in experience. It refers to tracing the growth of consciousness in its actual order, rather than starting from finished, already-formed thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e24870e478d9555a7c882f3edab1febb9845b329689fcc828d7776ca005a011b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-220500-232500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## evolution of intelligence
<a id="evolution-of-intelligence"></a>

Evolution of intelligence is the study of how cognitive abilities have developed across species by comparing brain size and performance on thinking tasks in relation to possible selective pressures such as environment and social organization. In primates, this approach has been used to examine similarities and differences in physical and social cognition, including evidence that human social intelligence may have evolved especially rapidly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c5965a9c49c58e10a87ead62887cd825e4ac2edc42a10a57021623f37ecc782

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schmitt Vanessa; Pankau Birte; Fischer Julia. Old World Monkeys Compare to Apes in the Primate Cognition Test Battery. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0032024; article XML SHA-256 61849fec0c04b298343daced23f1cbeb8741fd6ebc430ff110efe6aca6d8ea67. “Old World Monkeys Compare to Apes in the Primate Cognition Test Battery” (10.1371/journal.pone.0032024).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0032024). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## evolution of the brain
<a id="evolution-of-the-brain"></a>

In this historical source, the evolution of the brain is described as advancing in quality and complexity alongside a long period of infancy. Because the young are protected and do not need fully fixed instincts at birth, brain development is linked with greater plasticity, learning, intelligence, and more complex social life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc647938819486396e1d069913edcf3e505693474195f00a9d9551853275e0c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Infancy” (Infancy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Infancy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## evolutionarily stable strategy
<a id="evolutionarily-stable-strategy"></a>

An evolutionarily stable strategy is a stable pattern of behavior or choice that emerges among players in an evolutionary game process. It refers to the state the players’ strategies settle into under the model’s dynamics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 56379337f944e19356ed7ae82b37cdcde7ed35a5ecb0364a8335d66dec2493a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pang Jinbo; Deng Lingfei; Wang Gangyi. An evolutionarily stable strategy and the critical point of hog futures trading entities based on replicator dynamic theory: 2006–2015 data for China’s 22 provinces. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0172009; article XML SHA-256 218d5f973cf37ccd3f47e1f8254cf05bc76e41924d8e17d1b30c6bc11b2e29ef. “An evolutionarily stable strategy and the critical point of hog futures trading entities based on replicator dynamic theory: 2006–2015 data for China’s 22 provinces” (10.1371/journal.pone.0172009).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172009). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## evolved mechanism
<a id="evolved-mechanism"></a>

In this historical usage, an evolved mechanism is the view of mind as a gradually developed functional system whose actions can become highly organized and even largely automatic through habit and training. It presents mental life as a subject for scientific study grounded in its development and relation to the organism, rather than needing speculative additions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d24be80ca88ff998e0d08dba34eb76248e18ce1a7ee8a0b06b9b51ac132371b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-241500-253500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ex post facto evaluation
<a id="ex-post-facto-evaluation"></a>

An ex post facto evaluation is an assessment carried out after a program or intervention has already occurred, using existing differences between people or groups to compare outcomes rather than assigning conditions in advance. In the source, it refers to a quasi-experimental, after-the-fact comparison of users and non-users, which can show associations but may not support causal conclusions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9fb5e5a854ddd99b4d31a9a1ba4f92f0f80bf95d27c70e33a200982094f8d81

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Patil Sumeet R; Gopalakrishnan Lakshmi; Sai Vishal Sabasu; Matikanya Richard; Rajpal Payal. Markets, incentives, and health promotion can improve family planning and maternal health practices: a quasi-experimental evaluation of a tech-enabled social franchising and social marketing platform in India. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12889-023-17413-w; article XML SHA-256 a15f8c040bde5fca237c782143cc326bd668560e5e3a845d6262e5fdc948dc1b. “Markets, incentives, and health promotion can improve family planning and maternal health practices: a quasi-experimental evaluation of a tech-enabled social franchising and social marketing platform in India” (10.1186/s12889-023-17413-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-17413-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exact replication
<a id="exact-replication"></a>

Exact replication means repeating a study or experiment in a way that reproduces the original procedures, data resources, and analysis steps as closely as possible so the same results can be checked. In this source, it refers to providing enough software, data, and protocol detail for all experiments and findings to be reproduced exactly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c8821585ffbf8acbefe75c2efa156e5547553a3821001301d5472d397781a956

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lara-Clares Alicia; Lastra-Díaz Juan J.; Garcia-Serrano Ana. A reproducible experimental survey on biomedical sentence similarity: A string-based method sets the state of the art. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0276539; article XML SHA-256 17d9f4d55112aafcbdd38795dd1b5e710248546653504a6064c71ea3671c2f56. “A reproducible experimental survey on biomedical sentence similarity: A string-based method sets the state of the art” (10.1371/journal.pone.0276539).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276539). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exceptional child
<a id="exceptional-child"></a>

An exceptional child is a child whose mental, physical, or social characteristics or abilities differ so much from what is typical that they need more support or services than usual to help them develop as fully as possible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc6fa27e24ee8ce22c29732855b13ec099718ff8cae2dfd7d09aeede9a4947c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Child, Exceptional” (D002671).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002671). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exchange relationship
<a id="exchange-relationship"></a>

An exchange relationship is the employee’s experienced working relationship with a supervisor, often discussed as leader-member exchange (LMX). In this context, it is viewed as a resource that can shape how job conditions relate to well-being, such as job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a8048b243c27234d4fb7b482ba9f86f5040fa0056d28be2a5e230f1e1334c1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Poetz Lennart; Volmer Judith. A diary study on the moderating role of leader-member exchange on the relationship between job characteristics, job satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.812103; article XML SHA-256 874efda8c5cae57c8b448abaf7ebda540cf00d8efce9d685a69f987a08ba9c03. “A diary study on the moderating role of leader-member exchange on the relationship between job characteristics, job satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.812103).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.812103). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exchangeability
<a id="exchangeability"></a>

Exchangeability is the assumption that, when the order of observations carries no meaningful information, changing their order should not change one’s beliefs or the joint probability assigned to the data. In this sense, observations are treated symmetrically and can be understood as if they come from an unknown underlying probability distribution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 88c8e5cd6448dd1fede2b39ce562159989cbade758d74cb680fe4e41a4ec1608

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Costa Tommaso. From exchangeability to rational belief: a cognitive interpretation of de Finetti’s theorem. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1621552; article XML SHA-256 3158a5f75f7da60e97e91f314a66d7636983d4be5d5d3dd0cd3124f3e0b66252. “From exchangeability to rational belief: a cognitive interpretation of de Finetti’s theorem” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1621552).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1621552). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## excitability
<a id="excitability"></a>

Excitability is the capacity to respond to a normal stimulus with a fitting reaction. In historical psychology usage, it refers to the responsiveness of living matter or nerves when something acts on them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1a0154383f29ae9bbc8795f998a5b23679d8ef34bde2c71a71f11bb7ef8d5c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Excitability” (Excitability).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Excitability). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## excitation
<a id="excitation"></a>

In historical psychology and physiology, excitation means the living change that occurs when a stimulus acts on an organism or tissue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6095d846b0e747e3e247a4b725e9495c7f506a763a5f1532caafeda41b1dace2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Excitation” (Excitation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Excitation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## excitation pattern
<a id="excitation-pattern"></a>

An excitation pattern is a way of modeling how the auditory system responds across a sound band so researchers can predict how other sounds, such as masking noise, change what can be detected. In this study, an excitation-pattern model was used to explain masking effects through changes such as reduced ripple depth and broader auditory filtering at high sound levels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0aff9874b5a7de1d904c91736f515755f89490ebe5c0ee3551a8a9d6690a5739

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nechaev Dmitry I.; Milekhina Olga N.; Supin Alexander Ya.. Hearing Sensitivity to Shifts of Rippled-Spectrum Sound Signals in Masking Noise. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0140313; article XML SHA-256 15bd6ad64fa9fd469c1ac9e8ae24c5c92aaf69d2b8746fbfd6bb7f09aded96d9. “Hearing Sensitivity to Shifts of Rippled-Spectrum Sound Signals in Masking Noise” (10.1371/journal.pone.0140313).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0140313). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## excitatory conditioning
<a id="excitatory-conditioning"></a>

Excitatory conditioning is a form of classical learning in which a cue such as an odor is presented just before and slightly overlaps a rewarding stimulus like sucrose, so the cue comes to trigger the response on its own. In the bee example, an odor paired in this forward way later elicits proboscis extension without sucrose.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf496a133daf2a7f71a6a0b2f5cf2a2d7d72bc8b5e9dc5316d1bf1f77a15c20b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dacher Matthieu; Smith Brian H.. Olfactory Interference during Inhibitory Backward Pairing in Honey Bees. 2008; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0003513; article XML SHA-256 8b8fe5236dfa06c5b685da23ab3d48690c01256d1798e3f4bc7a9e11630e1068. “Olfactory Interference during Inhibitory Backward Pairing in Honey Bees” (10.1371/journal.pone.0003513).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0003513). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## excitatory neurotransmitter
<a id="excitatory-neurotransmitter"></a>

An excitatory neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger released by neurons that increases the activity of other nerve cells. In the brain, glutamic acid is the main example, while aspartic acid has also been considered excitatory but its exact transmitter role is less certain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d404b2dca1176b081f369ae1887026d0b19ca152d981841d7e774edcac5c813

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Excitatory Amino Acids” (D018846).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018846). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## excitatory synapse
<a id="excitatory-synapse"></a>

An excitatory synapse is a connection between cells where activity in the sending cell makes the receiving cell more likely to fire.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d27c31a13b8a2f9615551c2a0059b8739016ec9c749accd1310a0f77d1058bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Excitatory Synapse” (C32545).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## excitement
<a id="excitement"></a>

In historical psychology, excitement means a heightened state of consciousness, especially in feeling and striving or impulse. It is the psychological counterpart of physiological excitation, referring to conscious processes being called into activity, and it can vary in intensity apart from whether the feeling is pleasant or unpleasant.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d52c46b14ca45bb06ed4e278f33cd8186966b9e59d5d53be29e8c9ceaa1ee80

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Excitement” (Excitement).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Excitement). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## excitotoxicity
<a id="excitotoxicity"></a>

Excitotoxicity is a process in which nerve cells are driven toward cell death. In the source context, it is described as one way chronic neuroinflammation can contribute to neuronal damage and ongoing neurodegeneration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 60aa675fd31d7320604a1baa2670160ab560f83f5509cef40db41cb592a2add3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Haskel Maria Vaitsa Loch; da Silva Vequi Letícia Stresser; Flauzino Marianna Wirthmann Pompeo; da Silva Correa Vinicius; Oliveira Cláudia Sirlene; Pereira Meire Ellen; de Gregório Elizama; Bonini Juliana Sartori; da Silva Weber Claudio. Taurine reverses long-term memory deficits caused by LPS induced neuroinflammation. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12868-026-01017-2; article XML SHA-256 314e08df21417a1ae2fe71c6206dc8952e97f5ff0e8db71f15e2d51eb600b1f4. “Taurine reverses long-term memory deficits caused by LPS induced neuroinflammation” (10.1186/s12868-026-01017-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-026-01017-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## executive
<a id="executive"></a>

In psychology, executive usually refers to higher-order mental control processes involved in goal-directed behavior, self-regulation, and adapting to changing demands. These processes are commonly described in terms of inhibitory control, updating information in working memory, and cognitive flexibility.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aca8add2c388d0e059d89d4f604ebec2d27defd1a2607f05fbd81a484acd6853

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pitta Athina. Executive functions in research and practice: a multimethod review of behavioral, subjective, and neurobiological assessment tools. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1713652; article XML SHA-256 2453e9bfb08d5a0281b7d087e05b9c66bab6a09838d233addc0c68f23c30fe1e. “Executive functions in research and practice: a multimethod review of behavioral, subjective, and neurobiological assessment tools” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1713652).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1713652). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## executive coaching
<a id="executive-coaching"></a>

Executive coaching is a work-based developmental process for people with managerial responsibility that supports changes aimed at improving professional performance and personal goals. In organizations, it is used to promote positive change and development, often by building new habits, attitudes, and work practices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 87f5b032026ee79b7a738faac0545b6c0ec3ba7ca032700bb5be45bce7ed2c29

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nicolau Andreea; Candel Octav Sorin; Constantin Ticu; Kleingeld Ad. The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1089797; article XML SHA-256 a1b696376d5f7b0203b424df66d61cf046e14299ddadf465543f328ba926a0dc. “The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1089797).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1089797). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## executive dysfunction
<a id="executive-dysfunction"></a>

Executive dysfunction is a pattern of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral difficulties. It often occurs with frontal lobe disorders such as traumatic injury and dementia, and it can also be seen in attention deficit disorder and other conditions not caused by trauma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c84ddf913d8e639797e750216fa7ee3620a1b857f7cc943ed03b0b1d7b13983

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Executive Function Disorder” (C160587).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## executive functions
<a id="executive-functions"></a>

Executive functions are higher-level mental control processes that support goal-directed behavior, self-regulation, and adapting to changing situations across life. They are commonly understood to include inhibitory control, updating information in working memory, and cognitive flexibility.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f98557f1ed9e71d1c545736882b8b561b711129cc0ce3318a68a39af5f0ca324

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pitta Athina. Executive functions in research and practice: a multimethod review of behavioral, subjective, and neurobiological assessment tools. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1713652; article XML SHA-256 2453e9bfb08d5a0281b7d087e05b9c66bab6a09838d233addc0c68f23c30fe1e. “Executive functions in research and practice: a multimethod review of behavioral, subjective, and neurobiological assessment tools” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1713652).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1713652). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Exelon
<a id="exelon"></a>

Exelon is the tartrate salt form of rivastigmine, a drug described as having cognitive-stimulating effects. It may work by reversibly binding to cholinesterase, which reduces the breakdown of acetylcholine and increases cholinergic activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 082ead7e11379195f307d66fc35bca011d64bf779352a17bf06b001e1facf431

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Rivastigmine Tartrate” (C47707).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exercise
<a id="exercise"></a>

Exercise is activity that involves physical or mental effort, especially when done to build or maintain fitness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 781a60d89c0c286e5a04d16cf426c18c29835201b89e5d75e97a93832c959389

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Exercise” (C16567).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exercise addiction
<a id="exercise-addiction"></a>

Exercise addiction is an addictive pattern of excessive physical activity in which a person keeps exercising without adequate breaks, even when injured. It can involve persistent preoccupation with exercise and withdrawal-like symptoms when not exercising; some descriptions distinguish a primary form driven by compulsive exercise and a secondary form linked with eating disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bcc573f6e5068616c4761e2684841dce9f244a32f8c0c3a2061aaf6c302bc88a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Minutillo Adele; Di Trana Annagiulia; Aquilina Valeria; Ciancio Gerolama Maria; Berretta Paolo; La Maida Nunzia. Recent insights in the correlation between social media use, personality traits and exercise addiction: a literature review. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1392317; article XML SHA-256 452247aa4a47b51e34589790d23a8764f8a9d2ad180f764b492e12fe0a1c1229. “Recent insights in the correlation between social media use, personality traits and exercise addiction: a literature review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1392317).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1392317). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exercise therapy
<a id="exercise-therapy"></a>

Exercise therapy is a complementary and alternative treatment approach that uses different kinds of movement to support physical, mental, and emotional well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f253810f9691b5f2881f555a857db83d9ba56e071e2a49325ce6493c5b048be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “CAM Exercise Therapy” (C64896).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exhaustion
<a id="exhaustion"></a>

In this organizational and counselling work context, exhaustion refers to emotional depletion linked to high job pressure, heavy workload, and the emotional demands of the role. It is described as a strain that can arise when a person’s work combines intense responsibilities with ongoing emotional labor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abba9e55195cbd4aa8013a96dd94e9f5435a1424fb5ab1aa30118522a9fb4222

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cheng Zeng; Taddese Esayas Teshome; Gebresilase Bereket Merkine; Dinsa Mitiku Tasisa; Berhanu Kelemu Zelalem; Abate Melaku Takele; Shorouk A.. The mediating role of emotional exhaustion in the relationship between normative commitment and pay satisfaction among university counselors. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810414; article XML SHA-256 04d7c673d07020c58f765eaa127892155d8f34c1179016837c1de3a3d06d3f79. “The mediating role of emotional exhaustion in the relationship between normative commitment and pay satisfaction among university counselors” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810414).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810414). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exhaustive
<a id="exhaustive"></a>

In this historical context, exhaustive means as complete as possible, leaving out no relevant particular instances in the collection being studied. A fully exhaustive collection was treated as the condition under which comparison and elimination could yield a true result.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0653482c65abf5ac2bb26230be18046df6e8ea094e0c9e4a9d37c35427d03f59

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baconian Method” (Baconian Method).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Baconian Method). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exhibitionism
<a id="exhibitionism"></a>

Exhibitionism is a disorder in which a person becomes sexually aroused by fantasies about, or by actually, exposing their genitals to an unsuspecting stranger, without seeking further sexual contact with that person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0eabb11896dd6e456481e7bdfc5306ae57a288bb573204c425122a906ae91b40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Exhibitionism” (D005084).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005084). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## existential anxiety
<a id="existential-anxiety"></a>

Existential anxiety is the distress that can arise from being aware of mortality and from trying to make sense of suffering, especially during illness, aging, loss, or uncertainty. It is closely tied to meaning-making, as people may seek explanations that reduce threat or impose order on difficult life events.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 776afcade82c5facda2d8d50463fc74b6d79785fdce1938e29367882fc029d66

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bandaranayake Bandara. Between moral judgment and randomness: existential anxiety, meaning-making, and the pathway from cognition to health. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845971; article XML SHA-256 ecef125009caf1f01fbbc0494ae9427e539d115d024fda61555edb825b1af41a. “Between moral judgment and randomness: existential anxiety, meaning-making, and the pathway from cognition to health” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845971).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845971). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## existential judgment
<a id="existential-judgment"></a>

An existential judgment is a judgment that explicitly states that its subject exists. In other words, it is a statement that directly attributes existence to the thing being spoken about.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84b183bcac562a50ef65a16970bbe0935a7082b207c18f428fbe430e1a50e6fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Existential Judgment” (Existential).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Existential). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## existential psychology
<a id="existential-psychology"></a>

Existential psychology is a psychological approach concerned with how people confront mortality, suffering, loss, aging, and uncertainty, and how they make meaning of these experiences. It focuses on existential anxiety and on the interpretive frameworks people use to explain significant life events.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 826af28c22aec531c063abb2571e090d659a0f5dfe6f795a27fd8c91f345ad07

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bandaranayake Bandara. Between moral judgment and randomness: existential anxiety, meaning-making, and the pathway from cognition to health. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845971; article XML SHA-256 ecef125009caf1f01fbbc0494ae9427e539d115d024fda61555edb825b1af41a. “Between moral judgment and randomness: existential anxiety, meaning-making, and the pathway from cognition to health” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845971).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845971). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## existential psychotherapy
<a id="existential-psychotherapy"></a>

Existential psychotherapy, as supported here, is a directive form of therapy that focuses on the importance of meaning in a person’s life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 065fe13ec8f79c56a42a42ec6359a4c5d65a0efd11bb50c6ef57e37d1e1c7657

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Logotherapy” (D000081842).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000081842). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## existential vacuum
<a id="existential-vacuum"></a>

Existential vacuum refers to a state of lacking a sense of meaning and fulfilment in life. In this source, it is discussed as a possible correlate of burnout and of diminished existential fulfilment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 89d524f5edc394f1fabfe490d2fa53a80f1a5b18efc006b1f926536f03770b4b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Riethof Norbert; Bob Petr. Burnout Syndrome and Logotherapy: Logotherapy as Useful Conceptual Framework for Explanation and Prevention of Burnout. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00382; article XML SHA-256 bd761d11e71130d2b6a00845f9ca879fd22f1b701ab7cacae1ed94030eb1aded. “Burnout Syndrome and Logotherapy: Logotherapy as Useful Conceptual Framework for Explanation and Prevention of Burnout” (10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00382).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00382). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## existentialism
<a id="existentialism"></a>

Existentialism is a philosophy that examines a person’s existence in the world and argues that human life cannot be fully explained in purely scientific terms. It emphasizes individual freedom and responsibility, along with the personal meaning of ethical, religious, and subjective experiences such as anxiety, guilt, and suffering.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 60883501d68110245b5867a74b85f8a5ea03f2e86e2ed30657d64b7a9a2649d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Existentialism” (D005086).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005086). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exit interview
<a id="exit-interview"></a>

An exit interview is a structured interview given to people as they leave a service setting to gather information about their experience and satisfaction with the care or service they received. In this context, it was used with patients after healthcare visits to collect ratings and related feedback.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0035044d0fb61cfdf65c61e809c2d2dd9cbc67c244ba3b86bd1e724d5b5de2f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Adhikary Gourab; Shawon Md. Shajedur Rahman; Ali Md. Wazed; Shamsuzzaman Md.; Ahmed Shahabuddin; Shackelford Katya A.; Woldeab Alexander; Alam Nurul; Lim Stephen S.; Levine Aubrey; Gakidou Emmanuela; Uddin Md. Jasim. Factors influencing patients’ satisfaction at different levels of health facilities in Bangladesh: Results from patient exit interviews. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0196643; article XML SHA-256 f69600b87d9393e498afba1267d97ac6286c676041754c78078faa3851869e71. “Factors influencing patients’ satisfaction at different levels of health facilities in Bangladesh: Results from patient exit interviews” (10.1371/journal.pone.0196643).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196643). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exogamy
<a id="exogamy"></a>

Exogamy is the custom of marrying outside one’s own clan or tribe. In this historical source, it is described as a socially enforced rule tied to ideas about kinship and the development of family, clan, and tribal organization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48a437bf4413b542fe6790120e846d2d3ca0f1a7c35408c4dbdb5746270b665e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Exogamy” (Exogamy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Exogamy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exogenous attention
<a id="exogenous-attention"></a>

Exogenous attention is attention that is automatically drawn by outside stimuli, especially negative or threatening ones. In this source, it refers to the way fear- and disgust-related distractors capture attention, with these emotions affecting attention at different points in time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b629e2aaae7f1d7fceaf0640b09bad1f37c243237843d1454a26bfb81e8e0d71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ruiz-Padial Elisabeth; Mercado Francisco. In exogenous attention, time is the clue: Brain and heart interactions to survive threatening stimuli. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243117; article XML SHA-256 14d8cfa9d2b1655b38ccc9a1c8e4037eb7aed34e51ad81e71e7f73606d0da768. “In exogenous attention, time is the clue: Brain and heart interactions to survive threatening stimuli” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243117).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243117). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exorcism
<a id="exorcism"></a>

Exorcism is the practice of trying to drive evil spirits out of a person or place by spoken formulas or prescribed rites. In the historical view given here, it rests on the belief that illness or misfortune is caused by a spirit and can be removed by expelling or sometimes appeasing it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c5a720167147839b509caf7b186be1bede9596a54e6dc35216a9a365d326e73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Exorcism” (Exorcism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Exorcism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exotropia
<a id="exotropia"></a>

Exotropia is a type of eye misalignment in which the eyes’ visual axes point outward instead of aligning properly. It can happen when the inward-pulling muscle is weak, leaving the outward-pulling muscle relatively unopposed so the affected eye turns laterally.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26d5643a4eff618c549bdb4af88a2ffea2cca02bda5a295157043ad6cb46517f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Exotropia” (D005099).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005099). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## expansiveness
<a id="expansiveness"></a>

In this historical source, expansiveness means an exalted, grandiose state of delusion in which a person feels unusually elevated and powerful and elaborates sweeping claims about their abilities, possessions, or importance. It refers to the tendency for these self-exalting ideas to grow and spread beyond the person’s actual circumstances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 37591530780e6632f1a8b1a1915d4e17c7e4222f72a45ee6e0abcb6ad2211741

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Megalomania” (Megalomania).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Megalomania). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## expectancy-value model
<a id="expectancy-value-model"></a>

The expectancy-value model explains choice and motivation in terms of whether a person believes they can succeed and how worthwhile the goal seems to them. In this packet, it includes expected success, the goal’s intrinsic and practical value, and psychological costs that can discourage action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64d23f1ef45ce9dc52f49a8031aff7547208bc36a6d97983fb2e3e9dea7ae15c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bergann Susanne; Blüthmann Irmela; Neugebauer Martin; Watermann Rainer. Intrinsic and extrinsic motives of undergraduate students for pursuing a master’s degree: Applying the Eccles et al. expectancy-value model. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317204; article XML SHA-256 9100949551b7cb6f6637264673f5e63a124ed10f5c9382e6d444b8de628ba707. “Intrinsic and extrinsic motives of undergraduate students for pursuing a master’s degree: Applying the Eccles et al. expectancy-value model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317204).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317204). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## expectation
<a id="expectation"></a>

Expectation is the belief that a future experience will have a particular character, grounded in past experience. In this historical account, it involves having in mind a connected train of ideas about what is coming and treating it as something that can be confirmed through further experience or action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ca70c938cbdd20c041214b8498e4e4e902be252f7a36522c91a6827bb290ae0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Expectation” (Expectation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Expectation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## expected value
<a id="expected-value"></a>

Expected value is the average a statistic would have across its sampling distribution, or over many repeated samples. In plain terms, it is the statistic’s long-run average value.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d751b543b58c0934fa0e61f3bfe1c6291567c734462e09a8ae85b4e4bc29b4b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Expected Value” (expected_value.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/expected_value.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## experience
<a id="experience"></a>

In historical psychology, experience means conscious life as it unfolds in time, either as a particular episode someone undergoes or as the total course of mental events. In a broader mental or psychic sense, it can also mean immediately given phenomena before reflection separates them into subject and object.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4054146844f101ee85647c2c7dfd11c7ae1f61e7069e35101b65b74154e3ee46

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Experience” (Experience).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Experience). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## experience-dependent process
<a id="experience-dependent-process"></a>

An experience-dependent process is a change that develops through repeated lived experience rather than by learning a skill in the abstract. In this context, it refers to mindfulness working through ongoing, reciprocal practice that gradually readjusts stress-related psychological and bodily regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 711dd8ce9a80c638bc817a16b276c1050fbd062a2eab5b399991aa9fc75cd017

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Beylin Natalie R.; Zawadzki Matthew J.. Recalibrating stress regulation through mindfulness: a framework for adapting interventions for ACE-affected populations. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1801095; article XML SHA-256 828875cf27e165e694c9d226569817020e084f6cfebf0a56090b662230556491. “Recalibrating stress regulation through mindfulness: a framework for adapting interventions for ACE-affected populations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1801095).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1801095). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## experience-sampling method
<a id="experience-sampling-method"></a>

The experience-sampling method is a psychological research approach for gathering repeated measurements over time in everyday settings, producing intensive longitudinal data with strong real-world relevance. Its measurements are often taken at deliberately varied times across days rather than at equal intervals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1b6bc434ec71f7830ce1436f5d109c5de6b2c34806164ff6e348b1cbaa6292d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [de Haan-Rietdijk Silvia; Voelkle Manuel C.; Keijsers Loes; Hamaker Ellen L.. Discrete- vs. Continuous-Time Modeling of Unequally Spaced Experience Sampling Method Data. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01849; article XML SHA-256 2b5bd069ca7f3a353879102ad7e7c70545a7159296fd3a3b03b4ce3b6ccc54d3. “Discrete- vs. Continuous-Time Modeling of Unequally Spaced Experience Sampling Method Data” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01849).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01849). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## experiencer
<a id="experiencer"></a>

In this context, an experiencer is the person or subject in a sentence who undergoes or feels a mental or physical experience described by the verb. The term is used for the argument linked to experiencer verbs, including both mental and physical kinds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50e79be5dc40f3131826353b8173fedfb913e33454b5fa58ecf944d322aaba0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shalu S.; Muralikrishnan R.; Choudhary Kamal Kumar. Similar does not mean the same: ERP correlates of mental and physical experiencer verb processing in Malayalam complex constructions. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1632844; article XML SHA-256 d972e3874b1a2460b7a9676ff05cef983ec4c103cbb56e86c1a2c61592f0a27b. “Similar does not mean the same: ERP correlates of mental and physical experiencer verb processing in Malayalam complex constructions” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1632844).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1632844). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## experiential history
<a id="experiential-history"></a>

Experiential history is a person’s accumulated record of subjective experience, into which processed and interpreted bodily information becomes integrated. In this context, it refers to the personal background of felt and meaningful experiences that helps shape how sensory information is understood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf2f7f8fd28a00541680fdc2d3ad20fab8cee2ad84a33b58a24dbcbf30376d97

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schmitt Carolyn M.; Schoen Sarah. Interoception: A Multi-Sensory Foundation of Participation in Daily Life. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2022.875200; article XML SHA-256 ca0df542522c59d6b2afacd1e0829853accb29da980b02c09b7b28c457e64456. “Interoception: A Multi-Sensory Foundation of Participation in Daily Life” (10.3389/fnins.2022.875200).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.875200). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## experiential knowledge
<a id="experiential-knowledge"></a>

Experiential knowledge is understanding that comes from a person’s own direct experience with something. It is contrasted with knowledge gained mainly through reasoning, observation, or information from other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b92c6f626eb7f9092b077266dd9affab8e701b0364db9c0913c0c2876e57c071

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Boomsma-van Holten Marjolein; Weerman Alie; Karbouniaris Simona; Van Os Jim. The use of experiential knowledge in the role of a psychiatrist. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1163804; article XML SHA-256 30aa3db44bea8e0a004bbd93f280bc4d6898eb026bc3289aaa857a8511ff726a. “The use of experiential knowledge in the role of a psychiatrist” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1163804).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1163804). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## experiential learning
<a id="experiential-learning"></a>

Experiential learning is a way of learning in which people gain knowledge through direct, practical experience alongside theory. It emphasizes reflecting on experience, forming new understanding from it, and applying that understanding in ways that can build skills, attitudes, and behavior change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 677e9fd9a47c11c302883d1526b4e144992f9e396f45358a770b09c3a8bc76b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Varman Sumantla D.; Jones Rachel A.; Kelly Bridget; Hammersley Megan L.; Parrish Anne-Maree; Stanley Rebecca; Cliff Dylan P.. The effect of experiential learning interventions on physical activity outcomes in children: A systematic review. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0294987; article XML SHA-256 4ff231d21d7defd3596cd9df8ba003ec31968828ec33f8a4b6fa80452feb91d5. “The effect of experiential learning interventions on physical activity outcomes in children: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0294987).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294987). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## experiential psychotherapy
<a id="experiential-psychotherapy"></a>

Experiential psychotherapy is a form of therapy that emphasizes direct experience and action in session rather than talking alone. In the source material, it involves guided role-play to help people explore feelings, gain insight, and work on personal and relationship problems and possible solutions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a7ecdeb76ca8624766e8e8137e04811cd844d9831c8819a0dce148f5c314850

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Orkibi Hod; Feniger-Schaal Rinat. Integrative systematic review of psychodrama psychotherapy research: Trends and methodological implications. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0212575; article XML SHA-256 da4b0481dcd001cb6821aae5fbef1d8790f37cdf164a977460c65860ebe39cc0. “Integrative systematic review of psychodrama psychotherapy research: Trends and methodological implications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0212575).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212575). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## experiment
<a id="experiment"></a>

An experiment is a way of gaining knowledge by deliberately changing conditions or the way phenomena are observed. In psychology, it is presented as a special form of observation in which the observer intentionally interferes with the course of what is being studied to reduce accidental influences and test conclusions against the facts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07074e9653bfa2ef2e0b9d673d50a658d61a042e706baf88799ed72e9188bed3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Experiment” (Experiment).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Experiment). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## experimental condition
<a id="experimental-condition"></a>

An experimental condition is the study group that receives the special test setup or intervention being examined. In this study, it was the group that first reviewed a flawed paper version and then saw a corrected version, unlike the control group that saw only the corrected version.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e07d1d6980b1eea3f07194710699d29f0ad2459871af4bc7f5c95eed7cd00805

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Ryan; Jecmen Steven; Conitzer Vincent; Fang Fei; Shah Nihar B. Testing for reviewer anchoring in peer review: A randomized controlled trial. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0301111; article XML SHA-256 82a2723110909e88c1c42af5d9b99ebf5b8040c7a7c6503fd796ceaa356ba0e5. “Testing for reviewer anchoring in peer review: A randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0301111).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301111). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## experimental control
<a id="experimental-control"></a>

In this historical passage, experimental control means bringing a mental or emotional condition into a form that can be deliberately produced and studied in an experiment. The text emphasizes that emotional states are especially difficult to place under such control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ebf79b768b7345f760abd5000f55d356fa70e29144a0dccf7da4d1c5bf86b6c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3213000-3225000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## experimental group
<a id="experimental-group"></a>

An experimental group is the set of participants assigned to receive the intervention or condition being tested in a study. In the source study, it was the children who took part in the 8-week group music game intervention, in contrast to the control group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8fba5c30dba0b264dc36a39786cc58d7b707715b795f216d55800a0e5f32104b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Xi; Peng Rong; He Yutong; Li Fangfei; Qin Zuokun; Lei Shiqi; Kang Dan. The impact of a group music game intervention on cooperative behavior in 5- to 6-year-old children. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763858; article XML SHA-256 891d9405b14a27fd2b9e82795ad73f5b5bc942958dc16504e771507a6d270acb. “The impact of a group music game intervention on cooperative behavior in 5- to 6-year-old children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763858).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763858). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## experimental manipulation
<a id="experimental-manipulation"></a>

Experimental manipulation is a research method in which investigators deliberately alter a factor in a study, such as social identity or social norms, to test its causal effect on behavior. In this context, the changes were created within a virtual social setting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17de0ff06d85d684d7dbef06a52cbffef7c4c3106ad25d8b6ffd9424e9af6125

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kittelberger Sophie; Freund Alexandra M.; Scholz Urte. A new experimental approach to manipulate social identity and social norms about protective behaviors in a virtual social environment. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04591-6; article XML SHA-256 dc3fa85e349c75be51dff7ba2ba41f6715cdda5d3d82a89f95265ac9a317b9b1. “A new experimental approach to manipulate social identity and social norms about protective behaviors in a virtual social environment” (10.1186/s40359-026-04591-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04591-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## experimental psychology
<a id="experimental-psychology"></a>

Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that investigates basic causes of behavior by examining psychological processes in carefully controlled experiments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 865af9d4f926c5b84d495534458f2c6695fc07d200506b4cda28a7b354d4cccc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychology, Experimental” (D011589).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011589). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## expert power
<a id="expert-power"></a>

Expert power is a form of influence that comes from being seen as knowledgeable or highly skilled in a relevant area. In this source, it refers to consultants’ ability to affect clients through their expertise, which was linked to stronger client self-efficacy, although this link was weaker when managerial stress was high.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0fc9c07839ad19fd92dc1d4a9ad756fc868a6adfb0a39715ac64237428badfd1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lachmi Rotem; Ben-Hador Batia; Brender-Ilan Yael. The impact of consultants’ power dynamics on clients’ self-efficacy and managerial stress. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1515277; article XML SHA-256 0315234a662c8278dd946b74be3771aba65b592886d91a589c2fa67adc4e78f6. “The impact of consultants’ power dynamics on clients’ self-efficacy and managerial stress” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1515277).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1515277). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## expert system
<a id="expert-system"></a>

An expert system is a computer-based system that uses stored expert rules and a heuristic way of drawing inferences from them to guide decisions or control actions. In this source, it provides expert knowledge for intelligent train operation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bd0e05af8761f5207fc243021cb1cc482a39b4a4379d49c82f9d4160dc5591d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Yunhu; Lai Wenzhu; Chen Dewang; Lin Geng; Yin Jiateng. Enhanced intelligent train operation algorithms for metro train based on expert system and deep reinforcement learning. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323478; article XML SHA-256 f3955dd4b4976442444fc38c427adfd804ddcec2ceb32179ccde5bc208821188. “Enhanced intelligent train operation algorithms for metro train based on expert system and deep reinforcement learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323478).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323478). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## expert witness
<a id="expert-witness"></a>

An expert witness is a specialist who is hired by one side in a legal case to assess, interpret, and present professional evidence or opinions. In adversarial settings, this role can be affected by pressures and biases tied to the side that retained the expert, which may reduce impartiality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e9ea028dd12d5eccdb6151af1c2fd309c1a03280144f8c6a290cd69c3b23f72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Otzipka Jana; Volbert Renate. The analysis of competing hypotheses and expert witness testimony: Counteracting adversarial allegiance in witness credibility assessments?. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346891; article XML SHA-256 cf50c1cb0fcaff2db9a785d2b893286fa574157c2f50b8fd1759f9297af2719e. “The analysis of competing hypotheses and expert witness testimony: Counteracting adversarial allegiance in witness credibility assessments?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346891).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346891). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## explanation
<a id="explanation"></a>

Explanation is the process of making a perception, idea, or event clearer by relating it to judgments or concepts that are already accepted. In scientific use, it means accounting for a phenomenon by bringing it under a general principle, and it is broader than definition, since a definition is a more limited, formally stated result that may follow from explanation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a8ca1cee9c2862f401435b18de3c9d9d84ce27c4bd72e2ffc48f96da0e37246

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Explanation” (Explanation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Explanation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## explicit attitude
<a id="explicit-attitude"></a>

An explicit attitude is a consciously formed evaluation or response toward something. It is typically assessed through direct self-report, although what a person reports can sometimes be inaccurate or intentionally distorted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5edc49012e58c070c1266108f0c89e681af807959d3be87b90aecd44785a9ca4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hong Ji-Woong; Hong Ah Jeong; Kim Sang Rak. Exploring Implicit and Explicit Attitudes of Employees’ Authentic Organizational Loyalty. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666869; article XML SHA-256 42f39b067ded2e20d338d48af66b31c862e61227d1ea3c38fa70311967ef5cbc. “Exploring Implicit and Explicit Attitudes of Employees’ Authentic Organizational Loyalty” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666869).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666869). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## explicit emotion regulation
<a id="explicit-emotion-regulation"></a>

Explicit emotion regulation is the conscious, deliberate effort to increase or decrease emotions in line with a known goal. It involves awareness that one is trying to regulate emotion and may use intentional, top-down strategies such as changing how one thinks about a situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 35f1a74f2fbdd788fec33ce50e64174e43963611a55943dc062a42f69b5d341c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Richmond Julia R.; Nylocks K. Maria; Coifman Karin G.. Who regulates when told? A systematic investigation of implicit to explicit emotion regulation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852337; article XML SHA-256 727249d13e199c5f0cd64c33ba009b1bd6ecd8b682d6ba381ef7c02d42cc849c. “Who regulates when told? A systematic investigation of implicit to explicit emotion regulation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852337).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852337). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## explicit memory
<a id="explicit-memory"></a>

Explicit memory is memory that depends on conscious recall or deliberate learning. It includes memory-related functions that involve actively searching short-term or long-term memory, such as short-term and working memory, although it overlaps to some extent with implicit memory rather than being completely separate from it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: af36c551b65fa99cf11a5e0bc6a934158121e519c0a78561f5b456b54e20ccab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Boxtel Willem S; Hart Ashley; Gautreau Zoey. Fine-grained changes to implicit memory for language processing across adulthood. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800437; article XML SHA-256 6086c4aca6269ef3a022b32cd7a5b2fd4a514502c62812aaeebbea5700397836. “Fine-grained changes to implicit memory for language processing across adulthood” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800437).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800437). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exploratory behavior
<a id="exploratory-behavior"></a>

Exploratory behavior is the tendency to investigate or examine a new environment. It is viewed as a form of motivation that overlaps closely with curiosity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4aa27842ffb9a5c6bbf146373cbf48b5eceb1aa1438ccc36a412a4aea28cbeb9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Exploratory Behavior” (D005106).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005106). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exploratory factor analysis
<a id="exploratory-factor-analysis"></a>

Exploratory factor analysis is a method used in psychometric assessment to examine a scale’s internal structure and see how its items group into underlying factors. It is often used in early evaluation of a measure to identify the factor pattern before confirming it in a separate sample.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b451bd541be62407688f1f6d6cbbdb21b17fe5086b4adfb77216e732b276eea6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Martínez Rodríguez Susana; Molinero Caparrós Clara; Pérez-Rojo Gema. Translation, content validity, and preliminary psychometric validation of the Existential Distress Scale in a Spanish non-clinical population. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771082; article XML SHA-256 dcf139f3c75110594bc2b9db57b028c6fe1b0f1baa6e68e9f5df66c8fba10ea8. “Translation, content validity, and preliminary psychometric validation of the Existential Distress Scale in a Spanish non-clinical population” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771082).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771082). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## explosive disorder
<a id="explosive-disorder"></a>

Explosive disorder, referred to here as Intermittent Explosive Disorder, is a mental disorder linked with anger. In this source, greater cumulative exposure to potentially traumatic events is associated with a higher risk of this disorder, especially in conflict-affected settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aeccc97af4de3620a48a6928decec565ba7e586ddd9432eed956098d04e09616

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liddell Belinda J; Kemp Andrew H; Steel Zachary; Nickerson Angela; Bryant Richard A; Tam Natalino; Tay Alvin Kuowei; Silove Derrick. Heart rate variability and the relationship between trauma exposure age, and psychopathology in a post-conflict setting. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12888-016-0850-5; article XML SHA-256 76753ccd38aa26e8cbf09d1d2e096dede7d6752078e7056f8e44ea00b8b6db5b. “Heart rate variability and the relationship between trauma exposure age, and psychopathology in a post-conflict setting” (10.1186/s12888-016-0850-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0850-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## exponential curve
<a id="exponential-curve"></a>

An exponential curve is a mathematical pattern used to describe how a measure changes over time, such as model error as more data become available. In this context, an asymptotic exponential curve is used to track whether results are approaching a stable level or equilibrium.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d937b618beea1620306a21830f5cffa6047acf743d621cab4adbbedb67f1d3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vianna Leonardo Silva; Gonçalves Alexandre Leopoldo; Souza João Artur. Analysis of learning curves in predictive modeling using exponential curve fitting with an asymptotic approach. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299811; article XML SHA-256 665952d19fb3afb3d46d317b918cb085edf54400e9c55f98f3cf691a9b0776b1. “Analysis of learning curves in predictive modeling using exponential curve fitting with an asymptotic approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299811).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299811). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## exposure therapy
<a id="exposure-therapy"></a>

Exposure therapy is a type of cognitive behavioral therapy that is especially useful for phobias. It helps a person face the fears behind the phobia so they can do activities or enter situations they have been avoiding, and it may be combined with relaxation exercises.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: becf5e50822f9a34dafb241798fe328c5b72f4ec59e948ed976ea356873eb675

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Phobias and Phobia-Related Disorders. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 2d1a6d608eaf14c3ef4a3753ecd44577b1d734b347d63f48248f5d170e68b142. “Phobias and Phobia-Related Disorders” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/phobias-and-phobia-related-disorders).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/phobias-and-phobia-related-disorders). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## expressed emotion
<a id="expressed-emotion"></a>

Expressed emotion is a way of assessing the attitudes and shared behavior that people around a particular person show toward them. It reflects that person’s social environment and relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 831414a09a02ea080b4f04d925eda9c01b3e0c45e1c3680e18f5c7e82dad305f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Expressed Emotion” (D019260).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019260). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## expression
<a id="expression"></a>

In this context, expression means the outward way a person shows emotions and social behavior during interactions. The packet describes neurodivergent people sometimes regulating their expression to lower anxiety and fit neurotypical expectations in workplaces.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f334b5af99883d2d0fdc1f8a43e5bfa140ece8646a522aa30ff04e1c65e1da5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reed Nicole M.; Vogus Timothy J.. All the workplace is a stage: extending the double empathy problem through performative relationality. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893333; article XML SHA-256 e5e0b6f2f97d14a3f73f301965e289fa89b5f72c118345a87fbe96e3b9106f7d. “All the workplace is a stage: extending the double empathy problem through performative relationality” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893333).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893333). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## expressive language disorder
<a id="expressive-language-disorder"></a>

Expressive language disorder is a condition in which a person’s ability to develop or use spoken or other expressive language is impaired relative to their nonverbal thinking and their ability to understand language. It may arise after brain injury or trauma, or occur developmentally without a known neurological cause.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f82b17db41f0437f2fe4a95d6ed4a575d31e75cccd1791ecfa30d672460d1a42

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Expressive Language Disorder” (C92562).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## expressive suppression
<a id="expressive-suppression"></a>

Expressive suppression is an emotion regulation strategy in which a person holds back or inhibits the outward display of emotion. In the supplied source, it is contrasted with cognitive reappraisal and is described as often carrying greater psychological costs during stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 901891432fee6d6b4c8a663a106d6fe0fc60da273f54f7486f3fa204b7034320

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Jiaxi; Zou Linghui; Fan Ziping; Feng Xiu; Wu Xinbo; Peng Dianhui; Dong Weixin; Lu Chunxia; Chen Jun. Physical activity and academic burnout among middle school students: uncovering cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1780820; article XML SHA-256 6778dbba73f835c2584fb387b4298a2a384ba9816f986e4906f377357dafca8f. “Physical activity and academic burnout among middle school students: uncovering cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1780820).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1780820). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## extended family
<a id="extended-family"></a>

An extended family is a household that includes people from at least three generations, such as children, parents, and grandparents living together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b8b286c871fb2d1c7bfe3b0c2830997d574f856ca587c6d9fbb1c1d08ca5c3ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Extended Family” (D000092842).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000092842). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## extension
<a id="extension"></a>

Extension is the spatial spread or arrangement of positions that exist together, with parts related by distance and direction rather than by their own qualities. In historical psychology, it was contrasted with time, whose parts come one after another, and with ordered qualities like pitch, whose order depends on intrinsic differences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54f51b324fc129a2d19a1e0b17d6a506105ae3f082489559b354315d5b698e01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Extension” (Extension).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Extension). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## extension reflex
<a id="extension-reflex"></a>

In this context, the extension reflex refers to the proboscis extension reflex: an insect’s automatic extension of the proboscis when taste receptors contact an appealing substance such as sugar. It is used in learning research as an observable measure of how the insect detects and responds to tastants, including changes with habituation and memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ad5aea1f1d00c6a1cc23bc4ec82f32e54ed5b10ee6f5af60ae27662c1924ba1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Çevik Münire Özlem; Erden Ahmet. The Course of Habituation of the Proboscis Extension Reflex Can Be Predicted by Sucrose Responsiveness in Drosophila. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0039863; article XML SHA-256 43fb634b5ed613a3280c15f590d5f5475cc478fafff87eec67125d60fa02c429. “The Course of Habituation of the Proboscis Extension Reflex Can Be Predicted by Sucrose Responsiveness in Drosophila” (10.1371/journal.pone.0039863).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039863). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## extensor rigidity
<a id="extensor-rigidity"></a>

Extensor rigidity is a form of limb stiffness in which the parts tend to be held in an extended or straightened position. In this historical source, it is mentioned as occurring in hysterical paralysis, especially affecting the thighs and feet.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f78973de8ca6cbe389d958a22c8ef72e14ca88a70809b636cccfe7c38b94dcf6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3591000-3603000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## external attribution
<a id="external-attribution"></a>

External attribution is explaining an event or outcome as caused by factors outside oneself. In the context of self-serving bias, people tend to make external attributions for negative events to help protect a positive self-concept.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 817f4e835c6d3f4650d0cbd66f13c2cc3a686cae6b8ca499bc5153a3cffa7129

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yifan; Zheng Li; Wang Chenggong; Guo Xiuyan. Attenuated self-serving bias in people with internet gaming disorder is related to altered neural activity in subcortical-cortical midline structures. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12888-020-02914-4; article XML SHA-256 97b067df82c62548bca889a6a872009700c56fd7d496555340b57c8f558b9c05. “Attenuated self-serving bias in people with internet gaming disorder is related to altered neural activity in subcortical-cortical midline structures” (10.1186/s12888-020-02914-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02914-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## external auditory meatus
<a id="external-auditory-meatus"></a>

The external auditory meatus is the part of the ear canal located on the outside of the eardrum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f96dc2aa96e43002e553eb1d518086ecc594a5613d3e9006858069297dedd3d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “External Auditory Canal” (C12498).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## external boundary
<a id="external-boundary"></a>

An external boundary is an outside condition that influences how a person moves or performs a task. In this source, footwear is an example of an external boundary because it changes sensory input and is associated with changes in running gait asymmetry.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a175e1e8e09ba05ad6feb2974cb4d535af42e0530b7e2cff68fa7f7afd55190

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hoerzer Stefan; Federolf Peter A.; Maurer Christian; Baltich Jennifer; Nigg Benno M.. Footwear Decreases Gait Asymmetry during Running. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0138631; article XML SHA-256 ed23ce011b9f9ca09dffd4fef1a4efdebb2cadc643e180144f544c10fad22552. “Footwear Decreases Gait Asymmetry during Running” (10.1371/journal.pone.0138631).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138631). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## external capsule
<a id="external-capsule"></a>

The external capsule is a thin sheet of white matter in the brain that lies between the putamen and the claustrum. The source describes it as being made up mostly of GABAergic neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d7472ee9b59a6ca3458c2a9d195cfb0b54118b5d99628f074f2f07b39cf462e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “External Capsule” (D066271).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066271). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## external control
<a id="external-control"></a>

External control is the use of outside data to serve as the comparison group in a study instead of enrolling a separate control arm. This approach may be used when ethical concerns or hard-to-recruit disease groups make participant enrollment difficult.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84d34b2349430cf842c0b185777732bbc158a37ca26f58237e6c0bf963694d42

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “External Control” (C218506).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## external ear
<a id="external-ear"></a>

The external ear, in this packet’s context, is the dolphin’s outer ear canal and its surrounding fatty, vascular, and nerve-rich tissues. Together these structures help conduct sound and also appear to function as a complex somatosensory system adapted to underwater hearing and mechanosensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce0d2bc53a6ea9aae3cda71f6f0cb49a401abd708b58fc671d5932419b981468

Sources:
- Drafting source: [De Vreese Steffen; Graïc Jean-Marie; Mazzariol Sandro; Huggenberger Stefan; Fogli Marco; Luzzati Federico; Corona Cristiano; Favole Alessandra; Cerdà-Domènech Marc; Frigola Jaime; André Michel. Peripheral anatomy of the dolphin ear and associated nervous structures: Insights from macroscopic dissection, DICE-µCT, histology, and confocal microscopy. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350484; article XML SHA-256 78e6e840845e6883febe53dfb51ddb630152db9d988a261d99b9711a093e242b. “Peripheral anatomy of the dolphin ear and associated nervous structures: Insights from macroscopic dissection, DICE-µCT, histology, and confocal microscopy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350484).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350484). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## external evaluator
<a id="external-evaluator"></a>

An external evaluator is an independent person from outside a study or program who assesses its results. In this packet, the evaluator is kept unaware of which group participants were assigned to so the evaluation is less likely to be biased.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8698ad2551b66ff5519f283a84936ecfa1566fb25292d96788d9e4c98002e645

Sources:
- Drafting source: [de Oliveira Filho Francisco José; Rodrigues Lenize da Silva; do Amaral Sidia Maria Baptista; Mellucci Filho Pedro Luciano; Medolago Natália Bronzatto; de Carvalho Bovolato Ana Lívia; Alvarado Rita de Cássia; Bertanha Matheus. Study protocol for a randomized clinical trial evaluating the safety and efficacy of autologous adipose-derived stem cell therapy for ulcers in patients with critical limb ischemia. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318922; article XML SHA-256 a25c87f1e3ef539cbb306e55cd49886077697049469cb55d7385271db1bd7e0e. “Study protocol for a randomized clinical trial evaluating the safety and efficacy of autologous adipose-derived stem cell therapy for ulcers in patients with critical limb ischemia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318922).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318922). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## external world
<a id="external-world"></a>

In this historical psychology source, the cognition of the external world means knowing external things and events as linked together within one unified system. It is described as developing gradually beyond simple perception of separate objects, through an ideal constructive process that is fundamentally social and involves shared thought and action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ade153179aac263511af19176814fd1cb208994bf773916813febacca45e3b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “External World” (ExternalW).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#ExternalW). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## externalization
<a id="externalization"></a>

Externalization is the perception that a sound is coming from a location outside the head rather than from within it. In hearing research, this experience depends on spatial and acoustic cues such as reverberation and filtering by the head and outer ears.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0721667348d0e6516610cc5bcbfb27f6b5103cfa6d0314d5cd43cb01319a2f4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fivel Laure; Lavandier Mathieu; Grimault Nicolas; Perrin Fabien; Mondino Marine; Haesebaert Frédéric. Is it inside my head? Characterization of sound externalization in schizophrenia. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345074; article XML SHA-256 f94c4c6040cf5912f8a535b4f49322e46db167b4babb7c3d5d438deb31f2e1ff. “Is it inside my head? Characterization of sound externalization in schizophrenia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345074).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345074). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## extinction
<a id="extinction"></a>

Extinction is a form of new learning in which responses triggered by drug-related cues become weaker because this new learning competes with the earlier drug-associated memory. It reduces the conditioned response without erasing the original memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f760170adab23474a934fad02f7b9d276aafa2943542390592f9db8a6dc3e26

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ghadirzadeh Erfan; Gheibi Mobina; Siahposht-Khachaki Ali; Vahdati Helan Ehsan; Farvardin Mohammad; Shadi Shiva; Abdolkarimi Ali. The effect of intracerebroventricular injection of insulin-like growth factor-1 on morphine-induced conditioned place preference extinction and reinstatement; a behavioral and biochemical experimental study. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12993-025-00304-y; article XML SHA-256 1d287b7b43120d6ec34273da30b10d5c285439fa1ebb4cc6bbea96046af9dd6a. “The effect of intracerebroventricular injection of insulin-like growth factor-1 on morphine-induced conditioned place preference extinction and reinstatement; a behavioral and biochemical experimental study” (10.1186/s12993-025-00304-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-025-00304-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Extinction, Psychological
<a id="extinction-psychological"></a>

In learning, extinction is the process of presenting a previously conditioned cue without reinforcement. It also means the weakening or fading of the conditioned response that follows.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 134bf5c8616c67cf67004d1b272b4d6cfe10c3ecee2543401a21dcc70fdd5a7d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Extinction, Psychological” (D005108).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005108). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## extirpation
<a id="extirpation"></a>

Extirpation is the experimental removal of part of an organ, such as a region of the brain, in order to observe what changes in function follow from its loss. In historical psychology, it was used to study how functions are localized.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3cb0b8282bdc9d396bd47e772bc2440403a596e9824684a69034d64b7710cc9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Extirpation” (Extirpation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Extirpation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## extraversion
<a id="extraversion"></a>

Extraversion is a psychological state in which a person’s attention is directed mainly outward rather than toward the self.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 819d6615304ba6cd9dc23c1b78c963bbed5f5d051d91f909296046b2fd1786a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Extraversion, Psychological” (D005120).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005120). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Extraversion, Psychological
<a id="extraversion-psychological"></a>

Extraversion, in psychology, is a state in which a person’s attention is mainly directed outward rather than toward the self.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7f1e3c8d6c6b5497048a0496b27958a8e2fef7fbd2ce4d5a013645c747e6820a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Extraversion, Psychological” (D005120).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005120). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## extreme capsule
<a id="extreme-capsule"></a>

The extreme capsule is a white matter tract discussed as one of the major pathways thought to contribute to language processing. It is part of the brain’s network of connections linking cortical language-related areas, although its specific function is not yet fully understood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 661d1cf6d64b58d6514afb0ab21a2e363590b58107cd14a2af17a592bc568c85

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shekari Ehsan; Nozari Nazbanou. A narrative review of the anatomy and function of the white matter tracts in language production and comprehension. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1139292; article XML SHA-256 7f7e783e85dd9f1f0286a586bbbc6daffe9c68141d2ccbc2eb7ecb393c1d40d7. “A narrative review of the anatomy and function of the white matter tracts in language production and comprehension” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1139292).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1139292). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## extremely low birth weight
<a id="extremely-low-birth-weight"></a>

Extremely low birth weight refers to an infant birth weight of less than 1000 grams. In the supplied source, this label is used when studying later growth, body composition, and neurocognitive outcomes in childhood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 33bb4364a447f383b22ad34ddb117ce96a2890e78058d474fff73e3e7e1b6546

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Raaijmakers Anke; Jacobs Lotte; Rayyan Maissa; van Tienoven Theun Pieter; Ortibus Els; Levtchenko Elena; Staessen Jan A.; Allegaert Karel. Catch–up growth in the first two years of life in Extremely Low Birth Weight (ELBW) infants is associated with lower body fat in young adolescence. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0173349; article XML SHA-256 4cd3587b946e47be801285878971b72c515652e813c07f4965f259489453d695. “Catch–up growth in the first two years of life in Extremely Low Birth Weight (ELBW) infants is associated with lower body fat in young adolescence” (10.1371/journal.pone.0173349).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0173349). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## extrinsic reinforcement
<a id="extrinsic-reinforcement"></a>

Extrinsic reinforcement is behaviour change that is encouraged by outside rewards or consequences rather than by a person’s own inherent interest or motivation. In this context, it is presented as a behaviourist way of influencing action and is contrasted with intrinsic motivation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a195f8e51ab5e7e30e1333bbde9608afa174940494258303091971bea9161f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nilsen Per; Thomas Kristin; Augustsson Öfverström Hanna; Fagerström Maria; Hald Kathrine; Kirk Jeanette Wassar. The theory behind the strategies: interpreting the expert recommendations for implementing change taxonomy through four behavioural lenses. 2026; DOI 10.3389/frhs.2026.1800608; article XML SHA-256 ac1a426ca691fe6dc6a94d31a00c25c65ae9254f877408b1a6e63ca06432c6c4. “The theory behind the strategies: interpreting the expert recommendations for implementing change taxonomy through four behavioural lenses” (10.3389/frhs.2026.1800608).](https://doi.org/10.3389/frhs.2026.1800608). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## extroversion
<a id="extroversion"></a>

Extroversion is a psychological orientation in which a person’s focus is aimed more at the outside world than at inner self-directed attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9cae58f1fc918c9189b3240f7edb57256daa05f59255abfca1ccf80dae99c4a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Extraversion, Psychological” (D005120).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005120). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eye contact
<a id="eye-contact"></a>

Eye contact is the spontaneous mutual looking between two people that naturally occurs during social interaction. People vary in how often they make eye-to-eye contact, and this variation can reflect differences in social behavior and influence how partners coordinate attention with each other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e88400e9ab5eedaf0f1901269ba4a0fbbad7b94237055b3eca9e0fa1eb9e28b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dravida Swethasri; Noah J. Adam; Zhang Xian; Hirsch Joy. Joint Attention During Live Person-to-Person Contact Activates rTPJ, Including a Sub-Component Associated With Spontaneous Eye-to-Eye Contact. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00201; article XML SHA-256 05ac46c54bb3e1334c9319e10e9e004c91e9e495900b54284752a9abf1947637. “Joint Attention During Live Person-to-Person Contact Activates rTPJ, Including a Sub-Component Associated With Spontaneous Eye-to-Eye Contact” (10.3389/fnhum.2020.00201).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00201). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eye dominance
<a id="eye-dominance"></a>

Eye dominance is the tendency for one eye to be functionally preferred over the other, especially for aiming or other visual-motor tasks. It refers to preferential use rather than differences in sharpness of vision or impairment in one eye, and it can be influenced by visual experience and related biological factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46d637b25b2021a1de8ba7702338fbddd93183d36c62aac1f269b41ad7770ff0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dominance, Ocular” (D023882).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D023882). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing
<a id="eye-movement-desensitization-and-reprocessing"></a>

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is a psychotherapy used for post-traumatic stress disorder that is described as evidence-based and effective. It is a relatively recent therapy, and debate has focused in part on whether its bilateral stimulation is an active ingredient in how it works.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 833028cebb726ba71acad448da629e7416c85a7f57b43ee1a5089e616a78b5b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Landin-Romero Ramon; Moreno-Alcazar Ana; Pagani Marco; Amann Benedikt L.. How Does Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Therapy Work? A Systematic Review on Suggested Mechanisms of Action. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01395; article XML SHA-256 14a2ff286a446ca4b338b1fbd62731dafeae36cc25510a172aff47f15844d3e0. “How Does Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Therapy Work? A Systematic Review on Suggested Mechanisms of Action” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01395).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01395). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eye movements
<a id="eye-movements"></a>

Eye movements are the normal coordinated motions of both eyes produced by their muscles. In historical psychology, they were treated as important for how people judge visual position, size, depth, and some visual illusions, although their exact psychological role was described as disputed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0e9ad6288fc4d0de7a9713376051546d778d848bf7378cdb61ca440ca3821e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Eye-movements” (Eyem).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Eyem). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eye structure
<a id="eye-structure"></a>

In this context, eye structure means the physical layout of the compound eye, including features such as overall eye size, facet size, and the angles between visual units. These structural differences affect visual sensitivity and spatial resolution, shaping how butterflies take in information from their environment for navigation and movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf7c2b68816feccaf3496a78597daeab6c9bffd05f7702caea4e61ef08023d15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Turlure Camille; Schtickzelle Nicolas; Van Dyck Hans; Seymoure Brett; Rutowski Ronald. Flight Morphology, Compound Eye Structure and Dispersal in the Bog and the Cranberry Fritillary Butterflies: An Inter- and Intraspecific Comparison. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0158073; article XML SHA-256 6847b85e15020ebe00fb129d40276d9c8cf8ebbaa57a12b229d8d3c98496dd9b. “Flight Morphology, Compound Eye Structure and Dispersal in the Bog and the Cranberry Fritillary Butterflies: An Inter- and Intraspecific Comparison” (10.1371/journal.pone.0158073).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158073). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eye–hand coordination
<a id="eyehand-coordination"></a>

Eye–hand coordination is the ability to link visual information with hand and arm movements so actions are smooth, accurate, and well timed. It depends on synchronized control of the eyes and hands, with gaze usually directed to a target before the movement, helping with tasks such as catching, grasping, or aiming at a target.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1dc995b02e9adc096bf4bd5ccfecf3d0cab9958ace8acc666b744b06f09e7b39

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ktistakis Ioannis; Zacharakis Emmanouil; Terzis Gerasimos; Kostopoulos Nikolaos; Stavrou Nektarios A M. Gaze fixation parameters in basketball: examining the link to anxiety, self-talk, and emotional responses in free-throw shooting. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1730500; article XML SHA-256 90815d46bb4d905724d66ddad6c6e13679902b4c9640afe1b302520d8bb80124. “Gaze fixation parameters in basketball: examining the link to anxiety, self-talk, and emotional responses in free-throw shooting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1730500).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1730500). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eye–voice span
<a id="eyevoice-span"></a>

Eye–voice span is the time gap between when a person fixates visually on source text and when they begin producing spoken output. In interpreting research, it is used as an indicator of how efficiently visual information is converted into verbal expression, including processes such as word retrieval and sentence planning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 92739e9ddeba6db136f840190c629838c4d6f623dc7764c401951b3b9f4f9051

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Shanshan; Li Defeng; Lai Cheng Lei Victoria. Multimodal processing in simultaneous interpreting with text: Evidence from ear-eye-voice span and performance. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326527; article XML SHA-256 8bec8151c2f8c1729aac8b26fd9d8f3f7a2d6a14f16b6b05a190b29ed9a0400c. “Multimodal processing in simultaneous interpreting with text: Evidence from ear-eye-voice span and performance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326527).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326527). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## eyewitness testimony
<a id="eyewitness-testimony"></a>

Eyewitness testimony is evidence given by a person about what they remember of a crime or other event they saw. In psychology, it is understood as memory-based evidence that can be important in court but may be affected by internal and external influences, raising questions about its reliability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42b59c78c182167e0fddeea07ddd912ac7fa32a478f02e887d335ee90d490689

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Glomb Kaja; Piotrowski Przemysław; Gulla Bożena; Romanowska Iza; Mastek Maria. How emotions shape memory? The moderating effect of healthy emotionality on eyewitness testimony. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1406897; article XML SHA-256 c71fd7609b3bdc2e557f2f07a01e3d61ea3ef78e7392b5d5ede8ea037878eca9. “How emotions shape memory? The moderating effect of healthy emotionality on eyewitness testimony” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1406897).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1406897). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Eysenck Personality Inventory
<a id="eysenck-personality-inventory"></a>

The Eysenck Personality Inventory is a psychological assessment used in personality evaluation. In the supplied source, it is used to measure neuroticism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 628b5cfe28807423f23772eed883a8eef057015fc2299e818ab4c8864fb90249

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pawłowski Tomasz; Radkowski Marek; Perlejewski Karol; Szymańska Bogna; Berak Hanna; Horban Andrzej; Laskus Tomasz. Direct-acting antivirals (DAA) positively affect depression and cognitive function in patients with chronic hepatitis C. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320221; article XML SHA-256 e998b4d0a27405ab480faaadc5076f7fe7ff5bfdee98e95999d1f82197f72799. “Direct-acting antivirals (DAA) positively affect depression and cognitive function in patients with chronic hepatitis C” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320221).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320221). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## F distribution
<a id="f-distribution"></a>

The F distribution is a statistical distribution used with F statistics to test whether groups differ in an analysis. A noncentral F distribution can also be used in power and sample size calculations for parametric studies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7a99351a8448a32eb61565c636ae9528fba0fc89b4ec8620430a082cc5d90358

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Skalski John R.; Richins Shelby M.; Townsend Richard L.. A statistical test and sample size recommendations for comparing community composition following PCA. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0206033; article XML SHA-256 f3798469cedff080e7ab5500300e7fa159b164399c28b0cfd44d9c7f7b72c3d9. “A statistical test and sample size recommendations for comparing community composition following PCA” (10.1371/journal.pone.0206033).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## F ratio
<a id="f-ratio"></a>

An F ratio is a statistical comparison of the variances of two samples or models. In this context, it is used to judge whether a fuller model fits the data significantly better than a simpler one, such as when testing whether adding another brain source improves the model.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d072a634a018bd0a37eb5b3c63afaa57242e12499fea683ad6620e2990f5d8ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Giri Amita; Mosher John C.; Adler Amir; Pantazis Dimitrios. An F-ratio-based method for estimating the number of active sources in MEG. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1235192; article XML SHA-256 93d121d64e6a9c07fc37d2c268fb6e2dc18fa157ccb2d2c94d36c54843f9b11f. “An F-ratio-based method for estimating the number of active sources in MEG” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1235192).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1235192). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## F Scale
<a id="f-scale"></a>

The F Scale, in this packet, refers to the Fat Phobia Scale, a questionnaire used to measure negative attitudes or stigma toward people living with obesity. It was used as an indicator of anti-fat attitudes among healthcare professionals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a909e0818f00d37e0027b23ee10a8a788982d5b6c17dc33ae1fb41ecdd7feca1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sánchez-Carracedo David; Fornieles-Deu Albert; Anastasiadou Dimitra; Flint Stuart W. Stigmatizing attitudes and misconceptions about obesity among Spanish healthcare professionals. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351868; article XML SHA-256 5712925999bc22b35e396c7b918a811eba0c5a71f9f9e3a272d85d3b21bda166. “Stigmatizing attitudes and misconceptions about obesity among Spanish healthcare professionals” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351868).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351868). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## F statistic
<a id="f-statistic"></a>

The F statistic is a statistical value used to test whether group effects differ more than would be expected by chance in designs such as one-way and split-plot studies. In the source, its performance is described as generally resistant to non-normal data and often robust when variances are equal, but more affected when group variances differ and group sizes are unequal, especially depending on how large variances are paired with large or small groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17c15b4f8d96e469fcec1444f703665c4fe28f8a5d738428fd8c4ce55fe9c883

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Blanca María J.; Alarcón Rafael; Bono Roser; Arnau Jaume; García-Castro F. Javier; Vallejo Guillermo. Guidance for data analysis in split-plot designs when parametric assumptions are violated: F -statistic, adjusted F -tests, and bootstrap- F. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1787528; article XML SHA-256 1c43f39ef4f5076e116766c89c1b89e4c70e474c2f683b3c67e4b1d851355e0a. “Guidance for data analysis in split-plot designs when parametric assumptions are violated: F -statistic, adjusted F -tests, and bootstrap- F” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1787528).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1787528). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FA
<a id="fa"></a>

FA refers to fluorescein angiography, a diagnostic test that uses fluorescein dye and its fluorescence to view blood flow in the retina and choroid of the eye.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d3945ec5cde9dc8900d6eb4eb6211f357b49aed4dfe37c59d6896e54efabe16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fluorescein Angiography” (C190541).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fabrication
<a id="fabrication"></a>

In this context, fabrication refers to a situation where someone other than the patient makes up illness symptoms, leading to unnecessary and often painful medical tests or treatment. The source describes this as a form of child abuse, usually involving a parent presenting a child for care based on invented symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c516f2c66eae344c4612be1681b6590ef22bd559a256f381e9102803cfb92ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy” (D016735).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016735). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## face perception
<a id="face-perception"></a>

Face perception is the ability to recognize who a person is by using their facial features.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f869b3d3315aa739396b6843b15b4cdc837c7c7c4460af1c326f69b711bc8d71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Facial Recognition” (D000066499).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000066499). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## face recognition
<a id="face-recognition"></a>

Face recognition is the ability to identify a person by their facial features.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5bde371c10fccae06fc75ff53e8f0d5ee20df01b7bfb06d2809474809b5114d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Facial Recognition” (D000066499).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000066499). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## face saving
<a id="face-saving"></a>

Face saving is a way of thinking in which people try to protect their social image or avoid losing respect in the eyes of others. In close-knit community settings, this concern can shape willingness and behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 50b2c7712defbc1a8e1e9ad281c32c07f7d64e384f7c240d9ed4f0e5c253fc06

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ma Xiaoxu; Ge Nannan. Study on the influencing factors of rural residents’ willingness to classify domestic waste in the context of acquaintance society: An example from Jiangsu Province in Chin. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0303167; article XML SHA-256 608a77c04dbe394b4deba3bc97e63ce914b55c3cbafa1c66089dc07ad2b6ab85. “Study on the influencing factors of rural residents’ willingness to classify domestic waste in the context of acquaintance society: An example from Jiangsu Province in Chin” (10.1371/journal.pone.0303167).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303167). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## face validity
<a id="face-validity"></a>

Face validity is the extent to which a measure appears clear, understandable, and suitable for its intended purpose when reviewed by experts and intended users. High face validity means the instrument seems sensible and acceptable on its surface, which can support trust and use in real-world settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abd283182eb4642fab23a1ff483efff3dbb9c8121a1f689809632fd5545878db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [N. Mohd Nabil Nik Zatul-Iffah; Mohd Matore Mohd Effendi Ewan; Zainal Mohd Syazwan. Face validity of a dyslexia screening instrument for secondary students. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353781; article XML SHA-256 1b5c29db8c155d7aaeae5090ed99094f8d7421a72af2d275ca5e35769cfea69f. “Face validity of a dyslexia screening instrument for secondary students” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353781).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353781). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Facial Action Coding System
<a id="facial-action-coding-system"></a>

The Facial Action Coding System is a standardized, objective way to measure facial behavior by coding visible facial movements linked to underlying muscles rather than guessing what an expression means. It breaks facial activity into specific action units, with additional descriptors for broader or non-facial-muscle movements that affect appearance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64f202ba206ebb63e15c863868766f2b52e331036c7990c8841a3bb6ce3fb83f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Correia-Caeiro Catia; Costa Raquel; Hayashi Misato; Burrows Anne; Pater Jordan; Miyabe-Nishiwaki Takako; Richardson Jack L.; Robbins Martha M.; Waller Bridget; Liebal Katja. GorillaFACS: The Facial Action Coding System for the Gorilla spp .. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308790; article XML SHA-256 f1b8169e6c40273a1caa9a454c73ca563a734e00d7e2b08fd97d798a08ee25c0. “GorillaFACS: The Facial Action Coding System for the Gorilla spp .” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308790).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308790). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## facial angle
<a id="facial-angle"></a>

Facial angle is a historical anthropometric term for the angle between the line of the face and the line of the skull. It was used mainly to estimate how far the upper jaw projects, with different versions of the measurement proposed for that purpose.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b9258da60a9b28d09a3833ac4ebf30240302535995ca205ac902b0aad4df099

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Facial Angle” (Facial).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Facial). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## facial electromyography
<a id="facial-electromyography"></a>

Facial electromyography is a psychophysiological method that measures facial muscle activity to examine how emotions appear in the body. Its very fine time resolution can capture brief facial micro-expressions and track moment-to-moment changes during emotion regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f64cceb5f5f52a64b366460d3c105a3e82f6cca1aa7a7204b9080cb018c33bdb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kreibig Sylvia D.; Gross James J.. Temporal dynamics of positive emotion regulation: insights from facial electromyography. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1387634; article XML SHA-256 afe619de4663cffa708c07977a485575edb3ab565ce3a1e37e2075a15c937ae9. “Temporal dynamics of positive emotion regulation: insights from facial electromyography” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1387634).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1387634). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## facial expression
<a id="facial-expression"></a>

Facial expression is the visible change in a person’s face that occurs in response to emotion. It refers to how feelings are shown through the face.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80b96051f4ce7a657603f8011140c8021cbb6013f6a6caa0eddaaea281b94a9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Facial Expression” (D005149).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005149). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## facial muscle
<a id="facial-muscle"></a>

A facial muscle is a muscle of the face whose movement changes facial appearance. In Facial Action Coding Systems, discrete facial muscle movements are identified because different combinations of them create facial configurations that may function as signals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 30a378cc77884647873b1347b3e0519b942bcd734fec3ed633c75785b71c6e83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mahmoud Aisha; Scott Lauren; Florkiewicz Brittany N. Examining Mammalian facial behavior using Facial Action Coding Systems (FACS) and combinatorics. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314896; article XML SHA-256 be459c6706496558e61dd216aaa5f44694f53e8effcc178e4f23f33b6e860100. “Examining Mammalian facial behavior using Facial Action Coding Systems (FACS) and combinatorics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314896).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314896). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## facial nerve
<a id="facial-nerve"></a>

The facial nerve is the seventh cranial nerve. It includes a larger motor part and a smaller sensory part, helping control facial expression and the tear and salivary glands, while also carrying taste from the front two-thirds of the tongue and touch sensation from the external ear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5713e7e2a26378c1fbb7e82cf3239c053969d1b9632a4d2e3858dafa180963b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Facial Nerve” (D005154).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005154). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## facilitation
<a id="facilitation"></a>

Facilitation is an increased ease or readiness of functioning that follows some form of stimulation. In historical psychology and neurology, the term also referred to a process in which one function is more readily directed along its pathway than competing functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 32f99bf8fc7430122d6bd1da55af554747cd880ffcf3c86419e8f391224c5c33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Facilitation” (Facilitation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Facilitation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## facilitative anxiety
<a id="facilitative-anxiety"></a>

Facilitative anxiety is anxiety that is experienced or interpreted in a helpful way during a stressful task, so it supports coping and performance rather than undermining them. In this context, it refers to a more positive form of anxiety linked with better performance under stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b6067e788ce17a07203473a417f2ff1e0768a427884385cd1a2e46440ad4df7e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Williams Sarah E.; Quinton Mary L.; Veldhuijzen van Zanten Jet J. C. S.; Davies Jack; Möller Clara; Trotman Gavin P.; Ginty Annie T.. Mastery Imagery Ability Is Associated With Positive Anxiety and Performance During Psychological Stress. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.568580; article XML SHA-256 efe1aa809b1ba2ff2662fed88bd8d2e0dd1363bb5eecd5e9bfff943e3d2aa945. “Mastery Imagery Ability Is Associated With Positive Anxiety and Performance During Psychological Stress” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.568580).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.568580). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FACS
<a id="facs"></a>

FACS stands for Fellow of the American College of Surgeons. It refers to a surgeon who belongs to that professional college and whose status indicates recognized education, training, qualifications, surgical competence, and ethical conduct in line with the college’s standards.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 705189fcebd031bb225791925241e3e4ecf8c35e47840c5f0d8681414a2c8108

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fellow of American College of Surgeons” (C39402).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fact retrieval
<a id="fact-retrieval"></a>

Fact retrieval is the recall of learned arithmetic facts from memory, such as multiplication answers, rather than working them out step by step. In this context, it refers to accessing number facts stored in an associative memory network, with children’s reliance on verbal versus visuo-spatial working memory changing over development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99f0f0708495db8d48683a3c0fd725ca06d34e23ba2d57c91dbb9433c0934537

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Soltanlou Mojtaba; Pixner Silvia; Nuerk Hans-Christoph. Contribution of working memory in multiplication fact network in children may shift from verbal to visuo-spatial: a longitudinal investigation. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01062; article XML SHA-256 f51e19a941896b580cf5e96747505dccefac4cbd0c3206b1aacc3a388a37ebe7. “Contribution of working memory in multiplication fact network in children may shift from verbal to visuo-spatial: a longitudinal investigation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01062).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01062). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## factitious disorder
<a id="factitious-disorder"></a>

Factitious disorder is a psychiatric condition in which a person deliberately creates or exaggerates physical or psychological symptoms in order to take on the role of being ill. The behavior is not driven by obvious outside rewards such as money or avoiding legal consequences, and the person is not aware of the inner motives behind it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b29376625635e4c2da4e721799bcf41b71a8dcdfd14bff2c457b2dddfa5f23a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Factitious Disorder” (C92198).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Factitious Disorders
<a id="factitious-disorders"></a>

Factitious disorders are conditions in which a person shows physical or psychological symptoms that are not authentic or naturally occurring.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 30c467d9ba8935c9f344e5c9104c8bf20f3046ad593198fd6e329b416b90d40d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Factitious Disorders” (D005162).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005162). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## factor
<a id="factor"></a>

A factor is one of several causes or conditions that jointly help bring about a thing or event.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 63fe35b0c706baef93ca60e975689768a7faf65433982a3a26a06d36d4aa63bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Factor” (Factor).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Factor). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## factor analysis
<a id="factor-analysis"></a>

Factor analysis is a research method used to examine the internal structure of a measure by identifying underlying dimensions within a set of items. In this packet, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were used to develop and validate a scale and to show that it included four dimensions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99df130230e650f8e2a5d6b3a36520ce2690468e567b3aff6c4353b231329388

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jinke Li; Siya Zhang; Yifei Li. The structure and influencing factors of educationalist spirit among students majoring in education: an integrated model based on entrepreneurial leadership and teacher efficacy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834394; article XML SHA-256 0bfdb371041e6c5152623222421ba655aef5d9e5ce13e187a88baa43414b15aa. “The structure and influencing factors of educationalist spirit among students majoring in education: an integrated model based on entrepreneurial leadership and teacher efficacy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834394).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834394). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## factor theory
<a id="factor-theory"></a>

In this source, factor theory refers to conversion factor theory: the idea that people’s outcomes depend not just on available resources but on the conditions that affect how those resources can be turned into real opportunities and capabilities. Here, institutional features such as curriculum rules are treated as factors that shape whether career guidance becomes meaningful vocational capability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: daae4ff6e254d90db9a24547771c3c79cc6a1cc3760f61d87f74c3e96f3e2f63

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mdhluli Nthabeleng Innocentia; Naude Renaldo; Ramasodi Sekgoma Elsie; Mahlangu Busisiwe; Murabi Charmaine; Kau Freddy Sedumedi; Singo Azwihangwisi. Curriculum hierarchies as conversion factors: career guidance, capability, and inequality in South African schools: a conceptual review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870160; article XML SHA-256 a9b9ad5f4453d08ab130a5afaa125126d776647b9564b3f06c2a097b792e7892. “Curriculum hierarchies as conversion factors: career guidance, capability, and inequality in South African schools: a conceptual review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870160).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870160). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## factorial design
<a id="factorial-design"></a>

A factorial design is a research design in which every level of one independent variable is combined with every level of the other independent variable or variables. For example, a 2 × 3 factorial design includes all six possible level combinations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bcd18af27505b01342659d81779094dcd8a5fd61d8c4b17b5dc26a38703a9309

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Factorial Design” (factorial_design.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/factorial_design.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## factorial invariance
<a id="factorial-invariance"></a>

Factorial invariance is the finding that a scale shows the same factor structure when it is compared across groups or across different time points. In this study, it meant the short form measure worked equivalently across gender and remained structurally consistent over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3fc7a4ba7a6f2896fc923aff3a36b7c5b4db8d6a0dd2e85205ce566814d0b0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Yingying; Chen Gongxing; Zhang Jiamiao. The psychometric properties of the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale-China Short Form: factorial invariance and its longitudinal relation to boredom proneness. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1703859; article XML SHA-256 19460670e12804b5df748b2ae7848c9174334a39d506fbc157efcd58a3469c8d. “The psychometric properties of the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale-China Short Form: factorial invariance and its longitudinal relation to boredom proneness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1703859).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1703859). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## factual knowledge
<a id="factual-knowledge"></a>

Factual knowledge is objective knowledge about a topic, measured by whether a person’s answers to factual statements are correct or accurate. In this study, it is treated as distinct from how confident people feel about what they know.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cd183c54d46b628e7d7693db2afc756d01ec8b52ea26daac74c025a8b6e99c32

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gabriel Andreas; Bitsch Vera. Do opinion leaders know more? Knowledge accuracy, self-confidence, and media use in agricultural issues. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341457; article XML SHA-256 4c2ef7e6070664fd5e2ef98aef3cdc1644a08483393f33ed2c335ed5ffce15d3. “Do opinion leaders know more? Knowledge accuracy, self-confidence, and media use in agricultural issues” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341457).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341457). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## faculty
<a id="faculty"></a>

Faculty are the teaching and administrative staff members who hold academic rank at a college, university, or other post-secondary school.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 94bbcec26d01617b77220123b46e68ec45262383e2052dafb7b22f9e80591b23

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Faculty” (D005178).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005178). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## faculty psychology
<a id="faculty-psychology"></a>

Faculty psychology is the view that mental abilities or “faculties,” such as will or reason, are treated as if they were real inner agents that produce and direct mental processes. In the source, this is presented as a mistaken style of explanation, because saying a mind has a faculty only means it is capable of certain kinds of mental activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 162e8a27c350ee6bad8a32fb11c79f45e75059273d41a3e52163eb65c2dbec4e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Faculty” (Faculty).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Faculty). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fail-safe
<a id="fail-safe"></a>

In meta-analysis, fail-safe refers to a method used to check for publication bias in the research being combined. It may be reported as a fail-safe N value, including forms such as Classic fail-safe N and Orwin’s fail-safe N.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2345344b189aabd4e1bf72e3f2cc6ac740da2602aaba262d730301014673bb63

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gül M. Davut; Ayık Zekai. Impacts of enrichment programs on cognitive and affective skills of gifted students: A meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333714; article XML SHA-256 25d2aff7d5355956a11d4ca349db59f63e61b3a0f3d1ae0092679e47e4e78ab6. “Impacts of enrichment programs on cognitive and affective skills of gifted students: A meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333714).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333714). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## failure modes and effects analysis
<a id="failure-modes-and-effects-analysis"></a>

Failure modes and effects analysis is a structured risk-assessment method used to identify possible points of failure in a process, estimate how likely and how serious their effects may be, and rank them so the most important risks can be addressed first. In the source, it is described as a way to evaluate hazards under uncertainty by combining ratings of probability and severity to prioritize failures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b19bdf4ca7f1a557bccbf0c3b198275e30b7ac4aa5a407d39ed03413d1b4a2b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sabripoor Amir; Ghousi Rouzbeh; Najafi Mehdi; Barzinpour Farnaz; Makuei Ahmad. Risk assessment of organ transplant operation: A fuzzy hybrid MCDM approach based on fuzzy FMEA. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299655; article XML SHA-256 5a95cd5d7baf909a8fe5d33adc7dfd3036be54af1c67c73ebc051a96cbdc8a83. “Risk assessment of organ transplant operation: A fuzzy hybrid MCDM approach based on fuzzy FMEA” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299655).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299655). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## failure to thrive
<a id="failure-to-thrive"></a>

Failure to thrive is a state of undernutrition in children in which they do not keep up the expected rate of growth for their age and sex on growth charts. It is linked with later health and developmental problems, including short stature, cognitive difficulties, and behavioral abnormalities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a9135dda0dd739bc1095d33cebebbcde40d665847e3ba7b756e355580780170

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lin Yi-Chun; Yen Hung-Rong; Tsai Fuu-Jen; Wang Chung-Hsing; Chien Lung-Chang; Chen An-Chyi; Lin Ro-Ting. Effects of cyproheptadine on body weight gain in children with nonorganic failure to thrive in Taiwan: A hospital-based retrospective study. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0258731; article XML SHA-256 3d31e2924a8c9336b27fea8e980f3e7a4f55fba182f83e668a55de13e994ba41. “Effects of cyproheptadine on body weight gain in children with nonorganic failure to thrive in Taiwan: A hospital-based retrospective study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0258731).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258731). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fainting
<a id="fainting"></a>

Fainting is a brief loss of consciousness and muscle tone caused by reduced blood flow to the brain. It may be preceded by presyncope, a feeling of lightheadedness and weakness, or those sensations may occur without a full faint.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09c50b6adaf9c3c086281e47e8fea626f20cd3120995a9b501be61ac18a09116

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Syncope” (D013575).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013575). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## faintness
<a id="faintness"></a>

Faintness is a partial or greater loss of consciousness, often accompanied by paleness, weakness, and troubled breathing. It may follow heavy exertion, emotional shock, or other central bodily changes; a full faint is described historically as syncope.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 511726e6f4c0428ab22e93d17bc1280b68f22ab3a9baabeacde17053dd9af8a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Faintness” (Faintness).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Faintness). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fairness
<a id="fairness"></a>

Fairness is the equitable treatment of men and women in ways that fit their different needs. It can mean the same treatment or different treatment, as long as rights, benefits, responsibilities, and opportunities are equivalent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6fae9fdd374f535bcd1294c3a569c80be112c84efe458da3683d64d648a364e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gender Equity” (D000084803).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000084803). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## faith
<a id="faith"></a>

In this historical source, faith is described as much like belief: a personal acceptance of something as true or real. What sets it apart is that the acceptance rests partly on grounds other than strict theoretical certainty, with an element of will, personal interest, or perceived value, and its support may lie more in practical than purely intellectual validation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 79e68ddba4a7727a5b40629440c7cdb05caba7d1a7e6eb547f0a36019af94bc5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Faith” (Faith).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Faith). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## faith healing
<a id="faith-healing"></a>

Faith healing is the use of spiritual or religious practices with the aim of promoting physical or mental healing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 229a1134098513c63ec6e5f99e5c83c9aff8f43cc8fadaf7c0e6b5a338e38515

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Faith Healing” (C51973).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## faking
<a id="faking"></a>

In psychological assessment, faking is responding on a self-report measure in a way that does not accurately reflect the person, often influenced by social desirability or other biases. It is described as a limitation of questionnaire-based assessment, especially in organizational settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 084886c2381abd144824b82ff2b623a036aa95d24e0c237b97ebd7c2ae726195

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Navas María Patricia; Fernández-del-Río Elena; Ramos-Villagrasa Pedro J. Using a serious game for a brief assessment of dark personality in the workplace. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1686784; article XML SHA-256 dc602bd3f21ec0f1a3b732003e7d99a1633ff69feed51f5b50889db7e6d00e7f. “Using a serious game for a brief assessment of dark personality in the workplace” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1686784).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1686784). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fallacy
<a id="fallacy"></a>

A fallacy is an error in proof or reasoning: a failure to meet the conditions of valid thought. In this historical account, fallacies are grouped as formal errors in logical form, verbal errors based on ambiguity in language, real errors from confused thinking about evidence or conclusions, and irrelevant reasoning that does not truly establish the point at issue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a1d8b89a70334faef5a6ce68e3722c3fc5b31a48c4c9c461f261b07a80be69e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fallacy” (Fallacy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fallacy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## falling sickness
<a id="falling-sickness"></a>

Falling sickness is a historical name for epilepsy. In this older usage, it refers to a disorder marked by seizure-like attacks that occur in episodes and can involve disturbance or loss of consciousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5603d9f8ced70368715913b3f2fa1a0f616a2caf04e62f4cca8d5e7615335b45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Epilepsy” (Epilepsy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Epilepsy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## false alarm
<a id="false-alarm"></a>

A false alarm is an incorrect signal or classification that identifies an abnormal event or disturbance when ordinary operations have produced the data pattern instead. In this source, it refers to routine mine activities creating wind-velocity changes that are mistakenly recognized as disturbances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce3f4752fb6a18ebf7f1acf36cdbf06ab001882c3748a37f4c1b514e13be7882

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shang Wentian; Deng Lijun; Liu Jian; Zhou Yukai. Multi-disturbance identification from mine wind-velocity data based on MSSW and WPT-GBDT. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0284316; article XML SHA-256 aa16af8ef7217d196ff706906017351185219671e9f801897700b8691589b255. “Multi-disturbance identification from mine wind-velocity data based on MSSW and WPT-GBDT” (10.1371/journal.pone.0284316).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284316). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## false belief
<a id="false-belief"></a>

A false belief is a belief about oneself, other people, or things in the outside world that continues despite contrary facts and is not seen as believable by those around the person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 080615aabc301c8f1180687a70968867036d6273f0421dc612efbe1425393f55

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Delusions” (D003702).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003702). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## false-consensus effect
<a id="false-consensus-effect"></a>

The false-consensus effect is a bias in which people think their own views are more widely shared than they really are. In this effect, people’s perceptions of others’ opinions can systematically differ from reality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c3e64ae995917160f68017283e62db85b298c9beb5eacbe5fde3576c63c997d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cooper Crispin H V; Fahey Kevin; Jones Regan. Biased perceptions of public opinion don’t define echo chambers but reveal systematic differences in political awareness. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324507; article XML SHA-256 54aa286e9c4c94ef30218fdaa9420be19937a523ce8a5f7ade9d5f8ff2a5eb0a. “Biased perceptions of public opinion don’t define echo chambers but reveal systematic differences in political awareness” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324507).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324507). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## false memory
<a id="false-memory"></a>

False memory is a mistaken recollection in which a person takes something imagined, dreamed, or reshaped in retelling as if it had really happened. Such memory errors are described as fairly common and can alter how people understand their own past while being held in good faith.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f108cd5ab5f0235d157f9ddccd6a7156d43233c2fc093c463103aced62a93002

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## false positive
<a id="false-positive"></a>

A false positive is a result that indicates a condition or effect is present when it is actually absent. In some settings it is also called a false alarm and is similar to a Type I error in significance testing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d4d10d014418676140ce70fc1964a2c98dc48fb19c6e0ccb5cdacb2d63f8aaee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “False Positive” (false_positive.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/false_positive.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## false rejection
<a id="false-rejection"></a>

False rejection is a misidentification error in which two samples from the same individual are not recognized as belonging to that individual. In capture-mark-recapture work, this can distort estimated survival and detection measures and may also affect other estimates when sample size is low.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9745e9e28eb461842b3771d01e7ea45367d9acf2759adb98bc73254616794ad8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Winiarski Kristopher J; McGarigal Kevin. Effects of Photo and Genotype-Based Misidentification Error on Estimates of Survival, Detection and State Transition using Multistate Survival Models. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0145640; article XML SHA-256 5b090773af58e960baa41e829ab6c03c2023b551a80bca60ba453fa82d09f8d9. “Effects of Photo and Genotype-Based Misidentification Error on Estimates of Survival, Detection and State Transition using Multistate Survival Models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0145640).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145640). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## false self
<a id="false-self"></a>

In Winnicott’s object relations theory, the false self is a part of self-development understood in relation to the true self. It is used to link features of adult psychopathology with early maternal-child relationships and the quality of the person’s early facilitating environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9e0c17f0e974d8f7a14d3daa61e6ddfa12e6e985f1e6bffc2b1c1363e739f4c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xie Zhengyan; Yan Yuting; Peng Kejuan. Pragmatism or idealism: a systematic review and visual analysis of Winnicott’s psychoanalytical treatment views. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1237005; article XML SHA-256 927fca85e3fc8da1cbe35b4d38eec80b1c5ae6641e53d147287034f55cc024f5. “Pragmatism or idealism: a systematic review and visual analysis of Winnicott’s psychoanalytical treatment views” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1237005).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1237005). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## familial dysautonomia
<a id="familial-dysautonomia"></a>

Familial dysautonomia is an inherited disorder affecting the peripheral and autonomic nervous systems, seen in people of Ashkenazic Jewish descent. It is present from birth and can involve reduced tearing, poor temperature control, drops in blood pressure on standing, fixed pupils, excessive sweating, reduced pain and temperature sensation, and absent reflexes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2ba1e18f2240a58396546875319e60d2a6c9a2f68f4422bdf152bcb0950a716

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dysautonomia, Familial” (D004402).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004402). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## familial tremor
<a id="familial-tremor"></a>

Familial tremor is a form of essential tremor that can run in families, sometimes with an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance. It involves a characteristic shaking pattern that is most noticeable in the arms and neck, often causing head nodding, and is usually mild but can sometimes be disabling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 89f44fc0e5c8f92768bb7e347527a51ab7685a8fd841c91fe3d7eae5f7e8aa69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Essential Tremor” (D020329).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020329). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## familism
<a id="familism"></a>

Familism is a family cultural value that centers on support and commitment across family generations. It stresses attachment, loyalty, and obligations to family members, with family interests taking priority over individual interests.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9971797a8e91db4e9ab3555235551b969e04d15e92a58cd693c705336b9fe228

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Galán-Vera Ingrid Zugey; Lievore Rachele; Moscardino Ughetta; Mammarella Irene C.. Cross-cultural perspectives on social difficulties and anxiety in youth: the role of family cultural values in Mexico and Italy. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1680963; article XML SHA-256 43ff74d46b25a9fab81befafc243a9b7cfc09d3b15ca0acfea8278a9b4dd78f2. “Cross-cultural perspectives on social difficulties and anxiety in youth: the role of family cultural values in Mexico and Italy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1680963).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1680963). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## family
<a id="family"></a>

A family is a social group made up of parents or parent substitutes and children.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 376ee51453c361674eb7c48d90b7d9b868d4a488a5cdd5c7de50f3bf23afb449

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Family” (D005190).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005190). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## family constellation
<a id="family-constellation"></a>

Family constellation, as described here in the context of family constellation therapy, is a systemic, experiential group approach that focuses on patterns in family relationships across generations. It is used to explore how family dynamics, communication problems, and unresolved family trauma may contribute to psychological distress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b81ad1bc1755d5524b9db3150e96f3d325d8bdc0d6ecbe02a65dc7c6ff7fae6e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhong Wenhao; Rao Mei; Zhou Qian; Leng Zeying; Zhang Bing; Lin Zhijian. A critical appraisal of integrating family constellation therapy with pharmacological treatment for depression. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1904032; article XML SHA-256 9ffe6345725760294513f526572085cef20e68d874f5ec378757c736ff8b2796. “A critical appraisal of integrating family constellation therapy with pharmacological treatment for depression” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1904032).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1904032). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## family dynamics
<a id="family-dynamics"></a>

Family dynamics are the patterns within a family that shape how family members influence a child’s emotional and social experiences. In this context, they strongly affect children’s sense of belonging, emotion regulation, and how socially connected they feel in virtual interactions such as mobile gaming.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe3ea73cf71f56caaee9bdcf4949b204d8b7ba33b009e10e2f5be92cf58f8eea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pang Lu; Mustafa Siti Ezaleila; Gong Jiankun; Cheng Yizhi. Social connectedness in mobile gaming: how family dynamics shape children’s virtual interactions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1850835; article XML SHA-256 4a6489cf62cbe55b8f76026e0e63f8124d0f217dedb75ed8d4741b270b02d085. “Social connectedness in mobile gaming: how family dynamics shape children’s virtual interactions” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1850835).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1850835). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## family intervention
<a id="family-intervention"></a>

Family intervention is a psychosocial approach for schizophrenia that works with the person and their family or carers to help reduce relapse and lessen illness burden. It may be adapted to fit cultural beliefs and local circumstances so it can be delivered effectively in different settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee00bc5766ebc001215dac7973bbc30bb33027fa6eafe4e039a176c366c3529b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Renwick Laoise; Brooks Helen; Keliat Budi-anna; Wulandari Dewi; Fadilah Rizqy; Diorarta Raphita; Suherman; Addison Georgia; Bee Penny; Lovell Karina; Susanti Herni. Delivering culturally adapted family interventions for people with schizophrenia in Indonesia: A feasibility randomised controlled trial and nested process evaluation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338371; article XML SHA-256 b0c0565e7e1bbf24d1d4ed24033b15614c2f52a20f6f68e494dec1072601973f. “Delivering culturally adapted family interventions for people with schizophrenia in Indonesia: A feasibility randomised controlled trial and nested process evaluation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338371).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338371). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## family life education
<a id="family-life-education"></a>

Family life education is a school-administered program in Virginia that includes sex education with an abstinence-based component. Local school districts may decide whether to add material on sexual health, contraceptives, and sexually transmitted infections, and parents may opt children out of any part of the program.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34473527a4a1a6e4c197bed2b75460d00c9308833ffcf71bb8e30c1a522a1fbe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hover Shantal S.; Bertke Andrea S.. Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 educational assessment of young adults in rural southwest Virginia. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0179969; article XML SHA-256 108d0f34b3318567455259a153ca36b2abf096d6fc44a939a1d70c2fd6c2c54b. “Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 educational assessment of young adults in rural southwest Virginia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0179969).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179969). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## family of origin
<a id="family-of-origin"></a>

Family of origin refers to the family environment a person grows up in, which is described here as having a major influence on development and lifelong mental health. It includes both risk and protective influences such as genetics, family conditions, parental wellbeing, the parents’ relationship, parenting style, and the parent-child relationship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14057327b014637f4f2be55b936e0c1077027b83d4a8f8372ad5d8e12be61d30

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dai Zongpei; Luo Yutong; Tan Jieying; Hu Li; Dai Qin. Family dominant hypothesis for the effect of family of origin on the mental health of offspring: evidence, mechanism, and implications. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1733077; article XML SHA-256 6b10e62b0156b38c722a0d7b571ee0264e5cb93eb8afd9baf39e272a0fe5578e. “Family dominant hypothesis for the effect of family of origin on the mental health of offspring: evidence, mechanism, and implications” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1733077).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1733077). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## family psychology
<a id="family-psychology"></a>

Family psychology is the study of how family relationships and household life are shaped by wider social and cultural expectations. It looks at how norms and identities become family rules, power patterns, and emotional climates, and how family experiences can in turn reinforce, soften, or challenge those norms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 10101f0f058a4cf6d372098bbc7a600955891f4cb68f7e1ef78d6e46ed2fc435

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mathoora Durvashi; Chee Kwan Foong; Leow Serena; Woon Chin Ong; Ming Long Chiau. Integrating social identity theory and family systems theory to explain how sociocultural norms become family life. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1902682; article XML SHA-256 88ae5e4d22d41de67800623fca6a91cb1e757ff40d2925182d907883c68cef3c. “Integrating social identity theory and family systems theory to explain how sociocultural norms become family life” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1902682).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1902682). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## family study
<a id="family-study"></a>

A family study is a research approach that compares people with a condition and their relatives, such as siblings, to help tell whether a trait or difficulty may reflect shared family susceptibility rather than only the effects of the condition itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6a8b54f6a0abb6526a4168882aca31ac0fec19bb9c1360eee5ac7729adb94b0b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yan Wan-Sen; Lan Yan; Liu Su-Jiao. Commonalities and differences in trait-like, risky, and utilitarian decision-making styles between abstinent heroin-dependent individuals and their siblings. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1659008; article XML SHA-256 ab134914a8d8be2a712164d8c923cad63a5ef3693eb2fff07cd5553f24e383d4. “Commonalities and differences in trait-like, risky, and utilitarian decision-making styles between abstinent heroin-dependent individuals and their siblings” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1659008).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1659008). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## family therapy
<a id="family-therapy"></a>

Family therapy is a type of group psychotherapy in which more than one member of a family is seen together in the same session for treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 51f8cd8a1093d99079318f9cb38882ffe33e205d5672f53dd64399515dd7fa81

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Family Therapy” (D005196).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005196). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## family values
<a id="family-values"></a>

Family values are the shared beliefs and expectations within a family about how members should relate to one another and carry out family roles. In the source packet, this includes themes such as obedience to parents, respect, protecting family honor, support among relatives, and culturally shaped expectations about parenting and gender roles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 91d2a5f32980c896d0268b97da5ad8190f750a04f938218b4b9898a33d0aa190

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Galán-Vera Ingrid Zugey; Lievore Rachele; Moscardino Ughetta; Mammarella Irene C.. Cross-cultural perspectives on social difficulties and anxiety in youth: the role of family cultural values in Mexico and Italy. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1680963; article XML SHA-256 43ff74d46b25a9fab81befafc243a9b7cfc09d3b15ca0acfea8278a9b4dd78f2. “Cross-cultural perspectives on social difficulties and anxiety in youth: the role of family cultural values in Mexico and Italy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1680963).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1680963). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## family-wise error rate
<a id="family-wise-error-rate"></a>

Family-wise error rate is the overall chance of making one or more false-positive findings when many tests are considered together. In this context, it refers to controlling the risk of wrongly flagging any review as LLM-generated across a set of multiple reviews.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fa5a8aaf16f2f768fef5d1431df44be4f35280923cd3b68f836ac83c54863bdb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rao Vishisht Srihari; Kumar Aounon; Lakkaraju Himabindu; Shah Nihar B.. Detecting LLM-generated peer reviews. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331871; article XML SHA-256 6c1ca41ab82068a09b0d0191957bf995633ddf0a1147bbda460855db608f0b65. “Detecting LLM-generated peer reviews” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331871).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331871). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fanaticism
<a id="fanaticism"></a>

Fanaticism is an unbalanced, exaggerated form of enthusiasm marked by credulous belief and intense feeling that may turn into hostility or violence toward opponents. In historical psychological writing, it was treated as a partly pathological state on the border between sanity and insanity and as something that can spread through mental contagion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 332d41686ffd6a466e9e6cfb843b1d1c7f85f28375bc229f2cdbc2c14e86494d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fanaticism” (Fanaticism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fanaticism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fantasy
<a id="fantasy"></a>

Fantasy is an imagined series of events or mental pictures, such as daydreams.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48322d8fd425857d3ad60407518f34aa19ae3eacf349169a8fb0702052dd1a41

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Fantasy” (D005201).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005201). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## farsightedness
<a id="farsightedness"></a>

Farsightedness is a vision problem in which light entering the eye is focused behind the retina, usually because the eye is too short from front to back. As a result, the nearest point that can be seen clearly is farther away than normal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b65e7a73f0a73351410555b4b21a1e1e723f94aea0d8e7303e5d5857dd247850

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hyperopia” (D006956).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006956). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FAS
<a id="fas"></a>

FAS stands for Functional Acuity Score, a standardized score derived from visual acuity data as part of a broader functional vision evaluation. It is combined with the Functional Field Score to form the Functional Vision Score and is used in disability certification in some countries.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e91834a6acc1920f7d4c3ef173b5e637d93f17e29e273b76e53a66312a01f4fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tsuruoka Mieko; Inoue Kenji. Functional acuity score as a surrogate of reading performance in low vision: A Japanese disability evaluation cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358323; article XML SHA-256 afc952b6e96ac34fb65bcf2b7a0dccbfc51b71fdd694cecf84a8e929db45fa9e. “Functional acuity score as a surrogate of reading performance in low vision: A Japanese disability evaluation cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358323).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358323). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fascia
<a id="fascia"></a>

Fascia is the body-wide network of connective tissue that surrounds, links, and supports muscles, organs, nerves, joints, bones, and other soft tissues. In current usage, it refers to a continuous three-dimensional matrix that includes structures such as tendons, ligaments, bursae, and the connective tissue layers around muscles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0493f7d31ddc447b62a56ae1efac3911b00031a7049b89ce1980fc8c3fe63f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shah S Mudasser; Jahangir Muhammad; Alhudaithi Ghada Saleh; Taneja Chand; Alharbi Fatimah Sayer; Lin Xiuyun. Fascia’s role in the mind-body continuum: a novel target for integrative treatments in psychiatry. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1687288; article XML SHA-256 e6e4f1541b049a60a74228a12e5580f34d6353ec3fb0f95c5838e8ec708f2022. “Fascia’s role in the mind-body continuum: a novel target for integrative treatments in psychiatry” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1687288).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1687288). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fasciculus
<a id="fasciculus"></a>

A fasciculus is a white matter pathway in the brain, meaning a bundle of nerve fibers that connects different brain regions. In the packet, fasciculi are described as tracts linking areas involved in language comprehension, language production, and social communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c3b2f4688261e4e059213c839a590b7bc370448fb2f408d6bd9a2a4cb06ccb8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yi Aiwen; Huang Kaiyu; Hu Yubin; Zhang Shuiqun; Huang Qingshan; Xiao Yaqiong. Altered white matter connectivity is linked to language abilities in children with autism spectrum disorder: An automated fiber quantification study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1731647; article XML SHA-256 25331cba548c385f29bb8565c7fd8b2fb258513aabcc346b175194e3ef245aeb. “Altered white matter connectivity is linked to language abilities in children with autism spectrum disorder: An automated fiber quantification study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1731647).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1731647). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fast muscle fiber
<a id="fast-muscle-fiber"></a>

A fast muscle fiber is a type of muscle fiber distinguished from slow muscle fibers when researchers examine muscle fiber composition. In the source, having fewer fast fibers in the soleus muscle was associated with reduced muscle strength and age-related motor activity problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5488cc3fd8faf3744aeaae7647d794175a66ff8e3822435466b2f2685cf25bf0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Bo-Tsang; Chang Pu-Yuan; Su Ching-Hua; Chao Chuck C.-K.; Lin-Chao Sue. Gas7-Deficient Mouse Reveals Roles in Motor Function and Muscle Fiber Composition during Aging. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0037702; article XML SHA-256 a1d36899f17f4be1bf5a5e461f9594fe18e8d6f5e56e51faf96ed0f7c4d250d8. “Gas7-Deficient Mouse Reveals Roles in Motor Function and Muscle Fiber Composition during Aging” (10.1371/journal.pone.0037702).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0037702). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fastigial nucleus
<a id="fastigial-nucleus"></a>

The fastigial nucleus is a structure in the cerebellum. In the supplied source, stimulating it electrically is described as reducing brain infarction size and supporting recovery of neurological function after cerebral ischemia, although the exact protective mechanism is unclear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76e9845fb80be95ec23fda9b12b1b8c4ad477464fb6d40fca805f18482a76a80

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Jinggui; Pang Xiaomin; Zhang Lei; Li Shenghua; Qin Zhenxiu; Xie Xiaoyun; Liu Jingli. Transcriptome analysis reveals the neuroprotective effect of Dlg4 against fastigial nucleus stimulation-induced ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12868-023-00811-6; article XML SHA-256 de6305936ad2146fa76074fd023b61948a89f28dfa17e995179ff061d511c171. “Transcriptome analysis reveals the neuroprotective effect of Dlg4 against fastigial nucleus stimulation-induced ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats” (10.1186/s12868-023-00811-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-023-00811-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fatal familial insomnia
<a id="fatal-familial-insomnia"></a>

Fatal familial insomnia is a very rare inherited sleep disorder passed down in an autosomal dominant pattern and linked to a mutation affecting the prion protein gene. It typically begins in adulthood with trouble falling asleep, progresses to a complete inability to sleep, and is followed by worsening mental and motor functioning that soon leads to death.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64b407169f70489b7963ec9c196d1cdd163726339617e8a1a4a4f14284cf61bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fatal Familial Insomnia” (C84711).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fatigability
<a id="fatigability"></a>

Fatigability is the tendency for performance to decline during continued effort. In the motor context, it means a measurable drop in movement ability, such as slowing of maximal finger tapping over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb0caba7a36b178eeece4285fc42a060dc25610f2b63b21cdd713383f4a67161

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Heimhofer Caroline; Neumann Amira; Odermatt Ingrid; Bächinger Marc; Wenderoth Nicole. Finger-specific effects of age on tapping speed and motor fatigability. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1427336; article XML SHA-256 fdacaa14365c8172eae303bcb61155d40caaf46d3a7b85b863a88645fd1351af. “Finger-specific effects of age on tapping speed and motor fatigability” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1427336).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1427336). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fatigue
<a id="fatigue"></a>

Fatigue is a state of weariness after mental or physical effort in which a person has less capacity to work and responds less efficiently to stimulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 221b71bdddac2bcd14c3da8d6b41cd9017127f4e7036b2a433821f2ac7345179

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Fatigue” (D005221).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005221). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fatigue effect
<a id="fatigue-effect"></a>

Fatigue effect refers to the changes in behavior and brain functioning that appear when fatigue is induced. In this source, it specifically describes central fatigue produced by prolonged sleep deprivation, with longer exposure linked to anxiety and degenerative changes in the hippocampus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e05b9fd353759ebcfaee5b14f9d9898ff5f3d0311e5fde740878b6f2a2490d1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Han Chenxia; Li Feng; Ma Jie; Liu Yan; Li Weihong; Mao Yingqiu; Song Yuehan; Guo Siyuan; Liu Jing. Distinct behavioral and brain changes after different durations of the modified multiple platform method on rats: An animal model of central fatigue. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0176850; article XML SHA-256 ea2a802671fadeb155663c05b26dff0fe37d6c8b89996fb8847748d4c0c81b27. “Distinct behavioral and brain changes after different durations of the modified multiple platform method on rats: An animal model of central fatigue” (10.1371/journal.pone.0176850).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176850). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fatigue studies
<a id="fatigue-studies"></a>

Fatigue studies are research investigations of mental fatigue, especially how prolonged demanding tasks affect tiredness, effort, attention, and performance over time. In this context, they often examine whether motivation, including intrinsic or extrinsic motivation, can lessen performance declines linked to mental fatigue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa34703bab231a0c4b7f151fb17ecdc732499223d62685a542630261a17cddf8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Herlambang Mega B.; Cnossen Fokie; Taatgen Niels A.. The effects of intrinsic motivation on mental fatigue. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243754; article XML SHA-256 8d33d903a5198b0697e6f45ad40879a84412290c1aec2e6aea9a03da18982efe. “The effects of intrinsic motivation on mental fatigue” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243754).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243754). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fatty acid
<a id="fatty-acid"></a>

A fatty acid is an organic acid formed from a hydrocarbon through oxidation of a methyl group in stages to an alcohol, then an aldehyde, and finally an acid. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 25b1cce9c1b737b59d2f74d9b547f7af619a4514c67e9e2ca6eb114808ebe6bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Fatty Acids” (D005227).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005227). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fatty acid amide hydrolase
<a id="fatty-acid-amide-hydrolase"></a>

Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is an enzyme that mainly breaks down the endocannabinoid anandamide and related fatty acid amides, helping end their effects. By controlling this breakdown, it helps regulate endocannabinoid signaling and can influence processes linked to behavior, such as mood, cognition, pain, appetite, and addiction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6faac9b3bc8a4c4a9a1b01892f101e7b409e0a5ad1deb20517d67ab4e2367da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rusjan Pablo M; Knezevic Dunja; Boileau Isabelle; Tong Junchao; Mizrahi Romina; Wilson Alan A; Houle Sylvain. Voxel level quantification of [ 11 C]CURB, a radioligand for Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase, using high resolution positron emission tomography. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0192410; article XML SHA-256 fa9e8c42da94e118c6ee031318ddbe7e50a077e21c51b06e6773a26dce75ea59. “Voxel level quantification of [ 11 C]CURB, a radioligand for Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase, using high resolution positron emission tomography” (10.1371/journal.pone.0192410).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192410). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fault tree analysis
<a id="fault-tree-analysis"></a>

Fault tree analysis is a structured method for identifying the possible causes of an unwanted event by building a tree of contributing factors and then analyzing their roles in the overall risk. In the source, it is used to examine coal dust explosion risk, including estimating how basic events contribute to the chance of the explosion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8185018201ebea4b744c73380f0fd0a7069de2635da6e1ce53ca97c2af5079d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Hetang; Li Jia; Wang Deming; Huang Zonghou. A novel method of fuzzy fault tree analysis combined with VB program to identify and assess the risk of coal dust explosions. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0182453; article XML SHA-256 2eb4d118661931ec5648acb291e4627cd6e0a7845c95b34573510ea99cb12760. “A novel method of fuzzy fault tree analysis combined with VB program to identify and assess the risk of coal dust explosions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0182453).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182453). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FDA
<a id="fda"></a>

In this context, FDA refers to the regulatory body whose approval process and expedited programs are used to speed the development and review of therapies for serious conditions with unmet medical need. Its approval timing can vary depending on both the mix of expedited pathways used and the type of pivotal evidence submitted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 51f96e024c3deb0ce467163dbf8f8e1f5dc6f93a2791ee082dd35a50a2c75437

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sayed Ahmed M.; Ezzelarab Nada M.; Huy Nguyen Tien. Expedited pathway portfolios, trial complexity, and FDA approval timelines in oncology and neurology: A comparative analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355495; article XML SHA-256 9f29ca62477c81f59ca6ee83fa7f6255227f09ee60f033cdb39a425af761ba00. “Expedited pathway portfolios, trial complexity, and FDA approval timelines in oncology and neurology: A comparative analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355495).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355495). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Fear
<a id="fear"></a>

Fear is an emotional reaction to a real, present danger in the environment. It lessens when the threatening situation is removed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f972f37800f841e51960755d4f01ff4f4c573717bffa83839adc4dda08f0d11a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Fear” (D005239).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005239). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fear appeal
<a id="fear-appeal"></a>

A fear appeal is a persuasive message that highlights possible harm or other negative consequences in order to motivate people to adopt a recommended behavior. In this framework, it typically combines a sense of threat with the idea that the person can effectively take action, while low perceived ability to act may lead to denial or other defensive responses instead of behavior change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb1328e1503127bcefa8809454fe65eab1b8e558cc987f0546a12f90dee46497

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Jiawei; Yang Xiaobing; Lu Yanqin; Zheng Xia. The Joint Effects of Social Norm Appeals and Fear Appeals in COVID-19 Vaccine Campaign Posters on Self-Perceived Communication Quality and Vaccination Intention. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.760146; article XML SHA-256 31a4ccd019082bcd8e9d2bf75a0aeca3d9bf611b6a25c4e9ad5033f5055ad55c. “The Joint Effects of Social Norm Appeals and Fear Appeals in COVID-19 Vaccine Campaign Posters on Self-Perceived Communication Quality and Vaccination Intention” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.760146).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.760146). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fear of darkness
<a id="fear-of-darkness"></a>

Fear of darkness is a presumed innate fear response to being in the dark. In this source, it is described as a human tendency that may have been shaped by night-time predation risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3462a390435f9edb7c59f6334305bbc574edb1ee9697d9a2909a63993ce744a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Packer Craig; Swanson Alexandra; Ikanda Dennis; Kushnir Hadas. Fear of Darkness, the Full Moon and the Nocturnal Ecology of African Lions. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0022285; article XML SHA-256 4e3b36c8168f07d7156cf28225c729146e8d7747fbe7f73cb79074c5f21aea26. “Fear of Darkness, the Full Moon and the Nocturnal Ecology of African Lions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0022285).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022285). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fear of failure
<a id="fear-of-failure"></a>

Fear of failure is worry about not succeeding when taking on a challenging task or trying to reach a desired goal. It arises in uncertain situations and can be linked with behaviors that involve risk to oneself or others connected to the situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed36abf24b98b5656c982b5b711cf1ba0534494bc1cc582c31bb0c68d07ac53e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Risk-Taking” (D012309).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012309). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fear of flying
<a id="fear-of-flying"></a>

Fear of flying, or aviophobia, is a phobic fear of air travel that can range from mild unease to intense panic and often leads to avoidance of flying. It is shaped by interacting psychological, bodily, environmental, and social factors, with common triggers including turbulence, enclosed spaces, and exposure to aviation accident coverage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 711e20da5e5d94151a83ee5a6a749a6db11bc527bec1d9a934b48d4987c00c61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eyiz Eylül; Kırhan Kübra Nur; Polat Sevdiye Kemik; Aslan Mustafa. A qualitative study on aviophobia and coping strategies. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05050-y; article XML SHA-256 7a07c3471719476c7db2a66378713c3249b2dd363f109db50b83ddff939b2b19. “A qualitative study on aviophobia and coping strategies” (10.1186/s40359-026-05050-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05050-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fear of strangers
<a id="fear-of-strangers"></a>

Fear of strangers is an intense or irrational fear or dislike of people seen as strange, unfamiliar, or foreign. It can also describe a hostile attitude toward perceived outsiders that shows up in prejudice, rejection, exclusion, or vilifying of non-natives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bedbe0b1ba05f5fbfd891a33ed8c111dcfdaeebe6e045cf776b6d2aeee9b0785

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Xenophobia” (D065806).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065806). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fearful attachment
<a id="fearful-attachment"></a>

Fearful attachment is an adult attachment style marked by a negative view of both oneself and other people. A person may want close relationships to make up for low self-worth, but avoid them because they expect others to be untrustworthy or rejecting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ffd687a45d2ff034124bbce59b25dae31cc60c2981d5174990a9b958c236879f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Schie Charlotte C; Jarman Heidi L; Reis Samantha; Grenyer Brin F S. Narcissistic traits in young people and how experiencing shame relates to current attachment challenges. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12888-021-03249-4; article XML SHA-256 2a10be4f35218609bf8755aaf208e4d7d4c8e807d27117dfecc9f439ed562cf2. “Narcissistic traits in young people and how experiencing shame relates to current attachment challenges” (10.1186/s12888-021-03249-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03249-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## feature
<a id="feature"></a>

In this learning-research context, a feature is a measurable characteristic taken from data, such as EEG or fNIRS signals, that is used to distinguish one state or event from another. Features can be selected for how informative they are, so that the most discriminative subset improves detection or classification performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7b97ceb56ba65b53ee6b6a69d08107d6d10226bdb03ea620f2ac903c30154c4f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chaiyanan Chayapol; Phukhachee Tustanah; Iramina Keiji; Kaewkamnerdpong Boonserm. Toward practical BCIs: a BMNABC-based feature selection and sensor optimization framework for implicit learning detection from multimodal EEG-fNIRS data. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1778884; article XML SHA-256 adcd3e453291331805d661d405cb32cd23dff98121563d8248d0e210d7af1a2c. “Toward practical BCIs: a BMNABC-based feature selection and sensor optimization framework for implicit learning detection from multimodal EEG-fNIRS data” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1778884).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1778884). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## feature abstraction
<a id="feature-abstraction"></a>

Feature abstraction is the process in a layered learning system of turning input data through successive nonlinear steps into increasingly higher-level representations. In this hierarchy, later layers capture more discriminative and meaningful patterns than earlier layers, helping the model learn complex structure in the data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a35ddba449cc63629b45372369e132193d5492869fc36845663800439f3fb72c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Raza Ali; Ali Akhtar; Ullah Sami; Rehman Basit; Ali Zafar. Development of adaptive activation functions with curvature and range modulation for abstract image feature learning in complex CNNs for cross-domain applications. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355613; article XML SHA-256 1d05b97638b1bfe76fcd883c35545a1def66ed136717b5cbb5421109926c89b6. “Development of adaptive activation functions with curvature and range modulation for abstract image feature learning in complex CNNs for cross-domain applications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355613).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355613). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## feature attention
<a id="feature-attention"></a>

Feature attention is a person’s focus on particular features of a stimulus while making a judgment or trying to tell items apart. In this source, it refers specifically to which linguistic features listeners notice and use in real time when identifying or locating accents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 138d0f107cabd47248e3fcca7cc875ca963e051135067ce49209e30500d2377a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Montgomery Chris; Vriesendorp Hielke; Walker Gareth. Feature attention and accent recognition: human listeners’ responses to five Northern English accents. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1613018; article XML SHA-256 22f73cc71ce37176fa1bf6ff12a742de202eab1761d67d003d7de0c1f1840da3. “Feature attention and accent recognition: human listeners’ responses to five Northern English accents” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1613018).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1613018). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## feature detection theory
<a id="feature-detection-theory"></a>

Feature detection theory, in this context, is the idea that people making an eyewitness lineup decision compare faces by noticing which features are shared across lineup members and which are not. It proposes that non-shared features matter most because they provide the distinguishing information needed to tell one face from the others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae9e61862cca093cf97e57f9a1bf92ae54e2128b6fdc5c407d07f19dc92deeac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pennekamp Pia; Ramey Michelle M.; Töredi Dilhan; Lampinen James Michael. Does visual attention to diagnostic facial features predict eyewitness identification accuracy? Implications for diagnostic feature detection theory. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355167; article XML SHA-256 b6d443806fcf0da12200b7062300add70c459c3b6fb026f3f34546a21b995aa0. “Does visual attention to diagnostic facial features predict eyewitness identification accuracy? Implications for diagnostic feature detection theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355167).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355167). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## feature detector
<a id="feature-detector"></a>

A feature detector is a part of an automated analysis method that identifies measurable characteristics in recorded signals, such as peak size, timing-related values, or area under a trace. In this context, it is used to capture features that help distinguish uniform from alternating patterns in calcium current recordings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a44e327ca105313990ce7a945edaa548de9328170aed9bb2a144bcb4349aee61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marimon Xavier; Cerrolaza Miguel; Tarifa Carmen; Hove-Madsen Leif. A novel methodology to characterize beat-to-beat alternations in whole-cell calcium currents. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339890; article XML SHA-256 1029e34f8ace885b9a2340b00ff5c7d24fda9fb733fe3b1bf6c5cc56b74d0ef0. “A novel methodology to characterize beat-to-beat alternations in whole-cell calcium currents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339890).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339890). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## feature-positive discrimination
<a id="feature-positive-discrimination"></a>

Feature-positive discrimination is a learning task in which the same stimulus must be responded to differently depending on whether a cue appeared beforehand, so the meaning of the stimulus depends on its temporal context. In the serial form, the cue comes before the target stimulus and signals that the target should be treated differently than when it occurs alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6218365c018baf0051eb752709c5e21edc53d46211713493c2c7fa45653343ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rahman Md Ashrafur; Tanaka Norifumi; Nuruzzaman Md; DebNath Shandhya; Kawahara Shigenori. Blockade of the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors impairs eyeblink serial feature-positive discrimination learning in mice. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0237451; article XML SHA-256 10a016490c4f5ed3b1475e9987c87c0af63d486d7575333236049848eaf38567. “Blockade of the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors impairs eyeblink serial feature-positive discrimination learning in mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0237451).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237451). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## febrile seizure
<a id="febrile-seizure"></a>

A febrile seizure is a seizure that occurs in the context of fever, commonly in children. It is associated with risks of later neurological and behavioral problems, including difficulties with memory, movement, and broader cognitive functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f72f94fbf286fd5bd9a71b5c2f41c724c5d6d83f984fbd579d978dc3f12f8306

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ghotbeddin Zohreh; Jahromi Mohammad Abiri; Shahriari Ali; Peysokhan Mohsen; Dezfouli Anahita Memar. Neonatal febrile seizures: Dimethyl itaconate’s role in behavioral recovery and glutathione enzyme modulation in adult rats. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318430; article XML SHA-256 d5b53f7a207dc1509f623f19345e51610dc7c5a9aa37e60310ba8bd8c72d06c0. “Neonatal febrile seizures: Dimethyl itaconate’s role in behavioral recovery and glutathione enzyme modulation in adult rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318430).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318430). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Fechner’s law
<a id="fechners-law"></a>

Fechner’s law is a historical psychophysical principle, derived from Weber’s law, proposing that the strength of a sensation rises in proportion to the logarithm of the physical stimulus. In formula form, it states that sensation intensity equals a constant times the logarithm of stimulus intensity, though the assumptions behind it were disputed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e462410e25f9d84e5c284e6a0b5bf087ca62c7490bc74ef2f04755a6b1ca629

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fechner's Law” (Fechner's).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fechner's). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## feedback device
<a id="feedback-device"></a>

A feedback device is a tool used in movement learning that gives added sensory information while a person performs an action. In this context, a force feedback device provides haptic, proprioceptive cues to guide visuo-motor performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 55c6c9e6a3b852c684057c5119ddc54a1249f0a9ec8e3010fe14925f27dc35c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bluteau Jérémy; Coquillart Sabine; Payan Yohan; Gentaz Edouard. Haptic Guidance Improves the Visuo-Manual Tracking of Trajectories. 2008; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0001775; article XML SHA-256 cf2effa1018e98e6005cf7d36a6575c2505194f1f69d46dcd53fcf99ec1a347e. “Haptic Guidance Improves the Visuo-Manual Tracking of Trajectories” (10.1371/journal.pone.0001775).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001775). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Feeding and Eating Disorders of Childhood
<a id="feeding-and-eating-disorders-of-childhood"></a>

Feeding and eating disorders of childhood are mental disorders involving problems with feeding or eating that are usually identified during infancy or early childhood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 843e7b3d603d8863abb4396cf3c099f9bab6b2ef7fe862a742baab4bf5fc3a12

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Feeding and Eating Disorders of Childhood” (D019959).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019959). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## feeding behavior
<a id="feeding-behavior"></a>

Feeding behavior is the pattern of actions involved in eating, including how eating is carried out, its rhythm, and the timing between eating episodes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02b2bf9db6881b016c3de03c963cefbc5357b59ffdf9838ac99f235c8639ac94

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Feeding Behavior” (D005247).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005247). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## feeling
<a id="feeling"></a>

In this historical psychology source, feeling is the aspect of consciousness concerned with experienced changes apart from identifying objects or directing action. It is used broadly as a phase of mental life within the traditional division of knowledge, feeling, and will, and is treated as an abstraction from a fuller state of mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5af02d8f7720e2c0ec677f6848465a5e89bd8222b1d3a4c9852d3de2401dfbe1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Feeling” (Feeling).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Feeling). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## feeling of knowing
<a id="feeling-of-knowing"></a>

Feeling of knowing is a state of awareness in recognition memory in which something seems familiar, but the person does not consciously recollect the contextual details or associations linked to it. In this source, it is treated as distinct from recollection and as not sufficient on its own for accurate retrieval of complex episodic memories.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2eb533e1ee4f29607588327d33a9da1292e28fb006d8200c28ad8d695b3c26d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Saive Anne-Lise; Royet Jean-Pierre; Garcia Samuel; Thévenet Marc; Plailly Jane. " What-Where-Which " Episodic Retrieval Requires Conscious Recollection and Is Promoted by Semantic Knowledge. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0143767; article XML SHA-256 b317945306b6e9c779771376eb4ca1ba3665c4ff5b23b0a1f57566d76bba0c6e. “" What-Where-Which " Episodic Retrieval Requires Conscious Recollection and Is Promoted by Semantic Knowledge” (10.1371/journal.pone.0143767).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143767). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## feeling of reality
<a id="feeling-of-reality"></a>

In this historical usage, the feeling of reality is the sense that events and one’s choices are genuinely being decided from moment to moment. It refers to the vivid, consequential quality of voluntary life, as opposed to feeling that everything is merely unfolding in a fixed, predetermined way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08c77bfff8b550088228ede3d247a72062fc9f94c9ea860d704eeb8af7c2e5b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## feeling tone
<a id="feeling-tone"></a>

Feeling tone is the emotional quality that accompanies an idea or mental image. It refers to the immediate psychological expression of instinct, linked to bodily changes through which instincts are shown.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d6962a31a6508a23c4ce4356ad680c80484d15733f17752d8bab7b5e14d5b72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Affect” (D000339).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000339). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## felbamate
<a id="felbamate"></a>

Felbamate is a drug with anticonvulsant and antiepileptic effects that reduces seizure activity by dampening excitatory signaling in the brain. Its exact action is not fully known, but it may block NMDA-related glycine activity and weakly affect GABA receptor binding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6780dfffbd02504deb93c18d5b977ec5dca03c45c3733a5642c3c6da09ab4e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Felbamate” (C47530).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Feldenkrais method
<a id="feldenkrais-method"></a>

The Feldenkrais method is a movement-based approach in which people are guided through conscious movements to increase awareness of the body, breathing, and self. It has been used to support balance, coordination, pain management, and mood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3c3a89d893bd5206ff519aaa890263a4e8bce72da504cc957e6ef7e6d28584b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cartier Megan; Cadimas Jhian; Sulkin David; Reilly Owen; Harries Joanna; Hill Jenny; Robson Lucas; Harris Sophie; Carr Catherine Elizabeth. Everyone Breathes: a mixed methods evaluation of a combined Feldenkrais and vocal improvisation group within an adult mental health Recovery College setting. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1735103; article XML SHA-256 3e2a1f114cbb3a9103303e9eef0b21ab138e02e65e6dcd13bf28005681e2103c. “Everyone Breathes: a mixed methods evaluation of a combined Feldenkrais and vocal improvisation group within an adult mental health Recovery College setting” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1735103).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1735103). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## felt need
<a id="felt-need"></a>

In this source, a felt need refers to a person’s subjective sense that they should do something in a social situation, especially the pressure to match other people’s behavior or responses. Here it means experiencing an internal push to conform even when others are clearly wrong.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae732d9fea700c1396d0ae8db36692eef3d3894e6679731e6c19d574e1e0935c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van den Bos Kees; Lind E. A.; Bommelé Jeroen; VandeVondele Sebastian D. J.. Reminders of behavioral disinhibition increase public conformity in the Asch paradigm and behavioral affiliation with ingroup members. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00837; article XML SHA-256 80130984c5ebb9282085bfc3cdbdb38a41a1cb6421f36b6fd10e5b56c179127d. “Reminders of behavioral disinhibition increase public conformity in the Asch paradigm and behavioral affiliation with ingroup members” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00837).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00837). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## felt sense
<a id="felt-sense"></a>

A felt sense is a bodily, experiential sense of something that can be noticed and attended to in somatic or therapeutic work. In this use, giving it compassionate attention allows the sensation to respond and change over time, sometimes moving toward a felt shift.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 971a46df82fff45d39d74ced01f77ce253af2bfeff3ca916ff435a5f650e5fc8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sanderovsky Naomi. Felt sense dynamics: a practice-based framework for tracking the arc of somatic emotional processing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873403; article XML SHA-256 b125643a09d0cc8c3596cc92b059f35ca3c1cda0f48f60fe81845dc2cec05285. “Felt sense dynamics: a practice-based framework for tracking the arc of somatic emotional processing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873403).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873403). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## female genital mutilation
<a id="female-genital-mutilation"></a>

Female genital mutilation is a harmful practice in which part or all of the external female genitalia is removed, or the female genital organs are otherwise injured, for non-medical reasons. It is often carried out from infancy through adolescence and is linked to serious immediate and long-term physical complications, as well as psychological problems such as depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress, and low self-esteem.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47c077a60824d7d6c90ea5238b34a8a3246468fa4dab82f67a056680c0ac13f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ofori Michael Arthur; Bekalo Daniel Biftu; Mensah David Kwamena; Jha Niharika. Female genital mutilation among children in Ethiopia: A time-to-event analysis of age at circumcision. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317966; article XML SHA-256 9da0cb2b17c44ea4191241b8334faa0c9af3574a72c2f159cbabbfe827266e7f. “Female genital mutilation among children in Ethiopia: A time-to-event analysis of age at circumcision” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317966).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317966). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## female orgasmic disorder
<a id="female-orgasmic-disorder"></a>

Female orgasmic disorder is a sexual dysfunction diagnosis in women. In this source, it is included among disorders marked by a significant problem in sexual response or pleasure that lasts at least 6 months and causes clinically significant distress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18575a51387bfaa41565835d47758ef80197389da1ef5c746a05751506d3c505

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lafortune David; Girard Marianne; Dussault Éliane; Philibert Mathieu; Hébert Martine; Boislard Marie-Aude; Goyette Mathieu; Godbout Natacha. Who seeks sex therapy? Sexual dysfunction prevalence and correlates, and help-seeking among clinical and community samples. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0282618; article XML SHA-256 eb61597e32f99f3fe8a463c35d846c3bc00704c60f38c285916ee344fb7b95af. “Who seeks sex therapy? Sexual dysfunction prevalence and correlates, and help-seeking among clinical and community samples” (10.1371/journal.pone.0282618).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282618). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## femininity
<a id="femininity"></a>

Femininity refers to social roles and patterns of behavior that are culturally associated with being female, apart from biological functions. It describes gender-linked expectations and expressions rather than biology itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bb2cad12ffdd52602481a1523f9b11a0126c063bd3b0ccaf61417dbda0d9e6d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Femininity” (D057227).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D057227). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## feminism
<a id="feminism"></a>

Feminism is the view that the sexes should have equal political, economic, and social standing, and it also refers to organized efforts to support women's rights and interests.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8337701f51c8c77d702e8b5357b787f16ea44b519af101d9dd735379cd58935

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Feminism” (D019513).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019513). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fenfluramine
<a id="fenfluramine"></a>

Fenfluramine is a centrally acting drug that appears to both block serotonin reuptake and trigger serotonin release through transport mechanisms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de0243cf83269f45b5375d456c7686d3af56bc5ee232b3a1316e5b7c193710da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Fenfluramine” (D005277).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005277). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fentanyl
<a id="fentanyl"></a>

Fentanyl is a very strong opioid pain-relieving drug that mainly acts on mu-opioid receptors. In mental health contexts, it is relevant because misuse can lead to habituation or addiction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e91d38ce90330ff438f265ebf387374103b8bc94112c7b28724548cb922d0661

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Fentanyl” (D005283).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005283). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Ferry–Porter law
<a id="ferryporter-law"></a>

Ferry–Porter law is the visual finding that temporal acuity, such as the ability to detect faster flicker, increases roughly logarithmically as light level rises. In plain terms, brighter illumination makes the visual system respond faster over a wide range of intensities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8061d79e1870edc421e96fb9db4592d861955b52b7c1df73b195f306dbb35f91

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rider Andrew T.; Henning G. Bruce; Stockman Andrew. Light adaptation controls visual sensitivity by adjusting the speed and gain of the response to light. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0220358; article XML SHA-256 2c5cd45966661feec553f4f30a056a5db59aacc284e8797528f8de5ec4d6bc1d. “Light adaptation controls visual sensitivity by adjusting the speed and gain of the response to light” (10.1371/journal.pone.0220358).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220358). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fertility
<a id="fertility"></a>

Fertility is the capacity to produce a relatively large number of offspring through sexual reproduction. In this historical usage, it can refer either to the number of fertilized germ cells produced or, more meaningfully for population survival, to the number of offspring that live long enough to become reproductively mature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 469b2fd1819d14a06693025801a7c2111150921aef85c614dff48b4977102b70

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fertility” (Fertility).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fertility). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fertilization
<a id="fertilization"></a>

Fertilization is the process in sexual reproduction in which two reproductive cells unite, typically the ovum and the spermatozoon in animals. In plants, it refers to the transfer of pollen to the stigma; in this historical source, the process is discussed in relation to cell theory and ideas about development and heredity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4145d52cdf419e3bd3dca65bd3242f2e99a29f0391d181b04323280fd1bc211

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fertilization” (Fertilization).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fertilization). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FES
<a id="fes"></a>

FES refers to the Falls Efficacy Scale, a standardized 10-item questionnaire that measures fear of falling and a person’s sense of balance and stability during everyday activities. It is used with older adults and people with multiple sclerosis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 594dea0f4f3aa22d8145380b5e93056092ca8bc6b3ffbe09d710113b3a17b057

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Falls Efficacy Scale Questionnaire” (C193325).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## festinating gait
<a id="festinating-gait"></a>

Festinating gait is a historical term for the unsteady gait noted as a characteristic feature of paralysis agitans. In the same passage, “festination” also refers to a hurried running together of movements, as in speech.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad45a91e53283fe31edaacb586e0f648b4c461514371df763994c7e0e85257db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3433500-3445500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fetal activity
<a id="fetal-activity"></a>

Fetal activity is movement shown by the fetus before birth. In the source, it is used as one of the main observable patterns before 32 weeks of gestation, contrasted with quiescence, and later considered together with heart rate variability to help identify fetal behavioral states.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a1078bb7a2875eb520ac0f98be367a551f28abd281c4a310e738737cdeb8a461

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brändle Johanna; Preissl Hubert; Draganova Rossitza; Ortiz Erick; Kagan Karl O.; Abele Harald; Brucker Sara Y.; Kiefer-Schmidt Isabelle. Heart rate variability parameters and fetal movement complement fetal behavioral states detection via magnetography to monitor neurovegetative development. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00147; article XML SHA-256 f2c5a45b7d9269436cb2341270ebf36b93bdea346c5cf36d7f3814e5004ed1d2. “Heart rate variability parameters and fetal movement complement fetal behavioral states detection via magnetography to monitor neurovegetative development” (10.3389/fnhum.2015.00147).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00147). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fetal age
<a id="fetal-age"></a>

Fetal age is the developmental age of a fetus during gestation. In this context, it is estimated from physical measurements and visible developmental features such as body weight, crown-rump length, coat development, placentome size, and tooth eruption.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 185a6974aac621951a5ddc3da1c5a9d687717be2d0b6b166122b6f89c8baab94

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Krog Camilla Hessel; Agerholm Jørgen Steen; Nielsen Søren Saxmose. Fetal age assessment for Holstein cattle. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0207682; article XML SHA-256 327b358ffeda895cce280a999969e9f4eade8650fea8479ea3a51fbc9028979b. “Fetal age assessment for Holstein cattle” (10.1371/journal.pone.0207682).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207682). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fetal alcohol syndrome
<a id="fetal-alcohol-syndrome"></a>

Fetal alcohol syndrome is a disorder in a baby or child caused by alcohol exposure during pregnancy. It can involve low birth weight, unusual facial features, small head size, poor growth, developmental and organ problems, intellectual difficulties, poor motor coordination, and behavior problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c0b39b77cc3644ad956cc39acfdb286fe7c2e2abd23f71798162f9bbc726f79

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fetal Alcohol Syndrome” (C84713).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fetal distress
<a id="fetal-distress"></a>

Fetal distress is a term used when signs during labor suggest the fetus may not be getting enough oxygen. In the packet, it refers to a diagnosis often based on interpreting cardiotocograph patterns, sometimes with added technologies to confirm suspected fetal hypoxia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99e983b5665627e2dcf3842d2b49e8e752e51e9ca86cd1f8f7f7ecc28d0bb77e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lukhele Sanele; Mulaudzi Fhumulani Mavis; Gundo Rodwell. Factors contributing to visual intrapartum cardiotocograph interpretation variation among healthcare professionals: An integrative review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315761; article XML SHA-256 1e343c76437c04f6ee5521881a5c6c0542e0d6b33255b9fa3ee4c5db3fad0ff0. “Factors contributing to visual intrapartum cardiotocograph interpretation variation among healthcare professionals: An integrative review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315761).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315761). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fetal monitoring
<a id="fetal-monitoring"></a>

Fetal monitoring is the use of measures during labour to assess the fetus and help predict signs of fetal distress. In this source, it refers especially to evaluating the ST segment of the fetal electrocardiogram, although this approach is described as prone to false alarms and reliant on cardiotocogram assessment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a7b9aafcddd253f7e6c916615f69e24b06bbfa067ab2bb9d9a9a498db7a7c090

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vullings Rik; Verdurmen Kim M J; Hulsenboom Alexandra D J; Scheffer Stephanie; de Lau Hinke; Kwee Anneke; Wijn Pieter F F; Amer-Wåhlin Isis; van Laar Judith O E H; Oei S Guid. The electrical heart axis and ST events in fetal monitoring: A post-hoc analysis following a multicentre randomised controlled trial. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0175823; article XML SHA-256 c114a2f376e11ecf668e7d0300081f59560b79a992bf951942b24b3c8b338ae2. “The electrical heart axis and ST events in fetal monitoring: A post-hoc analysis following a multicentre randomised controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0175823).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175823). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fetal programming
<a id="fetal-programming"></a>

Fetal programming is the idea that harmful conditions or stress in the womb during embryo or fetal development can cause lasting changes in how the body functions. These long-term changes may increase the risk of metabolic problems as the offspring ages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b51b00142cac2ee1e386e5f3256af6b99b9371b679fc1b720567efbf6fc08354

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Davidson Caitlund Q.; Tharmalingam Sujeenthar; Niccoli Sarah; Nemec-Bakk Ashley; Khurana Sandhya; Murray Alyssa; Tai T. C.; Boreham Douglas R.; Khaper Neelam; Lees Simon J.. Dose threshold for radiation induced fetal programming in a mouse model at 4 months of age: Hepatic expression of genes and proteins involved in glucose metabolism and glucose uptake in brown adipose tissue. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0231650; article XML SHA-256 27b554b0307f6904defaf412d26b33efb8a6ce52ae07f9c263f15a3345e5301d. “Dose threshold for radiation induced fetal programming in a mouse model at 4 months of age: Hepatic expression of genes and proteins involved in glucose metabolism and glucose uptake in brown adipose tissue” (10.1371/journal.pone.0231650).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231650). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fetal–maternal exchange
<a id="fetalmaternal-exchange"></a>

Fetal–maternal exchange is the placenta’s transfer system between fetus and mother during pregnancy. It includes the movement of nutrients and oxygen to the fetus and the removal of waste, and it depends on proper placental attachment, vascular development, and blood exchange at the maternal-fetal interface.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 77e3bc0728ff83081305a07247d6b57bc2bbb1984ef60d69f0eaee5502f090cf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Lianlian; Tang Lin; Chen Shuai; Zheng Lianwen; Ma Xiaoyan. Decoding the molecular pathways governing trophoblast migration and placental development; a literature review. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fendo.2024.1486608; article XML SHA-256 6dc209683de3aa2b85f1d1f8930a3aa42ee6e132bc7d72b8da7b03432cbb348d. “Decoding the molecular pathways governing trophoblast migration and placental development; a literature review” (10.3389/fendo.2024.1486608).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2024.1486608). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fetish
<a id="fetish"></a>

In psychology, a fetish refers to a pattern in which recurrent sexual urges, fantasies, or behaviors focus on a nonliving object, such as an item of clothing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7ef544833486ea71993ce493e567c879f5cb764374eeb1d0e580f5fe11bce8fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fetishism” (C94353).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fetishism
<a id="fetishism"></a>

Fetishism is a disorder in which a person repeatedly has sexual urges, fantasies, or behaviors centered on nonliving objects, such as items of clothing. The object serves as the focus of the sexual interest.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ce1c21ce415cca832b95dc5397dbd4f6db6e8e3addb880d95e0f4bb642c622b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fetishism” (C94353).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fetus
<a id="fetus"></a>

A fetus is the developing unborn offspring during gestation. In this attachment-focused account, the fetus is understood as part of an asymmetric mother–fetus dyad, already beginning to form expectations from early interactions before birth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6dff9a6ea1570ef703d5baa2bc654db202593ca5102bf42897e61234b6231f8f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Santaguida Erica; Pagnoni Giuseppe; Bergamasco Massimo. The fetus/infant - mother as a co-evolving dyadic system and the development of attachment styles: an active inference perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1836911; article XML SHA-256 2e47d6c7ac7db3a251a4662b47756c98f1de57a749b28ae59d125ee0daab2bcb. “The fetus/infant - mother as a co-evolving dyadic system and the development of attachment styles: an active inference perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1836911).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1836911). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FFM
<a id="ffm"></a>

FFM stands for the Fitness-Fatigue Model, a mathematical approach for using training data to predict exercise effects. It is used mainly in sports to support personalized evaluation and adjustment of training load based on an individual’s longitudinal data, although evidence for wider use in the general population is still limited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ec2b60299eafe9ff96f6e21111c679fbbc8846fceb733e640c18a3c061fcd4b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Wenxing; Zhao Yuanhui; Hou Xiao; Yu Wenlang; Ren Hong. Advancing training effectiveness prediction in mass sport through longitudinal data: A mathematical model approach based on the Fitness-Fatigue Model. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337824; article XML SHA-256 e4992f7cecb791f647c4ce5323dd2aa2d06c797d71b6caea913acad4df35af2f. “Advancing training effectiveness prediction in mass sport through longitudinal data: A mathematical model approach based on the Fitness-Fatigue Model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337824).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337824). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FGM
<a id="fgm"></a>

FGM stands for female genital mutilation, a practice that remains common in some settings even where it is illegal. In the supplied source, it is described as being sustained by gender and social norms, with changing patterns such as medicalization and shifts in the age at which cutting occurs, and as a violation of human rights.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aaaf52c3b38b4d9dde3f981c400cfd532122eeeca2e8abaa99a849582e5db31b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Adam Jovinary; Jebet Joyce. Female genital mutilation and its effects among women of reproductive age in Kenya: Insights from Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2022. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337399; article XML SHA-256 965b674a142a90ee59261b37856f0e780197034dc966624d6f49b53e27d44cf4. “Female genital mutilation and its effects among women of reproductive age in Kenya: Insights from Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2022” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337399).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337399). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fibromyalgia
<a id="fibromyalgia"></a>

Fibromyalgia is a common rheumatic condition affecting tissues outside the joints, marked by widespread muscle pain and multiple tender spots in the muscles. The pain often worsens with inactivity or cold and is often accompanied by sleep problems, fatigue, stiffness, headaches, and sometimes depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d2bb6c9a6c210f69adbc81496a14e346f377d22ce4ef068ce642f24cf8fe97f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Fibromyalgia” (D005356).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005356). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fiction
<a id="fiction"></a>

In this psychology context, fiction refers to imagined narrative material that includes elements of everyday reality. Interacting with fiction can shape how people see themselves and their traits, including identifying with fictional groups or characters.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c2cbf8c6e822f85471f01ce701e4d9d7d26ce418b6b32af64ed677026c6fe8e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baran Lidia; Flakus Maria; Stefanek Franciszek. Harry Potter and personality assessment: The utility of the Sorting Hat Quiz in personality traits’ assessment. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336123; article XML SHA-256 74f7267140ec422579d37724a4890cb044d4061167ad1a897f08fb848add6478. “Harry Potter and personality assessment: The utility of the Sorting Hat Quiz in personality traits’ assessment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336123).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336123). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fidelity
<a id="fidelity"></a>

In implementation science, fidelity is how closely an evidence-based practice is carried out according to the model’s intended standards and essential components. It is used as an indicator of how successfully a practice has been implemented.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ba804bbb78b2d79886292eff6ecbcd53c27831fb6525370fa8f198fe39a9137d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ruud Torleif; Benth Jūratė Šaltytė; Biringer Eva; Hartveit Miriam; Drivenes Karin; Heiervang Kristin; Høifødt Tordis S; Haaland Vegard Ø; Joa Inge; Johannessen Jan Olav; Johansen Karl Johan; Stensrud Bjørn; Haugom Espen Woldsengen; Clausen Hanne; Bond Gary R. A secondary exploratory study of associations between patient- and clinician-reported clinical outcomes and fidelity for four evidence-based psychosis treatments. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07566-w; article XML SHA-256 ee2c3b6047a2e21d2bfb954efad45242297df01fe9197ef4837bdcd4645602ab. “A secondary exploratory study of associations between patient- and clinician-reported clinical outcomes and fidelity for four evidence-based psychosis treatments” (10.1186/s12888-025-07566-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07566-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fidgetiness
<a id="fidgetiness"></a>

Fidgetiness is a state of restless, spontaneous movement, especially seen as activity spreading to more body parts. In this historical account, it is linked with fatigue and understood as a return to a more childish pattern of uncontrolled movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36881664da48ade2b555dd7ac38ca95ffbf12885d8eb745d236a5c2ef4d2a76b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-567000-579000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## field experiment
<a id="field-experiment"></a>

A field experiment is an experiment carried out in a real-world setting rather than a laboratory, such as workplace training conducted within actual companies. In the example provided, participants in matched groups were randomly assigned to different training conditions under normal organizational conditions to test their effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 65dca873466bdb87fb710608101db64bf9c1522a17246b0faa4727c14b3e1ac5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Cuilian; Cao Yaxu; Shen Quanyu; Kang Shaohua; Yang Yanan; Chang Pengcheng; Fan Mengmeng. AI-driven adaptive training for utility employees: a three-wave cluster-randomized field experiment on cognitive-load and personalization-fit pathways. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1944626; article XML SHA-256 250e48cda6b7ae5bdd48c7cdb99d3ed7e5bc5be97686a2e778bb415307ebfaa9. “AI-driven adaptive training for utility employees: a three-wave cluster-randomized field experiment on cognitive-load and personalization-fit pathways” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1944626).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1944626). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## field memory
<a id="field-memory"></a>

Field memory refers to visual working memory for information presented in one side of the visual field, such as the left or right field, and can be compared across those sides for differences in speed, accuracy, and brain activity during retention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc874cd0a0a35396de57756f1c99b930fef92272666746a096b81f0ffe30144d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Ling; Zhang Jin-Xiang; Jiang Tao. Visual Working Memory Load-Related Changes in Neural Activity and Functional Connectivity. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0022357; article XML SHA-256 118348bc320f84166eeb96d296fdcae5769d6c44c65f517e07d1c96f9b0e5bf4. “Visual Working Memory Load-Related Changes in Neural Activity and Functional Connectivity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0022357).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022357). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## field notes
<a id="field-notes"></a>

In this qualitative research context, field notes are notes collected as a source of data alongside observations and semi-structured interviews. They are used to capture information from the research setting for qualitative analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 512b4bcd6a930ca4ef8971115f9334299db8903d13556b8df97c2c7ccb803856

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fu Muci. “Sing it, interpret it”: emotion-voice balance in character-construction for musical theater singers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838236; article XML SHA-256 5c8b277483749c5816958672460523c78a4bbc9daaf0d3360fd34f0393491e0a. ““Sing it, interpret it”: emotion-voice balance in character-construction for musical theater singers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838236).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838236). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## field of consciousness
<a id="field-of-consciousness"></a>

Field of consciousness is the whole contents of awareness present at one moment, understood as if spread out like a visual field. In this historical usage, attention is treated as focusing on one part of that field, and the field may become broader or narrower depending on the person and on conditions such as attention, health, or disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5614be5a02e9d87b5566bfab9a1c967dabf5fbf32bda344808b41970361794e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Field of Consciousness” (Field).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Field). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## field of regard
<a id="field-of-regard"></a>

Field of regard is the area that the eye’s gaze can cover when the eye moves from one point to another. For distant objects, it is the range reached by shifting gaze, contrasted with the broader field of vision tied to the retina itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed242ea29ae9e4c9a7ea2fd5bc0afa2e0607519e325838ab17e06f2783562980

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Field of Regard” (Fieldr).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fieldr). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## field research
<a id="field-research"></a>

Field research is research carried out in real-world community or local settings rather than only from a distance, often requiring direct contact with people and work in the places where they live. In this context, it involves practical and ethical demands such as reaching remote locations, obtaining informed consent, and building respectful dialogue with communities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 07d4547a219b8c435de6cefb26006e9dfb1285ea6f48f0d2a8e9a170b94c0e55

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Diniz Renata Caldeira; Malacarne Jocieli; Silva Cássia Ronise Senra; de Lima Marcia Cristina Senra Marinho; de Moraes Natalia Pacheco; dos Santos Thais Regina Araújo; Daher André Bastos; Silva Júlio Castro Alves de Lima e; Gram Karla Regina da Silva. Challenges and opportunities in clinical field research: A Bourdieusian analysis of Fiocruz’s experience in Brazil. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359217; article XML SHA-256 51b405b4be69edcbeaca5c1bedcb010740e9399848ad13cdd466e366d7c80a1b. “Challenges and opportunities in clinical field research: A Bourdieusian analysis of Fiocruz’s experience in Brazil” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359217).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359217). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fifth cranial nerve
<a id="fifth-cranial-nerve"></a>

The fifth cranial nerve, also called the trigeminal nerve, is the largest cranial nerve and has both sensory and motor functions. Its sensory branches carry information from the face, mouth, and teeth, and its motor branch controls the muscles used for chewing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c0973b1be0565fb9cd56bf2e11d557e695ea79f2b33153ec77227720a9ecc40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Trigeminal Nerve” (D014276).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014276). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## figural fluency test
<a id="figural-fluency-test"></a>

A figural fluency test is a measure of nonverbal fluency that evaluates how many different designs a person can produce. Performance can be described by the number of unique designs made and by perseverative errors, meaning repeated designs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4e5079e994c9b75c1012529032268b2275edbd8dc97239696891473aa064880

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Elderson Martin F; Pham Sander; van Eersel Marlise E A; LifeLines Cohort Study; Wolffenbuttel Bruce H R; Kok Johan; Gansevoort Ron T; Tucha Oliver; van der Klauw Melanie M; Slaets Joris P J; Izaks Gerbrand J. Agreement between Computerized and Human Assessment of Performance on the Ruff Figural Fluency Test. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0163286; article XML SHA-256 e94a935f2e9145d1dde5cf8daf27d834954dcbb76966baa92e8a9c401b10cdb6. “Agreement between Computerized and Human Assessment of Performance on the Ruff Figural Fluency Test” (10.1371/journal.pone.0163286).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163286). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## figurative language
<a id="figurative-language"></a>

Figurative language is the use of a word or phrase in a meaning different from its usual one, especially when a vivid sensory image is used to express an abstract idea or relation. In this historical source, its aesthetic effect comes from the feeling stirred by the image, the associations it brings, and the perceived analogy linking unlike things.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f68e64a8dbc415c6e3fa391cc3f30c1cec4f11feabe531b8e550f97d912f7f9f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Figure (and Figurative)” (Figure).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Figure). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## figure
<a id="figure"></a>

In cognition, a figure is the foreground object that the visual system picks out from its background and to which it assigns borders. It is the part of a scene perceived as standing out against the ground.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c02d2058c984ea72304511cf4e5189201866a337a2ae80c0702748a4dfd40e4f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yip Chakkai; Moroze Ezekiel; Nishina Shigeaki; Yazdanbakhsh Arash. Approaching human visual perception through AI-based representation of figure-ground segregation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768533; article XML SHA-256 1588ad5c370f084503413f02e9c2ffddf23d0d6eaa2481b2689be1c24da40334. “Approaching human visual perception through AI-based representation of figure-ground segregation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768533).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768533). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## figure–ground
<a id="figureground"></a>

Figure–ground refers to how visual perception separates a scene into a foreground object and its background, including deciding which borders belong to the object in front.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b4d9c84ffad76588c46cdb28eeb4722c87069ecef122cf3ef0f7d9e87bdebb6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yip Chakkai; Moroze Ezekiel; Nishina Shigeaki; Yazdanbakhsh Arash. Approaching human visual perception through AI-based representation of figure-ground segregation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768533; article XML SHA-256 1588ad5c370f084503413f02e9c2ffddf23d0d6eaa2481b2689be1c24da40334. “Approaching human visual perception through AI-based representation of figure-ground segregation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768533).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768533). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## file-drawer problem
<a id="file-drawer-problem"></a>

The file-drawer problem is the tendency for studies or evaluations with little, no, or negative findings to remain unpublished or kept for internal use. This leaves the visible evidence biased toward apparent successes and limits understanding of when interventions or campaigns succeed or fail.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 41c6e5b4ddff7a819f020a7307ea9678c84a17ff1da81280bd191cf4295512d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kite James; Thomas Margaret; Bellew Bill; Bauman Adrian; Grunseit Anne. Mass media campaigns and the ‘file drawer problem’: A mixed methods study of how to avoid campaign failure. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0294372; article XML SHA-256 181b6547b698197a14c678010e0ba6b634d761c8e3eb88567cb61a4f3031d84b. “Mass media campaigns and the ‘file drawer problem’: A mixed methods study of how to avoid campaign failure” (10.1371/journal.pone.0294372).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294372). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## filial responsibility
<a id="filial-responsibility"></a>

Filial responsibility is the social and cultural expectation that adult children should care for and support their aging parents. It is reflected in their attitudes and actions toward helping and caregiving within the parent-child relationship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a75c5415ccff3fb21b9300dc4e61905726ee09f8620ce25690a34d4df7995b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ma Jiebing; Du Yizhan; Li Chengchieh; Lin Guoyao. The impact of family communication patterns on filial responsibilities among college students: a chain mediation model of perceived social support and gratitude. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1708482; article XML SHA-256 c354515420f97f8bda6794b0d36f0e540389cdf2f1246589a084d4e7e51ff7b6. “The impact of family communication patterns on filial responsibilities among college students: a chain mediation model of perceived social support and gratitude” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1708482).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1708482). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## film color
<a id="film-color"></a>

Film color is the use of color as a cinematic element in movies. In film cognition, it is studied as one of the features that can shape viewers’ perception and interpretation of what they see.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a66eb1120b557b6b5945a1aea49fbae2076770e94a5449164503c5450c95cb72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cao Zhengcao; Wang Yashu; Wu Liangyu; Xie Yapei; Shi Zhichen; Zhong Yiren; Wang Yiwen. Reexamining the Kuleshov effect: Behavioral and neural evidence from authentic film experiments. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308295; article XML SHA-256 6863c5ce2dfec72d3e72ec43eecc40c87df015f997a8af9db2a44fc557a9a28b. “Reexamining the Kuleshov effect: Behavioral and neural evidence from authentic film experiments” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308295).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308295). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## filtered speech
<a id="filtered-speech"></a>

Filtered speech is speech that has been acoustically altered by applying filtering, such as temporal filtering, so that some speech cues are degraded. In research and assessment contexts, it is used to test how well people recognize speech when the signal is less clear, often alongside noise or other listening challenges.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d4aca1581c0e43f6efb6f26a6e7cd7cddab464b3405557a36307c0f14928ab3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fogerty Daniel; Dubno Judy R. Auditory and cognitive contributions to recognition of degraded speech in noise: Individual differences among older adults. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331487; article XML SHA-256 0b985dc14d6f3212f4f6a914f235bf9e265ad2eb64393e985b33bf62c435ce85. “Auditory and cognitive contributions to recognition of degraded speech in noise: Individual differences among older adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331487).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331487). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FIM
<a id="fim"></a>

FIM stands for the Family Investment Model, a developmental framework proposing that household income affects children’s outcomes through the resources families invest in them. In this packet, it refers especially to material investments such as spending on education, and also considers relational investments such as parent–child communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c31cc7ce95ac8c100946712836bf7cd37b4be9577c49dc853b4123d43c0ca501

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kang Ran. Household income and academic performance in Korean adolescents: A longitudinal test of dual investment pathways. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353476; article XML SHA-256 304a4f851648632c5c465a07d3e716d620fab088efcf1240e6be55a86daf8822. “Household income and academic performance in Korean adolescents: A longitudinal test of dual investment pathways” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353476).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353476). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## final common path
<a id="final-common-path"></a>

In this context, the final common path is the shared downstream part of brain reward circuitry where different neural routes converge to support evaluating rewards and pursuing them. The article describes dopamine neurons and non-dopaminergic medial forebrain bundle pathways as parallel inputs that ultimately meet in this common reward-seeking pathway.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7ae959619fca5182e170b14573765df9de972f2f7c684660b2dbfc6710698240

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Trujillo-Pisanty Ivan; Conover Kent; Solis Pavel; Palacios Daniel; Shizgal Peter. Dopamine neurons do not constitute an obligatory stage in the final common path for the evaluation and pursuit of brain stimulation reward. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0226722; article XML SHA-256 1da80e29796f3bccd204c86b70c96f42f8378a828ac463346704bd5be576fdc1. “Dopamine neurons do not constitute an obligatory stage in the final common path for the evaluation and pursuit of brain stimulation reward” (10.1371/journal.pone.0226722).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226722). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Financial Stress
<a id="financial-stress"></a>

Financial stress is stress that comes from worries or problems related to a person’s finances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02f4fb1e2b3f935a18e97885d608077f1a64d8ddbf66bd514439ea7347fc9753

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Financial Stress” (D000086522).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000086522). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fine motor
<a id="fine-motor"></a>

In this context, fine motor refers to finger-related sensorimotor skill: the ability to use and control finger movements in a precise way. The source describes fine motor skills as one of the finger abilities linked with the development of numerical skills in children.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 87546cfd5404fe8fb3cfe4143124b19f56e9ece6be56bc6f9eb2d490c8c9598b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barrocas Roberta; Roesch Stephanie; Gawrilow Caterina; Moeller Korbinian. Putting a Finger on Numerical Development – Reviewing the Contributions of Kindergarten Finger Gnosis and Fine Motor Skills to Numerical Abilities. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01012; article XML SHA-256 15aee69b7a4324d5377862f43f04d4f2f9c3d601ee27614b0a788e6f7e2f5b91. “Putting a Finger on Numerical Development – Reviewing the Contributions of Kindergarten Finger Gnosis and Fine Motor Skills to Numerical Abilities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01012).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01012). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fine tremor
<a id="fine-tremor"></a>

Fine tremor is a tremor made up of small, rapid oscillating movements. In this historical source, it is described as the usual form of tremor seen in some hysterical states, though it may resemble other kinds of tremor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc3f7f0dc739a5e9681e8bd9a8dfc11c6ae94cac3ae308428ec010166c9469a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3664500-3676500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## finite-state grammar
<a id="finite-state-grammar"></a>

A finite-state grammar is a rule system used in artificial grammar learning to generate example sequences that people can study and later judge as grammatical or not. In this context, such grammars can differ in complexity, with simpler ones generally being learned more easily than more complex ones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 153b23cf7f773905a6afab9050389a8dcf2bcbcabadd5f00aff73b689f707d54

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Van den Bos Esther; Poletiek Fenna H.. Learning simple and complex artificial grammars in the presence of a semantic reference field: effects on performance and awareness. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00158; article XML SHA-256 fcd632210de69fa2a595df354816daae1d212c64292f103d524e4b6627a3f72f. “Learning simple and complex artificial grammars in the presence of a semantic reference field: effects on performance and awareness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00158).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00158). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Firesetting Behavior
<a id="firesetting-behavior"></a>

Firesetting behavior is a compulsive urge to set fires.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6807435c35c623c0999c0fd284c94524f006149b214443c4587e69f5d6228d50

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Firesetting Behavior” (D005391).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005391). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## first cranial nerve
<a id="first-cranial-nerve"></a>

The first cranial nerve is the olfactory nerve, which carries the sense of smell. It is made up of axons from olfactory receptor neurons that run from the nasal olfactory epithelium to the olfactory bulb.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b33af601822a19d05f3a0944d33e689c2a18f6ef9ef1bd495d213ce7a74e803

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Olfactory Nerve” (D009832).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009832). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## first impression
<a id="first-impression"></a>

In this historical source, a first impression is the initial mental impact of something received, which can serve as the starting point from which a suggestion develops further in the mind. It is presented as the germ or seed of a later idea.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3bbc6f5f05e26f0cd65a0c1d8ca64cefb33051d5c8979182a2383f5458cadd8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-2803500-2815500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## first-line medication
<a id="first-line-medication"></a>

A first-line medication is the medicine typically chosen first for a particular condition. In the packet, methylphenidate is identified as the first medication used for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4b2f0ea4750e312db808fc0b2469871632ea547c0e24963082fe3cc2a92433d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cao Minxin; Song Tao; Hou Xiaoli; Yu Xiaohui. Effect of methylphenidate on physical growth indicators in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1794403; article XML SHA-256 e0deb14026f2c504b1a64e57d72026fde9047de6fb74550a6d632d008c52f65b. “Effect of methylphenidate on physical growth indicators in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1794403).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1794403). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## first-rank symptoms
<a id="first-rank-symptoms"></a>

First-rank symptoms are experiences described by Kurt Schneider as occurring in many people with schizophrenia, in which thoughts, actions, or perceptions feel controlled or produced by an outside force rather than by oneself. Examples mentioned in the source include thought insertion, thought broadcasting or withdrawal, delusional perception, and "made" impulses or voluntary acts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4cf677b1867b0f62d216fdd77ab913235c46973a5d8ac0a1582c6c7dc4576e01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hirjak Dusan; Breyer Thiemo; Thomann Philipp Arthur; Fuchs Thomas. Disturbance of Intentionality: A Phenomenological Study of Body-Affecting First-Rank Symptoms in Schizophrenia. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0073662; article XML SHA-256 36e0767b49c42b8a6d9f3870f209a1a1cb023298b87f7fa26e0824d27e5f4a42. “Disturbance of Intentionality: A Phenomenological Study of Body-Affecting First-Rank Symptoms in Schizophrenia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0073662).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073662). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fission
<a id="fission"></a>

Historically, fission means a form of asexual reproduction in which one parent organism splits into two parts, sometimes unequal, and each part develops into a complete organism like the original. In multicellular organisms’ cellular elements, the daughter cells may not fully separate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aad8936932be472db6c79f77b053337f26e62f8faf61dd331a915f71d392738a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fission” (Fission).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fission). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fissure of Rolando
<a id="fissure-of-rolando"></a>

The fissure of Rolando, also called the central sulcus, is a prominent groove on the outer surface of each cerebral hemisphere. It separates the primary motor cortex from the primary somatosensory cortex and marks the boundary between the frontal and parietal lobes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99615b76a1454dacf8ed7bd77f8fdab3002ba0ff5dd10cf3704aac9c8ebf667a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fissure of Rolando” (C32280).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fissure of Sylvius
<a id="fissure-of-sylvius"></a>

The fissure of Sylvius, or lateral cerebral sulcus, is the brain’s deepest and most prominent groove on its outer side. It runs backward and slightly upward from the anterior perforated substance and separates the frontal and parietal lobes from the temporal lobe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43ca8a408e20d2fb0ee92a9f242e43c132f188b86fdb94a8c1a27812b72bdf03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fissure of Sylvius” (C32615).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fit
<a id="fit"></a>

A fit is a common term for a sudden attack or spell, especially one involving convulsions. In historical usage, it was applied particularly to attacks associated with epilepsy, paralysis, or apoplexy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c56f84bd8c5137ed14e2fb8f8c9fa9d9cfbd64e533426df45b4a7e234d8a1623

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fit” (Fit).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fit). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fit index
<a id="fit-index"></a>

A fit index is a numerical measure used to judge how well a statistical or structural model matches the observed data. In psychometric assessment, several fit indices may be examined together to evaluate the adequacy of a model.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c84c39b8353aacd30e1bb418d37824b861b1792d7bcf9ddae5f4edf4138bb28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Méndez-Hinojosa Luz Marina; Gil-Madrona Pedro; Zamorano-García David; Simón-Piqueras Juan Ángel; Padierna-Cardona Juan Carlos; Flores-Ferro Elizabeth; González-Villalobos Martín Francisco; Pavlovic Ratko; Maureira-Cid Fernando; Gómez-Santos Natalia; Morales-Calvo Sonia; Cárdenas-Rodríguez Magaly. Adaptation of the SAGEFS scale on attitudes toward gender equality in football in the international school context. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1265021; article XML SHA-256 8d1abeac1a84b762371e4e4c2a70cbbb2b89ae94f73c5a9702eacf727ea655af. “Adaptation of the SAGEFS scale on attitudes toward gender equality in football in the international school context” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1265021).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1265021). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fixation
<a id="fixation"></a>

In eye-tracking, fixation is a period when the eyes stay directed at a particular location so visual information can be selected and processed. It is commonly measured by where the gaze is held and for how long.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f124ebdffe13bc0d38b191f1c2fd68a08d89ded8d766b394e713bca05926fa87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yaoguang; Cui Wenlai. Cognitive decision-making in police use of force: a scoping review based on eye-tracking research. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1837475; article XML SHA-256 5caf1fc7e3a968f4a442a8148cf27b994a33fe7e5ac1c46b9cf54a7a37cf0dd5. “Cognitive decision-making in police use of force: a scoping review based on eye-tracking research” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1837475).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1837475). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fixed factor
<a id="fixed-factor"></a>

In this packet, a fixed factor is the grouping variable entered into an analysis of covariance; here, diagnosis was treated as that factor so brain measures could be compared between the schizophrenia and healthy control groups while accounting for education.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4944def04653ded6a1e4c6f454302818f7746104552a08401143e006b9931db9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chiapponi Chiara; Piras Fabrizio; Piras Federica; Fagioli Sabrina; Caltagirone Carlo; Spalletta Gianfranco. Cortical Grey Matter and Subcortical White Matter Brain Microstructural Changes in Schizophrenia Are Localised and Age Independent: A Case-Control Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0075115; article XML SHA-256 7e189bc942bd46d6a9d2d6f24126a6adbe5fe9163837f6201a7c9cb3d1be9bfe. “Cortical Grey Matter and Subcortical White Matter Brain Microstructural Changes in Schizophrenia Are Localised and Age Independent: A Case-Control Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0075115).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0075115). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fixed idea
<a id="fixed-idea"></a>

Historically, a fixed idea meant a persistent morbid or false belief that takes over a person’s reasoning and is treated as part of their insanity. The term was also used for what was called an imperative idea.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5662284da8a06baef7665d418674cce7d2ecdcd3bfa9fd93607167ae88036bcf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fixed Idea” (Fixedi).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fixedi). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fixed-interval schedule
<a id="fixed-interval-schedule"></a>

A fixed-interval schedule is a learning arrangement in which reward delivery depends on a set amount of time passing before reinforcement is available. It is used to study temporal control, or how behavior is guided by timing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2fd49e7159486c0b37ac79047b5c6c71d0bf03bd776b1492253c30bcc36cc303

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Morris-Schaffer Keith; Merrill Alyssa K.; Wong Candace; Jew Katrina; Sobolewski Marissa; Cory-Slechta Deborah A.. Limited developmental neurotoxicity from neonatal inhalation exposure to diesel exhaust particles in C57BL/6 mice. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s12989-018-0287-8; article XML SHA-256 eac292c416ffe7152865e068453b906314487d2831d9a69a31f2de2466cd0376. “Limited developmental neurotoxicity from neonatal inhalation exposure to diesel exhaust particles in C57BL/6 mice” (10.1186/s12989-018-0287-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12989-018-0287-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fixed-time schedule
<a id="fixed-time-schedule"></a>

A fixed-time schedule is a feeding arrangement in which food is delivered at set times rather than being continuously available. In the described animal model, this timed food delivery is linked with reduced eating and increased wheel-running activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 979c6d996b0e1c091af84b26e1b25455144f5852c3817fd7020897d9c881a77e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Spadini Sara; Ferro Mattia; Lamanna Jacopo; Malgaroli Antonio. Activity-based anorexia animal model: a review of the main neurobiological findings. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s40337-021-00481-x; article XML SHA-256 5bd94715170aa7a8cd334fbee912b1e579ba499c7ce518e1cb309700554a524d. “Activity-based anorexia animal model: a review of the main neurobiological findings” (10.1186/s40337-021-00481-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-021-00481-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fixedness
<a id="fixedness"></a>

Fixedness is the belief that a characteristic is largely stable rather than changeable. In this source, it refers specifically to seeing leadership characteristics as set instead of malleable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b399455d803c2c648e7a4fe41b612584aa8040ced61d1af6be5ad88165956a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Ziyi; Haselhuhn Michael P.. Implicit theories of leadership malleability: How beliefs about the malleability of leadership characteristics predict employee voice. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351187; article XML SHA-256 df83ef6156b98b0a248684616f61b1340e2fd2951c3207b67dd982a8b164eb32. “Implicit theories of leadership malleability: How beliefs about the malleability of leadership characteristics predict employee voice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351187).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351187). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flagellation
<a id="flagellation"></a>

In this historical psychology source, flagellation means self-whipping or scourging practiced as part of outbreaks of religious excitement and collective mental disturbance. It is described as one feature of medieval epidemic movements such as those of the Flagellants.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d7ceacb85557d4731eee8cd9948d2ea6c53e31ee0c61c0243be1bc17dc00ec2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2530500-2542500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flashback
<a id="flashback"></a>

In mental health, a flashback is a dissociative experience in which a person feels or acts as though a traumatic event is happening again. It can involve reliving the event and may include altered perceptions such as illusions or hallucination-like experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11a8f7046c58fd2bc9e4995485fc4e4cf1907b953a049e2758d34a1ceb77102e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “CAPS DSM-5 With DSM IV Scoring 2016 Version - Feel as if Event Recurring Frequency” (C187537).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flashbulb memory
<a id="flashbulb-memory"></a>

Flashbulb memory is a type of autobiographical memory marked by vivid, long-lasting recall of the personal circumstances in which someone learned important news or experienced a public event. It includes rich self-related details and can help shape how people remember that event.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2665fddab24be347791a792633599c07312175315f166bdcdd0591ed90279397

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ma Xiaoyue; Wan Jing. Exploring the role of digital media dependency on the relationship between personal involvement and flashbulb memory during the pandemic: Empirical evidence from Mainland China. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.985287; article XML SHA-256 f7b1a8f3866dd76f76d9896fe6866e857586f1e5d2809a03f9dceb8b7169e2d5. “Exploring the role of digital media dependency on the relationship between personal involvement and flashbulb memory during the pandemic: Empirical evidence from Mainland China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.985287).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.985287). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flat affect
<a id="flat-affect"></a>

Flat affect refers to very limited facial expression and social withdrawal that may look like an enduring lack of emotion, especially in severe mental illness. The source emphasizes that this apparent flatness can vary with stress level, interpersonal context, culture, and medication, so it should not automatically be assumed to be a fixed trait.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0350a9cd11919ad86c34a19dcec3e49b87b116c325feb62ef9affc67bfde22da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Niederlohmann Eik. Reframing “flat affect” and withdrawal in severe mental illness: a within-subject, culture- and medication-sensitive heuristic for social psychiatry. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1717734; article XML SHA-256 c85a9873e7b20eede95bfb24f7b6e76b15481a0d527f4b1c3ba94e7739bc2337. “Reframing “flat affect” and withdrawal in severe mental illness: a within-subject, culture- and medication-sensitive heuristic for social psychiatry” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1717734).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1717734). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Flesch index
<a id="flesch-index"></a>

The Flesch index is a readability measure used to estimate how structurally difficult a text is by using word and sentence length. In this context, it classifies language complexity on a scale from hard to very simple.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8fd5259f5d045d4efd7493a59bac2ad6acee444e35e4cef6e66e319665006113

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Thiem Simon-Konstantin; Küppers Lucas; Aretz Benjamin; Bozorgmehr Arezoo; Karimzadeh Arian; Leupold Frauke; Weltermann Birgitta. Language complexity of patient-physician chat communication on hypertension control: results of the cluster-randomised PIA study. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12916-025-04006-0; article XML SHA-256 21589d9768045cc73262c46f3f81852f9672fec24d63030cd135b8073ea0a9b3. “Language complexity of patient-physician chat communication on hypertension control: results of the cluster-randomised PIA study” (10.1186/s12916-025-04006-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-025-04006-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Flexeril
<a id="flexeril"></a>

Flexeril is a centrally acting muscle relaxant identified here as cyclobenzaprine hydrochloride. It works mainly at the brain stem to reduce motor nerve activity and lessen muscle spasms, and it is chemically similar to amitriptyline hydrochloride with antidepressant activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80208d5c8653bdddea8112c699fe3eb9be06cbe9c22f57daee9ed9e3407e2377

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cyclobenzaprine Hydrochloride” (C47465).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flexibilitas cerea
<a id="flexibilitas-cerea"></a>

Flexibilitas cerea is a historical term for a catatonic sign in which, if a person’s resistance is slight or can be overcome, their limbs can be placed and left in unusual or uncomfortable positions. It refers to this waxy-seeming maintenance of an imposed posture.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9519c05ecc936a5998aa06fe2a2adbb61ae087d7f3181795c681622d8f3398bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Katatonia” (Katatonia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/K1defs.htm#Katatonia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flicker fusion frequency
<a id="flicker-fusion-frequency"></a>

Flicker fusion frequency, specifically critical flicker fusion frequency (CFF), is a measure used as an index of visual fatigue. In this context, a decrease in CFF indicates greater visual fatigue after visual viewing conditions such as 3D movie watching.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 33eb5c1c1bc9bcd59d3eb3b6e32da60eed1c488b82d27c764fe9701d6dc08167

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Akagi Ryota; Sato Hiroki; Hirayama Tatsuya; Hirata Kosuke; Kokubu Masahiro; Ando Soichi. Effects of three-dimension movie visual fatigue on cognitive performance and brain activity. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2022.974406; article XML SHA-256 b6182fd6514b043ab0e0a3a3a604f5ddefd0829606ad17afca262d9da2e14b13. “Effects of three-dimension movie visual fatigue on cognitive performance and brain activity” (10.3389/fnhum.2022.974406).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.974406). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flicker stimulus
<a id="flicker-stimulus"></a>

A flicker stimulus is a visual target that repeatedly flashes and is used to evoke steady-state visual responses for purposes such as brain-computer interface control. In the source, it refers to a flashing visual signal that a user looks toward or keeps in peripheral view so the system can extract control information from the brain response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86396a0874ecc724ec8a4685cc17b366dbbc161918108648050c3c74894a529f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Jingjing; Zhang Dan; Engel Andreas K; Gong Qin; Maye Alexander. Application of a single-flicker online SSVEP BCI for spatial navigation. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0178385; article XML SHA-256 958da62693ca9d6ae94d4ad0a7733159a1e2242314fc1df0e89b06bded9c53d3. “Application of a single-flicker online SSVEP BCI for spatial navigation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0178385).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178385). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flight
<a id="flight"></a>

In mental health, flight is the body’s fear-related tendency to escape or move away from possible danger as part of the fight-or-flight response. It is a natural reaction during or after a traumatic situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3d6bef5d28b2d3de60f6fe6490b1bc470d0efc0a62ded9be585e555093c431b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 26e67ff4f086c205fb75853bb73fb562d4a3adcbc6d53b78fdbc83f945b4f1ba. “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flocculonodular lobe
<a id="flocculonodular-lobe"></a>

The flocculonodular lobe is one of the three lobes of the cerebellum. In this source, it is represented by lobule X, a cerebellar region examined for Purkinje cell density.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db0d4a9464361d6c6591630385a8febc644cfe48a6a5532022ebf2bcb0853ba8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Skefos Jerry; Cummings Christopher; Enzer Katelyn; Holiday Jarrod; Weed Katrina; Levy Ezra; Yuce Tarik; Kemper Thomas; Bauman Margaret. Regional Alterations in Purkinje Cell Density in Patients with Autism. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0081255; article XML SHA-256 87545021176a390b99994496aeeb25a69c209ec5419354e5f7aa955318b36f18. “Regional Alterations in Purkinje Cell Density in Patients with Autism” (10.1371/journal.pone.0081255).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081255). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flooding
<a id="flooding"></a>

Flooding is the overflow of water in urban areas, often linked to extreme rainfall or rivers, that can damage infrastructure and disrupt how communities move people and goods. In a social context, it is described as a growing environmental stressor that threatens accessibility, economic activity, and community resilience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c3dc93d40e05ac92323e736c1a9cec53b00a61d9421d9dd2397a20d2f0451b92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Karagiorgos Konstantinos; Kavallaris Nikos I; Sönnerborn Ole; Maris Fotis; Spiliotis Konstantinos. Non-linear failure patterns in urban road networks exposed to flooding. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354204; article XML SHA-256 778ad9e2f31347e5da30a59115fae1103276925f019e9d7f09b108bfb0b216c5. “Non-linear failure patterns in urban road networks exposed to flooding” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354204).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354204). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flourishing
<a id="flourishing"></a>

Flourishing is a multidimensional state of psychological well-being marked by active positive functioning, not just the absence of mental health problems. It involves strengths across emotional, cognitive, social, and existential aspects of life and can develop in different ways across the lifespan.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d06b23040809e69d1c8821b152ab1e40f83fbdb1c040719aa56b2d4ed6e45c14

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meiping Wang; Akhter Shamim; Tan Mengqiu. Understanding psychological flourishing across the lifespan: an integrative review of theory and evidence. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815314; article XML SHA-256 d80804014e84ea41b9cd246a42974941e313167494333f4868bfb202716c7869. “Understanding psychological flourishing across the lifespan: an integrative review of theory and evidence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815314).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815314). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flow
<a id="flow"></a>

Flow is an optimal mental state in which a person becomes deeply absorbed in an activity, with intense focus, enjoyment, a sense of control, and less self-consciousness. It happens when someone is fully engaged in what they are doing, though it can be a fragile state that depends on how attention, action, and emotion are managed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4f0ea80e84e841b89d30969a051e56e78489ed014882b4abdf884bade325744

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Yaqing. Finding flow at the piano: psychological regulation and configurational profiles among art students at Chinese sport universities. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1886877; article XML SHA-256 afb44dc68ce872b2b481fcc763efc73c99da5e3e40464fc888a50ba9b59d875c. “Finding flow at the piano: psychological regulation and configurational profiles among art students at Chinese sport universities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1886877).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1886877). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flow pattern
<a id="flow-pattern"></a>

In this source, flow pattern means the way cerebrospinal fluid moves through the cervical subarachnoid space. It refers to variations in that movement that are linked to changes in the shape of the surrounding spinal structures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fadac60e68bee932a8bf168e53a346d7039fcba9635ca38bcd25076676685c82

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Leblond Lugdivine; Sudres Patrice; Evin Morgane. Cerebro-spinal flow pattern in the cervical subarachnoid space of healthy volunteers: Influence of the spinal cord morphology. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290927; article XML SHA-256 7c1a5b62015a3f7890466c5fcb56c6990d74a4ab0a609f5f2a62935a1ee2db50. “Cerebro-spinal flow pattern in the cervical subarachnoid space of healthy volunteers: Influence of the spinal cord morphology” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290927).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290927). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flowery
<a id="flowery"></a>

In this historical psychology passage, flowery describes tempting alternatives that seem more attractive or pleasing than the difficult course one chooses to stay on. It suggests ornamented, inviting ways in contrast with an arduous path.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea5d24641cc8e70d28da6834ab34e27de89f73b0e30463f352b6d382a290426c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fluctuating asymmetry
<a id="fluctuating-asymmetry"></a>

Fluctuating asymmetry is small left-right unevenness in a trait, such as the face, that can occur normally and non-pathologically even in healthy people. In psychology-related research, it has been used as a possible marker of developmental instability, but the packet indicates that this use is limited and that it is not a generally sensitive indicator of stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c27dcfd8d8adff10338e04d5193c2bf2ccc578653146dbbfa55cfc18368bd73f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Quinto-Sánchez Mirsha; Cintas Celia; Silva de Cerqueira Caio Cesar; Ramallo Virginia; Acuña-Alonzo Victor; Adhikari Kaustubh; Castillo Lucía; Gomez-Valdés Jorge; Everardo Paola; De Avila Francisco; Hünemeier Tábita; Jaramillo Claudia; Arias Williams; Fuentes Macarena; Gallo Carla; Poletti Giovani; Schuler-Faccini Lavinia; Bortolini Maria Cátira; Canizales-Quinteros Samuel; Rothhammer Francisco; Bedoya Gabriel; Rosique Javier; Ruiz-Linares Andrés; González-José Rolando. Socioeconomic Status Is Not Related with Facial Fluctuating Asymmetry: Evidence from Latin-American Populations. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0169287; article XML SHA-256 ba2a72e3c14ebbb57754d0af19be7e3f56900563a6362083223f577439e5ceb6. “Socioeconomic Status Is Not Related with Facial Fluctuating Asymmetry: Evidence from Latin-American Populations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0169287).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169287). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fluctuation
<a id="fluctuation"></a>

Fluctuation is the degree to which a measured behavior or performance pattern varies over time instead of staying steady. In this source, it refers to greater moment-to-moment variation in force output during a multi-finger task.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f9fd1e11696a2d7328ab46d31903c5379d3430bf56d92c1b5ef164f52fdf2e10

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Choi Yoon-Seok; Song Junkyung; Lee Jiseop. Altered regularity and stability of multi-finger force production in individuals with mild cognitive impairment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1873097; article XML SHA-256 8aae0ee1faa60d812a5a922adccead28babb88d25722006d448e63969d63b089. “Altered regularity and stability of multi-finger force production in individuals with mild cognitive impairment” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1873097).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1873097). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fluctuation of perception
<a id="fluctuation-of-perception"></a>

Fluctuation of perception is the spontaneous, irregular shifting of what a person perceives between different possible interpretations of the same ambiguous stimulus. It is described as a feature of perceptual bistability, where perception alternates over time rather than staying fixed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bec49c08c2e9dcd23d3e722a4a69ff2810f6320f4fa8fa147abf11d1363ec538

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Little David F.; Snyder Joel S.; Elhilali Mounya. Ensemble modeling of auditory streaming reveals potential sources of bistability across the perceptual hierarchy. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007746; article XML SHA-256 2304582bb3d15ae5bce8138ea352a0f4c07674ace80ef45de90416f41a6c8388. “Ensemble modeling of auditory streaming reveals potential sources of bistability across the perceptual hierarchy” (10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007746).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1007746). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fluent speech
<a id="fluent-speech"></a>

Fluent speech is continuous, natural spoken language rather than isolated speech sounds such as single vowels or syllables. In this context, it refers to the ongoing auditory and visible speech information produced by a talking person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9a0eecf1352bae7bacd7849f307dab163f9483002fae6a09c30de5dcfe6d4f1d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kubicek Claudia; Hillairet de Boisferon Anne; Dupierrix Eve; Pascalis Olivier; Lœvenbruck Hélène; Gervain Judit; Schwarzer Gudrun. Cross-Modal Matching of Audio-Visual German and French Fluent Speech in Infancy. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0089275; article XML SHA-256 c5dcbaf31c82b25880927631c7e6c75d82bec270e92f3913d7aa3edc02264d59. “Cross-Modal Matching of Audio-Visual German and French Fluent Speech in Infancy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0089275).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089275). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fluid intelligence
<a id="fluid-intelligence"></a>

Fluid intelligence is a form of intelligence that shows close links with working memory and attention processes. In this source, it is discussed as something that can be measured with intelligence tasks and examined for its relationship to visuo-spatial attention and memory capacity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aceef79e974e8a6e296172b67ec6be27137b197567941655b0a8891093b58ecd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cochrane Aaron; Simmering Vanessa; Green C. Shawn. Fluid intelligence is related to capacity in memory as well as attention: Evidence from middle childhood and adulthood. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0221353; article XML SHA-256 bdb42d2b9d682f86b26142fd0787f4fc8dbc02f941113a73a3e3b7ff1c88eab1. “Fluid intelligence is related to capacity in memory as well as attention: Evidence from middle childhood and adulthood” (10.1371/journal.pone.0221353).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221353). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flumazenil
<a id="flumazenil"></a>

Flumazenil is a strong blocker of benzodiazepine receptors. Because it can reverse the sedating and other effects of benzodiazepines, it has been proposed as an antidote in benzodiazepine overdose.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a24a36da75899a3a94f68db8af4dbd911ddef6989949c6dc593ac08140ab63cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Flumazenil” (D005442).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005442). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flunitrazepam
<a id="flunitrazepam"></a>

Flunitrazepam is a benzodiazepine with effects similar to diazepam that can interfere with learning by causing anterograde amnesia, meaning difficulty forming new memories after taking it. Reports also link it to drug-facilitated sexual assault and possible violent behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8bfd25599a6c1b58407c6d76b0ff5d22d15334e491c8e1f51140a7850b620d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Flunitrazepam” (D005445).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005445). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fluorescein angiography
<a id="fluorescein-angiography"></a>

Fluorescein angiography is a test that shows blood vessels after a fluorescein dye is injected into a vein. The resulting images are used especially to examine the blood vessels of the retina and uvea in the eye.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b5fed61a541df8368348d068caa4b8d90596c512630d1de8b5c1e58706135042

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Fluorescein Angiography” (D005451).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005451). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fluoxetine
<a id="fluoxetine"></a>

Fluoxetine is a medication that blocks serotonin reuptake in a highly specific way. It is used to treat depression and is often considered to have more tolerable side effects than older antidepressants.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 907237782e595ba8fcdfc1885cdfb7e2eee2b3435935b8c26df9d7a15fcc164d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Fluoxetine” (D005473).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005473). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fluphenazine
<a id="fluphenazine"></a>

Fluphenazine is an antipsychotic phenothiazine drug. It works by blocking dopamine D2 receptors in parts of the brain, which can lessen hallucinations and delusions linked with schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: db3914e5908db66c65564ce5595144bd6b9bd2d7a2cda96801deabf38f34a47b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fluphenazine” (C47536).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flurazepam
<a id="flurazepam"></a>

Flurazepam is a benzodiazepine drug that depresses central nervous system activity and has sedative and sleep-inducing effects. It works by enhancing the action of GABA-A receptors, which reduces neuronal excitability and helps suppress arousal in the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be284b6db8f0914daed79b9ac92835916b4dd7d6752cefefa12ffd32a537a0e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Flurazepam” (C62030).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## flutter
<a id="flutter"></a>

Flutter is a type of vibration stimulation studied in touch perception, used to examine how people detect and combine sensory signals across the skin. In this context, flutter perception can show both improved detection when more than one digit is stimulated and reduced responding when an additional masking vibration is present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: efe4399881dc91ffa1502693092be5c1e49c625fc221bd1f1b4a19372918670b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wei Shasha; Wade Alex R; Preston Catherine EJ; Baker Daniel H. Signal combination in flutter vibration perception. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350140; article XML SHA-256 d8ec8ace4ee8511646e5b8c43c65292689b79227ea213ed01314285a90e09f18. “Signal combination in flutter vibration perception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350140).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350140). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fluvoxamine
<a id="fluvoxamine"></a>

Fluvoxamine is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, a type of medication that affects serotonin. It is used to treat depression and several anxiety disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a3eb4766458adc98537bf82bfc3ba892357aec38d6757affdfe96e2f1a83474

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Fluvoxamine” (D016666).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016666). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FMEA
<a id="fmea"></a>

FMEA, or Failure Modes and Effects Analysis, is a risk assessment method used to identify possible failures and judge their impact. In the supplied source, it is described as a conventional approach that rates risk using occurrence, severity, and detectability, and serves as the basis for a more detailed variant called FMEA+.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a8a0d0f0a45034eccb9c7570178765dc6e602ca6b792338add2e49f2881e988d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Soltanzadeh Ahmad; Zarei Esmaeil; Mahdinia Mohsen; Hosseinzadeh Kiana; Sadeghi-Yarandi Mohsen. Introducing FMEA plus method for comprehensive safety risk assessment in the steel industry. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331748; article XML SHA-256 dc70764a7f019541871dab14c8d884644352a8f9a313411d6d5e896f496b26fc. “Introducing FMEA plus method for comprehensive safety risk assessment in the steel industry” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331748).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331748). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FMS
<a id="fms"></a>

FMS stands for fine motor skills: the small hand and finger movements used to grasp and manipulate objects with precise hand-eye coordination. In this context, it includes visual-motor integration and fine motor coordination, which are related but distinct abilities that develop along different paths.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09dde2d80044b54d76f287e9001a748813ad3a55d14bef0aceb5d413d0057a70

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Baifa; Lin Zhicheng; Li Chao. Fine motor skills assessment instruments for preschool children with typical development: a scoping review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1620235; article XML SHA-256 e07de07558e9125cec55d3ea44de4b362e303bc5b12ea1fd4fa1dd0683a1bb42. “Fine motor skills assessment instruments for preschool children with typical development: a scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1620235).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1620235). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## focal attention
<a id="focal-attention"></a>

Focal attention is a later, more concentrated mode of visual processing centered on the fovea that supports identifying objects and understanding their meaning. In eye-movement research, it is typically associated with longer fixations and shorter saccades than the broader, spatially orienting ambient mode.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6c7921651293dfbef5835186d5b3e7ae1ac889d77b87bd5bf5a0559d5ab59d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Yuxuan; Pannasch Sebastian; Helmert Jens R.; Kaszowska Aleksandra. Ambient and focal attention during complex problem-solving: preliminary evidence from real-world eye movement data. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1217106; article XML SHA-256 65235232314f01c03f3b9f8b57a391b32bca850afafc7f20ac22b17a8cae1679. “Ambient and focal attention during complex problem-solving: preliminary evidence from real-world eye movement data” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1217106).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1217106). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## focal length
<a id="focal-length"></a>

Focal length is the distance that characterizes a lens’s focusing action and determines its optical power. In this historical source, optical power is described as the reciprocal of focal length, so a shorter focal length means greater power.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e011d3fbf154a438a031b2d9c9e66a1aa6f9120c13e3949ddc0705c06f920caa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4378500-4390500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## focal seizure
<a id="focal-seizure"></a>

A focal seizure is a brief disturbance caused by abnormal electrical activity in one specific area of the brain. It can affect movement, sensation, autonomic functions, or mental experiences such as speech, mood, thought, deja vu, or hallucinations, and often happens without a major change in awareness or alertness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c4c44738476a83c7890aa300917af2c0b72966d01aec39233fe04d4adfc2b04

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Partial Seizure” (C50689).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## focus
<a id="focus"></a>

Focus is the area where attention or activity is most strongly concentrated, serving as a central point of emphasis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 330f7c729c8ff7da5ff63aac273cdbd754e6db7e804f88162e0ee811ee25a1fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Focus” (C25511).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## focus of attention
<a id="focus-of-attention"></a>

Focus of attention is the directing of awareness toward some parts of present experience while leaving out others. It involves noticing or concentrating on what is being attended to.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a40edfce21af999121aa706963b2616f3dfe5370591845ab070f5a307622a8d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Attention” (D001288).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001288). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## focusing
<a id="focusing"></a>

Focusing is directing attention to some parts of what a person is experiencing right now while leaving out others. It means noticing or concentrating on something in particular.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ed56d94aff3cfd937a552250020040abac05c2da7b9ea40062a7f1677893d51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Attention” (D001288).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001288). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## folie à deux
<a id="folie-a-deux"></a>

Folie à deux is a condition in which two or more closely connected people, often members of the same family, come to share the same delusional belief.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0af54bff6764ca6e55c24007bdda6d2547fb7551909a217f8f2a840a581aa18a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Shared Paranoid Disorder” (D012753).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012753). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## folium
<a id="folium"></a>

In this historical usage, folium means a leaf or a thin leaf-like plate. The entry points to brain terminology, indicating an anatomical or embryological use of the term.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8cb482cd8f328a6b3df00e218f827243e59f2468a646548a7165b248dbbd681

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Folium” (Folium).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Folium). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## folk psychology
<a id="folk-psychology"></a>

Folk psychology is the study of the mental life and mental products of races, nations, or similar social groups, especially among so-called primitive peoples. It overlaps with anthropology and folk-lore by focusing on things like myth, legend, religion, and other forms of collective thought, and it was historically contrasted with social psychology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64f638be4a906d1d4ae2fc7c1d1ed78a1172f77ef20b0805ee75e2c476ad5845

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Folk Psychology” (Folk).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Folk). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## folklore
<a id="folklore"></a>

Folklore is shared vernacular knowledge and expression in everyday culture, such as proverbs that carry social meanings across a community. In this packet, it is presented as a form of environmental and moral reasoning that preserves and communicates norms through ordinary images, objects, and sayings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 133858ca9144e51a518629ce95855adc6b66ee2732dcaf5bd66413b513a9a18f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alshhre Ali M.. Domestic ecologies of gender: Women, material life, and eco-folklore in Saudi proverbs. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348777; article XML SHA-256 132911b6fe06f77fe971b652c476fe254db8d8687178e26f4cd7deabd5bbe855. “Domestic ecologies of gender: Women, material life, and eco-folklore in Saudi proverbs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348777).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348777). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## follicle-stimulating hormone
<a id="follicle-stimulating-hormone"></a>

Follicle-stimulating hormone is a hormone whose blood level can rise in late perimenopause. In this context, higher follicle-stimulating hormone levels are described as a sign of reduced ovarian function and lower estradiol secretion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1ad4793dea762cf28288e92bdc18b8e92495770bd350e4740944b7855d8cfe8c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhuang Jiamei; Zhou Yan; Yu Guangbin; Cheng Honghui; Chen Xiong; Qian Rui. Pharmacotherapy, acupoint stimulation, and psychotherapy for perimenopausal women with anxiety, depression, and panic disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1845876; article XML SHA-256 fa4d91bb981b8543478833710745f46464fa36e31917bb740eb73ae3d6587cc8. “Pharmacotherapy, acupoint stimulation, and psychotherapy for perimenopausal women with anxiety, depression, and panic disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1845876).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1845876). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## follicular phase
<a id="follicular-phase"></a>

The follicular phase is a stage of the menstrual cycle. In this source, the late follicular phase is described as a high-estradiol period and is linked with peak performance on a hippocampus-related pattern separation task.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6bc704e62d04ac2ad4c7a7ce298bd9bab94c32aeb9c0341b21a214ef388bad51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Perović Mateja; Mack Michael L. Menstrual cycle and perceived stress predict performance on the mnemonic similarity task. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322652; article XML SHA-256 711b8539dc21c53ff2f00ff72267aafb157b927630fe9863b24472ae260d3298. “Menstrual cycle and perceived stress predict performance on the mnemonic similarity task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322652).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322652). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## follow-up study
<a id="follow-up-study"></a>

A follow-up study is research that returns to people who took part in an earlier study and gathers new information from them at a later time. It is used to examine how their experiences, views, or conditions have changed over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1d3b0b66fc531ba421bbae7d8326e176c9dc780269a5dda1876ce33e9b41b3bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Karatuna Işıl; Jönsson Sandra; Muhonen Tuija. Working conditions and occupational well-being of academics in the post-COVID-19 era: a qualitative follow-up study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1927278; article XML SHA-256 25e4be5f3ecf4076e5a9e7abfb702eb507aaf660a9501144967506013c7029ba. “Working conditions and occupational well-being of academics in the post-COVID-19 era: a qualitative follow-up study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1927278).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1927278). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## follow-up test
<a id="follow-up-test"></a>

A follow-up test is an assessment given after earlier testing, such as a pretest and posttest, to see whether the effects of an experience or learning activity are still present over time. It helps researchers compare immediate results with later outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 95a713b9cc05f50c69ab756d546dc88341ccf5656aacc0dff278560b9e74c757

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bapoğlu Dümenci Sırma Seda; Aral Neriman; Gürsoy Figen; Demir Emin; Kadan Gül; Tosun Selim; Öz Nur Sena; Hafızoğlu Gökçe; Tosun Cansel; Çelik Şule; Geçen Mehmet; Yelek Özge; Hepgül Seda; Yazgan Eda Özge; Çekiç Yasemin. Non-depleting energy in the museum. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1286669; article XML SHA-256 2504984d23c2f1211b855d88b2ceaae7406827c286d7cc169989401005bef579. “Non-depleting energy in the museum” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1286669).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1286669). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Folstein Mini-Mental State Examination
<a id="folstein-mini-mental-state-examination"></a>

The Folstein Mini-Mental State Examination is a cognitive assessment used to help classify cognitive impairment, including cognitive impairment without dementia and dementia. In the supplied source, a revised version of this examination was used together with a functional scale in older adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 052a040e56668cca684c226f2766c3add7e9bd5111966d8c89df06ad379e7d4a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guerrero Barragán Alejandra; Lucumí Diego; Lawlor Brian. Association of Leisure Activities With Cognitive Impairment and Dementia in Older Adults in Colombia: A SABE-Based Study. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fneur.2021.629251; article XML SHA-256 fa8097264878e59d45a2c437de131d027441718f6e3110db39ac42b5c33327d9. “Association of Leisure Activities With Cognitive Impairment and Dementia in Older Adults in Colombia: A SABE-Based Study” (10.3389/fneur.2021.629251).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2021.629251). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## food addiction
<a id="food-addiction"></a>

Food addiction is a pattern of dependence on particular foods or on food more generally, marked by a physical craving for them. It refers to a cluster of chemical dependencies involving food.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42ab1466fc07fa2ba2ac41b420f98a6d6aaf6619272b40563c787e8628fab9bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Food Addiction” (D000073932).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000073932). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## food caching
<a id="food-caching"></a>

Food caching is the behavior of storing food so it can be eaten later, sometimes weeks or months after it was collected. In animals that cache food, this stored supply can be important for survival or breeding when fresh food is less available.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e9c7e217f029576da3f7c43469292899d9bc32f668727a5a47df71addd03b0d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sutton Alex O; Strickland Dan; Lachapelle Jacob; Young Robert G; Hanner Robert; Brunton Daniel F; Skevington Jeffrey H; Freeman Nikole E; Norris D Ryan. Fecal DNA metabarcoding helps characterize the Canada jay’s diet and confirms its reliance on stored food for winter survival and breeding. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300583; article XML SHA-256 ca58e8fc42ea3bbe1a5d39035f24b44929d9297516c3d44ff35c9c74631599ab. “Fecal DNA metabarcoding helps characterize the Canada jay’s diet and confirms its reliance on stored food for winter survival and breeding” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300583).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300583). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## food-intake regulation
<a id="food-intake-regulation"></a>

Food-intake regulation is the control of feeding behavior, including influences on how much food is eaten. In this packet, it refers to brain signaling involving neuromodulators such as CART peptide and cholecystokinin acting in shared brain targets related to feeding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b1dd642c9f3fd090bd8103724bea85e2cd6cfd322d326bc2eafa24f0fed8cc4a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maletínská Lenka; Maixnerová Jana; Matyšková Resha; Haugvicová Renata; Pirník Zdeno; Kiss Alexander; Železná Blanka. Synergistic effect of CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript) peptide and cholecystokinin on food intake regulation in lean mice. 2008; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-9-101; article XML SHA-256 0262fd75837006ee10e08767278c279a4aa1bc2731cc9b4d75e66103af5c1421. “Synergistic effect of CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript) peptide and cholecystokinin on food intake regulation in lean mice” (10.1186/1471-2202-9-101).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-9-101). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## forced-choice question
<a id="forced-choice-question"></a>

A forced-choice question is a question format that asks a person to choose between set alternatives rather than answer freely. In this source, it specifically refers to a two-option question about whether free will exists.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a32dcb4ce896dc9556adc5c2b409bf2ad0afd617ec69a5b864ec380712ad8b86

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Chunkai; Wang Song; Zhao Yajun; Kong Feng; Li Jingguang. The Freedom to Pursue Happiness: Belief in Free Will Predicts Life Satisfaction and Positive Affect among Chinese Adolescents. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02027; article XML SHA-256 841665e394dec15b57d56e9892d11e8cb9eacd3e8ee0a9ebc90a85b7df3c0037. “The Freedom to Pursue Happiness: Belief in Free Will Predicts Life Satisfaction and Positive Affect among Chinese Adolescents” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02027).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02027). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## forebrain
<a id="forebrain"></a>

The forebrain, or prosencephalon, is the frontmost of the three early brain structures that develop from the embryonic neural tube. It later divides into the diencephalon and telencephalon.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1472cdc4ad9828f60059f477ddabf2e4209d25de98656e815d184b245234c49d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Prosencephalon” (D016548).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016548). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## foreground–background
<a id="foregroundbackground"></a>

In image-based learning, foreground–background refers to the contrast between the target object or lesion and the surrounding image area. The packet supports this mainly in the sense that poor separation or imbalance between lesion and background can make detection harder, especially when boundaries are low in contrast and background samples greatly outnumber target samples.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8cc465db0ebb2b114b7137ac04e3fc74694dd346b878b14c98d9d9bfad9627e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Shuang; Zeng Xianyu. FD-YOLO-Skin: frequency-domain enhanced YOLO for single-class skin lesion detection. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fmed.2026.1871697; article XML SHA-256 432dc038d4f210517e61df05beb04223ed7b158924012dbef096bbb3c236cb60. “FD-YOLO-Skin: frequency-domain enhanced YOLO for single-class skin lesion detection” (10.3389/fmed.2026.1871697).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2026.1871697). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## foregrounding
<a id="foregrounding"></a>

Foregrounding is the act of bringing certain factors to the center of attention in understanding experience. In this context, it means emphasizing the socio-historical structures that shape embodied and perceptual life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 73127708fba7217c4dbb9bef924668986504944c3d3ae6b35a1884e12b86eda8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Billwiller Elena. The in-related self : reclaiming Paarung in critical phenomenological psychopathology. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1602106; article XML SHA-256 ce35b9c407328a3b1dbbb641c703ee282639d4201ba3b4704bd75a2818d59922. “The in-related self : reclaiming Paarung in critical phenomenological psychopathology” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1602106).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1602106). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## forensic assessment
<a id="forensic-assessment"></a>

Forensic assessment, in this source, refers to a pre-trial evaluation documented in a formal report and used in forensic psychiatry to examine social and psychological factors in people involved in serious violent offences. These reports can be analyzed to compare motives and mental features across cases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ea35bfd6587113e2602c5270d8c7703fdaf3fe89f3d0337b76a12a22e59e042

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Grobbink L H; Huijbregts K M L; Draisma S; Derksen J J L; Westerhof G J. Psychological mechanisms of revenge and revenge ideations in family homicide: results from qualitative research of forensic assessment reports. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07021-w; article XML SHA-256 875df5e09d35508b7899bd75d4052663f3c998237ca1750a6cbd4d0f5609cd7b. “Psychological mechanisms of revenge and revenge ideations in family homicide: results from qualitative research of forensic assessment reports” (10.1186/s12888-025-07021-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07021-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## forensic neuropsychology
<a id="forensic-neuropsychology"></a>

Forensic neuropsychology is the use of neuropsychological knowledge and testing in forensic practice. In this context, it focuses on assessing cognitive and related brain-behavior functions in offenders, such as executive functioning, attention, language, social processes, and reward or threat processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b33cecb92a0471b05f17c3407678c407cff711d7f44d035b0e9864a349796f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hutten Juliette C.; van Horn Joan E.; Hoppenbrouwers Sylco S.; Ziermans Tim B.; Geurts Hilde M.; The Forensic Neuropsychology Consortium Al-Taiar Hasanen Bolognini Nadia Breuer Lisanne van Dongen Josanne Garmoe William Griffor Beverly Jansen Jochem Jonker Frank van Kessel Mike Kuin Niki Kuipers Femke de Man Gary Marcopulos Bernice Meijers Jesse Molleman Pieter Oudenhoven Milo Reddy Rajakumari Jamuna J. Rajeshwaran Scarpazza Cristina van der Schoot Anna Sergiou Carmen Stracciari Andrea Willems Marijke Zago Stefano. Neuropsychological assessment of aggressive offenders: a Delphi consensus study. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1328839; article XML SHA-256 b59f30e6b66693835489a07f81a228b53d81dbe19e0d93017359922932171b9a. “Neuropsychological assessment of aggressive offenders: a Delphi consensus study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1328839).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1328839). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## forensic psychiatry
<a id="forensic-psychiatry"></a>

Forensic psychiatry is the part of psychiatry that deals with legal matters. It covers topics such as crime and punishment, involuntary commitment, compensation cases, sharing psychiatric information with courts, and expert testimony.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b00b0ed26ec14b02c881a5b9c74dfcc9e9586895b3dbed8ad7cc95d633450863

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Forensic Psychiatry” (D005555).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005555). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## forensic psychology
<a id="forensic-psychology"></a>

Forensic psychology is a specialty within professional psychology that focuses on providing psychological expertise for courts, legal matters, and the judicial system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 877b1315685e63083f2ec64307030276ebb7598ff38a59caa2a9c9831dc507b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Forensic Psychology” (D000077283).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077283). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## foreshortening
<a id="foreshortening"></a>

Foreshortening is the seeming shortening of stretches of time, especially in retrospect. In the passage, it refers to how later years can feel compressed because memory of them is more monotonous and simplified, though time can also seem to pass quickly in the moment when attention is absorbed by what is happening.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ecd0615e1003d13e949d928a42db1ebf898766959ad2491fa9729e6bcca54e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## forest plot
<a id="forest-plot"></a>

A forest plot is a graph, originally used in research synthesis and meta-analysis, that summarizes effect sizes from multiple studies. It shows each study’s effect size on an axis, its precision by the size of a square, confidence intervals as horizontal whiskers, a null-effect reference line, and often a diamond for the weighted average effect and its confidence interval.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd0df91100323c15c08f5bec88b83d3dc95c0a2e6ec2646f10c068e9570c2a0d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fries Jonathan; Oberleiter Sandra; Pietschnig Jakob. Say farewell to bland regression reporting: Three forest plot variations for visualizing linear models. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297033; article XML SHA-256 931c86ce5b0e9896fe2c9a8ba94d0a2ecaf6b188b18be9193cc8c4732956e0c5. “Say farewell to bland regression reporting: Three forest plot variations for visualizing linear models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297033).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## forget cue
<a id="forget-cue"></a>

A forget cue is an instruction given after learning an initial list in the list-method directed forgetting paradigm that tells participants to forget that earlier material. Compared with a remember cue, it is typically linked to poorer recall of the first list and better recall of the second list.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54beaf0647b38727428b620b36532c03f67aa8865233a19e321855a0d87c95c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pastötter Bernhard; Tempel Tobias; Bäuml Karl-Heinz T.. Long-Term Memory Updating: The Reset-of-Encoding Hypothesis in List-Method Directed Forgetting. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02076; article XML SHA-256 2eb6270a2c4e072e20c95e98d5db61bab072b3019e58939077ccbb44e4f5bf26. “Long-Term Memory Updating: The Reset-of-Encoding Hypothesis in List-Method Directed Forgetting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02076).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02076). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## forgetting
<a id="forgetting"></a>

Forgetting is difficulty remembering things or recalling information. In a mental health context, it refers to noticing that things are forgotten or cannot be remembered.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e76b0c36cb7f5bd4de395a724a2dc9b6cfffff03cb1c16fc96274a12d44bfa67

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “TSCC - Forgetting Things” (C147728).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## forgetting curve
<a id="forgetting-curve"></a>

The forgetting curve is a way of representing how memory declines over time after learning. In this source, the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve is used as a function to simulate learners’ forgetting during the learning process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: af70b9a5fff4455299288b66397d79e9ab43ee43884ce414b1ddb572f6cd8d57

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Feng; Chen Kang; Zhong Maosheng; Liu Lei; Liu Huizhu; Luo Xianzeng; Zheng Lang. DKVMN&MRI: A new deep knowledge tracing model based on DKVMN incorporating multi-relational information. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312022; article XML SHA-256 95ab626108865448de513220dea9f91ca3d24887d63bef701020a0de25b6f8f3. “DKVMN&MRI: A new deep knowledge tracing model based on DKVMN incorporating multi-relational information” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312022).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312022). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Forgiveness
<a id="forgiveness"></a>

Forgiveness is excusing or pardoning an offense, or letting go of anger or resentment about it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 17acfd7ce6fb5fca43a6f7151eeca933c10290016dd3ec16fa680c6b73cdacb8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Forgiveness” (D061347).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D061347). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## form discrimination
<a id="form-discrimination"></a>

Form discrimination is the perceptual ability to tell one visual form or shape from another, including global patterns seen within noisy or cluttered backgrounds. In this context, it refers to improved sensitivity for distinguishing visual forms through learning or training.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b716cacbbe2d39532ccac011ca77850ba49fb7c60b8159e15462b990bdbae62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mayhew Stephen D.; Kourtzi Zoe. Dissociable circuits for visual shape learning in the young and aging human brain. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00075; article XML SHA-256 914db7365b808b403495bc9c18d41ec1beccff6cc242c661f04de723b26724f4. “Dissociable circuits for visual shape learning in the young and aging human brain” (10.3389/fnhum.2013.00075).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00075). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## form perception
<a id="form-perception"></a>

Form perception is the ability to sense and distinguish a pattern, shape, or outline.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f8658935ae0df72824b111ffe79c39babbdc65d98d955a384724bee2a27117f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Form Perception” (D005556).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005556). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## form quality
<a id="form-quality"></a>

Form quality is the feature that makes a mental whole have a particular shape or pattern through the way its parts are related. In historical psychology, this idea was also linked with Gestaltsqualität and with a shared form that can remain the same across different underlying contents, such as a melody kept the same in different keys.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c0d73bbe91cbefb1441ee559daa228d80b54ad2da70b8e55711298107bc4736a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Form Quality” (Formq).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Formq). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## formal cause
<a id="formal-cause"></a>

In this historical Aristotelian sense, formal cause means the organizing form or principle that makes a living body what it is. In the packet, Aristotle’s view is described as treating the soul as the formal cause of the organized body, in contrast to the body’s matter as its material cause.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 49998171dd90de20ceb47b6e4afb34927043ea8af23300fc904524503c2184c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Life and Organic” (Life and Organic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Life and Organic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## formal discipline
<a id="formal-discipline"></a>

Formal discipline is the idea that studying a demanding subject, especially mathematics, strengthens general thinking or logical reasoning skills beyond that subject itself. In this context, the theory is discussed as a claim about whether learning mathematics transfers to broader reasoning ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8cae53f3136cf21d07de9d5fd8b5d5b71399bb4782f261f963db66d4c52a636e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Attridge Nina; Inglis Matthew. Advanced Mathematical Study and the Development of Conditional Reasoning Skills. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0069399; article XML SHA-256 d8d9afbd313d9fb55e4a0b31520e305b5571fa23746515454f09d2a71647b633. “Advanced Mathematical Study and the Development of Conditional Reasoning Skills” (10.1371/journal.pone.0069399).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069399). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## formal logic
<a id="formal-logic"></a>

Formal logic is a historically defined approach to logic concerned with the general forms and laws of thinking rather than the special subject matter of particular kinds of knowledge. In this source it is often linked with Aristotelian logic and contrasted with material or empirical logic, and in modern usage it includes views that treat thought through concepts and classification or, more abstractly, through affirmation and negation, sometimes in symbolic form.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 10036db3d831cbf97a85af78e8da0e13ef0edca10b4504db9816bfa5f24670ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Formal Logic” (Formall).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Formall). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## formal organizational structure
<a id="formal-organizational-structure"></a>

Formal organizational structure is the official arrangement of roles in a workplace, such as a manager-subordinate hierarchy. In the source, it is the traditional framework that separates leaders and followers by position rather than by their mutual relationship and interaction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 916d954e90ca4e3f7e646a2a83771f5033bd67369904dc22e3358bd52ba279e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Psychogios Alexandros; Dimitriadis Nikolaos. Brain-Adjusted Relational Leadership: A Social-Constructed Consciousness Approach to Leader-Follower Interaction. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.672217; article XML SHA-256 fe930aa4162a88763ffc5545cfa70836f305d548e728794ec9f39972dd95313d. “Brain-Adjusted Relational Leadership: A Social-Constructed Consciousness Approach to Leader-Follower Interaction” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.672217).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.672217). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## formal thought disorder
<a id="formal-thought-disorder"></a>

Formal thought disorder is a disturbance in how thoughts are organized and flow, rather than what the thoughts are about. It is assessed by examining the timing and logical structure of a person’s stream of thought, and it can markedly interfere with communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b28927e574ced0b3f892347b6d6960e02b27c230a66d3cdb1e606175365c9e8f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zakowicz Przemysław T.; Brzezicki Maksymilian A.; Levidiotis Charalampos; Kim Sojeong; Wejkuć Oskar; Wisniewska Zuzanna; Biernaczyk Dominika; Remberk Barbara. Detection of formal thought disorders in child and adolescent psychosis using machine learning and neuropsychometric data. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1550571; article XML SHA-256 05507393c510adf5d9cb7c8f23d52a78a5828657dde74c1642cba103482bf46b. “Detection of formal thought disorders in child and adolescent psychosis using machine learning and neuropsychometric data” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1550571).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1550571). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## formalism
<a id="formalism"></a>

In historical aesthetics, formalism is the view that art is understood mainly through its sensory qualities and formal arrangement rather than through the significance or expressive content it represents. In this contrast, it treats form as more central than subject matter or moral meaning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c98a647ce1c495ae1f9c2aa28a9c68a96faec1877032209188d5cafd0f0ebc47

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Art and Art Theories” (Art and Art Theories).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Art and Art Theories). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## formants
<a id="formants"></a>

Formants are features of the vocal filtering system, commonly labeled F1 through F5, that help describe the acoustic structure of a voice during speech or singing. In this context, they are examined as part of how the vocal system is configured and may shift with emotion during performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c85a8115b7d3ca09ba1c70044956f1ceaab24e59e97ceb83c763dab5690793bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Del Valle Carlos Hugo C. Acoustic markers of emotional expression in professional lyrical singing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880734; article XML SHA-256 4d0a35f8c0e9cfcb44d0d95fedc6030fcbff2c2a2c6bf3e979498c1782703fbc. “Acoustic markers of emotional expression in professional lyrical singing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880734).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880734). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## formative evaluation
<a id="formative-evaluation"></a>

Formative evaluation is an assessment carried out while a program or process is being developed or implemented to see how it is working in practice. It is used to identify barriers, supports, and needed changes so the program can be refined and strengthened.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2cfc3d94af2241a1282c16ee02103989d299b52119d2ee6cd1980b2bdf7f55af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kavanagh Bianca E.; Versace Vincent L.; Beks Hannah; Dennis Carly; Binder Marley J.; Hernan Andrea L.; Namara Kevin Mc. Evaluation capacity building in a rural Victorian community service organisation: A formative evaluation. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322906; article XML SHA-256 f6bf7e9c25d1cf75b010c4fedc8a80529a53efc4c1fe97076acc6e333f1dec11. “Evaluation capacity building in a rural Victorian community service organisation: A formative evaluation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322906).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322906). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## formication
<a id="formication"></a>

Formication, as supported by this packet, refers to a delusional disorder in which a person believes they are infested by insects or other parasites. It is often associated with itching or other skin symptoms and may occur on its own or in connection with another medical or psychiatric condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 836b0c46579077e0d36333d3ec699c63a8c9ecc9a10f7cb242c01366d07524ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Delusional Parasitosis” (D063726).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063726). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## forward association
<a id="forward-association"></a>

In this study, forward association means the link from an earlier baseline factor to a later outcome over follow-up. It refers to whether metabolic or cardiometabolic risk at the start predicted later new cases of MASLD.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d89e455109fb8404f289f16b4abb6bd2e754fa10c46cc4f0246f6f3e121b9f5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Long Xinyang; Wu Meihui; Mo YeMei; Zhang Yingqi; Lin Yining; Zhang Qiuling; Mo Zengnan. Metabolic-dimension CKM staging and cardiometabolic components predict incident MASLD: a longitudinal community-based cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fendo.2026.1847134; article XML SHA-256 a3a23e65c4423f236a435692c7e57cf33b2582d9ccea769568a552f72f6f6ec1. “Metabolic-dimension CKM staging and cardiometabolic components predict incident MASLD: a longitudinal community-based cohort study” (10.3389/fendo.2026.1847134).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2026.1847134). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## forward displacement
<a id="forward-displacement"></a>

Forward displacement is the tendency to remember the last seen position of a moving object as slightly farther along its path than it actually was. In this context, it reflects an anticipatory perception of the object’s near-future state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3eb14670b54f37144fbd144db06f7fe9be9c871d11516a9a8a4ca6e76ce6fb78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Imanaka Kuniyasu; Sugi Takahiro; Nakamoto Hiroki. Relationships between the magnitude of representational momentum and the spatial and temporal anticipatory judgments of opponent’s kicks in taekwondo. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1193116; article XML SHA-256 ad15a923030764f9abf060e9b6bcf9b6c2deba4dbd9c348a26dfa78fa83133f8. “Relationships between the magnitude of representational momentum and the spatial and temporal anticipatory judgments of opponent’s kicks in taekwondo” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1193116).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1193116). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## forward masking
<a id="forward-masking"></a>

Forward masking is an auditory testing approach in which an earlier sound makes a later, low-level sound harder or just impossible to hear. It is used in temporal masking curve methods to study cochlear or basilar-membrane input-output characteristics and aspects of hearing loss beyond simple tone-detection thresholds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e1c1a9bb93e6e97e153206b6e5ba6046608cac180ef5cee0ef5d5c4b240a0875

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fereczkowski Michal; Jepsen Morten L.; Dau Torsten; MacDonald Ewen N.. Investigating time-efficiency of forward masking paradigms for estimating basilar membrane input-output characteristics. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0174776; article XML SHA-256 6a3137201af833bd07537ebfff6fb1f2296e1cf68c4693b8005df8b7a405cb35. “Investigating time-efficiency of forward masking paradigms for estimating basilar membrane input-output characteristics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0174776).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174776). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## forward pairing
<a id="forward-pairing"></a>

Forward pairing is a classical conditioning arrangement in which a cue is presented before, and may briefly overlap with, a rewarding stimulus. In the honey bee example in this packet, presenting an odor before sucrose leads the bee to learn the association, so the odor alone can later trigger the proboscis extension response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16eb88ddff0490b9863d779c51f3c8fe1316ff1a87addb84c5d9930edce7035e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dacher Matthieu; Smith Brian H.. Olfactory Interference during Inhibitory Backward Pairing in Honey Bees. 2008; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0003513; article XML SHA-256 8b8fe5236dfa06c5b685da23ab3d48690c01256d1798e3f4bc7a9e11630e1068. “Olfactory Interference during Inhibitory Backward Pairing in Honey Bees” (10.1371/journal.pone.0003513).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0003513). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fostering
<a id="fostering"></a>

In learning contexts, fostering means helping a useful quality or process grow or become stronger. In this packet, it refers to promoting positive emotional engagement in learning and supporting gains by reducing avoidance linked to anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44c33d55117fe3fe58f0913861548d3e1d1568cfc2b70f84c1adebcc5bef7af0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yuan Ziyu; Lu Yao. Fostering speaking gains through flipped instruction: a mixed-methods study of self-regulation, motivation, and foreign language classroom anxiety in Chinese EFL learners. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1903309; article XML SHA-256 f2f3136d261aa2ec270fec48ca61d5b5281af3e10fd1c6e381672eb9ddfe8f9f. “Fostering speaking gains through flipped instruction: a mixed-methods study of self-regulation, motivation, and foreign language classroom anxiety in Chinese EFL learners” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1903309).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1903309). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FOUR
<a id="four"></a>

FOUR refers here to a four-in-one educational model designed to strengthen humanistic and liberal education by linking character, literature, culture, and civilization. It is presented as an “infusive” approach meant to better connect values and knowledge with practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 32ef3ce1807a2638f092ee3f6232322700ad1ba3a4a67191b45e94d66e1005c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Yuanchun; He Mingzhao; Dou Jinmeng. Innovative practices in humanistic and liberal education: a four-in-one “infusive” educational model regarding character, literature, culture, and civilization. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905343; article XML SHA-256 55c2660c4cb7728f882fcddec16284e7322d1b81d2dc80bc02b138c350b049c6. “Innovative practices in humanistic and liberal education: a four-in-one “infusive” educational model regarding character, literature, culture, and civilization” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905343).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1905343). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fourth cranial nerve
<a id="fourth-cranial-nerve"></a>

The fourth cranial nerve is the trochlear nerve. It provides motor control to the superior oblique muscle of the eye.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8df60f2e96cec2c943a1d5c07a1e6380c8a836aea20007b5fde47051efbf89f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Trochlear Nerve” (D014321).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014321). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fovea centralis
<a id="fovea-centralis"></a>

The fovea centralis is a small region in the macula where the retinal layers become very thin. Its center is packed with cones specialized for the sharpest visual detail, with only a few rods at the outer edge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 685143d0e265373f9bd70c4a3d2eae651fb7177e36c49377abccb49a7b7c4e0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Fovea Centralis” (D005584).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005584). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fractal
<a id="fractal"></a>

A fractal is a pattern that shows similar forms at different scales. In the context of nonlinear or chaotic systems, these repeating shapes can appear in displays of system behavior over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 124d749e7e59afb59054576c26dee3205ce9e924fdd20d13d02636e9d9892426

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nonlinear Dynamics” (D017711).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017711). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fragile X syndrome
<a id="fragile-x-syndrome"></a>

Fragile X syndrome is a genetic condition caused by a mutation near the end of the long arm of the X chromosome, involving the FRAXA or FRAXE gene region. It is associated with cognitive impairment, language delay, hyperactivity, seizures, and enlargement of the ears, head, and testes, with intellectual disability being common in males and also affecting about half of females with the full FRAXA mutation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6de5bb98f2874f2e9e33693af136312e38069eb384b8ed0b14c8ebf09fae424b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Fragile X Syndrome” (D005600).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005600). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fragmentation
<a id="fragmentation"></a>

In a biological context, fragmentation is the breaking apart of a nerve axon and its myelin sheath in the portion beyond an injury to the cell body or the nearer part of the axon.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c799ea5beddba203eb7b5769a0a08dd0acd1a2556e7d9efadb721af64ea06a47

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Wallerian Degeneration” (D014855).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014855). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## framing effect
<a id="framing-effect"></a>

A framing effect is a change in people’s reasoning or opinions caused by how an issue is presented. In this packet, it refers especially to metaphorical framing, where describing an abstract topic through a particular metaphor can activate matching knowledge and lead people toward frame-consistent inferences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06c7a88fb64e8f06c362644eeb6d18ff2628f135d34cb25ae951582c02351cc6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Yan; Yang Wenxing. The landslide’s conceptualizing economic decline and its framing effect: Mandarin evidence. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1271911; article XML SHA-256 35f87f20cae259ed46df6994fdfd534f803f1d9c7908042c62701b713ed0a119. “The landslide’s conceptualizing economic decline and its framing effect: Mandarin evidence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1271911).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1271911). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fraternalistic relative deprivation
<a id="fraternalistic-relative-deprivation"></a>

Fraternalistic relative deprivation is the feeling that one’s own group is unfairly worse off than another group or is not getting the status or resources it should have. It is based on how people judge their group’s position relative to other groups, and it can occur even when objective conditions do not match that perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c35cb8fc1a81f6dc0e4d501c4c64098d4a74a6a3c8c64b22462cbe825cfff56

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Albarello Flavia; Rubini Monica. At the roots of attribution of human rights to migrants. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1046616; article XML SHA-256 d496d0821604d01c484773d7ac17b83e4a1481e944f77a2ef5941ccc1bd6e525. “At the roots of attribution of human rights to migrants” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1046616).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1046616). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## free play
<a id="free-play"></a>

Free play is a play context in early childhood that sits on a play continuum and differs from guided or teacher-directed play in how control is distributed between adults and children. In the source, it is marked by low-level reciprocal teacher-child interaction, with talk tending to stay at less inferential levels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5c9e26bf3ed42cce551f9a7efc4915da428bb55c15a8b5083fb0b701c62428e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Song Shuaili; Hao Yijun. Inferential talk between teachers and children across play types: a categorization based on the play continuum. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1701414; article XML SHA-256 36158f611e76be52d4384824acb9f0b306f8ec389ebd0594b37f974f394e3fdb. “Inferential talk between teachers and children across play types: a categorization based on the play continuum” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1701414).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1701414). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## free will
<a id="free-will"></a>

In this historical Augustinian view, free will is the soul’s power to choose and the basis that makes moral life possible. It can also mean freedom for the good, but in that sense human freedom in ordinary life is held to depend on divine grace and to have been damaged by sin.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22c3956519c65e149b44433200a56c62f4078fc4be57f42beaa4288a50e2648b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Augustinianism” (Augustinianism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Augustinianism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## freedom from harm
<a id="freedom-from-harm"></a>

Freedom from harm is a basic right not to be injured or subjected to harm. In this ethical sense, it is grounded in the idea that every person has inherent worth and dignity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 006bf71509555fb6881431ad4be5df92d7071e00a2283c820c55a840c93874f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Moral Status” (D000072577).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000072577). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frenzy
<a id="frenzy"></a>

In historical psychology and popular usage, frenzy means an intense state of mental excitement in which a person may become temporarily delirious or mentally deranged. It was commonly used for extreme manic excitement, often linked with strong emotion such as anger or passion, and also more broadly for a temporary madness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7118400111cb10a0dd74720df5bd7073738993f89285df643df6a248d154dc12

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Frenzy” (Frenzy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Frenzy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frequency
<a id="frequency"></a>

In this context, frequency means how often an event or behavior happens. It refers to asking about the rate of occurrence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c474b95238ae3e00595c43144f463396543c7350a394fb45ddadb6e4f3c8c92f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “How Often Question” (C118873).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frequency discrimination
<a id="frequency-discrimination"></a>

Frequency discrimination is the ability to tell apart stimuli that differ in frequency; in this packet, it refers to judging differences in higher spatial frequency in visual patterns. It is described in terms of a discrimination threshold, with lower thresholds indicating better discrimination, and the packet reports that this ability improves with age and with practice during the task.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1558ff9257a6253cfd9f694b360411438e734872ba43e30b7184b32798f60745

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van den Boomen Carlijn; Peters Judith Carolien. Spatial Frequency Discrimination: Effects of Age, Reward, and Practice. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0169800; article XML SHA-256 8af7598095e3b834f583e59d22a1337707849e9f45806e18672a610e0f69498a. “Spatial Frequency Discrimination: Effects of Age, Reward, and Practice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0169800).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169800). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frequency distribution
<a id="frequency-distribution"></a>

A frequency distribution shows how often values occur in a set of data. For discrete variables, it gives the count for each value, and for continuous variables, it gives the count within ranges of values.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f820710ac7dcf1b7c8f348f42e7abc1fc4c4c7239b6745173d964b66fb207e22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Frequency Distribution” (frequency_dist.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/frequency_dist.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frequency modulation
<a id="frequency-modulation"></a>

Frequency modulation is a modeling approach that represents a cell’s action potential by using a constant-amplitude sine wave whose phase and frequency are varied over time. In this context, it is used as a computationally simpler way to emulate cell and tissue electrical activity, including dynamic behavior and coupling between cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b946c76f7b5fba9633a213c103a4cdad353e4b224218cbd87d57aeb4b14c92c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jacob Jerry; Patel Nitish; Sehgal Sucheta. Cell modeling using frequency modulation. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315003; article XML SHA-256 ab5a947c07ec11b774c520d670fffa78480d458ded8fa5445fbe74c42af9763a. “Cell modeling using frequency modulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315003).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315003). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frequency polygon
<a id="frequency-polygon"></a>

A frequency polygon is a graph that shows how a distribution is spread out. The horizontal axis is divided into adjacent class intervals, usually of equal width, and the height of each plotted point shows the frequency for that interval.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 13df8bdd450ce71c4e9df5897de0a601e2a0c14eecd14aa978c03ec06da31956

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Frequency Polygon” (freq_polygon.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/freq_polygon.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frequency selectivity
<a id="frequency-selectivity"></a>

Frequency selectivity is the auditory system’s ability to respond differently to sounds of different frequencies. In this source, it is reflected in how narrowly a neuron is tuned to particular frequencies, with narrower bandwidth indicating greater selectivity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 47b764509a8c81c01f2720fc58e7e78a9cab7552635a34fcf7614bf0362a6bd6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fu Ziying; Zhang Guimin; Shi Qing; Zhou Dandan; Tang Jia; Liu Long; Chen Qicai. Behaviorally relevant frequency selectivity in single- and double-on neurons in the inferior colliculus of the Pratt’s roundleaf bat, Hipposideros pratti. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209446; article XML SHA-256 db70a24c47fcb759a991ea41f0c096bac53a5502f8da44cc3f98af77e6e90108. “Behaviorally relevant frequency selectivity in single- and double-on neurons in the inferior colliculus of the Pratt’s roundleaf bat, Hipposideros pratti” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209446).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209446). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frequency table
<a id="frequency-table"></a>

A frequency table is a table that shows how many times each value or category appears in a set of data. For quantitative data, the values are often grouped into classes, and the table can be used to make displays such as histograms or frequency polygons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a10125f239a1dcfd1b7bc9d3c2e7f9e18b9ac689ae108385c8451fc744d8b7f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Frequency Table” (frequency_table.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/frequency_table.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frequentist inference
<a id="frequentist-inference"></a>

Frequentist inference is the classical statistical approach used to draw conclusions from data, typically assuming that the variables being analyzed were chosen in advance rather than selected based on the same data. When variable selection is data-driven, applying this approach naively afterward can lead to biased or misleading results.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a26fc7826925620b40cce504dfb9cceb8175f4f3805b5d6b955ab01e07e2442e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schemet Lena; Friedrich-Welz Sarah. Statistical inference after variable selection in Cox models: a neutral simulation study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12874-026-02887-0; article XML SHA-256 1714b1ecd4f92ba6b3c15af9bc71b8c58c195011203761012cd1fc59bd5ac646. “Statistical inference after variable selection in Cox models: a neutral simulation study” (10.1186/s12874-026-02887-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-026-02887-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Friedreich’s ataxia
<a id="friedreichs-ataxia"></a>

Friedreich’s ataxia is an inherited autosomal recessive disorder, usually beginning in childhood, in which parts of the spinal cord and related nerve pathways degenerate. It commonly causes unsteady walking, speech problems, foot and spine deformities, weakness in the legs, and can also be associated with heart disease linked to cardiomyopathy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b1fc945e7d015da145658ed0597777a4425ddcbb1069b28708120ae31695252

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Friedreich Ataxia” (D005621).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005621). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## friendship
<a id="friendship"></a>

Friendship is a relationship in which two or more people feel mutual affection or goodwill and want one another’s company. In its stricter sense, it involves reciprocity, some depth of feeling, and a willingness to help each other, usually with some harmony or complementarity of character.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d401cacb36b9a9d51519312d2438e1d8f7dada3cfa0602da3e566a35a7fed433

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Friendship” (Friendship).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Friendship). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fright
<a id="fright"></a>

Fright, in this packet, refers to night terrors: a sleep disorder involving partial awakenings with behavior that looks like intense fear. It mainly affects children and young adults, usually happens during deep sleep, and the person typically does not remember the episode afterward.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 51fd174ebeff30dc060593acb57b22dad66c9f4398cc3549c85ace701de5313e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Night Terrors” (D020184).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020184). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Fröhlich’s syndrome
<a id="frohlichs-syndrome"></a>

Fröhlich’s syndrome is a rare acquired endocrine disorder, more often seen in males, that results from damage to the hypothalamus. It is associated with obesity, short stature, delayed puberty, underdeveloped sexual function, visual problems, and excessive thirst and urination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f534d2318a2fe5a4dd027b03ab723dc746bbfd085740f128aeacad3ba117009e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Frohlich Syndrome” (C34625).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frontal association area
<a id="frontal-association-area"></a>

The frontal association area is a frontal brain region described as a higher-level control center for forming and regulating behavior. It is closely linked to higher cognitive functions such as executive control, working memory, logical reasoning, fluid intelligence, and other advanced thinking and self-directed action skills.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 420d326721fef4ef5186afff4a94c7d3eae602b667c401cc4951ae0441e15da0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Ziyun; Shi Peng; Zhang Kai; Li Chenyang; Feng Xiaosu. The frontal association area: exercise-induced brain plasticity in children and adolescents and implications for cognitive intervention practice. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1418803; article XML SHA-256 bfba1973b2daf9d0dbb004a4290e2bba216ed512424bd499afd92998ad5300dc. “The frontal association area: exercise-induced brain plasticity in children and adolescents and implications for cognitive intervention practice” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1418803).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1418803). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frontal cortex
<a id="frontal-cortex"></a>

The frontal cortex is the part of the cerebral hemisphere located in front of the central sulcus and in front of and above the lateral sulcus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cad7e5e76fbb92201ffbce0b359756b2e33828fbfa449fdbdaf8fe607aca8b63

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Frontal Lobe” (D005625).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005625). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frontal eye field
<a id="frontal-eye-field"></a>

The frontal eye field is a region of the human brain involved in visuo-spatial attention and access to conscious visual awareness. Activity in this area can affect how well a person detects visual stimuli, particularly in relation to spatial cues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf8812fef4e0b69faace538ba2dff41d61ca96b5a5bc8352f7e88168a45bc94c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chanes Lorena; Chica Ana B.; Quentin Romain; Valero-Cabré Antoni. Manipulation of Pre-Target Activity on the Right Frontal Eye Field Enhances Conscious Visual Perception in Humans. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0036232; article XML SHA-256 fac1615bd7418ab3eede9368cca10dfbe5038b5ca428fb453ecbbf98568b27c1. “Manipulation of Pre-Target Activity on the Right Frontal Eye Field Enhances Conscious Visual Perception in Humans” (10.1371/journal.pone.0036232).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036232). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frontal gyrus
<a id="frontal-gyrus"></a>

The frontal gyrus refers to the ridges on the outer side of the frontal lobe that lie in front of the precentral gyrus. It includes the superior, middle, and inferior frontal gyri.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9318cd41bdc282dce019e3f680b7c406aa052f77db13a149756bf675ffc5d7d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Frontal Gyrus” (C32636).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frontal lobe
<a id="frontal-lobe"></a>

The frontal lobe is the portion of each cerebral hemisphere located in front of the central sulcus and above and in front of the lateral sulcus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a89fff0f2812aff568026c75b9702c203b29a0f0d37cd3645b572238a2a2206b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Frontal Lobe” (D005625).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005625). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Frontotemporal Dementia
<a id="frontotemporal-dementia"></a>

Frontotemporal dementia is the most common clinical form of frontotemporal lobar degeneration. It is marked by changes in personality and behavior, often including disinhibition, apathy, and reduced insight.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66b05f762a8c66bfe1b4551702a41ecb59015816a5ed6cb9378cc1c02dabb2af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Frontotemporal Dementia” (D057180).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D057180). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frotteurism
<a id="frotteurism"></a>

Frotteurism is a mental or behavioral disorder involving repeated sexual thoughts, urges, or actions centered on rubbing against or touching a person’s genitals without that person’s consent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99a801d397f391892c1b2f51f8329beaa222741d37af2fba938454807cbfde90

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Frotteurism” (C94354).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frozen noise
<a id="frozen-noise"></a>

Frozen noise is a single noise segment that is reused identically in a repeating pattern. When the same segment is played back continuously without pauses, it creates repeating frozen noise, a stimulus used to study how people hear periodicity, faint events, and pitch-like qualities in noise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7f5a2afe09ae144acf953fab36396031a400d065f6f9ff77ab6dc4759bde74e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Keceli Sumru; Inui Koji; Okamoto Hidehiko; Otsuru Naofumi; Kakigi Ryusuke. Auditory sustained field responses to periodic noise. 2012; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-13-7; article XML SHA-256 f8b39d6ff0d3695862776b75c0a56c07216b66221bfce0c9f8058d059b72dc1a. “Auditory sustained field responses to periodic noise” (10.1186/1471-2202-13-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-13-7). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Frustration
<a id="frustration"></a>

Frustration is an emotional or motivational state that happens when a person is blocked from reaching a goal or feels thwarted, disappointed, or defeated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: edb2bc8d805ae8e27c588fd1a76118270366fa60585bd6e042954a24e11c3860

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Frustration” (D005639).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005639). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## frustration tolerance
<a id="frustration-tolerance"></a>

Frustration tolerance is a person’s ability to deal positively with adversity, blocked goals, or unmet needs. It reflects how well someone can stay constructive after failure and how willing they are to keep taking on challenges.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 665d0fa317ca1639d9cbfec6bfed1ab9511442854118f98d03986141de6684bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shi Song; Zhang Zizai; Wang Ying; Yue Huilan; Wang Zede; Qian Songling. The Relationship Between College Teachers’ Frustration Tolerance and Academic Performance. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.564484; article XML SHA-256 1de2d1531dca7119c2ed7d37344a300327d13784b988e5907fd4c522df2f26cf. “The Relationship Between College Teachers’ Frustration Tolerance and Academic Performance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.564484).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.564484). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FSD
<a id="fsd"></a>

FSD stands for functional somatic disorder, a term for persistent and distressing physical symptoms lasting more than three months that are not explained by another medical or psychiatric condition. It is described as a problem of altered bodily functioning rather than simply a diagnosis made only after ruling everything else out, and it may involve one body system or several.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5bdd04c3ab31ac5e3a6fbdbbe81b3a2025d5ebe789a357fbe9db8ca434b4dd21

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maroti Daniel. Introducing a new specifier for functional somatic disorder: a psychodynamic approach to investigating emotional factors. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1481405; article XML SHA-256 920316240cec53676d0bcdabfaa1c3e1a6a7b833d33e13b1958557fa6e94e0a6. “Introducing a new specifier for functional somatic disorder: a psychodynamic approach to investigating emotional factors” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1481405).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1481405). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FSH
<a id="fsh"></a>

FSH stands for forensic supportive housing, a form of housing support intended to help forensic psychiatric patients return to community living and continue recovery while also addressing risks in the community.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba4e73a1073c048c67f805fd1fc204e8742743c4d6b4edc1d7c538abb86bb0c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Grachev Kira; Kerman Nick; Simpson Alexander Ian Frederic; Igoumenou Artemis; Wilkie Treena; Stergiopoulos Vicky. Forensic supportive housing programs: a scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1710135; article XML SHA-256 f6c4df2d20716350a75a406ad6920ae1025b615df140b2237cbd07a8d21dfb98. “Forensic supportive housing programs: a scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1710135).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1710135). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FSS
<a id="fss"></a>

FSS stands for functional somatic symptoms: physical complaints that are often not explained by a clearly defined organic disease. The term refers to bodily distress linked to complex causes and changes in bodily functioning rather than structure, and it can also occur alongside physical illness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d3686147ad3194cb4da7be86c7eeb21dbfef547bcf2df5f8ed156b7822418c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Münker Lina; Rimvall Martin Køster; Frostholm Lisbeth; Ørnbøl Eva; Wellnitz Kaare Bro; Jeppesen Pia; Maria Rosmalen Judith Gerarda; Rask Charlotte Ulrikka. Exploring the course of functional somatic symptoms (FSS) from pre- to late adolescence and associated internalizing psychopathology – an observational cohort-study. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05937-3; article XML SHA-256 171edb9a18da7bac3c8e2b539473d231b4b4d1ba88bbdc075a33ff49bfadafe2. “Exploring the course of functional somatic symptoms (FSS) from pre- to late adolescence and associated internalizing psychopathology – an observational cohort-study” (10.1186/s12888-024-05937-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05937-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FT
<a id="ft"></a>

FT refers to fraction of time in dynamic functional network connectivity analysis: the proportion of sliding time windows that are assigned to a particular brain connectivity state. It is used to describe how much time the brain spends in that recurring state over the course of measurement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c2d00380f478fefdf513dcb3dc2b50303626e55b11dd5c154e4a8bef1c44a8bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cui Boyan; Lan Luqing; Xie Changjuan; Liu Siying; Ling Bingbing; Li Huiru; Li Hao; Mo Yin. Altered dynamic functional connectivity in adults with rural left-behind experience: a resting-state fMRI study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1900163; article XML SHA-256 2236b7037f05c0413cd86608b4c2a807dd33a41f992ac6bc64a3317759ba1c29. “Altered dynamic functional connectivity in adults with rural left-behind experience: a resting-state fMRI study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1900163).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1900163). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FTD
<a id="ftd"></a>

FTD stands for frontotemporal dementia, a clinical syndrome and a common cause of early-onset dementia. It can appear mainly as behavioral changes, such as disinhibition, perseveration, inappropriate behavior, and marked personality change, or mainly as language problems such as aphasia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73b054a0602baa63961bc4610b16139280a8b574ef358ff0a7933d2624da132f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Allen Ariana; Robbins Cason B.; Joseph Suzanna; Hemesat Angela; Kundu Anita; Ma Justin P.; Haystead Alice; Winslow Lauren; Agrawal Rupesh; Johnson Kim G.; Bozoki Andrea C.; Stinnett Sandra S.; Grewal Dilraj S.; Fekrat Sharon. Angioarchitectural alterations in the retina and choroid in frontotemporal dementia. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312118; article XML SHA-256 21bf4fe52ab9e3bbce58a2787214ca57b67fb5b3608b880b8eabb818f9827294. “Angioarchitectural alterations in the retina and choroid in frontotemporal dementia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312118).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312118). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## FTS
<a id="fts"></a>

FTS stands for field-trial studies. In this context, it refers to the group of studies used during the field-trial phase to examine clinicians’ experiences with the Cultural Formulation Interview before later post-field-trial studies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 008d54faa5da9d9d3d6e5a5f3ce12144545818bd9dd9a2e8aed901943c100970

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Deshmukh Ankita; Lakhani Sheetal; Paralikar Vasudeo. Culture hidden in plain sight: a framework-based secondary qualitative analysis of clinicians’ experiences with the cultural formulation interview. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1895098; article XML SHA-256 4ad1345c1df0e40d82854eae04b068bf5d32e3ca0f7cec234e6828281c22ae72. “Culture hidden in plain sight: a framework-based secondary qualitative analysis of clinicians’ experiences with the cultural formulation interview” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1895098).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1895098). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fulfillment
<a id="fulfillment"></a>

Fulfillment is the personal experience of having a need or desire met, along with the resulting state of feeling satisfied.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3a2da92cd8335393ccac3a20376222dce9836fe6b0ff0b8b740eeb6d2271134f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Personal Satisfaction” (D010549).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010549). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## full model
<a id="full-model"></a>

In option-framing research, a full model is the starting version of a product that already includes the available options. People are then asked to remove the options they do not want, rather than add options to a basic version.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6d4a3799c4a0cad06b7d3516f8bedadba0184b91d99cfdf04a4c15618503981

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Peng Huamao; Xia Shiyong; Ruan Fanglin; Pu Bingyan. Age Differences in Consumer Decision Making under Option Framing: From the Motivation Perspective. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01736; article XML SHA-256 2e83c908f7b66e33f7574fd05c6751821d92601c1703e49dfc1cfdbee65bb477. “Age Differences in Consumer Decision Making under Option Framing: From the Motivation Perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01736).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01736). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Full Outline of Unresponsiveness Score
<a id="full-outline-of-unresponsiveness-score"></a>

The Full Outline of Unresponsiveness (FOUR) score is a coma rating scale proposed for critically ill patients. Unlike the Glasgow Coma Scale, it does not depend on verbal responses, which makes it usable when speech cannot be assessed, such as in intubated or aphasic patients.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b97cfc31af942cd32d99ef1042f2ca0d2a74161e1d49241d5cc56efc1d19cdd7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fischer Michael; Rüegg Stephan; Czaplinski Adam; Strohmeier Monika; Lehmann Angelika; Tschan Franziska; Hunziker Patrick R; Marsch Stephan C. Inter-rater reliability of the Full Outline of UnResponsiveness score and the Glasgow Coma Scale in critically ill patients: a prospective observational study. 2010; DOI 10.1186/cc8963; article XML SHA-256 99ab45187a3aaa29d0af6514626d25ce295b5ba14e8a3fe5b89e78997cf4c2d5. “Inter-rater reliability of the Full Outline of UnResponsiveness score and the Glasgow Coma Scale in critically ill patients: a prospective observational study” (10.1186/cc8963).](https://doi.org/10.1186/cc8963). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## function
<a id="function"></a>

In this historical source, function means the normal activity, process, or performance carried out by an organism or one of its organs. The same source also uses the term in mathematics for a dependent quantity whose value is determined in a definite way by one or more other variables.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e39de5afb914257f9df4e516ef6fa35d49dfa4c75914e740d49708f2d52ac925

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Function” (Function).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Function). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## function allocation
<a id="function-allocation"></a>

Function allocation is the way roles or task functions are divided between a human operator and a machine during cooperative work. In this context, it refers to adjusting that division dynamically to support safety and performance as mission demands or the operator’s state change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2410ceae9577d5f3c38f9c93e0c71af11ae69b811caa35ffb0e7a38cc419c416

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kostenko Alexandre; Rauffet Philippe; Coppin Gilles. Supervised Classification of Operator Functional State Based on Physiological Data: Application to Drones Swarm Piloting. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.770000; article XML SHA-256 5e7a8cf418d8583f40072002272fd532769b2851be6311b8a71161b320ee16cc. “Supervised Classification of Operator Functional State Based on Physiological Data: Application to Drones Swarm Piloting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.770000).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.770000). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## function coefficient
<a id="function-coefficient"></a>

A function coefficient is a model coefficient that is treated as changing with another variable or context instead of staying fixed. In the source’s partial linear function coefficient model, it is used to show that the size of higher education’s effect differs across regions, time, and levels of economic growth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fb58323a173a7128fe59eb6e028a1dd226a0290cf58a3edb0c66e25335354330

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sun Yongchun. Pathways to sustainability: Higher education and green productivity. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318619; article XML SHA-256 bf38d5ff039dc4b4c0ee0a831dd4362c17f1e150c353ecc4d191335e53020d95. “Pathways to sustainability: Higher education and green productivity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318619).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318619). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional
<a id="functional"></a>

In this learning and neuroimaging context, functional refers to changes in how the brain operates or organizes its activity, as opposed to changes in its physical structure. It is used to describe brain reorganization linked with experience such as second-language learning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3b820d5020c7cb1415a0848bf2565626b5fc70948e66a71dcc97b56e52fdce2d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alghamdi Ali H.. Neuroplasticity in adult second language learning: a systematic scoping review of structural and functional neuroimaging evidence. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1824559; article XML SHA-256 3747f8651075eee1d59d9d617b3be4027de547ee3c260957aa5e6abc62323f51. “Neuroplasticity in adult second language learning: a systematic scoping review of structural and functional neuroimaging evidence” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1824559).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1824559). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional asymmetry
<a id="functional-asymmetry"></a>

Functional asymmetry is the unequal activation or specialization of the brain’s two hemispheres during a mental function. In this account, stronger activity in one hemisphere can inhibit the matching area on the other side through the corpus callosum, producing a left- or right-sided pattern of processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: acb5afe2199cd26b40acf49d6d786e98f705378133df5c50e8a825ff40d4b6c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Avnit Amir; Zibman Samuel; Alyagon Uri; Zangen Abraham. Abnormal functional asymmetry and its behavioural correlates in adults with ADHD: A TMS-EEG study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285086; article XML SHA-256 b4a0f429fec47a28683cbaf15054348df8ab0741f2cd6c3224b9abb58ca410c7. “Abnormal functional asymmetry and its behavioural correlates in adults with ADHD: A TMS-EEG study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285086).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285086). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional blindness
<a id="functional-blindness"></a>

Functional blindness is loss or disturbance of sight that occurs without recognizable eye changes visible on examination. In this historical usage, it includes temporary dimness, partial visual losses, altered colour vision, or subjective visual phenomena associated with conditions such as anaemia, neuralgia, neurasthenia, severe headache, or hysteria.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 77fa29956e8e22aae40c5969869bffd8b76b0ac4c32345a415c954b367ff0ec7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4494000-4506000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional brain imaging
<a id="functional-brain-imaging"></a>

Functional brain imaging is the non-invasive measurement of brain activity to show how the brain is functioning. In this packet, it refers to magnetoencephalography methods that detect magnetic signals from the brain and can locate activity with high spatial accuracy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 92eef1c045d53ee26fb543be42b1e8dd175636439cb0ac17f56c3df6a73225a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Borna Amir; Carter Tony R; Colombo Anthony P; Jau Yuan-Yu; McKay Jim; Weisend Michael; Taulu Samu; Stephen Julia M; Schwindt Peter D D. Non-Invasive Functional-Brain-Imaging with an OPM-based Magnetoencephalography System. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0227684; article XML SHA-256 9b306e516613987f63c0f543c869ce992d66140b3933615e2f25ed76b7164398. “Non-Invasive Functional-Brain-Imaging with an OPM-based Magnetoencephalography System” (10.1371/journal.pone.0227684).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227684). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional communication training
<a id="functional-communication-training"></a>

Functional communication training is an established behavior-analytic intervention used to reduce problem behaviors such as aggression and self-injury. The packet also indicates that it can be delivered through telehealth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54c69e60468a85190a5f2363c9394f787b9e7833bca4d8ad3db4f288fa49ee14

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hall Scott S; Monlux Katerina D; Rodriguez Arlette Bujanda; Jo Booil; Pollard Joy S. Telehealth-enabled behavioral treatment for problem behaviors in boys with fragile X syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s11689-020-09331-4; article XML SHA-256 79ca44371e841c3e334591f40a02603ccdb21d10849639ad38def31c4d3efaff. “Telehealth-enabled behavioral treatment for problem behaviors in boys with fragile X syndrome: a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s11689-020-09331-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s11689-020-09331-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional connectivity mapping
<a id="functional-connectivity-mapping"></a>

Functional connectivity mapping is a way of identifying and displaying patterns of linked activity across different brain regions. In this packet, it refers to using brain imaging to show a circuit of regions that function together, including areas connected with the mesolimbic reward pathway.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 81c24e664d4beb22ff550f924752b2decbb2c99977e403bea5bb4aa041c10fea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rowan Christopher; Hanna Colin; Sajjad Munawwar; Yao Rutao; Sharafsha Alireza; Lewandrowski Kai-Uwe; Blum Kenneth; Pinhasov Albert; Thanos Panayotis K.. Cocaine self-administration attenuates brain glucose metabolism and functional connectivity in rats. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324522; article XML SHA-256 23a345b56c2a65d9b348fc6d6ffc328c76446c45dc6df148ad6c21481b1543e1. “Cocaine self-administration attenuates brain glucose metabolism and functional connectivity in rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324522).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324522). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## functional data analysis
<a id="functional-data-analysis"></a>

Functional data analysis is a way of studying data that change over time by treating them as continuous trajectories rather than isolated measurements. It can be used to examine individual patterns, average change across a group, and the main kinds of variation over time, often summarizing complex trajectories with a small number of principal components.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9b35bfa1f75b5d75d93db8e1ca089cf08c788e2e482bdf8f9bd1548f1604af49

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Xiner; Müller Hans-Georg. The dynamics of ideology drift among U.S. Supreme Court justices: A functional data analysis. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0269598; article XML SHA-256 886765e9ef3bf1d540c23d4fdcce56a9b9fa34b5b7f6be95eb44125c8db723e8. “The dynamics of ideology drift among U.S. Supreme Court justices: A functional data analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0269598).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269598). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional disorder
<a id="functional-disorder"></a>

Functional disorder is a broad label for a group of common conditions identified by particular patterns of bodily symptoms. Examples mentioned in the source include fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, and irritable bowel syndrome, and these conditions can cause substantial physical limits and mental strain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7cf8e44f2813f5a5bdf3a8dcdd4485fe1b5fbad04a041a2c4207355b7f2d0e38

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tattan Mais; Rosmalen Judith; Hanssen Denise. Factors associated with receiving a Functional Disorder diagnostic label: A systematic review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317236; article XML SHA-256 77f9543d68b0a165ae7c9bb4fc2261a35841a8c8bf2c255e31659870a4fd5e75. “Factors associated with receiving a Functional Disorder diagnostic label: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317236).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317236). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional distance
<a id="functional-distance"></a>

Functional distance is a way of describing how different two urban regions are in their social functions rather than how far apart they are physically. In this source, it is defined as the Euclidean distance between vectors representing the regions’ social-function profiles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8a775b6d646863ad21674ccc0f238054bf3813867d5730049f39cd27bc5098f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Jungmin; Park Juyong; Lee Wonjae. Why do people move? Enhancing human mobility prediction using local functions based on public records and SNS data. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0192698; article XML SHA-256 286cb1e102b2cded26cc860c2718502dea6399c04a3c63c8bfcc0de1eebe3215. “Why do people move? Enhancing human mobility prediction using local functions based on public records and SNS data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0192698).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192698). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional electric stimulation
<a id="functional-electric-stimulation"></a>

Functional electric stimulation is the use of implanted electrodes to activate muscles with electrical signals so they can produce movement. In this study, it was used in a closed-loop way, with muscle activity on the intact side of the face triggering stimulation on the paralyzed side to help restore more symmetric movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e13b8c5d08b56817de23d1b87ab793a8157db0d015c2edf8fa7da2f01187cb4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Attiah Mark A.; de Vries Julius; Richardson Andrew G.; Lucas Timothy H.. A Rodent Model of Dynamic Facial Reanimation Using Functional Electrical Stimulation. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2017.00193; article XML SHA-256 a93709bd42b159a1a944185fd4b9db3986357fac153e44f65a25c8f4c4e0c7a0. “A Rodent Model of Dynamic Facial Reanimation Using Functional Electrical Stimulation” (10.3389/fnins.2017.00193).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2017.00193). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional level
<a id="functional-level"></a>

In this historical source, functional level means a relative grade of nervous or cerebral activity, ranging from higher to lower forms of operation. A disturbance at a lower functional level is described as affecting more elementary functions and as being more open to control by outside stimuli or suggestion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2abb836bc2f39dcbaf636ebd944020378a57cb9500f57721ff5a9bb6fa85fc6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3580500-3592500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional limitation
<a id="functional-limitation"></a>

Functional limitation is a reduction in a person’s ability to function, especially noted as a major health concern in older adults. In this context, it is understood as being shaped by social and economic factors such as age, social engagement, and economic status, and linked to health inequities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7bde8689251e01690e9844bea37722a867272fdf966215732299c076a4941db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [García-Hernández Héctor; Salinas-Escudero Guillermo; Reyes-Morales Hortensia; Carrillo-Vega María Fernanda. Health inequities in functional limitation among Mexican older adults: An intersectional approach. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325211; article XML SHA-256 fe20f13dfc75c35f7a0411691c10ebc6be0468eb705ecaf8ce37e2c812329bd6. “Health inequities in functional limitation among Mexican older adults: An intersectional approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325211).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325211). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional magnetic resonance imaging
<a id="functional-magnetic-resonance-imaging"></a>

Functional magnetic resonance imaging is a method that takes rapid, repeated images of an organ and analyzes them statistically to detect differences across the images. It is most often used to study brain function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2c01249a3434edb7157ba6f1f2069eb65511e2eb4a69ffd0ebdd0d921f33f61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging” (C17958).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional reorganization
<a id="functional-reorganization"></a>

Functional reorganization is a change in how brain functions are carried out after damage, shown by activation patterns shifting away from the usual network seen in non-impaired people. In this context, it refers to altered reading or spelling network activity following injury to neural systems involved in orthographic processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 529e1dfb0dfc7169b4766618d2c0afa608f383ea6b66b6168170f000cff85974

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Purcell Jeremy J.; Rapp Brenda. Identifying functional reorganization of spelling networks: an individual peak probability comparison approach. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00964; article XML SHA-256 22789e4935ae9883e9ba410db023547dcede6a6d1f141b4971893f91cf2c4909. “Identifying functional reorganization of spelling networks: an individual peak probability comparison approach” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00964).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00964). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional status
<a id="functional-status"></a>

Functional status is a person’s ability to carry out basic physical and mental activities, such as moving, paying attention, and communicating. It also includes handling everyday self-care tasks and meeting usual life roles, such as school or play for children and work or household responsibilities for adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a00190bcea667aad104900537a50d28e1ec0fc785ffc60088b81f1d88664979e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Functional Status” (D000085542).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000085542). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## functional unity
<a id="functional-unity"></a>

Functional unity is a kind of wholeness based not on mere structure or the sum of parts, but on different parts working together toward a shared result or value. In this historical source, it is also treated as teleological or ideal unity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11783da48df8f58207c95ee4d89d7e25540447cf4bd1fd47d3d3eadbba60fe3f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4168500-4180500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fundamental frequency
<a id="fundamental-frequency"></a>

Fundamental frequency (F0) is the pitch of a voice or speech sound. Differences in F0 between speakers can help listeners separate one voice from competing voices and improve speech understanding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06ab95b2b95f277e4ec2f99cc8112a5f0475d1e3e0db173d6776becab0ee5e41

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Madsen Sara M. K.; Dau Torsten; Oxenham Andrew J.. No interaction between fundamental-frequency differences and spectral region when perceiving speech in a speech background. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0249654; article XML SHA-256 8e6e132628b15b48e7df7d3d531d272eb2bfcd5b1d206ffb6d64c8d7b4cad3da. “No interaction between fundamental-frequency differences and spectral region when perceiving speech in a speech background” (10.1371/journal.pone.0249654).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249654). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fundamental need
<a id="fundamental-need"></a>

In social psychology, a fundamental need is a basic human requirement essential to well-being. In this source, it refers to the need to belong: when this need is met it is linked to better mental and physical health, and when it is blocked it can produce social distress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2de6fc7d1c77ee139a5988c940db9fe6483e25e071f33d7529d7d7020d58054

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kashdan Todd B.; DeWall C. Nathan; Masten Carrie L.; Pond Richard S.; Powell Caitlin; Combs David; Schurtz David R.; Farmer Antonina S.. Who Is Most Vulnerable to Social Rejection? The Toxic Combination of Low Self-Esteem and Lack of Negative Emotion Differentiation on Neural Responses to Rejection. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0090651; article XML SHA-256 a187462e5fc0519483bc882c24c55ce04fb1ff7ed83aadab6cc880ca254c933e. “Who Is Most Vulnerable to Social Rejection? The Toxic Combination of Low Self-Esteem and Lack of Negative Emotion Differentiation on Neural Responses to Rejection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0090651).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090651). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fundamental science
<a id="fundamental-science"></a>

Fundamental science refers to research aimed at improving basic understanding of how a phenomenon works, rather than focusing mainly on practical use. In this context, it means studying how the human visual system judges whether an image looks natural or plausible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 18f2486709f90951fd33dc711bb80e32ed0df6b12a686cd167f59c4c860fc456

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Duay Killian; Nagai Takehiro. Optimal colors can predict luminosity thresholds in natural scenes. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343984; article XML SHA-256 8961fd4d0f9aa873d5fe3a54de860e1f00a6d7ead4eb1c533d7d7b3dc30d7498. “Optimal colors can predict luminosity thresholds in natural scenes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343984).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343984). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fundamental skill
<a id="fundamental-skill"></a>

A fundamental skill is a basic human ability that supports effective action across many activities. In this source, it refers to an essential capacity such as intercepting moving objects, which depends on coordinated visual processing and motor control to adapt to changing environments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e70bd324c0d86bac5e7c26a198cd5735ed394bd825db7f6df73b163e44111eca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Márquez Inmaculada; Treviño Mario. Visuomotor predictors of interception. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308642; article XML SHA-256 30efa9ceb1f12cdb7f6ad9e6e3ca11faeb8312cda0d7a551a6bd8578e661ba09. “Visuomotor predictors of interception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308642).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308642). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fundamental symptoms
<a id="fundamental-symptoms"></a>

In historical psychopathology, fundamental symptoms are the underlying features of a mental disease that are present across all cases and support identifying the disease-process beneath changing outward symptoms. They are contrasted with shifting symptom pictures and are studied to distinguish the core disorder from its varied manifestations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e2d79e398b8707632cbfd97d78cbb29a696aa7da3fcc4749240c3d85e678659

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2236500-2248500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fundamental tone
<a id="fundamental-tone"></a>

Fundamental tone is the lowest tone, or primary component, within a compound tone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 571120c7e1c433e4a2e8ac8ac2aa8baf565ca17a5cf67c963adc8242d14565ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fundamental Tone” (Fundamental).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Fundamental). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fungiform papillae
<a id="fungiform-papillae"></a>

Fungiform papillae are structures on the front part of the tongue that contain epithelial and connective tissues, nerve endings, and taste buds. In this context, they are relevant because their number and distribution differ across people and may be linked to differences in tongue sensation and perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b0b368eb1f0d005bce47b90939bb64d048da1748baff32b83b6e0bd7f80baa6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Allison Tyler S; Moritz Joel; Turk Philip; Stone-Roy Leslie M. Lingual electrotactile discrimination ability is associated with the presence of specific connective tissue structures (papillae) on the tongue surface. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0237142; article XML SHA-256 f146d5216f26e07ddfc8401e496ad1ff701bee6ab15ce2f9a3f698bb625d76c7. “Lingual electrotactile discrimination ability is associated with the presence of specific connective tissue structures (papillae) on the tongue surface” (10.1371/journal.pone.0237142).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237142). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## furor
<a id="furor"></a>

Furor is a historical term for an extreme, sudden burst of manic excitement, intense emotion, or anger. In older psychology and psychiatry writing, it was described as often appearing in conditions such as mania, epilepsy, and hysteria, and sometimes as being aimed at a particular person or object.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc62571626587c582c24c999eb1efbd8070c59cdca27b289e2b9a6300c81406c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Furor” (Furor).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Furor). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fusiform gyrus
<a id="fusiform-gyrus"></a>

The fusiform gyrus is a fold of brain tissue that lies partly in the occipital and temporal lobes. It sits between the lingual and parahippocampal gyri above and the inferior temporal gyrus below.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d5645aae4532c69581a5a22cd9cc2f0dbf872cbf60175bb57829d47dbd661bcd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fusiform Gyrus” (C33197).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fusion
<a id="fusion"></a>

In historical psychology, fusion means that parts of an experience join because of similarity or other natural fit, so they are hard to tell apart or analyze separately. The stronger the fusion, the more the elements form a unified whole rather than a simple sum, though the term was used somewhat differently by different schools.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35dd2b9a359d67eeda2fa232b541eff3fd05310e5bbeb76f3cd1f1213e4a292e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fusion” (Fusion).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Fusion). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fusion frequency
<a id="fusion-frequency"></a>

Fusion frequency is the temporal rate at which rapidly alternating visual inputs, such as different colors, are no longer seen as separate events but merge into a single percept. In this context, it refers to the critical frequency beyond which chromatic alternations are perceived as one mixed color.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1396b023dbdd4635d8e8f91ad0cb03f54b9222e6b592186eb9e9b37956147f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Terao Masahiko; Watanabe Junji; Yagi Akihiro; Nishida Shin'ya. Smooth Pursuit Eye Movements Improve Temporal Resolution for Color Perception. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0011214; article XML SHA-256 9aaa5f6ccfbf570be9f631148dde8e01af500895395b6c3b04e02b09329fa8f7. “Smooth Pursuit Eye Movements Improve Temporal Resolution for Color Perception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0011214).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0011214). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## future orientation
<a id="future-orientation"></a>

Future orientation is a person’s focus on and preparation for what lies ahead, such as future work, education, and life beyond a current role. In this context, it refers to how adolescents think about, plan for, and feel concerned or prepared about their future.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 888b95ce3e8aa4c2379e696d6bf53a495cb0ed205e42f65b87a1a8887a012b8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bognár József; Fügedi Balázs; Bácskay-Abonyi Barbara; Szakály Zsolt; Juhász István; Simon István. Preparing for life beyond sport: dual career awareness, developmental environment, and future orientation in adolescent handball. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1829338; article XML SHA-256 60519cfbdf489f6c09101b82c7d22e2b359ccd229be16bf6cd1cd791665a707e. “Preparing for life beyond sport: dual career awareness, developmental environment, and future orientation in adolescent handball” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1829338).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1829338). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fuzzy logic
<a id="fuzzy-logic"></a>

Fuzzy logic is a way of reasoning with approximate, quantitative judgments when language is ambiguous rather than strictly precise. It uses everyday terms like good, bad, or young, along with qualifiers like more, less, and very, as flexible categories within a given problem.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a1012086791f178df6e284efdc47bf6cfc1b114ef41840b417059b176bcd0ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Fuzzy Logic” (D017143).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017143). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fuzzy set theory
<a id="fuzzy-set-theory"></a>

Fuzzy set theory is an approach for representing data in a way that captures ambiguity and uncertainty rather than treating values as completely fixed. In the source material, it is used to turn image grayscale levels into fuzzy sets so uncertain visual information can be modeled more robustly and compared before and after enhancement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 46ba1ef139303aea812359fb4cb732e657719424415c37840c4380289e31fea6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Manqi; Ren Lili. Enhancing museum collection images with fuzzy set guided convolutional neural network: A novel approach leveraging fuzzy set theory. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336426; article XML SHA-256 6065854bb49b9d4fcacc355b30fbf1d677ea204ba4673b40e166216d38188a42. “Enhancing museum collection images with fuzzy set guided convolutional neural network: A novel approach leveraging fuzzy set theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336426).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336426). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## fuzzy trace theory
<a id="fuzzy-trace-theory"></a>

Fuzzy trace theory is a memory theory proposing that people store two kinds of traces from experience: a detailed, item-specific trace and a more general trace of the meaning. It is used to explain false memories by suggesting that people may later rely on the meaning-based trace, which tends to last longer than the detailed trace.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9266ae858c2552ce4e9ff4c51514a01bd267b1fba089e1c36b800646bdb31f3c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Coburn Patricia I.; Dogra Kirandeep K.; Rai Iarenjit K.; Bernstein Daniel M.. The Trajectory of Targets and Critical Lures in the Deese/Roediger–McDermott Paradigm: A Systematic Review. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718818; article XML SHA-256 529eed3538e8336df66697db7e07d915374d19c2a7f012c1a601e2936302a7a5. “The Trajectory of Targets and Critical Lures in the Deese/Roediger–McDermott Paradigm: A Systematic Review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718818).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718818). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GA
<a id="ga"></a>

GA is a G-series nerve agent, an alkylphosphonic acid ester that can enter the body through breathing, swallowing, or contact with the skin or eyes. It disrupts normal nerve signaling by blocking acetylcholinesterase, leading to excessive cholinergic stimulation in the nervous system and at neuromuscular junctions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 232c0f0cdd6ee7895283d59a5973295211c377d126326decdd68710d45360075

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “G-Series Nerve Agent GA” (C161525).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GABA
<a id="gaba"></a>

GABA, or gamma-aminobutyric acid, is the main neurotransmitter in the central nervous system that reduces nerve cell activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d042865ed0935183bab6197c3847491d1b120087907134b453406b612a84ec3c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “gamma-Aminobutyric Acid” (D005680).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005680). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GABA agonist
<a id="gaba-agonist"></a>

A GABA agonist is a naturally occurring substance or drug that attaches to GABA receptors and switches them on. It acts on the brain’s gamma-aminobutyric acid signaling system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a1d58450068e747b95861d506dca86576800a41bade96251412e1b534ef46d6a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “GABA Agonists” (D018755).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018755). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GABA antagonist
<a id="gaba-antagonist"></a>

A GABA antagonist is a drug that attaches to GABA receptors without turning them on, which prevents the effects of the body’s own GABA and other drugs that activate those receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b835d9046ab3ae54bb81667fbad4283e93feda3c280610cfcb83148e66771ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “GABA Antagonists” (D018756).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018756). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gabapentin
<a id="gabapentin"></a>

Gabapentin is a chemical derivative of gamma-aminobutyric acid. It is used to treat partial seizures, neuralgia, and restless legs syndrome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1d30c2d8e12fa443a7cd9530290de1617e022f27f0e6351e443557ec875d23ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gabapentin” (D000077206).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077206). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GAD
<a id="gad"></a>

GAD stands for glutamate decarboxylase, an enzyme that converts glutamate into gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and carbon dioxide using pyridoxal phosphate as a cofactor. In humans, two forms of this enzyme provide most of the body’s normal GABA supply.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82f9a9b926d7595f45275234c645cc69b5f714304df8e705f78722009525d646

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Glutamate Decarboxylase” (C193255).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GAF Scale
<a id="gaf-scale"></a>

The GAF Scale, or Global Assessment of Functioning scale, is a measure used to rate a person’s overall level of functioning. In this context, it is used to assess global functioning over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fe68803ad042c176f6cec864cfdbe67c35ecea22c7fb7d56912e2f0824ed5537

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Roy Marc-André; Therrien François; Boucher Matthieu; Oluboka Oloruntoba. Long-term effectiveness of aripiprazole once monthly on functioning and quality of life in schizophrenia: results of year 2 of the ReLiAM study. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-06240-x; article XML SHA-256 a047010c89e626bb32cb4d1b1a252c9d0200fe3568f5c3c6c6de80eb466d90ec. “Long-term effectiveness of aripiprazole once monthly on functioning and quality of life in schizophrenia: results of year 2 of the ReLiAM study” (10.1186/s12888-024-06240-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-06240-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GAI
<a id="gai"></a>

GAI, or General Ability Index, is a combined score from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. It is based on the six subtests that make up the Verbal Comprehension and Perceptual Reasoning indexes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ccdfa34a7f024a1ad961c01d266dcb0112a05398634284f21470f7e86d219e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “General Ability Index (WAIS-IV)” (C205224).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gait apraxia
<a id="gait-apraxia"></a>

Gait apraxia is difficulty walking that is not due to muscle weakness or loss of sensation. It can occur in association with conditions affecting the frontal lobe, basal ganglia, or some dementias.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1670e73d1b99d161e4dc590c35f71a125a17e001465ae812abff0c971a28e22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gait Apraxia” (D020235).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020235). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## galactosemia
<a id="galactosemia"></a>

Galactosemia is a group of inherited enzyme disorders in which galactose builds up in the blood. The classic form begins in infancy and can involve poor growth, vomiting, increased pressure inside the skull, and later problems such as jaundice, enlarged liver and spleen, cataracts, intellectual disability, and ovarian failure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1463ee35bf415124f77f19d082556b23c905a0955124bb9e13d477b1fe6317d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Galactosemias” (D005693).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005693). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## galanin
<a id="galanin"></a>

Galanin is a small neuropeptide found widely in the brain, spinal cord, and intestines. Through different galanin receptor subtypes, it is involved in memory as well as food intake, pain perception, and other neuroendocrine functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0a4be9b338cbdea2a8583009cc4cbea854bcd34844c72710383355f5ce95601

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Galanin” (D019004).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019004). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## galvanic skin response
<a id="galvanic-skin-response"></a>

Galvanic skin response is a change in the skin’s electrical resistance. It occurs with emotion and in some other conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 41f3d820f0a77790297fcbd3b0e4f32a2aed1085fd98bafbd17987a4824c1b80

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Galvanic Skin Response” (D005712).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005712). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GAM
<a id="gam"></a>

GAM refers to gallium maltolate, an orally available gallium-containing compound. It is described as having anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, pain-relieving, antiresorptive, and anti-proliferative effects through interference with iron-dependent biological processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c927a66167175d3c37c43fa7245094b7a6ca0ca764c9b173f18633ac08df2893

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Gallium Maltolate” (C133020).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gambling disorder
<a id="gambling-disorder"></a>

Gambling disorder is a behavioral addiction that involves gambling-related problems and shares neurobiological features with substance use disorders. The source also indicates that clear objective biological markers for it are still limited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 496d295ebb8d213965507e0d268e74d6e6168e0236cf05f3927847b65b89610a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Çınaroğlu Metin; Yılmazer Eda; Ülker Selami Varol; Tarlacı Sultan. Resting-state EEG power and machine-learning classification in adult males with gambling disorder. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1725528; article XML SHA-256 2727c0a05c5bc403201fef990dee376b2119c15bffcd3b1f08fae9619105fc16. “Resting-state EEG power and machine-learning classification in adult males with gambling disorder” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1725528).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1725528). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## game
<a id="game"></a>

A game is a structured competitive activity in which players make choices within a set of rules, often with outcomes tied to winning, losing, or other rewards. In the source context, games and sports can involve binary choices and zero-sum situations, where one player’s gain corresponds to the other’s loss.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef6e353e91f7d3626bc625e01c545e1e5f85678e8959a3fde24e7f77ce2bd39c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Yong-Hwan; Jeong Soo Hyun; Kim Soo-Chan; Kim Yongkuk; Chae Kwon-Seok. Discrepancies between empirical and theoretical probability in human binary choices within the game of Go. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1594220; article XML SHA-256 60027a52a6e0f39c61e74fb1ebb925eeb574b6fd628f56e048397c9d2763f9ac. “Discrepancies between empirical and theoretical probability in human binary choices within the game of Go” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1594220).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1594220). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gamma
<a id="gamma"></a>

In this packet, gamma refers to gamma-band brain activity measured with EEG, including its strength and synchronisation across brain areas. It is described as a neural signal linked to swallowing, with reduced activity and connectivity seen in post-stroke dysphagia and some excessive connectivity associated with more severe swallowing problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3305c68cd3162b760ac5b410ae597761b48e95c4aec2a4d9515ff7007b6f484e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Lingyan; Wang Shengqiao; Yang Heliang; Li Qiwei; Feng Jiong; Zhao Ying; Hong Hong; Gu Qingchuan; Che Xianwei; Shi Aiqun; Wang Jiasheng. Post-stroke dysphagia is associated with abnormal gamma power and phase synchronisation during swallowing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1716564; article XML SHA-256 c2b5d8a9a51a6ef18f28350a3475d5c5c32ae22b4353e3f08673b49171a1ba7a. “Post-stroke dysphagia is associated with abnormal gamma power and phase synchronisation during swallowing” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1716564).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1716564). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gamma-aminobutyric acid
<a id="gamma-aminobutyric-acid"></a>

Gamma-aminobutyric acid is the main neurotransmitter in the central nervous system that reduces or inhibits nerve signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c8b4027621f91a841a02eee0008ffb66dc537599018c294ba166e236be9372b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “gamma-Aminobutyric Acid” (D005680).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005680). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gamma-aminobutyric acid agonist
<a id="gamma-aminobutyric-acid-agonist"></a>

A gamma-aminobutyric acid agonist is a naturally occurring substance or drug that attaches to GABA receptors and turns them on.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c4f1b18d052c32beea4132225027ad9e9eeda628eb65534e37f31125c138aa3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “GABA Agonists” (D018755).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018755). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gamma coherence
<a id="gamma-coherence"></a>

Gamma coherence is a measure of how strongly brain activity is synchronized between different regions in the gamma frequency range, here described as about 30–40 Hz. In this study, higher gamma coherence in a frontal–occipital–parietal connection was linked to greater working memory load and was interpreted as reflecting top-down control of ongoing visual processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: efcba81489a6cdff6854a8c0c0fb24dea9b6b15d923bd022be04735a3ebb4871

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cocchi Luca; Zalesky Andrew; Toepel Ulrike; Whitford Thomas J.; De-Lucia Marzia; Murray Micah M.; Carter Olivia. Dynamic Changes in Brain Functional Connectivity during Concurrent Dual-Task Performance. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0028301; article XML SHA-256 ae866f116bcc34efd19af5aa0de25c6726af7ee9b182299faef90845dab455d1. “Dynamic Changes in Brain Functional Connectivity during Concurrent Dual-Task Performance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0028301).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0028301). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gamma-hydroxybutyrate
<a id="gamma-hydroxybutyrate"></a>

Gamma-hydroxybutyrate is a naturally occurring short-chain fatty acid found throughout the body, especially in the brain, where it acts on GHB receptors and to a lesser extent GABA-B receptors. It has neuromodulatory and anesthetic effects, mainly causing central nervous system depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 773e2b334de8a8975f95aca5eaf6d25f18eeed899228967d06c125c9fed5e72c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “4-Hydroxybutanoic Acid” (C61773).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gamma motor neuron
<a id="gamma-motor-neuron"></a>

A gamma motor neuron is a motor nerve cell in the ventral horn of the spinal cord that supplies the intrafusal muscle fibers in muscle spindles. It helps regulate skeletal muscle tone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76c5861389166ff5d755d33fd189053dfe79c8e98955ae350718e331ec50a2dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Gamma Motor Neuron” (C12646).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gamma synchrony
<a id="gamma-synchrony"></a>

Gamma synchrony is the matching or coordination of brain activity in the gamma frequency range across cortical signals, measured here as phase synchrony. In this study, stronger gamma synchrony was found in dancers while listening to music compared with silence or silent dance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba40f6d31516d9b591f850d682c34c223b64bba85c84e3e3e3846622b00394fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Poikonen Hanna; Toiviainen Petri; Tervaniemi Mari. Naturalistic music and dance: Cortical phase synchrony in musicians and dancers. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0196065; article XML SHA-256 b844dfd917d170ba9bd2e343f6cb3f65f6504c7f783219a451007532f0685d77. “Naturalistic music and dance: Cortical phase synchrony in musicians and dancers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0196065).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196065). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gamma wave
<a id="gamma-wave"></a>

A gamma wave is a pattern of brain activity measured with EEG in the gamma frequency band. In this source, higher gamma activity during speaking tasks was associated with greater attentional focus and semantic processing, though it did not clearly separate lower- and higher-performing speakers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 799beba2db8cc648e228a73d8156af836b41b6140b3873f6cd467db427513e8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wilang Jeffrey Dawala. Brainwave patterns during a mock job interview among Thai undergraduate students. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1661005; article XML SHA-256 9c5181c26d58eacdcb11af4d32bf2797d7985af54f384bb3d4b6c959e53b8905. “Brainwave patterns during a mock job interview among Thai undergraduate students” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1661005).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1661005). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gang
<a id="gang"></a>

In this school psychology context, a gang refers to a peer group linked with violent, disruptive, or delinquent behavior. The packet specifically describes similar groups of “lads” as students who show externalizing problem behaviors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f76abc231d9abe1cf9dada1e4bf08c5455265bb9d201aa1f62bc73ab36eccc89

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Shuyan; Xie Mengmeng. Family resources and externalizing problem behaviors among “lads” in township junior high schools: the role of positive youth development and peers’ positive moral character. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852822; article XML SHA-256 acc73920688fa66b5d0e4382f4717b12fe314bc1402c6918ee2a62baf3e4188b. “Family resources and externalizing problem behaviors among “lads” in township junior high schools: the role of positive youth development and peers’ positive moral character” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852822).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852822). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ganglion
<a id="ganglion"></a>

A ganglion is a grouping of nerve tissue made mainly of neuron cell bodies that lies outside the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f392a6ee25ed553560221cceca7e081e8e4f5733383058c1ebf32a5fe96f216b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ganglion” (C12719).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ganglion cell
<a id="ganglion-cell"></a>

A ganglion cell is a kind of interneuron, meaning a nerve cell involved in passing signals within the nervous system. It carries information to the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e74397d73140e08fae06d460ae3d401dbc35bebd1f58142bcd49138c21ebdbe7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ganglion Cell” (C13155).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ganglionic blocking agent
<a id="ganglionic-blocking-agent"></a>

A ganglionic blocking agent is a drug that interrupts nerve signaling at nicotinic receptors in autonomic ganglia, affecting both sympathetic and parasympathetic activity. Because its effects are broad rather than selective, it has largely been replaced by more targeted drugs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b4139f26b886e936e3a4160e97a6e33883d2245b33ab511df23e6398fd88dee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ganglionic Blockers” (D005730).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005730). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ganglionic layer
<a id="ganglionic-layer"></a>

The ganglionic layer is the fifth layer of the cerebral cortex. It contains the largest pyramidal nerve cells, including Betz and Martinotti cells, and is crossed by horizontally arranged fibers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd34742c2ed40747eaea6b77d09c8385e777fc7f05639bba5616253b0288725d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ganglionic Layer of the Cerebral Cortex” (C32653).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ganglioside
<a id="ganglioside"></a>

A ganglioside is a type of glycosphingolipid that contains one or more sialic acid residues. It is found mainly in nerve tissue, as well as in the spleen and thymus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62c8472a21791b68f0799c3c51d7277c5cc92fbdfaff05c68e4c552827e072ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ganglioside” (C518).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gangliosidosis
<a id="gangliosidosis"></a>

Gangliosidosis is a group of inherited lysosomal storage disorders in which gangliosides build up because the enzymes or helper factors needed to break them down in lysosomes do not work properly. These disorders are grouped according to which ganglioside accumulates.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c6caa16fbc93447d29fb70de515d7c70da0a73598b79fa7246d5d2d584fd5da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gangliosidoses” (D005733).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005733). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## garbage in, garbage out
<a id="garbage-in-garbage-out"></a>

"Garbage in, garbage out" means that the quality of a system’s results depends on the quality of the data put into it. In data-driven or machine-learning work, flawed, unrepresentative, or biased training data can produce flawed or biased outputs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e5e40f6763202462413092e35117417dc786325e0355ad8d5ed6e799b4cb228c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vidgen Bertie; Derczynski Leon. Directions in abusive language training data, a systematic review: Garbage in, garbage out. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243300; article XML SHA-256 04804fd3e89af26c7fa61137c20e5e4188845b79c91af384f83092abede9814f. “Directions in abusive language training data, a systematic review: Garbage in, garbage out” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243300).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243300). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gastrointestinal problems
<a id="gastrointestinal-problems"></a>

Gastrointestinal problems are unwanted effects involving the digestive system. In this packet, the term refers to opioid-related digestive side effects, including constipation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 37e1202a288283edaa8e7c079402037d939dccb14151e417b2c025a7424202c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Yi; Chen Qiuxiang; Zhou Yuanyuan; Zeng Qingjun; Cui Haishan; Zhou Yukai. Autonomic nervous system modulation by G protein-biased mu-opioid receptor agonists: A translational scoping review protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349596; article XML SHA-256 b7286e64a86aa7817d78283654cdfa9ed3b82048681f6644ced54044866e5ce1. “Autonomic nervous system modulation by G protein-biased mu-opioid receptor agonists: A translational scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349596).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349596). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gate-control theory
<a id="gate-control-theory"></a>

Gate-control theory is the idea that pain signals from the body can be reduced by non-painful sensory input from the same area, such as touch or mechanical stimulation. In other words, incoming pain information is partly regulated by a neural “gate,” which helps explain why actions like rubbing or massage can lessen pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bcedd063da59b1cfcaf740dbeafe3850888eb70572c6b97987bc0dd27fce7280

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zampino Claudio; Ficacci Roberta; Checcacci Miriam; Franciolini Fabio; Catacuzzeno Luigi. Pain Control by Proprioceptive and Exteroceptive Stimulation at the Trigeminal Level. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fphys.2018.01037; article XML SHA-256 306b6cf40599b44f39f6424bb7844cefd856a03545a9c7801714e3d1b3f80d3a. “Pain Control by Proprioceptive and Exteroceptive Stimulation at the Trigeminal Level” (10.3389/fphys.2018.01037).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.01037). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gatekeeper
<a id="gatekeeper"></a>

In this mental health context, a gatekeeper is a community pharmacist involved in suicide-prevention efforts related to pharmaceutical self-poisoning. The term refers to interventions in which pharmacists have a preventive role alongside broader public health measures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8386a8d9bb0587c319fd86bf778221260b00546cf93a1139bd3b950a1c494325

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Zixiao; Mohamed Fahim. Pharmacist gatekeeper interventions for suicide prevention: how evidence from developed countries support their role in low- and middle-income countries. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1508621; article XML SHA-256 ad2c06d623c57197bfacdbd76b976c3de8d7d5ecc7247f9edd799c5088951299. “Pharmacist gatekeeper interventions for suicide prevention: how evidence from developed countries support their role in low- and middle-income countries” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1508621).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1508621). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gatekeeper role
<a id="gatekeeper-role"></a>

In this context, the gatekeeper role means general practitioners serving as the main first contact who help guide and coordinate patients’ care within the regional health system. Strengthening this role is presented as a way to direct nonurgent mental health patients toward appropriate services instead of emergency departments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 47897bb7a79803d22a750f35c5f6a2238807d0e2c30cbdc7eee0fa0990005c33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kirchner Heribert; Mangiapane Sandra; Hu Emil; Hulsmans Nik; Brzoska Patrick; Pajonk Frank-Gerald Bernhard. Trends in nonurgent mental health presentations to emergency departments: insights from the first nationwide study in Germany. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07368-0; article XML SHA-256 d1018dce56119c63be76e6306e96c2c3feb6a903742c989291843f32cbe593e0. “Trends in nonurgent mental health presentations to emergency departments: insights from the first nationwide study in Germany” (10.1186/s12888-025-07368-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07368-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gateway drug
<a id="gateway-drug"></a>

A gateway drug is a substance understood as leading a person to engage with other substances. In this source, cannabis is described this way because its use was associated with greater use of other drugs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d5e1f574e457ba48e2d4e3a3b2ebf666b1c584168923a089f7e9ae59acdd34b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Love Steven; Rowland Bevan; Armstrong Kerry. Is cannabis a slippery slope? Associations between psychological dysfunctioning, other substance use, and impaired driving, in a sample of active cannabis users. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0310958; article XML SHA-256 11defcf190d72b1d9b5856e77d5a761916abadbc271b0dd181766d6210d33746. “Is cannabis a slippery slope? Associations between psychological dysfunctioning, other substance use, and impaired driving, in a sample of active cannabis users” (10.1371/journal.pone.0310958).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310958). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gating
<a id="gating"></a>

Gating is the process by which an ion channel opens or closes in response to a stimulus such as a change in membrane voltage, a chemical signal, or mechanical force. It involves a shape change in the channel that changes what can pass through it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ae300631b643748cca50cefdf8b9faa17ed6f05674b2bcbcd568471b0b172a59

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ion Channel Gating” (D015640).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015640). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Gaussian distribution
<a id="gaussian-distribution"></a>

A Gaussian distribution is a continuous, symmetrical pattern of values that extends indefinitely in both directions. In this distribution, the mean, median, and mode are the same, and its form is fully determined by the mean and standard deviation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bbdb424b1fb1e24394f207d9b033aa1a968022287c8782439e536931c6459130

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Normal Distribution” (D016011).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016011). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gay
<a id="gay"></a>

Gay refers to a sexual identity category. In this research context, it is used as part of the lesbian/gay group when examining mental health experiences among university students.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 81b067c4946aa9392fa4d4a34041cfaed88c2aac3d196989937b734ce3565735

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Shanshan; Yao Xintong; Tan Kyle; Wei Chongzheng. Identity centrality as a double-edged sword: mental health mechanisms among lesbian/gay and bisexual university students in China. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1737042; article XML SHA-256 242f4d81389bf3d90dce015a3e09a94b5ee6d24ddd74b2596469fa9667b5f7e5. “Identity centrality as a double-edged sword: mental health mechanisms among lesbian/gay and bisexual university students in China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1737042).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1737042). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gaze
<a id="gaze"></a>

Gaze is where a person directs visual attention with their eyes. In this context, gaze behavior refers to how eye direction changes in relation to movement and upcoming environmental demands, such as looking more toward the ground before challenging walking transitions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: dae96bdd6dbeecf46c98ab3cba77ec74bae551ddbd5fface37f5360e0c03d3ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hasenjäger Martina; Wiebel-Herboth Christiane B.. On utilizing gaze behavior to predict movement transitions during natural human walking on different terrains. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334093; article XML SHA-256 29234f4da1e74eb7d3d3ad232f59a8830ed89881610e3636b00652a93ea4d1f5. “On utilizing gaze behavior to predict movement transitions during natural human walking on different terrains” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334093).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334093). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GCS
<a id="gcs"></a>

GCS stands for Glasgow Coma Scale. In this source, it is used as a measure related to level of consciousness, with scores of 8 or below indicating a severe consciousness disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fec74e67673a59f965992020dee4e22e9909177e60299cd493bf78770ba12eef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Long Zhangling; Liao Shuang; Chen Ying. Nonlinear association between stress hyperglycemia ratio and severe consciousness disorder in acute ischemic stroke: A MIMIC retrospective analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329678; article XML SHA-256 df3bec39a167bc082fc3b158e1bff38b376627c2c93a6e31cd9c81085a6646fa. “Nonlinear association between stress hyperglycemia ratio and severe consciousness disorder in acute ischemic stroke: A MIMIC retrospective analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329678).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329678). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Gemeinschaft
<a id="gemeinschaft"></a>

In this historical social-psychology usage, Gemeinschaft refers to a kind of human grouping that overlaps with what the source calls “company”: a group held together more by sympathy, instinct, impulse, or other unreflective bonds than by deliberate, formally organized social relations. Tönnies contrasts it with Gesellschaft, or society.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e83b9ba52fa7281b2e33bd7664a24171980f5bfcc405a9282ebe0329dd0519c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Company” (Company).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C3defs.htm#Company). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gender
<a id="gender"></a>

Gender refers to socially shaped characteristics linked to sex, such as expected roles, behaviors, and norms. Because it is a social construct, it can differ across societies and change over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38b52d9d4c7c0a31bb403f8e4c08dc55c756d3ddc9a7cb7268a9d74a2eed2ace

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Gender” (C17357).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gender bias
<a id="gender-bias"></a>

Gender bias is prejudice or discrimination based on gender, or attitudes and behavior that support stereotyped social roles for people because of gender.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a11e11791990b2834724448bf8e0dbe135519350d76feaeaa6ecd77075a6c6b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sexism” (D063507).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063507). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gender coding
<a id="gender-coding"></a>

Gender coding is a pattern in a language or learning system in which words or cues are linked to male or female referents, allowing people to learn and use those links to form expectations about gender. In this context, it refers to associating features of words with the gender of the things or people they refer to, even when that pattern is learned implicitly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1bd164f8526c1fbe610e3da6440358507a3349fe715eefb7f0da427543078df4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Öttl Anton; Behne Dawn M.. Assessing the Formation of Experience-Based Gender Expectations in an Implicit Learning Scenario. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01485; article XML SHA-256 219da99e5608a0cf25f18ae464f7e0111937551b75351bf78ee453e010be2e5f. “Assessing the Formation of Experience-Based Gender Expectations in an Implicit Learning Scenario” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01485).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01485). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gender concept
<a id="gender-concept"></a>

Gender concept refers to the way gender is understood or organized, such as within a binary framework of male/female or outside that framework. In this source, a binary gender concept means identifying with one of the two socially recognized genders, while non-binary or gender-diverse identities may involve identifying with both, between, or neither.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6634cc7ec12444f44fb2452ee1233065611f5e7bd5f6aa65edc78b39787b70bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [von der Warth Rieka; Metzner Gloria; Körner Mirjam; Farin-Glattacker Erik. Exploring communication preferences of trans and gender diverse individuals—A qualitative study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0284959; article XML SHA-256 bddf128836a5f45eddfe92aae3e190cd0d58d48a7cc17713850a9da008e3a02c. “Exploring communication preferences of trans and gender diverse individuals—A qualitative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0284959).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284959). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gender differences
<a id="gender-differences"></a>

In this mental health context, gender differences means disparities between genders in how common certain conditions are or in related contributing factors. The source specifically describes women as being more affected than men by anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder in sub-Saharan Africa.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4baad90d348f59e8483c11f6d4704b350b24ca8658a47535020107a2a4950dea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Masinza Basil M.; Abubakar Amina; Mukubuyi Joy S.; Mwangala Patrick N.. Gender differences in the prevalence of anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder and associated factors among adults in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817602; article XML SHA-256 cef0040fbfc66c2264abc445e370c45b59b3d8352d0b941453a74ee27b1c93a4. “Gender differences in the prevalence of anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder and associated factors among adults in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817602).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817602). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gender dysphoria
<a id="gender-dysphoria"></a>

Gender dysphoria is a diagnosis involving a marked mismatch between a person’s experienced or expressed gender and the gender other people assign to them. This difference must persist for at least six months.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e6f25ec991af0ba6084aea22afcf16abb5ff0e2e457081cdebe4aa749a2b5d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gender Dysphoria” (D000068116).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000068116). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gender identity
<a id="gender-identity"></a>

Gender identity is a person’s inner sense of their own gender, such as male and masculine, female and feminine, or ambivalent. It reflects the internal experience of gender role and may be shaped in part by physical traits, parental responses, and psychological and social influences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e330039b9bcf25f5b54bc94d97aeada93faeb23325b1a99b0cbc17b24b4605b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gender Identity” (D005783).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005783). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gender identity disorder
<a id="gender-identity-disorder"></a>

Gender identity disorder is a term used for people whose assigned biological sex is experienced as not matching their gender identity, when this incongruence is not due to a physical intersex condition. In the source packet, the term is applied to transsexual individuals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4872d51ff072ce6f5e0887815a42fb36f8762322ff04f9d1c0a637a6448f60ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Simon Lajos; Kozák Lajos R.; Simon Viktória; Czobor Pál; Unoka Zsolt; Szabó Ádám; Csukly Gábor. Regional Grey Matter Structure Differences between Transsexuals and Healthy Controls—A Voxel Based Morphometry Study. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0083947; article XML SHA-256 b2e88945ba49ac7ec9be006c583b0de194ad16e481ba6e778b3b8a5b1711fb65. “Regional Grey Matter Structure Differences between Transsexuals and Healthy Controls—A Voxel Based Morphometry Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0083947).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083947). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gender nonconformity
<a id="gender-nonconformity"></a>

Gender nonconformity refers to gender expression that differs from what society expects or accepts. In this packet, it is discussed as a difference that can expose people to stigma, bullying, discrimination, and related mental health strain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: be0de36761f235fec23dc5c665dd7662a68c920861f98f90ee84690ae58050d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mossa Karys Michaela; Lundwall Rebecca A.; South Mikle. Anxiety symptoms and self-reported executive functioning in transgender and gender nonconforming adults: associations with autistic traits and depression. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1603606; article XML SHA-256 20a97c01317a80614f91123c2308f75799c1cb064bf280e6ab4739bc6c8d16ed. “Anxiety symptoms and self-reported executive functioning in transgender and gender nonconforming adults: associations with autistic traits and depression” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1603606).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1603606). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gender pay gap
<a id="gender-pay-gap"></a>

The gender pay gap is the difference in earnings between men and women. It can reflect differences in education, experience, occupation, and sector, as well as gender discrimination, including cases where men are paid more than women for the same work and similar qualifications.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b6b9298a17ae27b74ca3d992ba881b030b38bc652dff6817a744c6cf5b96628

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Van den Broeck Goedele; Kilic Talip; Pieters Janneke. Structural transformation and the gender pay gap in Sub-Saharan Africa. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0278188; article XML SHA-256 a28c2ecb1832318f275f3d06d270ab843f0d9f612343b9d2653fbccb07701bca. “Structural transformation and the gender pay gap in Sub-Saharan Africa” (10.1371/journal.pone.0278188).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278188). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gender reassignment
<a id="gender-reassignment"></a>

Gender reassignment is the process of transitioning gender, which may involve social changes as well as hormonal or surgical medical interventions. In this packet, the term is used for established gender transition in social and medical forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99f72cc3805ff51ec1fd4cd098b77ad0eb365eacb9aaf508efc7c8772e11a7b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kaltiala Riittakerttu; Helminen Mika; Holttinen Timo; Tuisku Katinka. Discontinuing hormonal gender reassignment: a nationwide register study. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-06005-6; article XML SHA-256 b3a2b7746f3c3cbe1f5af8220c75aab951c88328ba8292d4428d4fa66096980a. “Discontinuing hormonal gender reassignment: a nationwide register study” (10.1186/s12888-024-06005-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-06005-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gender role
<a id="gender-role"></a>

A gender role is the social role made up of behaviors and attitudes that a society regards as acceptable for a person on the basis of that person’s biological sex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f1432835bf4e2b1a6be2c7cd46e2ae32b6978a5df226d38e78dba4957aedcfe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gender Role” (D000085402).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000085402). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gender schema
<a id="gender-schema"></a>

Gender schema is a person’s internalized set of gender stereotypes that shapes how sensitive they are to traits and information seen as typical of males or females. It can influence how people perceive language, including making stereotype-inconsistent statements seem less natural or likely.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc8d4b1f91a79d0a15b906969a3a044822351d98ed6c24bdb122c2121190bd7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jankowiak Katarzyna; Naranowicz Marcin; Skałba Anna; Drążkowski Dariusz; Pawelczyk Joanna. Norms for gender stereotypically congruent, stereotypically incongruent, semantically correct, and semantically incorrect sentences in Polish and English. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302594; article XML SHA-256 c3bf68559748c3bed5d135642b3713771e44de9f27cc7f9f1f5531bfec7cbb0c. “Norms for gender stereotypically congruent, stereotypically incongruent, semantically correct, and semantically incorrect sentences in Polish and English” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302594).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302594). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gender stereotype
<a id="gender-stereotype"></a>

A gender stereotype is an expectation that certain traits, roles, or descriptions fit males or females in a socially typical way. Information that matches these expectations is seen as more fitting, while information that goes against them can seem less natural or likely.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5744dd77ebc7cb93e10b97426c5833b7359b3ce9ad2694eaaaa07e36c5e7d0b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jankowiak Katarzyna; Naranowicz Marcin; Skałba Anna; Drążkowski Dariusz; Pawelczyk Joanna. Norms for gender stereotypically congruent, stereotypically incongruent, semantically correct, and semantically incorrect sentences in Polish and English. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302594; article XML SHA-256 c3bf68559748c3bed5d135642b3713771e44de9f27cc7f9f1f5531bfec7cbb0c. “Norms for gender stereotypically congruent, stereotypically incongruent, semantically correct, and semantically incorrect sentences in Polish and English” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302594).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302594). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gene
<a id="gene"></a>

A gene is a hereditary factor that can influence whether a person is more likely to develop a condition such as bipolar disorder. Research described here suggests that many genes can contribute to risk, and no single gene causes the disorder by itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5d85e022a436687d29d835aad2466ff36381496e0e44b48a4fde4c33a28ee05

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 340e646cd122c31f2ae7dd7aa7041a63efb2312a91d487d37080bcfec38efea9. “Bipolar Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gene imprinting
<a id="gene-imprinting"></a>

Gene imprinting is a parent-of-origin effect in which a gene’s biological impact depends on whether it was inherited from the father or the mother. In this packet, it is used to explain why paternally inherited variants can be linked to disease risk while the same variants inherited maternally may not be.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82be5eda24cc62c29d90cc1dac93eeda8c36c1590e4cf7e41879c2a1d2d9e375

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bayley Jean-Pierre; Rebel Heggert G; Devilee Peter. A novel genetic strategy to interrogate an unknown phenotypic modifier: Sdhc KO-Robertsonian mice develop frequent thyroid abnormalities with papillary thyroid carcinoma-like features. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336731; article XML SHA-256 37bd61b495102a47175d05135008cd86863253d88e5062a54c489fc9647d5538. “A novel genetic strategy to interrogate an unknown phenotypic modifier: Sdhc KO-Robertsonian mice develop frequent thyroid abnormalities with papillary thyroid carcinoma-like features” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336731).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336731). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gene knockdown
<a id="gene-knockdown"></a>

Gene knockdown is a method used to reduce or silence the expression of a specific gene so researchers can examine what that gene does. In this packet, it was achieved with RNA interference to study how lowered gene activity affected tick biology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1a6dbf6a8e66374e42af134de92225db1a65984ddcc4ca9fa23534d33a9579c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vaz-Rodrigues Rita; Duru Vincent C; Nijhof Ard M; de la Fuente José. Transcriptomics insights into the functional role of tick Ixodes ricinus proteins metalloprotease and antigen p23. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336570; article XML SHA-256 6d5a44f79c05a1e686298c4b90cbbc363ff17ecbd72859f91a18d65df4c9511e. “Transcriptomics insights into the functional role of tick Ixodes ricinus proteins metalloprotease and antigen p23” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336570).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336570). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gene mosaicism
<a id="gene-mosaicism"></a>

In this fragile X context, gene mosaicism means that one person has a mix of cells with different versions of the FMR1 gene, such as some cells with a methylated full mutation and others with a smaller unmethylated premutation. This mixed pattern has been linked with better cognitive functioning than having only the full mutation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b7e90c7fca8fe6810a977dc2f904deada91f6ceb20cba2ecdf75507b191d33c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baker Emma K; Arpone Marta; Vera Solange Aliaga; Bretherton Lesley; Ure Alexandra; Kraan Claudine M; Bui Minh; Ling Ling; Francis David; Hunter Matthew F; Elliott Justine; Rogers Carolyn; Field Michael J; Cohen Jonathan; Maria Lorena Santa; Faundes Victor; Curotto Bianca; Morales Paulina; Trigo Cesar; Salas Isabel; Alliende Angelica M; Amor David J; Godler David E. Intellectual functioning and behavioural features associated with mosaicism in fragile X syndrome. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s11689-019-9288-7; article XML SHA-256 1dd97b77919f30fc9cb12cf7f721b636fe6653eb1193bbc82e389b6d61c28a87. “Intellectual functioning and behavioural features associated with mosaicism in fragile X syndrome” (10.1186/s11689-019-9288-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s11689-019-9288-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gene–environment interaction
<a id="geneenvironment-interaction"></a>

Gene–environment interaction is the combined influence of genetic vulnerability and environmental vulnerability on how substance use patterns or substance use disorders emerge. In this context, it refers to how gene-related factors and life circumstances may work together, although reported findings have been mixed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4dab8e5166fa07a5abec412d5c74b6a55138eb7deb48b96c43e1fadf1002f34

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiang Zheng; Chen Zidong; Chen Xi. Candidate gene-environment interactions in substance abuse: A systematic review. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0287446; article XML SHA-256 6b0cccfbfb23ff7e4d47ebaeea9ff300dd045fdd11aca32ca82bbec51d4c56c6. “Candidate gene-environment interactions in substance abuse: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0287446).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287446). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## genera
<a id="genera"></a>

In this source, genera refers to the four major coronavirus groups: Alphacoronavirus, Betacoronavirus, Gammacoronavirus, and Deltacoronavirus. The term is used to compare patterns across these phylogenetic groupings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e81eb9e6c075c0128e78320b312cf800050ae9852c99567ab2a58f5c5f4caa45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chew Jia Jun; Ng Chong Han. Genus- and host-associated codon usage bias patterns in coronavirus spike genes. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351693; article XML SHA-256 34964a4aed8e2dd25221bc0b51ab132eb387015f6855f11398eb514bf18c0355. “Genus- and host-associated codon usage bias patterns in coronavirus spike genes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351693).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351693). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## general ability
<a id="general-ability"></a>

General ability refers to a person’s current overall capacity or aptitude for intellectual performance as measured by standardized testing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4bd1c4f86f7573651d3a344e503187abe37bbe8775e0282544c1584d12589299

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Intelligence Tests” (D007361).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007361). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## general adaptation syndrome
<a id="general-adaptation-syndrome"></a>

General adaptation syndrome is the body’s overall pattern of broad, non-specific physical reactions that develops during prolonged exposure to stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e33fb70de626a2ebf6a2c74d0016545af4a94e78a7821eadc034cbdb599066e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “General Adaptation Syndrome” (D005790).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005790). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## general arousal
<a id="general-arousal"></a>

General arousal is a broad increase in alertness or activation that can be set off by a stimulus, such as a frightened face. In this context, it is contrasted with a more specific response to the social meaning of another person’s gaze and emotional expression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 225f770335c3190de09dbd244d3e4d179af7c77d29ec47fca695a14c64fba04f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hoehl Stefanie; Wiese Lisa; Striano Tricia. Young Infants' Neural Processing of Objects Is Affected by Eye Gaze Direction and Emotional Expression. 2008; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0002389; article XML SHA-256 ce7cca0ae57af39a23e064f002da9112c19eee921a6f01c200cab50d788889d6. “Young Infants' Neural Processing of Objects Is Affected by Eye Gaze Direction and Emotional Expression” (10.1371/journal.pone.0002389).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002389). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## general effect
<a id="general-effect"></a>

General effect means the overall impact of a factor when considering the full group being studied. It describes the average direction or size of the effect before examining how it may differ across subgroups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 601006ac63dbede51562bda3284181d71d73daf19ebb0187b4bc9a267445def8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yang; Wu Chaojiang; Yan Erjia; Li Kai. Will open access increase journal CiteScores? An empirical investigation over multiple disciplines. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0201885; article XML SHA-256 aca4b4dc845a68c714c48537a2e6398bf001c715622ae801e8d2acbdb3c653c9. “Will open access increase journal CiteScores? An empirical investigation over multiple disciplines” (10.1371/journal.pone.0201885).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201885). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## General Health Questionnaire
<a id="general-health-questionnaire"></a>

The General Health Questionnaire, especially its 12-item form, is a brief screening measure used to assess psychological distress, detect mental health difficulties, and track short-term changes in mental well-being. It is widely used across different populations and settings, though score interpretation may vary between groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e76da45bf50f90ddf00d155fffc54deb0d0343ca6a728064e46a437a1a07265d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Comotti Anna; Barnini Teresa; Fattori Alice; Paladino Maria Emilia; Riva Michele Augusto; Bonzini Matteo; Belingheri Michael. Rethinking students’ mental health assessment through GHQ-12: evidence from the IRT approach. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s40359-024-01808-4; article XML SHA-256 f9dfb95a5bda5614e56f094e996c22c856662761ffac6f71d22017c6df00614a. “Rethinking students’ mental health assessment through GHQ-12: evidence from the IRT approach” (10.1186/s40359-024-01808-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01808-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## general paresis
<a id="general-paresis"></a>

General paresis is a term for mild to moderate muscle weakness, though it has sometimes been used more loosely to mean paralysis. In older medical writing, general paresis could also specifically refer to paretic neurosyphilis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf60cf07af095760dc7979ddef6a7de6c8c0dca49812d1a9a1dd22e15df734c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paresis” (D010291).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010291). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## general psychology
<a id="general-psychology"></a>

In this historical usage, general psychology is the part of psychology that studies the laws or regularities of mental life. It is contrasted with approaches focused mainly on classification or explanation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad626eaf9844a854d3d08beb446b1faa1a3c59718b96b4e48501d32eb5041bfc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nomology” (Nomology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nomology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## general slowing
<a id="general-slowing"></a>

General slowing is a broad slowing effect described as an adverse factor that can influence cognitive flexibility across adulthood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0263e783f29832da437e30579559386781a4d8861716b2be337f3d44cb1a0a10

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moretti Luca; Semenza Carlo; Vallesi Antonino. General Slowing and Education Mediate Task Switching Performance Across the Life-Span. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00630; article XML SHA-256 43bd57d06e6ab5cc41c4e8ada5d1df4c9bb992c61710f59dc7cb91162563de56. “General Slowing and Education Mediate Task Switching Performance Across the Life-Span” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00630).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00630). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## general transfer
<a id="general-transfer"></a>

General transfer is the carryover of a broadly trained underlying process, such as attention, memory, thinking, or visual perception, into a more specific performance setting. In this source, it refers to limited transfer of these isolated processes, without strong adaptation to the real behavioral and contextual demands of the task.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4301febd315f2867ddd0e3e91ca38fd5c01073e88494534554252512664fa225

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Renshaw Ian; Davids Keith; Araújo Duarte; Lucas Ana; Roberts William M.; Newcombe Daniel J.; Franks Benjamin. Evaluating Weaknesses of “Perceptual-Cognitive Training” and “Brain Training” Methods in Sport: An Ecological Dynamics Critique. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02468; article XML SHA-256 3cc5016247490a8a32aa2b927878109323c50469217d7defae41f7cb6ae37ab7. “Evaluating Weaknesses of “Perceptual-Cognitive Training” and “Brain Training” Methods in Sport: An Ecological Dynamics Critique” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02468).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02468). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## generalizability
<a id="generalizability"></a>

Generalizability is the extent to which a model or finding continues to work well when applied beyond the original dataset, such as in different populations or under different measurement conditions. In this context, it refers to robustness against biases and changes between datasets that can reduce real-world performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 302b9c9ddc1853ddb6d4ed6bf04b21868e4f24b780528f19abb1b8fa96cda429

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kazmi Majida; Imran Bisma; Qazi Saad A.; Siddiqui M. A. Rehman. A generalizability analysis framework for bias resilience in convolution neural network and transformer models for diabetic retinopathy screening. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351225; article XML SHA-256 831d5262c90cb1a85580795376d479990dd78c4f3fea29a30f69c7f49c01fa07. “A generalizability analysis framework for bias resilience in convolution neural network and transformer models for diabetic retinopathy screening” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351225).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351225). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## generalizability theory
<a id="generalizability-theory"></a>

Generalizability theory is a statistical approach to evaluating how reliable a measurement is in the behavioral sciences. It examines several possible sources of measurement error at the same time and estimates how much each testing condition or factor contributes to score variation across acceptable observations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4b9469d733cf5e9dbdd4bbd360253c44d33e6d81cf27ca2a04b9bda29b65b30

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ankomah Francis; Annan-Brew Ruth Keziah; Asamoah-Gyimah Kenneth; Nugba Regina Mawusi; Anane Eric; Oduro-Okyireh George. Dependability of preservice clinical teaching scores using Generalizability Theory. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1728374; article XML SHA-256 3a6b7733c77e9c318c8c64b3f2079e4066b6c1a86aec37cd67ce07115760f9d9. “Dependability of preservice clinical teaching scores using Generalizability Theory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1728374).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1728374). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## generalization
<a id="generalization"></a>

Generalization is a thinking process in which a person identifies shared features across specific examples and forms a broader concept or principle from them. It involves moving from detailed observations to more general ideas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a3488c560fda5bce6ef9808697d4e0797070b5e65da97a554d2f4f06f21797e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Generalization” (C54202).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## generalized anxiety disorder
<a id="generalized-anxiety-disorder"></a>

Generalized anxiety disorder is a diagnosis marked by uncontrolled anxiety or excessive worry that goes beyond what life situations realistically call for and lasts at least a month.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 79e5cc8bf7afea843a5f417ad4c5d2800159ed00645bf10ba98f1df709e58484

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder” (D000098647).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000098647). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## generalized matching law
<a id="generalized-matching-law"></a>

The generalized matching law is an equation from operant psychology used to describe how behavior reflects the subjective value of available rewards or punishers rather than just their objective properties. It provides a mathematical way to assess sensitivity to features such as frequency, magnitude, or delay when people or animals make choices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b5773bcd0ac07112fd3ad1347bc291135952b72d24da88399302d693bf1f268

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bull Peter N.; Tippett Lynette J.; Addis Donna Rose. Decision making in healthy participants on the Iowa Gambling Task: new insights from an operant approach. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00391; article XML SHA-256 30c21df19c76b0e90f36cc0b4af12b2ed6454a2fcfad16004dfa9874748760e3. “Decision making in healthy participants on the Iowa Gambling Task: new insights from an operant approach” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00391).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00391). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## generalized other
<a id="generalized-other"></a>

In this context, the generalized other means a person’s broad expectation of how other people typically react to them across everyday situations, rather than in relation to one specific person. It reflects a general self-with-others pattern that summarizes basic interpersonal tendencies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5dea0f7881d0d28810af08d6cd07696d25f5bd7807b4941e57bf5ef5d6a1d467

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Chan Mi; La Soohyun. From narcissistic vulnerability to Hikikomori: depression and online–offline relational discrepancy among South Korean young adults. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834967; article XML SHA-256 1107e02f829f312f9a155b026ae8a5a5bb75ecea6d94799d5a8677b5cff0c64c. “From narcissistic vulnerability to Hikikomori: depression and online–offline relational discrepancy among South Korean young adults” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834967).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834967). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## generalized seizure
<a id="generalized-seizure"></a>

A generalized seizure is a seizure caused by abnormal electrical activity happening at the same time in both halves of the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d43b51ea21d2f635b7f024dac1273bdceda07e2484a3f627ea5d08d7b68381c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Generalized Seizure” (C213726).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## generation effect
<a id="generation-effect"></a>

The generation effect is the idea that people may perform better later when they first produce their own response, idea, or position instead of directly adopting one supplied by a tool or other source. In this packet, it is mentioned as a possible explanation for why a self-generation-first workflow led to better later unaided reasoning than a direct-adoption workflow, but no mechanism was established.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d297b339dde2e0754c80b5634c197b93c27d6f1ea98c6b1b753e3c7c25ccc7e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Chenghai; Guo Jiayao; Gao Rongxia; Chen Xiangnan; Zhu Qiuhan; Chang Pengcheng. Borrowed or kept? How self-generation-first and direct-adoption AI workflows shape immediate unaided reasoning. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1910545; article XML SHA-256 27059efdd669711e3f0ccfb27363158a3fd8216df2ada358f5b41ad34198261b. “Borrowed or kept? How self-generation-first and direct-adoption AI workflows shape immediate unaided reasoning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1910545).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1910545). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## generative grammar
<a id="generative-grammar"></a>

Generative grammar is an approach to studying language structure, especially syntax, that examines how sentence elements are derived and represented within a clause. In this packet, it includes minimalist and phase-based analyses of how question forms are structured.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad4b49c07649c6726c93b7ccbdc4b84b760221f538da952861b502908c45cb3d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fakih Abdul-Hafeed; Alzubi Ali Abbas Falah; Algouzi Sami. The morpho-syntax of question particles in Standard Arabic. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299710; article XML SHA-256 a745be04e6beab0bc820ad62ef0fdc1ea943e83d083cd04b082d98d625255edb. “The morpho-syntax of question particles in Standard Arabic” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299710).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299710). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## generic knowledge
<a id="generic-knowledge"></a>

Generic knowledge is information presented as broadly applicable rather than tied only to the immediate situation. In this context, it refers to ecological or social knowledge that can be generalized beyond the here and now.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0babb4dfd286aa8c5ae31f19288454c98c692c6ccfe4baf293f6829b71886495

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Scalise Sugiyama Michelle. Oral Storytelling as Evidence of Pedagogy in Forager Societies. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00471; article XML SHA-256 dc9d625a57d86dbc97fb9fd8f2a8f3fb8a42a97ab2f5cd7c77c512e02549a8c0. “Oral Storytelling as Evidence of Pedagogy in Forager Societies” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00471).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00471). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## generosity
<a id="generosity"></a>

Generosity is a disposition to judge others’ good qualities favorably or to give goods or favors to others, often with some degree of self-denial. It is similar to liberality but suggests a stronger form that includes personal sacrifice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44aecdb9c52074233af2ecd2d81040847f69cc19810c1f905851b9d1d68c6d0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Generosity” (Generosity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Generosity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genetic algorithm
<a id="genetic-algorithm"></a>

A genetic algorithm is an optimization method used to improve a model’s performance by adjusting its structure and parameters. In this source, it is used to tune a fuzzy neural network so it can classify levels of bank-related risk more accurately.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: acdc07357f44230dfed1d79ff3192ad9a04b6ab6f6025c6300f48a0bb6024f60

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Jiaqing; Liu Yang; Tu Miaomiao; Sohaib Osama. Design of an evolutionary model for international trade settlement based on genetic algorithm and fuzzy neural network. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327199; article XML SHA-256 00f59ca4b0dffce4873d41d26207231066ece163aa6e5ceaba190c5b7bc9537d. “Design of an evolutionary model for international trade settlement based on genetic algorithm and fuzzy neural network” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327199).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327199). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genetic counseling
<a id="genetic-counseling"></a>

Genetic counseling is an educational process in which people or families receive information, guidance, and usually psychosocial support about a genetic condition that may affect them. It is intended to help them make informed choices about reproduction and other health-related decisions using information about the condition, testing options, and management approaches.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3888a63a7582cc0d5b7be3253c53a40aabb9b1c799ae83f73256fe0acab8c7d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Genetic Counseling” (D005817).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005817). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genetic defect
<a id="genetic-defect"></a>

A genetic defect is a disease-related change in a gene that can be identified by genetic testing. In this packet, the genetic defect causing the inherited disorder was the presence of two different variants in the PEX10 gene.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a2b7ec7f0162608ba7c3df77a0b74d9d1808f9df7d824b41ee4d609e64000b31

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Xiangjun; Deng Xinyue; Deng Xiong; Xu Hongbo; Deng Hao; Yuan Lamei. Identification of novel compound heterozygous variants in the PEX10 gene in a Han-Chinese family with PEX10 -related peroxisome biogenesis disorders. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322137; article XML SHA-256 d012ca004ea74aedce50a2078b91203961d2904fcd901780de44ccb8fdace2eb. “Identification of novel compound heterozygous variants in the PEX10 gene in a Han-Chinese family with PEX10 -related peroxisome biogenesis disorders” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322137).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322137). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genetic determinism
<a id="genetic-determinism"></a>

Genetic determinism is the view that a person’s character and behavior are mainly determined by their genes, rather than by culture, environment, or personal choice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9e6008fc1bc4e9caf52962530b8134e1840350370468c6c38ff9d776cead902

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Genetic Determinism” (D033141).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D033141). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genetic engineering
<a id="genetic-engineering"></a>

Genetic engineering is an approach that changes an organism’s genes to produce desired traits. In the source material, it is described as a way to improve crop characteristics and increase tolerance to stresses such as salinity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 109323b1f5bc47e181772a7d19461ebae47f32069768bf896196de77a9c705bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [AlNeyadi Sara; Kappachery Sajeesh; Khan Tanveer Alam; Karumannil Sameera; AlHosani Mohammed; Anand Gururani Mayank. Ectopic expression of potato ARP1 encoding auxin-repressed protein confers salinity stress tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0309452; article XML SHA-256 76827cc0e557893cf1e371b1ccd998a2b7eeb158eaf73340b321e500fec4c05d. “Ectopic expression of potato ARP1 encoding auxin-repressed protein confers salinity stress tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana” (10.1371/journal.pone.0309452).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309452). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genetic guidance
<a id="genetic-guidance"></a>

Genetic guidance refers to the idea that genes help shape how brain systems are built and function. In this source, it specifically means that inherited genetic influences may direct the neural rhythm patterns linked to language processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a9d5e9bbd74699021cccd33f59ccd3e14df81fd83d734019641c2d061c1154e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Murphy Elliot; Benítez-Burraco Antonio. Toward the Language Oscillogenome. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01999; article XML SHA-256 7c744dc7ecccc6167264c764151443d88c23f721d3d1c60a63b2201b8f5e0727. “Toward the Language Oscillogenome” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01999).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01999). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genetic method
<a id="genetic-method"></a>

In historical educational psychology, genetic method means explaining a subject by showing how it originates and develops, or how it comes into being. It is a way of teaching through the order of formation or growth of the thing being taught.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6bca2c9d2cdd5830db2e07d600347e0c6d82108f33ab5a3f93156a1df013b207

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Genetic Method (in education)” (Genetic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Genetic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genetic monogamy
<a id="genetic-monogamy"></a>

Genetic monogamy is one end of the range of genetic mating-system patterns studied in animals, contrasted with polyandry. In the source, it is described as an alternative evolutionary strategy that has arisen multiple times under different ecological and biological conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ce1d45c70aea9e6481b532511b57096ca5b2b368933bf2dab7a7590a71eaebe6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gayford Joel H; Flores-Flores Estefanía M. No evidence for population-level benefits of polyandry in sharks and rays. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308141; article XML SHA-256 bfbe5a4a3bc0661b544094e6c9a550bf134782a591ebf4d8ce2caba23c022924. “No evidence for population-level benefits of polyandry in sharks and rays” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308141).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308141). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genetic programming
<a id="genetic-programming"></a>

Genetic programming is an evolutionary machine-learning method used to build predictive models from complex, nonlinear data. In this packet, a multi-gene form of genetic programming was used to develop a prognostic model and generate robust predictions from experimental measurements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a744751b12aabedb2a1b1ab50fad2d3250e6d7b1a789e727ef71500ed018f903

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sharma K V; Naik MT; Kanti Praveen Kumar; Prasad DM Reddy; Paramasivam Prabhu; Ayanie Abinet Gosaye. Flow and heat transfer of Poly Dispersed SiO 2 Nanoparticles in Aqueous Glycerol in a Horizontal pipe: Application of ensemble and evolutionary machine learning for model-prediction. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323347; article XML SHA-256 ae927ccfdc72b31abd6147071246abb1c5e4c6fe44e5c092335f110c0c63ce6a. “Flow and heat transfer of Poly Dispersed SiO 2 Nanoparticles in Aqueous Glycerol in a Horizontal pipe: Application of ensemble and evolutionary machine learning for model-prediction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323347).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323347). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genetic psychology
<a id="genetic-psychology"></a>

Genetic psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with how mind develops, grows, and evolves. It includes both the development of an individual mind and the broader evolution of mind across animals and humans, including differences among human groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 462c1cb0e4017c22501f9ba41fb9708917a5ce303d1c0290786979d0f65da184

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Genetic Psychology” (Geneticp).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Geneticp). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genetic theory
<a id="genetic-theory"></a>

In this historical usage, genetic theory refers to Wundt’s account of how space perception develops: free eye movements were thought to help produce the overall form of the visual field seen by one eye and our sense of where objects are located within it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2ff6033eeb541d5d2d7414f7f49a4960de0d10a89fece86f9e84b493f2561269

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Eye-movements” (Eyem).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Eyem). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genetic variation
<a id="genetic-variation"></a>

In this context, genetic variation refers to differences across multiple serotonin-related genes that may change how environmental experiences are linked to social adjustment. The packet supports this contextual meaning rather than a full general definition of the term.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69bfb44c610e8eedbce9ddbd9c0cc0dfead764a999771565e385d357607c0768

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang De; Ding Jiayi; Rao Hao; Cao Hanyun. The impact of parent-child relationship on adolescent social adjustment following childhood abuse: the moderation of the serotonergic multilocus genetic variation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1887601; article XML SHA-256 01ac8bd946991bbd4c36bdb857fbc44da31dec4d19162786e5a4faa5db10647b. “The impact of parent-child relationship on adolescent social adjustment following childhood abuse: the moderation of the serotonergic multilocus genetic variation” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1887601).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1887601). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## geneticist
<a id="geneticist"></a>

A geneticist is a professional who gathers personal and family health history to judge how likely a genetic condition may be affecting a person or family member. In genetic counseling, they may also help people decide whether genetic testing could be useful.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 911805b4b646bb6baf4222537c98d6557d5525ac83517555b7272ba3181fe3c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Looking at My Genes: What Can They Tell Me About My Mental Health?. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 e0a8e68cb501d46c5f874a27c2d5a30a84750d1a2237f7aef870195d127e7c4e. “Looking at My Genes: What Can They Tell Me About My Mental Health?” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/looking-at-my-genes).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/looking-at-my-genes). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genetics
<a id="genetics"></a>

Genetics here refers to the area of medicine focused on genes, genomes, and inherited mutations, and on how advances in studying and manipulating them are changing ideas about disease and its prevention or control. It includes efforts to identify inherited genetic changes that contribute to risks for conditions including cancer, developmental, immune, mental, and neurological disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59b3fa24783a819eb7504e3cfd86ac108124bb61dd09b2bcf0e510ddaaf5ca46

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Genetic Medicine” (C18806).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genetics of intelligence
<a id="genetics-of-intelligence"></a>

Genetics of intelligence is the study of genes and genetic locations linked to differences in human intelligence. It is one of the main research approaches used to investigate the biological basis of intelligence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df5ff7becc5695f81015e79df911960ab26806dce2cd4e8591f5eb83586c7df1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Goriounova Natalia A.; Mansvelder Huibert D.. Genes, Cells and Brain Areas of Intelligence. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00044; article XML SHA-256 c89660313f0097e3cef81e97937f90d77fe80024d74f2f93506ea0e3a7db761f. “Genes, Cells and Brain Areas of Intelligence” (10.3389/fnhum.2019.00044).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00044). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## -genic
<a id="genic"></a>

-genic is a suffix used in compounds in an active sense to mean producing, causing, or giving rise to something in its genesis or development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0f304addaae571c1c1ace781bba9a0609ba7b684d900a37a94f1546b5f76ca6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Genesis (1) and Genetic (2)” (Genesis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Genesis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## geniculate nucleus
<a id="geniculate-nucleus"></a>

The geniculate nucleus is a part of the diencephalon located below the back end of the dorsal thalamus. It includes a lateral division that passes visual signals to the calcarine cortex and a medial division that passes auditory signals to the auditory cortex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6e4186df99d255705160a6f5a9273c3ded7c5169fabe9ac8fd6c0b48866d4b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Geniculate Bodies” (D005829).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005829). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genistein
<a id="genistein"></a>

Genistein is a plant-derived isoflavone phytoestrogen found in soybeans. It can act on estrogen receptors and has been studied for biological effects including anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-apoptotic, and neuroprotective actions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: acec7bc8db1d3480eb2abe6fa7be494987743a52e4117fc8650d0247d7ad6094

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mohd Khairudin Nurin Yasmin; Mohd Azraai Awla; Siran Rosfaiizah; Azme Nasibah. Therapeutic mechanisms of genistein in ischemic stroke: A systematic review of in vivo and in vitro studies. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338590; article XML SHA-256 1d3f111a16588bf3a14e34e2dd745afbc5242a96fe8cf67f234fd48eb8ca5d88. “Therapeutic mechanisms of genistein in ischemic stroke: A systematic review of in vivo and in vitro studies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338590).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338590). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genital mutilation
<a id="genital-mutilation"></a>

In this source, genital mutilation refers specifically to female genital mutilation/cutting, a practice reported in some communities in Asia and Africa. It is described as a human rights violation that can harm the physical and mental well-being of affected people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d9db0e7cee621fd325974e2e2a509f157e21a078c1db8e11c8338ba8e5c0f278

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pande Shania; Shamu Simukai; Abdelhamed Amr; Munyao Kingoo James; Van de Velde Sarah; Temmerman Marleen; Esho Tammary; Kimani Samuel; Omwoha Joyce; Kpokiri Eneyi E.; Tucker Joseph D.. COVID-19 and Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting and child marriage: An online multi-country cross sectional survey. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304671; article XML SHA-256 2706edcbab5d165250f1228fc1b9365d981249a265dad89395b7815effc40d24. “COVID-19 and Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting and child marriage: An online multi-country cross sectional survey” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304671).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304671). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genitive
<a id="genitive"></a>

In historical grammar, the genitive is the case used to show a larger whole or class of which only a part is involved or affected by the governing word. It was understood as the case of the genus or greater whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef83f75e17ae60b25aa172bb1511fee38fa4b2a982dbffc1f396971e69ff12e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Declension” (Declension).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Declension). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder
<a id="genito-pelvic-pain-penetration-disorder"></a>

Genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder is a sexual dysfunction involving pain during intercourse or problems related to penetration. In this diagnostic context, it refers to a persistent sexual problem that lasts at least 6 months and causes clinically significant distress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 029c17e347045c653fe3589ae5e3547e2f88a8b53348cf20c2301fc0551b3673

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lafortune David; Girard Marianne; Dussault Éliane; Philibert Mathieu; Hébert Martine; Boislard Marie-Aude; Goyette Mathieu; Godbout Natacha. Who seeks sex therapy? Sexual dysfunction prevalence and correlates, and help-seeking among clinical and community samples. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0282618; article XML SHA-256 eb61597e32f99f3fe8a463c35d846c3bc00704c60f38c285916ee344fb7b95af. “Who seeks sex therapy? Sexual dysfunction prevalence and correlates, and help-seeking among clinical and community samples” (10.1371/journal.pone.0282618).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282618). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genius
<a id="genius"></a>

In this historical psychology source, genius means a person with unusually great mental or moral ability or achievement. It also refers to the exceptional native endowment behind such superiority, typically understood as involving marked originality and individuality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d678f552df76606e8f15ab88f092c638a58b4d475830138cf73001c3ddcefda

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Genius” (Genius).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Genius). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genocide
<a id="genocide"></a>

Genocide is a large-scale atrocity, such as the Holocaust or the Rwandan genocide, that has devastating effects on both individuals and communities. In mental health contexts, it is associated with profound and long-lasting psychological harm, including elevated rates of post-traumatic stress and depression among survivors decades later.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 63f8f9cf4b934fa5e7d38e1b9400dd315a3beada5da4da65edb2256e5151ea28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zasiekina Larysa; Hlova Iryna; Kokun Oleg; Kuznietsov Illia; Pastryk Tetiana; Solonenko Olena; Zasiekin Serhii. Transgenerational transfer of genocidal trauma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1699835; article XML SHA-256 e0c5e0f4ca613f551e72b839773adc95d8b8210d16da1958e8f5f9af00cb07eb. “Transgenerational transfer of genocidal trauma: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1699835).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1699835). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genotype–phenotype correlation
<a id="genotypephenotype-correlation"></a>

Genotype–phenotype correlation is the relationship between a genetic feature and the observable characteristics of a disorder. In this context, it means analyzing whether variation in genotype, such as repeat length, is associated with differences in clinical features like age at symptom onset or test findings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aaa136ac57e0ddce02c7916650dbf3b2a9b5cacf9a746830474728bad8705719

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ni Wang; Chen Sheng; Qiao Kai; Wang Ning; Wu Zhi-Ying. Genotype-Phenotype Correlation in Chinese Patients with Spinal and Bulbar Muscular Atrophy. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0122279; article XML SHA-256 1fc7d07b7df91a4f35a3cbd577e7cd57eea7c912f1c853814be49bf4268522c8. “Genotype-Phenotype Correlation in Chinese Patients with Spinal and Bulbar Muscular Atrophy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0122279).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0122279). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gentrification
<a id="gentrification"></a>

Gentrification is an urban social and environmental process in which neighborhood change is linked with displacement, disrupted social networks, and worse health outcomes, especially for marginalized or vulnerable communities. In this source, it is described as a pattern associated with changes in factors such as home values, age, race, and education.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a71811e47e6fd7d721a73e6c5a020721778619f1070a6d7008cb473617e58669

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Scavo Nicole A; Vasquez Chalmers; Multini Laura C; Mutebi John-Paul; Wilke André B B. Gentrification influences mosquito community composition at neighborhood and county levels in Miami-Dade County, Florida. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324571; article XML SHA-256 1506a95e7609a3526852fe547958185b54cd9cd786cdb4d978826b79462e00a0. “Gentrification influences mosquito community composition at neighborhood and county levels in Miami-Dade County, Florida” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324571).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324571). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## genu
<a id="genu"></a>

In this historical source, genu is the Latin term for the knee. The packet does not provide any further psychology-specific meaning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 49714f112f0a796f6ae2a6c462dc79a94ecc69ead123511c9e43348b9badcf44

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Genu” (Genu).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Genu). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## geographical mobility
<a id="geographical-mobility"></a>

Geographical mobility is the extent to which a person’s life involves movement between places, such as longer-distance commuting or relocating for work, study, marriage, or other long-term living arrangements. In this context, greater geographical mobility means greater exposure to different local environments and variation across places over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 871c442e6fa192ad1c2fbd61d3091a4fefee2028a84b50078ae8aa7f5afa4e11

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jeszenszky Péter; Steiner Carina; Leemann Adrian. Effects of mobility on dialect change: Introducing the linguistic mobility index. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300735; article XML SHA-256 bdabf43b3d6c8d69062c2657efa3fc36918e910a935b35a58c534a656aa17e34. “Effects of mobility on dialect change: Introducing the linguistic mobility index” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300735).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300735). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## geometric distribution
<a id="geometric-distribution"></a>

A geometric distribution is a probability distribution used to describe how many Bernoulli trials occur before the first success is observed. It is the discrete counterpart of the exponential distribution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1bfce30364171e95d74a1ea0ddfaefb51f488a630f076da3b8c1d37aa6ded972

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Coronel-Brizio Héctor Francisco; Hernández-Montoya Alejandro Raúl; Rodríguez-Achach Manuel Enrique; Tapia-McClung Horacio; Trinidad-Segovia Juan Evangelista. Anderson-Darling and Watson tests for the geometric distribution with estimated probability of success. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315855; article XML SHA-256 6af7f007c94127f67acb780a04fa499f7027579982d2c84c8da7928ccf4f5a99. “Anderson-Darling and Watson tests for the geometric distribution with estimated probability of success” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315855).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315855). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## geometric illusion
<a id="geometric-illusion"></a>

A geometric illusion is a visual misperception in which a simple geometric feature is seen differently because of the pattern around it. In the Müller-Lyer illusion, for example, the same line can look different in length depending on whether it ends with arrow tails or arrowheads.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1358a3319526acec0cfa7f672afdfd1fa87532b4d11d820266fe411b59a4bce9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sakiyama Tomoko; Gunji Yukio-Pegio. The Müller-Lyer Illusion in Ant Foraging. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0081714; article XML SHA-256 e08664cf60c52ce5e7309bc816c5177de5ee4c89f70c42d0250ebde1ec4977dd. “The Müller-Lyer Illusion in Ant Foraging” (10.1371/journal.pone.0081714).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081714). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## geometric mean
<a id="geometric-mean"></a>

The geometric mean is a measure of central tendency. It is found by multiplying a set of numbers together and then taking the root that matches how many numbers are in the set.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d189d8d50dc4513b1ae612cb417463bb69bfe5939d3ee8e191e34d95249c191c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Geometric Mean” (geometric_mean.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/geometric_mean.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## geotaxis
<a id="geotaxis"></a>

Geotaxis is the movement of an organism or cell in relation to the direction of gravity. It is described as one of the simple responsive movements seen in both animals and plants.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cda1a96bbf891dafd9fa356c9b4e1f9f2bf1aff1c9a4b90e06be7804cd04c030

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-84000-96000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## geriatric assessment
<a id="geriatric-assessment"></a>

Geriatric assessment is the evaluation of how well older adults are functioning physically, physiologically, or mentally.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 76e7d2cc5292637456e70a4b51a369e516909cb1dc1c46e61c9e51e8f8f027c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Geriatric Assessment” (D015577).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015577). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Geriatric Depression Scale
<a id="geriatric-depression-scale"></a>

The Geriatric Depression Scale is a questionnaire used to assess depressive symptoms in older adults. In this source, the 15-item version (GDS-15) was used as a primary outcome measure of depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5358db27a5d0fc416e388c5ffbba6920d6d3f5e564ab8dc7d59e3ee641a2a2a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tsai Pei-Ching; Chou Wen-Huei; Liao Shu-Yi. A randomized controlled trial study of a life review art intervention for older adults living alone. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1669119; article XML SHA-256 04c1491170345e25aadd451cb145a2c8270ed3c8d760e6a2aba4219e904991ea. “A randomized controlled trial study of a life review art intervention for older adults living alone” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1669119).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1669119). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## geriatric rehabilitation
<a id="geriatric-rehabilitation"></a>

Geriatric rehabilitation is a structured, multi-professional rehabilitation approach for older inpatients, often provided after an acute health event or alongside acute hospital care. It uses multidimensional assessment and therapy to help people with multiple health conditions maintain or regain functional independence, including physical and cognitive abilities, in line with the person’s own goals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3aba271424668153098fc5627875c8a11f6d1dfa851027a8676e970c58e88c01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fränzel Katja; Koschate-Storm Jessica; Freiberger Ellen; Shigematsu Ryosuke; Zieschang Tania; Tietgen Svenja. Effects of Square-Stepping Exercise on cognitive function in early geriatric rehabilitation: A randomized controlled explorative study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338695; article XML SHA-256 642456562f25be24b5d06ce165eabcb35754c85835299c967152f9fefc12fda1. “Effects of Square-Stepping Exercise on cognitive function in early geriatric rehabilitation: A randomized controlled explorative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338695).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338695). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## geriatric screening
<a id="geriatric-screening"></a>

Geriatric screening is a brief check used to identify older patients who are likely to need a full geriatric assessment. It uses simple questions to flag possible problems across areas such as functioning, thinking, nutrition, and psychological well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: afad9492e1828f7c71b26454266e1d44936116a24926bf5bbfca6c125f88a6a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Jin Won; Kim Se-Hyun; Kim Yu Jung; Lee Keun-Wook; Kim Kwang-Il; Lee Jong Seok; Kim Cheol-Ho; Kim Jee Hyun; Korean Cancer Study Group Geriatric Oncology Working Party. A Novel Geriatric Screening Tool in Older Patients with Cancer: The Korean Cancer Study Group Geriatric Score (KG)-7. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0138304; article XML SHA-256 ac3ab0cdd446a2cc0d9831d6060637da2740bd18316dc86c9581f33cdd94bec7. “A Novel Geriatric Screening Tool in Older Patients with Cancer: The Korean Cancer Study Group Geriatric Score (KG)-7” (10.1371/journal.pone.0138304).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138304). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## germ layer
<a id="germ-layer"></a>

A germ layer is a developmental tissue-origin category used to describe where a body tissue comes from. In this packet, mesoderm is identified as a germ layer and is contrasted with the neural crest origin of temporomandibular joint cartilage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 907306eb14c15cd3693c65ed8901fd7c705f97781e998cf857d014c43cff1c0b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Trbojevic Sara; Dong Xudong; Lafyatis Robert; Gold Michael S; Taboas Juan M; Almarza Alejandro J. Single-cell RNA sequencing of healthy and diseased rat temporomandibular joint condyle cartilage. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348175; article XML SHA-256 09249e6a765e0210d875c087a8aa3ad339d9c5be730c457ea3d61adbdee46ad9. “Single-cell RNA sequencing of healthy and diseased rat temporomandibular joint condyle cartilage” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348175).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348175). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## germ plasm
<a id="germ-plasm"></a>

Germ plasm is the material regarded as the bodily basis of heredity. In historical usage, the term was associated with Weismann and was considered probably the same as idioplasm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64ff03da84b5a729dd2d5c25f9c0fc23d1a95a4c76994ee937553150a0be9786

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Germ-plasm” (Germ-plasm).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Germ-plasm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Gerstmann’s syndrome
<a id="gerstmanns-syndrome"></a>

Gerstmann’s syndrome is a cognitive disorder marked by difficulty recognizing one’s fingers, writing, calculating, and telling right from left. It can be developmental or acquired, and acquired cases are linked to damage in the dominant, usually left, parietal lobe around the angular gyrus or nearby white matter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99f4234f8a8b579eddeb8ea289b3b3c242f395078249cd1d2952418dda111e13

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gerstmann Syndrome” (D005862).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005862). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Gesellschaft
<a id="gesellschaft"></a>

In this historical source, Gesellschaft is the German term used for an association in the sense of an organized group formed to advance a shared aim or carry out a common purpose. It is contrasted with a mere aggregation of people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 24a4ee8f65379aceb826e3e42cc9485afbc56ecaacf192311559fa446e49daec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Association (social)” (Association (social)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Association (social)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Gestalt psychology
<a id="gestalt-psychology"></a>

Gestalt psychology is an approach to perception that emphasizes how separate, similar parts can be mentally grouped and experienced as a larger whole. In this view, people often perceive an organized whole, or Gestalt, rather than only the individual elements that make it up.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2778b739015a05932e5632352bbbc0bd74177b8705cf18a4c1dc72b92b418faf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Joye Yannick; Bruyneel Sabrina; Fennis Bob M.. Is There a “Gestalt Bias” in Indulgence? Subjectively Constructing Food Units Into Wholes (vs. Parts) Increases Desire to Eat and Actual Consumption. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.671299; article XML SHA-256 5009d41e2282e609aa52e43de77ce8268fa487be7471a38db4b5341c1c055035. “Is There a “Gestalt Bias” in Indulgence? Subjectively Constructing Food Units Into Wholes (vs. Parts) Increases Desire to Eat and Actual Consumption” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.671299).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.671299). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gestalt therapy
<a id="gestalt-therapy"></a>

Gestalt therapy is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on the relationship between the person and their environment. It aims to build awareness, maturity, and self-confidence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5acf086052173b3ec398bff6924f9bb706586678e36bc27e30ccdccdbe280c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gestalt Therapy” (D005864).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005864). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gestation period
<a id="gestation-period"></a>

The gestation period is the span of time from conception until the birth of a mammal’s young. In this historical source, it is described as varying across different mammals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 809eab3d64312f907dec08d45c0ceff8b4e43ce61cf3fa586734a46a7f7947da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Gestation (period of)” (Gestation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Gestation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GH
<a id="gh"></a>

GH stands for growth hormone, a regulator of the somatotropic hormonal system that controls IGF-1. In the source, the GH–IGF-1 pathway is described as relevant to growth, neurodevelopment, brain function, behavior, and stress-related neuroendocrine activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d16f3d77b3ef3d893eef3af9ee3962b31354a7f4adf301a0a11772e0d1de3a51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Coşkun Fatma; Ağır Hasibe; Ildız Rukiye Esra; Kılınç İbrahim; Uzun Necati; Göktaş Emine; Kılıç Ahmet Osman. Reduced serum cortisol, IGF-1, GLP-1, and T3 levels in medication-free children and adolescents with obsessive–compulsive disorder: a case–control study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1831156; article XML SHA-256 19355accebb3d5ccf80d118a097224696868ce51219f07541977a82aa75a6d85. “Reduced serum cortisol, IGF-1, GLP-1, and T3 levels in medication-free children and adolescents with obsessive–compulsive disorder: a case–control study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1831156).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1831156). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GHB
<a id="ghb"></a>

GHB is a naturally present fatty acid in the body, especially in the brain, that serves as a precursor to GABA. It acts on GHB receptors and somewhat on GABA-B receptors, influences several brain chemical systems, and mainly slows central nervous system activity, giving it neuromodulatory and anesthetic effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 154150ff844fa5933ee111d4cfcc34ed9740605c671acf81d00a8752acb51290

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “4-Hydroxybutanoic Acid” (C61773).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ghost
<a id="ghost"></a>

In historical psychology usage, a ghost is an apparent manifestation understood as a disembodied spirit or, more broadly, as something taken to come from a spirit world. The term was also used earlier as a word for spirit.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07a95a1d0e0655c14c600b6f3fb2491c698413ff69bc3f2f67112612e196cfb0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ghost” (Ghost).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Ghost). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ghrelin
<a id="ghrelin"></a>

Ghrelin is a hormone made from the GHRL gene that helps regulate appetite and growth hormone release. In mental health contexts, it is also linked to satiety, thirst, and anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b5b6e7663f993bd690e8b5f7a61a6b902624d8d777041af5b81a0b3fca36646

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Appetite-Regulating Hormone” (C104429).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## giant cell arteritis
<a id="giant-cell-arteritis"></a>

Giant cell arteritis is a systemic autoimmune disease in which medium and large arteries, often the temporal artery, become inflamed and can become narrowed or blocked. It mainly occurs in people over 50 and may cause headache, fatigue, fever, visual problems, and pain in the jaw or tongue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42e1af627624b414518d422b708fdca53bbffa8f7174e59cceae53ba02c2a004

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Giant Cell Arteritis” (D013700).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013700). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GIFT
<a id="gift"></a>

Gift giving is the voluntary giving of tangible or intangible benefits, usually without expecting anything in return. It can be driven by altruism, gratitude, obligation, or hope of later reciprocation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa9d73b3b89fc79348999378dc3fe6d3a7e54395d2446b765421b5489d2ec506

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gift Giving” (D037921).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D037921). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Gift Giving
<a id="gift-giving"></a>

Gift giving is the voluntary giving of material or nonmaterial benefits, usually without expecting a direct return. It can be driven by altruism, gratitude, obligation, or the hope of later reciprocity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46d9d17c4c2d11e1f5742b04ab175c66b2362c967771490a09900490e23f3d3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Gift Giving” (D037921).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D037921). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## giftedness
<a id="giftedness"></a>

Giftedness is a culturally shaped idea about being gifted, often discussed in relation to gifted people and gifted education. Research on giftedness commonly looks at how people perceive and value it, and cultural portrayals may connect it with the humanities, beauty, and generally positive emotion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c224bf9a54d032b8a723786bcc72753da10a1577587e6aa66942916e7f52103

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Balestrini Daniel Patrick; Stoeger Heidrun. Cultural framing of giftedness in recent US fictional texts. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307222; article XML SHA-256 0260d9bfa9012bf471e4c7a5c5e201735dc526cf74714f618c9fd29f6e03b9e4. “Cultural framing of giftedness in recent US fictional texts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307222).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307222). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Gilles de la Tourette’s syndrome
<a id="gilles-de-la-tourettes-syndrome"></a>

Gilles de la Tourette’s syndrome is a neuropsychological disorder involving changes in dopamine-related brain signaling within frontal-subcortical circuits. It is marked by multiple motor tics and at least one vocal tic occurring many times a day on most days for more than a year, beginning before age 18, and causing significant distress or impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e75e27d4db1330851f67ec82aa797490a4881002e599b9e962ed3125e4f27b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tourette Syndrome” (D005879).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005879). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Gillespie syndrome
<a id="gillespie-syndrome"></a>

Gillespie syndrome is a syndrome marked by a distinctive developmental abnormality of the iris, especially absence of the pars pupillaris and the pupillary border. It is also associated with non-progressive cerebellar ataxia and psychomotor delay, and differs from complete aniridia in that the fovea is normal and progressive corneal, lens, or glaucoma changes are not seen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e7c617fc3230fdda9fc11f1540545d70827527dd9c6d7e652e75f5c8d3afb0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ansari Morad; Rainger Jacqueline; Hanson Isabel M; Williamson Kathleen A; Sharkey Freddie; Harewood Louise; Sandilands Angela; Clayton-Smith Jill; Dollfus Helene; Bitoun Pierre; Meire Francoise; Fantes Judy; Franco Brunella; Lorenz Birgit; Taylor David S; Stewart Fiona; Willoughby Colin E; McEntagart Meriel; Khaw Peng Tee; Clericuzio Carol; Van Maldergem Lionel; Williams Denise; Newbury-Ecob Ruth; Traboulsi Elias I; Silva Eduardo D; Madlom Mukhlis M; Goudie David R; Fleck Brian W; Wieczorek Dagmar; Kohlhase Juergen; McTrusty Alice D; Gardiner Carol; Yale Christopher; Moore Anthony T; Russell-Eggitt Isabelle; Islam Lily; Lees Melissa; Beales Philip L; Tuft Stephen J; Solano Juan B; Splitt Miranda; Hertz Jens Michael; Prescott Trine E; Shears Deborah J; Nischal Ken K; Doco-Fenzy Martine; Prieur Fabienne; Temple I Karen; Lachlan Katherine L; Damante Giuseppe; Morrison Danny A; van Heyningen Veronica; FitzPatrick David R. Genetic Analysis of ‘ PAX6 -Negative’ Individuals with Aniridia or Gillespie Syndrome. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0153757; article XML SHA-256 40cfc8ae6bcb92f22e5bd6cc244b72ccc488cf759e5bfe7e5cc38da298559a0e. “Genetic Analysis of ‘ PAX6 -Negative’ Individuals with Aniridia or Gillespie Syndrome” (10.1371/journal.pone.0153757).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153757). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ginkgo
<a id="ginkgo"></a>

Ginkgo is a substance made from the Ginkgo biloba plant, usually from its leaves. In medicinal use it is described as containing antioxidant compounds and other substances thought to support blood flow to the brain and peripheral tissues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 94438219134a55ac42e3137e63055c4923312817acb39bd53b4c82f017d2e104

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ginkgo” (C29072).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gland
<a id="gland"></a>

A gland is a body part made of secretory cells that produce and release a substance. The term came to be used mainly for true secreting structures, while so-called lymphatic glands were noted as not being glands in this strict sense because they do not secrete.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c5514f0ba9b7f89cb699f27489c58fcd980b17003acf465eba3cc9ce74d3c78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Gland” (Gland).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Gland). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glare
<a id="glare"></a>

Glare is relatively bright light, or the dazzling effect it creates, that feels unpleasant or uncomfortable or makes it harder for the eyes to see well.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99bfc07fa9b535d1230d4bfd35447b0644b93b9e37a717daf81fd7455cfee81a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Glare” (D019466).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019466). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Glasgow Coma Scale
<a id="glasgow-coma-scale"></a>

The Glasgow Coma Scale is a measure used to assess how a person with a brain injury responds to stimulation. It evaluates three areas: eye opening, movement, and verbal response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e7943eb145315778ec11dba4d4cbad32422899b4e8501dd649b5b867a3f1980

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Glasgow Coma Scale” (D015600).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015600). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Glasgow Outcome Scale
<a id="glasgow-outcome-scale"></a>

The Glasgow Outcome Scale is a rating scale used to evaluate the results of severe brain injury by looking at how much social functioning a person has regained.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb632b5192d1293988bd5479a1fbf45af755f03067ff3dad243862a5ac26c4f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Glasgow Outcome Scale” (D023261).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D023261). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glass ceiling
<a id="glass-ceiling"></a>

Glass ceiling refers to perceived barriers that limit women’s career advancement. In this source, it is described as a career obstacle that may also increase work–family conflict and contribute to burnout.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3a74bb12ed1decfbe2d95ca0a7a476662d280f356c23fae358408facb60af9c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wei Yun; Subramaniam Geetha; Wang Xueshen. The glass ceiling perception and female teacher burnout: the mediating role of work–family conflict. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1551903; article XML SHA-256 5cd3694d5047413d73c60e102d1788463840a6e8119b2e650e24a6e2437c2397. “The glass ceiling perception and female teacher burnout: the mediating role of work–family conflict” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1551903).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1551903). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glaucoma
<a id="glaucoma"></a>

Glaucoma is an eye disease that occurs in several forms and is mainly marked by eye pressure that becomes too high or unstable for the eye to tolerate safely. This pressure can damage the eye’s structures and impair vision, with effects such as optic disk changes, reduced visual acuity, visual field loss, halos around lights, and headaches.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 28f099fe3122b892bbb8a9197b62cac63c4ddb2237644de1a5d32cbc290e6d7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Glaucoma” (D005901).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005901). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glia
<a id="glia"></a>

Glia are the non-neuronal cells of the nervous system. They support and protect nerve tissue, help maintain the chemical environment around neurons, contribute to barriers such as the blood-brain barrier, form myelin, assist brain development and injury responses, and exchange substances with neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f08102bac42cfe781fdda6c9fd1312edd3739a711ab0005742cfb35f1b0445b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuroglia” (D009457).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009457). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glioma
<a id="glioma"></a>

Glioma is a tumor of the central nervous system that develops from glial cells. It can be benign or malignant and includes tumors arising from astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, or ependymal cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c6d9dc8f412946121333ba8ab9e567de7d5c51e5e3ecc2e5eaec4eafa1f688d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Glioma” (D005910).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005910). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gliosis
<a id="gliosis"></a>

Gliosis is the formation of a dense supportive tissue network made by neuroglia in the nervous system. It can include astrocytosis, in which astrocytes multiply in an area of degenerative damage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 132b2017a80fdfb3e9f29611d004346ee6778b10b839af6d46cf179ac8e69498

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gliosis” (D005911).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005911). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Global Deterioration Scale
<a id="global-deterioration-scale"></a>

The Global Deterioration Scale is a dementia staging scale used to rate the overall progression of cognitive impairment. It is used across stages of dementia and considers cognition, daily functioning, and behavioral disturbance rather than relying only on a cognitive test score.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 77ddd626566862dc09eae12e698aaa71c5b32b25ea07ed911cf7cc635196a8f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kayhan Koçak Fatma Ozge; Kumral Emre. The relationship between dementia staging scales, cognitive-behavioral scales and functionality in patients with cognitive impairment. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322572; article XML SHA-256 ef0585d959e04b304d849bd80663d118f4d0bfaa2fae3307dbe2765d6fd6c081. “The relationship between dementia staging scales, cognitive-behavioral scales and functionality in patients with cognitive impairment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322572).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322572). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## global neuronal workspace
<a id="global-neuronal-workspace"></a>

Global neuronal workspace is a theory of consciousness that says a mental content becomes conscious when selected information is widely broadcast across the brain in a shared workspace. This broad access is proposed to let many otherwise nonconscious systems use the information, often with a rapid, large-scale “ignition” of brain activity when new information enters the workspace.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 555a25c145f5d6a869657312c8ed8b4393de0dac7437c445629ce5ba8d16cec3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gibbons Matilda; McBride Ethan G; Holenarasipura Venkatasubbaiah Raghuram; Khalili-Ardali Majid; Kuyat Jacqulyn R; Gale Samuel; LaFehr Vayle; Vogler Nathan W; Kheirkhah Ravandi Mohammadali; Tsai Ming-Jiun; Bennett Corbett; Sridhar Arjun; Hardcastle Benjamin; Cabasco Hannah; Koch Christof; Naccache Lionel; Tononi Giulio; Olsen Shawn; Neimark Geffen Maria; Panagiotaropoulos Theofanis I; Saalmann Yuri B. Protocol for testing global neuronal workspace and integrated information theories of consciousness in non-human primates and mice. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342770; article XML SHA-256 b87795f6d30062ae251fa88939d707b3986c09056d3abc809a753bea221d8abe. “Protocol for testing global neuronal workspace and integrated information theories of consciousness in non-human primates and mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342770).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342770). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## global perception
<a id="global-perception"></a>

In this source, global perception means a model’s ability to take in broad relationships across the whole set of features rather than focusing mainly on nearby or local patterns. Limited global perception refers to difficulty capturing these long-range dependencies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a7406c673cd9c71a1847be8a52e39fcb0c983c52e76f322a6a963eb11891b7ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ru Yandong; An Gaoyang; Wei Zheng; Chen Hongming. Epilepsy detection based on multi-head self-attention mechanism. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305166; article XML SHA-256 5b9eba2f09edc044a02b1e223c0429bb3e6ca16239f41a08af8b0ebc5eed0a0b. “Epilepsy detection based on multi-head self-attention mechanism” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305166).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305166). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## globus pallidus
<a id="globus-pallidus"></a>

The globus pallidus is an evolutionarily older part of the corpus striatum, also called the paleostriatum. It is the smaller, more central portion of the lentiform nucleus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a84fa3b6414026e26e2af8c5ecd67dc9314c017e1ebb2ffb563ce5e549f7cd8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Globus Pallidus” (D005917).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005917). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## globus pharyngeus
<a id="globus-pharyngeus"></a>

Globus pharyngeus is the sensation of having a lump in the throat, typically noticed between meals. It refers to this feeling when it is not explained by other swallowing, reflux, or digestive movement problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 790831ce18714979ec73f4150a7b0ad31a86d1e8592b2ffde6794c0d70c043bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Globus Sensation” (D000079564).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000079564). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Globus Sensation
<a id="globus-sensation"></a>

Globus sensation is the feeling of having a lump in the throat between meals when other gastrointestinal or movement-related swallowing problems are not present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8fbfa05c27dcf721444c0d7153b9e95d26284d1269291091409af8a801a53cff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Globus Sensation” (D000079564).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000079564). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Glossalgia
<a id="glossalgia"></a>

Glossalgia is pain in the tongue, which can include a burning feeling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 314b43db61355d15aa1ed9ccbc53d5950f8c23d04a4619c282acaae92e870c54

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Glossalgia” (D005926).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005926). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glossodynia
<a id="glossodynia"></a>

Glossodynia is pain in the tongue, often described as a burning feeling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 765db17cf43e10a3a26beedf83cc8882424ef538348b714e22f3b84b8cecb987

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Glossalgia” (D005926).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005926). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glossopharyngeal nerve
<a id="glossopharyngeal-nerve"></a>

The glossopharyngeal nerve is the ninth cranial nerve. It has both motor and sensory functions, including signals to the stylopharyngeus muscle and parotid gland, and sensory input from the back third of the tongue, the nasopharynx, the palate, and the carotid sinus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ee6b96c9c2b6a42700915ff0b67fdd44a2d58f6fb8ce25a79b67d8bae6189e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Glossopharyngeal Nerve” (D005930).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005930). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glottal
<a id="glottal"></a>

In this context, glottal refers to the sound-source aspect of the vocal system in singing. Glottal dynamics are the source-related features of the voice, such as fundamental frequency, sound level, and vibrato, considered in relation to the vocal filter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2cf3c4afab57fdb7afe0737fcbd04a471082bca412e7501d40f076e35f7f9db3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Del Valle Carlos Hugo C. Acoustic markers of emotional expression in professional lyrical singing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880734; article XML SHA-256 4d0a35f8c0e9cfcb44d0d95fedc6030fcbff2c2a2c6bf3e979498c1782703fbc. “Acoustic markers of emotional expression in professional lyrical singing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880734).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880734). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glucose
<a id="glucose"></a>

Glucose, specifically regular D-glucose in this context, is a substance whose metabolism in the brain can be measured with certain MRI methods. Tracking glucose metabolism may help identify disease-related changes and monitor responses to treatment in neurological research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80148cafcd1ab4bacdf4b20b921daccc96bb8cb73b99baf0a9929bcaffb13b31

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Boehm-Sturm Philipp; Schuenke Patrick; Foddis Marco; Mueller Susanne; Koch Stefan P; Beard Daniel J; Holloway Paul; Mottahedin Amin; Schröder Leif; Buchan Alastair M; Mergenthaler Philipp. Measuring cerebral glucose metabolism by chemical exchange-sensitive spin-lock (CESL) MRI of 2-deoxy-D-glucose in rodents. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346046; article XML SHA-256 7ea8584975b42ace17598d26d574a25149b3f371001024532f7f7f6df911321e. “Measuring cerebral glucose metabolism by chemical exchange-sensitive spin-lock (CESL) MRI of 2-deoxy-D-glucose in rodents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346046).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346046). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glutamate
<a id="glutamate"></a>

Glutamate is a non-essential amino acid that also acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system. It can also be converted into GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7b6c17a64a23e36ebd6c57bc05ff0baab08e125e3d0daec63494f7a87028dd25

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Glutamic Acid” (C1115).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glutamate receptor
<a id="glutamate-receptor"></a>

A glutamate receptor is a protein on a cell’s surface that binds glutamate and changes how the cell behaves. Some types directly open ion channels, while others work through internal signaling systems; in the central nervous system, these receptors are major drivers of fast excitatory signaling and are linked with memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4cb72141a60e0e25f57c5cdf3b41695b88d959558ad2c25743dc15a7a227f560

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Receptors, Glutamate” (D017470).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017470). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glutamatergic
<a id="glutamatergic"></a>

Glutamatergic refers to brain pathways or mechanisms involving glutamate as part of how neural circuits function. In this psychiatry context, it names one of the non-dopamine pathways being explored to understand and treat schizophrenia within a broader, circuit-based view.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7bfa67d5fff6cf9b9b2940f2d84a85a93861709455c4131b027f66f8dcc46a5b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Taj Fawad. Beyond dopamine blockade: mechanistic humility and the rise of muscarinic, TAAR1, and glutamatergic pathways in schizophrenia. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1769613; article XML SHA-256 ca7f07ab1c3c73eeb0855cb504b7b106c0133f118fbcbd4b26bd0a5a05a960f6. “Beyond dopamine blockade: mechanistic humility and the rise of muscarinic, TAAR1, and glutamatergic pathways in schizophrenia” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1769613).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1769613). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glutamic acid
<a id="glutamic-acid"></a>

Glutamic acid is a non-essential amino acid that occurs naturally in its L-form. In the central nervous system, it is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 65fcb3dd449a3985e6722544565494ed3c7b54ea2ea7ef4534b120e92ad35d0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Glutamic Acid” (D018698).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018698). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glutamic acid decarboxylase
<a id="glutamic-acid-decarboxylase"></a>

Glutamic acid decarboxylase is an enzyme that uses pyridoxal phosphate to convert L-glutamic acid into gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and carbon dioxide. In nervous tissue, it is the main rate-limiting enzyme that helps determine normal GABA levels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab92e26a1ace526a7c35f864bdbbad019b0dcde037d1cc4e0c9b21e48b1ecfa2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Glutamate Decarboxylase” (D005968).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005968). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## glycine
<a id="glycine"></a>

Glycine is a non-essential amino acid used by the body as a nutrient. In the nervous system, it also acts as a fast inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5dda3b855f09f86ebd8799cd37bc314c77901e8c08dbd855534b44972f113f37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Glycine” (D005998).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005998). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GnRH
<a id="gnrh"></a>

GnRH is a hormone made by neurons in a part of the hypothalamus. It triggers the pituitary gland to produce and release the gonadotropins luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed2e6436a4126195b05860cc20672044990d67f931f616904d466325122b4e5b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone” (D007987).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007987). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## go/no-go
<a id="go-no-go"></a>

A go/no-go task is a common psychology experiment used to measure inhibitory control. People usually make a response to frequent “go” signals, but must withhold that response to less frequent “no-go” signals, so fewer false responses on no-go trials indicate better response inhibition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 78c52d39110b047aba81070674b92c0d44846cf41809a9640bb897c9534361c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Bingqi; Samah Narina A; Liu Tingting. The relationship between short-video addiction tendency and inhibitory control in university students: ERP evidence from a Go/No-go task. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1824227; article XML SHA-256 3a5d84916315a445ef02b28f8621aaa75b741e0dad48ebd78b3eea72e8ffcb50. “The relationship between short-video addiction tendency and inhibitory control in university students: ERP evidence from a Go/No-go task” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1824227).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1824227). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Go/No-go Association Task
<a id="go-no-go-association-task"></a>

The Go/No-go Association Task is a social psychology task used to assess implicit attitudes by having people respond to items from selected categories while withholding responses to others. In the example described here, participants responded when a target product category and a target word type, such as positive words, appeared together, and did not respond to the other categories.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5cbd2f61d02c132240d3b6ae7a2c8f3ec46775e90c4f202940a6871b371c92bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Thomas Anika; Hammer Anke; Beibst Gabriele; Münte Thomas F. An ERP-study of brand and no-name products. 2013; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-14-149; article XML SHA-256 68706bed2adcad27ca068b3b93272e6803bea37f27389fe4307a2e9f947d9e15. “An ERP-study of brand and no-name products” (10.1186/1471-2202-14-149).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-14-149). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## goal
<a id="goal"></a>

A goal is a desired outcome a person aims for that can guide attention, learning, and performance. In this source, helpful goals are described as fitting the demands of the task and situation, matching a person’s values, and remaining adaptable over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01811ce98abc4ed882cbadea38813dbbd0193fa7bebb4959f8c9011cd4c25dc8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lubert Veronika J; Peters Lilian. Goal setting for thriving and sustainable success in the performing arts: taking inspiration from nature. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738842; article XML SHA-256 76704df97b04c5ed203daf01f377222610a80008ac64014cc770cccb65c9b5de. “Goal setting for thriving and sustainable success in the performing arts: taking inspiration from nature” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738842).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738842). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## goal-directed behavior
<a id="goal-directed-behavior"></a>

Goal-directed behavior is behavior aimed at carrying out intended tasks or objectives, especially in everyday situations. In assessment, it refers to how well a person can complete purposeful activities in realistic contexts, such as following instructions to do household chores.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84e40bcabfc78eecc0d23f1c7882bdec704cc434c16f653a17c8864e82d543b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jylkkä Jussi; Ritakallio Liisa; Merzon Liya; Kangas Suvi; Kliegel Matthias; Zuber Sascha; Hering Alexandra; Salmi Juha; Laine Matti. Assessment of goal-directed behavior with the 3D videogame EPELI: Psychometric features in a web-based adult sample. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0280717; article XML SHA-256 f764439605e0ee2097a31337f37bba29a801451f25d9aff2b4204f785d85eca5. “Assessment of goal-directed behavior with the 3D videogame EPELI: Psychometric features in a web-based adult sample” (10.1371/journal.pone.0280717).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280717). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## goal gradient
<a id="goal-gradient"></a>

Goal gradient refers to a change in how strongly people act as they get closer to a goal. In this packet, it describes how the intensity of backers’ herd-like investment behavior shifts as a crowdfunding target draws near.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e986d6aed868e2579205c5e43305f3630842ac3d37ba8e043cc18b680171fa9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hou Rui; Li Leiming; Liu Bingquan. Backers investment behavior on explicit and implicit factors in reward-based crowdfunding based on ELM theory. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0236979; article XML SHA-256 2fb9b2955000e43e8a84cd246a9561c90d00630d04bd985da881b3b1013821fe. “Backers investment behavior on explicit and implicit factors in reward-based crowdfunding based on ELM theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0236979).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236979). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## goal object
<a id="goal-object"></a>

A goal object is the item an observed action is aimed at, such as the object a hand reaches for and grasps. In this context, its visual salience can influence how readily infants anticipate the action’s goal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d4b583ce499d0edf4de3ff454ca3693d27bd636191050158715158e9bbbfb884

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Henrichs Ivanina; Elsner Claudia; Elsner Birgit; Gredebäck Gustaf. Goal Salience Affects Infants’ Goal-Directed Gaze Shifts. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00391; article XML SHA-256 4096389030bb57ca8351b698aaff202e372de341332cac10773ad5e77b23db0a. “Goal Salience Affects Infants’ Goal-Directed Gaze Shifts” (10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00391).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00391). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## goal setting
<a id="goal-setting"></a>

Goal setting is the process of identifying aims to guide effort and performance. In psychology and learning contexts, goals are used to focus attention, support self-regulated learning, and help people work toward improved performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6dd281f60f5550a344db9c98ff2b2a6ca0897aa99e702d6e9ee093c6bc016aa7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lubert Veronika J; Peters Lilian. Goal setting for thriving and sustainable success in the performing arts: taking inspiration from nature. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738842; article XML SHA-256 76704df97b04c5ed203daf01f377222610a80008ac64014cc770cccb65c9b5de. “Goal setting for thriving and sustainable success in the performing arts: taking inspiration from nature” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738842).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738842). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Golden Rule
<a id="golden-rule"></a>

The Golden Rule is the Gospel precept that a person should treat others as they would want others to treat them. In moral and social thought, it has often been taken as a brief statement of social morality, and it is broader than the merely negative idea of simply avoiding harm to others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dfe929461e8b157ae663007ef6c304f3838689bd52b9857e7bbed79a834064d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Golden Rule” (Golden).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Golden). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## golden section
<a id="golden-section"></a>

The golden section is a proportion in which the smaller part relates to the larger part as the larger part relates to the whole. In historical psychology and aesthetics, it was applied to lines, shapes, the human figure, and even music as a relation thought to have aesthetic appeal, though its value was treated as variable rather than absolute.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06f9f0cd33659d259f251e7c5b2d8fe660cd2f2a395835df7c929518b6522239

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Golden Section” (Goldens).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Goldens). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Golgi tendon organ
<a id="golgi-tendon-organ"></a>

A Golgi tendon organ is a sensory structure in the tendons at the ends of muscles that detects muscle tension during contraction. When tension rises, it helps limit further contraction through spinal cord pathways, which protects the muscle from damage; unlike a muscle spindle, it signals tension rather than muscle length.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c3c6c1094d1e8d2afe9f91b4be9e6b64983922615d566b78aeb4931f47359e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Golgi Tendon Organ” (C13826).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gonadal hormones
<a id="gonadal-hormones"></a>

Gonadal hormones are chemical messengers that include androgens, estrogens, and progestins. They are produced mainly by the ovaries and testes, and also by the adrenal glands, and they act through the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis to influence body systems including the central nervous system across the lifespan.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f760d5b786ccff98af0909b74a10daebdd1e57fb79d403171486515f38c325d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barel Efrat; Cohen Ami; Mahagna Lila. Gonadal hormones and impulsivity facets: moderating roles of cortisol and anxiety. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871253; article XML SHA-256 1ec56736999979f4f1fc036fde389605c43f8816701a80ca617e935f510476b9. “Gonadal hormones and impulsivity facets: moderating roles of cortisol and anxiety” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871253).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871253). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gonadotropin-releasing hormone
<a id="gonadotropin-releasing-hormone"></a>

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone is a peptide made by neurons in the hypothalamus that is released into blood leading to the pituitary gland. It stimulates the pituitary to produce and release luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b69391edd4d3d7003f08990d1f72fd6cabbca648c2130ee71a67dc5f067e8996

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone” (D007987).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007987). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## good death
<a id="good-death"></a>

In this context, good death refers to a desirable quality of dying at the end of life and is treated as an outcome that palliative care aims to support. It is also something that can be evaluated from family members’ perspectives as an indicator of end-of-life care quality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c2504a79fc468346301cc2130a0142db9805073589af03e3bf8c0b58b72e33f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Roshan Hosein Mohammadi; Ebadi Abbas; Karimi Leila; Barasteh Salman. Translation and psychometric evaluation of the Persian version of “good death inventory- short Form” from the perspective of family-members of cancer patients. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s40359-023-01305-0; article XML SHA-256 c2e3033b6f28c8530018197ed43eed87893f531776727475a0ef7373dcd6f7bb. “Translation and psychometric evaluation of the Persian version of “good death inventory- short Form” from the perspective of family-members of cancer patients” (10.1186/s40359-023-01305-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01305-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## good genes hypothesis
<a id="good-genes-hypothesis"></a>

The good genes hypothesis is the idea that females may prefer mates with traits linked to higher genetic quality because this can give their offspring indirect fitness advantages. In the source, it is supported by females favoring larger, more heterozygous males and by extra-pair offspring being more heterozygous than their half-siblings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 96466b6f1220e9d9104be2fdb3d72d736b4bc5e92f3963228ab0e6b3c3c4feeb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [E Mingju; Gong Ye; Yu Jiangping; Zhang Siyu; Fan Qianxi; Jiang Yunlei; Wang Haitao. Low level of extra-pair paternity between nearest neighbors results from female preference for high-quality males in the yellow-rumped flycatcher ( Ficedula zanthopygia ). 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0172713; article XML SHA-256 8755518c7692bf6fc9649c5dd0559ae95061eaa693cd95797cdbfb8bdf6389d9. “Low level of extra-pair paternity between nearest neighbors results from female preference for high-quality males in the yellow-rumped flycatcher ( Ficedula zanthopygia )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0172713).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172713). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GOS
<a id="gos"></a>

GOS, or the Genomics Outcome Scale, is a six-question self-report measure used to assess how empowered a person feels after receiving genetic counselling and testing services.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e38a485b3033a3d19fea42a7f61754c6f988c971a8e136487763cc3a0643ce4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Genomics Outcome Scale” (C174135).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gossip
<a id="gossip"></a>

In this historical source, gossip is linked with garrulity or loquacity, meaning idle or useless talkativeness. It is described as a form of excessive talking that may appear as a symptom in some mental disorders and in hysteria.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 23b97e84907f9677074be70c2d1d471e5417aec9a7ac6edc2b6ea6139847918a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-126000-138000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GPA
<a id="gpa"></a>

GPA, or Graded Prognostic Assessment, is a prognostic index used for people with brain metastases. It estimates outlook by combining age, functional status, and the number of metastases in the brain and outside the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c34368371b6b5fe0ab4ee6bd4af834db2eae7fea9d32b62ac9fe4c370e71fca0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Graded Prognostic Assessment” (C140882).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GPT
<a id="gpt"></a>

GPT refers here to a large language model used to generate answers and probability judgments. In this study, GPT-5 showed more internally consistent probabilistic reasoning than naïve human participants, with few conjunction or disjunction errors and near-perfect respect for binary complementarity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 167e13901aa5b3f9a096887ef70032a1455171bd7e7956e5ef64d3d3f485b587

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Imannezhad Pegah; Pothos Emmanuel M; Wills Andy J. Divergent patterns of probabilistic reasoning in humans and GPT-5. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782184; article XML SHA-256 d9a847f6546636705636f62300e065c00972a3930a5d7f51c01f3ff9a2676296. “Divergent patterns of probabilistic reasoning in humans and GPT-5” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782184).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782184). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## graceful degradation
<a id="graceful-degradation"></a>

In cognition and neural network accounts, graceful degradation refers to a gradual reduction in performance when a system is damaged or when input is noisy or distorted, with some function still preserved rather than failing all at once. It is used to describe patterns of impairment seen in language and other cognitive functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7b8c1d3ab2a3a01b4c3d873ff48cdb2bbfc50d9cd3cc3e818eb219cca5b269c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nadeau Stephen E.. Neural Population Dynamics and Cognitive Function. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00050; article XML SHA-256 4e8dcda47a9b4cf23729c6ff08507f96e5473ece4102111d6a7fdf844eb86f32. “Neural Population Dynamics and Cognitive Function” (10.3389/fnhum.2020.00050).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00050). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## grade inflation
<a id="grade-inflation"></a>

Grade inflation is a rise in awarded grades that does not reflect a matching rise in students’ ability or the quality of their work. It is usually seen as higher average GPAs or more top grades, which can crowd the upper end of the grading scale.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4be5e36714e51fc6d0cabd3ee96d717996dc39802de851170693fbf511779aa6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Vivien; Kuncel Nathan R.; Sackett Paul R.. Graduate grade inflation at a U.S. research-intensive university: A 22-year longitudinal analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341315; article XML SHA-256 bdfc35e3793dcf0a5357c9dbf3299067263983372d4791cceeb5e86f7d1ad9b7. “Graduate grade inflation at a U.S. research-intensive university: A 22-year longitudinal analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341315).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341315). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Graeco-Latin square
<a id="graeco-latin-square"></a>

A Graeco-Latin square is an experimental design used to systematically arrange and randomize multiple variables across study conditions. In the source, it was used to balance factors such as treatment, type, age, and order so their effects could be separated more clearly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 40e64f0dd17d875d7f38cd9a9571e8d1678aee778b0fc741bb2976bd4c86372c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Martin Jessica E; Sandilands Victoria; Sparrey Julian; Baker Laurence; Dixon Laura M; McKeegan Dorothy E F. Welfare assessment of novel on-farm killing methods for poultry. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0212872; article XML SHA-256 ea749fc301c30b8e9e178570856cc20d8d8c0ef6c0b19fcea77036525b52c7db. “Welfare assessment of novel on-farm killing methods for poultry” (10.1371/journal.pone.0212872).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212872). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## grammar
<a id="grammar"></a>

Grammar is the orderly organization of the materials of language. It may be arranged by how language forms and relations appear in actual use, by their historical development, or by broader principles thought to govern the mental life of language.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0d15ae922ba1e4e20492f4ebd3f3ed2c58f5b22b17bc81059d23aaeaa87a5bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Grammar” (Grammar).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G2defs.htm#Grammar). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## grammaticality
<a id="grammaticality"></a>

In artificial grammar learning, grammaticality refers to whether a stimulus follows the learned rules of the grammar or violates them. A grammaticality judgment is a decision about whether an item is rule-consistent rather than non-grammatical.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da852da43296e70af5fee5e9716bb4c8d890cea4c8a0515de5ead175f85d2406

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nardacchione Giuliana; Zoccolotti Pierluigi; Marinelli Chiara Valeria. Procedural or declarative deficit in adults with developmental dyslexia? A study of Artificial grammar learning. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352337; article XML SHA-256 d730400c8c3222a6d93a221be62bf69139687a3f7445511978d257c5c0ed4fcb. “Procedural or declarative deficit in adults with developmental dyslexia? A study of Artificial grammar learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352337).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352337). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## grand mal seizure
<a id="grand-mal-seizure"></a>

A grand mal seizure is a generalized seizure in which a person loses consciousness and has strong, uncontrolled muscle contractions. It can be preceded by an aura and is often followed by a period of confusion and tiredness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 839c141b1918c8f624d879a188e549568329d951fe1e063cef55810a169cf577

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tonic-Clonic Seizure” (C50574).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## grand mean
<a id="grand-mean"></a>

Grand mean is the overall average of a measure across the full set being studied. In this context, it means the average connectivity value across the whole connectome for a given run.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4731ffd9b63f8c033541b729c591bc1232e6be2bd6d7f22dbefbb47a2474216d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Koten Jan Willem; Manner Hans; Pernet Cyril; Schüppen Andre; Szücs Dénes; Wood Guilherme; Ioannidis John P A. When most fMRI connectivity cannot be detected: Insights from time course reliability. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299753; article XML SHA-256 e2b05fe12087eb9f96deca7272b835b721394fa5d0e16c603bc0a1205d746755. “When most fMRI connectivity cannot be detected: Insights from time course reliability” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299753).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299753). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## granular layer
<a id="granular-layer"></a>

The granular layer is a cell layer in brain regions such as the main and accessory olfactory bulbs. In this source, it is described as a site where researchers measured changes in cell proliferation and the formation of new neurons related to sexual behavior and opioid signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 776286ebe656f6cc3837ccbf3ffe283234b13641cb847a305f7201e0328ab2b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bedos Marie; Sánchez Núñez Mariana; Castro Analía E.; Paredes Raúl G.. Mating-induced neurogenesis and cell proliferation in male rats depend on opioid signaling. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329795; article XML SHA-256 1ba8c3a6bc98681aeb64d715d00b8f3910f6bdeacc7d44cff50f1409b262df92. “Mating-induced neurogenesis and cell proliferation in male rats depend on opioid signaling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329795).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329795). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## graphical user interface
<a id="graphical-user-interface"></a>

A graphical user interface is the part of a software system that lets people interact with it through visual elements such as buttons, menus, windows, dialog boxes, check boxes, lists, labels, text boxes, and forms. It serves as the user-facing connection between the user and the system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2ebf97a9b7421f4d5ab13157af9959debb6774750e7898562ebb9110e2d3b6c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ambreen Raheela; Khan Tamim Ahmed. GUI test case minimization using sequence mining. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339996; article XML SHA-256 803f235c07cb4e02e41b37e356eefd1dc62f7fd42ea7850236cc143635d8c433. “GUI test case minimization using sequence mining” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339996).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339996). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## graphology
<a id="graphology"></a>

Graphology is the study of handwriting as a form of motor expression that may be interpreted using psychological principles. In historical psychology, it also referred to attempts to infer personal character from handwriting, though this practical use was described as having weak scientific support, while handwriting changes in illness and disorder were treated as a legitimate area of study.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef5c623d98589a18cc2b1744acc8ed410e0bbd5dcf8d54d90de55cf8dfe623f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Graphology” (Graphology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G2defs.htm#Graphology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gratitude
<a id="gratitude"></a>

Gratitude is the feeling or attitude of a person who has received a favor toward the one who gave it, together with a tendency to want to do good in return. In this historical account, it is treated as a special form of benevolence and also as related to justice because the return of goodwill is seen as owed for a benefit received.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7efb1b7d47178b64670549e2eea78382418b4cb59dc9fec9415a302b3c8a2ffe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Gratitude” (Gratitude).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G2defs.htm#Gratitude). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gravity-induced loss of consciousness
<a id="gravity-induced-loss-of-consciousness"></a>

Gravity-induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC) is a blackout caused by high gravitational force, especially in the head-to-foot direction, when blood flow to the brain is disrupted and cerebral hypoxia occurs. In aviators, it can be followed by at least about 30 seconds without purposeful movement even after the force is removed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35c4184f7e1ca422e738a55a52ebecdd08cb8e9313ef5ebe28cee8654b8ba088

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Park Jinhee; Yun Chul; Kang Seungcheol. Physical Condition Does Not Affect Gravity-Induced Loss of Consciousness during Human Centrifuge Training in Well-Experienced Young Aviators. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0147921; article XML SHA-256 9d3b2f900980745d5f7c9b4a95f619a382a0bb301eafd3712c3701d0d1609554. “Physical Condition Does Not Affect Gravity-Induced Loss of Consciousness during Human Centrifuge Training in Well-Experienced Young Aviators” (10.1371/journal.pone.0147921).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147921). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gray matter
<a id="gray-matter"></a>

Gray matter is the darker-looking tissue in the central nervous system compared with white matter. It is made up mainly of neuron cell bodies, surrounding nerve tissue, glial cells, and capillaries, with relatively few myelinated nerve fibers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c9934c66b2882be79e139675d2416fa7e45397a83430ea9d862b616c6ba305d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gray Matter” (D066128).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066128). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## greeting behavior
<a id="greeting-behavior"></a>

Greeting behavior is a form of social affiliative behavior shown when a dog responds to a person, such as when first meeting an unfamiliar person or after other social interactions. In this source, its expression varies with the situation and with characteristics of the individual dog.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec5c9845b0c37d077da8ee059e31fae6333faf9c0c76a2d1cd4e412368466c8c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Turcsán Borbála; Range Friederike; Rónai Zsolt; Koller Dóra; Virányi Zsófia. Context and Individual Characteristics Modulate the Association between Oxytocin Receptor Gene Polymorphism and Social Behavior in Border Collies. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02232; article XML SHA-256 4a42ec44295a1ad6a9fdd4c3880b1d5f0d1bcc722fb157edbb5e690d4fba33dc. “Context and Individual Characteristics Modulate the Association between Oxytocin Receptor Gene Polymorphism and Social Behavior in Border Collies” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02232).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02232). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## grief
<a id="grief"></a>

Grief is a normal and fitting sorrowful reaction to an immediate cause. It usually eases on its own over time and gradually lessens within a reasonable period.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ecf2e1359cf94f376004fe55b5d983bd8d23f7c78086593ac121a317b9db567d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Grief” (D006117).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006117). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## grief counseling
<a id="grief-counseling"></a>

Grief counseling is support from a trained counselor or support group that helps a person work through the usual feelings of sorrow after a loss, such as the death of someone close to them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 56cca17ffa05d3564ecef754954746cff985acb1ba72cce9900298be90391a86

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Grief Counseling” (C94505).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## grief work
<a id="grief-work"></a>

Grief work is the process of coming to terms with loss, sadness, and the tragic side of painful events. In this context, it emphasizes compassionate, shared ways of processing suffering and death rather than focusing only on fear or threat.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6fabda092ef575c43f9a51f39647f19ad4e5a3d044448dd366fe04afd11f91ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gilbert Paul; Matos Marcela; Basran Jaskaran; Morter Kelly; Plowright Ptarmigan; Ferreira Ana; do Céu Salvador Maria; Kirby William. Development of a multicomponent survey of experiences of tragedy-based and fear-based trauma in COVID-19 healthcare professionals. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1513067; article XML SHA-256 80b5ef5b11084225d71fccc3340de5148f9d471846f7e68f78916c3e89dca20e. “Development of a multicomponent survey of experiences of tragedy-based and fear-based trauma in COVID-19 healthcare professionals” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1513067).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1513067). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Grip Strength Test
<a id="grip-strength-test"></a>

A grip strength test is a performance assessment in which a person squeezes a handgrip dynamometer to measure hand-grip strength. In the source, it was used alongside questionnaire and balance-test data as one factor for predicting whether older adults used gait-stabilizing devices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f77bffc979fc0912e6755a984a419a7507061ba5adc4a6af4562b064e5978e95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mullan Sean M; Evans Nicholas J; Sewell Daniel K; Francis Shelby L; Polgreen Linnea A; Segre Alberto M; Polgreen Philip M. Predicting use of a gait-stabilizing device using a Wii Balance Board. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0292548; article XML SHA-256 bcc39c0d343c8abe5e321fcf6f55392e77653d423a7108f26e26df47869d4d1e. “Predicting use of a gait-stabilizing device using a Wii Balance Board” (10.1371/journal.pone.0292548).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292548). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Grit Scale
<a id="grit-scale"></a>

The Grit Scale is a psychological measure of grit, a noncognitive personal trait involving sustained passion and perseverance toward long-term goals. It assesses two related aspects: consistency of interests over time and perseverance of effort when facing challenges.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9594aab35bb601db419ae515794bc5548e573d37bf02eb573585e1c192d9d99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bae Sung-Woo; Kim Ji Geun; Park Byung-Sun; Lee Keungeun; Park Jungkyu. Psychometric properties and measurement invariance of the short form of grit scale in Korean adolescents. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296795; article XML SHA-256 38d3eeaee5ae31ce473ef174cce7c08ed2fe4e1591155a37b11555c2316e4084. “Psychometric properties and measurement invariance of the short form of grit scale in Korean adolescents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296795).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296795). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## grooming
<a id="grooming"></a>

Grooming is an animal’s cleaning and care of its body surface, such as preening feathers or using the tongue to clean hair.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1e0c88cec26291a2e6e432e1a0d8a199e09e38e912e244b6169d134f21d37f6a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Grooming” (D006120).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006120). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Grooved Pegboard Test
<a id="grooved-pegboard-test"></a>

The Grooved Pegboard Test is a hand-use dexterity test that uses a pegboard with 25 specially shaped pegs placed into holes. It is used to assess manipulative skill and can be particularly useful in detecting one-sided brain damage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a58a5105a5a90ec6aaf712553c3f3d2e829b7d90cb911e17fbc74b21184b38e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Grooved Pegboard Test” (C85394).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gross motor
<a id="gross-motor"></a>

Gross motor refers to large-body movement skills used for getting around and interacting with the environment, and they support the later development of more complex activities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fae9df3ce892be95206a09aa39a70114cc989663caeb7430db62f2bb2e242c99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Motor Skills” (C121202).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ground
<a id="ground"></a>

Ground is any objective basis or condition on which a belief rests. In historical psychology usage, it means the reason or foundation supporting belief.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8898f327ee90f583901daf9d85fe6b50ad3c6cda60cad9020a5632aa1ec8f297

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ground” (Ground).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G2defs.htm#Ground). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group
<a id="group"></a>

A group is a set of individuals taken together while still being recognized as distinct from one another. In this historical psychological sense, a group differs from a general concept because it includes the particular members themselves rather than an abstract common quality, and it may be concrete or more abstract and numerical.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 412ae92ea772dfcf40c4f522f7eb9528fd5c330883429421aa04c3ff7445dac0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Group” (Group).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G2defs.htm#Group). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group boundary
<a id="group-boundary"></a>

In social psychology, a group boundary is the social division between groups, including whether movement from one group to another is seen as possible. When that boundary is impermeable, people are more likely to view groups in a compensatory way, rating one group more positively on some qualities and the other group more positively on others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 41a527417aa6bac5f0a815a53f076edcc169c8cd027189930bda851400750e83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dang Jianning; Liu Li; Liang Yuan; Ren Deyun. Expected Hierarchical Integration Reduces Perceptions of a Low Status Group as Less Competent than a High Status Group While Maintaining the Same Level of Perception of Warmth. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02068; article XML SHA-256 f09ea046766a4416a57f841e78b898edf253fb35dc213deb42c7d599416c8f16. “Expected Hierarchical Integration Reduces Perceptions of a Low Status Group as Less Competent than a High Status Group While Maintaining the Same Level of Perception of Warmth” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02068).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02068). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group cohesion
<a id="group-cohesion"></a>

Group cohesion is the strength of relationships among members of a group and their shared sense of belonging and solidarity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a23c2bfd4c764bf60c7172f5ab843204f72c67ded2389139a65ffbd11b00203

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Cohesion” (D000091782).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000091782). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group decision support systems
<a id="group-decision-support-systems"></a>

Group decision support systems are tools or methods designed to help teams, especially people from different disciplines, make decisions together more effectively. In this context, they are intended to support attention to information, knowledge integration, and group cognitive performance so decision quality, acceptability, and efficiency can improve.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dff33ec5dbbbe2ce18ea8c920fe69528d5f9a3e01810b58db77aeec554695b75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kexin Cheng; Zuhua Jiang; Jiapeng Yang. Cognitive factors on the performance of group decision-making: a behavioral and eye-tracking study. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1551447; article XML SHA-256 97c2e654e00bf9950eb422029e4a82c6c266508074fdfe00245cccf70c81ee00. “Cognitive factors on the performance of group decision-making: a behavioral and eye-tracking study” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1551447).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1551447). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group dynamics
<a id="group-dynamics"></a>

Group dynamics refers to how a social group changes as it forms and begins to function, including the forces that shape relationships among members and the group’s interactions with other groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c31f7165a96c04b221d6331f2ac2c9ebb3cb9a9447ce8eecd1257658b3f3104

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Group Dynamics” (D000092923).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000092923). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group experience
<a id="group-experience"></a>

Group experience is the shared social and emotional experience of taking part in an activity with other people. In this context, it involves interpersonal interaction and shared enjoyment that can strengthen feelings of connection, acceptance, and social belonging.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5db2ed3f4af5aede785547951017c6d9d19a5afc63b810a7850e7a0ac25ab83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yixue; Song Zhikai; Zhang Jinjin. Strengthening social belonging through VR-Based Group dance: a controlled trial with community-dwelling older women. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776343; article XML SHA-256 776819929a6b07188ef2ab51cc4a6f8742916d8955953d27dae7f3b64eb40293. “Strengthening social belonging through VR-Based Group dance: a controlled trial with community-dwelling older women” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776343).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776343). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group experiment
<a id="group-experiment"></a>

A group experiment is a research design in which participants are divided into separate groups so each group receives a different condition or combination of conditions, often alongside a control group. The groups are then compared on the same assessments to examine the effects of the different interventions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 19092a82f2915269bdf3de99c31bd0a076819c25419e312860a51c6de358ff03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Zi-Bo; Liu Yan-Song; Zhao Long; Li Man-Yu; Liu Chun-Hui; Zhang Chun-Xia; Li Hong-Ling. Short-term efficacy of music therapy combined with α binaural beat therapy in disorders of consciousness. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.947861; article XML SHA-256 20f5c54cb63af3e635c80c96d7551ddd69ea76e97f0e0e6fd22b74a3c6e82fee. “Short-term efficacy of music therapy combined with α binaural beat therapy in disorders of consciousness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.947861).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.947861). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group factors
<a id="group-factors"></a>

Group factors are characteristics of a group, such as how many individuals are in it, that can shape how the group moves and responds under stressful conditions. In this source, these factors interact with environmental conditions to affect flow, congestion, and evacuation efficiency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c64c0ad12b1e7a7a80f29d954e3388b420fba069ce2319871d3dd6a728cbc880

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nguyen Duyen Thi Hai; Kim Taehyeong; Park Junyoung. Experimental and agent-based simulation analysis of collective escape in mice: Validation and density-dependent effects of obstacles. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355105; article XML SHA-256 393cb2172b1387ef27bedea45b183816947954052bf596a71fc21e51fe546ff8. “Experimental and agent-based simulation analysis of collective escape in mice: Validation and density-dependent effects of obstacles” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355105).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355105). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group interview
<a id="group-interview"></a>

A group interview is a qualitative interviewing format that takes place in a shared group setting rather than one-to-one. In psychology research, this format may need adaptation to fit the cognition, social interaction, and communication styles of both participants and interviewers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4be64c84870fe1424fbb7a7b289030e74475eb67e7fd1da91a4682cc8e36d53a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hedlund Åsa; Eriksson Wester Maria; Edenvik Pia; Ingard Cecilia; Isakson Kajsa; Kron Sabel Lisa; Uneus Danielle; Bertilsdotter Rosqvist Hanna. Methodological insights from the inside: developing autistic-friendly interviewing in a group interview space. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1659580; article XML SHA-256 38c8db594b345284fd49fa139c29bfcc1d0cc6d65a2f0a1b221ef53b83e4053c. “Methodological insights from the inside: developing autistic-friendly interviewing in a group interview space” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1659580).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1659580). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group network
<a id="group-network"></a>

In this source, group network refers to the network part of the 3N model of radicalization: a person’s inclination or desire to connect with and join a radical group. It describes the social-group link associated with support for political violence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 048ce58e7a29d706b42d867a792208600cfe4b135edbaa71e9df2e36142ac9ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bélanger Jocelyn J.; Moyano Manuel; Muhammad Hayat; Richardson Lindsy; Lafrenière Marc-André K.; McCaffery Patrick; Framand Karyne; Nociti Noëmie. Radicalization Leading to Violence: A Test of the 3N Model. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00042; article XML SHA-256 b1fd81a222fb3e2c4819baa98b1f4a867fab99c618ea3aca7ec2e1a487b6f61c. “Radicalization Leading to Violence: A Test of the 3N Model” (10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00042).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00042). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## group norm
<a id="group-norm"></a>

A group norm is a shared attitude or pattern of behavior that a group pressures its members to follow. In a group where a person feels comfortable, this pressure can outweigh personal habits, moral restraints, or individual preferences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2cb5ce0b99e11e1d4366560fd69ba67859f40ac9fe441d16ae676be672914e64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Peer Pressure” (C38452).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group polarization
<a id="group-polarization"></a>

Group polarization is the tendency for people in a group to move toward a more extreme position on an issue after taking part in, or being exposed to, group discussion. In online settings, especially among like-minded people, this can intensify opinions and contribute to more extreme public discourse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6cb5eda0b0b0139c152996beb94da13296994b213fb36625fcb177328a2c4c0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Guoqiang; Liu Fang. Research on risk assessment model and simulation of online group polarization in emergencies. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305552; article XML SHA-256 8aa4a2ed3e77a3c3d65c0c9c77a52043760021f37db51c33864e4724ef64385a. “Research on risk assessment model and simulation of online group polarization in emergencies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305552).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305552). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group pressure
<a id="group-pressure"></a>

Group pressure is the influence a majority exerts that leads a person to change their beliefs or behaviour to match the group. This can happen because people want acceptance from others or because they treat the group as a reliable guide to what is correct.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2bb0af7010d973215b084891db436ad9dbec35715d4f66e6d8889a333040a8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bocian Konrad; Gonidis Lazaros; Everett Jim AC. Moral conformity in a digital world: Human and nonhuman agents as a source of social pressure for judgments of moral character. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298293; article XML SHA-256 a997a52cf788dae4d61058407507d0b27b10d4ddc8cc82cfef6cdd22d2eed6d3. “Moral conformity in a digital world: Human and nonhuman agents as a source of social pressure for judgments of moral character” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298293).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298293). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group problem solving
<a id="group-problem-solving"></a>

Group problem solving is the process of a small group working together on complex cognitive tasks to reach solutions or complete shared assignments. In this context, it is used as a way to evaluate how well a group performs collectively and how that performance relates to broader collective intelligence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 770ff4c809573157a5fbcab1656dc21f68c9a7400073967b20adc5332abef648

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rowe Luke I; Hattie John; Munro John. High-performing teams: Is collective intelligence the answer?. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307945; article XML SHA-256 d06884f44607917354da414f03c050ec726d22558b1f826ffd834a4c9c38a4ae. “High-performing teams: Is collective intelligence the answer?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307945).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307945). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group process
<a id="group-process"></a>

Group process is the way members of a group work together to deal with and solve a shared problem.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f6609bc2bc85b12a5885ce1658351799c3bb6719a5c28f0089c77ca433c900f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Group Processes” (D006126).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006126). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group role
<a id="group-role"></a>

A group role is the part a person takes within a group, such as leader, follower, naysayer, or observer. In this account, people may shift between roles, and those shifts can change both their own learning activity and the group’s overall way of engaging and learning together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 602a2e7a1f085a528f6e180d707015d09845ff46411f9b1e813fdf9cb18ae749

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kronsted Christian; Henley Matthew; Giguere Miriam. Making sense together: participatory sensemaking, learning cycles, and group roles. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1746763; article XML SHA-256 373a5414866a257c9a7e59358ded25f9dabb5b14332948031edaf9687e49d652. “Making sense together: participatory sensemaking, learning cycles, and group roles” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1746763).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1746763). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group selection
<a id="group-selection"></a>

Group selection is natural selection acting on social groups rather than mainly on single individuals. In this sense, groups compete for survival and persistence, and individual success matters chiefly as it helps the group endure or prevail over other groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1a12e214abc681fd7797282a5bccae08f1f0a51448cfc42d7fe90a668fa80c3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Group Selection” (Groupse).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G2defs.htm#Groupse). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group sequential design
<a id="group-sequential-design"></a>

A group sequential design is a study design that includes planned checks of the data while the trial is still running, so the study can stop early if there is strong enough evidence of benefit while still controlling false-positive error rates. In psychological research, this approach can affect power and can bias some effect estimates if the sequential nature of the design is not taken into account.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d27fb96607268af6a1ef5397a47d41da168cfd854a4f86202b2388b45b27826f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Kim May; Emsley Richard. Inference in group sequential designs with causal mechanisms: implications for power and mediation analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12874-025-02714-y; article XML SHA-256 0be9ec8fc5811e0476ca7d573ff6a60059d79fefe5f4faba1463811c1980dca4. “Inference in group sequential designs with causal mechanisms: implications for power and mediation analysis” (10.1186/s12874-025-02714-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-025-02714-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group solidarity
<a id="group-solidarity"></a>

Group solidarity is the strength of relationships within a community and the shared sense that members belong together and support one another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9968f89c2a84094b0f6ba72571f76d5e1fced58d2e9ac87a19aa3d9379a06973

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Cohesion” (D000091782).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000091782). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group space
<a id="group-space"></a>

Group space refers to the shared setting within a group care session where participants receive services and take part in health discussions and activities together. In this source, it is the collective care environment used for postpartum and well-child visits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8b292e6cd52fcf3ba28355329921971d90ffa3ab891c0d58ee3162fecdeedc0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gresh Ashley; Mambulasa Janet; Ngutwa Nellie; Chirwa Ellen; Kapito Esnath; Perrin Nancy; Warren Nicole; Glass Nancy; Patil Crystal L. Evaluation of implementation outcomes of an integrated group postpartum and well-child care model at clinics in Malawi. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12884-023-05545-1; article XML SHA-256 b0505e555d519fa4c39be78dc03661f52f7ae00dd63a5813cea603abd731256d. “Evaluation of implementation outcomes of an integrated group postpartum and well-child care model at clinics in Malawi” (10.1186/s12884-023-05545-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-023-05545-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group structure
<a id="group-structure"></a>

Group structure is the formal or informal way a group of people is organized through its network of personal relationships. It is shaped by factors such as the group’s size and makeup.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae10d028f2f051e61684e40b0770224ec58daa7cad5298b56cf3849cebfc13fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Group Structure” (D006127).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006127). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## group therapy
<a id="group-therapy"></a>

Group therapy is a form of mental health treatment in which several patients meet together with a therapist. Its value includes the chance to gain insight from other people’s perspectives on one’s own life experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f120388e20f91d55c879046a28cf4196d5008685876a8896f5e46fe0f808282

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Group Therapy” (C21042).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## grouped frequency distribution
<a id="grouped-frequency-distribution"></a>

A grouped frequency distribution is a way of showing how often data occur by combining values into intervals or ranges instead of listing each exact value separately.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 083aef2e5c2ee83d999958129b3a4444c6e54fee08a04309d14c976f9268c4c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Grouped Frequency Distribution” (grouped_frequncey_distn.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/grouped_frequncey_distn.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## grouping
<a id="grouping"></a>

In this context, grouping means placing key questions together in one section of a questionnaire rather than spreading them throughout the form. This layout feature can affect how people respond on a screening measure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36a692ff3dccd28991f508ce5f1c17ecad21f9e7e8829bb93fc5f3782fb694b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kraut Roni Y; Ono Christian; Garrison Scott; Kamal Omar; Doroshuk Marissa L; Vandermeer Ben; Amanna Gerard; Babenko Oksana. Does the format of the adult ADHD self-report scale influence screen-positive rates? A randomized controlled trial in primary care. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1646293; article XML SHA-256 5996646c05a7edfcd5fabed8f14321229e2adc7cf0f059696a3bcb1466218cab. “Does the format of the adult ADHD self-report scale influence screen-positive rates? A randomized controlled trial in primary care” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1646293).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1646293). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## growth cone
<a id="growth-cone"></a>

A growth cone is the leading part of a developing neuronal process as it grows toward a target. It helps direct the growing axon by responding to nearby guidance signals from cell-surface proteins.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 727fc541718a5211d1fce0831ed75fc5b511efcd0070edb56e8c4d261e2f6d66

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Axon Guidance” (D000071437).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000071437). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## growth motivation
<a id="growth-motivation"></a>

Growth motivation is a person’s drive to develop themselves and move toward further personal growth. In this packet, it is discussed in terms of personal growth initiative and is linked to having basic psychological needs met, along with positive psychological resources and a future-oriented outlook.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ba591ae994d362c80410b8935474010d07df19fc6347165db0560c6fefdbb3f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Song Shangxia; Yan Bihua. The relationship between basic psychological needs satisfaction and personal growth initiative among female college students in Western China: a chain mediation effect. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1689035; article XML SHA-256 5100f5e9861425282f5bcc083174c4365f5a38d6968de33003a706b234a7733a. “The relationship between basic psychological needs satisfaction and personal growth initiative among female college students in Western China: a chain mediation effect” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1689035).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1689035). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## growth spurt
<a id="growth-spurt"></a>

A growth spurt, in this context, is a developmental window of especially rapid brain growth. In humans it occurs in the third trimester of pregnancy and involves major brain-building processes such as neuron production, cell movement, and synapse formation, making it a period that is particularly sensitive to harmful influences that can affect later behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 452331587b1dfe7a69be779f0b337d6cb1439eeec491aa97e25d6b6d404ae803

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ribeiro-Carvalho Anderson; Lima Carla S; Dutra-Tavares Ana C; Nunes Fernanda; Nunes-Freitas André L; Filgueiras Cláudio C; Manhães Alex C; Meyer Armando; Abreu-Villaça Yael. Mood-related behavioral and neurochemical alterations in mice exposed to low chlorpyrifos levels during the brain growth spurt. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0239017; article XML SHA-256 f97c3fb995ec5f855c3c436e7633b465fd2b6cbffdc8e18ff5f57be84287de96. “Mood-related behavioral and neurochemical alterations in mice exposed to low chlorpyrifos levels during the brain growth spurt” (10.1371/journal.pone.0239017).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239017). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GSR
<a id="gsr"></a>

GSR stands for galvanic skin response, a physiological signal recorded from the skin. In this study it was used alongside EEG as an accessible measure that changed with stress and helped classify stress states.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 297d2bb81cf92521a54efe8b03175964754b0be349a042d4fe330575b80a09ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Hun-gyeom; Song Solwoong; Cho Baek Hwan; Jang Dong Pyo. Deep learning-based stress detection for daily life use using single-channel EEG and GSR in a virtual reality interview paradigm. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305864; article XML SHA-256 615ffec37e7cc9d86bc483e99d2c298879ef4ebaf594eeb3feee47de5733d3d9. “Deep learning-based stress detection for daily life use using single-channel EEG and GSR in a virtual reality interview paradigm” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305864).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305864). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## guanfacine
<a id="guanfacine"></a>

Guanfacine is a non-stimulant medication that acts on alpha-2 adrenergic receptors and is used in children with ADHD to reduce symptoms. It has mild sedating effects and may be especially helpful for behavioral symptoms such as hyperactivity, but it is also associated with relatively poor tolerability because side effects often lead people to stop taking it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e85d9b9b9a1636e5d6c97131b0b66b6d0e8fe518a813d3f77898b2df5b96433

Sources:
- Drafting source: [El Masri Sahid; Kowalczyk Olivia S.; Chiu Tsz Hei; Criaud Marion; Lukito Steve; Mazibuko Ndabezinhle; Salazar de Pablo Gonzalo; Perez Rodriguez Violeta; Makos Orsolya; Lam Sheut-Ling; Westwood Samuel; Eaton-Turner Alexander; Bozhilova Natali; Conti Aldo; Santosh Paramala; Roessner Veit; Kohls Gregor; Mehta Mitul A.; Rubia Katya. Differential effects of a single dose of Lisdexamfetamine and Guanfacine on cognitive function in children with ADHD. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1676472; article XML SHA-256 fe8eba2ca97c3a9598df6fdc03147b78a21f765e2b8b6529220e4102a0909f5e. “Differential effects of a single dose of Lisdexamfetamine and Guanfacine on cognitive function in children with ADHD” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1676472).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1676472). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## guardian ad litem
<a id="guardian-ad-litem"></a>

In this historical legal-psychiatric usage, a guardian ad litem is a person appointed by the court to act in a lawsuit for someone considered insane but not formally declared a lunatic, or for an insane spouse during divorce proceedings. The role is to represent that person's interests in the case.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a19a828e94cb1028971e7e19f0245dcca9ced5d4743f78ebbecdb4b61c5a3f3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-315000-327000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## guardianship
<a id="guardianship"></a>

In this historical legal-psychology usage, guardianship refers to placing an alleged lunatic under another person’s legal care or control. The source indicates that being put under guardianship did not automatically remove the person’s capacity for every other legal act, such as making a will or being responsible for a wrongful act.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1aac856bb8a8cef2472c00770aa2a2c3a2fe4c894ae00bb6bb26e1c243739a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Insanity (in law)” (Insanityl).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Insanityl). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## GUI
<a id="gui"></a>

GUI stands for graphical user interface, meaning a visual way to use an application. In this context, it refers to a user-friendly program interface that lets users carry out gene selection and classification tasks more easily.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 52aeabec6fe9b1596cb0ac4d570d05887b22f228fcce72fe992fde94385590ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hameed Shilan S.; Hassan Rohayanti; Hassan Wan Haslina; Muhammadsharif Fahmi F.; Latiff Liza Abdul. HDG-select: A novel GUI based application for gene selection and classification in high dimensional datasets. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0246039; article XML SHA-256 62f913cd085f796eb137dd3c0e297e20e00ca3c033387b0f2308ce194575f58f. “HDG-select: A novel GUI based application for gene selection and classification in high dimensional datasets” (10.1371/journal.pone.0246039).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246039). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## guided imagery
<a id="guided-imagery"></a>

Guided imagery is a psychotherapy approach that uses imagined sensory experiences, such as pictures, sounds, smells, movement, or touch, to support coping and mental health treatment. It is often incorporated into methods such as hypnosis, relaxation techniques, autogenic training, and behavior therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 58b177fa4d1a8d8ed2980d47d48bf6a1add524602fcf2981ccdf0966c0469da7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Imagery, Psychotherapy” (D019018).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019018). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## guided participation
<a id="guided-participation"></a>

Guided participation is a way of learning in which children develop skills by taking part in shared, situation-based activities with adults and peers who shape the interaction and show what counts as appropriate understanding or action. In the source, it refers to children picking up digital literacy abilities through these socially organized exchanges.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7c5ad529a3ccfcb7d157b994c9ef2dcaec4a056777b800630aa90b991cc6a33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aarsand Pål. Categorization Activities in Norwegian Preschools: Digital Tools in Identifying, Articulating, and Assessing. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00973; article XML SHA-256 a11c83801a70b5e03d72abcac8c6431a8aad68d0b19471ae6fe664debacb85cb. “Categorization Activities in Norwegian Preschools: Digital Tools in Identifying, Articulating, and Assessing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00973).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00973). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## guided-search theory
<a id="guided-search-theory"></a>

Guided-search theory is the idea that in visual search, attention is steered toward the most relevant or salient item before full identification occurs. This guidance reflects both goal-directed factors, such as what a person is looking for, and stimulus-driven factors, such as how much an item stands out, helping reduce the number of attentional shifts needed to find a target.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7da847d4443de33e281d16798741eb8369aa6a8e79c796e97967b6f54ca14dd3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zenon Alexandre; Ben Hamed Suliann; Duhamel Jean-René; Olivier Etienne. Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Attentional Guidance during Inefficient Visual Search. 2008; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0002219; article XML SHA-256 3ce20a603d2fe61ccd032320b496b06ab9202dfd8767394e35b91c5ac4e6e6f1. “Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Attentional Guidance during Inefficient Visual Search” (10.1371/journal.pone.0002219).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002219). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Guillain–Barré syndrome
<a id="guillainbarre-syndrome"></a>

Guillain–Barré syndrome is an acute autoimmune inflammation of the peripheral nerves in which the immune response damages peripheral myelin and nerve roots. It often follows an infection, surgery, immunization, lymphoma, or toxin exposure and commonly causes worsening weakness, reduced sensation, and decreased deep tendon reflexes; breathing muscle weakness and autonomic problems can also occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a93f4eead10d43f37f9f862f68617f6bdb927818a2829a8d8f1d9f6bd4deba59

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Guillain-Barre Syndrome” (D020275).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020275). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## guilt
<a id="guilt"></a>

Guilt is a distressing personal feeling that one has done something wrong, such as an error, offense, or sin. It involves self-criticism arising from acts, urges, or thoughts felt to go against one’s own conscience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7137e720a4a4e35f7a3f8a6cc19b6bbf96e1b823e7ef6afdca69916f453bc8a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Guilt” (D006167).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006167). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## guilty knowledge test
<a id="guilty-knowledge-test"></a>

A guilty knowledge test is a method for assessing whether a person recognizes details linked to an event, based on their responses to presented information. In the packet, a P3-based version uses the size of the P3 response as an indicator of how strongly the person recognizes a critical stimulus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73cfbc5e2409ff0ee3fca803d7b91a90281737de5e26d976df43c998639cb976

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jang Ki-Won; Kim Deok-Yong; Cho Sungkun; Lee Jang-Han. Effects of the combination of P3-based GKT and reality monitoring on deceptive classification. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00018; article XML SHA-256 16a6c991a8aff3bcd6520cf6ed301cc82b71be7d2b5ce39c01033414fdce2e75. “Effects of the combination of P3-based GKT and reality monitoring on deceptive classification” (10.3389/fnhum.2013.00018).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00018). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Gulf War syndrome
<a id="gulf-war-syndrome"></a>

Gulf War syndrome refers to a pattern of unexplained symptoms reported by veterans of the 1991 Persian Gulf War. These symptoms can include fatigue, pain, headaches, memory loss, breathing and digestive problems, skin rash, and unusual sensitivity to common chemicals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6935b6cfa4803a9d47f240cecf7c0f162442fda8ac6b04675d3731ad37cb540

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Persian Gulf Syndrome” (D018923).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018923). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gustation
<a id="gustation"></a>

Gustation is the sense of taste: the ability to detect chemicals using taste receptors in the mouth, including areas such as the tongue, palate, pharynx, and epiglottis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: acd27f8182ea3de400ae0564ba84d864b6b92674e451b52c7511e510a0352706

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Taste” (D013649).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013649). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gustatory hallucination
<a id="gustatory-hallucination"></a>

A gustatory hallucination is experiencing a taste even though there is nothing present that would produce that taste.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 25b4b32972d7337f55618a8c538352efd0a522a115be893a79df7049b8889adb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Gustatory Hallucination” (C118177).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gustatory nerve
<a id="gustatory-nerve"></a>

A gustatory nerve is a taste-related nerve whose fibers connect with taste receptor cells in the taste buds and carry taste information from the tongue to the brain. These nerve fibers also help organize and maintain the presynaptic sites used for communication with taste cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0dc0857ef59f91285e866253e550ac02ab51dd9ed954ec5f6ba942b33dd9de94

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Landon Shannon M; Holder Emily; Ng Amber; Wood Ryan; Kuri Eduardo Gutierrez; Humayun Saima; Pinto Laura Bordallo; Macpherson Lindsey J. Taste cells depend on axon proximity to generate presynaptic sites. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325312; article XML SHA-256 97e38f92e51c9d9b00b8e18ef1af38d052f3af78e5dd3db24f1f41822a7036c7. “Taste cells depend on axon proximity to generate presynaptic sites” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325312).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325312). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gustatory qualities
<a id="gustatory-qualities"></a>

Gustatory qualities are the basic kinds of taste sensation. In this source, they are the four fundamental tastes—sweet, bitter, acid, and salt—from which taste experiences are described.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76b1d29224d7a766cc8d5883a529ad5d99701a758c59cce748f30c079f0d66b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3748500-3760500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Guttman scale
<a id="guttman-scale"></a>

A Guttman scale is a way of arranging items in a single order of difficulty or endorsement so that endorsing or answering a later item implies that all earlier, easier, or prerequisite items would also be endorsed or answered. In such a scale, people with the same total score are expected to show the same response pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd3eb662cb55727037aebf29070c99b306253e71dd80fc81c8f41c3c0a3a0c41

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tractenberg Rochelle E.; Yumoto Futoshi; Aisen Paul S.; Kaye Jeffrey A.; Mislevy Robert J.. Using the Guttman Scale to Define and Estimate Measurement Error in Items over Time: The Case of Cognitive Decline and the Meaning of “Points Lost”. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0030019; article XML SHA-256 698d51a794acd3e133c7b2ff3151f3facaf1d886c8098fbbdef1e567662e11f3. “Using the Guttman Scale to Define and Estimate Measurement Error in Items over Time: The Case of Cognitive Decline and the Meaning of “Points Lost”” (10.1371/journal.pone.0030019).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030019). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gyrus
<a id="gyrus"></a>

In this historical source, a gyrus is a winding or convolution, especially as a term used in connection with the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 30b0be2f98d854ea52af59f5423ad6efdd07b54aa9fb1c62663a49d59f2bd058

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Gyrus” (Gyrus).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G2defs.htm#Gyrus). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## gyrus cinguli
<a id="gyrus-cinguli"></a>

The gyrus cinguli is a fold of cortex on the inner surface of the cerebral hemispheres. It curves around the front part of the brain and the corpus callosum, and it is part of the limbic system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a2b6aa1aaa40b10657ddb6f769a34ae679ae90193e0335f33ea63bb0fcc53d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gyrus Cinguli” (D006179).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006179). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## H spread
<a id="h-spread"></a>

H-spread is a measure used in a box plot. It is the difference between the upper hinge and the lower hinge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b977db4cedd8c2302da9e4bae9dbf3d2546abea7b49b36d99b9c69fa9efe006e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “H-Spread” (hspread.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/hspread.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## habeas corpus
<a id="habeas-corpus"></a>

Habeas corpus is a legal writ used to obtain the prompt release of a person who is being held unlawfully. It requires the custodian to bring the detained person before the issuing authority and state the reason for the detention, so the confinement can be judged and ended if unjustified.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a484e2e131a27d69dff93b2b7e60d2c9f2415d6d4c8876cbb1524672d944625

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Habeas Corpus” (Habeas).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Habeas). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## habit
<a id="habit"></a>

A habit is a repeated behavior pattern that happens with little conscious thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f206232c95c3aa07542f323ee86edf65266dc1c9f7efca7d892e92474702cd8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Habit” (C94571).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## habit formation
<a id="habit-formation"></a>

Habit formation is the process by which a behavior becomes an automatic response to cues in the surrounding context. It is encouraged by repeating the behavior in a stable setting, and perceived reward may also play a role in how this process develops.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1df7d5046d9c23e9204173018029fcd341efe8f6497d6354afdcbc42ddcc6570

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Judah Gaby; Gardner Benjamin; Kenward Michael G.; DeStavola Bianca; Aunger Robert. Exploratory study of the impact of perceived reward on habit formation. 2018; DOI 10.1186/s40359-018-0270-z; article XML SHA-256 d1fc373128bfc75c98bf184ed45b08f1e7983c205b6cf8528ea601743e78fdf1. “Exploratory study of the impact of perceived reward on habit formation” (10.1186/s40359-018-0270-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-018-0270-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## habit strength
<a id="habit-strength"></a>

Habit strength is the degree to which a consumption behavior is established as a habit, often reflected in how frequently a person does it. In this context, stronger habit strength was treated as an important source of differences in current consumption and in how people respond to warning labels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35147bbc6e6dd5d1447afa1619aa173ecbee7c5710d142a917893a9e1275e4f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ding Yulian; Yang Yue; Sun Yangyang; Chen Kevin; Hu Lianfeng. How does habit strength affect reactions to warning labels? evidence from Chinese consumers’ choices of carbonated beverages. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316189; article XML SHA-256 68244692cb062c2c1c2b37e5dac7994cfca3ae5f2c104f11d187a693496cd688. “How does habit strength affect reactions to warning labels? evidence from Chinese consumers’ choices of carbonated beverages” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316189).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316189). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## habitat
<a id="habitat"></a>

Habitat is the local environment in which a plant or animal lives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0bc38028b4965060961a3cb73d6032bec14aea16af2d04220badb8f1ecd97f9f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Habitat” (Habitat).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Habitat). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## habituation
<a id="habituation"></a>

Habituation is the process of becoming accustomed or trained in carrying out a particular function through repeated practice or exercise. In experimental work, it can also mean a tendency that develops across a series of judgments, where later judgments are shaped by earlier ones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4595bd8e02bae4378e3ed2d40f6db9a43eb280b7689e6c5440fe8292a4a96566

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Habituation” (Habituation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Habituation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Habituation, Psychophysiologic
<a id="habituation-psychophysiologic"></a>

Psychophysiologic habituation is the fading or disappearance of a response after the same stimulus is presented repeatedly. It refers to this reduced responsiveness, not to drug habituation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d9c2474ba28638a3414502767d875af26a454cd90b3cc2f70142a58c6bc03cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Habituation, Psychophysiologic” (D006185).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006185). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## habitus
<a id="habitus"></a>

Habitus is the set of embodied dispositions people develop through their social experiences over time within a particular social field. It links social structure and individual action by shaping how people perceive, desire, and tend to behave, with early family experiences playing an important role.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 316362ea20b2edd8a6a94466de3f896454ddb2801125a5edcb827cc049f8b5a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zheng Haoyuan; Xiang Zubing; Yang Wenli; Xi Haojun. The shaping of adolescent physical activity habitus: The role of family sports culture. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336905; article XML SHA-256 fc292e2a7a5b955e7469fea2bda0da12c8859280ba16ecbe0e71aeb2a211fa65. “The shaping of adolescent physical activity habitus: The role of family sports culture” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336905).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336905). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hair cell
<a id="hair-cell"></a>

A hair cell is a sensory cell in the inner ear. Its hair-like projections detect sound vibrations and convert them into nerve signals the brain can interpret.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35ce2a64165c357d11dff8db4619a914eb737b4b32ba61c90f30e40c93257c80

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hair Cell” (C12629).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hair follicle
<a id="hair-follicle"></a>

A hair follicle is a skin structure involved in maintaining skin function and in thermal regulation, social communication, and sensing. It forms through coordinated signaling between skin layers and cycles through growth, regression, and resting stages over the lifespan.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df7f688a2b44f8db6a9a53699d6d78072e6d0339161b52702b0d6f47900746f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [He Nimantana; Su Rui; Wang Zhiying; Zhang Yanjun; Li Jinquan. Exploring differentially expressed genes between anagen and telogen secondary hair follicle stem cells from the Cashmere goat ( Capra hircus ) by RNA-Seq. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0231376; article XML SHA-256 6c1f3e64fe7963941c393d0917d6c3da3921e616409af8e98ec941d9d499b782. “Exploring differentially expressed genes between anagen and telogen secondary hair follicle stem cells from the Cashmere goat ( Capra hircus ) by RNA-Seq” (10.1371/journal.pone.0231376).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231376). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## halazepam
<a id="halazepam"></a>

Halazepam is a synthetic benzodiazepine with anxiety-reducing effects. It works by enhancing GABA activity in the central nervous system, which lowers nerve cell excitability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7279f59aeb90a3d766643e80004ff196663c2b21ed85ed750b682d5550f510a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Halazepam” (C61780).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Halcion
<a id="halcion"></a>

Halcion is triazolam, a triazolobenzodiazepine with sedative-hypnotic effects. It acts at the GABA-A receptor complex on nerve cell membranes, strengthening GABA’s inhibitory action and reducing neuronal excitability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: af464d2511a32cbfa5792b30293106858b5b10d361c9c3a96887fc9ae43869bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Triazolam” (C29520).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Haldol
<a id="haldol"></a>

Haldol is haloperidol, a drug with antipsychotic, neuroleptic, and anti-nausea effects. It works by blocking dopamine D2 receptors in the brain, which reduces dopamine signaling and can lessen delusions, hallucinations, and vomiting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b13e0e69829fbce08fa0e60c08d6b76c16b283ae01c9fd5c311ee99f00545a68

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Haloperidol” (C537).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hallucination
<a id="hallucination"></a>

A hallucination is a sensory experience that seems real even though no external stimulus is present. Unlike an illusion, which is a mistaken interpretation of something real, a hallucination occurs without anything outside the person causing the perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02fe10a42dafb7bc952faa173e1bff21832b431b997af7a0c04f59a13df06637

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hallucination” (C37961).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hallucinogen
<a id="hallucinogen"></a>

A hallucinogen is a drug that can produce major changes in perception, thinking, mood, and feelings, including hallucinations, illusions, delusional ideas, or paranoia. What sets these drugs apart is their ability to create unusual states of awareness and experience not normally encountered.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d77a9263d96397b3255524b9c36dac9b9727da9e81540223ddb65671ed31a484

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hallucinogens” (D006213).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006213). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hallucinogen-induced psychotic disorder
<a id="hallucinogen-induced-psychotic-disorder"></a>

A hallucinogen-induced psychotic disorder is a psychotic condition associated with hallucinogen abuse. In this packet, it is described as involving delusions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 208b93159b739a3af6d16b6dda22610cbd6a4c3c76c35c5445aeb775690ab92d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hallucinogen Abuse with Hallucinogen-Induced Psychotic Disorder with Delusions” (C195757).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## halo effect
<a id="halo-effect"></a>

The halo effect is a cognitive bias in which one noticeable characteristic of a person shapes the overall judgment made about them. In this context, a person’s happiness can create a more favorable general evaluation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5d1a0da99657769a0388d32ef3232cf8adfacd2675a6e0b71b88e1739905095a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Amir Avital; Shtudiner Zeev; Shavit Tal. Is happiness for all? The happiness halo effect on coworkers’ perceptions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1653843; article XML SHA-256 f7ca4c8c061ffab66ca6a11bd488505a27ac3cfbd6770e44a6542cf28e600eaa. “Is happiness for all? The happiness halo effect on coworkers’ perceptions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1653843).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1653843). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Hand Dynamometer Test
<a id="hand-dynamometer-test"></a>

The Hand Dynamometer Test is a measure used to assess physical activity capacity in the upper extremities. In this study, it was one of the validated measures used to track changes in older adults’ functioning over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f76cb00e0eb6f7679f3caef613c8353304ae94e6dc7ad61f645cdb8903e7408

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gustafsson Lena-Karin; Söderman M.; Johansson C.; Elfström M. L.. Interprofessional homebased reablement intervention for older adults in Sweden: a randomized controlled trial. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12877-025-05886-w; article XML SHA-256 e663abbe71225cbfca56260f593a7feb8f08faaf4863085943314838c64227d7. “Interprofessional homebased reablement intervention for older adults in Sweden: a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s12877-025-05886-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-025-05886-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hand–arm vibration syndrome
<a id="handarm-vibration-syndrome"></a>

Hand–arm vibration syndrome is an occupational condition caused by long-term exposure to vibration, usually in people who regularly use vibrating tools. It affects the fingers, hands, and forearms and can cause episodes of finger whitening, numbness, tingling, and reduced nerve sensitivity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 957b22eaad789cbce26c38fcc56a0b38ef263960ec4062dfd15dd80735c245e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome” (D053421).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D053421). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## handedness
<a id="handedness"></a>

Handedness is the greater skill or dominance of one hand over the other. In this historical source, the usual form is right-handedness, while left-handedness is described as the less common opposite and contrasted with ambidextrous ability in both hands.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f5bfaca82c6ee647ac2acb076610b0a79f86ece67de775aa34097ba2ba82a8d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ambidextrous” (Ambidextrous).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Ambidextrous). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## handicap
<a id="handicap"></a>

A handicap is a physical or mental impairment that gets in the way of a person doing the activities they want to do.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5d8f29baadb8b5084fb1f79c91933614693ae0ec3f9faa8bc29dbd471bce489a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Disability” (C21007).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## handwriting analysis
<a id="handwriting-analysis"></a>

Handwriting analysis is the use of changes or deterioration in a person’s handwriting to estimate their cognitive state at the time of writing. In this context, it refers to quantitatively evaluating handwriting to judge whether cognition appears normal or impaired.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: efc323da6ab09c87185f010d06e9c907df52ae2da74389966ac09c3786068182

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Balestrino Maurizio; Brugnolo Andrea; Girtler Nicola; Pardini Matteo; Rizzetto Cristiano; Alì Paolo Alessandro; Cocito Leonardo; Schiavetti Irene. Cognitive impairment assessment through handwriting (COGITAT) score: a novel tool that predicts cognitive state from handwriting for forensic and clinical applications. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1275315; article XML SHA-256 cabf3635b90de0bac52073334a390052f4ccd0694146494b4140770419718c9f. “Cognitive impairment assessment through handwriting (COGITAT) score: a novel tool that predicts cognitive state from handwriting for forensic and clinical applications” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1275315).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1275315). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hangover
<a id="hangover"></a>

In this cognition context, a hangover refers to the lingering period after an acute hypoxic exposure when cognitive and some physiological functions have not yet fully returned to normal, even after normal oxygen levels are restored. These after-effects can last from minutes to hours, with most recovery usually occurring within about 2 to 4 hours.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6cd548d8a6f8b6f68ac311712e65a9335024cd0ad5740aea00efd80ae8c03263

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shaw David M; Bloomfield Peter M; Benfell Anthony; Hughes Isadore; Gant Nicholas. Recovery from acute hypoxia: A systematic review of cognitive and physiological responses during the ‘hypoxia hangover’. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0289716; article XML SHA-256 5c2e9875c4a6fbf6370cfe1932147f62060e73bfd5cc960881a086dc67f8f27f. “Recovery from acute hypoxia: A systematic review of cognitive and physiological responses during the ‘hypoxia hangover’” (10.1371/journal.pone.0289716).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289716). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## happiness
<a id="happiness"></a>

Happiness is a very pleasant emotional state marked by visible signs of satisfaction or gratification.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0cf1fccdaf3a7c9d111ddd2e22c0c09e33f643f0fa86b11fcd1a8c68f1a954d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Happiness” (D006240).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006240). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## haptic
<a id="haptic"></a>

Haptic refers to perception and experience through bodily contact and movement, such as sensing pressure, friction, vibration, temperature change, and guidance from the body’s interaction with the environment, other people, or technology. It goes beyond simple touch sensation by involving how contact helps a person detect, interpret, and regulate action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa8b856d78585f32bdc8e7ff672fd73aa674b99c86627e892cfed6303bfead3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tan Yanli; Mou Xueqing; Liu Shiqi; Zang Liuhong; Cui Haiwen. Contact, agency, and haptic experience in sport: a conceptual analysis of embodied skill, interpersonal touch, and digital mediation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1914946; article XML SHA-256 ab525b1dfc6186ef4c22caff2986b15e32b12db8494786deeba4db075f215c04. “Contact, agency, and haptic experience in sport: a conceptual analysis of embodied skill, interpersonal touch, and digital mediation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1914946).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1914946). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## haptic perception
<a id="haptic-perception"></a>

Haptic perception is recognizing an object’s shape and form through touch and movement-based bodily sensing, using tactile input. It refers to perceiving what something is like by feeling it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 900132a6203d0ca86a84f7e3646b4003e67ab13b0abcf9286869bf445424bf99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Stereognosis” (D013236).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013236). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## haptic picture
<a id="haptic-picture"></a>

A haptic picture is a picture meant to be examined through touch rather than sight, typically as a raised-line drawing. In this research area, the term often refers to tactile images whose recognition depends on age, experience, memory, and the exploratory hand movements a person uses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d062d824f6ce71d01cbe80e950bee71beb7f128d9d174ff7835560b2b1c2961a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wymark Dana; Roy Raymond; Myers Mysa; Jankech Oleg; Byczynski Gabriel; Abizaid Alfonso; Dresp-Langley Birgitta; D'Angiulli Amedeo. HAPTI-Child: a finger-tracking video and keypoint dataset of haptic picture exploration and identification in congenitally blind and visually impaired children. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1759540; article XML SHA-256 0028f41761d5d0f166858068fafe0c63e26be9e206543b4f61243e2443129253. “HAPTI-Child: a finger-tracking video and keypoint dataset of haptic picture exploration and identification in congenitally blind and visually impaired children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1759540).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1759540). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## haptics
<a id="haptics"></a>

Haptics is the study of touch and the sensations and perceptions that go with it, comparable to how optics concerns sight and acoustics concerns hearing. In broader use, it can include the functions of skin, muscles, tendons, joints, and even balance-related sense, covering temperature, pain, position, and movement; in narrower use, it refers only to cutaneous touch sensations and perceptions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4051985a4aa67be993cd76e2b107a2c213d456a78fbe030a7b3ff8569b1711ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Haptics” (Haptics).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Haptics). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hard palate
<a id="hard-palate"></a>

The hard palate is the bony roof of the mouth. Its shape varies across people and may influence speech production in both typical and pathological cases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a18ddfe5ccc025af0b6af0b3bb51f9371677f6fe1833c3d8816efff8c7249c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Janssen Rick; Moisik Scott R; Dediu Dan. Modelling human hard palate shape with Bézier curves. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0191557; article XML SHA-256 a96126640c25c6b66adf7b34256f00224df885afc162d30e2795a6dacafbbe50. “Modelling human hard palate shape with Bézier curves” (10.1371/journal.pone.0191557).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191557). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hard problem
<a id="hard-problem"></a>

In this source, the hard problem is the challenge of explaining subjective experience, including qualia and intentionality, in a way that is not fully reduced to brain processes. It is discussed as a question about whether consciousness is primary and foundational rather than something that emerges from matter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c23e02c84444aad9986f3712112b8302720c38927ece48a8a8f7d8aee6c3d78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Arora Amira. The spiritual core of the hard problem: consciousness as foundational, not emergent. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1659944; article XML SHA-256 1daea28cf4ac714358fbedc6b8ea19caceb03b24ff25e5f5bc55ae9b4e0c11ed. “The spiritual core of the hard problem: consciousness as foundational, not emergent” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1659944).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1659944). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hardiness
<a id="hardiness"></a>

Hardiness is a psychological quality that helps a person adapt to personal, social, and educational challenges. In this context, it is shaped by influences such as family, society, peers, and teachers, and can be strengthened through social support, coping skills, self-confidence, emotional regulation, and personal growth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 039087335cf9b82e6c7e2c0e168f603868b9132d180552e65b0fe3a364baddc9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Albash Nourah Ibrahim; Alarfaj Reem Abdullatif. Psychological hardiness among deaf and hard-of-hearing female students in Saudi Arabia: a mixed-methods analysis of influencing factors and enhancement strategies. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1831967; article XML SHA-256 06c3f3d65311ca7776ac843440be2b761234ec7e8fb024833156acde82970293. “Psychological hardiness among deaf and hard-of-hearing female students in Saudi Arabia: a mixed-methods analysis of influencing factors and enhancement strategies” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1831967).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1831967). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## harem
<a id="harem"></a>

In this context, a harem is a social group found in a polygynous species that is contrasted with a male-biased bachelor group and includes females living together. The packet describes harem groups as showing less intense aggression than bachelor groups, with affiliative behavior such as allogrooming observed between females.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea04c40155fd24b144ee8b03149eafee12c197a94ce4e6f522c7a5fb972cdb97

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hex Severine B.S.W.; Wilkinson Gerald S.. Affiliative and agonistic interactions distinguish sex-biased social groups of greater spear-nosed bats, Phyllostomus hastatus. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356790; article XML SHA-256 34be33a380901bd6a79af09039088a5b76d56a32bc8fa7954a4351aea8c1268b. “Affiliative and agonistic interactions distinguish sex-biased social groups of greater spear-nosed bats, Phyllostomus hastatus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356790).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356790). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## harm avoidance
<a id="harm-avoidance"></a>

Harm avoidance is a personality trait marked by a tendency to steer away from situations seen as potentially dangerous. It is a motivational pattern tied to approach-avoidance behavior and is described as reflecting sensitivity to danger, more like enduring fearfulness than general anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cbc319ed78d8e5a9ab39a9926399160c46967440671fbd4396f990a3118cafac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huggins Ashley A.; Belleau Emily L.; Miskovich Tara A.; Pedersen Walker S.; Larson Christine L.. Moderating Effects of Harm Avoidance on Resting-State Functional Connectivity of the Anterior Insula. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00447; article XML SHA-256 867fdaff3d4bfc474eb14852a44b4ed9abde25053f48c6618aeeb0f28f9ceabc. “Moderating Effects of Harm Avoidance on Resting-State Functional Connectivity of the Anterior Insula” (10.3389/fnhum.2018.00447).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00447). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## harm reduction
<a id="harm-reduction"></a>

Harm reduction is an approach that aims to lower the risk of injury or other negative effects linked to certain behaviors, even if the behaviors continue at the same rate. It is especially relevant to ongoing addictive behaviors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab4893080e474645f2d42e52d3d78db4f48155c8da8779c2639daf7b18ff4453

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Harm Reduction” (D040261).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D040261). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## harmine
<a id="harmine"></a>

Harmine is a biological compound studied here for possible activity against respiratory pathogens. In this study, it did not show a significant in vitro effect against H1N1 influenza virus at concentrations that were not toxic to cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36fdfa24f89da1a8b20f6384580a05ba767896a36b5192fd896b9b6d6aada559

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alossaimi Manal A.; Abdel Bar Fatma M.; Elekhnawy Engy; ElNaggar Mai H.. Antibacterial and antiviral potential of harmalacidine hydrochloride, a β-carboline alkaloid, against respiratory tract pathogens: Staphylococcus aureus and H1N1 influenza virus. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335014; article XML SHA-256 a6c6e4380a9516c0f1060611708b18f332fd51e4bf661e9ba8fa8ab12ab027c0. “Antibacterial and antiviral potential of harmalacidine hydrochloride, a β-carboline alkaloid, against respiratory tract pathogens: Staphylococcus aureus and H1N1 influenza virus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335014).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335014). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## harmonic mean
<a id="harmonic-mean"></a>

The harmonic mean is a kind of average calculated for a set of n numbers. In research methods, it is often used when working with sample sizes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2147bb13a8cece79356e0e19da6bbf2f20dd04268ba52ee606dad9c7d3289e52

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Harmonic Mean” (harmonic_mean.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/harmonic_mean.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## harmony
<a id="harmony"></a>

In this psychology context, harmony refers to the flourishing of interdependent relationships within a group, especially in workplace teams. It is described as a shared, coordinated social climate that is linked with better individual well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9714aeafcf73244f07c9308ea2b87d4be36d522f185551decd9de3a211aa2243

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ito Kazuhiro; Wakamiya Shoko; Manabe Masae; Watanabe Yasushi; Nakayama Masataka; Uchida Yukiko; Aramaki Eiji. Social harmony at work: A sharedness index linking team atmosphere to individual well-being in a Japanese company. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336368; article XML SHA-256 9ef6945c92f208dfa349b4e9761410b773935016d1aca169b5ae34621160365e. “Social harmony at work: A sharedness index linking team atmosphere to individual well-being in a Japanese company” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336368).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336368). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hashish
<a id="hashish"></a>

Hashish is a cannabis-related psychoactive substance associated with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is described as its most active form. It can produce characteristic changes in mood and perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea1139d443bb0a9c5e5e64f0bf9ffc7bbb9fa6ac959a43918ee82b93ef745f78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dronabinol” (D013759).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013759). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hate
<a id="hate"></a>

Hate is a lasting negative feeling or attitude toward a person or thing, shown in anger and strong dislike. It also involves wanting harm or bad outcomes for others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e88cc20a8d7f8cc4248312416b1f719e7c220a209d186b4abb72339349c14dbb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hate” (D006252).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006252). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hate crime
<a id="hate-crime"></a>

A hate crime is a criminal act in which the victim is targeted because of bias against a social identity or group, such as sexual orientation, gender, race, or ethnicity. In this context, hate crimes are associated with harmful social, emotional, and physical effects on victims.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8908c77559c80979b9ddff2c811a2f97ee9ec581c7003b018abe9f9c54df114c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Flores Andrew R.; Stotzer Rebecca L.; Meyer Ilan H.; Langton Lynn L.. Hate crimes against LGBT people: National Crime Victimization Survey, 2017-2019. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0279363; article XML SHA-256 558f09274429995241c2afcf9052cc399557a106ac4bd7a48875e4ac36079eba. “Hate crimes against LGBT people: National Crime Victimization Survey, 2017-2019” (10.1371/journal.pone.0279363).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279363). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## haunted swing illusion
<a id="haunted-swing-illusion"></a>

The haunted swing illusion is a motion illusion in which a person sits on a swing that does not move while the surrounding room swings like a pendulum, and the movement is wrongly felt as belonging to the swing. It produces a strong sense of dizziness and reflects a misleading judgment of bodily motion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5eaa79b1ead95d34d3b3c33d86a7fc1f256afec5119c7b0dfe8687f530eb7723

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Illusions of Motion and Movement” (Illusions).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Illusions). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hazard analysis
<a id="hazard-analysis"></a>

Hazard analysis is a statistical method used in mental health research to examine how different factors are related to the chance of an event happening over time, such as a suicide reattempt during follow-up. In this packet, it refers to Cox proportional hazard analysis for identifying risk factors linked with when reattempts occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe53a83ac8d37bc63573ac6845b55cff8fc9fea0c2e3e590dd7f70ec68a2d98c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Min Ji; Yang Jeong Hun; Koh Min Jung; Kim Youngdoe; Lee Bolam; Ahn Yong Min. Risk factors of reattempt among suicide attempters in South Korea: A nationwide retrospective cohort study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300054; article XML SHA-256 1902a80b463a2effa2928667ce00ad3625ba7e57886bca0e6939ddd6e7960130. “Risk factors of reattempt among suicide attempters in South Korea: A nationwide retrospective cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300054).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300054). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hazard control
<a id="hazard-control"></a>

Hazard control is the coordinated capability to manage dangerous or life-threatening situations as part of emergency response. In this context, it involves integrating medical and tactical action so responders can act comprehensively to protect people and other assets.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f9665a17855eb1c85eeda41c27b95bb67a1e0f535cbb8172cffa79edba4922e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ziehr Sabrina; Merkt Philipp Hans. Handling of life-threatening situations in the context of hazard control and emergency response: Master Medic/Master Physician – an academic course. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1718648; article XML SHA-256 1f4784aa43ae388e61029ff2c9a5fc4474fb27b09af743419724510ef7f7427b. “Handling of life-threatening situations in the context of hazard control and emergency response: Master Medic/Master Physician – an academic course” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1718648).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1718648). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Hb
<a id="hb"></a>

Hb refers to hoarding behavior. In this source, it is described as a possible early form and central feature of hoarding disorder, and in children and adolescents it may mark a higher risk of later progression to the disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e07b59b402bd373b010a50e826ba51e5aece97644703d046f5056daf003f390e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Akıncı Mehmet Akif; Turan Bahadır; Yıldırım Demirdöğen Esen; Bozkurt Abdullah; Donbaloğlu Mehmet Ali; Korkmaz Ürük Gülsüm Tuğba; Esin İbrahim Selçuk; Dursun Onur Burak. Diagnostic progression to hoarding disorder: the longitudinal course of hoarding behavior. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08055-4; article XML SHA-256 6a716a74fac3a4951ad04ddb68965e27ce2d29988021575d95c17404e8acab1b. “Diagnostic progression to hoarding disorder: the longitudinal course of hoarding behavior” (10.1186/s12888-026-08055-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08055-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HCBS
<a id="hcbs"></a>

HCBS stands for home- and community-based services. In this context, it means long-term care and support provided to older adults in their homes or local communities rather than in institutions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 005d768e1ba9523aa7b5348c6b6ecfdce12a0ef14c1a07ac661a4178241154c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ping Ruru; Hu Bo; Oshio Takashi. Evaluating the impact of a pilot programme for home- and community-based services on long-term care needs among older adults in China. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311616; article XML SHA-256 7a1bc54f982595b63fb292017c4709dcad82270df01343f1350060f820121aac. “Evaluating the impact of a pilot programme for home- and community-based services on long-term care needs among older adults in China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311616).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311616). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HD
<a id="hd"></a>

Huntington's disease is an inherited, progressively worsening brain disorder that can begin at any age and causes movement and coordination problems, such as involuntary movements and trouble with walking, speaking, or swallowing. It also leads to declining mental abilities and can involve psychiatric difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a07e4a35ff08bec832bd96b82393998659362a6f9413a25482c6866c45056217

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Huntington's Disease” (C82342).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HDI
<a id="hdi"></a>

HDI, or heterogeneity diffusion imaging, is a diffusion MRI method that uses one clinical scan to identify and describe differences within a tumor, including its tissue makeup and small-vessel characteristics. It is mainly used in evaluating primary brain tumors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9daa747207675438797a62fd2dc1abe7c2a05351a4553f6eb26d5b45f6584c0b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Heterogeneity Diffusion Imaging” (C179716).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## head nystagmus
<a id="head-nystagmus"></a>

Head nystagmus is an involuntary eye movement triggered by moving the head, reflecting vestibular input from the semicircular canals. Depending on the axis of head rotation, it may appear as horizontal, vertical, or torsional eye movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf32b31b78aab1bf98fd4fb04f4253e0c74e799981b53db802b8020e7181c5b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Xiaobang; Zhang Xueqing; Deng Qiaomei; Li Shanshan; Liu Qiang; Wen Chao; Wang Wei; Chen Taisheng. Three-dimensional characteristics of nystagmus induced by low frequency in semicircular canals of healthy young people. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2023.1321906; article XML SHA-256 6070b46dcfb4526a113f7c200a830b43dc847434f8f63c22f458b07676766989. “Three-dimensional characteristics of nystagmus induced by low frequency in semicircular canals of healthy young people” (10.3389/fnins.2023.1321906).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2023.1321906). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## head retraction
<a id="head-retraction"></a>

Head retraction is a persistent backward drawing of the head. In this historical source, it is described in infants as following recurrent opisthotonic spasms and being thought to reflect inflammatory disease at the back part of the base of the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db7ae3893b9205dbdf68fbf8c4eed69af3e59fcae8422fdd376603e7e060fa44

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3087000-3099000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## head rolling
<a id="head-rolling"></a>

Head rolling is a head-tilting movement discussed in vestibulo-ocular research, where gravity can activate neck muscles and stretch jaw muscles through the mandible and related tissue connections. In this context, it may contribute sensory input that interacts with vestibular signals involved in vertical-torsional eye movement control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5298b401fe85c6cee081b03c8be750364a6485f8b245fe9bbedbe24e9c38f560

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Yongmei; Gong Xinrui; Ibrahim Shaimaa I A; Liang Houcheng; Zhang Jingdong. Convergent innervations of mesencephalic trigeminal and vestibular nuclei neurons onto oculomotor and pre-oculomotor neurons—Tract tracing and triple labeling in rats. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0278205; article XML SHA-256 d3186c4345ff8c273ac16c4ae2aa78dbcad04bf44788a37d3419d289a2ac6c2a. “Convergent innervations of mesencephalic trigeminal and vestibular nuclei neurons onto oculomotor and pre-oculomotor neurons—Tract tracing and triple labeling in rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0278205).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278205). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## head trauma
<a id="head-trauma"></a>

Head trauma is an injury to the skull and to structures inside the skull, such as the brain, cranial nerves, or meninges. It may be described by whether the skull is penetrated and whether bleeding is present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7335441bce0b42548592314217c9cd1dffe60593151498cd0f24132d75d29132

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Craniocerebral Trauma” (D006259).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006259). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## headache
<a id="headache"></a>

Headache is pain felt in the head or cranial area. It can occur on its own as a harmless symptom or as a sign of many different headache disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86b67f3e0aebc3daf69158587e3f62275f710ddfd5388628a3d751be78043f4c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Headache” (D006261).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006261). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## health
<a id="health"></a>

Health is a person’s overall state of physical, mental, and social well-being, not just the absence of disease or impairment. It also includes a sense of well-being and a balanced, stable functioning that supports growth and survival.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc37394141311140f60ab6bc3cec45bcc5a9e3259ec49aaa016b4cb1bf71f2cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Health” (C25178).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## health anxiety
<a id="health-anxiety"></a>

Health anxiety is excessive worry about being ill, along with increased attention to normal or minor bodily sensations as possible signs of illness. It may be linked with lower physical activity and symptoms such as low back pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 65efe09ad23bfd21ad99192d1e8e6c43a980333db3825210576d039463bede5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lai Songyang; Feng Xiaoyu; Xu Biaoqi; Amini Hamid. The association of health anxiety with low back pain and physical inactivity in Chinese university students: a structural equation modeling study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1685025; article XML SHA-256 1893f7871e0d3535608ebaf38a5ea3c7c3a6c4561fcfdcbc48a56dd2493fe353. “The association of health anxiety with low back pain and physical inactivity in Chinese university students: a structural equation modeling study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1685025).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1685025). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## health care
<a id="health-care"></a>

Health care refers to efforts to prevent, treat, and manage illness, while also supporting mental and physical well-being through services provided by medical and related health professionals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d474670070e1ec92def23736a31d82aa25e6a3a4a44205cbc4f6004fdb90deb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Healthcare Activity” (C16205).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## health education
<a id="health-education"></a>

Health education is learning that builds awareness and helps shape knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors in ways that support better health for individuals or communities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84cc4db1909241aa2846707be70ffd56c623f3e103e74991ed064dc124066c29

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Health Education” (D006266).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006266). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## health locus of control
<a id="health-locus-of-control"></a>

Health locus of control is a person’s expectation about what determines health outcomes. It describes whether someone sees health as mainly influenced by their own actions and characteristics or by outside forces such as chance, fate, luck, or other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e39b306c11a4ae0d563994cecf15eecd4c933a7b7a018e5b859dca3de6b14a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eriksson Maria C M; Lundgren Jesper; Hellgren Margareta; Li Ying; Björkelund Cecilia; Lindblad Ulf; Daka Bledar. Association between low internal health locus of control, psychological distress and insulin resistance. An exploratory study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285974; article XML SHA-256 405356fec9b2845c8822955d06ba729a20816a760fba77b4d06ee1cb1adf0d4d. “Association between low internal health locus of control, psychological distress and insulin resistance. An exploratory study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285974).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285974). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## health professional
<a id="health-professional"></a>

A health professional is someone trained to work in a physical or mental health field.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e7aebe119ef204ab8eb6dcdf91c2bc4af3e9e6079853705aec7fe9ce197f5e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Health Professional” (C54067).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## health promotion
<a id="health-promotion"></a>

Health promotion is the encouragement of behaviors that help people reach their best possible physical and psychosocial health. It does this through health education, preventive efforts, and improving access to medical care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: af29b454c020df2b473560688c63ecbe6168a6579848ae9a17fa07039465811f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Health Promotion” (D006293).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006293). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## health psychology
<a id="health-psychology"></a>

Health psychology is the area of psychology that studies how psychological, biological-behavioural, and environmental factors work together to affect physical and mental health, wellbeing, and illness. It uses a biopsychosocial view to understand how everyday behaviours and contexts can help or harm emotional, cognitive, and social functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7a91932c823f3d63a91f974b64e492ca831cbd5bf6ecb833d244efed1b1e011b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [De Gregorio Eugenio; De Laurentiis Ilaria. Videogames for academic wellbeing: a biopsychosocial health psychology framework for university counseling and mental health promotion. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1935433; article XML SHA-256 2f03f7bf63f946d299dae89908a7d16340081a64ff600a0468e1343e0d9e83f1. “Videogames for academic wellbeing: a biopsychosocial health psychology framework for university counseling and mental health promotion” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1935433).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1935433). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## health–belief model
<a id="healthbelief-model"></a>

The health–belief model is a framework for understanding and encouraging health behavior based on how a person views the seriousness of a health threat, their chances of being affected, the benefits of taking action, and their confidence in being able to act.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1dfe0c92073bdea949473227db88c97ccd88a09f59574112c7f854864704698a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Health Belief Model” (D000083342).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000083342). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hearing
<a id="hearing"></a>

Hearing is the ability or process of detecting sound and converting it into signals for the central nervous system. It is also called audition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 19c03e475a7ed8bba595d061c56319e587cff85938470097d767b02508d28b1e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hearing” (D006309).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006309). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hearing disorder
<a id="hearing-disorder"></a>

A hearing disorder is a condition involving partial or complete loss of the ability to hear sounds. It can result from damage in the ear or from problems in how the brain interprets and processes sound signals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a5f0fee45a0fbebd2c040670b45117f8f7c3bbca00b30230370612cb4dc6fce9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hearing Disorder” (C3078).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hearing loss
<a id="hearing-loss"></a>

Hearing loss is a general term for a partial or complete reduction in the ability to hear in one or both ears.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c618031c648fe1c68d6de59a14097e2c33a19328d8a81bc1e29bf33a834fcc8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hearing Loss” (D034381).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D034381). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hearing protection
<a id="hearing-protection"></a>

Hearing protection is something worn during a loud procedure, such as an MRI scan, to reduce exposure to noise. In this context, it is used to help limit possible hearing damage and may also reduce stress responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e9207bef57391ae84d84414078fedfb1e1a86b045e6fe37602e95ac66a1e45b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schroers Maike; Zablotski Y; Meyer-Lindenberg Andrea. Investigation of stress in dogs during an MRI examination in response to hearing protection. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312166; article XML SHA-256 7fc3499f384d1ea61ce1ec5346b13525ceec7ab84075848392d8fabd7bc55c2c. “Investigation of stress in dogs during an MRI examination in response to hearing protection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312166).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312166). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heart attack
<a id="heart-attack"></a>

In this source, a heart attack is described as a major negative health event that can act as a clear signal to a person about their health status. It is discussed as an event that may prompt healthier behavior, such as smoking less or avoiding alcohol.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3717457a3de32c5acee304e519a457a60ccf911cdb97892bf61ca98dd2086f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Verdun Zoey. Health risk realization versus warning: Impact on lifestyle behaviours. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338311; article XML SHA-256 981c874f57c4a27e1e623801b6ce9b293276763740395395c1fc05272b4a7512. “Health risk realization versus warning: Impact on lifestyle behaviours” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338311).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338311). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heart rate reactivity
<a id="heart-rate-reactivity"></a>

Heart rate reactivity is the within-person change in heart rate that occurs while someone is doing a task, such as cognitive testing. In this context, it is used as an indicator of how strongly a person physiologically responds or engages during tasks of different difficulty.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f364f994aa7917826ec12a61a2864dd13f25153d530ab8017f9fffa8bf6ca593

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pearman Ann; Neupert Shevaun D.; Ennis Gilda E.. Age and extraversion differences in heart rate reactivity during working memory tasks. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0245539; article XML SHA-256 891b31f39a4b5f1bc73e09323087744a58ab2ccfe4dc9a8a622b3641d5ec4f4f. “Age and extraversion differences in heart rate reactivity during working memory tasks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0245539).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245539). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heat
<a id="heat"></a>

In this counselling context, heat means the hot conditions of summer that may become part of a person’s negative seasonal thoughts. In CBT adapted for seasonal affective disorder, those thoughts can be examined and reframed in a more helpful way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 403ce4704f46bd6911dfe4f8b29e12024e16ae86a8b3df0144b080c94d24e1e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Seasonal Affective Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d89120086a5f01bf70f21f43fbf64f1a5b58f4c35f5185f5dac0c769f3d6317c. “Seasonal Affective Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heat effects
<a id="heat-effects"></a>

In this historical usage, heat effects are the heating changes produced in material bodies when light or radiant energy is absorbed. The passage specifically includes a rise in temperature as one example of such effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 140230451149894aec58f3061608256b57d6fae41d0cfc342c805c848b219a80

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4347000-4359000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heat exhaustion
<a id="heat-exhaustion"></a>

Heat exhaustion is a clinical condition caused by heat stress, such as overexertion in a hot setting or too much sun exposure. It typically involves sweating, loss of water and salt, cool clammy skin, nausea, and headache.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4f15a8fb984260bcfa2ad89047b09302ea4d32f18b8d0ed98cbe0e69e6e44838

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Heat Exhaustion” (D006359).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006359). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heatstroke
<a id="heatstroke"></a>

Heatstroke is the most dangerous heat-related illness and can be fatal if not treated. A key feature is dysfunction of the central nervous system, and the condition is associated with damage to the blood–brain barrier.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0c82d3ac308020ec86e82a7c5bba30c2328d78d145b446a6e7da6321dd3a089a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Okamura Kazuaki; Pichlerova Karoline; Matsuo Takayuki; Watanabe Daisuke; Cutts William D.; Kim Brandon J.; Morofuji Yoichi. Dexamethasone restores blood–brain barrier integrity in an in vitro heatstroke model. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352334; article XML SHA-256 36abad4a2d0c410432167ab0dcc5df45cc1e3acb29ede3a4b3c9a6af4b0c5e62. “Dexamethasone restores blood–brain barrier integrity in an in vitro heatstroke model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352334).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352334). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hebetude
<a id="hebetude"></a>

Hebetude is dullness of intellect together with a blunting of the senses. In this historical source, it refers to a generally slowed or obtuse mental and sensory state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: acd3e7157ce097a1890a88dd3d55266cf4995376c4381ba2d8be69922ab8d2d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3339000-3351000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Hedges’s g
<a id="hedgess-g"></a>

Hedges’s g is a corrected version of the standardized mean difference used as an effect size. It adjusts Cohen’s d for small-sample bias, giving an approximately unbiased estimate of the population effect size and usually differing only slightly from Cohen’s d, especially in larger samples.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8b75bc9233573aa5b3b13f55a6358a9510b4cb3bd9802200b960c5ebf3afe0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HEDIS
<a id="hedis"></a>

HEDIS stands for Healthcare Effectiveness Data and Information Set, a set of healthcare quality measures. In the supplied source, it refers specifically to comprehensive diabetes care measures for adults ages 18–75 that include recommended timing of retinal or dilated eye exams.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8830a2f634e20a7c74129969227fca81bb43a96eb6823c04db699c20898a0c55

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dogra Neil Sai; Geiss Michael Patrick; Gearinger Talia; Delmerico Alan; Ramchandran Rajeev S. Mapping disparities in diabetic eye exam adherence using geographic information systems. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340804; article XML SHA-256 38c0ae78ff880b08a42def6aa845e4bb14b07bc90945b510b06267091c5b87ff. “Mapping disparities in diabetic eye exam adherence using geographic information systems” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340804).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340804). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hedonic contrast
<a id="hedonic-contrast"></a>

Hedonic contrast is the relative change in pleasure or pain caused by a preceding or accompanying feeling state. It refers to how one feeling can make another seem more pleasant or more unpleasant by comparison.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: faa396b7698caeec3d5d38682bb6d6ce798261b1be3dbf8f9a78aa2272c4a3d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: C4defs.htm” (ffd1bbd428b354054301).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hedonic tone
<a id="hedonic-tone"></a>

Hedonic tone is the pleasure-or-pain quality that colors any mental state. In this historical usage, it names that pleasant or unpleasant aspect without equating it with the sensations of pleasure and pain themselves.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c75f25425fde0b01e26e0e9ce26695a223062285c8f35617338c87149ede9e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hedonic Tone” (Hedonict).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Hedonict). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hedonic well-being
<a id="hedonic-well-being"></a>

Hedonic well-being is the part of well-being concerned with how people experience and judge their lives. It includes life satisfaction and the balance of positive and negative feelings, often understood as subjective well-being or happiness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f5353d6e9902197514dc08dbadff0e09f220a4d08cb939a84552c165976eaa2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Puce Luca; Biz Carlo; Cerchiaro Mariachiara; Scapinello Davide; Giarrizzo Luca; Trompetto Carlo; Marinelli Lucio; Trabelsi Khaled; Samanipour Mohammad Hossein; Bragazzi Nicola Luigi; Ruggieri Pietro. Young para-athletes display more hedonic well-being than people with disabilities not taking part in competitive sports: insights from a multi-country survey. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1176595; article XML SHA-256 f1ad20b7ab0a9faed185ab8ff0c64922128c28d8a9e932da2409b5c19c3f5a06. “Young para-athletes display more hedonic well-being than people with disabilities not taking part in competitive sports: insights from a multi-country survey” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1176595).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1176595). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hedonics
<a id="hedonics"></a>

Hedonics is the study of pleasurable and painful states of consciousness, including their nature, changes, development, causes, and effects. In this historical usage, hedonic can refer to either pleasure or pain, not pleasure alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c74eaefaecc8d4e286a4f9c2c1dbaca69bb9db6c3501c0a62dc7cba037389265

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hedonic (1) and Hedonics (2)” (Hedonic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Hedonic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hedonism
<a id="hedonism"></a>

Hedonism is the view that pleasure is the highest measure, or a basic part, of moral worth. In this historical usage, it is an ethical theory centered on pleasure as the ultimate value standard.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 33b3575d9130969a0ce0f92fe6909b84594a50ad36645a14c6cdf74cb72920a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hedonism” (Hedonism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Hedonism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hegemony
<a id="hegemony"></a>

In this historical Stoic sense, hegemony means the governing rule of reason within the soul. It refers to reason maintaining control over emotional impulses and remaining unmoved by external effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0ec766408a1161da52f89a09fc6b9edf909b48c7ca4292a4d79c25221fc9176

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Apathy (in ethics)” (Apathy (in ethics)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Apathy (in ethics)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## helicotrema
<a id="helicotrema"></a>

The helicotrema is an opening in the cochlea that connects the scala tympani and scala vestibuli, allowing them to communicate with each other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7029882fc4cf1c89208c6317f3d67776b7fc54ef6f9f702b00b920b4042ce07

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Helicotrema” (C32723).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heliocentric theory
<a id="heliocentric-theory"></a>

Heliocentric theory is the view that the earth turns on its axis, producing the apparent daily movement of the heavens, and that the planets, including the earth, actually move around the sun. In this historical usage, it refers to the sun-centered account associated with the Copernican theory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bb0ec557c8c65aec2a3570f453db7aa403dc4cc999495ac862c3b577585d3715

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Copernican Theory (after Copernicus)” (Copernican Theory (after Copernicus)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Copernican Theory (after Copernicus)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heliotropism
<a id="heliotropism"></a>

Heliotropism is a simple responsive movement in which a cell or organism moves in relation to light. In this historical source, it is treated as the same as phototaxis, one of several basic stimulus-guided reactions seen in living matter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f7fb7c4069dcfa5e69050c2556411b95746178a6db1d1c761b92118197c75189

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Living Matter” (Living Matter).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Living Matter). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## help-seeking behavior
<a id="help-seeking-behavior"></a>

Help-seeking behavior is a kind of social behavior in which a person looks to other people for assistance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b0726304fc7b2d3cdfc725eeaf45fac42c5ff0c61e109278d7e7e871cbed9e0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Help-Seeking Behavior” (D000066505).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000066505). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## helper
<a id="helper"></a>

In this packet, “helper” appears only as part of the term “T Helper 17.1 cells.” It refers to a named cell subtype reported as increased in the cerebrospinal fluid of Huntington’s disease gene-expansion carriers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 269b2f159c41a03e20cea904fee3882391267798fc5310cf09da04f0285f8025

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ásbjörnsdóttir Birna; Musaeus Christian Sandøe; Hellem Marie N. N.; Vinther-Jensen Tua; Ejlerskov Patrick; Budtz-Jørgensen Esben; Qvist Filippa Liliendahl; Simonsen Anja Hviid; Hjermind Lena Elisabeth; Skotte Niels Henning; von Essen Marina Rode; Sellebjerg Finn; Nielsen Jørgen Erik. Blood-brain barrier integrity and prevalence of intrathecal T helper 17.1 cells in Huntington´s disease. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340683; article XML SHA-256 f341bfb10ba5c9f2657731e63cf1001bcd251b1d71df422e8774e7045de30d5b. “Blood-brain barrier integrity and prevalence of intrathecal T helper 17.1 cells in Huntington´s disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340683).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340683). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## helping professions
<a id="helping-professions"></a>

Helping professions are jobs in human services where workers support people facing major hardship, crisis, distress, or suffering. Because this work often involves ongoing exposure to clients’ painful circumstances and complex needs, these workers can be especially vulnerable to stress and burnout.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 444552c49452a3b03a49f9ddfd5c7bf215418eb09bb36502c6a3bcee4de1f31d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ferris Laura J.; Jetten Jolanda; Johnstone Melissa; Girdham Elise; Parsell Cameron; Walter Zoe C.. The Florence Nightingale Effect: Organizational Identification Explains the Peculiar Link Between Others’ Suffering and Workplace Functioning in the Homelessness Sector. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00016; article XML SHA-256 7860455f867b6927d4225eaab4aa63aeec4f99ddd634b030de957ee00eabae20. “The Florence Nightingale Effect: Organizational Identification Explains the Peculiar Link Between Others’ Suffering and Workplace Functioning in the Homelessness Sector” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00016).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00016). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## helplessness
<a id="helplessness"></a>

Helplessness is a state of feeling that one’s actions are unlikely to improve outcomes, which can lower perceived control and reduce help-seeking or active engagement. In educational settings, it may be shaped by poor support or exclusion and can reinforce withdrawal from others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea55dac63a57a2a5f4c99c749eb930448db6cd43ed2f4ed43722001526ad4e11

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ayyildiz Pinar. Academic self-perceptions and AI use among health professions students: the serial mediating roles of learned helplessness and academic-clinical learning loneliness. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1955625; article XML SHA-256 7dc2ba24775d1c54188440c579b4171f9babb10db79a4578f1be9efdca347dfa. “Academic self-perceptions and AI use among health professions students: the serial mediating roles of learned helplessness and academic-clinical learning loneliness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1955625).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1955625). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## helplessness theory
<a id="helplessness-theory"></a>

Helplessness theory, as used here in learned helplessness theory, explains motivational withdrawal as developing when people come to expect that their efforts will not make a difference. In this view, anticipated failure and a sense that effort is ineffective can lead to disengagement rather than simple unwillingness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1ecc2b77170dc6a1af32efe58224f6bf991b56134c7fb6cae1bbba400e33c20

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Shuyun; Xu Guosheng. Motivational withdrawal in college English learning: a mixed-methods investigation of diminished motivational support and perceived effort ineffectiveness. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872522; article XML SHA-256 749a6d93a3c33952be30112faa6ab0cb55e304eabcf5d17d9b86a50e86de7936. “Motivational withdrawal in college English learning: a mixed-methods investigation of diminished motivational support and perceived effort ineffectiveness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872522).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872522). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hem-
<a id="hem"></a>

In this source, HEM refers to the Health Ecology Model, a framework used to examine multiple levels of factors linked to depression and anxiety after acute ischemic stroke.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a3ec5ac01e2b1e0193374e386a2a6d0a5cc471e360260c0c33b709913614e02c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Dongli; Zhang Hong; Xiu Yuqi; Xiao Chunxun; Liu Zhili; Lin Hongchun; Zheng Shaoyan; Wu Yanchun. Latent profile analysis of depression and anxiety comorbidity in patients with acute ischemic stroke: a prospective study. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1651116; article XML SHA-256 5837ca82571480367db9bafca00ebb44f0832e8acd9f312d06c53990a3da860f. “Latent profile analysis of depression and anxiety comorbidity in patients with acute ischemic stroke: a prospective study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1651116).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1651116). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemeralopia
<a id="hemeralopia"></a>

Hemeralopia is a historical term whose meaning has been used inconsistently. Different writers used it in opposite ways for problems of seeing in daylight or in darkness, so in older sources it may refer to either day-blindness or night-blindness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d816b61f9197400d91a3d483572d75c22edc7f7637d4542feac1e1527cd7ba8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hemeralopia” (Hemeralopia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H2defs.htm#Hemeralopia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemi-
<a id="hemi"></a>

Hemi- is a prefix meaning that something is limited to one half or one side of the body or an organ. In historical psychology and neurology usage, it appears in terms for conditions affecting only one side, such as paralysis, spasm, loss of sensation, or certain visual defects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 68cc32dc6e68820a73de20644dc9201af6f2de0451eba9c2ce88d5eeda224f22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hemi-” (Hemi-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H2defs.htm#Hemi-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemiamblyopia
<a id="hemiamblyopia"></a>

Hemiamblyopia is a partial dimming of vision affecting one half of the visual field rather than complete blindness. In the historical usage here, it refers to reduced responsiveness to objects on the side opposite a brain lesion, while central vision remains relatively better preserved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31683769b3f04bf4c00472f7c4b1a9c48e5ebd642b68ff10c9f580db82df48c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemianesthesia
<a id="hemianesthesia"></a>

Hemianesthesia is loss of feeling on one side of the body, usually up to the body's midline, and it may involve the skin, mucous membranes, muscles, and even deeper parts. In the historical account here, it is described especially in hysteria, where sensation may be reduced for pain or touch and may stay on one side or shift to the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3556bbffe8489c2f6a2e152f97b2ca89446ee5e9a9abe7c213e4d4bfca6410f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3339000-3351000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemianopia
<a id="hemianopia"></a>

Hemianopia is a partial or complete loss of vision in one half of the visual field in one or both eyes. It can affect the same side in both eyes, the nasal or temporal halves of both eyes, or only the upper, lower, or quarter portion of the visual field.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4bb5f9bb536d329fc5a8d0827967b612d252e18b872f13418e995902d159aace

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hemianopsia” (D006423).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006423). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemichorea
<a id="hemichorea"></a>

Hemichorea is chorea limited to one side of the body. In this historical source, it appears as another name for chorea dimidiata.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11dfd0bf5e2aad00efcd4bf7ac462636b71a990d6f62c5035b1339cb2eb8672e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1207500-1219500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemimegalencephaly
<a id="hemimegalencephaly"></a>

Hemimegalencephaly is a rare brain development malformation in which one side of the brain is enlarged. It is associated with seizures, partial paralysis, and intellectual disability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ebbc868e34b29a103c785e342fd29b4ad4498b0816d365a4dde16af3affd7f59

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hemimegalencephaly” (D065705).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065705). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemiopia
<a id="hemiopia"></a>

Hemiopia is loss of sight in one half of each retina, used when the defect is described from the retinal side rather than by the visual field. In this historical usage, it corresponds to hemianopsia, which is loss of vision in one half of the field of view.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8627cb027ca222857286bda740b4502c2149c61fbef130e753495c1eb5aa85d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hemianopsia” (Hemianopsia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H2defs.htm#Hemianopsia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemiplegia
<a id="hemiplegia"></a>

Hemiplegia is severe or complete loss of movement on one side of the body. It is most often linked to disease in the opposite cerebral hemisphere, though lesions in the brain stem, cervical spinal cord, peripheral nervous system, or other conditions can also cause it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36ce8e42f2972e3504b20c460682bfd59a024e888349af5100e08d6659ab52c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hemiplegia” (D006429).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006429). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemisphere
<a id="hemisphere"></a>

In cognition research, a hemisphere is one of the brain’s two sides, the left or the right. Studies of hemisphere asymmetry examine whether one side plays a stronger role than the other in tasks such as recognizing facial expressions and processing emotion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 299c2a02a631059627134801a2d8830effd69019024fe144a48ffebd5b9b81dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Burgund E Darcy; Cushing Solana R; Saad Moura. Effect of verbal interference and response hand on hemisphere asymmetries in sad facial expression processing. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322504; article XML SHA-256 fde0c736134b20bf69d84b525f9e7266adcc65e8336064a59748b6404ab9fcfd. “Effect of verbal interference and response hand on hemisphere asymmetries in sad facial expression processing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322504).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322504). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemispherectomy
<a id="hemispherectomy"></a>

Hemispherectomy is a brain surgery in which the seizure-causing cerebral cortex in one hemisphere is removed or disconnected. It is generally used for severe epilepsy affecting one side of the brain, and the amount removed may be partial or complete depending on where the seizure-causing area is located.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e96b381a9423f47ba6e767f54888dac005f4ed912c7d9aae67b59fe966cb92d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hemispherectomy” (D038421).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D038421). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemispheric asymmetry
<a id="hemispheric-asymmetry"></a>

Hemispheric asymmetry is a difference in how the brain’s two hemispheres handle a task. In visual perception of hierarchical forms, it commonly refers to the pattern that the right hemisphere is relatively better at processing overall, global structure, while the left hemisphere is relatively better at processing smaller, local details.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a26310978166a76cbbbfeecf25f34dbe1510464e169235227bd0e9ddb9eda523

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kéïta Luc; Bedoin Nathalie; Burack Jacob A.; Lepore Franco. Switching between global and local levels: the level repetition effect and its hemispheric asymmetry. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00252; article XML SHA-256 6cd4c0765f51c6d1c13473e0a9b4d85d7193d383114bee89cc530172e4091d67. “Switching between global and local levels: the level repetition effect and its hemispheric asymmetry” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00252).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00252). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults
<a id="hemispheric-asymmetry-reduction-in-older-adults"></a>

Hemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults (HAROLD) is an age-related pattern in which brain activity becomes less strongly concentrated in one hemisphere during cognitive tasks. In the packet, it is described as a neurocompensatory process, meaning this reduced lateralization may help support performance in older adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a018e8d56d4571b62791fe188e24dde895123528edbae5ab4d9f51ec401c90f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Duda Bryant M.; Owens Max M.; Hallowell Emily S.; Sweet Lawrence H.. Neurocompensatory Effects of the Default Network in Older Adults. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fnagi.2019.00111; article XML SHA-256 8a2021e8498680e7d6a51469017a1bb5d9346878d8d9888894e7fdd1d38bf861. “Neurocompensatory Effects of the Default Network in Older Adults” (10.3389/fnagi.2019.00111).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2019.00111). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemispheric dominance
<a id="hemispheric-dominance"></a>

Hemispheric dominance is the tendency for one cerebral hemisphere to play the leading role in a particular function, especially language or speech processing. In this context, it refers to assessing which side of the brain shows stronger involvement in processing speech-related sounds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5020248a443f35a6875678c0bbd25296b9d4badabbed58a7e61bb6f8523e8c38

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Westerhausen René; Samuelsen Fredrik. An optimal dichotic-listening paradigm for the assessment of hemispheric dominance for speech processing. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0234665; article XML SHA-256 3e7afebea02d97d3439a8eafdc172eaa600458e7ce48341e1009ea6c627775c3. “An optimal dichotic-listening paradigm for the assessment of hemispheric dominance for speech processing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0234665).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0234665). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemodynamic response
<a id="hemodynamic-response"></a>

Hemodynamic response is the pattern of blood-related changes linked to brain activity, such as shifts in oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin that can be measured with methods like fNIRS. In this context, it refers to how blood flow and oxygenation change in and around brain areas during a task, while also being vulnerable to non-brain influences such as extracerebral blood flow.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da7b2ecc8204a2385d272634d25867a36e0d0feaca60aa9f12902a54f37be955

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kenville Rouven; Maudrich Tom; Carius Daniel; Ragert Patrick. Hemodynamic Response Alterations in Sensorimotor Areas as a Function of Barbell Load Levels during Squatting: An fNIRS Study. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00241; article XML SHA-256 369fcf9c7f68922efca30ee492de7ccb93ebba94035a42b340bfe3244ded2649. “Hemodynamic Response Alterations in Sensorimotor Areas as a Function of Barbell Load Levels during Squatting: An fNIRS Study” (10.3389/fnhum.2017.00241).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00241). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemoglobinopathy
<a id="hemoglobinopathy"></a>

A hemoglobinopathy is a hereditary disorder involving hemoglobin, the blood component affected in sickle cell disease. In this context, it refers to an inherited condition that can contribute to serious pregnancy-related health risks and complications.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f5dcda60af37737b1e03c784ffd20783a0bf2155d93dd9e39384f163216039c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Akello Jackline; Nakimuli Annettee; Ndeezi Grace; Sekikubo Musa; Munabi Ian; Namazzi Ruth; Munube Deogratias; Mukunya David; Pebalo Francis; Mugabe Kenneth; Mwaka Savio; Kiguli Sarah; Rujumba Joseph. “Heartbreak and Frustration’’ experiences of healthcare providers caring for pregnant women with sickle cell disease in Uganda. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355018; article XML SHA-256 315daf2cde93ad2f5cd5caff9b251642c63085f256e0eb2fb26bba500c843f4b. ““Heartbreak and Frustration’’ experiences of healthcare providers caring for pregnant women with sickle cell disease in Uganda” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355018).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355018). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemorrhage
<a id="hemorrhage"></a>

Hemorrhage is bleeding caused by a broken blood vessel. In historical usage, bleeding in the brain was described as producing apoplexy, with sudden loss of movement, sensation, and consciousness, and often paralysis affecting one side of the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 79abac64c2ef7cca918ae2f5fe16a571e9586636cc98a6a438dfedddbb4434c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hemorrhage” (Hemorrhage).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H2defs.htm#Hemorrhage). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hemorrhagic stroke
<a id="hemorrhagic-stroke"></a>

Hemorrhagic stroke is a stroke caused by a weakened blood vessel rupturing in the brain. The bleeding can occur in areas such as the cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, or subarachnoid space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eba2ebb67ce6f1f6ee2a9f589d2691a30289abc9f61e102983be31d503c66a82

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hemorrhagic Stroke” (D000083302).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000083302). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hepatic encephalopathy
<a id="hepatic-encephalopathy"></a>

Hepatic encephalopathy is a syndrome of brain and central nervous system dysfunction linked to liver failure, including problems related to portal-systemic shunting. It can involve reduced alertness and confusion that may worsen to coma, along with abnormal movement and reflex signs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38d5fa965434f2cf468d92775eedcff6c0338a987c65cc81ab0950d72f29e8a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hepatic Encephalopathy” (D006501).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006501). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hereditary predisposition
<a id="hereditary-predisposition"></a>

Hereditary predisposition is an inherited tendency that makes a person more liable to develop a disorder. In this source, it is described as an especially important cause in alcoholism and as something that also affects how the symptoms appear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 150c082c631958a5d6054a82f8bb1fc302a3b3200e371d6982581e6a6a682016

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Alcoholism” (Alcoholism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Alcoholism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heredity
<a id="heredity"></a>

Heredity is the passing of distinguishing bodily or functional traits from parent to offspring. In this historical source, the term also includes a social meaning: the transmission of ways of living across generations, producing tradition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07a3f459c3e3bb8fa3973a1706d8c1a6c973295a90e6cc5a844418c999188db2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Heredity” (Heredity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H2defs.htm#Heredity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Hering illusion
<a id="hering-illusion"></a>

The Hering illusion is a visual illusion in which straight lines are seen as bowed. In the supplied source, this effect is produced by an optic-flow background, suggesting the visual system can warp perceived space in the context of motion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03c41e0f12284043b2593db61a6283c950ecce7109cb401594d96465800ac5e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vaughn Don A.; Eagleman David M.. Spatial warping by oriented line detectors can counteract neural delays. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00794; article XML SHA-256 3d184915d34c196658fc1143909c94cce4c1f6a80475abd480ff3175636c84bd. “Spatial warping by oriented line detectors can counteract neural delays” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00794).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00794). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Hering–Breuer reflex
<a id="heringbreuer-reflex"></a>

The Hering–Breuer reflex is a classic feedback reflex in which lung inflation, signaled through the vagus nerve, alters breathing. In this packet, it is described as a response that can change over time through nonassociative learning processes such as habituation and desensitization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e9d2b82406e3f7d21bcc6567c080c08a6f79f32921273857bbafac7f3ab33406

Sources:
- Drafting source: [MacDonald Shawna M.; Song Gang; Poon Chi-Sang. Nonassociative Learning Promotes Respiratory Entrainment to Mechanical Ventilation. 2007; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0000865; article XML SHA-256 d123a173f36fe8c9b02f23c7c6aff066d57375e45c31150905a917b82db87713. “Nonassociative Learning Promotes Respiratory Entrainment to Mechanical Ventilation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0000865).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000865). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heritage
<a id="heritage"></a>

Heritage is a historical term referring to inherited qualities or transmission from ancestors, in the sense of heredity or inheritance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4aa9c2d6f550fe35d1e503d79baac74d8781d50822fa11a29f5c0304fb09c49a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Heritage” (Heritage).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H2defs.htm#Heritage). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hermeneutics
<a id="hermeneutics"></a>

Hermeneutics is the art, theory, and philosophy of interpreting meaning in things such as texts, artworks, social actions, or another person’s spoken words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 266e6708dad01efbe93f7f157fcbc2f4219df2ef763857235db0b73814792710

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hermeneutics” (D066297).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066297). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## herniation
<a id="herniation"></a>

Herniation, in this context, means brain tissue being pushed out of its normal position because pressure inside the skull has become too high. It is a life-threatening condition that can disrupt consciousness and other neurological functions and is linked with poor outcomes and higher risk of death.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b60f74de16b0a051e96f5c61b952439347b0fc28b6b073b2da48228ccfdbfdc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Park Catherine; Park So Young; Kim Min; Park Bumhee; Hong Ji Man. Automated quantitative pupillometry as a predictor for transtentorial brain herniation in patients with malignant acute ischemic stroke. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316358; article XML SHA-256 710a0eae87e060a1ff343cacdc6498676de26b63e8be551b8615e60cba5c36a5. “Automated quantitative pupillometry as a predictor for transtentorial brain herniation in patients with malignant acute ischemic stroke” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316358).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316358). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hero
<a id="hero"></a>

In this historical usage, a hero is a prominent person who becomes an object of public religious veneration. The hero is viewed as the source or mediator of benefits, often in a way that overlaps with ancestor worship when devotion extends beyond a private family setting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b11b03c9ffff79e06473060a4fdcf81cb380a7c8d20aa959e5547e3235a4f726

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hero-worship” (Hero-worship).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H2defs.htm#Hero-worship). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## herpes-simplex encephalitis
<a id="herpes-simplex-encephalitis"></a>

Herpes-simplex encephalitis is a serious viral illness in which herpes simplex virus infects the brain. It can cause fever, headache, vomiting, seizures, and psychiatric symptoms, with type 1 more often affecting adults and type 2 more often affecting newborns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db93dd9a8252a43057782c27aa9ac6827eca0fdef03e656ff782bc64e3b691f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Herpes Simplex Encephalitis” (C84762).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heterochromic iridocyclitis
<a id="heterochromic-iridocyclitis"></a>

Heterochromic iridocyclitis, also called Fuchs heterochromic iridocyclitis, is an eye disease of unknown cause marked by mild ongoing inflammation inside the eye along with a difference in iris color, iris wasting, or both. It is also associated with characteristic deposits on the corneal endothelium, typically no synechiae, and can lead to cataract and, less often, glaucoma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 52d7252b6a519a5cb891817c7ee127bb66c1156777a0aea78b5387e72a010976

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Babu Kalpana; Adiga Madhura; Govekar Sunil R; Kumar BV Ravi; Murthy Krishna R. Associations of Fuchs heterochromic iridocyclitis in a South Indian patient population. 2013; DOI 10.1186/1869-5760-3-14; article XML SHA-256 98e1eaaa40c72a17c4fdb47dd5ef46fe16a8e3c0d2a3ca54083c873f2274d9df. “Associations of Fuchs heterochromic iridocyclitis in a South Indian patient population” (10.1186/1869-5760-3-14).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1869-5760-3-14). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heterochrony
<a id="heterochrony"></a>

Heterochrony is a historical term used for a principle of developmental acceleration in which traits that first appear in later growth stages come to show up progressively earlier in descendants, sometimes as early as embryonic life. In this usage, it was invoked to explain the early appearance of certain characteristics in embryos.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb2ddc28451f687dc2a3cd70c4b745c48c6286b82141b696a7ac1776f375bf6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Acceleration” (Acceleration).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Acceleration). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heterogamy
<a id="heterogamy"></a>

Heterogamy is a historical term used for alternation of generations. The packet gives only this cross-reference and no further explanation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00cd211bd00614d48a0d34098bdb4da160e6aec1c3dd102099609bed821e5a1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Heterogamy” (Heterogamy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Heterogamy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heterogeneity
<a id="heterogeneity"></a>

Heterogeneity is variation within a group, where people do not all show the same pattern of performance or characteristics. In cognition, it refers to differences such as distinct profiles across content areas or cognitive domains.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8fe63f2a1e8767f2953378eb344912568121e888c4f45681338c2cbc1470cf16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aziku Millicent; Tahri Dahman; Djekourmane Denis. Uncovering heterogeneity in South African students’ mathematics competence: latent profile analysis and multinomial logistic regression. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850152; article XML SHA-256 33f75286137a43236a811c09ad85172bf98a6411eed2340b862b723355296f1d. “Uncovering heterogeneity in South African students’ mathematics competence: latent profile analysis and multinomial logistic regression” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850152).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850152). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heterogeneous
<a id="heterogeneous"></a>

Heterogeneous means made up of different kinds rather than being uniform. In this source, it refers to users or neighborhoods that vary in their relationships and feature patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: dd3b51229276ca6abba1442eaf58995a36644d70187ef327807993c1029d6df8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yan; Lu Haoyu; Chen Wanying. Neighborhood perceivable graph neural network for relational heterogeneous Twitter bot detection. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342686; article XML SHA-256 a787c5be9680e9aa1baefc65123f7fa43793fb15d8095578f896b1c71f94053c. “Neighborhood perceivable graph neural network for relational heterogeneous Twitter bot detection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342686).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342686). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heteromorphosis
<a id="heteromorphosis"></a>

Heteromorphosis is the formation, under outside influences, of an organ or body part in a place or form where it does not normally develop. In historical usage, it contrasts with ordinary regeneration because the replacement part is different from the one that was lost or appears in an abnormal position.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dca8bc5db827b2e170a3f71f5021b2fd8f20f51341ae8a92eb62e24c21f54082

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Heteromorphosis” (Heteromorphosis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Heteromorphosis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heteronomous
<a id="heteronomous"></a>

In the history of ethics, heteronomous describes a view in which the moral law is taken from an authority outside the person, such as God’s will or social law, rather than being grounded in one’s own rational nature. In Kant’s usage, it can also include theories that treat motives other than pure respect for the moral law as properly moral.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8de3b3f78174616e0155eda8cac88d86d4ea353fdbc5f74130a8a3536d4915d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ethical Theories” (EthicalT).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#EthicalT). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heterosexuality
<a id="heterosexuality"></a>

Heterosexuality is sexual attraction to, or a sexual relationship with, someone of the opposite sex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 776c2a1512434562bdd7109a7cad0c12dd5ebacfe82cd4d206414355b3c590e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Heterosexuality” (D020010).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020010). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## heuristic
<a id="heuristic"></a>

In this historical educational sense, heuristic refers to a method of teaching that encourages people to find things out for themselves through invention or discovery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 49120d7a86f06bd9eaa2a9da69723071bef6194adc35ff89d94ccd7553e14f76

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Heuristic Method” (Heuristic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Heuristic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HFA
<a id="hfa"></a>

HFA stands for Humphrey Field Analyzer, a test system used to measure the visual field. In the source, it refers specifically to the HFA 10–2 visual field test used in studying progression in retinitis pigmentosa.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 197a9da8c88c4be9be24a39d3039ae022bbcad96aa4679474c209241577943f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Asano Shotaro; Asaoka Ryo; Oishi Akio; Fujino Yuri; Murata Hiroshi; Azuma Keiko; Miyata Manabu; Obata Ryo; Inoue Tatsuya. Investigating the clinical validity of the guided progression analysis definition with 10–2 visual field in retinitis pigmentosa. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0291208; article XML SHA-256 cab789d4c281ca397d37403f73f74397d2f55cc2a42f89b8621d3be0c583a4d0. “Investigating the clinical validity of the guided progression analysis definition with 10–2 visual field in retinitis pigmentosa” (10.1371/journal.pone.0291208).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291208). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hibernation
<a id="hibernation"></a>

Hibernation is the torpid state in which some animals living in cold or temperate regions pass the winter. In this historical source, it is described not as a special one-time provision but as an adaptation shaped by natural selection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06651ff24f25596a17ca39671e4e145b84972f593c0e760e6ecf5a681ad0d54e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hibernation” (Hibernation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Hibernation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Hidden Figures Test
<a id="hidden-figures-test"></a>

The Hidden Figures Test is a measure used to assess spatial performance and reflectivity. In this context, spatial performance is based on correct answers, while reflectivity is inferred from the combination of accuracy and reaction time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 292691c4e8e5e229705b7866b02acdb09f53c4c8e13074f744403d7b3b3e1fcc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ben-Soussan Tal Dotan; Berkovich-Ohana Aviva; Glicksohn Joseph; Goldstein Abraham. A suspended act: increased reflectivity and gender-dependent electrophysiological change following Quadrato Motor Training. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00055; article XML SHA-256 b8748ac423f6d6c8f4682a731f80ade66f91b64b1e4317c1b80e9b35ddb4335b. “A suspended act: increased reflectivity and gender-dependent electrophysiological change following Quadrato Motor Training” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00055).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00055). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hierarchical design
<a id="hierarchical-design"></a>

Hierarchical design is an approach to building a system by arranging it into ordered layers, with each layer handling a different function and supporting the next. In the source, it means structuring a library information model into levels such as data input, processing, knowledge building, service use, and user interaction so complex information can be managed more coherently.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5b21a8def576908cb6957e7d7414dc8942196c1f31d0781f70e64ad3d9254088

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Fanru. Knowledge graph-based intelligent data management and information innovation service model for university library systems. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341307; article XML SHA-256 e303adef303feac641bdf4bacfee29302daa6ffbebaac6abd1206fbfed834a32. “Knowledge graph-based intelligent data management and information innovation service model for university library systems” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341307).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341307). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hierarchical linear model
<a id="hierarchical-linear-model"></a>

A hierarchical linear model is a statistical approach used to study how factors from different levels, such as individual and school influences, relate to an outcome at the same time. It can also test whether a factor at one level changes the relationship between factors at another level and the outcome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4b2b9c8f77220728eb088ed8b86c26e87da0a7f91f7d2eadac8c7783f315a24a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dai Bibing; Lin Yan; Lai Xinyi; He Jiankang; Du Mingxuan; Hou Xiaowen; Zhang Guohua. The effects of self-esteem and parental phubbing on adolescent internet addiction and the moderating role of the classroom environment: a hierarchical linear model analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05489-y; article XML SHA-256 529df79f5fe1820345b018699056151785a4f34e9968ed2690fe4619afd603f3. “The effects of self-esteem and parental phubbing on adolescent internet addiction and the moderating role of the classroom environment: a hierarchical linear model analysis” (10.1186/s12888-023-05489-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05489-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## hierarchy
<a id="hierarchy"></a>

In cognition, a hierarchy is an ordered ranking in which some kinds of information receive stronger or faster attention than others. In the supplied context, it refers to visual attention being prioritized in the order of animals, then plants, then manufactured objects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93fea0a0420bc13805af1ad3fcc9947fd82bccebd677a3d6c5676d9ede228f84

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kioka Chihiro; Tobita Kunihito. Vehicle avoidance: The hierarchy of visual attention towards animals, plants, and vehicles. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330475; article XML SHA-256 9ef8ba55d9c55ea3570b3432aeedd8a19ab33f9aadb20d1ed52e8b448acaec86. “Vehicle avoidance: The hierarchy of visual attention towards animals, plants, and vehicles” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330475).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330475). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## high
<a id="high"></a>

In this context, high refers to a high mitosis-karyorrhexis index in neuroblastic tumors, meaning there are more than 200 mitotic and karyorrhectic cells among 5,000 cells counted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9021e6fe0e22e2261be214de80f99dc2239cb5913752a96182678f53ba8988b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “High Mitosis-Karyorrhexis Index” (C118958).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## high-altitude cerebral edema
<a id="high-altitude-cerebral-edema"></a>

High-altitude cerebral edema is a life-threatening brain complication of high altitude that can develop when acute mountain sickness gets worse. It is discussed alongside acute mountain sickness as a serious acute high-altitude illness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4592062bfe2b122d0e93c103bebe91886c0fa4ee85aac7b727853eec46cd932

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Berger Marc Moritz; Hüsing Anika; Niessen Nicolai; Schiefer Lisa Maria; Schneider Michael; Bärtsch Peter; Jöckel Karl-Heinz. Prevalence and knowledge about acute mountain sickness in the Western Alps. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0291060; article XML SHA-256 3a8a76ff18ceedd578b0e269e1ccb33c7a700babe633e55586313a48bf4b71a2. “Prevalence and knowledge about acute mountain sickness in the Western Alps” (10.1371/journal.pone.0291060).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291060). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## high blood pressure
<a id="high-blood-pressure"></a>

High blood pressure, or hypertension, is a condition in which the pressure in the arteries is higher than normal. In the source, it is described as a systolic pressure of 140 mmHg or more, a diastolic pressure of 90 mmHg or more, or a self-reported case being treated with medication, and it is linked to increased risk of heart, stroke, and kidney problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5a7f1ca777e770db394517da63f468dd6a5ae203fa3fe34faab99be5953a8328

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Musilanga Nelson; Nasib Hussein; Mwakibolwa Ambokile; Jackson Given; Nhanga Clarkson; Kijusya Keneth. Burden and determinants of self-reported high blood pressure among women of reproductive age in Tanzania: Evidence from 2022 Tanzania demographic and health survey. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314901; article XML SHA-256 82624ebdd64f5d0b01378250fe709748579bb0ccd505c1f853602978705b4be7. “Burden and determinants of self-reported high blood pressure among women of reproductive age in Tanzania: Evidence from 2022 Tanzania demographic and health survey” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314901).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314901). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## high-functioning autism
<a id="high-functioning-autism"></a>

High-functioning autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder marked by lifelong difficulties in social communication, especially in understanding nonverbal cues, alongside relatively preserved verbal skills and general learning and memory abilities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cdbb756b8f897072dbc2cec1665884462a0b2aebb047fd294ada67d4c9a1f3b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Georgescu Alexandra Livia; Kuzmanovic Bojana; Roth Daniel; Bente Gary; Vogeley Kai. The Use of Virtual Characters to Assess and Train Non-Verbal Communication in High-Functioning Autism. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00807; article XML SHA-256 7126f7f9283f9e49496b8a37366c82b21e560ffc949daa66c204f3349f138864. “The Use of Virtual Characters to Assess and Train Non-Verbal Communication in High-Functioning Autism” (10.3389/fnhum.2014.00807).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00807). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## high risk
<a id="high-risk"></a>

In this context, high risk refers to people or families considered more likely than comparison groups to develop mental health problems. The term is used here for individuals born to parents with severe mental illness, to study later psychopathology as well as risk and resilience over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 727ec166f6cf66cf0fa862547723c595adc40f9a1801cb6d66cd845f02053a81

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Thorup Anne A. E.; Hemager Nicoline; Greve Aja Neergaard; Birk Merete; Hjorthøj Carsten; Dietz Martin; Jefsen Oskar Hougaard; Krantz Mette Falkenberg; Gregersen Maja; Veddum Lotte; Alrø Anja; Perfalk Sanciya Mano; Nielsen Charlotte Sand; Christensen Sofie Baltser; Enevoldsen Mette; Høtoft Alberte Ehlig; Birkelund Nikoline; Wilms Martin; Søndergaard Anne; Weye Nanna Ørslev; Bjørklund Line; Barsøe Christoffer Brusen; Ekstrøm Claus Thorn; Jennum Poul; Nudel Ron; Starnawska Anna; Larsen Kit Melissa; Madsen Kathrine Skak; Baare William F. C.; Ioakeimidis Vasileios; Kaminski Adam; Díaz-i-Calvete Júlia; Andersen Mathias Houe; Østergaard Leif; Siebner Hartwig R.; Mors Ole; Nordentoft Merete. Study protocol for the Danish High Risk and Resilience Study VIA 19 – from age 15 to age 19: transition from adolescence to early adulthood. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848366; article XML SHA-256 235b3c9cb47b59661ad480e81ad9d6e04b737944582e1916f83f5c7afd172c86. “Study protocol for the Danish High Risk and Resilience Study VIA 19 – from age 15 to age 19: transition from adolescence to early adulthood” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848366).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848366). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## high threshold
<a id="high-threshold"></a>

In this context, high threshold refers to relatively lower sensitivity to mechanical pain, meaning a stronger stimulus is needed before pain is perceived compared with a low-threshold group. It is used to describe differences in pain sensitivity between people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8000c259ea8a27202ae2359bf067ca4110e46e93bee8fd54a95c789af4108cf3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kawamura Ryo; Sasaki Kei; Shimizu Shunnosuke; Kodama Naoki. Neural basis of intensity-dependent brain activity in response to mechanical stimulation and the level of pain sensitivity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1723960; article XML SHA-256 000de58c64c5d1f1f5c885b01066a4952d28a24fa3a144a1e7c623e8ee9d27ed. “Neural basis of intensity-dependent brain activity in response to mechanical stimulation and the level of pain sensitivity” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1723960).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1723960). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## higher order conditioning
<a id="higher-order-conditioning"></a>

Higher-order conditioning is a form of classical conditioning in which a new stimulus becomes conditioned by being paired with another conditioned stimulus rather than being paired directly with the original event. In the packet’s example, geometric figures were linked to smoking-related or neutral stimuli so they could acquire conditioned responses indirectly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 693ec557a416b5914eed9cc52c91d051ec3a42de0d8d4ba7dde9a92cbdc1c6ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Littel Marianne; Franken Ingmar HA. Electrophysiological correlates of associative learning in smokers: a higher-order conditioning experiment. 2012; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-13-8; article XML SHA-256 56b8fdd03cebe7beb308499bed845656776c68d7228aa4546801721b458edaa5. “Electrophysiological correlates of associative learning in smokers: a higher-order conditioning experiment” (10.1186/1471-2202-13-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-13-8). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## higher order construct
<a id="higher-order-construct"></a>

A higher order construct is a broader psychological concept that is built from several related lower-level components. In the source, Psychological Capital is an example, combining hope, self-efficacy, resilience, and optimism into one overall construct.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8df5e7b33984f79f57a85cc3f00ded9e82e28d0847d0ecd49f1d5cbb15f31bcc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Yanping; Gooi Leong-Mow; Niu Jie. The mediating role of financial behavior in the relationship between psychological capital and financial wellbeing: evidence from a cross-sectional study in China. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1760291; article XML SHA-256 9cc908c9e5dc32a7a3da382c5836eade72a5b44e5faae02fddd7112b62cb1ff3. “The mediating role of financial behavior in the relationship between psychological capital and financial wellbeing: evidence from a cross-sectional study in China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1760291).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1760291). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## higher order correlation
<a id="higher-order-correlation"></a>

Higher-order correlation is the simultaneous relationship among more than two sets of variables, such as several types of omics data together with a phenotype. In multi-omics analysis, it is used to capture more complex patterns than simple pairwise correlations and can give a more complete view of how features are connected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c7d6a119abf28d30ca78569b66885065037e45901f6337a706b7f801c40e1f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Weixuan; Pratte Katherine A.; Castaldi Peter J.; Hersh Craig; Bowler Russell P.; Banaei-Kashani Farnoush; Kechris Katerina J.. A generalized higher-order correlation analysis framework for multi-omics network inference. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011842; article XML SHA-256 eba3c940a5148a50bf03458b1d45c9b3c0f1fbaafc331e48ddae4a35d61ae646. “A generalized higher-order correlation analysis framework for multi-omics network inference” (10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011842).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011842). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## higher order design
<a id="higher-order-design"></a>

In the PAL-D framework for film and television, higher-order design refers to broad scene-design dimensions that organize more specific formal choices to shape the viewer’s predictive and emotional experience over time. The article describes four such dimensions: sensory density, framing and focus, narrative-contextual cueing, and affective-empathic cueing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 331290c46342c939b9d4486461f811ac241c9354020db9018ea04c78fb61b7b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jeong Youngtaek. The predictive–affective loop for directors: a target-state design framework for audiovisual directing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1760222; article XML SHA-256 0cecd29cde53cfb196a02f361842c0dc48923c8a117d3b5b2ee2fa3124787170. “The predictive–affective loop for directors: a target-state design framework for audiovisual directing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1760222).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1760222). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## higher order interaction
<a id="higher-order-interaction"></a>

A higher-order interaction is a group interaction involving more than two individuals at the same time, rather than a series of separate pairwise contacts. In network terms, it is represented as the activation of a hyperlink connecting all members of the group at a specific time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a119917f235b852cb5e7547a5f42be986a9b7ad559de73d2b04e501389e2ec98

Sources:
- Drafting source: [(Bart) Peters H.A.; Ceria Alberto; Wang Huijuan. Higher-order temporal network prediction and interpretation. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323753; article XML SHA-256 b710fe2b3922e27fdff177caefed542db62eed3db532dc74dca1579191bfd03c. “Higher-order temporal network prediction and interpretation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323753).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323753). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## higher order processes
<a id="higher-order-processes"></a>

Higher-order processes are mental functions that go beyond basic perception and involve more complex activities such as memory and language. In this source, the term is used to contrast these complex cognitive functions with simpler sensory abilities in hearing or touch.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea4e7560e554bd39444ab1620e0b649990a32705bb50f3297958c8f1a24c4c91

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cohen Henri; Voss Patrice; Lepore Franco; Scherzer Peter. The Nature of Working Memory for Braille. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0010833; article XML SHA-256 dafec67fee4bb4335c41c66ac61d8b82f8d96399481775e47cb31028b3f59181. “The Nature of Working Memory for Braille” (10.1371/journal.pone.0010833).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010833). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hindbrain
<a id="hindbrain"></a>

The hindbrain is the backmost of the three early brain regions in the embryo. It includes the myelencephalon, metencephalon, and isthmus rhombencephali, and it develops into major brainstem structures including the medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellum, and the cavity that becomes the fourth ventricle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1095da6a23759b092ce05ed960eb0c514fbfd54d6a4425116b65a14af59a37c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Rhombencephalon” (D012249).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012249). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hindsight bias
<a id="hindsight-bias"></a>

Hindsight bias is the tendency, after learning how something turned out, to remember having known or predicted that outcome more accurately than one actually did. In other words, new outcome information can reshape memory for earlier judgments so they seem closer to the real result in retrospect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1d0e1e6db067261cbf526d5d364c9468c7651184a7eae22d08f02e4a9e1476e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Yin-Hua; Cheng Hsu-Po; Lu Yu-Wen; Lee Pei-Hong; Northoff Georg; Yen Nai-Shing. Can knowledge of election results change recall of our predictions? Neural correlates of political hindsight bias. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0220690; article XML SHA-256 4f1c1c6a511da9595c1423547aa5c7bde57d388934fcff357b32e1a42bfe2c69. “Can knowledge of election results change recall of our predictions? Neural correlates of political hindsight bias” (10.1371/journal.pone.0220690).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220690). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Hinduism
<a id="hinduism"></a>

Hinduism is a complex social, cultural, and religious tradition that developed mainly on the Indian subcontinent. It is associated with the caste system, a view that different forms and ideas reflect one eternal reality, and paths of action, knowledge, or devotion aimed at release from the cycle of rebirth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eed01718643f93f03999c1ee7d747e91a8f087744c8f72bee32b96b9b0c10e88

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hinduism” (D018596).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018596). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hippocampal gyrus
<a id="hippocampal-gyrus"></a>

The hippocampal gyrus is a fold on the lower surface of each cerebral hemisphere, located between the hippocampal sulcus and the collateral sulcus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9b06ead06774c7f48627efd6ae721fcddfac9b5123c46cdc4739b4a1c28b745

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Parahippocampal Gyrus” (D020534).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020534). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HIS
<a id="his"></a>

HIS, or the Heaviness of Smoking Index, is a brief two-item self-report measure used to estimate how dependent a person may be on nicotine. It is based on how soon someone has their first cigarette and how many cigarettes they smoke per day.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c0a0dde7415ed8587398349f0edd7e56af7b278d5c3166dcb08dff4964dfd90a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Heaviness of Smoking Index” (C177520).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## histamine
<a id="histamine"></a>

Histamine is a biogenic amine formed from histidine. In the body, it can strongly increase stomach acid secretion, tighten bronchial smooth muscle, widen blood vessels, and also act as a neurotransmitter in the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e11ff53688d69fa0b52b090de7dfc2c9f1960449b74834c2cfd9c947ea960233

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Histamine” (D006632).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006632). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## histogram
<a id="histogram"></a>

A histogram is a graph used to show how values are distributed. It groups values along the horizontal axis into touching intervals, usually of equal width, and the height of each bar shows how often values fall in that interval.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4789a56ab33717cba2b2e9339d4bc0eaedbb11dc5eb8d4d902803b5863d6e377

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Histogram” (histogram.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/histogram.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## histology
<a id="histology"></a>

Histology is a basic medical education subject that helps link biomedical science learning with clinical practice. In the source, it is described as an area whose perceived importance can lessen as students advance if it is not well integrated with clinical teaching.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e251c1528f2cb5c93c949660c6d88c0929861796da151071b2b3f8da0adad85

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Elkordy Eman Ali; Sulaiman Alwohaibi Mohammed; Musa AlHarbi Yazeed; Mohammed Alanazi Abdulrahman; Abdulrahman Almojel Hessah; Nawaf Altimyat Bandar; Ibrahim Jumaa Mohammad; Masoud Hanafy Safaa. Perceptions of medical students at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University on histology’s role in clinical course preparation: A cross-sectional study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337894; article XML SHA-256 23a13f3a7ae30369cb3dbaa1d60e8777db665eca7f76069233a6acd443b243b8. “Perceptions of medical students at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University on histology’s role in clinical course preparation: A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337894).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337894). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## historical control group
<a id="historical-control-group"></a>

A historical control group is a comparison group made up of people from an earlier time period rather than participants studied at the same time as the intervention group. In the source study, it referred to stroke rehabilitation patients who had previously received conventional care and were compared with later patients who received the new system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a88578a03bc9dbf353de06dd8ddb303a6245e17e9403ae785cc7c0dafe1f3438

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sun Xibo; Wu Xiulan; Zhang Yamei; Lu Ming; Feng ChongRui; Liu ChuRong; Gu YouMing; Lu FaHua; Liu LiRong; Zhang GengBiao; Dou Zulin; Liu Zhanhao. Evaluation of the effectiveness of a multimodal aspiration prevention system in stroke rehabilitation nursing. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342253; article XML SHA-256 5f2dd9540cf15a91dae8d448b6a6395a00f2e523ca0e5c797e88be5513b986f2. “Evaluation of the effectiveness of a multimodal aspiration prevention system in stroke rehabilitation nursing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342253).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342253). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## historical method
<a id="historical-method"></a>

Historical method is an approach that interprets evidence within a precise historical context to reconstruct and compare people’s lives. In this source, it is used to combine detailed individual biographies into a collective biography and relate those findings to the historical record.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 205de7c81c1605b8d214ca5f002fd6f7cae405a4c09cf2bd979c773b79e5bb54

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Millard Andrew R; Annis Richard G; Caffell Anwen C; Dodd Laura L; Fischer Roman; Gerrard Christopher M; Graves C Pamela; Hendy Jessica; Mackenzie Lisa; Montgomery Janet; Nowell Geoff M; Radini Anita; Beaumont Julia; Koon Hannah E C; Speller Camilla F. Scottish soldiers from the Battle of Dunbar 1650: A prosopographical approach to a skeletal assemblage. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243369; article XML SHA-256 23cc4073aef5ba59d7454eba27448ef4c286eb115bca0e0ee9673b4c8fc4f0e2. “Scottish soldiers from the Battle of Dunbar 1650: A prosopographical approach to a skeletal assemblage” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243369).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243369). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## historical trauma
<a id="historical-trauma"></a>

Historical trauma is clinical distress seen in descendants of people who survived mass trauma, experienced as though they had lived through the same extreme historical events themselves. This distress can continue across generations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d229b6b591b809b2e48d7bb5e5b5fd67253681f506f8c36a0466cd90f4d57d4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Historical Trauma” (D000080037).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000080037). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## history effect
<a id="history-effect"></a>

A history effect is a type of confounding in which changes that happen over time, rather than the variable being studied, account for the observed results. In other words, the passage of time introduces another influence that can make findings misleading.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e6904167848bac9c3f7fb753e7f147e2c6a25ab98d20db72a0f1aebc971725b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “History Effect” (History_effect.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/History_effect.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Histrionic Personality Disorder
<a id="histrionic-personality-disorder"></a>

Histrionic personality disorder is a personality disorder marked by overly dramatic, strongly expressed emotional reactions and a tendency to exaggerate. It also involves emotional excitability and difficulties in relationships with other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 467cde59328654d61ef2111573f53251c15b9a78ed874f451b1ca8e104f53d95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Histrionic Personality Disorder” (D006677).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006677). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HIT
<a id="hit"></a>

In this context, HIT refers to hit songs, especially when presented as written song lists rather than played aloud. These culturally shared music cues are used to evoke nostalgia through recognition of familiar music-related information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 377b5c93383d0a008cf819b4412c5588d9703c8248a5844a23b093cf24dc0eb6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kawase Satoshi; Eguchi Kei. Evoking nostalgia by presenting hit-song lists. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800653; article XML SHA-256 5cf149d093ce39982e0452f82feffe031bd36c3e03b921138f7565d620c097c1. “Evoking nostalgia by presenting hit-song lists” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800653).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800653). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hit rate
<a id="hit-rate"></a>

In this context, hit rate means the success rate of free throws, used as an indicator of how efficiently a player shoots free throws. The packet also describes it as a performance measure that may vary with visual attention and psychological procedure training.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e426df8d8c2763deab4822a416dec9a9bade6f85e5d532473f9f9eca9163de28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao Chunzhou; Liu Na; Li Sunnan. Study on the relationship between fixation characteristics and hit rate in psychological procedure training of free throw. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293436; article XML SHA-256 cb0719e21caeaec159c01dcf38bb649edc47f4d87e0e14f68837b04807091af8. “Study on the relationship between fixation characteristics and hit rate in psychological procedure training of free throw” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293436).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293436). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HIV dementia
<a id="hiv-dementia"></a>

HIV dementia is a brain and nervous system disorder linked to AIDS that can cause problems with concentration and memory, slowed hand movements, poor coordination, apathy, incontinence, and difficulty walking. It is associated with HIV-1 infection in the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f016f134ea2c40e061bc11afe10417c959237877725eb884b94c13bba305a00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “AIDS Dementia Complex” (D015526).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015526). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HIV Serosorting
<a id="hiv-serosorting"></a>

HIV serosorting is the practice of choosing sexual partners according to their HIV status.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 990499694e9f6bb7f02d0d013e7ea1d1f83acaff73f4cb4f3e6ea03b7b597945

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “HIV Serosorting” (D059147).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D059147). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hives
<a id="hives"></a>

Hives are a skin reaction that causes red areas and raised welts because fluid leaks from small blood vessels in a localized area. They can be triggered by allergy, infection, or stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 420a180f23150f35cac4df99b5c44fce7b6e5c863b5c773f4996416f7f56551d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Urticaria” (D014581).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014581). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HLM
<a id="hlm"></a>

HLM stands for Hierarchical Linear Modeling, a statistical research method used to examine factors operating at more than one level at the same time, such as within-person and between-person influences. In this context, it helps analyze cross-level relationships in questionnaire data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b027cda08087edfcb7f6175277825cb8f92179d18244bdc917bd41efba6e7df2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Can; Ni Hui; Meng Xin-Tao; Duan Jia. The impact of negative emotions on organizational citizenship behavior and counterproductive work behavior: a self-control perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1742931; article XML SHA-256 e0061626b5548b64ff7935207be3621a4d939f36e6d536f15b0be4863c57a343. “The impact of negative emotions on organizational citizenship behavior and counterproductive work behavior: a self-control perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1742931).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1742931). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hMG
<a id="hmg"></a>

hMG stands for the heartfulness meditation group in this study. It refers to the participants assigned to practice heart-centered meditation during the 21-day intervention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2d2c62ef7aa1b2fcc99ef08a0a52bdbbdbf9c982a1b95397d404ad589bae709

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mahato Sushil Prasad; Anjaladevi M; Roy Abinash; Subramanya Pailoor; Mondal Samiran. Neurophysiological and autonomic patterns associated with heartfulness and bell meditation: a three-arm exploratory study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1787149; article XML SHA-256 c4718b09041243dc40ffac23964461ef2668a4662d8c3c653c41b9755418c0a6. “Neurophysiological and autonomic patterns associated with heartfulness and bell meditation: a three-arm exploratory study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1787149).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1787149). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hoarding
<a id="hoarding"></a>

Hoarding is an ongoing difficulty throwing away or giving up possessions. It refers to a persistent problem parting with items.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a66f90e097f946eff9d94851a5fcb64b9b4f78faafbf01ff61e081020a1c4975

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hoarding” (D060845).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D060845). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hoarseness
<a id="hoarseness"></a>

Hoarseness is an abnormal voice quality in which the voice sounds deeper or rougher than usual.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cce28308b0133f2b12d1c28bc19825854fed157d6716c50b3e84852aaf2c8bea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hoarseness” (D006685).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006685). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## holding environment
<a id="holding-environment"></a>

A holding environment is a relational setting that provides enough safety and support for a person’s sense of self to remain continuous and authentic. In this Winnicottian use, it helps the person tolerate disruption and allows genuine self-experience to gradually re-emerge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e19bec4e8d104df93675d60756830277fd519b7fcb600258be1312fa4b56b4e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kang Sun Mie; Kim Jin Su. Chemotherapy-related cognitive impairment as a crisis of the self: a Winnicottian psycho-oncological perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811745; article XML SHA-256 f93d2e003b6f6acfcb6908987d095d885aa5260cedf6af70b75ad74dee7a933a. “Chemotherapy-related cognitive impairment as a crisis of the self: a Winnicottian psycho-oncological perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811745).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811745). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## holism
<a id="holism"></a>

In this packet, holism refers to a cognitive style called holistic thinking, contrasted with analytic thinking. It is described as a general pattern reflected in dimensions such as causality, attention, tolerance for contradiction, and preference for compromise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2457df473150d3d0a57a562edf9cac3ed01c808c4c5ea123c0ad4feac8cd9023

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aytürk Ezgi; Göktaş Nilüfer; Özman Nagihan; Kayatepe Emre; Şencan Rüya Su; Sarıbay S. Adil. The AHS-R: A holistic thinking measure with expanded theoretical domains and improved score reliability. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353378; article XML SHA-256 687887e5cc2bd0307c59feefa38cb0645f8e3c1a44d48454e4e984c9689e4be3. “The AHS-R: A holistic thinking measure with expanded theoretical domains and improved score reliability” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353378).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353378). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## holistic education
<a id="holistic-education"></a>

Holistic education is an approach to teaching that aims to support learning across multiple areas of development rather than focusing on only one. In this source, it refers to promoting positive outcomes in pupils’ physical, social, affective, and cognitive domains.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a7123d712bc4085045b8bb1bddb4872bbd219c763aec880353f56bc77ac5ad0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aygun Yalin; Tufekci Sakir; Boke Hulusi; Yagin Burak; Berktas Hulya; Canpolat Burak; Turhan Fatih Harun; Norman Goktug; Guldogan Emek. What do we know about the effectiveness of the application of hybrid SE–TGfU model in physical education on learning outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1762732; article XML SHA-256 869676357fb5399d17c0ff56feb7705140d68d44343a77e59e65e54634c75ae0. “What do we know about the effectiveness of the application of hybrid SE–TGfU model in physical education on learning outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1762732).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1762732). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## holistic healing
<a id="holistic-healing"></a>

Holistic healing is an approach that uses whole-person practices, such as yoga, to support mental well-being alongside physical processes like stress, inflammation, and immune function. In this context, it refers to methods intended to reduce anxiety, depression, and stress while helping the body maintain healthier regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2cf0ef61618fb7f18730f3826f465120cab8cc38b24a125af1de42987e588389

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Basu-Ray Indranill; Metri Kashinath; Khanra Dibbendhu; Revankar Rishab; Chinnaiyan Kavitha M; Raghuram Nagaratna; Mishra Mahesh Chandra; Patwardhan Bhushan; Sharma Manjunath; Basavaraddi Ishwar V; Anand Akshay; Reddy Shrinath; Deepak K K; Levy Marian; Theus Sue; Levine Glenn N; Cramer Holger; Fricchione Gregory L; Hongasandra Nagendra R. A narrative review on yoga: a potential intervention for augmenting immunomodulation and mental health in COVID-19. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12906-022-03666-2; article XML SHA-256 24d8ed3f01f7ad0dfb73d357930bc415322a57b0bc730302d9f9e7e0da4e2bff. “A narrative review on yoga: a potential intervention for augmenting immunomodulation and mental health in COVID-19” (10.1186/s12906-022-03666-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-022-03666-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## holistic health
<a id="holistic-health"></a>

Holistic health is a broad view of health that looks beyond illness and death to include overall well-being. In this context, it refers to health-related functioning across areas such as physical, social, financial, community, and work life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1d69f1759fc0c3a664425659edff03e1947a9c8ba4744a238e3b21e6d5f9a736

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Roy Brita; Herrin Jeph; Spatz Erica S; Kershaw Kiarri N; Witters Dan; Krumholz Harlan M; Riley Carley. Describing well-being in the US by race/ethnicity, education level, and urbanicity: A cross-sectional study using the Gallup National Health and Well Being Index. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353745; article XML SHA-256 5b20372a9758034128e687c6b440d0235fd91829ad379a76b3db2f5f8ed10136. “Describing well-being in the US by race/ethnicity, education level, and urbanicity: A cross-sectional study using the Gallup National Health and Well Being Index” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353745).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353745). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## holography
<a id="holography"></a>

In this source, holography refers to a proposed neurophysically grounded account of consciousness in which probabilistic cortical computation is used to explain how biophysical brain activity gives rise to phenomenal or perceptual experience. It is presented as a specific framework for naturalizing consciousness by treating conscious experience as continuous with processes studied in the natural sciences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c3a8b06a26e13fae86fabd164118d5eb29709e8dd80fee4c8de759306471ab6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kirkeby-Hinrup Asger; Stoll Elizabeth Ann. Naturalizing perceptual experience: the explanatory power of probabilistic computation and the holographic solution. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1816314; article XML SHA-256 bb386c1577e89e6a3086a585df19c189f7116886326f5022c8cec77c15ece262. “Naturalizing perceptual experience: the explanatory power of probabilistic computation and the holographic solution” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1816314).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1816314). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HOME
<a id="home"></a>

Home is more than a physical dwelling; in psychology and social life it is a meaning-filled space linked to safety, privacy, belonging, identity, memories, relationships, and everyday routines. It becomes a psychological shelter as people invest a place with personal and social significance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4af52f8942de10ef027462d27b2ef7edcdf2521fb8cbb18dab770f2f6b088ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Şen Mert; Şen Şevval Nur. Spatial traces of trauma: changes in home perception in young individuals after the twin earthquakes. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1785005; article XML SHA-256 be551f0e194de2b0520d2281f234f741f533a5b61bbc2922a60ef10e983fbf3b. “Spatial traces of trauma: changes in home perception in young individuals after the twin earthquakes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1785005).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1785005). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## home and community-based services
<a id="home-and-community-based-services"></a>

Home and community-based services are supportive services delivered in a person’s home or community, such as homemaking, personal care, adult day care, and medical transportation. In this packet, they are described as part of a broader managed healthcare plan that may also include care coordination and extended care benefits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e9c8375f7ecbd212fa6834b50cca06bb710b5e3d1a255af8b5a584bf37b2cdc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Social Managed Healthcare Plan” (C70695).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## home cage
<a id="home-cage"></a>

In this research context, a home cage is the animal’s usual living enclosure where it is housed between tests. The term is used to distinguish features available in that everyday housing environment, such as access to a running wheel, from conditions during separate social-behavior testing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c8d95c4891e2b9071dd97c235acff273a42eaa195b028ef9d4bdefdcfb00162f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ziobro Patryk; Malone Cassidy A; Batter Stephen; Xu Longao; Xu Selina B; Loginov Alina; Tschida Katherine A. Presence of a home cage running wheel, but not wheel running per se, decreases social motivation in adult C57BL/6J female mice. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353843; article XML SHA-256 53e399bde6eed2f5b1d5ccae0ba4d88941b5e15be88be2adb15ea2c23fde5e1c. “Presence of a home cage running wheel, but not wheel running per se, decreases social motivation in adult C57BL/6J female mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353843).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353843). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## home health aide
<a id="home-health-aide"></a>

A home health aide is a trained worker who provides personal care and related help to ill, disabled, or older people in their homes or similar living settings. This role can include daily living support, household help, communication, and working with other caregivers to support the person’s physical, mental, and social well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6c6d51e52ca63c6bf0e0f3a363f083fda7608740076c1f46c920f3f70a6ff80

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Home Health Aid” (C53429).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment
<a id="home-observation-for-measurement-of-the-environment"></a>

The Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment is an assessment tool used to evaluate aspects of the care environment for infants and toddlers in child care settings. In the source, it is treated as one of several instruments for measuring child care quality and examining its reliability and validity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8d009865d501aaf5c60d5260a6ef916f94fb58d0a252d2fe4e944b6f3146cba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lopez Boo Florencia; Dormal Marta; Weber Ann. Validity of four measures of child care quality in a national sample of centers in Ecuador. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209987; article XML SHA-256 10fe23437c49dc6d5568defa3fd7393c1492f6ed9b4fd8640e1e79a4566ac73b. “Validity of four measures of child care quality in a national sample of centers in Ecuador” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209987).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209987). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## home schooling
<a id="home-schooling"></a>

Home schooling is a structured educational program carried out during the school year that provides regular, thorough teaching in the subjects typically taught to children of the same age in public or private schools.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54b7930e8388bcd6d135a0b55ce594eb5f3b8c0e00a5b665e4ab405a7e0fd904

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Home Schooling” (D000096682).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000096682). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homelessness
<a id="homelessness"></a>

Homelessness is a condition in which a person is sleeping rough or living in homeless accommodation, and it can also be hidden rather than easily seen. In the material provided, it is linked with trauma, abuse, poor mental health, difficulty accessing healthcare and other support, and worse health and survival outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: de67db743f019cd8da103ecd2395a3b11d821abd394238a78ea2fef8cff58744

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hess Carolin; Abdulla Zahra; Finzel Lydia; Semkina Antonina; Harris Jess; Boaz Annette; Manthorpe Jill. A systematic narrative review of the research evidence of the impact of intersectionality on service engagement and help-seeking across different groups of women, trans women, and non-binary individuals experiencing homelessness and housing exclusion. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321300; article XML SHA-256 6e4ef1dd6a82b2c59ba0c9f66384493e583dee1c3eda47fcc4a0a8a34a881619. “A systematic narrative review of the research evidence of the impact of intersectionality on service engagement and help-seeking across different groups of women, trans women, and non-binary individuals experiencing homelessness and housing exclusion” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321300).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321300). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homesickness
<a id="homesickness"></a>

Homesickness is a state of unhappy longing for home, shown here as a strong wish to be taken back to a particular household. In this historical passage, it refers to persistent distress and urging to return there.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c3ff29a9480c013a3b3932c8a1c7c18f57f289fe463e5bb708415c9a3fc2cb6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homing
<a id="homing"></a>

In this source, homing means navigating back to a specific goal location using visual information. It is contrasted with route-following methods that use stored views to recover a travel direction along a path rather than heading to one discrete place.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c74f424548855950cd256b44d62a6ab83a535edc4d2113e48c21abe9786d2549

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meyer Stefan; Knight James C.; Dewar Alexander; Kagioulis Efstathios; Nowotny Thomas; Graham Paul R.; Philippides Andrew. Wavelet-based visual compass. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344575; article XML SHA-256 3320f7f3e5e92048d8e6d0c733b7fab1cd6da349897e6b2563ada0dc6c652913. “Wavelet-based visual compass” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344575).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344575). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homocystinuria
<a id="homocystinuria"></a>

Homocystinuria is an inherited metabolic disorder, usually caused by lack of the enzyme cystathionine beta-synthase, in which homocysteine builds up in the blood and urine. It is associated with physical abnormalities and weakness, lens dislocation, increased risk of intellectual disability, and damage to blood vessels that can lead to stroke or heart attack.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db3711b02a7f22d470b143597c2d7eb311b699b3bd36de097fe5fe1711a871b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Homocystinuria” (D006712).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006712). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homogamy
<a id="homogamy"></a>

Homogamy is a historical term for a selective form of isolation in which like mates with like, leading to separate breeding groups. In this source, it is used in the context of segregation in reproduction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b7bda82c977eb580a82f854be87e32b1efbae156810217e06389d3966ffc130

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Homogamy” (Homogamy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Homogamy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homogeneity
<a id="homogeneity"></a>

In this context, homogeneity refers to regional homogeneity, an fMRI measure of how closely nearby brain locations show matching activity patterns over time. Higher or lower values suggest stronger or weaker local coordination of neural activity within that brain region.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 152fa695110771f677d730d8ada02ddf1faaf7c27abee895ff256144d9741609

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Xudong; Zhou Jiaojiao; Wei Qiancheng; Pu Hong; Chen Yan; Zhu Xiaowei; Li Bin; Liu Shihua. Altered regional homogeneity in Parkinson’s disease with mild cognitive impairment: a resting-state fMRI study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1816245; article XML SHA-256 7b193814e075f36946c7f5cc01c2da85bf00a04070ddee8d3bc00fd0faf82b21. “Altered regional homogeneity in Parkinson’s disease with mild cognitive impairment: a resting-state fMRI study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1816245).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1816245). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homogeneity of variance
<a id="homogeneity-of-variance"></a>

Homogeneity of variance is the assumption that the populations being compared all have the same amount of variability. In other words, their variances are equal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac82e66796d643f63bcaface76268881842ad5f5002f639124ba08b411c12b51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Homogeneity of Variance” (homogeneity_of_variance.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/homogeneity_of_variance.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homogeneous group
<a id="homogeneous-group"></a>

In a computer neural network, a homogeneous group is a set of similar processing units that together form one layer. These units are neuron-like elements linked within a network modeled on biological neural systems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 65504dd3d668aad7d40326b81700fd29550559f31b4aac96cd4ab643deb8207f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neural Networks, Computer” (D016571).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016571). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homonym
<a id="homonym"></a>

Homonymous refers to terms that share the same name but differ in meaning or essential nature. In this historical usage, the contrast is mainly a matter of language rather than logic.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c63456b4b50dea29a95998254d3f1cdc2fe8dedd9f4c4bdaf11aacdf6d027ce0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Homonymous” (Homonymous).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Homonymous). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homonymous hemianopia
<a id="homonymous-hemianopia"></a>

Homonymous hemianopia is a visual impairment in which a person cannot see one side of the visual field with both eyes. It is associated with distorted perception of visual space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6cdf277010a849ee2bc1351855a546d82badf2be3495f4b94d7714ff4472fa08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Niehorster Diederick C.; Peli Eli; Haun Andrew; Li Li. Influence of Hemianopic Visual Field Loss on Visual Motor Control. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0056615; article XML SHA-256 40548168d5ceb69da1cf9442fd99473d8de19bda972b14c8e3f13f931f34605f. “Influence of Hemianopic Visual Field Loss on Visual Motor Control” (10.1371/journal.pone.0056615).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056615). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homophily
<a id="homophily"></a>

Homophily is the perceived similarity between people, such as feeling that another person shares one’s values, lifestyle, or identity-related characteristics. In social relationships, stronger homophily reflects a stronger sense that “we are alike,” which can support closer bonds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 202352383f50e52e428081a1c3c86794e80dc39c1e80360230c4b32e9f961d16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Yi. The relationship between live streamers’ self-disclosure and consumers’ purchase intention: The parallel mediating role of psychological distance and perceived homophily. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345061; article XML SHA-256 8e7507aab99d3801444dec0a47a24c6423136bb11892dc2f627e843da1759764. “The relationship between live streamers’ self-disclosure and consumers’ purchase intention: The parallel mediating role of psychological distance and perceived homophily” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345061).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345061). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homophobia
<a id="homophobia"></a>

Homophobia is unfair treatment or reduced access to services or opportunities because a person is seen as having a homosexual orientation or preference.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a14ffe7e227d494242626511c5fbd7baed8af3e575c072a2f4cd75ae7e75af66

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Homophobia” (D063509).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063509). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homoscedasticity
<a id="homoscedasticity"></a>

Homoscedasticity is the assumption in linear regression that the spread of errors or variability around the regression line stays about the same at all values of the predictor variable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2fde2bb7c32ac7d36cfec7f7b758ceb460163861ce5325d76f037012bb390fb2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Homoscedasticity” (homoscedasticity.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/homoscedasticity.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homosexual behavior
<a id="homosexual-behavior"></a>

Homosexual behavior, also called same-sex sexual behavior, means courtship, mounting, or genital contact and stimulation between individuals of the same sex. In some species, it has been described as part of social interaction and may affect group social dynamics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3c3723dccbabbbf2d47037d37a555f0406fb9fad8050b20dec6e327f9226287

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sugita Norimasa. Homosexual Fellatio: Erect Penis Licking between Male Bonin Flying Foxes Pteropus pselaphon. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0166024; article XML SHA-256 49c9741f2ec57ec7ced4d23c6f3bbf1119f3577caa84b7c995dbd746697bf89a. “Homosexual Fellatio: Erect Penis Licking between Male Bonin Flying Foxes Pteropus pselaphon” (10.1371/journal.pone.0166024).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166024). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homosexuality
<a id="homosexuality"></a>

Homosexuality is sexual attraction to, or a sexual relationship with, someone of the same sex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7aa7f29ab2808231041197731c8614d787cbbb27b6de3a7b14dda26870f1763a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Homosexuality” (D006716).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006716). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## homovanillic acid
<a id="homovanillic-acid"></a>

Homovanillic acid is a monocarboxylic acid produced when catecholamines are broken down. It can be measured as a biological marker of metabolic stress, tobacco use, or catecholamine-secreting tumors such as neuroblastoma or pheochromocytoma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b2516805cbf5c7e203a62baca7f5262ba907896a5669480d4fad3a4eb0a6477

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Homovanillic Acid” (C167083).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## honest signal
<a id="honest-signal"></a>

An honest signal is a cue or display that reliably gives a receiver true information about some aspect of the signaller’s quality or condition. In this context, different signals may each be honest about different features or time scales, and several signals together can convey more complete information than one alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5f6c53be6c553e4694bf18677493a36621c5f76ca17e7dd1541b4bc3c9d300dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [McAuley Emily M.; Bertram Susan M.. Field Crickets Compensate for Unattractive Static Long-Distance Call Components by Increasing Dynamic Signalling Effort. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0167311; article XML SHA-256 5da7b7a4598f1a00f149d0d57dd48f926ac297572423152b7ed186ee2fba0773. “Field Crickets Compensate for Unattractive Static Long-Distance Call Components by Increasing Dynamic Signalling Effort” (10.1371/journal.pone.0167311).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167311). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## honesty
<a id="honesty"></a>

Honesty is giving proper regard to moral rights and to rights of property. Historically, the word had a broader sense of moral goodness or what is worth valuing for its own sake, but that wider use has largely fallen out of use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1f8dce730906f121d97d41e9f1c5255e210f36b0bedaf3fdf68e118772d5add

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Honesty” (Honesty).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Honesty). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hope
<a id="hope"></a>

Hope is a cognitive-motivational state centered on desired future outcomes and the belief that they can be achieved. In psychology, it is commonly understood as involving both the drive to pursue goals and the ability to find workable routes around obstacles, and it is linked with well-being, coping, and resilience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a7274e9d5633f23529cb31f5b87439c03009f93abd60f46d63dfa6568f59397

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mansouri Mohammed; Lorenz Timo. It takes a community to hope: development and validation of the HOPE-4 scale in an Arab-Islamic context. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798552; article XML SHA-256 4c1ec83a374da47797fb7a7157767ac8de6573593a15522ae646e9bafeaeea00. “It takes a community to hope: development and validation of the HOPE-4 scale in an Arab-Islamic context” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798552).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798552). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hopelessness
<a id="hopelessness"></a>

Hopelessness is a psychological factor associated with increased risk of depression and suicide. In psychology, it is considered important to assess, including in older adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1eee8afe05d83bb022075905fed7c7e8c0856ba3510475b7967a16cf55deb08c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Valdevila Figueira José Alejandro; Ramírez Andrés; Valdevila Santiesteban Rocío; Quito-Calle Vanessa; Rodas Jose A.; Muñoz-Arteaga Pedro Andrés; Pico Cucalon María José; Carvajal Parra Indira Dayana. Psychometric properties of the Beck Hopelessness Scale in Ecuadorian older adults: a comparative analysis of one-factor, two-factor, and three-factor models. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911237; article XML SHA-256 ce744579fde92f68525363ae751b40d5d02e1dc57e6b2950163a7bad3eb79fa6. “Psychometric properties of the Beck Hopelessness Scale in Ecuadorian older adults: a comparative analysis of one-factor, two-factor, and three-factor models” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911237).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911237). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## horde
<a id="horde"></a>

A horde is a very small human social group made up of a few families, usually totaling about twenty-five to a hundred people. In this historical usage, it refers to a very early or simple form of social organization without a formal government, and several hordes may combine to form a tribe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00a01ae821c1e7419e5b16174ef10bc43dd6fed4a1bf822fddb2d4cf8cb21e5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Horde” (Horde).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Horde). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## horizontal mobility
<a id="horizontal-mobility"></a>

Horizontal mobility is movement that does not involve a change in social class level. In this packet, it refers to people born into affluence who stay within that same class position rather than moving up from a lower class background.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ae382b9af1a496d642590be98e0ddd59d28381b3d2210c53b724b013b7101f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Bingni; He Jinwen; Wu Xiaomin; Luo Jiaxian; Zhang Yanshan; Luo Pinchao. The influence of class mobility on pain empathy among the wealthy in collectivist cultures: evidence from ERPs. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1675144; article XML SHA-256 0da8a95047d8b38b7f305b8bfb94cd287d60f1c7b61dff3325a2ca88a9c705fe. “The influence of class mobility on pain empathy among the wealthy in collectivist cultures: evidence from ERPs” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1675144).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1675144). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## horizontal–vertical illusion
<a id="horizontalvertical-illusion"></a>

The horizontal–vertical illusion is a visual effect involving horizontal and vertical lines in which their perceived lengths are misestimated. In the source, it is used as a stimulus to compare how people judge line length in direct perception and in mental imagery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 87afa73a2d556cf3d6a85624d0807e03dd26c495e99c21e554ad0edc4f810b0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Blanuša Jelena; Zdravković Sunčica. Horizontal-vertical illusion in mental imagery: quantitative evidence. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00033; article XML SHA-256 8148d0841dc6667ead266036e89582862865906dfadce09d6c08d9877fa6c4cf. “Horizontal-vertical illusion in mental imagery: quantitative evidence” (10.3389/fnhum.2015.00033).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Horner’s syndrome
<a id="horners-syndrome"></a>

Horner’s syndrome is a condition caused by impaired sympathetic nerve supply to one side of the face, including the eye. It is marked by a small pupil, slight drooping of the upper eyelid, and reduced sweating on the affected side of the face.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: acde67a89facbfaf8c43ce7c33c84c50019b5dfb64ef0f1f7b62a704230620be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Horner Syndrome” (D006732).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006732). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## horopter
<a id="horopter"></a>

A horopter is the total set of visible points that project to corresponding places on the two retinas and are therefore seen as a single image with both eyes. In historical accounts of vision, it was also treated as something that can be described geometrically for different points of fixation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a062a26ffeb37ebaeef16aeca14f0f939d497c3fa8722304e26fed43d294602

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Horopter” (Horopter).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Horopter). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Horticultural Therapy
<a id="horticultural-therapy"></a>

Horticultural therapy is a therapeutic approach that uses gardening and other plant-based activities to support a person’s social, emotional, educational, psychological, and physical well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1e8c7fabc11d845a6e27e2930489fa8f2f786fb54aae3dde17a7f8bad0c368b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Horticultural Therapy” (D058611).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058611). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hospice
<a id="hospice"></a>

A hospice is a care setting that supports people who are terminally ill and also helps their families. It focuses on palliative and supportive care, including physical, psychological, social, and other kinds of assistance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e755d12a2da028b375f115d5c58a7669b13c16285a5b49d081ba16c01091ab19

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hospice” (C53532).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hostile work environment
<a id="hostile-work-environment"></a>

A hostile work environment is a workplace climate shaped by ongoing discrimination, racism, microaggressions, stigma, or bias that undermines a person’s well-being and ability to progress at work. In this packet, it refers especially to conditions that harm Black professionals’ mental and physical health, job satisfaction, retention, and career development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b0ed020aed49e018ccfe33712e194078b3a7dafacef37113282d8a70a4e1cfde

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mugambi Dora A.; Keshavjee Karim; Aygun Oliver Emre; Mbinda Tina K.; Guergachi Aziz. Workplace inequities and health outcomes among Black professionals in Canada. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311729; article XML SHA-256 fa43507a4d3b622e15180f6a5d08f882f76038f276436a6566c95c8c6dbe0ff0. “Workplace inequities and health outcomes among Black professionals in Canada” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311729).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311729). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hostility
<a id="hostility"></a>

Hostility is a tendency to feel anger toward a person or group and to want to cause them harm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a1d610df05822b2c8adcf05715f86893f8e6a7d622584e918ada745431df8296

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hostility” (D006791).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006791). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hot cognition
<a id="hot-cognition"></a>

Hot cognition is thinking that involves emotionally important information. It includes processes such as emotion processing, motivation and reward-related behavior, and social understanding, and problems in these processes are seen across many neuropsychiatric disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f6ce77e9b921418b4af81fd0d989f330fe43c251bdadc2c3bf3d766f2eebbfda

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dam Vibeke H.; Thystrup Christa K.; Jensen Peter S.; Bland Amy R.; Mortensen Erik L.; Elliott Rebecca; Sahakian Barbara J.; Knudsen Gitte M.; Frokjaer Vibe G.; Stenbæk Dea S.. Psychometric Properties and Validation of the EMOTICOM Test Battery in a Healthy Danish Population. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02660; article XML SHA-256 2612c135609fdb9ca6b0182830b5917b86a27e65137a0015b8c432309a8fbc31. “Psychometric Properties and Validation of the EMOTICOM Test Battery in a Healthy Danish Population” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02660).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02660). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hot plate
<a id="hot-plate"></a>

A hot plate is a laboratory pain test in which an animal is placed on a heated surface, such as one set to 52 or 56 degrees, to measure pain-stimulated responses and the effects of drugs on acute pain. In this source, the hot plate test is used as an assay of antinociception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 16a86152ed7fe34f6bc2ddfe9305228e3119d07ea90b38fa84a3b74c28616688

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hillhouse Todd M; Partridge Kaitlyn J; Garrett Patrick I; Honeycutt Sarah C; Porter Joseph H. Effects of (2 R ,6 R )-hydroxynorketamine in assays of acute pain-stimulated and pain-depressed behaviors in mice. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0301848; article XML SHA-256 667c92e6ec89abd1a294669c10d6281e3d7ce0b374fee895cf75533c60fa995a. “Effects of (2 R ,6 R )-hydroxynorketamine in assays of acute pain-stimulated and pain-depressed behaviors in mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0301848).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301848). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hotline
<a id="hotline"></a>

In this psychology context, a hotline is a psychological support service that people call for help with mental health concerns. It is used to provide support to callers and can also be a source of information about the mental health needs and risk factors of the people who contact it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f1ae009c0acf806571ac1b72dec91e4da92899ee70eabe204ebf4a3979618824

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Xingxue; Liu Zikang; Wu Tong; Yuan Zhe; Wang Wei; Zhao Liting; Yang Shuchang; Liang Hong. Analysis of characteristics among unemployed callers to the psychological support hotline in Beijing. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1658354; article XML SHA-256 acaa645e13f1c47a7b98dc9e95c2107818b3317d4ab0773db5e94a8546f5dffd. “Analysis of characteristics among unemployed callers to the psychological support hotline in Beijing” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1658354).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1658354). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HPA
<a id="hpa"></a>

HPA stands for the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, a major neuroendocrine system that helps regulate the body’s stress response. In the source, disrupted HPA activity after stroke is described as contributing to prolonged stress-hormone imbalance and to later emotional and cognitive problems such as depression, anxiety, and cognitive impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a622516fd7d6f0d6649bebd122664246ba3273bbe7c653e9d4eedac6bb6b56b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gong Han; Liu Dan; Wang Xiang-Zheng; Rao Jia-Sheng; Du Xiao-Xia. Central neuroendocrine dysregulation in ischaemic stroke sequelae: pathophysiological mechanisms—a narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1836343; article XML SHA-256 e82d7feec47e61b327debef2a9a82caff1cc9f4772511dec36e0e7db8eb7e327. “Central neuroendocrine dysregulation in ischaemic stroke sequelae: pathophysiological mechanisms—a narrative review” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1836343).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1836343). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HR
<a id="hr"></a>

HR means heart rate. In this psychology context, short-term changes in heart rate are used to track how a person responds to stimuli, with brief slowing linked to orienting and attention to moderate or novel events, and speeding up linked to defensive responding to intense or aversive events.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7fbf4d2c2e0a5a55e973f71ce6b35f690b2b1535bfc33359c230251cf1f97f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yap Sun Sun; Ramseyer Fabian T.; Fachner Jörg; Maidhof Clemens; Tschacher Wolfgang; Tucek Gerhard. It takes time to synchronize: the emergence of dyadic heart-rate synchrony during music therapy in neurorehabilitation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1629778; article XML SHA-256 aa86842480ae58039d597e8510f88a06292d55cbf548d18e9e25ef5fad6b3959. “It takes time to synchronize: the emergence of dyadic heart-rate synchrony during music therapy in neurorehabilitation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1629778).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1629778). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HRNB
<a id="hrnb"></a>

HRNB stands for high-risk neuroblastoma, a more aggressive form of neuroblastoma discussed in pediatric oncology. In this source, it is one of the pediatric solid tumors for which high-dose chemotherapy followed by autologous stem-cell transplantation has been used.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4365f27a034fa244c131a3415f2334ad5d2a57e84625ba9885bcd1ab749b4607

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mohapatra Debabrata; Pushpam Deepam; Bakhshi Sameer; Sahoo Ranjit Kumar; Sharawat Surender K; Agarwala Sandeep. Autologous stem cell transplantation for pediatric solid tumors in a resource-limited setting: a single-center experience of 15 years. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fonc.2026.1796956; article XML SHA-256 aab219dff5134edb4ac9003feac5a9f146e20d64e40a33f44d1f59342d383ea0. “Autologous stem cell transplantation for pediatric solid tumors in a resource-limited setting: a single-center experience of 15 years” (10.3389/fonc.2026.1796956).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2026.1796956). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HRP
<a id="hrp"></a>

HRP stands for horseradish peroxidase, a biological labeling substance used in this study to show leakage across the blood-brain barrier and into brain tissue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f2bb4041b519091e15f2fcab9f558688e0ec4cca946750de3f186f9f1302400

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiang Yan; Feng Yuhu; Li Xinyu; Zhao Bing; Yang Zuisu; Wei Ruling; Yuan Falei. Bovine serum albumin sensitizes the mouse brain to lipopolysaccharides. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356781; article XML SHA-256 ed4eb183d92d7282ba57a908575d72cb98127d6158893de9c63a8f079051b448. “Bovine serum albumin sensitizes the mouse brain to lipopolysaccharides” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356781).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356781). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HRT
<a id="hrt"></a>

HRT stands for hormone replacement therapy, a treatment that uses estrogen alone or together with a progestogen to replace declining ovarian hormones. It is used to manage menopausal symptoms and may also be used after surgical menopause or in premature ovarian insufficiency when there are no contraindications.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8f9a9a3ef46438a775fbb3ee7e8c1506f718315eb783280599d5934d23dba1ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Nan; Li Lei; Fu Chun-li; Ren Yi. Psychiatric safety associated with hormone replacement therapy for menopausal symptoms: a real-world study of the FDA adverse event reporting system. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1614087; article XML SHA-256 eee5768cff0179ad0e96b2da77718f3d6d9f07285173c9aab92909bac695af96. “Psychiatric safety associated with hormone replacement therapy for menopausal symptoms: a real-world study of the FDA adverse event reporting system” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1614087).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1614087). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HRTF
<a id="hrtf"></a>

HRTF stands for head-related transfer function. In this context, it is an anechoic filtering method applied to sounds so they are perceived as coming from outside the head, helping study sound externalization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7fe69f894c4466ae612c9871a2af3833cf6235b60edbd10a29eb6f2294acb061

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fivel Laure; Lavandier Mathieu; Grimault Nicolas; Perrin Fabien; Mondino Marine; Haesebaert Frédéric. Is it inside my head? Characterization of sound externalization in schizophrenia. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345074; article XML SHA-256 f94c4c6040cf5912f8a535b4f49322e46db167b4babb7c3d5d438deb31f2e1ff. “Is it inside my head? Characterization of sound externalization in schizophrenia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345074).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345074). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HSCL
<a id="hscl"></a>

HSCL usually refers here to the Hopkins Symptom Checklist, especially the 25-item HSCL-25. It is a brief self-report questionnaire used in primary care to assess symptoms of anxiety and depression, and this source describes it as a reliable, valid, essentially one-dimensional screening tool combining those symptom areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c966145b49c21a23036a2a2803abff6a31805228ff43c21d9fd74e721664b16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nabbe Patrice; Le Reste Jean Yves; Guillou-Landreat Morgane; Gatineau Florence; Le Floch Bernard; Montier Tristan; Van Marwijk Harm; Van Royen Paul. The French version of the HSCL-25 has now been validated for use in primary care. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0214804; article XML SHA-256 e21971d06e063e3a175d278ba059dff51b65f07e7c7f4e33a34d993459d61a56. “The French version of the HSCL-25 has now been validated for use in primary care” (10.1371/journal.pone.0214804).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214804). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HSD test
<a id="hsd-test"></a>

The HSD test, or Tukey HSD test, is a statistical method used to compare every pair of group means. It is based on the studentized range distribution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b869af3805d78dce2529dd8387b201c356f5cb3e2bbd7ac18e4232b37f906eaa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Tukey HSD Test” (tukey_hsd.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/tukey_hsd.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HSI
<a id="hsi"></a>

HSI stands for hamstring strain injuries, a common and often recurring sports injury involving the hamstring muscles. In this context, it is discussed in relation to measuring hamstring strength, fatigue after activity, and side-to-side strength differences that may relate to injury risk and monitoring.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c42bb725c4ff51c3727b477eb20b1162271e428e4584691254213369ffd2014c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sundh Adam E.; Ripley Nicholas J.; Lamb A. J.; Comfort Paul. Hamstring strength assessment methods in sport: A systematic review and meta-analysis of post-activity strength decrements, asymmetry benchmarks, and measurement reliability. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352509; article XML SHA-256 a5ba86e046df47078ab32485ae8ace0cdce895d113d5f79bce0d88b926d92f0c. “Hamstring strength assessment methods in sport: A systematic review and meta-analysis of post-activity strength decrements, asymmetry benchmarks, and measurement reliability” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352509).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352509). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HUD
<a id="hud"></a>

HUD refers to HuD, one of a group of neuronal autoantigens known as neuronal nuclear type 1 autoantigens. These immune-related proteins are found in neurons and are commonly linked with cancer-related autoimmune neurologic disorders such as paraneoplastic neurologic syndrome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: feb942c3a740c1c27526e097cb27fc92c9a4f4a7df96d775cbada960f556973c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neuronal Nuclear Type 1 Autoantigens” (C201394).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hue
<a id="hue"></a>

Hue is one aspect of color information used by the visual system to help distinguish and recognize objects. It is part of the chromatic cues, alongside saturation, lightness, and the spatial arrangement of colors, that organize visual input and can influence attention, memory, and emotion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3049b36dc35e5c48009d1d5380c652b15c444364e5b889d034ce6a7d40f2571a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qiao Yanan; Kawabata Yasuhiro; Sasaki Mikuko. Gender-dependent color discrimination ability and speed–accuracy tradeoff: insights from ND-100 hue tests. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722974; article XML SHA-256 e3155f8ab64517f9bdbbc8d0c7ad54d139e24ff97d24eedf18ae42b17a374a9e. “Gender-dependent color discrimination ability and speed–accuracy tradeoff: insights from ND-100 hue tests” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722974).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722974). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## human chorionic gonadotropin
<a id="human-chorionic-gonadotropin"></a>

Human chorionic gonadotropin, often measured as β-hCG, is a hormone released by trophoblast cells after implantation in early pregnancy. In maternal blood, its pattern of change is used as a marker of early pregnancy development, because pregnancies with poorer outcomes may show slower increases or falling levels rather than the usual rise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 77a2f5ce5811fbcd94479bfbac504ffeb824bb52e20153f9d1029ecf9decb59c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Luming; Mu Fangxiang; Wang Kexin; Wang Fang. Development of machine learning models for predicting early pregnancy outcomes based on β-hCG, progesterone, and estradiol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348114; article XML SHA-256 34a5f2045878711b047b23c078ea7c1c79859621dd07d017415e7bcc43dc8e3a. “Development of machine learning models for predicting early pregnancy outcomes based on β-hCG, progesterone, and estradiol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348114).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348114). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## human courtship
<a id="human-courtship"></a>

Human courtship is the social interaction involved in connecting with potential romantic or sexual partners and building intimate connection. In this context, it includes how people communicate interest, self-disclosure, and emotion, including through digital communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 366ec9919daf89879c0cebf03bfd252680297b5a0fe552f3da27320810c470ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gesselman Amanda N.; Ta Vivian P.; Garcia Justin R.. Worth a thousand interpersonal words: Emoji as affective signals for relationship-oriented digital communication. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0221297; article XML SHA-256 6b6e0084b98b5f2bec0634cb8712d999a38338704358fde828157a186c5a11d7. “Worth a thousand interpersonal words: Emoji as affective signals for relationship-oriented digital communication” (10.1371/journal.pone.0221297).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221297). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## human engineering
<a id="human-engineering"></a>

Human engineering is the study of shaping tools, machines, and constructed settings so they match the body measurements, bodily functioning, and mental needs of the people who use them. Its aim is to make equipment and environments fit human users.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c089f5a7f0bc6d19ea1799de1c3e9a0d11363c8f95a598709016cdfa010f530

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ergonomics” (D006804).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006804). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## human factors
<a id="human-factors"></a>

Human factors are the personal characteristics of workers and the environmental and organisational conditions around them that interact in a work setting. In this context, they can affect clinical judgement, system performance, safety, and well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b5a6a7b44fe584be132a1170408b214bc43bf51e1edfe9981dd9db26aa77ab1c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Poranen Anna; Kouvonen Anne; Nordquist Hilla. The role of human factors in paramedics’ clinical judgement – A modified Delphi study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332311; article XML SHA-256 65e513d3ec11827620f0d3c37480ec1d57432a3a70eed751076ac520753fb138. “The role of human factors in paramedics’ clinical judgement – A modified Delphi study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332311).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332311). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## human factors engineering
<a id="human-factors-engineering"></a>

Human factors engineering, also called ergonomics, is the science of designing tools, machines, and built environments to fit the body, physical functioning, and psychological needs of the people who use them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f45301607916e3aecce59b79d8c25031349624c0604db45d86725398f31e3fee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ergonomics” (D006804).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006804). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## human immunodeficiency virus
<a id="human-immunodeficiency-virus"></a>

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus associated with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). In the source material, people living with HIV are described as having a much higher risk of developing active tuberculosis, making HIV/TB co-infection a major public health concern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 567ab407875fbd05cd7b4a608b9aff2b963751727d5acc46c2a4bfc4ce0cde40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Yuwei; Liu Jinghe; Chang Yufei; Chen Xiaoyou. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of healthcare providers in Beijing regarding human immunodeficiency virus and tuberculosis co-infection: A multicenter cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341132; article XML SHA-256 07d5fcf3503a1bd2636f4d362f4ad87b675c96ddc8db0f29955f29e55b631491. “Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of healthcare providers in Beijing regarding human immunodeficiency virus and tuberculosis co-infection: A multicenter cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341132).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341132). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## human nature
<a id="human-nature"></a>

Human nature is the basic set of tendencies, qualities, and characteristics regarded as typical of human beings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 78db261b79ff12621f85003bcb93a25992cdf878f28f78b1699626a23b422186

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Human Characteristics” (D040821).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D040821). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## human trafficking
<a id="human-trafficking"></a>

Human trafficking is the recruitment, movement, transfer, harboring, or receipt of people through force, threats, coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power or vulnerability, or payments made to someone controlling another person. Its purpose is exploitation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 63c90b553f747f3f256b4751c0b06d9178adad9275c13b6f93fd3dd1eac7219c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Human Trafficking” (D064410).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D064410). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## humanism
<a id="humanism"></a>

Humanism is an ethical viewpoint that centers human values and the inherent worth of each person. It emphasizes respect for human dignity and freedom.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59be7f420d1ec8c3a379dd2fa0d27ca3e85fe64410ac2bb13f8ee641b2bf6a0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Humanism” (D006808).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006808). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## humanity
<a id="humanity"></a>

Humanity here means an ideal human potential that each person already carries and can awaken, especially through artistic experience and self-cultivation. It is described as developing through awareness of the mind, emotion, and self, and as moving toward ways of being that express the self, rise beyond self-limits, or even let go of the self altogether.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a12953b7b802435560dfcc27336545b6c1ff6ecbde53d08bcd827b9dda26fc24

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ding Maoyuan; Tan Xiao. Threefold relationship between ideal humanity and sublime beauty in Chinese art forms. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1547607; article XML SHA-256 8e5acf64486c9ddf78e19e88fbfc80249f5f9db1370d8c5e0f176a6abf926b01. “Threefold relationship between ideal humanity and sublime beauty in Chinese art forms” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1547607).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1547607). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## humiliation
<a id="humiliation"></a>

Humiliation is the process of being degraded or made to feel degraded, and it can refer either to the act itself or to the resulting feeling. In psychology, it may be understood as both an external event and an internal emotional state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b0d4faaabfff5bb039b2be55d2a204eec22a91bcc9afd85282b834120db5fd44

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sadath Anvar; Kavalidou Katerina; McMahon Elaine; Malone Kevin; McLoughlin Aoibheann. Associations between humiliation, shame, self-harm and suicidality among adolescents and young adults: A systematic review. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0292691; article XML SHA-256 07c26950379f679b7ed905336df482effdca1e6a5e9694e7f8509fcafebda018. “Associations between humiliation, shame, self-harm and suicidality among adolescents and young adults: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0292691).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292691). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## humor
<a id="humor"></a>

Humor is a universal human experience that people enjoy and express throughout life. In psychology, it can be understood as a psychological and social resource that helps with stress and supports meaningful social connection, and it includes both appreciating and producing different forms of humor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bfdab9428e82d6a6dc582a092133161df44842e7c6f4ee8cdd7ad4cb23ee696f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hevin Lucie; Gounden Yannick; Chignier Maéva; Parant Aymeric; Duclos Harmony. “Keep joking”: appreciation and production of humor in aging. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1754264; article XML SHA-256 5583179e5ceec53b7a0ca9138afaef98a8c3df373c548072e34cadf84a5fd4b8. ““Keep joking”: appreciation and production of humor in aging” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1754264).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1754264). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## humoral theory
<a id="humoral-theory"></a>

Humoral theory is a traditional view that links human health, including mental health, to basic natural elements—Fire, Water, Earth, and Air. In the source context, it is used as a framework for thinking about how environmental factors and nature-based experiences may influence wellbeing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a3995b066c9184e8e58ccc78d1e415c7510b64e5786b79c03b82c6df644155d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sarris Jerome; de Manincor Michael; Hargraves Fiona; Tsonis Jack. Harnessing the Four Elements for Mental Health. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00256; article XML SHA-256 658598efca37d1a836c1854b7cf19338369c3e684a278cd8ea133adf96015685. “Harnessing the Four Elements for Mental Health” (10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00256).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00256). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Hunger
<a id="hunger"></a>

Hunger is the desire to eat that comes from a sensation caused by the stomach lacking food.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a536005f33ee17b279b87b036973c9e3006e0d25e6dca74ff0ef29badc18699c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Hunger” (D006815).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006815). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hunger drive
<a id="hunger-drive"></a>

Hunger drive is an internal state of activation related to hunger that needs to be present before food will trigger eating behavior. More generally, it refers to an organism’s internal state that makes a particular kind of stimulus able to produce a certain response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e863af81a636bf56c29f58c454577b46bef37c33ebc25fe8d973790cc4d46aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Drive” (D004328).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004328). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Hunter syndrome
<a id="hunter-syndrome"></a>

Hunter syndrome is an inherited X-linked disorder in which a lack of the enzyme iduronate sulfatase causes mucopolysaccharides to build up in the body’s organs. It affects males in nearly all cases and can involve mental dysfunction along with physical problems such as an enlarged abdomen, hearing loss, airway disease, heart disease, and enlargement of the liver and spleen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bcb19375b7822c9f3343148bc78735d84c8a9731e5ceef3bd303bb5395be613c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hunter Syndrome” (C61260).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hunting behavior
<a id="hunting-behavior"></a>

Hunting behavior is the pattern or strategy an animal uses to find and capture prey. In this packet, it refers especially to estuarine crocodiles’ mainly nocturnal, low-energy "sit and wait" approach, in which success depends on repeated behavioral routines.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4008ea3ee7670c471f0ed204c6eb906d46c0b2957c22ef6a7bac5000d047ce6c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Evans Luke J; Davies Andrew B; Goossens Benoit; Asner Gregory P. Riparian vegetation structure and the hunting behavior of adult estuarine crocodiles. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0184804; article XML SHA-256 ab31a74702324206177f9fe09135d5de6405c21c0fcd2e7b710f50b2f36e09d4. “Riparian vegetation structure and the hunting behavior of adult estuarine crocodiles” (10.1371/journal.pone.0184804).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184804). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Huntington’s disease
<a id="huntingtons-disease"></a>

Huntington’s disease is an inherited, progressive disorder in which nerve cells gradually degenerate. It can begin at any age and may cause involuntary movements, problems with balance, walking, speech, or swallowing, along with worsening thinking abilities and psychiatric difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 47d837989cf87aefa6770b0082bd3b9dba16f419b011fd0b5d18b14132daae7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Huntington's Disease” (C82342).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## HVA
<a id="hva"></a>

HVA stands for homovanillic acid, a monocarboxylic acid produced when catecholamines are broken down. It can be used as a biological marker linked with metabolic stress, tobacco use, and catecholamine-secreting tumors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 057fa090ebbe9a34c82bbabf533cb941f22e86f22c0f2a50f4f72236e88bd2e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Homovanillic Acid” (C167083).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hwa-byung
<a id="hwa-byung"></a>

Hwa-byung is a culture-bound anger syndrome described in South Korea. In this context, it refers to a mental health condition centered on anger and was studied as a possible risk factor for suicidal thoughts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa8e070462eefc04fc585118ced95a0671e58572d0dd96ef10773fdb93d6cf96

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kwon Chan-Young. Hwa-byung (anger syndrome) as a risk factor for suicidal ideation in MZ generation: a survey study in South Korea. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1461750; article XML SHA-256 2186113cb5f35f34622478812c005a9f4e4043ea7d3b55908caf82b073c78650. “Hwa-byung (anger syndrome) as a risk factor for suicidal ideation in MZ generation: a survey study in South Korea” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1461750).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1461750). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hybrid
<a id="hybrid"></a>

In this historical source, a hybrid is the offspring produced by a fertile cross between two species. The entry notes that hybrids were once thought to be always sterile, but later observations found that this is not always true in plants or animals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0aeb49dcbd58bf99d7271b9b081c5fba21317fc36927f13d389163cf59a2c67

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hybrid” (Hybrid).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Hybrid). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hybridization
<a id="hybridization"></a>

Hybridization is the deliberate combining of different pedagogical models into a single approach. In this context, it means blending models such as Sport Education and Teaching Games for Understanding to support broader learning across physical, social, emotional, and thinking-related areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e25d305abc0aaf8e65c38e63349d3da0135dc81889804e27e3ae01421ae0dc7f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aygun Yalin; Tufekci Sakir; Boke Hulusi; Yagin Burak; Berktas Hulya; Canpolat Burak; Turhan Fatih Harun; Norman Goktug; Guldogan Emek. What do we know about the effectiveness of the application of hybrid SE–TGfU model in physical education on learning outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1762732; article XML SHA-256 869676357fb5399d17c0ff56feb7705140d68d44343a77e59e65e54634c75ae0. “What do we know about the effectiveness of the application of hybrid SE–TGfU model in physical education on learning outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1762732).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1762732). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hydraulic model
<a id="hydraulic-model"></a>

In this source, the hydraulic model is a theory of nonsuicidal self-injury that treats self-harm as a way to release or reduce overwhelming negative arousal through automatic negative reinforcement. It is presented as explaining self-injury linked to intense distress, while not accounting well for cases marked more by emptiness or anhedonia than by hyper-arousal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a1e10599c4aaf8c02a29b5be0cf98e5331f81c770043319fa0ee35c75de9a100

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Cheng-Han; Qian Jing; Qian Jing-Ze; Wang Xiao-Hong; Zhang Qian-Qian. Beyond distress relief: the Anhedonic Subtype of nonsuicidal self-injury and the imperative for Positive Affect Treatment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1837385; article XML SHA-256 0afd5f002662225bdc12ad48da371d0ebbd34f95e7a1d9de14da9ff418ebfef4. “Beyond distress relief: the Anhedonic Subtype of nonsuicidal self-injury and the imperative for Positive Affect Treatment” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1837385).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1837385). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hydrocephalus
<a id="hydrocephalus"></a>

Hydrocephalus is a condition in which too much cerebrospinal fluid builds up inside the skull. It can be linked with enlarged brain ventricles and symptoms such as increased pressure inside the skull, headache, lethargy, urinary incontinence, and problems with coordination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa1e2dbc80c6aae0b891d02c8abc79be412a775c6ec889227c91387c15254e5d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hydrocephalus” (D006849).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006849). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hydrogen-ion concentration
<a id="hydrogen-ion-concentration"></a>

Hydrogen-ion concentration is the amount of hydrogen ions in a substance or solution. In the source, it is represented by pH as an indicator of acidity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e562504806bdea31015df26634a4f21e6275d50c315233287e19fa284bef4c32

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Balik Sibel; Aldiyab Abdullah; Temtek Tuğçe; İkiz Boran; Dasgan Hayriye Yildiz; Gruda Nazim S. Effects of LED spectral compositions on yield, growth, and nutritional quality of basil microgreens in indoor vertical farming. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352317; article XML SHA-256 f054c9c63221f09dc586c22491919367fedb62e8bc31892530bacf3e5e09e3aa. “Effects of LED spectral compositions on yield, growth, and nutritional quality of basil microgreens in indoor vertical farming” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352317).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352317). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hydrotherapy
<a id="hydrotherapy"></a>

Hydrotherapy is a treatment approach used for children with cerebral palsy and other neuromotor disorders. Research described in the packet supports benefits for children with cerebral palsy, although its effects may vary across follow-up periods and when compared with other physical therapy methods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9071bebe6bc910ee844ae5028fa7fadc1e86f65379070611573f1fdceefc46bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tao Ye; Cao Ziyi; Shin Min-Chul; Chen Meijia; Han Shuaiju. The effects of hydrotherapy on athletic ability in children with cerebral palsy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325517; article XML SHA-256 f34a2426d6c919db835193a6b9bd0aba82840aa753fa34b80939ed9f2e7aa3a1. “The effects of hydrotherapy on athletic ability in children with cerebral palsy: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325517).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325517). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hydroxyzine
<a id="hydroxyzine"></a>

Hydroxyzine is a medicine that blocks histamine H1 receptors and can also be used to relieve anxiety and tension. It may cause drowsiness and is also used as a sedative.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0c6549a3ac633fa5d589a9a289efc300dada82a46ad02f73045f862ac11276cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hydroxyzine” (D006919).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006919). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hylozoism
<a id="hylozoism"></a>

Hylozoism is the view that matter has life inherently and that life, including spiritual activity more broadly, is a property of matter. In the history of philosophy, it appeared in some ancient and Renaissance attempts to explain nature and the world-soul.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1afeb40f7d9dc895399753d0a988406a98900ff9c338872d7db1b4b256a1f999

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hylozoism” (Hylozoism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Hylozoism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyoscine
<a id="hyoscine"></a>

Hyoscine, also known as scopolamine, is a plant-derived tropane alkaloid from the nightshade family. It blocks acetylcholine activity at muscarinic receptors and has anticholinergic effects, including reducing nausea and vertigo and affecting secretions, pupil size, and gut movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 12e0efc57c8a70cbbd80c1da946fec8c7a8baba614309250798bef867466af5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Scopolamine” (C47712).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyper-
<a id="hyper"></a>

Hyper- is a prefix meaning over, above, or excessively so. In pathology it marks an abnormal or exaggerated degree of the condition named, and in philosophy it refers to a higher or limiting form or outcome of what the base term describes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 987e2082af320c667a622a272ab6c92277c99d8f23e240f5190bed40c71c5d35

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hyper-” (Hyper-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Hyper-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyperacusis
<a id="hyperacusis"></a>

Hyperacusis is an unusually heightened sense of loudness, where sounds at normal volume are experienced as excessively loud. It can occur in association with disorders affecting the ear or related nerves, and after stapes surgery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 94df4926d0fbd8539f4d5652e4b27ae4073e3b8da0609408c28bf8a976609eb0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hyperacusis” (D012001).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012001). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyperalgesia
<a id="hyperalgesia"></a>

Hyperalgesia is an unusually heightened pain response in which even mildly harmful stimulation causes more pain or discomfort than expected. It can result from damage to soft tissue with pain-sensing nerve endings or from injury to a peripheral nerve.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 333bdbc92470cc945c41b733794368eda3cf9c80c0f2424493b316ecaaf55166

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hyperalgesia” (D006930).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006930). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyperarousal
<a id="hyperarousal"></a>

Hyperarousal is a state of unusually heightened alertness and physiological activation. In the packet, it is described through signs such as tension and anxiety along with increased sympathetic activity, faster brain activity, and higher metabolic, hormonal, temperature, and heart-rate measures, and it is linked especially to insomnia and chronic stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69f21945a6caa4fb9622792706267ebd297922934a31bc587d9ee5c530cb8486

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ayabe Naoko; Nakajima Shun; Okajima Isa; Inada Ken; Yamadera Wataru; Yamashita Hidehisa; Tachimori Hisateru; Kamei Yuichi; Takeshima Masahiro; Inoue Yuichi; Mishima Kazuo. Development and validation of the Japanese version of the Hyperarousal Scale. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-04243-0; article XML SHA-256 6bc8f0416d5f21468237d0499e6c982bb19a9329d17b9971ef666ec19cb64847. “Development and validation of the Japanese version of the Hyperarousal Scale” (10.1186/s12888-022-04243-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-04243-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypercolumn
<a id="hypercolumn"></a>

In this source, a hypercolumn refers to a multi-scale combination of image features used to capture more complete information about a target, such as lesions with different sizes and shapes. It is described as part of a feature-fusion approach for image segmentation, but the packet does not provide a fuller general definition beyond that use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eed1d1d0452061d7ec87c5d96a776f87ae2ee5079ef9a43f1af56f2ec7b47c17

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Ye; Yang Ying; Wu Xiaohong; Feng Zhoushan; Wang Congcong. Rectal cancer segmentation via HHF-SAM: a hierarchical hypercolumn-guided fusion segment anything model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/frai.2025.1696984; article XML SHA-256 8a27f549f2a6ee22a45795e00c412790200a7ef4c58aa0c2ae2d45d5908b33a4. “Rectal cancer segmentation via HHF-SAM: a hierarchical hypercolumn-guided fusion segment anything model” (10.3389/frai.2025.1696984).](https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2025.1696984). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyperemia
<a id="hyperemia"></a>

In this source, hyperemia refers to increased blood flow, especially the rise in cerebral blood flow that occurs during increased neural activity as part of neurovascular coupling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 323f360b8470f555b6e4d2793b73e039ced072ce61f2a4efbea1711f28ed4349

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Esfandi Hadi; Javidan Mahshad; Anderson Rozalyn M.; Pashaie Ramin. Depth-dependent contributions of various vascular zones to cerebral autoregulation and functional hyperemia: An in-silico analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321053; article XML SHA-256 77c1da95005ef706e82b327eadb5ae063ab27c635af6ebc74da90a9361417447. “Depth-dependent contributions of various vascular zones to cerebral autoregulation and functional hyperemia: An in-silico analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321053).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321053). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyperesthesia
<a id="hyperesthesia"></a>

Hyperesthesia is unusually increased sensitivity of the skin to stimulation, caused by a lower-than-usual threshold for sensation or a stronger-than-usual response to stimuli.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec12927cecf54f8ed562858fc0cc33344e0c1384c5f8517cbc8f3af7b8208e64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hyperesthesia” (D006941).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006941). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyperexcitability
<a id="hyperexcitability"></a>

Hyperexcitability is a state in which neurons or neural networks are unusually prone to activation, making excessive brain activity more likely, as in seizure activity. In the supplied source, it is described as arising not only from the excitability of individual neurons but also from synaptic and network-level changes that increase overall responsiveness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2bd3e8207a19365f9cdab4bcae72018c21f03f5d68ee0193708aa2046161b606

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Márquez Luis A.; Martínez-Aguirre Christopher; Gutierrez-Castañeda Estefanía; Griego Ernesto; Sollozo-Dupont Isabel; López-Preza Félix; Alonso-Vanegas Mario; Arrieta Luisa Rocha; Galván Emilio J.. Layer V Neocortical neurons from individuals With drug-resistant epilepsy show multiple synaptic alterations but lack somatic hyperexcitability. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320711; article XML SHA-256 3a768e32acd43eeef193a766504164d2763346b2c4e01468e371334c4bbc4307. “Layer V Neocortical neurons from individuals With drug-resistant epilepsy show multiple synaptic alterations but lack somatic hyperexcitability” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320711).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320711). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyperglycemia
<a id="hyperglycemia"></a>

Hyperglycemia is a state of high glucose concentration. In this source, it is described as something that can be triggered by tuberculosis infection, stress linked to the illness, or rifampicin-related metabolites, and may contribute to later type 2 diabetes in people who were not previously diabetic.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9bad78800fa9c35f8111de6953908f57caae13eb67cad486bbfba68728077503

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Musyoki Victor Moses; Mureithi Marianne; Heikinheimo Annamari; Maleche-Obimbo Elizabeth; Njaanake Kariuki; Anzala Omu. The impact of tuberculosis-induced hyperglycemia on pulmonary microbiota and airway mucus secretion in individuals not previously diabetic: A systematic review and meta-analysis protocol. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316810; article XML SHA-256 d081e27dee39537b45bcc24ed7f8d9773198b618b34b9dc1eb54365d3f7a65a1. “The impact of tuberculosis-induced hyperglycemia on pulmonary microbiota and airway mucus secretion in individuals not previously diabetic: A systematic review and meta-analysis protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316810).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316810). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyperhidrosis
<a id="hyperhidrosis"></a>

Hyperhidrosis is excessive sweating. It can affect specific areas such as the palms, soles, underarms, groin folds, or perineal area, and in localized forms it is thought to be mainly linked to emotion; more widespread sweating can happen with heat, humidity, fever, or vigorous exercise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 68298b85731f2bd975b1a45b6e11a2a324d4f900d027ea397a11887931226095

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hyperhidrosis” (D006945).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006945). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypericin
<a id="hypericin"></a>

Hypericin is a naturally occurring compound found in St. John’s wort, a plant associated with antidepressant effects. It appears to affect the brain’s handling of several chemical messengers, including serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, which may help explain its mood-related effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 51e07c1cffd28ff4e39fd74a86bfbc8af0b6ae4eb496aecb5bcb7ea53c18d8c3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hypericin” (C37456).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyperkinesis
<a id="hyperkinesis"></a>

Hyperkinesis is unusually excessive movement of the body's muscles overall. It may occur in connection with either physical or psychological disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 335e9146b74110614e00a58aa4aac2823d49004927755a5227994fbc4f0a0454

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hyperkinesis” (D006948).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006948). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyperkinetic syndrome
<a id="hyperkinetic-syndrome"></a>

Hyperkinetic syndrome is a childhood-onset behavior disorder marked by levels of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity that are not appropriate for the person’s developmental stage. Both inattention and hyperactive-impulsive symptoms are often present, though one pattern may be more prominent than the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 236e20fcce68b02960b0f24eba251ed55e67b002db99a60f32ffef7036d6d16a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity” (D001289).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001289). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypermnesia
<a id="hypermnesia"></a>

Hypermnesia is an abnormal increase in memory, in which impressions are recalled with unusual vividness and completeness. It refers to a state of heightened memory rather than a memory loss or distortion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02d98101864e1f2f3af85c0e8800d5675dc5246c33cd934b5035cbcafd8fa423

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Memory (defects of)” (Memory (defects of)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Memory (defects of)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyperopia
<a id="hyperopia"></a>

Hyperopia is farsightedness, a vision problem in which light focuses behind the retina because the eye is too short from front to back. As a result, near objects are harder to focus on than they are in normal vision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b87ca6c990e4aab63497df7b07ea2177c77a5538f8229e84a3d65cfdf369c7ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hyperopia” (D006956).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006956). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyperphenylalaninemia
<a id="hyperphenylalaninemia"></a>

Hyperphenylalaninemia is an abnormally high level of phenylalanine in the body, seen in phenylketonuria when activity of the phenylalanine hydroxylase enzyme is reduced. In this context, it can disrupt brain development and brain chemical balance, contributing to intellectual and behavioral difficulties if untreated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 586c0fec1cb551d6d236d25703033629f8b5c7f961ead20678d7e82fa9ab2a9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ashe Killian; Kelso Wendy; Farrand Sarah; Panetta Julie; Fazio Tim; De Jong Gerard; Walterfang Mark. Psychiatric and Cognitive Aspects of Phenylketonuria: The Limitations of Diet and Promise of New Treatments. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00561; article XML SHA-256 0ac7f49bfca69fcc0b738f3035f411d2eddc2d335204de8d915762a8257239fc. “Psychiatric and Cognitive Aspects of Phenylketonuria: The Limitations of Diet and Promise of New Treatments” (10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00561).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00561). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hyperpolarization
<a id="hyperpolarization"></a>

Hyperpolarization is a change in a cell or organelle membrane potential that makes the inside more negative relative to the outside. It can occur in excitable cells in response to physical, chemical, or electrical stimulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea0510336864e2eebc3845005034e1e81b7b781cd7882cbff75c3a87383aaa25

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Membrane Potentials” (D008564).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008564). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypersensitivity
<a id="hypersensitivity"></a>

Hypersensitivity is an unusually strong sensitivity to stimuli, especially sensory input such as light or sound. In the supplied psychology context, it is described as a common feature of autism spectrum disorder that can cause discomfort when the environment is not suitably adapted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53d13cd7274f24cffcf8216c96ab80c673a2f0470f0e1d8c19853cab0f00148c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ríos Llamas Carlos; Camacho Vega Diego Oswaldo; Delgadillo Ramos María Guadalupe. Light and sound hypersensitivity in autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review focusing on age and gender bias. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1771956; article XML SHA-256 7ad7d511b1789582c3dba015cac58ca715e686440f4c2339b2dce97719a38a06. “Light and sound hypersensitivity in autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review focusing on age and gender bias” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1771956).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1771956). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypertension
<a id="hypertension"></a>

Hypertension is a biological condition involving problems with blood pressure regulation. In this source, it is discussed as commonly occurring alongside insomnia and as part of a combination linked to increased cardiovascular disease risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5ee778b5a792ec6a5cacf0730e1408a12ebfca2a786f55e053b6dbfc8f897ea7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fan Yuchen; Li Haijun; Ma Yuezhen; Yin Shuangshuang; Xu Cuiping. Effect of traditional Chinese medicine on sleep and blood pressure in patients with comorbid hypertension-insomnia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1882984; article XML SHA-256 cb2fee51e6c609e7817833ae35bf1a9eaac596bfc8a3a50a7fd6361130202c0f. “Effect of traditional Chinese medicine on sleep and blood pressure in patients with comorbid hypertension-insomnia: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1882984).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1882984). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypertensive crisis
<a id="hypertensive-crisis"></a>

Hypertensive crisis is a sudden, marked rise in blood pressure. It can appear as a hypertensive emergency or urgency, depending on whether there is acute damage to organs such as the heart, kidneys, or brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38da9b281b5e060e32586274c328323655898c9bb4693d2cf9f583a17f5c9001

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Byung Sik; Yu Mi-Yeon; Kim Hyun-Jin; Lee Jun Hyeok; Shin Jeong-Hun; Shin Jinho. Impact of the estimated glomerular filtration rate on long-term mortality in patients with hypertensive crisis visiting the emergency department. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0266317; article XML SHA-256 c8dc98222ef111b658cf793125215974efbfc911370527d1372626f82894bb31. “Impact of the estimated glomerular filtration rate on long-term mortality in patients with hypertensive crisis visiting the emergency department” (10.1371/journal.pone.0266317).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266317). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypertrophy
<a id="hypertrophy"></a>

Hypertrophy is an excessive enlargement of an organ caused by growth of its tissue elements. In historical usage, it may also be used more broadly for abnormal overgrowth, though some writers distinguished this from hyperplasia by reserving hypertrophy for increased cell size and hyperplasia for increased cell number.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3af579988b365a4e320adb306a37542940d811aa5169ac86dac465923c97bb2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hypertrophy” (Hypertrophy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Hypertrophy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypertropia
<a id="hypertropia"></a>

Hypertropia is a form of eye misalignment in which one eye is persistently turned upward compared with the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ade36f7797acb08068c924642e00c4c860b8ed120da636dee80854dd077bd3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hypertropia” (C34716).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypervigilance
<a id="hypervigilance"></a>

Hypervigilance is an unusually heightened state of watching for cues in the environment, especially negative social signals. In this context, it refers to selective or increased visual attention to negative social cues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ced055c0f91d0e47e654c807f497650bc4212273c29ab81c1287b0dcc7bd722

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lodder Gerine M. A.; Scholte Ron H. J.; Clemens Ivar A. H.; Engels Rutger C. M. E.; Goossens Luc; Verhagen Maaike. Loneliness and Hypervigilance to Social Cues in Females: An Eye-Tracking Study. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0125141; article XML SHA-256 6d0eb69ae8bc95dcdb2680d82c33b05336378009ac93079229422e72da537f4e. “Loneliness and Hypervigilance to Social Cues in Females: An Eye-Tracking Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0125141).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0125141). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypn-
<a id="hypn"></a>

Hypn- is a word element used for sleep and sleep-related states. In this packet it appears in terms for drowsiness, sleepwalking, fear of sleep, hypnotic states, and other disturbances or conditions connected with sleep.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5aa9f3a8b1c5be6ccd3e58c63453c1bd839c843a6bbe812fc312c8b238ede26c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3465000-3477000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypnagogic
<a id="hypnagogic"></a>

Hypnagogic refers to the transitional state around sleep, especially the half-waking condition as a person is falling asleep, waking up, or under a general anaesthetic. It can also describe experiences in that state, such as images or illusions that may shape dream content.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 541adf192d57f0df0450ef42d2a99be0f1acffb3ad3c153faa662007245f9e72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hypnagogic” (Hypnagogic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Hypnagogic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypnogenic
<a id="hypnogenic"></a>

Hypnogenic means sleep-producing, and in psychology it more specifically refers to things used to bring about a hypnotic state. It can describe physical aids such as sensory stimuli or fixation devices, as well as mental methods of suggestion used to induce hypnosis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8aac08e483030342fa21e68351282a3e0c463623a071a7d8f3c6d4165f486423

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hypnogenic” (Hypnogenic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Hypnogenic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypnosis
<a id="hypnosis"></a>

Hypnosis is a state in which a person becomes more open to suggestion and guidance. It is first brought about by another person or by oneself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 89aa3f6255b733f2a75a22c62adb15ed01e4939d323146a77f50227e427ed044

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hypnosis” (D006990).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006990). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypnotic
<a id="hypnotic"></a>

In this context, hypnotic refers to a hypnotic trance: a non-ordinary state of consciousness linked with measurable neurophysiological changes, including changes in brain electrical activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 81433081b481da015413670c0ff8d2e0f04043e0bc971d93d637ea0813cc6801

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zech Nina; Seemann Milena; Hansen Ernil. Hypnosis measured with monitors of anesthetic depth – EEG changes during the test for Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1267658; article XML SHA-256 94114751129d946712a4b2ccd239003c0d7e209440ef370673280358d9f5abb4. “Hypnosis measured with monitors of anesthetic depth – EEG changes during the test for Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1267658).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1267658). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypnotic analgesia
<a id="hypnotic-analgesia"></a>

Hypnotic analgesia is pain reduction that occurs during hypnosis through top-down psychological regulation of pain perception. The packet indicates it is distinct from placebo analgesia, although both can be influenced by expectation and can alter activity in brain areas involved in pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 098768fb6576639f104a487590165ae25253c70cc1c0567e78486f81524287ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [De Pascalis Vilfredo; Scacchia Paolo. Hypnotizability and Placebo Analgesia in Waking and Hypnosis as Modulators of Auditory Startle Responses in Healthy Women: An ERP Study. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0159135; article XML SHA-256 de039e83e1aa5a1359989528de7d93336beae28fcf4538bc505d92a91ee6ef49. “Hypnotizability and Placebo Analgesia in Waking and Hypnosis as Modulators of Auditory Startle Responses in Healthy Women: An ERP Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0159135).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159135). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypnotic trance
<a id="hypnotic-trance"></a>

In this historical source, hypnotic trance is described as an extreme state of psychic concentration. It is grouped with religious ecstasy and linked to a marked reduction or suspension of ordinary voluntary control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76864475556fe24121da0a572333ffdf05ce1b9a1d7c7ccedd50b7aae4c810ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4578000-4590000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypnotism
<a id="hypnotism"></a>

Hypnotism is a state in which a person becomes more open to suggestion and direction. It is first brought about by another person or by oneself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d067efa4a14f0b12061936b7bed9646f0d71c4251210f67cb69cf616b97ec25

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hypnosis” (D006990).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006990). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypo-
<a id="hypo"></a>

Hypo- is a prefix meaning under or below normal. In psychological compounds, it indicates a reduced degree of a function or condition, such as deficient will, lowered reaction, a mild form of mania, or reduced smell; it can also be used in anatomical or chemical terms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b71729f77d03f11d7e096f74fc2e06631641be59057dda66014beec0fbe89e96

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hypo-” (Hypo-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Hypo-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypoactive sexual desire disorder
<a id="hypoactive-sexual-desire-disorder"></a>

Hypoactive sexual desire disorder is a condition involving an ongoing or repeated lack of desire for sexual activity. The reduced desire is not better explained by another psychiatric condition, substance effects, or a general medical condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97c722f471015a1050b15d6c598b3ceb570e6c61a178a869aacc2eb3cb489d9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder” (C94337).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypoacusia
<a id="hypoacusia"></a>

Hypoacusia means reduced hearing or hearing loss. In this context, it is discussed as a sensory deficit that may contribute to social isolation, depression, and cognitive decline.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b0bebe9aa7a03e3327e1cbd0c4da61eebdd85dacf18d2044707c87b35e05419f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Manara Renzo; Ponticorvo Sara; Perrotta Silverio; Barillari Maria Rosaria; Costa Giuseppe; Brotto Davide; Di Concilio Rosanna; Ciancio Angela; De Michele Elisa; Carafa Pasquale Alessandro; Canna Antonietta; Russo Andrea Gerardo; Troisi Donato; Caiazza Martina; Ammendola Federica; Roberti Domenico; Santoro Claudia; Picariello Stefania; Valentino Maria Sole; Inserra Emanuela; Carfora Roberta; Cirillo Mario; Raimo Simona; Santangelo Gabriella; di Salle Francesco; Esposito Fabrizio; Tartaglione Immacolata. Auditory cortex hypoperfusion: a metabolic hallmark in Beta Thalassemia. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s13023-021-01969-0; article XML SHA-256 390a89791f2ea1351a87534349b7d0c15bea55f8f6353a7cce20515350fa24b9. “Auditory cortex hypoperfusion: a metabolic hallmark in Beta Thalassemia” (10.1186/s13023-021-01969-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13023-021-01969-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypoalgesia
<a id="hypoalgesia"></a>

Hypoalgesia is a reduced response to pain, meaning pain is felt less intensely than usual. In this packet, it refers to the finding that swearing can lessen acute pain responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a426471303895f6df1179a5d4ff6136f328679c1883e31568dbde2f64e29de33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hay Carlie M.; Sills Jackson L.; Shoemake Julia M.; Ballmann Christopher G.; Stephens Richard; Washmuth Nicholas B.. F@#$ pain! A mini-review of the hypoalgesic effects of swearing. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1416041; article XML SHA-256 f2b7ea7ffba7f3d6758009f70a96cf5fc1885e661a0551d5ea830a4363767fc3. “F@#$ pain! A mini-review of the hypoalgesic effects of swearing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1416041).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1416041). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypochondriasis
<a id="hypochondriasis"></a>

Hypochondriasis is a condition marked by persistent worry or belief that one has a serious illness because bodily symptoms are misunderstood. The central feature is preoccupation with feared disease despite the concern being based on misinterpreting physical sensations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c795800a8dda7a4f2479f41046f6840e5e9f313c984e1a0ebb849ad080e8902c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hypochondriasis” (D006998).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006998). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypofrontality
<a id="hypofrontality"></a>

Hypofrontality is reduced or abnormal frontal brain activity described as a possible result of disrupted cortical excitation–inhibition balance. In schizophrenia spectrum disorders, it is linked with problems in basic information processing that may contribute to cognitive impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7aac450a2fd61af2c1627685aa034cbc588439cbfa15f54b407b775381c446fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Siebner Thomas Hartwig; Ambrosen Karen Sandø; Lemvigh Cecilie Koldbæk; Ryan Christine Natasha; Sørensen Mikkel Erlang; Hernández-Lorca María; Glenthøj Birte Yding; Larsen Kit Melissa; Witt Michael-Robin; Oranje Bob; Ebdrup Bjørn Hylsebeck. Acute effects of partial positive allosteric GABA A receptor modulation by GT-002 on psychophysiological and cognitive measures: protocol for the TOTEMS phase II trial targeting cognitive impairment associated with schizophrenia. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1656792; article XML SHA-256 25edcc5ba3141bbcb4ef2ed27915b4baf2d72d4ed5c13094e99ea1b201a6710d. “Acute effects of partial positive allosteric GABA A receptor modulation by GT-002 on psychophysiological and cognitive measures: protocol for the TOTEMS phase II trial targeting cognitive impairment associated with schizophrenia” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1656792).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1656792). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypoglossal nerve
<a id="hypoglossal-nerve"></a>

The hypoglossal nerve is the twelfth cranial nerve. It begins in the medulla, controls movement of nearly all the tongue muscles except the palatoglossus, and also carries position-sense information from the tongue muscles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bb085649f5355377927a945329e8d1a08042b51abd3365d7a8d51dfac678bf9f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hypoglossal Nerve” (D007002).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007002). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypoglycemia
<a id="hypoglycemia"></a>

Hypoglycemia is a condition in which blood glucose is abnormally low. When severe, it can deprive the central nervous system of glucose and cause hunger, sweating, tingling sensations, problems with mental functioning, seizures, coma, and death.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b63006b887c4d14874ede1ef659bba90e1d7f287cff75b2da81b8102b1d87e9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hypoglycemia” (D007003).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007003). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypogonadism
<a id="hypogonadism"></a>

In men, hypogonadism is a condition marked by too little testosterone. Because testosterone supports sexual, cognitive, and body functions and development, low levels can reduce quality of life and are linked with broader health risks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae2fd88fc97cd32b26cb84cdce1cee63a34194c9c3241ca458cf2c5c7e81766d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Sheng-Kuang; Lee Meng-Chih; Hung Chia-Lien; Chen Hsin-Hung; Liao Chun-Cheng; Chiu Yu-Lung. Association between hypertriglyceridemic waist phenotype and hypogonadism in Taiwanese adult men. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0265629; article XML SHA-256 676629e3354ecc088d23cf0a23f3e1a8258bec8427f029b65de3eba6beb13f41. “Association between hypertriglyceridemic waist phenotype and hypogonadism in Taiwanese adult men” (10.1371/journal.pone.0265629).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265629). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypomania
<a id="hypomania"></a>

Hypomania is a milder form of mania marked by unusually elevated mood, increased activity, and inflated self-importance. Unlike mania, it does not seriously disrupt work productivity or social and family relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 657ccc968d662736705727319dd25729bbe6dbdaf8319f70e7241cb0a3e31979

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hypomania” (C78349).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypomotility
<a id="hypomotility"></a>

Hypomotility means decreased movement or reduced ability to move. In this source, it is described as a biological trait seen in zebrafish carrying the hcfc1a co60/+ allele.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5393d73a28baf82572768009015e0b668b6d62369616657da9e0e8a82b2ab402

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Castro Victoria L.; Reyes Joel F.; Reyes-Nava Nayeli G.; Paz David; Quintana Anita M.. Hcfc1a regulates neural precursor proliferation and asxl1 expression in the developing brain. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12868-020-00577-1; article XML SHA-256 cb2330b86105201832196c32ef5861ace26b68f1f391956d155e223a22497c15. “Hcfc1a regulates neural precursor proliferation and asxl1 expression in the developing brain” (10.1186/s12868-020-00577-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-020-00577-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypophagia
<a id="hypophagia"></a>

Hypophagia is reduced eating or food intake. In this context, it refers to an experimentally induced decrease in ingestive behavior that can be accompanied by short-term weight loss.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5c8341d7ef135449489354392e8a415036a0a834d75b7fbe56fc0f866301e75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Burgos Jonathan R.; Iresjö Britt-Marie; Smedh Ulrika. Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide 6-38 Blocks Cocaine- and Amphetamine-Regulated Transcript Peptide-Induced Hypophagia in Rats. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0072347; article XML SHA-256 890c079d8ab35688aa648eddf58f4ed74b1ec111b71135213bc999e2ee76b246. “Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide 6-38 Blocks Cocaine- and Amphetamine-Regulated Transcript Peptide-Induced Hypophagia in Rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0072347).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072347). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypophysectomy
<a id="hypophysectomy"></a>

Hypophysectomy is the surgical removal of the pituitary gland. In the supplied source, it is discussed as a biological manipulation used in rats to examine how loss of the pituitary affects metabolic and cardiovascular responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93c98af75ba8ead88b369bfb13a66b5e7082c215be855e52500e8a02223b5572

Sources:
- Drafting source: [da Silva Alexandre A; Hall John E; do Carmo Jussara M. Leptin reverses hyperglycemia and hyperphagia in insulin deficient diabetic rats by pituitary-independent central nervous system actions. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0184805; article XML SHA-256 dbf4d3adb6d588c8c2f85169404ec36db0fb16404e6b47f128ec294e869b5018. “Leptin reverses hyperglycemia and hyperphagia in insulin deficient diabetic rats by pituitary-independent central nervous system actions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0184805).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184805). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypophysis
<a id="hypophysis"></a>

Hypophysis is the pituitary gland, a small single gland located in the sella turcica. It is attached to the hypothalamus by a short stalk called the infundibulum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce21e2bf2a0e0478a5fbd70e11b1893eafdc609310709f6110771bd89ab2e3c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pituitary Gland” (D010902).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010902). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypotension
<a id="hypotension"></a>

Hypotension is abnormally low blood pressure. It can reduce blood flow to the brain and other vital organs, often causing dizziness and, if prolonged, depriving the body of needed oxygen and nutrients.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fc999b7db37f7e9ca802eee43677b2b64bc9f5f13212efccd5d83abc0ba175d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hypotension” (D007022).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007022). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypothalamic hormone
<a id="hypothalamic-hormone"></a>

A hypothalamic hormone is a releasing or inhibiting hormone made by specialized cells in the hypothalamus. It acts on receptors in the anterior pituitary to regulate how much hormone the pituitary releases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fcf3eefd5b215bf075618aa3c93ae7fd74a3a902a8ccd737a8d29690be3f445a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hypothalamic Hormone” (C2183).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
<a id="hypothalamicpituitaryadrenal-axis"></a>

The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis is the body’s stress axis, a linked system involved in responses to psychological challenges and traumatic events. In this packet, its activity is reflected by cortisol levels and is discussed as a possible pathway connecting stress with cellular aging.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 916b6550e711f463989053403e2152678cc55a9a445bedb950f7f656ae497d8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barha Cindy K.; Salvante Katrina G.; Hanna Courtney W.; Wilson Samantha L.; Robinson Wendy P.; Altman Rachel M.; Nepomnaschy Pablo A.. Child mortality, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and cellular aging in mothers. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0177869; article XML SHA-256 0d4d7bbe0ca81ef21f702bd4f0cc74b2d61f7a305da69ab7505bdafdc874f8ba. “Child mortality, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and cellular aging in mothers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0177869).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177869). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypothalamus
<a id="hypothalamus"></a>

The hypothalamus is the lower part of the diencephalon, located from the area of the optic chiasm back to the rear border of the mammillary bodies. It forms the lower and side walls of the third ventricle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 556403e91741e897a3adc25a3a5057e691b6a06ec8c95a6df9a1392c8a411967

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hypothalamus” (D007031).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007031). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypothesis
<a id="hypothesis"></a>

A hypothesis is an assumed fact or relation among facts that is used to explain facts already known. In this historical source, it is treated as a general form of explanatory thinking, not only something used in science.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 175b72c45d0d2bfe77e3918e879027f5de98ccf7dfe2730fab107b550cc57d4f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hypothesis” (Hypothesis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Hypothesis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypothesis testing
<a id="hypothesis-testing"></a>

Hypothesis testing is a research method in which a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis are proposed, and the data are used to judge whether the null should be rejected. If the evidence is strong enough against the null hypothesis, it is rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44c50d83fbc0780043859d8d9dc138a44ad5b4bf15dacdc7cd674eae702908ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Alternative Hypothesis” (alternative_hypothesis.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/alternative_hypothesis.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypothyroidism
<a id="hypothyroidism"></a>

Hypothyroidism is a common thyroid condition in which the thyroid gland does not release enough thyroid hormone into the bloodstream. It can arise from genetic or acquired causes, and the most common acquired cause is chronic autoimmune thyroiditis, also called Hashimoto’s disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb7abab657e91dd9ad599282f9356235d66bb39b66d98a1438d97a31bf6b888a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Osnaya-Brizuela Norma; Valenzuela-Peraza Armando; Santamaría-del Ángel Daniel; García-Martínez Yuliana; Pacheco-Rosado Jorge; Pérez-Sánchez Gilberto; Sánchez-Huerta Karla. Is the acquired hypothyroidism a risk factor for developing psychiatric disorders?. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1429255; article XML SHA-256 2743db2afd924c6025a24af9f14877d6936400d80b050ac1684dcb5b15738836. “Is the acquired hypothyroidism a risk factor for developing psychiatric disorders?” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1429255).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1429255). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypotonia
<a id="hypotonia"></a>

Hypotonia is reduced tone in skeletal muscles, meaning the muscles show less resistance than usual when they are passively stretched.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0222f2b748ae7bf903f95ae4786aac48350d894dfb2113689b18551960d87162

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Muscle Hypotonia” (D009123).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009123). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypotropia
<a id="hypotropia"></a>

Hypotropia is a form of vertical eye misalignment in which one eye is persistently turned downward.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b150a6ed03c4d5cf71f4d856b5239f81b8bd24bc63047aea5ac193cef0350625

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Downward Ocular Deviation” (C42086).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hypoxemia
<a id="hypoxemia"></a>

Hypoxemia is a state of low oxygen in arterial blood, conventionally identified by a reduced arterial oxygen pressure on blood gas testing. In monitoring, oxygen saturation readings are often used as a real-time stand-in, but by themselves they may be misleading and need to be interpreted with other patient measures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 92b42ed199b59c0311e6e831456abcfe969771982aa071b655c7c71bc0c8fdec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baek Sujin; Park Jung-Bin; Heo Jihye; Kim Kyungsang; Baek Donghyeon; Oh Chahyun; Lee Hyung-Chul; Lee Dongheon; Hong Boohwi. Hypoxemia prediction in pediatric patients under general anesthesia using machine learning: A retrospective observational study and external validation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339276; article XML SHA-256 00339dbf599f7b60444612c06e940effb4da38c7dd21fa216d7b4fd03d33e9d0. “Hypoxemia prediction in pediatric patients under general anesthesia using machine learning: A retrospective observational study and external validation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339276).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339276). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hysteresis
<a id="hysteresis"></a>

In this account of shared psychosis, hysteresis means that the path out of a shared delusional state does not simply reverse the path into it. Because of this history-dependent effect, recovery after separation can be fast or slow depending on how deeply the secondary person’s beliefs have been reshaped.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5e477607511361f818a6f384efdf005f7f8e1a4ea54da028d96728ede064d622

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Beasley Dustin. Folie à deux as a cusp catastrophe in coupled active inference: a dynamical systems account of shared psychotic disorder. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1886942; article XML SHA-256 a09e12edaa85f710553e94483ce979f5e30016da869b5a3779f43544cfa2fb4a. “Folie à deux as a cusp catastrophe in coupled active inference: a dynamical systems account of shared psychotic disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1886942).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1886942). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hysteria
<a id="hysteria"></a>

Hysteria is a historical diagnostic term for a long-lasting but changeable condition that starts early in life and involves repeated, multiple physical complaints without an apparent physical cause. It is not a diagnosis used in current practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 24231c4af929355ced235907d3d4b3a2e93aec1925c8caf9cddb60387f91484a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hysteria” (D007046).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007046). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hysterical blindness
<a id="hysterical-blindness"></a>

Hysterical blindness is an apparent loss of sight in hysteria that is described here as not being a true absence of visual perception. The passage says the person may seem blind to ordinary awareness, while visual impressions are still taken in by a split-off or submerged consciousness and can show themselves indirectly, such as through automatic responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8784d352162367154607a9060d428d3f0beb3062493ec6612bf59439394c625

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hysterical disorder
<a id="hysterical-disorder"></a>

In this historical source, hysterical disorder refers to a wide-ranging disturbance affecting both bodily nervous functions and mental life, especially feeling, without any demonstrable bodily disease to account for it. It is described as arising from nervous instability together with internal or external stress, often showing mainly physical symptoms despite an underlying mental element.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 029b2afe64cb590fddfebd81bd809871ad8d82d74fd0959c590a8c448283b624

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3559500-3571500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hysterical paralysis
<a id="hysterical-paralysis"></a>

Hysterical paralysis is a historical term for a loss of movement seen in hysteria that was described as not arising from structural paralysis in the usual organic sense. In this account, it is marked by failure to make effective effort despite some preserved muscle tone, and it may appear alongside or reinforce an existing bodily illness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e357e1ebe1b47f8e745c9dcc5b02f65ad01aac202321d4c67ebc9509a1cb1143

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3591000-3603000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## hysteriform
<a id="hysteriform"></a>

In this historical source, hysteriform describes seizure-like or wave-like episodes in general paralysis that resemble hysteria, marked by uncontrolled emotional outbursts and sometimes trembling or muscular twitching. The passage says these episodes were noted mainly in women, though they could also occur in men.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7a4c0d16876e20e88f45324c34a1699de1b4354337925c20f127b2a55109134

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3076500-3088500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## -iasis
<a id="iasis"></a>

In this historical source, “-iasis” is used as another name for hypochondria or hypochondriasis. It refers to a state marked by persistent, excessive concern and anxiety about one’s bodily health and functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8d3b094a1ddcb567a427a7516d89de72fac75136c8b0a03516fb9a49345ab38f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hypochondria (or -iasis)” (Hypochondria).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Hypochondria). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IAT
<a id="iat"></a>

IAT refers to the Implicit Association Test, a research method used to capture automatic evaluative associations that people may not be able to report directly. In this context, it is used to assess implicit attitudes, such as automatic responses related to physical activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d410c50ca6ea084987e21780c1780850c6ea272764c0d62cf578566fef059573

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Yoongu. Theoretical justifications for using word-based stimuli in the implicit association test for physical activity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847599; article XML SHA-256 b40b6cd2a39573c8d5c87877de401d7c6ca23baed7f004036a80c25fc9721d41. “Theoretical justifications for using word-based stimuli in the implicit association test for physical activity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847599).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847599). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ibogaine
<a id="ibogaine"></a>

Ibogaine is a psychoactive indole alkaloid obtained from the plant Tabernanthe iboga. It affects multiple neurotransmitter systems and appears to influence tolerance to opiates.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3cf1cc1a2ccb4149ec0571ca4474984cabaa268e94556f8b41aa832182249e50

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ibogaine” (D007050).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007050). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ibotenic acid
<a id="ibotenic-acid"></a>

Ibotenic acid is a toxic substance found in Amanita mushrooms that affects the brain and nervous system. It can cause poor coordination, reduced movement, and changes in mood, perception, and feelings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 077c6ed81b528f7831f8fcab68428669bfb5827f162f44d7a2aabd3bbe4bcadb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ibotenic Acid” (D007051).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007051). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IBS
<a id="ibs"></a>

IBS, or irritable bowel syndrome, is the best-known disorder of gut-brain interaction and is grouped into constipation-predominant, diarrhoea-predominant, mixed, and unclassified forms based on bowel habit problems. Its causes are described as multifactorial, with genetic, immune, environmental, psychosocial, and brain-gut factors all implicated, and it is often studied in relation to gut-specific anxiety and symptom severity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e79b0aeae0987f1049eb6af2ccb96e3da3cae7cc63f3e2f549468890fa7c3a2d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bertalan Eszter; Horváth Zsolt; Gajdos Panna; Magyaródi Tímea; Rigó Adrien. Psychometric properties of the Hungarian Visceral Sensitivity Index (VSI-H): insights from two cross-sectional studies on self-reported IBS and gluten-related conditions. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-02918-3; article XML SHA-256 9a1481a052ec943ab4995bdff47786b946c85ffff56bff880518d6f940a841b5. “Psychometric properties of the Hungarian Visceral Sensitivity Index (VSI-H): insights from two cross-sectional studies on self-reported IBS and gluten-related conditions” (10.1186/s40359-025-02918-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02918-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ICC
<a id="icc"></a>

ICC, or immunocytochemistry, is a laboratory method used to detect specific proteins or antigens in cells placed on slides. It uses antibodies or similar binding molecules to attach to the target, which is then made visible by a chemical reaction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4089f9b3fcbecb1a14c00ad14e40bc0cd4e0dc3d1f50dbb7f6e8b9d2b12bc9dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Immunocytochemistry” (C17731).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## iceberg profile
<a id="iceberg-profile"></a>

The iceberg profile is a mood pattern marked by high vigour together with low tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion. In psychology and sport settings, it has been linked with positive mental health and good athletic performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a32bf4c3c065dfe531be3de4048af94de90aecd3cef1d0222cf04a8b5cc7e8f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Terry Peter C.; Parsons-Smith Renée L.; King Rachel; Terry Victoria R.. Influence of sex, age, and education on mood profile clusters. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0245341; article XML SHA-256 72b9d79182096b48974d3abab89641fd6fd469ad01dc918bd874ea8d6ea3dc11. “Influence of sex, age, and education on mood profile clusters” (10.1371/journal.pone.0245341).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245341). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## icon
<a id="icon"></a>

An icon is a visual image used as an object in an attention task. In this study, two filtered icon images were overlaid so participants could focus on one image while its spatial-frequency components changed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14c85618c3e0b80b0904cf3f83bf5922543c3d967d0357e1af3dd2f6b362afa9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lv Yuhong; Hisakata Rumi; Kaneko Hirohiko. Estimation method of attentional object using spatial frequency selectivity in pupillary response. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356996; article XML SHA-256 20c275c893803a1dbb6efd725325e369228d3cd058067e225bf7082de4a6f7af. “Estimation method of attentional object using spatial frequency selectivity in pupillary response” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356996).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356996). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## iconic memory
<a id="iconic-memory"></a>

Iconic memory is a very brief form of visual sensory memory that holds what has just been seen for only a few hundred milliseconds. Its contents are organized in retina-based spatial coordinates, so during movement this short-lived image can produce visible persistence and blur rather than stable, meaningful information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22021fb0f7dec9b4595f0c6cc1e9597a12488bd0a26274423f07e56da97b8e06

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Öğmen Haluk; Herzog Michael H.. A New Conceptualization of Human Visual Sensory-Memory. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00830; article XML SHA-256 21be189329ff6dc06f964762c94523ab4759883d6137bed626a00f2a8acddc99. “A New Conceptualization of Human Visual Sensory-Memory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00830).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00830). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## iconic representation
<a id="iconic-representation"></a>

Iconic representation is a diagram-like image formed in imagination that stands for the relations in a set of facts or premises. In this historical account, it is a simplified visual or partly muscular image used to inspect and mentally vary those relations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 743bb754b878269d263e72d8ef93f7d6ffbaad77cd66d988e48704e699353174

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2425500-2437500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## iconicity
<a id="iconicity"></a>

Iconicity is the property of a word or gesture in which its form resembles or vividly depicts its meaning, rather than being purely arbitrary. In learning and communication, iconic forms can support early language development, make meaning easier to grasp, and strengthen expressive interaction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7f0a3d86a2f7a50e996c2e711c4a6fa6935b7a650db81472c0f0c67e137fde3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kilpatrick Alexander; Bundgaard-Nielsen Rikke L. Exploring the dynamics of Shannon’s information and iconicity in language processing and lexeme evolution. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321294; article XML SHA-256 73404db5ad130b6584edd546f6e191928dee7c24e535bc847a22b5f5053d53e7. “Exploring the dynamics of Shannon’s information and iconicity in language processing and lexeme evolution” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321294).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321294). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## iconolatry
<a id="iconolatry"></a>

Iconolatry is image-worship: giving divine honor to an object treated as a likeness or imitation of a deity. It is described as a form of idol-worship, with the risk that the material image comes to overshadow the spiritual being it is meant to represent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73f3a5ef49729feb4e16d5d27f1de35b674affe6028840d88e1df91a12618b8d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Image-worship (or Iconolatry)” (Image-worship).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Image-worship). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ICP
<a id="icp"></a>

ICP stands for Internal Cohesion Psychotherapy, a therapeutic approach studied with young people who had mood disorders. In the supplied source, it is described as aiming to strengthen intrapersonal functioning, especially self-regulation, self-esteem, and motivation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18638bc909d407177e06d8d0b77a63ee0fcd57bc689b9601d2cf7c4d57bdc2ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Uka Fitim; Zharku Lum; Maliqi Rineta; Asgarabad Mojtaba Habibi; Podrimqaku Dorentina; Musliu Arian; Acik Ayse Naz; Loshenko Oleksandra; Morales Regina Fernández; Sopjani Vanesa; Krasniqi Angjelina; Vezaj Klea. Fostering positive mental health outcomes: exploring the impact of internal cohesion psychotherapy on self-esteem, self-regulation, and motivation among youth with mood disorders. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03512-3; article XML SHA-256 69d7e6790120278a5c22bda3098300f8eef68fff2cd9b06eca5982c071cca407. “Fostering positive mental health outcomes: exploring the impact of internal cohesion psychotherapy on self-esteem, self-regulation, and motivation among youth with mood disorders” (10.1186/s40359-025-03512-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03512-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ICS
<a id="ics"></a>

In this source, ICS refers to the International College Student initiative within the World Mental Health program. It is described as a survey framework for assessing student mental health, which was adapted here and expanded to cover lifestyle-related areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 239432433a5672c1858b2a33964d9050fbe92bbbc62ad117e5b5e3df8af78021

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vecchio Riccardo; Mosconi Giansanto; Gandola Martina; Amerio Andrea; Odone Anna; Health Mode On Investigators; Albini Giovanni; Barbati Chiara; Barone Lavinia; Baroni Mariagrazie; Bertuccio Paola; Brunelli Laura; Brusaferro Silvio; Carli Anna; Casigliani Virginia; Crescentini Cristiano; Diadema Elisa; Emdin Michele; Faggiano Fabrizio; Fedeli Daniele; Fossati Andrea; Lecce Serena; Mehanović Emina; Mosconi Giansanto; Ogliari Anna; Odone Anna; Pennucci Francesca; Quattrone Filippo; Raglio Alfredo; Rizzo Caterina; Rossi Emanuele; Tobia Valentina; Vecchio Riccardo; Pietro Vigezzi Giacomo; Vigna-Taglianti Federica; Vivaldi Elena; Viviani Luca; Zeppegno Patrizia; Zingarelli Marzia; Zizza Cesare. Investigating PhD students’ wellbeing and mental health: towards evidence-led and innovative solutions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900506; article XML SHA-256 f65b8e60303e59e8043d8fffb43816c08d544811ca0f245659ec6830c9b39232. “Investigating PhD students’ wellbeing and mental health: towards evidence-led and innovative solutions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900506).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900506). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ictus
<a id="ictus"></a>

Ictus is a historical term used here for apoplexy: a sudden stroke-like seizure with loss of consciousness, sensation, and movement, usually linked to bleeding in the brain and sometimes to blockage of a blood vessel. It often led to coma and could be followed by paralysis, speech problems, or mental decline in those who survived.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 51934df922fe602b619c8f3ba05fe27bbe45d7f9393ad2c8a8523d588a80392f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Apoplexy” (Apoplexy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Apoplexy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ICU
<a id="icu"></a>

In this context, ICU refers to a hospital care setting described as especially intense and complex for nursing work. Working there is associated with higher occupational stress and burnout risk than working in general wards, and these pressures are discussed in relation to imposter feelings among nurses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 610b96ff4a5b689093e7be96cf15338526c95e4a09a518fd0d17c1c4b82df0fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Fucheng; Fang Xueling; Luo Shaofang; Deng Rufang; Wang Mingzhu; Li Yanhuan. Exploring the experiences of imposter phenomenon among Chinese ICU nurses: a qualitative study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1772552; article XML SHA-256 121d8edf2b94624599ab498fa03119dd989a5fa203bc6ae9b3f2c914457a8933. “Exploring the experiences of imposter phenomenon among Chinese ICU nurses: a qualitative study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1772552).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1772552). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## id
<a id="id"></a>

In psychoanalytic theory, the id is the part of personality that contains unconscious instinctive wishes and drives. It refers to basic inner strivings that operate outside awareness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: eb588f7eab22917461cd9e30e764ef90623894dc5fbda43ca2cb87e0af9d5261

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Id” (D007060).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007060). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## idea
<a id="idea"></a>

In historical psychology, an idea is the mental reproduction of an object that is not currently present to the senses, usually through an image. Older writers sometimes used the term more broadly for whatever the mind thinks about, but the narrower usage distinguishes it from direct perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c47479062ded7da6095578062f51766bb23ca35f0a9e67b9181634e02794075

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Idea” (Idea).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Idea). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ideal observer
<a id="ideal-observer"></a>

An ideal observer is a model or computer algorithm that performs a specific perceptual task as well as mathematically possible given the information available and the limits built into the model. In psychology, it is used as a baseline for comparing human performance so researchers can judge how efficiently people use the information in a stimulus and how difficult the task itself is.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5d2215add1519cf79d07162b96ddd26a1b0e78dc9ad63346e8952431dfb44063

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ziebell Laura; Collin Charles; Rainville Stéphane; Mazalu Monica; Weippert Madyson. Using an ideal observer analysis to investigate the visual perceptual efficiency of individuals with a history of non-suicidal self-injury when identifying emotional expressions. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0227019; article XML SHA-256 48446a891e75cfcb57ef93bb1a4069125c9933e421a4176d7e65fade35bec9f3. “Using an ideal observer analysis to investigate the visual perceptual efficiency of individuals with a history of non-suicidal self-injury when identifying emotional expressions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0227019).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227019). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ideal self
<a id="ideal-self"></a>

Ideal self refers to the self one would be if nothing were lacking to it, understood as a fully satisfying version of oneself. In this historical source, it is treated not just as a clear idea but as something aimed at beyond present reality, guiding striving and development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7de1312b335b424f40d186dfe4b21fef2eb22dc85a04083ed19dca5934aa744

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ideal” (Ideal).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Ideal). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## idealism
<a id="idealism"></a>

Idealism is a philosophical position that treats mind or reason as the basic principle of reality. In one sense, it says the universe is fundamentally an expression of reason or spirit; in another, it holds that the external world is real as something that can be perceived, in contrast with realism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eea6b7a795384f53dc561b18ffebc171d08893a68f9b5e197b267369de4adc5b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Idealism” (Idealism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Idealism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## idealization
<a id="idealization"></a>

In this historical aesthetic sense, idealization is the way facts or truths are taken up and shaped into an ideal form. It involves building on qualities already present in what is being considered, while carrying forward its valued features, such as beauty or moral worth, and leaving out what seems discordant.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c773e20e256edd49ee06ecfd5b51d803e713240b2d182c73311d1bbc26435b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Idealization (aesthetic)” (Idealization).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Idealization). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ideation
<a id="ideation"></a>

Ideation is a mental activity in which the mind proceeds through a succession of ideas. The related adjective is ideational, meaning pertaining to that kind of idea-based process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 609fd73c8c314deacb7c3a6180d8fe04bca10b42860dcd9cb6dd43eb2d325a06

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ideation” (Ideation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Ideation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ideational apraxia
<a id="ideational-apraxia"></a>

Ideational apraxia is a form of apraxia in which a person loses the ability to mentally plan the steps needed to carry out a learned action, even though the problem is not due to basic motor or sensory loss. It can show up as difficulty organizing familiar acts such as getting dressed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e41becae6566613dd18bf3ccd19d0a9c1fc27f3defb990f0d87deb194469e71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Apraxias” (D001072).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001072). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## identical points
<a id="identical-points"></a>

Identical points are matching locations on the two retinas that, when the eyes are in the primary position, stand in the same relation to each retina’s centre and answer to the same image point from an infinitely distant object. In this historical usage, they are the anatomical counterpart of what physiology called corresponding or congruent points.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 263599e2337b2e57c5c3005583afc7a3443d558570f1e7d8ca867c3d04c0e8f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Identical Points” (Identical).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Identical). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## identification with the aggressor
<a id="identification-with-the-aggressor"></a>

Identification with the aggressor is a way of understanding a person’s stance in which they align themselves with a powerful violent authority and view their own violent actions as part of that system’s culture and power. In this study, it describes women veterans framing excessive violence from the position of being part of the aggressor rather than only a target of oppression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 78e6535a4c6fd0d74cf42e64ef750520b5eca181a8c2605d37182d25b316412b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [HaCohen Nehama; Amir Dana. “Caught in the crossfire” – women veterans’ testimonies regarding excessively violent acts committed in combat zones. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1286813; article XML SHA-256 5306bce6503f84c82668fc8b934ce6f7819ee94c56f52facbc2b5b62bd0f5158. ““Caught in the crossfire” – women veterans’ testimonies regarding excessively violent acts committed in combat zones” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1286813).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1286813). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## identity
<a id="identity"></a>

In learning contexts, identity can refer to an evolving sense of who a person is in a professional role, such as being a teacher. It is built through experiences, beliefs, values, motivations, skills, and social interactions, and it helps organize how the person interprets their role and makes decisions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a135fbd7ec0f0dcdd22d06aa9b4f07dfb89dc048418a94ebdd1fdd71224b9e0b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alsuwaylim Amal Mubarak; Alshehri Mohammed A; Lamouchi Ali; Abdellatif Mohamed Sayed; Ibrahim Ashraf Ragab; Nemt-allah Mohamed Ali. From belief to identity: teacher resilience as a mediating mechanism between growth mindset and professional identity among EFL student teachers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1830864; article XML SHA-256 858bb61151daeb63a8bbf9f5859ab7feb308c69a26c1222704d2b8e06354ce5d. “From belief to identity: teacher resilience as a mediating mechanism between growth mindset and professional identity among EFL student teachers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1830864).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1830864). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## identity crisis
<a id="identity-crisis"></a>

An identity crisis is a disturbed or confused sense of who one is, in which a person’s place or role in life feels impossible to resolve. It may show up as isolation, withdrawal, rebellion, or extreme behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62359ac63cd215cca55218a4c8cfbdd175ce9e0008557bd99d3cc5610962d3ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Identity Crisis” (D007063).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007063). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## identity diffusion
<a id="identity-diffusion"></a>

Identity diffusion is a disturbance in identity development marked by a poorly integrated sense of oneself and of other people, with weak boundaries between self and others. It is linked to difficulties in personality functioning such as intimacy, empathy, and self-direction, and is considered an important feature in borderline personality disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5558ec8f93424b7c4b1bb247076a6f841cd7b525927d72ab944afd35aa8849b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Plakolm Erlač Sara; Bucik Valentin; Gregorič Kumperščak Hojka. Explicit and Implicit Measures of Identity Diffusion in Adolescent Girls With Borderline Personality Disorder. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.805390; article XML SHA-256 7bf4cd88563ef3c6be119df442ec6cef6948fc8fb100a075146156e289a00a58. “Explicit and Implicit Measures of Identity Diffusion in Adolescent Girls With Borderline Personality Disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.805390).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.805390). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## identity politics
<a id="identity-politics"></a>

Identity politics is political engagement or competition shaped by group identities, especially in settings where polarization forms around those identities. In this context, it describes how identity-based divisions can influence how people see parties and political differences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 092f5ab3be16742dc125b3fb46440a404616f1170cd44304cfca94614e7b36f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chang Shun-Chuan. Evaluating voter perceptions of political party similarity: A mixed-method study of party positions in Taiwan. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335465; article XML SHA-256 c2d537582251d6f998f8b7c2243f139be934d8b69f2d8ecc782bc1c1fd9ea8d3. “Evaluating voter perceptions of political party similarity: A mixed-method study of party positions in Taiwan” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335465).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335465). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ideogram
<a id="ideogram"></a>

An ideogram is a written sign that conveys meaning through its own form rather than through the spoken name of what it represents, often as a picture-like symbol. In historical accounts of writing, it refers to an early stage of script development and is contrasted with phonographic writing, which represents words or sounds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0fa7b793af96b3f85696fdd27fa7a59b97992edd2696782fbd5fb73afd9800ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ideogram” (Ideogram).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Ideogram). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ideology
<a id="ideology"></a>

Ideology originally referred to a French philosophical movement after the Revolution that developed 18th-century sensationalism. It treated the analysis of ideas, especially where ideas come from, as a basic philosophical study that could also ground moral and political thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a95b616365406b1817858d82a4b32a18a61f324f484d979cc1033c8e07cd943

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ideology” (Ideology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Ideology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ideomotor apraxia
<a id="ideomotor-apraxia"></a>

Ideomotor apraxia is a type of apraxia in which a person loses the acquired ability to perform a complex movement even though they can still mentally plan the action. It is linked to disrupted connections between the dominant parietal cortex and premotor and supplementary motor areas in both hemispheres.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43c69708c8c557018d49fd88aec096a45304a0c82a3a823cd9352b0bb51b3fcc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Apraxia, Ideomotor” (D020240).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020240). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ideomotor principle
<a id="ideomotor-principle"></a>

The ideomotor principle is the idea that actions are guided by anticipating their sensory consequences. In this view, expecting a desired effect can call up the movement patterns that have previously produced that effect, helping control voluntary, goal-directed behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5caa197ae1f42eea453d08b3cde9df80a822c0e34292f50b8d4d5f95ed070aa3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cox Ralf F. A.; Hasselman Fred. The Case of Watson vs. James: Effect-Priming Studies Do Not Support Ideomotor Theory. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0054094; article XML SHA-256 df81d7fe9be187494effb98d9c0e985cbbc71a53d20157ca000cf213c0270819. “The Case of Watson vs. James: Effect-Priming Studies Do Not Support Ideomotor Theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0054094).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0054094). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ideomotor theory
<a id="ideomotor-theory"></a>

Ideomotor theory is the view that voluntary action is guided by anticipating its sensory consequences. In this account, people learn links between movements and their effects, and later the expected effect can help bring about or select the associated action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a93e8cdc5e61dfa7f54d1eb2140a9d20023b05ffd195bec3c030bd4cf62f352

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cox Ralf F. A.; Hasselman Fred. The Case of Watson vs. James: Effect-Priming Studies Do Not Support Ideomotor Theory. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0054094; article XML SHA-256 df81d7fe9be187494effb98d9c0e985cbbc71a53d20157ca000cf213c0270819. “The Case of Watson vs. James: Effect-Priming Studies Do Not Support Ideomotor Theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0054094).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0054094). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## idiocy
<a id="idiocy"></a>

Historically, idiocy referred to a severe form of mental deficiency, understood as a marked lack of ordinary mental abilities caused by disease or failed development of the central nervous system. The term was used especially for the most extreme cases, in contrast to milder conditions then described as feeble-mindedness or mental deficiency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea382d2d491877c1846ac7fffb9d048f77036b8e71d8befef73b62da7b1c2fa8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Idiocy” (Idiocy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Idiocy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## idiographic
<a id="idiographic"></a>

Idiographic refers to a research focus on close, intensive analysis of each individual participant’s account or transcript. In this use, it emphasizes depth and detailed interpretation of personal experience rather than a broad, more superficial description.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dcf792f7a1eee7e74b45c040a5709663d4c6b7091e6487ab943b793bd6b71684

Sources:
- Drafting source: [BMC: Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies. Version of record 2018-11-21; DOI 10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7. “Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency” (05ea0554db4e6d0f11b4).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## idiopathic
<a id="idiopathic"></a>

Idiopathic refers to a disease or morbid condition that arises as a primary, distinct disorder rather than as a result, symptom, or secondary effect of another condition or of injury. In historical usage, it often also suggested the characteristic or hereditary form of a disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 55dc39fcf1898fe895a71e209a3cb2f24079a726b81968761eb908c095a7a35a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Idiopathic” (Idiopathic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Idiopathic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## idioretinal light
<a id="idioretinal-light"></a>

Idioretinal light is the faint, cloudy gray patches seen in the visual field when the eyes are not being stimulated and no after-images are present. In this historical usage, it refers to a visual phenomenon considered important in older theories of after-images.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 320ff77baee13e40eaae023c695ccba2605d3360c98425387b25f03424387969

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Idio-retinal Light” (Idio-retinal).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Idio-retinal). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## idiosyncrasy
<a id="idiosyncrasy"></a>

Idiosyncrasy is a person's distinctive way of reacting to certain outside influences, especially when the response does not fit well with ordinary physiological or psychological expectations. It refers to unusual individual sensitivities, preferences, or effects in areas such as sensations, substances, or habits of mental activity, rather than to broad traits like temperament or constitution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 406306559f709ccf101d84760f8e59c6234437b88f8e8f979d5178ab5c9e38e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Idiosyncrasy” (Idiosyncrasy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Idiosyncrasy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IGT
<a id="igt"></a>

IGT usually refers to the Iowa Gambling Task, a decision-making task used in psychology research. It examines how people gradually learn from feedback from earlier choices while making later decisions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b407337b445a20590567decd6793486629dd7f493f0407ed66690f42b5b4daa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Salice Silvia; Antonietti Alessandro; Colautti Laura. The effect of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on the Iowa Gambling Task: a scoping review. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1454796; article XML SHA-256 c3b78ff75cec7e302eb55dea4650a869f058ee8c4027bb2506f4ea264cea18ef. “The effect of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on the Iowa Gambling Task: a scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1454796).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1454796). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ILD
<a id="ild"></a>

ILD stands for interstitial lung disease. In this source, it refers to a major but often underrecognized respiratory health problem in which patient education and self-management support are seen as important for improving adherence and outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d7c5e5fcbcaa3893c93982e4ec0aab2e89e9dac27b946f42290d8a6845992bde

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Amin Revati; Mohapatra Aswini Kumar; Maiya G. Arun; Acharya Vishak; Nagri Shivashankara Kaniyoor; Sukumar Suresh; Dkhar Winniecia; Bhat Anup; Sinha Mukesh Kumar; Dale Marita T.; Alison Jennifer A.; Vaishali K.. Development and validation of the Manipal Interstitial Lung Disease Education Booklet (MILD EduB) for individuals with interstitial lung disease. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353274; article XML SHA-256 11e21d0dfd69029e3446383680487a1ae9a54fbde1b1a02e6943702c38057c9b. “Development and validation of the Manipal Interstitial Lung Disease Education Booklet (MILD EduB) for individuals with interstitial lung disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353274).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353274). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## illicit
<a id="illicit"></a>

In this context, illicit means illegal, especially referring to alcohol that is brewed or produced outside the law. Such alcohol is described as a public health concern because it can cause serious harm, including poisoning, blindness, and infection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e0ff9ff45167e85737b3597044e84e513761663422c5aeb62a389769da1b6403

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Menda Dhally M; Achoki Tom; Ntebeka Bristol M; Zimba Rosemary K; Mulikita Catherine M; Rizzo Angela; Tembe Maynards C; Nkwemu Sharon; Chilyabanyama Rodgers; Sichinga Karen; Kachumi Michael; Francis Joel Msafiri; Jacobs Choolwe. Prevalence of illicit alcohol consumption and associated factors among adolescents in selected communities of Lusaka, Zambia. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336208; article XML SHA-256 eb8e3135f99dc4b9a1b02f4c245bdb32cdcef1e46dae191bc70ad8cf6b9dd18f. “Prevalence of illicit alcohol consumption and associated factors among adolescents in selected communities of Lusaka, Zambia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336208).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336208). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities
<a id="illinois-test-of-psycholinguistic-abilities"></a>

The Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities is a language assessment used to evaluate language behavior and related abilities. It is part of a group of tests that examine areas such as vocabulary, comprehension, grammar, and practical language use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e94be8cd4704a0c5c6b6a9ca1a8bf20fe29a71c37361ed3f1ae016f9f7174b51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Language Tests” (D007807).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007807). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## illness anxiety disorder
<a id="illness-anxiety-disorder"></a>

Illness anxiety disorder is a mental health condition marked by persistent, excessive fear of having or developing a serious illness, even when physical symptoms are absent or only mild. It involves strong health-related worry for at least six months and often includes repeated checking or reassurance-seeking, or avoidance of medical settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: edec91db105bb793c1df51c837ce2895981212660d7fd7c4ccbea362945d760c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kikas Katarina; Upton Emily; Corkish Brittany; Werner-Seidler Aliza; Newby Jill M.. Illness anxiety disorder and somatic symptom disorder: Similarities and differences in health-anxious individuals. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342493; article XML SHA-256 85dbaeb9904d128044b44abfbd9b15a1e10e207e5398077dad33d7ff9fbdb8ab. “Illness anxiety disorder and somatic symptom disorder: Similarities and differences in health-anxious individuals” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342493).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342493). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## illness behavior
<a id="illness-behavior"></a>

Illness behavior is a pattern of general behavioral changes that can occur with a physical, non-psychiatric illness. It may involve reduced appetite or sexual interest, less interest in everyday activities, and pulling back from social contact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ecc40b0f211e51f132c16396619e0176170055b394b64982ee603579a094786

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Illness Behavior” (D055809).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055809). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## illogicality
<a id="illogicality"></a>

Illogicality is the quality of an experience or thought pattern appearing internally inconsistent or not following ordinary logical structure. In this context, it refers to the seemingly nonlogical organization often reported in dream-like and psychedelic states, without implying simple cognitive impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 854fe2b68b6418c8164da07b4d2201238c6c21e5171acfcfe01c89fef69ad9db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huber Andreas; Kjellgren Anette; Passie Torsten. Hypnagogia, psychedelics, and sensory deprivation: the mythic structure of dream-like experiences. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1498677; article XML SHA-256 159079746fb6b08623c56804b3eb1e931847a0195010939b8dca9e0c498ef4b6. “Hypnagogia, psychedelics, and sensory deprivation: the mythic structure of dream-like experiences” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1498677).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1498677). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## illuminance
<a id="illuminance"></a>

Illuminance is the level or distribution of light produced in a space, such as around a light source or underwater. In this packet, it refers to how strongly different lamp designs and mounting angles light the surrounding area, including where maximum light levels occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 620dffefbae8ff38f0100f1bdbe7b114bc5e041a1f5daa9432a07136d74f8512

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Fei; Hua Chuanxiang; Zhu Qingcheng. Evaluating the illumination performance of LED fishing lamps with different configurations in Pacific saury fishery. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328676; article XML SHA-256 e0859e505890fe81b4845927226248ba56e8822cc927e7ae3a5b5c851480571d. “Evaluating the illumination performance of LED fishing lamps with different configurations in Pacific saury fishery” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328676).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328676). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## illumination
<a id="illumination"></a>

Illumination is the lighting condition in which actions or events are observed. In this source, it refers to how bright or dark the environment is, which can strongly affect accurate recognition, especially in low-light settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aab78268df3f9a30b6d0ae25fdd5e8d831fe6f864c63b603f0123e8037b7bd8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sultana Saima; Tanweer Eraj; Alam Muhammad Mansoor; Nazim Sadia; Prasad Mukesh; Mustapha Jawahir Che; Su’ud Mazliham Mohd. I2I - From illusion to illumination: A neoteric deep learning model for recognizing medical situation actions using depth sensors data. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337646; article XML SHA-256 17c215352e91952ccd664164d8ca286f9d96167f8f3acaa77c86c78308e60492. “I2I - From illusion to illumination: A neoteric deep learning model for recognizing medical situation actions using depth sensors data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337646).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337646). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## illumination conditions
<a id="illumination-conditions"></a>

Illumination conditions are the lighting circumstances in which images or visual information are captured. In the source, this mainly refers to whether light is adequate or low, which can affect how clearly details are visible and how well objects can be detected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 33e5a138c2720837841809548e006fbe809e98f09d845035a44e5488d6363d99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Daoze; Tang Shuyun; Zheng Dequan. CORE-Net: A cross-modal orthogonal representation enhancement network for low-altitude multispectral object detection. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340499; article XML SHA-256 41cde1b593df405a9c8560fd51dff10c621d7896393e7ef3aeecf04117e2888c. “CORE-Net: A cross-modal orthogonal representation enhancement network for low-altitude multispectral object detection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340499).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340499). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## illumination unit
<a id="illumination-unit"></a>

An illumination unit is the light source setup used to shine specific wavelengths into a fundus camera during retinal imaging. In this context, it was a custom LED system that delivered the two wavelengths needed for serial dual-wavelength retinal vessel oximetry.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3a180b08c2875b2af5f74e06f608f345005fa72af688f31c5df970715167d97

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tarhan Melih; Meller Daniel; Hammer Martin. Serial dual-wavelength illumination for retinal vessel oximetry using a conventional fundus camera: a proof-of-concept study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12886-026-05216-7; article XML SHA-256 9ae83e55bef4c1dcf7644dcd4a7c9e6cc4ac9600ccd5c5f7b35dd4f3d45f08bb. “Serial dual-wavelength illumination for retinal vessel oximetry using a conventional fundus camera: a proof-of-concept study” (10.1186/s12886-026-05216-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-026-05216-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## illusion
<a id="illusion"></a>

An illusion is a mistaken mental construction that starts from data that are real or reliable in their own sphere, leading a person to accept something as real when it is not. The term can also mean the false mental object produced in this way, and more broadly the mind’s acceptance of what is unreal; in this historical usage it is broader than hallucination because it can include errors beyond simple sense perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8df0551fab4601d8b0a897710e708c6c54164b94ecbcef0a0185e10e687c742

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Illusion” (Illusion).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Illusion). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## illusory contour
<a id="illusory-contour"></a>

An illusory contour is a perceived edge or shape, such as a Kanizsa figure, that the visual system experiences even though no actual contour is physically drawn. It depends on surrounding visual context that induces the impression of a boundary or form.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c9531c289b9850cae23a5ca1cfc74479f468b0f0703bdca4e7686d1e77c0aa5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Banica Theodora; Schwarzkopf D Samuel. Induction of Kanizsa Contours Requires Awareness of the Inducing Context. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0161177; article XML SHA-256 c1e82f184df9e2359cc56752ebd004b2ddda213ce1850f00b4622328cbe5e6e9. “Induction of Kanizsa Contours Requires Awareness of the Inducing Context” (10.1371/journal.pone.0161177).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161177). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## illusory memory
<a id="illusory-memory"></a>

Illusory memory is a memory defect in which recollection is false or distorted, so a person seems to remember events or details that were not actually experienced or recalls them in a mistaken way. In this historical source, it is treated as a form of paramnesia, or false recollection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 24415124959c80036bd92f7970afbbfa9e45f760170a7530524090e185ce95dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Memory (defects of)” (Memory (defects of)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Memory (defects of)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## illusory movement
<a id="illusory-movement"></a>

Illusory movement is the experience of seeing motion in a visual stimulus even though the movement is not physically present. In the described context, this perceived motion can be tracked with the eyes and can support smooth pursuit in different directions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6c4e757277d67c314186de9f6345d2fc236adddcc06e750f86e0e5570d85a89

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Diard Julien; Rynik Vincent; Lorenceau Jean. A Bayesian computational model for online character recognition and disability assessment during cursive eye writing. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00843; article XML SHA-256 38158b5a40f924640abd74ddffe7f673398340cbdd319406624215d4f9cb54ec. “A Bayesian computational model for online character recognition and disability assessment during cursive eye writing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00843).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00843). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## im
<a id="im"></a>

Intensive mothering is a set of beliefs about motherhood that functions as a prevailing ideology in many societies. In this context, it refers to how mothers are expected to approach childrearing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4cfa99f9d8d6a063eb8047cfb031c29ffc924fefb27973e1b0e6836ec4519f93

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xia Xiaoying. The associations between intensive mothering beliefs, maternal overparenting behavior and Chinese preschoolers' behavioral problems. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814185; article XML SHA-256 7dee2c07a308e8c7a2eace275e4d09032b2d0591b2a7081967b0db408b542566. “The associations between intensive mothering beliefs, maternal overparenting behavior and Chinese preschoolers' behavioral problems” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814185).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814185). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## image
<a id="image"></a>

In historical psychology, an image is a mental form in which sensations or parts of a perception are brought back again in the mind. The term can refer to different sensory kinds, such as visual or auditory images, and the totality of such mental contents is called imagery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 268baa4c5a0bf7cb77a1f95979ff84d6d43756049c27023c0b5359e0bef7b46e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Image” (Image).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Image). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imagery
<a id="imagery"></a>

Imagery is a therapeutic exercise in which a practitioner uses calming, positive verbal images to help a person enter a semi-hypnotic state. It is used as a distraction and attention-based method in problems such as pain, hyperventilation, panic, and related conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cdf4144839f3c03745f13666282202b087b72c1f8599207fa9f9b3b40fac90e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Imagery Therapy” (C15375).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imagery training
<a id="imagery-training"></a>

Imagery training is a psychological practice, especially used in sport, in which a person mentally recreates or rehearses experiences or movements using the senses without actually performing them. It is used to strengthen mental preparation and can help improve focus, confidence, emotional regulation, and performance-related skills.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e03cb94dc746b79367e4bdfa8be06a26fbb63499f49ead6b8571e605058a1dcf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bedir Fatih; Bedir Deniz; Yılmaz Hasan Hüseyin; Ağduman Fatih; Şen İlhan; Kıyıcı Fatih; Korkmaz Onur Erdem; Yıldız Mustafa Onur; Çelik Erkan. Investigation of the effect of a virtual reality-based imagery training model on muscle activation in athletes. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1553327; article XML SHA-256 4a0f8c40d8607f918e97a82a5c6fb4258b5c762b0ed7db86ccafd26ab9452614. “Investigation of the effect of a virtual reality-based imagery training model on muscle activation in athletes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1553327).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1553327). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imaginary companion
<a id="imaginary-companion"></a>

An imaginary companion is an invented person or other imagined being that someone, often a child but sometimes an adult, creates and interacts with in play or imagination. Reports of imaginary companions occur across cultures, although they appear to be described more often in Western countries.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17d6b12888a3435edd110e5b44d3f808e615d7efb602053f42902278ea3ef908

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Davis Paige E; Fernyhough Charles; Yang Liu; Xi Yijie; Xing Chenyu; Smailes David. A cross-national study examining imaginary companions and face pareidolia in British and Chinese adults. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325581; article XML SHA-256 7c8d3eb8cd1d4126ffc1d078cf58254af4b45d3f93490cf179767dc39aac4b2a. “A cross-national study examining imaginary companions and face pareidolia in British and Chinese adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325581).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325581). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imagination
<a id="imagination"></a>

Imagination is the mind’s creation of new images or ideas by drawing on past experience. It involves forming a fresh pattern from material that has been previously perceived or thought about.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8c65f1436bfe6b8e3a0670f21cda8e16a680d6c94e29201a82bbcdc954fe863

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Imagination” (D007092).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007092). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imagination inflation
<a id="imagination-inflation"></a>

Imagination inflation is an increase in a person’s confidence that an event really happened after they imagine it happening. It describes a change in subjective belief about memory following imagination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d9f5cc86d5d8fbdd50e38f2898b56bfca3d920d01172c244cffea8518ebffa6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dudek Iwona; Polczyk Romuald. Memory distrust and imagination inflation: A registered report. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297774; article XML SHA-256 eb0dd0897eaaf61160b18817048d0617bd4f05c923553134569180fbffec4819. “Memory distrust and imagination inflation: A registered report” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297774).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297774). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imaging
<a id="imaging"></a>

Imaging is the use of technologies or methods to make biological processes, cells, tissues, or organs visible. It is used to support screening, diagnosis, surgery, or therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 27f76342967901493d713fd9100fb2da7c43eaf9f2eadb606bd96f98d18a15c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Imaging Technique” (C17369).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imago
<a id="imago"></a>

In historical usage, imago means the fully developed adult or winged stage of an insect that undergoes complete metamorphosis. This is the stage in which the sexual organs are mature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 857c028913c8a289874f1797e0d1168a999d45a99a258d51dc77c5bbf1238082

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Imago” (Imago).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Imago). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imbecility
<a id="imbecility"></a>

In historical psychology, imbecility referred to a general weakness of mind, especially a congenital form of mental impairment regarded as less severe than idiocy. It implied marked limitations in memory, reasoning, and independent mental activity that were seen as preventing ordinary daily responsibilities and requiring special education.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db13973c2b97d32337138d6675c820975e8efc1ade3ea39f2d57e3498914bff0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Imbecility” (Imbecility).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Imbecility). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imipramine
<a id="imipramine"></a>

Imipramine is a tricyclic antidepressant that is considered a standard example of this drug group. It has been used for depression, attention-deficit problems, agoraphobia, and panic disorder, and is described as less sedating than some related medicines.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a1ca6a7a1776bf835e96d550277c20a56ae922ca9642be4345549283f0fd21e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Imipramine” (D007099).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007099). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imitation
<a id="imitation"></a>

Imitation is the repeating of a pattern in action, thought, or both. In a narrower sense it means copying another person, and in a broader sense it includes reproducing a pattern more generally, even when the link to an outside model is not clearly conscious.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53bef5cf72b7c4d9a61252d525fc47ea0de483b825336c30b5ba5e75654ab09e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Imitation” (Imitation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Imitation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imitation game
<a id="imitation-game"></a>

In this context, an imitation game is a social interaction used to observe how aware a child is of being copied and how they respond to that imitation. It serves as a way of assessing early responsiveness to a social partner in relation to later development of self-concept.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e927865a96a8f5c0647fc1c27899aaad239080ec79c0426dd109e4c85506172

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kristen-Antonow Susanne; Sodian Beate; Perst Hannah; Licata Maria. A longitudinal study of the emerging self from 9 months to the age of 4 years. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00789; article XML SHA-256 e0839c25852133e897b831198d68c39d72cfa4147bd230901d96233f14d91a47. “A longitudinal study of the emerging self from 9 months to the age of 4 years” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00789).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00789). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imitative learning
<a id="imitative-learning"></a>

In this historical source, imitative learning means learning by copying the cues, signs, or expressions supplied by others rather than relying only on one’s own slow personal experience. In the child, it is described as being greatly aided by living in a society that already has spoken and written language.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d67424086c5c154d2aeca18cee30745a2c43aaed9b4920da73d3358531b1dd4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Language Function” (Language Function).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Language Function). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## immaterialism
<a id="immaterialism"></a>

Immaterialism is the view, associated especially with Berkeley, that only conscious beings or spirits have true independent existence. On this account, the material world does not exist as a separate substance but only as perceived experience or an ordered set of signs through which minds relate to one another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e4805a13bbb419263b299055fb32aa3781efad6bc4688878d7099bafdde33ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Immaterialism” (Immaterialism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Immaterialism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## immediate experience
<a id="immediate-experience"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, immediate experience means what is directly given in consciousness. For time, James says this is not an instant-like present but a short felt span, the "specious present," within which change and succession are experienced as one continuous duration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 962fd57c4de7b57a8c2878c00accef274ea3a0edce313535a8f68f2a404d525d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## immediate gratification
<a id="immediate-gratification"></a>

In this historical usage, immediate gratification means the direct satisfaction of a present impulse or conscious want, without a further planned purpose. It refers to action guided at most by what feels satisfying right away.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0f4f062ee75100e0215a67428d135a270af4359b1390e1a7648172443d4ca68

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2856000-2868000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## immobility
<a id="immobility"></a>

In this study, immobility means the amount of time mice remained still during the tail suspension test. It was used as a behavioral sign linked to stress-related or depressive-like states, with less immobility indicating improvement under environmental enrichment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36cda5fa92fdad75bdc9ecfa660a499672e9e05f470d17d73fa1157c5965d7f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kang Seung Ju; Nam Hyeong Ju; Song Min Kyung. Environmental enrichment attenuates chronic stress–induced disruptions in the gut microbiota, intestinal barrier, and brain. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355857; article XML SHA-256 9147031b7c0e9d1d5fde212ccc4362884a35877e6c7e3ddca6c97d8be12f20a4. “Environmental enrichment attenuates chronic stress–induced disruptions in the gut microbiota, intestinal barrier, and brain” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355857).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355857). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## immune system
<a id="immune-system"></a>

The immune system is the body’s defense network that regulates immune responses and inflammatory activity. In this context, it influences tumor development and spread through immune cell function and immune surveillance, and when it becomes dysregulated or suppressed it can contribute to inflammation, immune evasion, and reduced anti-tumor effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0192093395fc34b613d649350409f0646121af34b683a7c1db2e6abd36bcf72f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ren Mingming; Kong Jianda; Luan Chuankai; Mu Yujing. The role of depression in the progression of tumor cell inflammation and the potential regulatory mechanisms of aerobic exercise: a narrative review from molecular and cellular perspectives. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1683058; article XML SHA-256 052b32a6538fa12e2eb5911b828d11690dab6671a36bb0ea53f431a75c2f2b55. “The role of depression in the progression of tumor cell inflammation and the potential regulatory mechanisms of aerobic exercise: a narrative review from molecular and cellular perspectives” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1683058).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1683058). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## immunocytochemistry
<a id="immunocytochemistry"></a>

Immunocytochemistry is a laboratory method used to find specific proteins or antigens in cells placed on slides, including cells grown in a single layer or in suspension. It uses antibodies or other target-binding molecules that are made visible by a chemical reaction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bedaf99c35d708b939c83b91e5f6ff0a9134366f0445db7246f6549340def7be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Immunocytochemistry” (C17731).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Imodium
<a id="imodium"></a>

Imodium is loperamide hydrochloride, a drug that reduces diarrhea by acting on opioid receptors in the intestinal lining and slowing movement through the gut. This slower transit allows more water and electrolytes to be absorbed, and the packet indicates it does not have central nervous system effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53b033ffe5e8117e84dc419b6014d218f5f07e8a00e25ee71499e82f51be2c27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Loperamide Hydrochloride” (C1584).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impaired judgment
<a id="impaired-judgment"></a>

Impaired judgment is a reduced ability to make sound real-world decisions. In this source, it is something that may be identified through objective measures and informant reports because it can be relevant to preventing harmful outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 242a0b48a3905474e1dab2b6924aaca8d70b6977738fa32cd77a77fa1be80d8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sergeyev Nicole; Heller-Wight Abi; Nester Rooney Caroline; Paré Nadia; Krishnan Anjali; Ellis David G; Moffitt Chloe; Roth Robert M; Warren David E; Rabin Laura. Practical judgment in aging: examining behavioral vulnerabilities and neurobiological correlates. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1709372; article XML SHA-256 60adb1ad5e83418aa8817e166b6eb2b11c43cc37b05d5524e4fd9bf1dfb9babd. “Practical judgment in aging: examining behavioral vulnerabilities and neurobiological correlates” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1709372).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1709372). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impairment index
<a id="impairment-index"></a>

In this source, an impairment index is a combined score based on observed reduction in reflex responses, sometimes alongside injury ratings, used to represent an animal’s overall condition or vitality after stress. It summarizes how impaired normal responses are, with higher impairment linked to a greater risk of delayed death in the study context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 568be20280910ff16b1ee82baa97b3f38b29ae295ed735d32b08169feb189b4b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meeremans Pieter; Yochum Noëlle; Kochzius Marc; Ampe Bart; Tuyttens Frank A. M.; Uhlmann Sven Sebastian. Inter-rater reliability of categorical versus continuous scoring of fish vitality: Does it affect the utility of the reflex action mortality predictor (RAMP) approach?. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0179092; article XML SHA-256 0228dfd44aac7ce19f0c77e2255edabed64fa447002243ba5b503e1e2664e55c. “Inter-rater reliability of categorical versus continuous scoring of fish vitality: Does it affect the utility of the reflex action mortality predictor (RAMP) approach?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0179092).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179092). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imperative
<a id="imperative"></a>

In this context, an imperative is a strong necessity or pressing demand to do something, such as the need for individuals and groups to adapt. It refers to something experienced as required rather than optional.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8dfe2161394c0dd334eab45e1700b5afd3899da1764ae9c23c02f370cd076ef8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Laroche Julien; Bachrach Asaf; Noy Lior. De-sync: disruption of synchronization as a key factor in individual and collective creative processes. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12868-024-00874-z; article XML SHA-256 f0e0196f24f1cdaa49f87db402aa4b522cc7b80424cd71784f37ee2e0c61d0e5. “De-sync: disruption of synchronization as a key factor in individual and collective creative processes” (10.1186/s12868-024-00874-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-024-00874-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imperceptible
<a id="imperceptible"></a>

In historical psychology, imperceptible refers to a stimulus or a difference between stimuli that is too weak to be consciously noticed. It describes stimulation lying below the conscious threshold, in contrast to what is just barely noticeable above it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0af9b647a0aba731490d1fcb2be2d744c7339e6ec010c6d6a357d8d1b25f0153

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Imperceptible” (Imperceptible).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Imperceptible). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impersonation
<a id="impersonation"></a>

Impersonation is acting as another person by temporarily portraying their character or identity. In this source, it is contrasted with emulation, which is acting like someone by copying their behavior without taking on that person’s role.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fcb06b344ee22650f179fe9fec2d1227298f34a3219954070eff10c00323ea62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brown Steven. Role playing in human evolution: from life to art, and everything in between. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1459247; article XML SHA-256 876c663d3bacbb8f60c772b1482a86f3ebc01ff26e5870485117108fbb4a15c7. “Role playing in human evolution: from life to art, and everything in between” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1459247).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1459247). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impingement
<a id="impingement"></a>

In this packet, impingement refers to a painful hand problem affecting a finger or thumb when a flexor tendon is mechanically caught as it passes through a narrowed pulley near the metacarpal head. This can lead to thickening of the tendon sheath and sometimes nodule formation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a808b8a140864c8be3942e2895f8c633171ca88e78354a10d080b6fcbd6cf4fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Trigger Finger Disorder” (D052582).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D052582). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## implementation evaluation
<a id="implementation-evaluation"></a>

Implementation evaluation is the assessment of how an intervention or program is put into practice and whether its planned activities are being carried out in ways that extend reach, encourage uptake, and show early effectiveness. It focuses on implementation outcomes such as who the program reaches, how well it is adopted, and what results appear during delivery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8c6b65678d83f946903c4ed8d5b5cf21afafd8ee12a0beaecccc8716b9202c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Haroon Mian Arsam; Noorali Ali Aahil; Khan Abdullah Saeed; Hussain Muzamil Hamid; Advani Rohan; Sami Ashmal; Merchant Asma Altaf; Khan Adnan Ali; Baloch Sana Gul; Tharwani Arsal; Fatimi Saulat H; Samad Zainab; Hasan Babar S; Rasheed Muneera A. Implementation evaluation of a medical student-led intervention to enhance students’ engagement with research: Findings and lessons learned. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290867; article XML SHA-256 ba3eaa87f8e9b13ca246f5ce0dcb411a1da76bb39a104e52e9d2341d2ea2df90. “Implementation evaluation of a medical student-led intervention to enhance students’ engagement with research: Findings and lessons learned” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290867).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290867). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Implicit Association Test
<a id="implicit-association-test"></a>

The Implicit Association Test is a sorting task used in research to measure how strongly people automatically link target categories with attribute categories, such as flowers versus insects and pleasant versus unpleasant. It is widely used in social cognition and other fields to study automatic associations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9343e2a6fc5813154b4b4d0c0bc3e72480edb42bb2d0434dcece1d8a02822c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Santos João O; Do Bú Emerson; Hara Tomohiro; Mendonça Cristina; Hagá Sara; Pogacar Ruth; Kouril Michal. Implicit association tests for all: Using iatgen for non-English and offline samples. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342742; article XML SHA-256 d1318c728a3f9831bec317b16174348372ad1a2c7404db52c0555d2ec6dd5cf6. “Implicit association tests for all: Using iatgen for non-English and offline samples” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342742).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342742). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## implicit behavior
<a id="implicit-behavior"></a>

Implicit behavior is a person’s performance in a task that reveals psychological processing indirectly, rather than through their own stated judgment about it. In this source, it refers to behavior in an experimental emotion-recognition task that can show emotional processing difficulties even when the person does not report such problems explicitly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f11993da8e5070d7eeeb3713c2cfec959cc52f01afb01e3724b2512433b8c4ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Scarpina Federica; Melzi Lisa; Castelnuovo Gianluca; Mauro Alessandro; Marzoli Stefania B.; Molinari Enrico. Explicit and Implicit Components of the Emotional Processing in Non-organic Vision Loss: Behavioral Evidence About the Role of Fear in Functional Blindness. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00494; article XML SHA-256 09c50867b1a902eb9ae4dbf181ca462fbc0c617c6ce520c601daf48b93452ab4. “Explicit and Implicit Components of the Emotional Processing in Non-organic Vision Loss: Behavioral Evidence About the Role of Fear in Functional Blindness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00494).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00494). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## implicit causality
<a id="implicit-causality"></a>

Implicit causality is the tendency of some interpersonal verbs to suggest which person in a sentence is seen as the likely cause of an event. This verb-based bias can shape how people interpret later references such as pronouns, especially in causal sentence contexts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c33573d9d35c04d28ece570aaef8529ec84c1ca1c66b2169111a3d42a411a573

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lyu Siqi; Wang Luming. Implicit Causality and Pronoun Resolution in Intersubjective Discourse Relations. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.866103; article XML SHA-256 bac2af0381a64cda031d267c9b4bc218463efb824b47dcc4f348b41fd4e7dfd8. “Implicit Causality and Pronoun Resolution in Intersubjective Discourse Relations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.866103).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.866103). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## implicit emotion regulation
<a id="implicit-emotion-regulation"></a>

Implicit emotion regulation is the adjustment of emotion that happens without deliberate instruction, effort, or conscious awareness. It describes regulatory processes that can change an existing emotional state, such as reducing negative feelings, automatically rather than intentionally.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 05eb099f43b47d8d30b7aed06814b3c00f421beeb9cdb6097f87255168ee8888

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Berthold-Losleben M; Papalini S; Habel U; Losleben K; Schneider F; Amunts K; Kohn N. A short-term musical training affects implicit emotion regulation only in behaviour but not in brain activity. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12868-021-00636-1; article XML SHA-256 b7c0de222862f8387e718fea7cff5cf2ba71e6e7d4d3bb5a458ff4e68ab5edcb. “A short-term musical training affects implicit emotion regulation only in behaviour but not in brain activity” (10.1186/s12868-021-00636-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-021-00636-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## implicit leadership theories
<a id="implicit-leadership-theories"></a>

Implicit leadership theories are the mental templates people hold about what traits and behaviors a leader should have. People use these internal prototypes to judge whether someone fits their idea of a leader, and the closer the match, the more positively that person is typically seen as a leader.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8aa752f8de613dd75c4ad2559e536766a3d20fe61cceaac5be8e8876f418ab6c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tavares Gustavo M.; Sobral Filipe; Goldszmidt Rafael; Araújo Felipe. Opening the Implicit Leadership Theories’ Black Box: An Experimental Approach with Conjoint Analysis. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00100; article XML SHA-256 2a97f90bd7d0915f37197614d262531af2e821342e5a1dd1e4558e35e71b9d07. “Opening the Implicit Leadership Theories’ Black Box: An Experimental Approach with Conjoint Analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00100).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00100). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## implicit memory
<a id="implicit-memory"></a>

Implicit memory is memory or learning that operates without conscious awareness, shown in the way cognitive processing adapts to incoming information without deliberate recall. It is commonly contrasted with explicit memory, which involves conscious remembering, although the two may partly overlap.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5d154b89ec307e351318a8d81f8fedca94976589280d22407d9fc59924cd76ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Boxtel Willem S; Hart Ashley; Gautreau Zoey. Fine-grained changes to implicit memory for language processing across adulthood. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800437; article XML SHA-256 6086c4aca6269ef3a022b32cd7a5b2fd4a514502c62812aaeebbea5700397836. “Fine-grained changes to implicit memory for language processing across adulthood” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800437).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800437). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## implicit process
<a id="implicit-process"></a>

An implicit process is an underlying psychological pathway that shapes behavior without being directly visible in the interaction itself. In this source, it refers to internal processes such as a parent’s interpretation of a child’s signals or the influence of the parent’s beliefs on how the parent responds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddb382aeed9a945f606d3f6b6c614f39d3d190a1136d29df22ef0bfb6497e3f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Zihan; Wang Lei; Ren Yonggang. Constructing a dual-factor, dual-pathway framework for analyzing parent–child interactions: an exploration of parental insightfulness and beliefs. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783663; article XML SHA-256 a78d60b5feeb356545e80f0df4d1c0fa903928a6e187041019eaecafebf59cc4. “Constructing a dual-factor, dual-pathway framework for analyzing parent–child interactions: an exploration of parental insightfulness and beliefs” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783663).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783663). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## implicit self theory
<a id="implicit-self-theory"></a>

Implicit self theory is a person’s everyday belief about whether personal traits can change or are basically fixed. It is commonly described as either an entity view, in which traits are seen as stable, or an incremental view, in which traits are seen as malleable, and these beliefs can also shape how people judge others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7028605e2179902646c07d40fb88f535555041a3679e810e3f41674929cafef8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kwon JaeHwan; Nayakankuppam Dhananjay. Two Different Views on the World Around Us: The World of Uniformity versus Diversity. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0168589; article XML SHA-256 f85ec01c59c20491dc66fe01d735ea8a339975e4ad5eb33564c5cfcd6c9d341f. “Two Different Views on the World Around Us: The World of Uniformity versus Diversity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0168589).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0168589). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Implosive Therapy
<a id="implosive-therapy"></a>

Implosive therapy is a method intended to extinguish anxiety through very intense exposure to a feared situation or to a substitute for that situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6f19c1fa57a6a1c44691f86bfc6ea6a5c870be27ecdae7d478f2d6539996d66f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Implosive Therapy” (D007171).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007171). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impostor phenomenon
<a id="impostor-phenomenon"></a>

Impostor phenomenon is a psychological pattern in which people who are objectively successful do not truly accept their accomplishments as deserved and worry that others will discover them to be incompetent. It can undermine well-being and performance, especially in high-pressure settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1bd14b81289e6c4f4938bf4be14aed5b2a709b2e7246607351369759d8117448

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vera-Ponce Víctor Juan; Huaman-Vega Christian Humberto; Zuzunaga-Montoya Fiorella E.; Guerrero Uceda César Iván; León-Figueroa Darwin A.; Rivera-Lozada Oriana; Aguirre-Milachay Edwin; Gutierrez De Carrillo Carmen Inés; Valladares-Garrido Mario J.. Global prevalence of impostor phenomenon in medical students: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351713; article XML SHA-256 b51028eb153852e0e0b7bc785464d23cd7db524c5d8abbd5aeb0b195e688ab59. “Global prevalence of impostor phenomenon in medical students: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351713).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351713). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impostor syndrome
<a id="impostor-syndrome"></a>

Impostor syndrome, also called the impostor phenomenon or fraud syndrome, is a behavioral pattern in which people doubt their abilities or achievements and do not fully accept their success despite clear evidence of it. This can lead to insecurity, anxiety, and fear of being exposed as a fraud, and it is often discussed in high-achieving settings such as academia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7444bc9a0930dd0b870855b64dc59fec0a29b9dba7fe6f342dd7e3b9535fd080

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Slimi Oumayma; Muscella Antonella; Marsigliante Santo; Bahloul Mourad. Correlation between impostor syndrome among doctoral students and supervisor empathy in Tunisia. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1382969; article XML SHA-256 389539776c15f0331f514471bd30b24fd7f86bc1e147ccdb5e1e5492235ac91f. “Correlation between impostor syndrome among doctoral students and supervisor empathy in Tunisia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1382969).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1382969). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impotence
<a id="impotence"></a>

Impotence is the inability of a male to achieve a penile erection. It may result from psychological causes or from physical organ dysfunction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b9c07d10b5e39a2ff6d9d644b8d758bac38c09043942c73a3f33df51f6d56691

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Erectile Dysfunction” (D007172).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007172). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impression
<a id="impression"></a>

In historical psychology and philosophy, an impression can mean a direct perceptual experience, contrasted with an idea as a fainter revived form of that experience. It can also mean the bodily stimulation process considered apart from the sensation it produces, and in some sociological usage it was used to mean constraint.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b9ad79dd85c58a55e7dfab32f06798602f878c0f1b731427ad8590a121d9448

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Impression” (Impression).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Impression). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impression formation
<a id="impression-formation"></a>

Impression formation is the process of building a perception of another person from available information during an interaction. In this context, it contributes to judging qualities such as warmth and competence, which can then influence choices about whom to cooperate with.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e944be69d4fc8ed5813731fca0228020253c4b3c8ab154e3a86cff64dca349c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Matej Hrkalovic Tiffany; Dudzik Bernd; Hung Hayley; Balliet Daniel. Partner perceptions during brief online interactions shape partner selection and cooperation. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318137; article XML SHA-256 8a6f3fa73fbb8900d0474a6c52bf7c0d906adcf481a67cc213d8ed4a25a0c0f6. “Partner perceptions during brief online interactions shape partner selection and cooperation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318137).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318137). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impression management
<a id="impression-management"></a>

Impression management is the use of behaviors or communication features to shape how one is seen by others, especially in workplace interactions. In virtual meetings, it is linked to heightened self-monitoring and concerns about facial appearance, which can contribute to fatigue and motivate people to use features that help manage their appearance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e7a06da4dde905245ae882673007be26fadf8900ae96828507d3dca5c2cef024

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lim Chaeyun; Ratan Rabindra; Foxman Maxwell; Beyea David; Jeong David; Leith Alex P. Examining attitudes about the virtual workplace: Associations between zoom fatigue, impression management, and virtual meeting adoption intent. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312354; article XML SHA-256 6f7ae9e60433ad9a1a601f766a46b9e1439e3c9758b7c03ddd497203b7837dc4. “Examining attitudes about the virtual workplace: Associations between zoom fatigue, impression management, and virtual meeting adoption intent” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312354).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312354). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## improvisation
<a id="improvisation"></a>

Improvisation is the real-time creation of action by drawing on learned, embodied patterns rather than acting with complete freedom or simply repeating fixed routines. In psychology of learning, it can be understood as a structured, culturally shaped process in which people reorganize kinesthetic and procedural memories in response to shared cues and current demands.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de6a6e3f945b08e054d017415bd08640eb4b1368aa78d44b1120f782553f37a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marin-Bucio Diego; Danielsen Anne; Doumbia Noumouke; Polak Rainer. Memory in performance: kinesthetic and procedural dimensions of skill acquisition in dance improvisation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1751590; article XML SHA-256 27947dc3baeae280b828372c490923f840cc4fbc652e12b2934aff08885a6fb4. “Memory in performance: kinesthetic and procedural dimensions of skill acquisition in dance improvisation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1751590).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1751590). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impulse
<a id="impulse"></a>

In this historical psychology source, an impulse is a drive toward action that works by its own immediate force rather than being guided by a person's broader organized aims. It contrasts with deliberate action, in which a present urge is weighed, restrained, or reshaped in relation to a more general plan of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5561fd8e0168fccf7a1e6f5cbeadbe2e6a94429d4d7cf5c526c37894f42fb3c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Impulse” (Impulse).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Impulse). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impulse-control disorder
<a id="impulse-control-disorder"></a>

An impulse-control disorder is a group of behavior problems marked by difficulty resisting urges or actions, even when those acts may cause harm to oneself or other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76818dfeb91c70ade929b613153d23a29aedfdc8823289d57be156a49bc81fbb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Impulse-Control Disorder” (C34723).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impulsion
<a id="impulsion"></a>

Impulsion is a drive or striving that acts by its own force rather than as part of a person's wider organized thinking and aims. It refers to action pushed forward by the immediate strength of a tendency, in contrast with action shaped by reflection and deliberation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e4a4617217dc3aa614e1b2780f57ee8e1ef39ffe1c4f89afa82129a582618d64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Impulse” (Impulse).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Impulse). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impulsive
<a id="impulsive"></a>

Impulsive, in this context, refers to a pattern of valuing rewards less when they are delayed or uncertain, often shown by choosing a smaller immediate reward over a larger later one. This tendency is used as a measure of impulsive behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8256ccef951c56107e485fc7cb1f50ae2605367488f3821388edb37acf0f8ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Delay Discounting” (D065786).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065786). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## impulsive character
<a id="impulsive-character"></a>

In this historical source, impulsive character means a tendency toward sudden, poorly controlled actions. It is used to describe chorea as involving behavior that may quickly become offensive or even dangerous.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 179d74e0a80a112b24ed101bb8d9a8f200c9fa8fd4f0726d2567df3d0167f018

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1197000-1209000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## imputation
<a id="imputation"></a>

Imputation is the process of filling in missing values in a dataset using a chosen method so the data can still be analyzed. In clinical or health datasets, the best imputation approach depends on the pattern or mechanism behind the missing data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b9e28c4641abba734c9dfb2ac14a60527ee9b5a2dd05fbaf46556b09cc977f42

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kotan Kurban; Kırışoğlu Serdar. Evaluating the Cyclical Hybrid Imputation Technique (CHIT) under MCAR, MAR, and MNAR missing data mechanisms: Evidence from health datasets. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359577; article XML SHA-256 3115fc68e92d081ff1213ddc55e62912c0be2304ec541415c467d412caa0403b. “Evaluating the Cyclical Hybrid Imputation Technique (CHIT) under MCAR, MAR, and MNAR missing data mechanisms: Evidence from health datasets” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359577).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359577). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## in-home respite
<a id="in-home-respite"></a>

In-home respite is a formal respite service in which a paid worker comes to the older person’s home and stays there to provide temporary relief from family caring duties. In the dementia care context, it is intended to give carers a short break while helping the person remain at home.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a230d1da34ba9c261c0ab27a16813f2625393893e5697cc8be6128332bbae6dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Grogan Caroline; Harriman Sarah; Martin Elizabeth; Waite Rebecca; Fisher Olivia. Trust, consistency and transparency: in-home respite needs and preferences of people living with dementia and their carers. 2025; DOI 10.3389/frhs.2025.1550729; article XML SHA-256 5afe71b83f5aa7019dac72ea1e1bfd5766fe80f1924c8c710d8ae422f1016697. “Trust, consistency and transparency: in-home respite needs and preferences of people living with dementia and their carers” (10.3389/frhs.2025.1550729).](https://doi.org/10.3389/frhs.2025.1550729). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## in-house evaluation
<a id="in-house-evaluation"></a>

In-house evaluation is an assessment of a method using a clinical dataset gathered within the same research or clinical setting that developed it, rather than only testing transfer to a public or external dataset. In the source, it refers to supervised testing of the segmentation framework on an in-house thyroid ultrasound dataset.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97479d5b972e80550098a9ca95208968b378a873068d7f47c40f83f020d367dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Bin; Li Runwen; Tang Yao. Intelligent segmentation of thyroid nodule ultrasound images based on benign–malignant-aware semantic prototype calibration and class-conditional boundary refinement. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fcell.2026.1879094; article XML SHA-256 10794de9b5980c1b8c8b53cf1f99b257ee0e26035b36c807e9024778c42184c7. “Intelligent segmentation of thyroid nodule ultrasound images based on benign–malignant-aware semantic prototype calibration and class-conditional boundary refinement” (10.3389/fcell.2026.1879094).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2026.1879094). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## in situ hybridization
<a id="in-situ-hybridization"></a>

In situ hybridization is a method for marking specific DNA sequences within chromatin so their locations can be seen with imaging techniques, often by fluorescence labeling. The packet describes it as a common way to visualize particular genetic loci in cells, while noting that some preparation steps can alter native chromatin structure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 398f5f235dee0ac16392a32975fff8869108c27c374ac5967463338542b0551d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shim Anne R.; Frederick Jane; Pujadas Emily M.; Kuo Tiffany; Ye I. Chae; Pritchard Joshua A.; Dunton Cody L.; Gonzalez Paola Carrillo; Acosta Nicolas; Jain Surbhi; Anthony Nicholas M.; Almassalha Luay M.; Szleifer Igal; Backman Vadim. Formamide denaturation of double-stranded DNA for fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) distorts nanoscale chromatin structure. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0301000; article XML SHA-256 4dd2cb773055b7ecd287762a394f1c433a9ee823572cf74527918ff7d87daedf. “Formamide denaturation of double-stranded DNA for fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) distorts nanoscale chromatin structure” (10.1371/journal.pone.0301000).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301000). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## in utero
<a id="in-utero"></a>

In utero means while still inside the uterus during embryonic or fetal development. In this context, it refers to processes or procedures carried out as development continues before birth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e6de32f8fe4178e844135a29f1f44eb014d5d44ad6cb7ec405abfc59943f346

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mason Madisen S.; Morales Murillo Hosbaldo; Dudek Madisyn G.; Maher Samantha E.; Franco Santos J.. Modeling diffuse midline glioma through triple-electrode in utero electroporation of the developing mouse pons. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351079; article XML SHA-256 6766d6d7d955b02ecab5e7f98bb4567d32816b1ed69a0de27a5e4611f439e491. “Modeling diffuse midline glioma through triple-electrode in utero electroporation of the developing mouse pons” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351079).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351079). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## in vitro fertilization
<a id="in-vitro-fertilization"></a>

In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a fertility treatment used by couples experiencing infertility. In this packet, it is described as a medical service involving procedures, medicines, and diagnostic tests that can create substantial out-of-pocket financial burden for those seeking care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 034c0a0c89b1f1450cf919309f631be76a369fdb0e9f236cc3471dc5b04c850b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Patil Prerana; Vikani Akshita; Sharma Deepshikha; Sachin Oshima; Soman Biju; Bagepally Bhavani Shankara; Tanwar Renu; Suri Vanita; Radha V; Anitha M; Ramesh P; Shrivastava Deepti; Patel Sukhpreet; Prinja Shankar; Joshi1 Beena; IVF Project Team. Out-of-pocket expenditure experienced by couples seeking In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) services at tertiary care facilities in India. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351080; article XML SHA-256 ee97016e98a5b906408c36136d9db34935676631888d000a1cd16c3a1afeb347. “Out-of-pocket expenditure experienced by couples seeking In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) services at tertiary care facilities in India” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351080).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351080). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## in vivo exposure
<a id="in-vivo-exposure"></a>

In vivo exposure is an exposure-based intervention carried out in real-life situations rather than only in imagination or virtual settings. In this packet, it refers to directly facing the task of discarding personal belongings in everyday life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f5cef1b1e76b5e23768904b2ab7fd9bcf310d4f5c8dcc4d5b26936eb59cc1ab6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pardini Susanna; Olivetto Silvia; Martinelli Massimiliano; Novara Caterina. Non-immersive virtual environments for the treatment of hoarding disorder: a preliminary randomized controlled trial based on a non-clinical sample. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03446-w; article XML SHA-256 5e9f713b0ec49321dcab753fd02fec8545f85c786098f1e444f8e04fdb790fcb. “Non-immersive virtual environments for the treatment of hoarding disorder: a preliminary randomized controlled trial based on a non-clinical sample” (10.1186/s40359-025-03446-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03446-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inaccessibility
<a id="inaccessibility"></a>

In this context, inaccessibility means a psychological barrier to understanding or emotionally connecting with something even when it is plainly visible or available. It refers to difficulty grasping the implied feelings, meanings, or concepts because of differences in cultural and aesthetic frameworks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 449ad001222600acc3dc364cff8e26eafece0e339b69e9e56e36951a78242942

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Bei; Yan Hongying; Li Yang; Hua Yong. AI-mediated cross-cultural translation of Chinese brush-and-ink psychology for aesthetic empathy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828438; article XML SHA-256 fe96ea033249cf2874983d52a9d2116d5496bde37df99a0071f3b632679d82d1. “AI-mediated cross-cultural translation of Chinese brush-and-ink psychology for aesthetic empathy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828438).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828438). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Inapsine
<a id="inapsine"></a>

Inapsine is droperidol, a pharmacologic substance with anti-emetic, sedative, and anti-anxiety effects. Its actions are not fully known, but it may work by blocking dopamine receptors in the chemoreceptor trigger zone and by increasing GABA-related inhibitory activity in the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1277f7d92962635808e13e597b43030e3e581557f26e3515495995cf2f32f0f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Droperidol” (C458).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inattention
<a id="inattention"></a>

Inattention is a relative term for being more or less not focused on a particular object when paying attention to it would normally be possible. It is a broader idea that can include abstraction, distraction, and absent-mindedness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a973fcdd61ed8d9ae313e6eab3a569fc34fcdf38c16e29786323ab33881fca92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Inattention” (Inattention).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Inattention). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inattentional blindness
<a id="inattentional-blindness"></a>

Inattentional blindness is failing to notice a clear, unexpected event because attention is focused somewhere else. It describes a limit of attention in which people can miss something visible even when it seems obvious in hindsight.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa1d21ccee7f95939b9e68604c9257ad7070cf81943b80b2a54c0f02f68b51ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cullen Hayley J; Paterson Helen M; Dutton Timothy S; van Golde Celine. A survey of what legal populations believe and know about inattentional blindness and visual detection. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296489; article XML SHA-256 f836868f9b144b4980c07c3c466c4ff2887969a6d67ffb0530b0e6873d7c046d. “A survey of what legal populations believe and know about inattentional blindness and visual detection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296489).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296489). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inborn error of metabolism
<a id="inborn-error-of-metabolism"></a>

An inborn error of metabolism is a disorder present from birth in which a genetic change disrupts a normal metabolic process, often because an enzyme is faulty or unstable. In the example described here, cystathionine beta-synthase deficiency causes homocysteine to build up and can be associated with learning and behavioral problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 588ba1d485fc9c6811fe3208fd64751870aa8532db156344592813436a99fdf6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gupta Sapna; Lee Hyung-Ok; Wang Liqun; Kruger Warren D. Examination of two different proteasome inhibitors in reactivating mutant human cystathionine β-synthase in mice. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0286550; article XML SHA-256 5e10695cf7f309324d0c36c6ecdf75d6d25bab7385bbc92da7315e1692e9b7f1. “Examination of two different proteasome inhibitors in reactivating mutant human cystathionine β-synthase in mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0286550).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286550). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inbreeding
<a id="inbreeding"></a>

Inbreeding is reproduction between closely related individuals, such as siblings. In the source packet, it is discussed because it can lead to inbreeding depression, meaning offspring from related parents may have lower survival or overall fitness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 21fcd5d443f841258323fe4e802e505921a40e4f7ed06bf7f8bc4d1a0913b3be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Attia Fathi Ali; Tregenza Tom; Vasudeva Ramakrishnan. Testing for pre- and post-copulatory inbreeding avoidance in the flour beetle Tribolium castaneum. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335301; article XML SHA-256 edad7f859d8eb3b62386c2f6af58eb4aae9ea35d1ead07918d270aa0fd9b9d6b. “Testing for pre- and post-copulatory inbreeding avoidance in the flour beetle Tribolium castaneum” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335301).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335301). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inbreeding avoidance
<a id="inbreeding-avoidance"></a>

Inbreeding avoidance is behavior or a reproductive process that reduces mating or successful reproduction between close relatives, helping limit the reduced survival or fitness that can result from inbreeding. It can happen before mating through partner choice or after mating through processes that favor less closely related mates.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 682cf18358ff44431181f52b82b2fc40bd13d0108da7f42e82a855868e803f7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Attia Fathi Ali; Tregenza Tom; Vasudeva Ramakrishnan. Testing for pre- and post-copulatory inbreeding avoidance in the flour beetle Tribolium castaneum. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335301; article XML SHA-256 edad7f859d8eb3b62386c2f6af58eb4aae9ea35d1ead07918d270aa0fd9b9d6b. “Testing for pre- and post-copulatory inbreeding avoidance in the flour beetle Tribolium castaneum” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335301).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335301). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## incentive motivation
<a id="incentive-motivation"></a>

Incentive motivation refers to the mental processing involved in being motivated by incentives. The source notes that this processing can be abnormal in first-episode psychosis and suggests this may be linked to dopamine dysfunction rather than to general cognitive impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 970f8631725b4db8f98d3644c6568f317fc044e2c2d54d771425d335f163ad60

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Murray Graham K; Clark Luke; Corlett Philip R; Blackwell Andrew D; Cools Roshan; Jones Peter B; Robbins Trevor W; Poustka Luise. Incentive motivation in first-episode psychosis: A behavioural study. 2008; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-8-34; article XML SHA-256 a7c515020cb11b8c8ba58b2763fd829ea23b684202cee4ed4752a6de90a7db8f. “Incentive motivation in first-episode psychosis: A behavioural study” (10.1186/1471-244x-8-34).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-8-34). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## incentive system
<a id="incentive-system"></a>

An incentive system is an organized set of rewards, supports, and disciplinary constraints used to shape behavior toward desired goals. In this source, it refers to a collaborative arrangement that encourages cooperation by combining longer-term empowerment with short-term efficiency gains and by discouraging uncooperative or speculative behavior through supervision and penalties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 23a3ab72fdddca382deca2a0bdb5b8fc40db14bcfb44bbec79b6e8b687879aa6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xiao Hua; Luo Guoqiang; Wang Yisheng; Shuang Haijun; Li Bo. Evolutionary game analysis of emergency medical supply production capacity reserves in nonprofit organizations: A theoretical perspective. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346435; article XML SHA-256 0814a31bbd4e73bb704be23b05da0d5ac778d668763d16eadb77990436530d48. “Evolutionary game analysis of emergency medical supply production capacity reserves in nonprofit organizations: A theoretical perspective” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346435).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346435). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## incidence
<a id="incidence"></a>

Incidence is how often an event, such as suicide, occurs in a particular population. In mental health research, it is used to compare how frequently such events happen in different groups, such as people in prison versus the general population.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8b30bbd67b9c1c8553c7ab506e6079732c707e9a4b0d601d853a067c5c29b64c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Asencio-Rojas Benjamín; Cavada-Chacón Gabriel; Rozas-Serri Enzo; Mundt Adrian P.. Incidence, ecological factors, and temporal trends of prison homicides and suicides in Chile, 2000-2024. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1715635; article XML SHA-256 93d4d902183405695736db296b76947598f3525dccd6d8176fe7be90eaec0785. “Incidence, ecological factors, and temporal trends of prison homicides and suicides in Chile, 2000-2024” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1715635).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1715635). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## incidental learning
<a id="incidental-learning"></a>

Incidental learning is learning that happens as a byproduct of doing a task rather than from being directly told to learn a particular strategy or shortcut. In the source context, people discovered an unmentioned shortcut through practice and then decided whether to use it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d0795ac396a2873c1a1d15123fd5eb7fe4a41aa488c59098d7890f04653df0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gaschler Robert; Marewski Julian N.; Wenke Dorit; Frensch Peter A.. Transferring control demands across incidental learning tasks – stronger sequence usage in serial reaction task after shortcut option in letter string checking. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01388; article XML SHA-256 d6a72fe5a64f1b87d6dd854cd4ae74d29e5dbe60460a0ff5c8ba8ed72475fe2d. “Transferring control demands across incidental learning tasks – stronger sequence usage in serial reaction task after shortcut option in letter string checking” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01388).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01388). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inclusion
<a id="inclusion"></a>

In this context, inclusion refers to the required medical or social features a person must have to be considered for taking part in a clinical study. Having these features alone does not guarantee entry, because other limits on eligibility may still apply.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8271747bee1eaa12b7e1aed198017929f90f5be9c8a6acf1a6fec38bfc8392b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Inclusion Criteria” (C25532).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inclusiveness
<a id="inclusiveness"></a>

Inclusiveness is the extent to which a classroom environment supports inclusive education for all learners. In this context, it is reflected in teachers’ attitudes and can be described through views about inclusion philosophy, classroom practice, social inclusion, and support.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b62e09228f9ba0c40443ab5c7527338ed7999a6d1389d0265f0ccbb5ea8a8057

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kielblock Stephan; Woodcock Stuart; Ehrich John. Examining teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education for all: development of a new scale. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04478-6; article XML SHA-256 572ef8230efcde309167f82b2359a40e361b6f1fe36c588c7e3f9169cc1594f0. “Examining teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education for all: development of a new scale” (10.1186/s40359-026-04478-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04478-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## incoherence
<a id="incoherence"></a>

Incoherence is a lack of orderly connection in thought and speech. In this state, the usual voluntary ability to select and organize ideas is weakened, so ideas may follow imagination or chance associations instead.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3343df77657fc519e0584eb157a287c64bdac6dba7220c8b46ef76a3c462d83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Incoherence” (Incoherence).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Incoherence). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## incompatible response
<a id="incompatible-response"></a>

An incompatible response is a reaction tendency that conflicts with the response required by the current task or goal. In the source context, it refers to an incorrect response that can be primed by irrelevant stimulus information and thereby interfere with goal-directed behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2d2ba993d18afa4033a9b0ea696b99833b82e591c1a208150249218d991a905c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Krebs Ruth M.; Boehler Carsten N.; Appelbaum Lawrence G.; Woldorff Marty G.. Reward Associations Reduce Behavioral Interference by Changing the Temporal Dynamics of Conflict Processing. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0053894; article XML SHA-256 695be307e7896ce482ed1d39e6ef325911f9a9bb97bd490a1f1b7c53be7f25de. “Reward Associations Reduce Behavioral Interference by Changing the Temporal Dynamics of Conflict Processing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0053894).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0053894). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## incomplete factorial design
<a id="incomplete-factorial-design"></a>

An incomplete factorial design is a factorial study setup in which some combinations of the variables being studied are not included. Because not all factor combinations are available, analysis is limited to the effects and interactions that can still be estimated from the observed subsets.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 018614d831c7006a70b64f275887941b0a9e0e416dcceca43d59f08db6d9ec08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Janson Malin; Schoppmeier Christoph Matthias; Liebermann Anja. Composite repair bond strength to zirconia, resin matrix CAD/CAM ceramic, and PMMA-based CAD/CAM polymer after different conditioning protocols: an in vitro investigation. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12903-026-08722-8; article XML SHA-256 810332f03d5f3af2c21e1bff84de4954cc9babc5584010756e74fcc950fda0a4. “Composite repair bond strength to zirconia, resin matrix CAD/CAM ceramic, and PMMA-based CAD/CAM polymer after different conditioning protocols: an in vitro investigation” (10.1186/s12903-026-08722-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-026-08722-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## incomplete spinal cord injury
<a id="incomplete-spinal-cord-injury"></a>

Incomplete spinal cord injury is a spinal cord injury that causes motor and sensory impairments without completely eliminating function. It can include reduced proprioceptive feedback, which may contribute to unsteady or insecure walking even in people who remain able to walk well.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8da6a69fc72f2e40fb6e3ff8456a7073e0a2ad3652873c34b7ab19dac80473f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schließmann Daniel; Schuld Christian; Schneiders Matthias; Derlien Steffen; Glöckner Maria; Gladow Till; Weidner Norbert; Rupp Rüdiger. Feasibility of visual instrumented movement feedback therapy in individuals with motor incomplete spinal cord injury walking on a treadmill. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00416; article XML SHA-256 101a78d1b982158c88fd7315df88e5581b4f5d18741b519320c9079f85c2c69f. “Feasibility of visual instrumented movement feedback therapy in individuals with motor incomplete spinal cord injury walking on a treadmill” (10.3389/fnhum.2014.00416).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00416). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## incongruence
<a id="incongruence"></a>

Incongruence is a mismatch between information from different sources, especially when auditory and visual inputs do not fit together. In this context, the mismatch can involve where events seem to come from, when they occur, or what they mean.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6505c223d60997c4032525f5ff5aaae675548176c7f069fe079f5da73f40292f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ermert Cosima A.; Yadav Manuj; Ehret Jonathan; Mohanathasan Chinthusa; Bönsch Andrea; Kuhlen Torsten W.; Schlittmeier Sabine J.; Fels Janina. Audiovisual angle and voice incongruence do not affect audiovisual verbal short-term memory in virtual reality. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330693; article XML SHA-256 b5ab6d5bda4f38a7daa3d8bac7a5c4d94d4eb1d73cbbbfce3567ccff97e585d7. “Audiovisual angle and voice incongruence do not affect audiovisual verbal short-term memory in virtual reality” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330693).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330693). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## incongruity
<a id="incongruity"></a>

Incongruity is a sensed lack of fit or mismatch within experience, even when a person cannot clearly identify what is out of accord. In this historical source, such a vague awareness of incongruity is described as part of the general feeling of congruity or its opposite.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5520be341a30f4e7edba99c793911ed28c45bf13e2931b4d7198891140a47940

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fitness (consciousness of)” (Fitness).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fitness). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## incoordination
<a id="incoordination"></a>

Incoordination is impaired control of voluntary movement, typically seen with cerebellar disease. It can show up as movements that miss their target, shaking during attempted movement, difficulty with rapid alternating movements, and an unsteady gait.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 867a11f0ef4e33a9040688111e8991467b86a1e495241779314eb3c5690f9ce2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebellar Ataxia” (D002524).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002524). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## incremental learning
<a id="incremental-learning"></a>

Incremental learning is a way for a model to keep learning new categories over time while trying to retain what it learned earlier. In this packet, it specifically refers to class-incremental learning, where the challenge is to add new classes without old knowledge drifting or being forgotten.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3039c0483ad0e100bb7fe8327d3b7a24a8d48b298cffb4f2a2ed1b1efb5c914a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gu Jianye; Huang Shucheng; Li Tian; Zhang Senbao; Li Mingxing. Gated subspace alignment with drift compensation for parameter-efficient Class-Incremental Learning. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348270; article XML SHA-256 1b8902ded275ae48b9e4b79a765b0414ed3f65bccd90ef252a605043b5d0b80f. “Gated subspace alignment with drift compensation for parameter-efficient Class-Incremental Learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348270).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348270). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## incremental theory
<a id="incremental-theory"></a>

Incremental theory is the view, used here in personality interventions, that people can change. In adolescents, teaching this idea has been linked with less bullying and cyberbullying and a weaker link between being victimized and later bullying others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9b91b2dcaab1983f9b33b92caee4834819d23c2add027d2ed552b1f2a5d8b65

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Calvete Esther; Orue Izaskun; Fernández-González Liria; Prieto-Fidalgo Angel. Effects of an incremental theory of personality intervention on the reciprocity between bullying and cyberbullying victimization and perpetration in adolescents. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0224755; article XML SHA-256 46a45cff8da6a6be392ee7e823891c7ef1a480c1154b42cdd846673cd05172a4. “Effects of an incremental theory of personality intervention on the reciprocity between bullying and cyberbullying victimization and perpetration in adolescents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0224755).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224755). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## incremental validity
<a id="incremental-validity"></a>

Incremental validity is the extent to which a measure adds unique predictive value beyond other related measures. In this packet, it refers to showing that the LMWB scale predicts employee outcomes over and above abusive supervision and exploitative leadership.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f953f8297e44cf5195bc39a448d81f6b5b55493b012558f901a2a55d8ce752e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Dongying; Wang Zheyuan. When leadership turns covert: conceptualizing and developing a scale for Leader’s Manipulative Workplace Behavior. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803662; article XML SHA-256 1f2a275ec3278f2e857e5370caabb84a295b3b33077dc5402a8996492135dfaf. “When leadership turns covert: conceptualizing and developing a scale for Leader’s Manipulative Workplace Behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803662).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803662). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## indecency
<a id="indecency"></a>

In this historical psychiatric usage, indecency refers to openly immodest or sexually suggestive gestures or acts seen in states of marked sexual excitement and loss of restraint. The passage presents it as the more extreme end of behaviour that may begin with affected mannerisms, suggestive talk, and restless movements in acute mania.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a42ab3f6cf1e6e74df0a8e6507681da91ae8f8b6bb9c09b4f8abcb83e73a910

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-220500-232500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## independence
<a id="independence"></a>

Independence means that one variable gives no information about another variable’s value. For events, it means the chance of one event happening does not change depending on whether the other event has occurred.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f43f7ed62e31bd399fa450b2a06d3a0a3cc22f3273a2267649dbe5f9566034e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Independence” (independence.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/independence.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## independent events
<a id="independent-events"></a>

Independent events are events in which the chance of one happening does not change depending on whether the other happens. In other words, knowing that one event occurred provides no information about the probability of the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e9a4eebee71f63f6d8850d11d0ab92aed83658136e601f784230cc6a60013277

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Independent Events” (independent_events.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/independent_events.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## independent groups
<a id="independent-groups"></a>

Independent groups are separate samples in a between-subjects design, where each group's measurements come from different people rather than repeated measurements from the same individuals. In this kind of comparison, values from one group are contrasted with values from another distinct group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d79616db3040b2c2ef492e74fd84caca7889d5639a32a7883170ab85111ab91

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## independent living
<a id="independent-living"></a>

Independent living is the ability to live as an adult with autonomy rather than depending mainly on family caregivers or institutional settings. In this context, it is described as a fundamental right, though achieving it can be limited by clinical complexity and structural barriers that affect quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a9d1a671fd9e17e912b296d576ad9929b162772506e0629780eeb4fbb8a20d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aguayo Virginia; Esteban Laura; García-Domínguez Laura; Verdugo Miguel A. Family perspectives on independent living for adults with cerebral palsy: barriers, support needs, and quality of life. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1785081; article XML SHA-256 70940dea78f5eeea706cc99f5ca90ed3c1d504dffcfdb5b52f523356857c3ead. “Family perspectives on independent living for adults with cerebral palsy: barriers, support needs, and quality of life” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1785081).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1785081). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## independent samples
<a id="independent-samples"></a>

Independent samples are separate groups of observations in which each person contributes data to only one group, such as one group rating one movie and a different group rating another. In research methods, this contrasts with correlated or dependent samples, where the same participants provide data in both conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b82250aef33e77ac0d6575786e7bf0d2edac7714983ee14a2c3007abc59debd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## independent-samples t test
<a id="independent-samples-t-test"></a>

An independent-samples t test is a statistical test used to compare the average scores of two separate groups in a between-subjects design. It asks whether the difference between the groups is larger than would be expected by chance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: add676922c4670e20fe1c7aa24aaccfa634ac3ab9af43ae66a6492e77588e9fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## independent self-construal
<a id="independent-self-construal"></a>

Independent self-construal is a way of understanding oneself in which outside influences such as luck are treated more as temporary personal states than as support rooted in social relationships. In the source, this means people with an independent self-construal are less likely to see luck as a stable basis for confidence in later decisions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44d11b833e4192d00e925f47cd832b692cd3b14b83b7bbe66ab70f02e24e77ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhong Hao; Wang Yuwei; Li Yanxia. The effect of luck perception on intertemporal decision-making: the mediating role of decision confidence and the moderating role of self-construal. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1620033; article XML SHA-256 6f04f97d343e045be40c2aa3c07bd1cb7c3ed6d0145b1756648cc09616806c73. “The effect of luck perception on intertemporal decision-making: the mediating role of decision confidence and the moderating role of self-construal” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1620033).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1620033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## indeterminism
<a id="indeterminism"></a>

Indeterminism is the view that mental change or development cannot always be completely explained by prior psychological states or outside conditions. In a stronger free-will sense, it treats willing as at least sometimes not fully determined by motives, or as itself deciding which motive becomes strongest.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0d3d5a023d66ad2bcec3ef51f6bcb1875df85a42027382e77c77bd0b54c0b34

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Indeterminism” (Indeterminism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Indeterminism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## index of discrimination
<a id="index-of-discrimination"></a>

In assessment, an index of discrimination is a psychometric measure of how well a test item separates people who know the content from those who do not. A low index means the item does not clearly distinguish between more knowledgeable and less knowledgeable test-takers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 112b7a90ab4aaddb7550880ba0020d77ca6364c69b713f1613bf1648633c7bac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Burrola-Mendez Yohali; Kirby R. Lee; Rushton Paula W.; Contepomi Silvana; Tawashy Amira E.; Kankipati Padmaja; Jiménez García Norma; Terhorst Lauren; Goldberg Mary; Pearlman Jon. Psychometric properties of the International Society of Wheelchair Professionals’ basic manual wheelchair-service-provision knowledge Test Version 1 and development of Version 2. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281584; article XML SHA-256 47bdcdfd0a73b8207226391679cfd96ad59baefa5a133dfc4b52d1287d495b70. “Psychometric properties of the International Society of Wheelchair Professionals’ basic manual wheelchair-service-provision knowledge Test Version 1 and development of Version 2” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281584).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281584). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## index of reliability
<a id="index-of-reliability"></a>

An index of reliability is a way of indicating how consistently a measure performs. In this packet, it refers to internal consistency, such as Cronbach's alpha, used to show whether responses or averaged recordings are stable enough to be considered dependable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5dd9fec5ad8b1cecbb9fbc06caa72f88a410a738bd36c84b71e288677fdaa5f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rietdijk Wim J. R.; Franken Ingmar H. A.; Thurik A. Roy. Internal Consistency of Event-Related Potentials Associated with Cognitive Control: N2/P3 and ERN/Pe. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0102672; article XML SHA-256 a4cc703648874104df0dec6bdd0113f629bb64b741103c9e626bfc8dcbed658b. “Internal Consistency of Event-Related Potentials Associated with Cognitive Control: N2/P3 and ERN/Pe” (10.1371/journal.pone.0102672).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102672). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## index of validity
<a id="index-of-validity"></a>

In psychological assessment, an index of validity is a measure used as a comparison standard to help judge whether another test or scale is valid. In the study packet, the Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia served this role when evaluating the WHO-5.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 88fdbb4ab6f3ba892bf01ddc5e3b030931a61598c5c7f14c5b3aa1e5827acfe6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fekih-Romdhane Feten; Al Mouzakzak Fadila; Abilmona Ghinwa; Dahdouh Oussama; Hallit Souheil. Validation and optimal cut-off score of the World Health Organization Well-being Index (WHO-5) as a screening tool for depression among patients with schizophrenia. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05814-z; article XML SHA-256 d6682b373434dca29cbd1b9f74bd4eef63c814c4841b9d22cf339ff0e05a9bf5. “Validation and optimal cut-off score of the World Health Organization Well-being Index (WHO-5) as a screening tool for depression among patients with schizophrenia” (10.1186/s12888-024-05814-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05814-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## indicative
<a id="indicative"></a>

Indicative means showing or suggesting that something is true or present. In this packet, it is used to mean that a trait is seen as a sign of another quality, such as sincerity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea2863c3383777de9b424cb07c6594e6dafdee55b762944ee05df80a78412036

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hirsch Michelle E.; Virk Tarnpreet; Chang Christina; Bellana Buddhika; Cyr Andrée-Ann. Age differences in the conceptualization and experience of curiosity: A qualitative study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345902; article XML SHA-256 493cbc978f813ba3b715512949f1d0993f67f74d13e08dd4a41fa776e42f350e. “Age differences in the conceptualization and experience of curiosity: A qualitative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345902).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345902). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## indicator variable
<a id="indicator-variable"></a>

An indicator variable is a variable used in an analysis to show which category or group something belongs to. In the source, it is used in a regression to distinguish biotechnology companies from pharmaceutical companies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 747f30b423a186913c5b613120e452c4ea01773503cf466bf32424b5141639dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cho Joonhyuk; Singh Manish; Lo Andrew W.. How does news affect biopharma stock prices?: An event study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296927; article XML SHA-256 6f1f1c5d84d534fc9736fa4ad954d9473e07be732472b67ab8214de33a1333f6. “How does news affect biopharma stock prices?: An event study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296927).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296927). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## indictment
<a id="indictment"></a>

An indictment is a formal written accusation that someone has committed a crime. In English and American law, it refers specifically to a charge prepared for prosecution and approved by a grand jury so the accused can be brought to trial.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0c60b35762db7caed58adfb7222bf44aca1df7a130771abe14cecda480997e09

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Indictment” (Indictment).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Indictment). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## indirect associations
<a id="indirect-associations"></a>

Indirect associations are relationships between two variables that are partly explained by one or more other factors linking them. In this packet, the connection between Internet use and health is described as indirect when part of that relationship operates through social participation and physical activity rather than only through a direct link.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 20152ad26dfeec74daccae40ffb5fee558ef266deab0d33a787bc16a5846cd5d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Haolin; Mu Liang. Internet use and health among older adults in China: Indirect associations through social participation and physical activity. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357568; article XML SHA-256 c0d36154d2006de3d09bbfb595131e75c55cbef74254885e1d943b708e15dc02. “Internet use and health among older adults in China: Indirect associations through social participation and physical activity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357568).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357568). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## indirect measurement
<a id="indirect-measurement"></a>

Indirect measurement is the estimation of a mental state or process from related observable data instead of assessing it directly. In this source, it refers to modeling cognitive load from dance posture and movement patterns rather than relying on subjective judgment alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c95f5cf97d4ae3fd943a8b0b8badd52870292f49c8c05dbda28a919bfb18cdd9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao Fei. T 2 W-CogLoadNet: a framework for cognitive load assessment of dance movements based on deep learning-powered human pose estimation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1707539; article XML SHA-256 10b32d433ba45916aba04462d68fc4b38815f255e42b51ff81bfd37c21abb9be. “T 2 W-CogLoadNet: a framework for cognitive load assessment of dance movements based on deep learning-powered human pose estimation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1707539).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1707539). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## indirect object
<a id="indirect-object"></a>

In this historical usage, an indirect object of worship is a symbolic or tangible representation through which worship is directed, rather than the ultimate being or power worshipped. It serves as an intermediary image or object associated with the sacred.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67ae83c5098e7793ec7e42ce4981627121398d6e27c04638e093961c93003391

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Idol” (Idol).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Idol). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## indirect relationship
<a id="indirect-relationship"></a>

An indirect relationship is a connection between two variables that operates through another variable rather than linking them directly. In this context, job stress relates to innovative behavior through knowledge hiding as the intervening step.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 01481b31e8dba4553c45e14a9deaae2054ada608c6a7765450bb5c875a8de503

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Ji Hoon; Jeong Jeeyoon; Park Jung-Mi; Karau Steven J. The hidden cost of stress: knowledge hiding, innovative behavior, and the buffering role of leader–member exchange. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05095-z; article XML SHA-256 9d4cb249aec2dd807d4ec43f7441789ccdb49d09f734aef9f3b0711bfd0f84e4. “The hidden cost of stress: knowledge hiding, innovative behavior, and the buffering role of leader–member exchange” (10.1186/s40359-026-05095-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05095-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## individual differences
<a id="individual-differences"></a>

Individual differences are the psychological qualities that make one person distinct from another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d10f4dd327f982aa95a1088147203f23602fec1762a67ed4bb2ef2bddd9fc6e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Individuality” (D007206).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007206). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## individual program
<a id="individual-program"></a>

In this study, an individual program was the version of the equine-assisted therapy intervention attended by a veteran alone, without their partner. It is contrasted with the couples program, which included both the veteran and partner.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 434ac9f713d6731abd17f2d7ab2f1cc56384a28a4c1de1eef31a88a014fe2a15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Romaniuk Madeline; Evans Justine; Kidd Chloe. Evaluation of an equine-assisted therapy program for veterans who identify as ‘wounded, injured or ill’ and their partners. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0203943; article XML SHA-256 7681597c39c40a1510b8e6022aee61c4a548e8760a87e69afaeabe6622f06be1. “Evaluation of an equine-assisted therapy program for veterans who identify as ‘wounded, injured or ill’ and their partners” (10.1371/journal.pone.0203943).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203943). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## individual psychology
<a id="individual-psychology"></a>

Individual psychology is the branch of psychology that studies how one psychological individual differs from others. It focuses on variations among people, such as differences in temperament, mental type, sex-related mental differences, genius, mental defect, criminality, and traits associated with social groups or professions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f0ad4ebbc563ed1b7dc426e37d359473c62385afdb14d387d32543624152575

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Individual Psychology” (Individualp).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Individualp). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## individual psychotherapy
<a id="individual-psychotherapy"></a>

Individual psychotherapy is psychotherapy provided to one person rather than in a group. In this packet, it refers to one-to-one therapy used with men seeking help for their use of violence against a female partner in a psychosocial health care setting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 58a3b0140a6a58db2b61d283bb09eafb341a8925424125ac6a856a1db1fc8d97

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Askeland Ingunn Rangul; Birkeland Marianne Skogbrott; Lømo Bente; Tjersland Odd Arne. Changes in Violence and Clinical Distress Among Men in Individual Psychotherapy for Violence Against Their Female Partner: An Explorative Study. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.710294; article XML SHA-256 0b37b3103775e056dc5e42ee85ca97a1bcb22e7d0911e5bf6989b76676c2d352. “Changes in Violence and Clinical Distress Among Men in Individual Psychotherapy for Violence Against Their Female Partner: An Explorative Study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.710294).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.710294). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## individual selection
<a id="individual-selection"></a>

Individual selection is the survival of the whole organism through natural selection, in the original Darwinian sense. It contrasts with the selection of parts such as cells or germinal elements, and the term avoids the misleading phrase "personal selection," which can imply conscious choice by a person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 74bf78bfac8507a58076b3d862266640a3978522ab625ad851a8f0621b32d07e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Individual Selection” (Individualss).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Individualss). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## individualism
<a id="individualism"></a>

Individualism can mean an exclusive or excessive concern with one’s own interests. It also refers to the view that people’s self-directed action and pursuit of self-interest should be subject to little state restraint, with government limited mainly to maintaining order and protecting equal liberty.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 25632e0b1b0b3f3810aa837b75dd17d12993a305e07bbba2f560ac46210ed686

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Individualism” (Individualism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Individualism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## individuality
<a id="individuality"></a>

Individuality is the set of psychological qualities that make one person different from another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f781e2079010ed420589ff2af2df5ec507fea1ede8c94e3c368890c1eed4167c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Individuality” (D007206).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007206). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## individualization
<a id="individualization"></a>

Individualization is the process of tailoring a biomechanical model to a specific person by using that person’s measured joint and movement parameters instead of relying only on standard scaling methods. In this context, it is used to create a more personalized and accurate representation of the body during movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 21bd711222b337c7fe6e83d4cee56bd8107bba30323c37e724b7c6896d7621ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Goell Fabian; Braunstein Bjoern; Stemmler Maike; Fasse Alessandro; Abel Dirk; Albracht Kirsten. Advancing knee adduction moment prediction for neuromuscular training via functional joint definitions and real–time simulation using OpenSim. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324985; article XML SHA-256 2591304def6f3d6e102c8c7fc74c254a09afcef823d5c41a5a92b519924e910b. “Advancing knee adduction moment prediction for neuromuscular training via functional joint definitions and real–time simulation using OpenSim” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324985).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324985). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## individualized education program
<a id="individualized-education-program"></a>

An individualized education program (IEP) is a special education plan developed through a school-based process under U.S. disability law for a student who may qualify for services. After referral, parent consent, and evaluation, the IEP meeting is used to decide eligibility and to set the student’s goals, services, and accommodations, with parents included and informed of their rights.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1417694576ac23da6bca368e3f6d1f1bb2c500f21f0031aa3937466d86d2127

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Malagon-Palacios Laura J; Bruner Kimber L; Mullinax Hayley M; Sevillano Clarissa N; Yosai Erin. El acceso es esencial: procedural compliance alone does not ensure meaningful Latino parent participation in special education. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815521; article XML SHA-256 918fab79bab34a9827006efe4fa6915b2d6e01ed6a4534eb68de7b0255d38c9a. “El acceso es esencial: procedural compliance alone does not ensure meaningful Latino parent participation in special education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815521).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815521). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## individualized instruction
<a id="individualized-instruction"></a>

Individualized instruction is a personalized teaching approach that adapts learning activities or intervention pathways to a learner’s inferred characteristics rather than giving everyone the same curriculum. In this source, it means using predicted personality-related profiles from color perception preferences to tailor art-education instruction in a closed-loop way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 72551b48c3e3cef7a78f544a7549d7a542b2b787fd9ae43487b5d6336df5998a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Songhui; Sun Zhongnuo; Jin Ailong; Zhao Xiangyang; Xie Yanchun; Li Mingyue. Construction of a personality trait prediction model based on color perception preference and personalized cognitive intervention pathways in art education. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876102; article XML SHA-256 23c096e392d5ce81d15eef7ab061023cf7b4d4be76b5aa9023127022a21ee2b6. “Construction of a personality trait prediction model based on color perception preference and personalized cognitive intervention pathways in art education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876102).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876102). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Individuals With Disabilities Education Act
<a id="individuals-with-disabilities-education-act"></a>

The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is a U.S. special education law that requires schools to identify and evaluate children who may have disabilities and, when eligible, provide a free appropriate public education through an Individualized Education Program. It also includes procedural safeguards intended to support parents’ informed participation in decisions about evaluation, eligibility, and services.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb011e26dc6cb164acbefba701376c9303e6a7d0fbf5df28d0feb52e9f70fd39

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Malagon-Palacios Laura J; Bruner Kimber L; Mullinax Hayley M; Sevillano Clarissa N; Yosai Erin. El acceso es esencial: procedural compliance alone does not ensure meaningful Latino parent participation in special education. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815521; article XML SHA-256 918fab79bab34a9827006efe4fa6915b2d6e01ed6a4534eb68de7b0255d38c9a. “El acceso es esencial: procedural compliance alone does not ensure meaningful Latino parent participation in special education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815521).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815521). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## individuation
<a id="individuation"></a>

Individuation is a process of becoming more distinct or differentiated, aimed at the growth of a person's individual personality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bff349218136dfb3ad33a2abaa92f2a3850cec4adccdb4628f835d5d187ee26e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Individuation” (D007207).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007207). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## induced color
<a id="induced-color"></a>

Induced color is a color experience that is automatically brought about by another stimulus rather than by the color being physically present. In the packet’s context, it refers to colors evoked by sounds or musical timbres in sound-color synesthesia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 435bb1ab648ef5456a24211f889d00be62888a7bd1ef2d4813aac9d881f2b328

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reuter Christoph; Czedik-Eysenberg Isabella; Ambros Sarah; Siddiq Saleh; Glasser Solange; Ward Jamie; Jewanski Jörg. Rainbows in my ears—Synesthetic color perception with partial-reduced and morphed musical instrument timbres. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1697918; article XML SHA-256 0f6928148708d475bc8c116b8ebb48319d67135f56fca000fac452f509063641. “Rainbows in my ears—Synesthetic color perception with partial-reduced and morphed musical instrument timbres” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1697918).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1697918). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## induction
<a id="induction"></a>

Induction is reasoning that moves from specific instances to a more general conclusion. It can also mean the broader method of inquiry that relies mainly on this kind of reasoning, ranging from simple generalizing from observed cases to more critical, organized use in research and science.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f06edab3b5b7457073046774923485d386c6af10228387f3b0a7c1667ed58a70

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Induction” (Induction).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Induction). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## industrial psychology
<a id="industrial-psychology"></a>

Industrial psychology is an applied branch of psychology that uses psychological principles and methods to address workplace and industry-related problems. It includes areas such as employee selection, worker training, and the effects of working conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ffbeb9f1550e1b749709bbb381fbaeed0f1fe1a293e13a66974a792b7b478221

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychology, Industrial” (D011590).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011590). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## industrial relations
<a id="industrial-relations"></a>

Industrial relations refers to the quality of relations between labor and management in the workplace. In this context, it describes a workplace climate shaped by interactions between employees and management that can affect employee behavior and performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c0381b4fdde5bea9ececc369662038a048b1ade25654b35bbd8482c6920c219b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fang Miaoying; Fan Peng; Nepal Surya; Chang Po-Chien. Dual-Mediation Paths Linking Corporate Social Responsibility to Employee’s Job Performance: A Multilevel Approach. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.612565; article XML SHA-256 6bc5918ae7e0a0802ba1945a7ab34e706bc65af880770e63a2115aeb0e2cbcbf. “Dual-Mediation Paths Linking Corporate Social Responsibility to Employee’s Job Performance: A Multilevel Approach” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.612565).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.612565). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## infancy
<a id="infancy"></a>

Infancy is the stage of immaturity in which a person depends on parental care, beginning at birth and lasting until biological or broader social self-support. In this historical account, the period is treated as important for development because prolonged dependence allows greater learning, flexibility, and complex mental and social growth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d32ccdd999c5b58d0e6261ddeb93f10002c8c15ffb1c60b62745437c55170c7e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Infancy” (Infancy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Infancy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## infant-directed speech
<a id="infant-directed-speech"></a>

Infant-directed speech is the way adults speak to babies, and it appears to provide an important environment for early language learning. It can include a distinct baby-like style with higher pitch, longer sounds, and smoother intonation, but it may also sound more like ordinary adult speech.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 791c8051ea7c743816149e6279bc9329d73dc62693f2b485cba5a635eeec03ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Farran Lama K; Lee Chia-Cheng; Yoo Hyunjoo; Oller D Kimbrough. Cross-Cultural Register Differences in Infant-Directed Speech: An Initial Study. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0151518; article XML SHA-256 2a596d1f2942c2a149a88764a2c42ef305cebc70dd3d5499953d5e546cf85c61. “Cross-Cultural Register Differences in Infant-Directed Speech: An Initial Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0151518).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151518). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## infantile amnesia
<a id="infantile-amnesia"></a>

Infantile amnesia is the developmental loss from conscious access of autobiographical memories for events experienced before about ages 3 to 4. In this context, it is linked to the emergence of memory-related metacognitive and language abilities that support remembering and reporting past personal events.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b9026c90e4e6d5fa13fc242edc81347d7938363fbfc75f3d66980f2cb0f08234

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Uehara Izumi. Developmental Changes in Memory-Related Linguistic Skills and Their Relationship to Episodic Recall in Children. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0137220; article XML SHA-256 cfa1f72e2c1f8f617332d47a8c1b55675036b62d8387e6d7e2c501054ab5c083. “Developmental Changes in Memory-Related Linguistic Skills and Their Relationship to Episodic Recall in Children” (10.1371/journal.pone.0137220).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137220). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## infantile autism
<a id="infantile-autism"></a>

Infantile autism is described here as a severe form of autism spectrum disorder marked by difficulties in social behavior. In this account, it involves impairments in both joint and group-based shared intentionality, linked to problems with mind reading, being influenced by others’ intentions, and taking another perspective.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3bda78a8827144bf8ab67f348014a7e09b2fbaa1608cc164ae2d060ef20555e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Salice Alessandro; Henriksen Mads Gram. Disturbances of Shared Intentionality in Schizophrenia and Autism. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.570597; article XML SHA-256 f493583e7c84c88cf6b39d0f853997e8e5444db83731fac80b84922400e48122. “Disturbances of Shared Intentionality in Schizophrenia and Autism” (10.3389/fpsyt.2020.570597).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.570597). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## infantilization
<a id="infantilization"></a>

Infantilization is a pattern of upbringing in which parental overprotection keeps a person in an overly childlike role and interferes with the development of independent behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0a6e23fdc44d5a80a276f41cad8f772d2b5bd4c3c81182f5d2e6301619d8bb0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Encounter due to Parental Overprotection” (C183450).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## infecundity
<a id="infecundity"></a>

Infecundity is the physiological inability to reproduce or to bear live children. In social research, it can help explain why some people are childless for biological reasons rather than by choice or other circumstances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4cd5d0e923f559727480dabd2cfcddf871029bf8cba066519613ac29882be478

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Elman Cheryl; O’Rand Angela M.; London Andrew S.. Parity and post-reproductive mortality among U.S. Black and White women: Evidence from the health and retirement study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0310629; article XML SHA-256 72319cd98c676d59bca83cb264a4b56e2addd7b8e77bee276b7e89c972217ebf. “Parity and post-reproductive mortality among U.S. Black and White women: Evidence from the health and retirement study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0310629).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310629). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inference
<a id="inference"></a>

Inference is the process of using information from a sample to reach conclusions about the larger population it represents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8645cea268d59a41fa0a3a7eb3f719373d3ba10dfb9745aeba27df3346ef9183

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Inference” (inference.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/inference.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inferential statistics
<a id="inferential-statistics"></a>

Inferential statistics is the part of statistics that uses information from a sample to draw conclusions about a larger population. It commonly relies on random sampling and can be used to infer features such as the center or overall pattern of a distribution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a69f56f1fc63380f7a7f7c9b128c9fc6e0ef6f3065cdf7e8546c4fed0ebc90d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Inferential Statistics” (inferential_statistics.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/inferential_statistics.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inferential test
<a id="inferential-test"></a>

In this packet, an inferential test refers to the statistical testing used at the end of the analysis to judge whether hypothesized relationships between dependent and independent variables are meaningful. It is part of drawing conclusions from the study’s data rather than only describing the observed results.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 74bd8da4ec376fe32e0d31cc9464d6e7ddf16df14873c544d3613a552ead9124

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Feng Yanchao. Inducement factor of talent agglomeration in the manufacturing industrial sector: A survey on the readiness of Industry 4.0 adoption. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0263783; article XML SHA-256 b5eb4b7b819d1dd04984d1f20a10a51dc90849392f75375163c3dc883cb59d0d. “Inducement factor of talent agglomeration in the manufacturing industrial sector: A survey on the readiness of Industry 4.0 adoption” (10.1371/journal.pone.0263783).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263783). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inferential validity
<a id="inferential-validity"></a>

Inferential validity is the extent to which conclusions drawn from data analysis are trustworthy, including whether estimates and statistical uncertainty accurately reflect the underlying data. It can be weakened when problems such as missing data distort results and lead to biased findings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83a8a37fa8ebf9f1f33e761b97e9df0fcee9a4317da50416dee8f71ac120eb68

Sources:
- Drafting source: [A.G. Veltri Carlo; Grittner Ulrike; Gebert Pimrapat. Imputing longitudinal PROM data at the item and score level in clinical trials. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12874-026-02984-0; article XML SHA-256 eed76bd405a5ab3a32af2bd873c2e259c63779a6f05cdcf03ca012d9df98a1af. “Imputing longitudinal PROM data at the item and score level in clinical trials” (10.1186/s12874-026-02984-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-026-02984-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inferior colliculus
<a id="inferior-colliculus"></a>

The inferior colliculus is the rear pair of structures in the quadrigeminal bodies and includes centers involved in hearing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4abfa06160d288217058fb725094dbbbcb6929155b1176029386f6bfe0d314e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Inferior Colliculi” (D007245).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007245). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inferior frontal gyrus
<a id="inferior-frontal-gyrus"></a>

The inferior frontal gyrus, especially on the left, is a frontal brain region that forms a central part of the language network. It includes subregions associated with speech production, sequencing of orofacial and other motor actions, syntactic processing, and controlled retrieval of meaning, and it connects with temporoparietal areas through dorsal and ventral pathways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c06058ab0c1766742b6bb598057fd44ed82c868beaa720357fe5494d7929742f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Jinyi; Song Ye; Tan Li-Hai. Investigating the role of the left inferior frontal gyrus in language evolution: insights from comparative neuroscience. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1726577; article XML SHA-256 8f26005d793184c8318985d14f5cbb356e2309a7f4be08327cce1cfb485e714b. “Investigating the role of the left inferior frontal gyrus in language evolution: insights from comparative neuroscience” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1726577).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1726577). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inferior longitudinal fasciculus
<a id="inferior-longitudinal-fasciculus"></a>

The inferior longitudinal fasciculus is a white matter pathway in the brain that is involved in language processing. In this source, it is described as one of the tracts linking regions that support language comprehension, language production, and social communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bfae98011f46b22cb16d08f2a9425adeaed6bd5ff0c9f720b8998633f67e5036

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yi Aiwen; Huang Kaiyu; Hu Yubin; Zhang Shuiqun; Huang Qingshan; Xiao Yaqiong. Altered white matter connectivity is linked to language abilities in children with autism spectrum disorder: An automated fiber quantification study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1731647; article XML SHA-256 25331cba548c385f29bb8565c7fd8b2fb258513aabcc346b175194e3ef245aeb. “Altered white matter connectivity is linked to language abilities in children with autism spectrum disorder: An automated fiber quantification study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1731647).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1731647). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inferior olivary complex
<a id="inferior-olivary-complex"></a>

The inferior olivary complex is a group of nerve cells in the upper medulla of the brainstem that is part of the olivary nucleus complex. It helps combine movement and body-position signals and sends feedback to the cerebellum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0c12116ffde0f7569cadadb23231c428e7e3ec6b501d95f3275b0ab4345beac8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Inferior Olivary Complex” (D000095746).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000095746). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inferior rectus
<a id="inferior-rectus"></a>

The inferior rectus is one of the eye muscles controlled by the oculomotor nerve. When this nerve or its nucleus is diseased, the inferior rectus can become weak or paralyzed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96e7030dbec0b3ee060a45dc97d2e23eec35258a351a27e99ae10abb5b7b16d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oculomotor Nerve Diseases” (D015840).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015840). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## infidelity
<a id="infidelity"></a>

Infidelity is the rejection of the central beliefs of a religion, especially Christianity in this historical usage. It refers to doctrinal unbelief rather than moral wrongdoing, and it is treated as a kind of skepticism without being the same as atheism, agnosticism, deism, naturalism, or rationalism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b64757f0eb839788e9eb6e8ca87a88f6dc59ecfd65e06cda2c0ea9fe5596b09b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Infidelity” (Infidelity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Infidelity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inflection
<a id="inflection"></a>

Inflection is the general name for changes in the form of a word that show how it relates to other parts of a sentence or proposition. In inflectional languages, these relations are commonly marked by alterations in the word itself, often at the ending.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 714c6286738608f4a0d4d48001f29eff78f601d98b440e35c4724d999055a7bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Inflection” (Inflection).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Inflection). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## influence tactics
<a id="influence-tactics"></a>

Influence tactics are subtle ways of shaping people’s decisions by changing how options are presented or by adding alternatives that bias choice. In this source, they refer to covert contextual influences such as reframing and the decoy effect that can make professionals more or less resistant to biased decision-making.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 818e4f461560fee1fa62968b1159f1fb3828e7d73c711b8de8d794358f6bdf22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Angioletti Laura; Acconito Carlotta; Crivelli Davide; Balconi Michela. Can professionals “keep the tiller straight” in organizations? Resistance to reframing and decoy alternatives in workplace decision-making. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1270012; article XML SHA-256 16abea4e46ce2d61a4112d340572f248a3a971946af3d59597fe84d70155ff85. “Can professionals “keep the tiller straight” in organizations? Resistance to reframing and decoy alternatives in workplace decision-making” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1270012).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1270012). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## informant
<a id="informant"></a>

In this assessment context, an informant is another person who gives a report about the adult being evaluated, rather than the adult reporting on themselves. The informant report is used alongside the self-report to describe everyday executive functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 306da3eda7f9f0715a726557d75e3538416e6a7f40cfce95c83bfab94f7d1f26

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Adult Version” (C121460).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## informatics
<a id="informatics"></a>

Informatics is the handling and analysis of very large, complex, and often multimodal datasets with computational and statistical methods. In mental health research, it includes working with sources such as genomics, neuroimaging, sensors, health records, administrative data, and language data to model patterns and relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b790c70fb3c89adaa2a4fc9a39d1aae05f616f8b9b27e025256a1e51d92a434

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zeng Irene Suilan; Kessler Rodger. Editorial: Advancing biostatistics and informatics applications in mental health research. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1948173; article XML SHA-256 cbcc8125655ecd33cc0edcee751e3c0329614d6450c7523b4978a8053da28680. “Editorial: Advancing biostatistics and informatics applications in mental health research” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1948173).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1948173). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## information hypothesis
<a id="information-hypothesis"></a>

In this context, the information hypothesis refers to the affect-as-information view that a person’s or animal’s current mood provides a signal that changes how environmental details are processed. Positive and negative mood states are expected to bias performance differently, including the speed of responding on tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eab9c877216d7edebdfbbb17e28062a8172d0f74f8c1c131e7cb6cc420301ec1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marzouki Yousri; Gullstrand Julie; Goujon Annabelle; Fagot Joël. Baboons' Response Speed Is Biased by Their Moods. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0102562; article XML SHA-256 e9239f42534d1accf930a44365cb03de6348e773c15e45db8002137e100f7143. “Baboons' Response Speed Is Biased by Their Moods” (10.1371/journal.pone.0102562).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102562). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## information processing
<a id="information-processing"></a>

In psychology, information processing can refer to the mental handling of cues or information that helps a person form an appropriate response. In the social context described here, problems processing social cues can make it harder for children to choose suitable behavior in everyday situations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3e8511062f21547d092278712137b59993b2cd58160b5a2a6cf1510dc222272c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Na; Peng Jin; Sun Xiaodong; Guo Shenyang. Social skill training and children’s cognitive concentration in rural China: the mediating effect of social information processing skills. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1526065; article XML SHA-256 bc4f447dc7f79383ad861e83693776da2a3d028f0f28bc0f8772e1579727b95c. “Social skill training and children’s cognitive concentration in rural China: the mediating effect of social information processing skills” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1526065).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1526065). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## information-processing model
<a id="information-processing-model"></a>

In this source, the information-processing model is a way of understanding performance as a sequence in which a person takes in changing visual information, makes a decision, and then carries out an action. It is used to link training effects to stages of processing reflected in reaction time, decision-making accuracy, and motor control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 58eb4e8f5f6855b17d8fee5c1befb11f5d1251d070ebeeee73d0e711d6502676

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kang Hao; Cao Xiaofen. Stroboscopic visual training in basketball: a narrative review integrating cross-sport evidence and a hypothetical framework based on the information processing model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876582; article XML SHA-256 4a0fed82b404b0931e963172f5437cce7cf6eac73b38bddc775f575ccac1dac5. “Stroboscopic visual training in basketball: a narrative review integrating cross-sport evidence and a hypothetical framework based on the information processing model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876582).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876582). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## informational power
<a id="informational-power"></a>

Informational power is influence gained by giving reasons or information that helps another person understand what to do. In this source, it appears as a form of guidance that is often brief and embedded within expert demonstration rather than relying mainly on authority.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 94839e36fb463c64be8f1191df7e999aeb44e37eaf8a0903bf97b08ee1888d29

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gaviria-Alzate Samuel José; Arcila-Rojas Claudia; González Luis Álvarez; Monsalve Juliana Posada; Taborda Jonnathan Arenas; Restrepo Lina; Valencia-Sánchez Wilder Geovanny. Power and influence in world-level sport coaching: A Foucauldian and Raven-informed interpretive vignette study in underwater rugby. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345874; article XML SHA-256 9341e5dfb2a35dc45d513fb0dd868c6c75b6872c456c5f390cfbc849a49d6b47. “Power and influence in world-level sport coaching: A Foucauldian and Raven-informed interpretive vignette study in underwater rugby” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345874).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345874). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## informed consent
<a id="informed-consent"></a>

Informed consent is a person’s voluntary agreement to a medical, diagnostic, or research procedure after understanding the risks involved. It means permission is given freely and with adequate comprehension of what may happen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 370002dd8f97ee80262e4f08b12e608a0894707901f19c9820347fa1bec1fa93

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Informed Consent” (D007258).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007258). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## infra-
<a id="infra"></a>

Infra- is a Latin-derived prefix meaning “within.” In this source, it appears in the historical theological term infralapsarianism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01e79a9732b5373795383d8a4ed1cec4573514ce17a1b1f60d57fdd9fa39eb4c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Infralapsarianism” (Infralapsarianism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Infralapsarianism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## infrasound
<a id="infrasound"></a>

Infrasound is environmental noise with frequencies below 20 Hz that humans can barely hear. It can come from natural sources such as ocean waves, wind, and volcanic eruptions, and it travels long distances with strong vibratory penetration, making it a notable environmental pollutant and potential public health concern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0fe2cc383ca3d94749e859d5ab095c33d0605df19ec58c381cbcc13eb547371a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Wei; Yin Jue; Gao Bei-Yao; Lu Xi; Duan Ya-Jing; Liu Xu-Yan; Li Ming-Zhen; Jiang Shan. Inhibition of astroglial hemichannels ameliorates infrasonic noise induced short-term learning and memory impairment. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12993-023-00226-7; article XML SHA-256 6d8ea16349ef67228a6af02460badcab64a93aa8cd288a330c6d898a82f7c5e2. “Inhibition of astroglial hemichannels ameliorates infrasonic noise induced short-term learning and memory impairment” (10.1186/s12993-023-00226-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-023-00226-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ingroup bias
<a id="ingroup-bias"></a>

Ingroup bias is the tendency to favor one’s own group when responding or making judgments in social situations. The packet indicates that this tendency is usually stronger when a person identifies more strongly with the group and weaker when their group loyalty is less central.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ca34d25f5763e869114962580f2421ce5a6ec01e393df2fcf22754f527db9d60

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Çoksan Sami; Sağlamöz Ahmed Faruk. Egalitarian norms can deflate identity-bias link in real-life groups. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330484; article XML SHA-256 e69a04b9b59629c46baae3ba9c477fb802721bd2a30b4b3d305a278ee035929e. “Egalitarian norms can deflate identity-bias link in real-life groups” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330484).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330484). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inhalant abuse
<a id="inhalant-abuse"></a>

Inhalant abuse is the illegal use of chemical products or substances by breathing in their vapors to quickly change mental state. It commonly involves aerosols, gases, or volatile solvents, and the inhaling may be repeated to maintain a brief intoxicating effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a252b604e7148afae8c8b23775da84665074a3233878323f7cf129c23196a276

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Inhalant Abuse” (D058545).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058545). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## inherited disorder
<a id="inherited-disorder"></a>

An inherited disorder is a condition passed down genetically. In the source packet, color deficiency is described as an inherited disorder caused by altered spectral sensitivity in one of the three cone opsins.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73a620c5ee54b71ae729ca8fe8bcb35c5cb0c45b2a5915d3fa0eeff9c5939d8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Doron Ravid; Sterkin Anna; Fried Moshe; Yehezkel Oren; Lev Maria; Belkin Michael; Rosner Mordechai; Solomon Arieh S; Mandel Yossi; Polat Uri. Spatial visual function in anomalous trichromats: Is less more?. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209662; article XML SHA-256 d5b7e03a90a3c72d704acf9181180151c3e5be2863b456997411b289719b76f1. “Spatial visual function in anomalous trichromats: Is less more?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209662).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209662). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inhibition
<a id="inhibition"></a>

In this source, inhibition refers to response inhibition: the ability to suppress or stop a motor action when circumstances change. It can happen before a movement starts or by interrupting a movement already in progress, helping behavior stay safe and adaptive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ffdd2c86da338b78bc25ac1c08504e9a0a260596db5f5f0cdcd7e5add8bc9dce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yamamoto Shunpei; Miyaguchi Shota; Shiga Kyosuke; Yokota Hirotake; Inukai Yasuto; Otsuru Naofumi; Onishi Hideaki. No effect of transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation on response inhibition. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1742058; article XML SHA-256 9952f7dde5cd9ad73e9e1e7c0a56f4866f4cce24b35b1d5ecb8d351f3fbbf751. “No effect of transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation on response inhibition” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1742058).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1742058). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inhibition of return
<a id="inhibition-of-return"></a>

Inhibition of return is a tendency for people to respond more slowly to a target when it appears in a location that was cued before, compared with a new location. In the supplied source, this effect is described as being influenced by memory retrieval and contextual similarity between successive targets.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c092512a9fb60e0bee840a45e6f093bae54d83a5f95c143929feed7f945adab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chao Hsuan-Fu; Kuo Chun-Yu; Chen Makayla S.; Hsiao Fei-Shan. Contextual Similarity Between Successive Targets Modulates Inhibition of Return in the Target-Target Paradigm. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02052; article XML SHA-256 e0896851104e6586a58fc8b71d9bd6d74db00f7d132a854993d59997d6abf3d2. “Contextual Similarity Between Successive Targets Modulates Inhibition of Return in the Target-Target Paradigm” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02052).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02052). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inhibitory conditioning
<a id="inhibitory-conditioning"></a>

Inhibitory conditioning is a form of associative learning in which a cue comes to signal that an expected outcome will not happen. For example, when one stimulus usually predicts an event, adding another stimulus during trials without that event can teach that the added cue means the outcome will be omitted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c43f69ce64ffce15bf1a7db0fa5569c6c55f01ca1bf62589287a0d8cad6d7463

Sources:
- Drafting source: [He Zhimin; Cassaday Helen J.; Bonardi Charlotte; Bibby Peter A.. Do Personality Traits Predict Individual Differences in Excitatory and Inhibitory Learning?. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00245; article XML SHA-256 24bf1776cb393bc2fcbe17627d30cc5b2c85ea15846f2ddba3f93ad8bf761ea0. “Do Personality Traits Predict Individual Differences in Excitatory and Inhibitory Learning?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00245).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00245). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inhibitory synapse
<a id="inhibitory-synapse"></a>

An inhibitory synapse is a connection between nerve cells where activity in the sending cell makes the receiving cell less likely to fire.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eabb740d2b1159248aac9be3e596b5a2c45d386193cba5d9e766f91649dd652f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Inhibitory Synapse” (C32803).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## initial data analysis
<a id="initial-data-analysis"></a>

Initial data analysis is the stage after data have been gathered and before the main research-question analysis begins, used to build a dependable understanding of the dataset. It typically involves checking and describing data properties, documenting what is found, and, if needed, refining the planned analysis so the research is more transparent, reproducible, and valid.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9228770d01454dca0a6a5d4b192f9a7fc276ea91cd3fc30b3f80a5cd85442e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lusa Lara; Proust-Lima Cécile; Schmidt Carsten O; Lee Katherine J; le Cessie Saskia; Baillie Mark; Lawrence Frank; Huebner Marianne; on behalf of TG3 of the STRATOS Initiative. Initial data analysis for longitudinal studies to build a solid foundation for reproducible analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0295726; article XML SHA-256 99537a70c58c55c254d0e18a180ea8e58b41ead70e523412b21fde79c010797b. “Initial data analysis for longitudinal studies to build a solid foundation for reproducible analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0295726).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295726). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## initial interview
<a id="initial-interview"></a>

An initial interview is the first interview held at the start of a study or intervention, before later sessions or follow-up interviews take place.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1211b0d2dc129fdb7f47588fa0beea5633b5ca031b96be6dfdf82bb3976c7105

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Latinjak Alexander T.; Hernando-Gimeno Cristina; Lorido-Méndez Luz; Hardy James. Endorsement and Constructive Criticism of an Innovative Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01819; article XML SHA-256 9d534e77dee42b5ae52593bfa3096682e6ad146dd477af15dbeb62d9fcb910c1. “Endorsement and Constructive Criticism of an Innovative Online Reflexive Self-Talk Intervention” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01819).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01819). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## initial link
<a id="initial-link"></a>

In this context, initial link means the first evidence of a connection between two phenomena. Here it refers to early findings that connected reward-seeking behavior with dopamine signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a10752f408c13c3976837057bb1cb81c016b730fccc35526727705abe10fd2b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Trujillo-Pisanty Ivan; Conover Kent; Solis Pavel; Palacios Daniel; Shizgal Peter. Dopamine neurons do not constitute an obligatory stage in the final common path for the evaluation and pursuit of brain stimulation reward. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0226722; article XML SHA-256 1da80e29796f3bccd204c86b70c96f42f8378a828ac463346704bd5be576fdc1. “Dopamine neurons do not constitute an obligatory stage in the final common path for the evaluation and pursuit of brain stimulation reward” (10.1371/journal.pone.0226722).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226722). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## injunctive norm
<a id="injunctive-norm"></a>

An injunctive norm is a social norm based on what people believe ought to be done or is morally appropriate in a situation. It reflects perceived social expectations about proper behavior, rather than beliefs about what most people actually do.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0d88504e5b476f82d40246734192cbfef404b9ee78cb0bc46697ba55f6c9727

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sabato Hagit. Thinking of norms—or being told what they are: The effect of social information on donation decisions. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321547; article XML SHA-256 91e43af13de3ffba0ff16e61899b0c7b57af01e48fea7560972369dddf23a65f. “Thinking of norms—or being told what they are: The effect of social information on donation decisions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321547).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321547). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## innate behavior
<a id="innate-behavior"></a>

Innate behavior is an inborn, species-typical pattern of responding that tends to occur in a fixed or predictable way. It reflects evolutionary adaptation to particular kinds of situations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7511e35915d34cd56791ce395aa10214664d24c76adeebd0ce0b5d658bffcc0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Instinct” (D007323).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007323). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## innate ideas
<a id="innate-ideas"></a>

Innate ideas are ideas or principles treated as belonging to the person by nature rather than being gained from personal experience. Historically, the term covered debates about whether people are born with actual thoughts, or instead with built-in forms or tendencies of mind that organize experience; in later discussion, this shifted toward native mental functions rather than a stock of fully formed ideas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0157064db2351d414b0047ae66dde0ec4cc39d810eaf42560735e4ac22283c92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Innate Ideas” (Innatei).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Innatei). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inner conflict
<a id="inner-conflict"></a>

Inner conflict is a state of mental struggle that can happen when an experience clashes with a person’s deeply held moral values or beliefs. It may be accompanied by psychological distress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6992119322157eb34632b731f03b1f0b6f4671e6aca414c84abe8ecbdced27ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dewar Michelle; Paradis Alison; Brillon Pascale. Morally injurious events among aid workers: examining the indirect effect of negative cognitions and self-care in associations with mental health indicators. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1171629; article XML SHA-256 4637bd154b2eb4a7cbc9de7b1c0c12c43d4427f237138510e2909b8511bafedc. “Morally injurious events among aid workers: examining the indirect effect of negative cognitions and self-care in associations with mental health indicators” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1171629).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1171629). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inner dialogue
<a id="inner-dialogue"></a>

Inner dialogue is an internal back-and-forth conversation in the mind, involving linguistic turn-taking between different felt positions or voices within the self. In the source packet, it is described as a spontaneous, persistent experience that can be felt as part of oneself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b33e201e4fa29c49a4cfc5ea3580e932226e25156c471149f7d6da1bbc1d7b43

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zeng Cora. “A thought I can talk to”: dialogical self-regulation through spontaneous inner voice personification in a gifted adolescent. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815412; article XML SHA-256 b684251883f2ec265e5240c4b6f24ec4838802e53eff5007d2bd01c583151f76. ““A thought I can talk to”: dialogical self-regulation through spontaneous inner voice personification in a gifted adolescent” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815412).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815412). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inner-directed
<a id="inner-directed"></a>

Inner-directed refers to a style of social orientation in which a person is guided mainly by internalized principles and values rather than by tradition or immediate peer approval. In the source, this logic is linked to intergenerational cultural transmission as a basis for judging and pursuing social honor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca8cb344c7f7c3d1b402b5cd95148668bef4ab148e76612fd17066e086cfdf80

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Du Shasha; Ohsfeldt Michael. Producing social honor through the hierarchy of study abroad: evidence from Chinese middle class. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fsoc.2026.1780881; article XML SHA-256 8881e07288be8c241641ea0843c442861d1bb2be1d66eaf3ceee0e88f70e6ca7. “Producing social honor through the hierarchy of study abroad: evidence from Chinese middle class” (10.3389/fsoc.2026.1780881).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2026.1780881). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inner ear
<a id="inner-ear"></a>

The inner ear is the part of the ear inside the temporal bone that supports both hearing and balance. It includes the cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd4dee151978e051142b183f548425f5c987edba311f76c23555203f968eee86

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Inner Ear” (C12499).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inner hair cells
<a id="inner-hair-cells"></a>

Inner hair cells are the sound-sensing cells in the organ of Corti of the inner ear. They are typically arranged in a single row toward the modiolus, are fewer than outer hair cells, and have stereocilia that are about twice as thick.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48690a268073408ca8afac1c8a9294206b2905b514cdf7400ad503ddc01a111e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hair Cells, Auditory, Inner” (D006199).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006199). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inner plexiform layer
<a id="inner-plexiform-layer"></a>

The inner plexiform layer is one of the tissue layers that make up the retina of the eye.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d96c5ee865cf6f3bedd12d6e233894c009567023638f89910532c9062c8ec3d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Retina Layer” (C49328).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inner psychophysics
<a id="inner-psychophysics"></a>

In Fechner’s historical usage, inner psychophysics is the part of psychophysics concerned with the intervening process between a stimulus and apperception. It refers to mental functioning as distinct from the outward relation of stimulus to apperception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe1d8bad2acb859da7597c292ebf7f435435ec5e3d7467db0074640dac4a6a2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-1722000-1734000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inner speech
<a id="inner-speech"></a>

Inner speech is speech imagined in the mind without speaking out loud. In this context, it is discussed as a signal that brain-computer systems may try to decode to help restore communication, raising important ethical and privacy concerns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f6c91fdb1c89c61a26c4054e96885cbe56df8292e56f23c938adcb1ad2499cf5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sümer-Arpak Esra; Saini Rajkumar; Chakladar Debashis Das; Varun Sanjeev Kumar; Simistira Liwicki Foteini. The current status of foundation models in decoding inner speech from non-invasive brain signals: a mini review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1838064; article XML SHA-256 83bc3c32eb80ef184832b623426e0b446301c6551cbb625c876835f669b099c2. “The current status of foundation models in decoding inner speech from non-invasive brain signals: a mini review” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1838064).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1838064). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## innervation
<a id="innervation"></a>

Innervation is the supply of nerve fibers to a body structure, allowing neurons to connect with it and influence its activity. In the source example, efferent neurons innervate sensory hair cells in neuromasts by forming synaptic contacts with them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e95ea2c36717aacb76d2af03340ce758d7f851de0466525146316caa477958c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Manuel Remy; Ahemaiti Aikeremu; Tuz-Sasik Melek Umay; Boije Henrik. Single-cell analysis of inhibitory efferent neurons of the zebrafish lateral line. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346255; article XML SHA-256 90b2bb645e92b4a10db23ffc449591cb81dbd48a6e63d747cf612805b94ac558. “Single-cell analysis of inhibitory efferent neurons of the zebrafish lateral line” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346255).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346255). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## innervation ratio
<a id="innervation-ratio"></a>

Innervation ratio is a measure of the relative contribution of different nerves or regenerating axons to a muscle’s nerve supply. In this context, it is used to assess how much muscle reinnervation comes from the original nerve versus a donor nerve after nerve transfer or repair.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a2d9a64f0aeb40add7ece8d5bf1989f69c00e1348c550240735ad27eb612552

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Harnoncourt Leopold; Schmoll Martin; Festin Christopher; Pflaum Laurenz; Breuss Markus; Klepetko Johanna; Dotzauer Dominik C.; Jaklin Florian J.; Maierhofer Udo; Tratnig-Frankl Philipp; Aszmann Oskar C.. Axonal regeneration and innervation ratio following supercharged end-to-side nerve transfer. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fcell.2025.1513321; article XML SHA-256 3c2a3930be7afb46773fc5f6065442d19d69d5caef9ef6e470f4913f39403912. “Axonal regeneration and innervation ratio following supercharged end-to-side nerve transfer” (10.3389/fcell.2025.1513321).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2025.1513321). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inositol
<a id="inositol"></a>

Inositol, specifically myo-inositol in this packet, is a sugar alcohol that helps with osmoregulation and with cell signaling in response to hormones and growth factors. The packet also describes it as having possible anti-inflammatory effects by helping regulate inflammatory responses in cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 080e71b4d012130673e793dd737a8f166168558f3f1979ab543990ec386f72b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Seif Marwa; Dahabiyeh Lina; Al‐Hunaiti Afnan; Semreen Mohammad; Zihlif Malek; Al-Ameer Hamzeh; Imraish Amer. Anti-inflammatory activity and metabolite profiling of myo-inositol in LPS-stimulated macrophages. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341193; article XML SHA-256 a6943acf400cf18b27186e440fdce08527c983ebc777ad8ba8b70aae06cd7640. “Anti-inflammatory activity and metabolite profiling of myo-inositol in LPS-stimulated macrophages” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341193).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341193). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## input
<a id="input"></a>

In this context, input means the sensory information the brain receives, from which it can detect timing patterns and regularities. This incoming information is important for the brain’s ability to synchronize with rhythms that support language production and comprehension.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5bf7a0188dc57383ab2353010b80162aa6acf616ada5d2d993a3d54470ad6143

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Destro Pastizzaro Chiara; Toffoli Lisa; Stefanelli Giulia; Mento Giovanni; Tarantino Vincenza. The efficacy of rhythmic training for enhancing language and reading skills in children: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04969-6; article XML SHA-256 fa50274be3bc19939d48427c72b2810420cdeb8cb7a37ef721d76970a70f25ee. “The efficacy of rhythmic training for enhancing language and reading skills in children: a systematic review” (10.1186/s40359-026-04969-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04969-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## insanity
<a id="insanity"></a>

In this historical source, insanity means a serious departure from normal soundness of mind. It is also used broadly for any form of mental disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5db4de930b21b779a7bdfb6b80c9e0dc9bb8e35d023fa6e749079f3c7307f6ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aberration (mental)” (Aberration (mental)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Aberration (mental)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## insanity defense
<a id="insanity-defense"></a>

The insanity defense is a legal argument that a person is not criminally responsible for an act if, because of a disease of the mind at the time, they could not understand what they were doing or that it was wrong.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8076a06c1c11e7295fa28f2a0d5e39b0f373674b0aa2e61ea95836a4d997ebc2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Insanity Defense” (D007298).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007298). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## insecure attachment
<a id="insecure-attachment"></a>

Insecure attachment is a clinically relevant psychological feature discussed in major depressive disorder research. In this context, it refers to an attachment-related difficulty linked with greater depression severity, partly through poorer access to emotion regulation strategies and anhedonia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8781b67e15c75f8ef5b586f060ca4e904715ed37e9ca925b0910a99ffbd142b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [İleri Akdoğan Turceun; Nazik Ekinci Rabia; Kaya Hasan; Göka Erol. Pathways to anhedonia in unmedicated major depressive disorder: the roles of insecure attachment and emotion dysregulation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883292; article XML SHA-256 8e23a6bed2017c8af4e0a186cff3dca2d9a630c7655b3d060c9091e12fc77500. “Pathways to anhedonia in unmedicated major depressive disorder: the roles of insecure attachment and emotion dysregulation” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883292).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883292). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## insecurity
<a id="insecurity"></a>

Insecurity is a feeling of uncertainty or anxiety that things are not stable, fixed, or safe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bba4f4c5baf32ac232987f241eb576d7c8a6252b6ba9bad3d6149a5bc746b5f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Insecurity” (C171543).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## insensible
<a id="insensible"></a>

In this historical usage, insensible means so slight or gradual as to escape direct notice. It refers to a change thought to occur without being distinctly perceived at each step.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2ee022ac61d18d819511bb80fd1e62d7d9841d04908a490fa755c2331d9296ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1690500-1702500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## insight
<a id="insight"></a>

Insight is a relatively direct grasp of deeper or subtler truth. In historical psychology and philosophy, the term could mean either this penetrating kind of understanding or a supposed higher faculty of intuition or contemplation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54a9650d28c0b0671f74cde26f793779298086da515f82bb28c02dd7aa324856

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Insight” (Insight).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Insight). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## insomnia
<a id="insomnia"></a>

Insomnia is sleeplessness or difficulty sleeping. It can mean a marked shortfall from a person’s usual sleep, most often used for a more lasting problem, and may involve poor quality of sleep as well as too little sleep.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c0260c3d7901493ec1db35c463da5aa2caef16d1cc8187c50ad7988b33b98d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Insomnia” (Insomnia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Insomnia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## insomnia disorder
<a id="insomnia-disorder"></a>

Insomnia disorder is a sleep problem marked by ongoing difficulty with sleep that can take varied forms and follow different courses over time. It is associated with reduced quality of life and general health, and with poorer mental health outcomes such as depression and risk of self-harm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a5d9c80f47914b33f298d83c75e60f9449cd4bbc7a755c69d0defa232c206e2b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Yujing; Pan Jiyang; Cheng Hanrong; Xiao Li; Zhang Wenjing; Huang Hui; Liu Kezhi; Fang Leqin; Ma Wenbin; Xia Yan; Li Jinghui; Lv Dongsheng; Hu Yanyu; Chang Yi; Wang Zan; Tao Haojuan; Zhang Chunrong; Li Chenyu; Peng Yanhui; Zhao Qiying; Zhang Yunshu; Mei Junhua; Wang Xuehang; Wei Ting; Zhou Mingqing; Zhang Yi; Chen Qiuqiang; Chan Ngan Yin; Zhang Bin; Wing Yun Kwok; Lei Binbin; Zhang Jihui. Digital multi-modal approaches to subtyping insomnia disorder (DIMOSI): study design, rationale, digital platform, and preliminary baseline characteristics of a national prospective cohort study. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07648-9; article XML SHA-256 b3a46f953569e3db62e987df09c229a1a46741b6ffa5d70252dde3c7bd457523. “Digital multi-modal approaches to subtyping insomnia disorder (DIMOSI): study design, rationale, digital platform, and preliminary baseline characteristics of a national prospective cohort study” (10.1186/s12888-025-07648-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07648-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inspection time
<a id="inspection-time"></a>

Inspection time is a measure of how quickly a person can recognize visual objects in a visuo-cognitive task. In this source, it is described as an index of object-recognition speed linked to the ventral visual pathway and studied in relation to fluid intelligence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f8ea4a67df87b8997a22f6b65a7fdf619b126c62cc2deeb49142f631c021f84

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tachibana Ryosuke; Namba Yuri; Noguchi Yasuki. Two Speed Factors of Visual Recognition Independently Correlated with Fluid Intelligence. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0097429; article XML SHA-256 da214054513ea1d94ecec87ab4f2d4944a08c16298e157c63cc9600b953269e2. “Two Speed Factors of Visual Recognition Independently Correlated with Fluid Intelligence” (10.1371/journal.pone.0097429).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0097429). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inspiration
<a id="inspiration"></a>

Inspiration is an experience understood as a supernatural influence that enlightens or moves the human mind. In a narrower theological sense, it refers to the belief that the writers of Christian scripture were guided by the Holy Spirit so that their writings conveyed the divine message.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3354d3df0a594a20bd7b96acd756d028c799a6fa369cbbd05af33764e4b357c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Inspiration” (Inspiration).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Inspiration). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## instability
<a id="instability"></a>

Instability is a general term for a tendency toward mental or nervous disintegration or dissociation. In psychology, it especially refers to weak persistence or reduced effectiveness in functions that depend on synthesis and organization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ec8e4a31e2c3ed48048d6127be0fb34a330945e54a2963912af96ebc43190e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Instability” (Instability).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Instability). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Instinct
<a id="instinct"></a>

Instinct is a stereotyped pattern of response that is typical of a species. It reflects evolutionary adaptation to a particular type of situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2cc80698207a842b47a925d5581e54325443964f293841bee01a182693d0b81c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Instinct” (D007323).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007323). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## instinctive behavior
<a id="instinctive-behavior"></a>

Instinctive behavior is behavior understood as inborn and inherited, rather than acquired through learning or deliberate conscious control. In the source material, it is discussed as part of Darwin’s view that such behavior is genetically programmed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5034e4173da0b70c6d5b40ab153da5f016f406ba22fcb50e87b8363852121086

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ludwig Robert J.; Welch Martha G.. Darwin’s Other Dilemmas and the Theoretical Roots of Emotional Connection. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00683; article XML SHA-256 b6f926c6df138efb872d0d529e13c762df1418aaa160148feb7b4472e943730a. “Darwin’s Other Dilemmas and the Theoretical Roots of Emotional Connection” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00683).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00683). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## institution
<a id="institution"></a>

An institution is an established and effective arrangement for achieving a particular purpose, such as in business or education. In this historical source, major kinds include social institutions run by society and political institutions run by the state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc8e69e02c048a7d624babb0bc0f2647f13f14c0b708be05665f7e2c16c4e39d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Institution” (Institution).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Institution). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## institutional care
<a id="institutional-care"></a>

Institutional care is longer-term care provided in a psychiatric or social care institution for some people with mental health problems. The source also indicates that internationally agreed standards for the quality of this kind of care are lacking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 57c40de54687c52092ad017ce831a07c1fea462b9241ef768ab085f84e8420b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Taylor Tatiana L; Killaspy Helen; Wright Christine; Turton Penny; White Sarah; Kallert Thomas W; Schuster Mirjam; Cervilla Jorge A; Brangier Paulette; Raboch Jiri; Kališová Lucie; Onchev Georgi; Dimitrov Hristo; Mezzina Roberto; Wolf Kinou; Wiersma Durk; Visser Ellen; Kiejna Andrzej; Piotrowski Patryk; Ploumpidis Dimitri; Gonidakis Fragiskos; Caldas-de-Almeida José; Cardoso Graça; King Michael B. A systematic review of the international published literature relating to quality of institutional care for people with longer term mental health problems. 2009; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-9-55; article XML SHA-256 0a8ebf32e1d4629a957224e4efedfa5eebc8f91980df1cabd6bdd4fe5ef4a853. “A systematic review of the international published literature relating to quality of institutional care for people with longer term mental health problems” (10.1186/1471-244x-9-55).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-9-55). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## institutional review board
<a id="institutional-review-board"></a>

An institutional review board is an independent committee set up by an organization to protect the rights, safety, and well-being of people taking part in biomedical or behavioral research. It reviews research plans, changes to those plans, and the informed consent process on an ongoing basis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 882dc583b8fa34368fd32ab390a3acafb828ba65641b4a522ad31a874ae8626e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Institutional Review Board” (C16741).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## institutionalization
<a id="institutionalization"></a>

Institutionalization is a form of contact with the criminal legal system in which a person is placed in an institution. In this context, it is treated as a relatively more severe legal-system contact and is associated with mental health symptoms such as anxiety, depression, hostility, and psychoticism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 20fa0a25b4872e4a2389cedf975dd6141ad5a21321ed8b60bf56fdadde12b80c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Oliveira Raquel V.; Culatta Elizabeth. Effects of differential contacts with the criminal legal system on mental health outcomes of adolescents and young adults: A fixed-effects model. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344895; article XML SHA-256 7d420f67b09612f5660a981675e4551265e1d6280eda278051be06bf0f121d33. “Effects of differential contacts with the criminal legal system on mental health outcomes of adolescents and young adults: A fixed-effects model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344895).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344895). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## institutionalized racism
<a id="institutionalized-racism"></a>

Institutionalized racism is racism built into a society’s laws, policies, and everyday institutional practices. It gives advantages to racial groups treated as superior while limiting access to resources, services, and opportunities for groups treated as inferior, often without any single identifiable perpetrator.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e8b43b978ea914192d9d193b80a4798fbee8ad4d1a6f1eea765378b13442ec6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Systemic Racism” (D000091722).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000091722). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## instructed learning
<a id="instructed-learning"></a>

Instructed learning is learning that takes place through direct, teacher-led teaching rather than through self-guided study. In this source, it corresponds to conventional formats such as lectures and seminars.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b6baf6afed365df4e9ac314186432c800a6bdbdbbf3a4e08c9ee1a3da1d7efe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Peine Arne; Kabino Klaus; Spreckelsen Cord. Self-directed learning can outperform direct instruction in the course of a modern German medical curriculum - results of a mixed methods trial. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12909-016-0679-0; article XML SHA-256 8d68d64b2eedc5c2dcb5cbbbf86ec904b5bc30f961d48fb363a32f1c5d72622b. “Self-directed learning can outperform direct instruction in the course of a modern German medical curriculum - results of a mixed methods trial” (10.1186/s12909-016-0679-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-016-0679-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## instructional set
<a id="instructional-set"></a>

An instructional set is the specific set of directions or framing given before a task that can shape how people make judgments or respond. In this context, it refers to instructions that oriented reviewers toward different goals, which then influenced their competence ratings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1296b8688f6e0f982e14f278841eb06329dd2f31f321c2f3e40063d5a623c87d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hernández-Colón Isabelle Rios; Caño Annmarie; Wurm Lee H.; Sanders Gavin; Nava Jennifer. Instructional Set Moderates the Effect of GRE on Faculty Appraisals of Applicant Competence: A Vignette Study With Implications for Holistic Review. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749621; article XML SHA-256 b25c0dd8e5f77e4280521d706b4fb2b8dbdf6c4c40abc5c5cffeb75580b986c4. “Instructional Set Moderates the Effect of GRE on Faculty Appraisals of Applicant Competence: A Vignette Study With Implications for Holistic Review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749621).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749621). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## instructional treatment
<a id="instructional-treatment"></a>

Instructional treatment is the teaching or learning experience given to learners as part of an educational intervention or lesson sequence. In this context, it refers to the instruction children receive, which can vary in how much it improves their skills from one child to another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f665b37c8b4337d2015cc6c16ab6e22a7f0f81ed6545eb6c0ac309ca48d3fc2b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schlatter Erika; Molenaar Inge; Lazonder Ard W.. Individual Differences in Children’s Development of Scientific Reasoning Through Inquiry-Based Instruction: Who Needs Additional Guidance?. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00904; article XML SHA-256 71791fd548b176a13a87e7b3b1f45212e9c81ca72cce0065d37b5c9c99a9c137. “Individual Differences in Children’s Development of Scientific Reasoning Through Inquiry-Based Instruction: Who Needs Additional Guidance?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00904).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00904). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## instrument
<a id="instrument"></a>

In this context, an instrument is a variable used in an instrumental variable method to help estimate the causal effect of a health intervention. It is used to reduce bias from confounding by unmeasured factors, including in studies where the instrument and confounders can change over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f7bde5c80ae7ffc54b4380ab98140fdad34650349f1f911943a813f1594b885

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tompsett Daniel; Vansteelandt Stijn; Grieve Richard; Dixon Will; Gomes Manuel. Instrumental variable approaches for estimating time-varying treatment effects in comparative effectiveness research. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12874-025-02625-y; article XML SHA-256 6e7be6f2828506c749e371d8364455136798b82d4337238882ff3766846eeaab. “Instrumental variable approaches for estimating time-varying treatment effects in comparative effectiveness research” (10.1186/s12874-025-02625-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-025-02625-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## instrumental activities of daily living
<a id="instrumental-activities-of-daily-living"></a>

Instrumental activities of daily living are the more complex everyday tasks needed for independent living in the community, such as shopping, cooking, commuting, and managing household affairs. Compared with basic self-care activities, they place greater demands on memory, attention, executive abilities, and physical functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a8e4be87a2976447c1695650017e2afc7881eb929d075edd2a3638f873663e86

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barakat Zainab; Sacre Hala; Khatib Sarah; Hajj Aline; BouMalham Carmela; Haddad Chadia; Zeenny Rony M; Akel Marwan; Abbas Linda Abou; Barakat Marc; Rachidi Samar; Salameh Pascale. A contemporary tool for assessing instrumental activities of daily living: Validation of a caregiver-reported scale for non-institutionalized older adults. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322554; article XML SHA-256 762d61ae162e2a6801a3e94a291ca131920bdce102f8405a985a3f01e33a5ea7. “A contemporary tool for assessing instrumental activities of daily living: Validation of a caregiver-reported scale for non-institutionalized older adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322554).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322554). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## instrumental behavior
<a id="instrumental-behavior"></a>

Instrumental behavior is goal-directed action used to obtain a desired outcome, such as working on a food-reinforced task to get preferred food. In this context, it refers to behaviors whose amount can shift with the effort required, with individuals choosing more or less demanding ways of seeking the same reward.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be21d43985775cfd37c44bcb01643b3c92e486c77e40d150c64993ebf6fcc075

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Randall Patrick A.; Pardo Marta; Nunes Eric J.; López Cruz Laura; Vemuri V. Kiran; Makriyannis Alex; Baqi Younis; Müller Christa E.; Correa Mercè; Salamone John D.. Dopaminergic Modulation of Effort-Related Choice Behavior as Assessed by a Progressive Ratio Chow Feeding Choice Task: Pharmacological Studies and the Role of Individual Differences. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0047934; article XML SHA-256 717da848e44c73e6fb1f471273eb8c83cfe767df3e5a495646977d6556b6e617. “Dopaminergic Modulation of Effort-Related Choice Behavior as Assessed by a Progressive Ratio Chow Feeding Choice Task: Pharmacological Studies and the Role of Individual Differences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0047934).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0047934). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## instrumental conditioning
<a id="instrumental-conditioning"></a>

Instrumental conditioning is a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped through performing a task, initially in a goal-directed way but, with repeated practice, often becoming more automatic and habit-like. In this process, behaviour can become less flexible and less sensitive to changes in the value of the outcome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b5eb2ad9ea9372b988ebe4df81fcbb9c076882a53847a10495d83aec32445f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lansade Léa; Marchand Alain R.; Coutureau Etienne; Ballé Cyrielle; Polli Floriane; Calandreau Ludovic. Personality and predisposition to form habit behaviours during instrumental conditioning in horses ( Equus caballus ). 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0171010; article XML SHA-256 c7411d385fd14d7c1632e18edb4112d161f71c9aff136623e1981405c029d1db. “Personality and predisposition to form habit behaviours during instrumental conditioning in horses ( Equus caballus )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0171010).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171010). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## instrumental learning
<a id="instrumental-learning"></a>

Instrumental learning is a form of learning in which a person's actions help bring about reinforcement. When the person makes the correct choice from possible responses, that response is reinforced right away.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8a35b7cbe54fbfad2d32dc1a77183437eae2e1375feb7cdb08811cf20de61cb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Conditioning, Operant” (D003216).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003216). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## instrumental response
<a id="instrumental-response"></a>

An instrumental response is an action chosen because a person or animal has learned from its consequences which response works best for a given cue or situation. It contrasts with Pavlovian tendencies that are automatically drawn toward reward-related cues or away from punishment-related cues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39247c16d195b151d85f58d99d2fd791ce1cef7b97f65d6fb3b6690fbbac6d78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Hyeonjin; Hur Jihyun K; Kwon Mina; Kim Soyeon; Zoh Yoonseo; Ahn Woo-Young. Causal role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in modulating the balance between Pavlovian and instrumental systems in the punishment domain. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0286632; article XML SHA-256 b976410cf3b9ea3930660c243ae2e1651a3387b0e07b533a170e7315dc1e1d0b. “Causal role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in modulating the balance between Pavlovian and instrumental systems in the punishment domain” (10.1371/journal.pone.0286632).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286632). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## instrumentalism
<a id="instrumentalism"></a>

In developmental psychology, instrumentalism refers to treating childhood mainly as a means to future adult outcomes rather than valuing the child’s present experience and agency. In this adult-centered view, development is framed as preparation for a later ideal instead of a reciprocal, current process of becoming.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 112e43a1f7daadded6975a1d6f4bd45b6446282a5017c8f86af347b3b3f9b045

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Yao; Yang Xi. The ontological inversion: transcending adultcentrism in the concept of development for the critical deconstruction of bleak pedagogy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794220; article XML SHA-256 d3d22ac55fa9289f04514c5d052c8e04702f8c5ffb137d7f04e397ca132701cb. “The ontological inversion: transcending adultcentrism in the concept of development for the critical deconstruction of bleak pedagogy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794220).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794220). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## insula
<a id="insula"></a>

The insula is a tucked-in region of the cerebral cortex on the brain’s outer side, located at the base of the Sylvian fissure. It helps with emotional and memory-related processing and with higher-level automatic body regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7fd75e323d426a05c7c2f6cb2a6cfa6b01ddae7013dde78a6a341684ab3cef79

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Insula” (C32817).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## insulin
<a id="insulin"></a>

Insulin is a peripheral hormone signal that the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus helps integrate with other body and neural signals to regulate food intake and energy use. When this signaling is dysregulated, it may contribute to persistently increased appetite and reduced energy expenditure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e41ae3ee1c64d50ce83cb4e6196c334e0867ab07bbad97190a621782bbd7d744

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Hui; Zhang Junshen; Wang Yang; Xu Guanjinghui; Zhao Junjie; Fu Xiao; Bai Guanghui; Pan Bujian. Brain structural and functional changes in childhood and adolescent obesity: a systematic review of MRI studies. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1920260; article XML SHA-256 be15744af11a73746623eabb9242c9f271e0e4e8c19eec48f8eb6c64a94645c2. “Brain structural and functional changes in childhood and adolescent obesity: a systematic review of MRI studies” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1920260).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1920260). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## integral
<a id="integral"></a>

Integral means forming a whole out of parts that are in some way distinct, especially as an integral whole. It can also mean that something is one of the distinct parts belonging to a whole, as in an integral part.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df930bd6c318a286f25b527b55054314bac60a3d0fa0ae946e50c7141dc604bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Integral” (Integral).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Integral). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## integrated care
<a id="integrated-care"></a>

Integrated care is an approach to health and social care that tries to meet complex needs through coordinated, collaborative service delivery across settings. It brings together hospitals with services such as community and primary care so resources and care can be better aligned with people’s needs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 72f8608f214c3bca9440ed82f001742d8147388754b182321f1cbbab2cfb3579

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Demir Eren; Yakutcan Usame; Page Stephen. Research-informed decision-making for empowering integrated care system development: Co-creating innovative solutions to facilitate enhanced service provision. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321994; article XML SHA-256 360f0a2149d8491b0d383568f91d9a94d43953c377442be0e15afab5257cd302. “Research-informed decision-making for empowering integrated care system development: Co-creating innovative solutions to facilitate enhanced service provision” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321994).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321994). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## integrated model
<a id="integrated-model"></a>

An integrated model is a framework that brings together multiple kinds of influences on a behavior so they can be examined at once. In this source, it refers to using Andersen’s model to understand vaccination behavior through predisposing, enabling, and need-related factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c7ffab523209bc1ed47c3fa7e51612966b480d03fbf8ac0bd97c0bfa48b99dd9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim So-Hyun; Jung Minsoo. Disentangling behavioral determinants of seasonal influenza vaccination in post-corona era: An integrated model approach. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323184; article XML SHA-256 a84cf17874439a6940ae78a27991416c2a163745caf66ec9bad0d12cb0d32af3. “Disentangling behavioral determinants of seasonal influenza vaccination in post-corona era: An integrated model approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323184).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323184). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## integrated system
<a id="integrated-system"></a>

An integrated system is a research tool used to assess quality of life in people with cancer who are taking part in clinical trials or other studies. It brings together measures of daily functioning, common symptoms, overall health and quality of life, and selected individual concerns such as sleep, appetite, bowel problems, breathing, and financial difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2920a2cef1dc006a05a0a5b1b1d90cd63f9e96513f1143747c36294d725ac0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “EORTC Quality of Life Questionnaire-Core 30” (C176836).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## integration
<a id="integration"></a>

In this learning-related context, integration refers to combining information from different senses into a single, more efficient perceptual process. This merging across sensory modalities can improve how a person perceives and responds to information, and it is distinct from simple sensitivity to input within one sense.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11bd38b83be3a69a4d550a4814275c6a281648ab724f1955be601e05e8549740

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hare Carolynn; Luszawski Michelle; Schulz Samantha E.; Arnaout Yassmine; Stevenson Ryan A.. Examining the independent and combined effects of autistic and ADHD traits on multisensory integration. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1824956; article XML SHA-256 68c7e3d197d7561aab88f060d065921db29bbc37287915e98b7c7172bc1c3b9a. “Examining the independent and combined effects of autistic and ADHD traits on multisensory integration” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1824956).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1824956). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## integrative complexity
<a id="integrative-complexity"></a>

Integrative complexity is a cognitive feature concerned with how a person processes information in their response, rather than how much information is given or how good it is.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c909ff29507e64ca678c05b9b0d02589bbef9cc3aad925c63a619e6a723b8bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Molina Isaac; Molina-Perez Edmundo; Sobrino Fernanda; Tellez-Rojas Mario Arturo; Zamora-Maldonado Hilda C.; Plaza-Ferreira María; Orozco Yessica; Espinoza-Juarez Victor; Serra-Barragán Luis; De Unanue Adolfo. Current research trends on cognition, integrative complexity, and decision-making: a systematic literature review using activity theory and neuroscience. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1156696; article XML SHA-256 7ffe3f4c6171af18322634c9d51230646893570461ddc3b75a61c75181fc5dbf. “Current research trends on cognition, integrative complexity, and decision-making: a systematic literature review using activity theory and neuroscience” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1156696).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1156696). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## integrative medicine
<a id="integrative-medicine"></a>

Integrative medicine is an approach that combines conventional medical care with alternative medicine. It aims to address health and illness across biological, psychological, social, and spiritual dimensions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9245d019f20682190d4cb930fe958658a9da7172cfd3aea218e1b6575be60393

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Integrative Medicine” (D055048).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055048). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## integrity
<a id="integrity"></a>

In this context, integrity means following ethical standards in academic work. It refers to conducting academic tasks in an ethically appropriate way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a8ea5ec119b3f35f4f46fe5323b4c825a8bf6cd203fc793f03b0f355f164c8c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhen Xiaofei; Lian Xiaolian. The use of AI tools in academic writing and its associations with college students' critical thinking and academic integrity: a path analysis involving self-regulated learning and innovative behavior. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845571; article XML SHA-256 37940dd3cd5d0002d715bc7d54fd8ad4e776806e4257a1ca0e7b9bb7d6c55306. “The use of AI tools in academic writing and its associations with college students' critical thinking and academic integrity: a path analysis involving self-regulated learning and innovative behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845571).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845571). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intellect
<a id="intellect"></a>

Intellect is the capacity for abstract, symbolic thought. In the source framework, it is described as a higher-level form of cognition that emerges within a hierarchy of self-representations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b25070e366cb193423fba562a4aa8605ce3e3dbf4ec869cef96bb8d64ffa796e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pivovarov Igor. TEVSER: a theory of evolving self-representations. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1858621; article XML SHA-256 7bacfe1e4f89ab43500e2a50ba6c082c31c00d07f803b8d13b4ef76ded11e668. “TEVSER: a theory of evolving self-representations” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1858621).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1858621). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intellectual disability
<a id="intellectual-disability"></a>

Intellectual disability is below-average intellectual functioning that begins during the developmental period. It can have different causes, including genetic problems and injuries or complications around birth, and IQ scores are commonly used as part of identifying it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb4543db3148cec4dc27a53783ec85417ca7fc70d998b67dc7bf673e97cb276b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Intellectual Disability” (D008607).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008607). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intellectual insight
<a id="intellectual-insight"></a>

Intellectual insight is an understanding reached at the level of thought or explanation without a matching shift in felt experience or behavior. In this sense, a person can clearly describe what is happening yet remain unchanged emotionally and in action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d85ac96a81010d3e9fc2da8797ac310f2ca7cc4d5045e426769f9363d58dfe5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Agin-Liebes Gabrielle; Shnayder Sarah; Fram Geena; Swift Thomas Cody; Ching Terence; Jankovsky Anastasia; Hokanson Jamila; Pittenger Christopher; Kelmendi Benjamin. Surrender, disidentification, and reappraisal: a qualitative comparison of psilocybin responders and non-responders in treatment-resistant OCD. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1791689; article XML SHA-256 ddcce76e51411b0aad2cfae67492b8fd47c14d0aaf6cd81fdb50bef8196c6350. “Surrender, disidentification, and reappraisal: a qualitative comparison of psilocybin responders and non-responders in treatment-resistant OCD” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1791689).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1791689). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intellectual stimulation
<a id="intellectual-stimulation"></a>

In this historical source, intellectual stimulation means a sharpening or quickening of mental activity. It refers especially to easier flow of familiar associations and a clearer, more active sensory and thinking life, as described in connection with caffeine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e271ec85e33e9876f454014b8256665bb76147602442043dc04e0d39e95d1ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2142000-2154000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intellectualism
<a id="intellectualism"></a>

Intellectualism is the view that thinking or knowing is the most basic mental function, with feeling and will explained in terms of it. In philosophy, it also means the view that thought or reason is the ultimate principle of reality, or that reality can be fully understood by thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3c07be7c146dbc0d2195601869d49253f013267cec82b66584311d086c56558

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Intellectualism” (Intellectualism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Intellectualism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intelligence
<a id="intelligence"></a>

Intelligence is the capacity to learn, handle new situations, and work effectively on tasks that involve abstract thinking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bb6b729a28857ef9ae751fb912ee75ed97a77b8d1b2012254369b47aae75d9c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Intelligence” (D007360).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007360). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intelligence quotient
<a id="intelligence-quotient"></a>

Intelligence quotient is a score from a standardized test that estimates a person’s intelligence relative to the general population.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44e189ec13fcf13d78bdf44aa6b7f231ed077b7f04ea37da9d74e06b1ec791a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Intelligence Quotient” (C115125).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intelligence test
<a id="intelligence-test"></a>

An intelligence test is an assessment used to measure a person’s cognitive abilities. It can provide an overall measure of cognitive functioning or evaluate specific areas of thinking ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0dc701aa5a9289f68ddbaf64652ac773e96967cac6bfca98d921fb8d1d660ed2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Intelligence Scale” (C122920).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intelligent design
<a id="intelligent-design"></a>

Intelligent design is a non-scientific, supernatural explanation for the origin of life and the diversity of species. In this context, it is contrasted with scientific ways of knowing and discussed as an example of the kinds of thinking errors linked to non-science views.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 208ba7974a965f356b616de6bbe7e1835f9d093f67dd62a13ff0c4ae7a5a2f86

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Honey P. Lynne. Why I teach the controversy: using creationism to teach critical thinking. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00793; article XML SHA-256 056a08d940c46d00ec91e4528882ad3b8b961de41c9fb0ac52e3a6355e8bdbcf. “Why I teach the controversy: using creationism to teach critical thinking” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00793).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00793). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intensive care syndrome
<a id="intensive-care-syndrome"></a>

Intensive care syndrome, more specifically post-intensive care syndrome, refers to physical, psychological, and cognitive problems that develop during an ICU stay and may continue after leaving intensive care or after hospital discharge. It can affect the quality of life of both ICU survivors and their families.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66dc85fad2d01dbd8d02132252ac21a855e44934a1cadbec251cf11232a854ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ayenew Temesgen; Gete Menberu; Gedfew Mihretie; Getie Addisu; Afenigus Abebe Dilie; Edmealem Afework; Amha Haile; Alem Girma; Tiruneh Bekele Getenet; Messelu Mengistu Abebe. Prevalence of Post-intensive care syndrome among intensive care unit-survivors and its association with intensive care unit length of stay: Systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323311; article XML SHA-256 51db9a9a4709f79d5746c154ad3db69cd2af61e36d514843c07318b3e892b9b9. “Prevalence of Post-intensive care syndrome among intensive care unit-survivors and its association with intensive care unit length of stay: Systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323311).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323311). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intensive care unit
<a id="intensive-care-unit"></a>

An intensive care unit (ICU) is a hospital area for patients who are sick enough to need especially close monitoring and care. In this setting, longer stays are linked with problems such as sleep disruption, delirium, functional decline, and hospital-acquired infection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 058435df2000bf9aeb43839f3b61b8beb2d1a276f786cef531b1eec2d6082eef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kelleher Art Burgess; O’Donovan Mark; O’Doherty Deborah; Lavery Ros; Lehane Elaine; Saab Mohamad M.. The effect of exogenous melatonin and melatonin receptor agonists on intensive care unit and hospital length of stay: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332031; article XML SHA-256 4e968bc0e49b0a2cfc0318cd16fafe901dde7763a1efdfdb62bec9add54ff101. “The effect of exogenous melatonin and melatonin receptor agonists on intensive care unit and hospital length of stay: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332031).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332031). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intention
<a id="intention"></a>

Intention is a person’s mental aim or plan about what they want to do or make happen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 419e896c33e17c4fc2432f705cdc0793d6addaddc3bdf0bdf3ab55a27aa5afd7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Intention” (D033182).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D033182). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intentionality
<a id="intentionality"></a>

In this context, intentionality means whether mind wandering happens on purpose or without intending it. It distinguishes deliberate shifts of thought from unintentional ones and can be related to differences in what people think about.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1741e8c0364708587c6419bbeccbfa8949727435dd3d38b6d96f111f4e3b67c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guan Siqing; Takahashi Toru; Kumano Hiroaki. Is the intentionality of mind wandering associated with the combined dimensions of temporal orientation and emotional valence?. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03821-7; article XML SHA-256 40fe696fac41dc62787478427041fcca17b3f09da0d9c05b70416a513bbfa570. “Is the intentionality of mind wandering associated with the combined dimensions of temporal orientation and emotional valence?” (10.1186/s40359-025-03821-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03821-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interaction
<a id="interaction"></a>

In research methods, an interaction occurs when the effect of one independent variable changes depending on the level of another independent variable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 25d07e0c17172d194631bd39affef95e433685c7e3c809826abb1ac8da759ed0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Interaction” (interaction.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/interaction.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interaction effect
<a id="interaction-effect"></a>

An interaction effect is when the effect of an intervention changes depending on a group characteristic or other key variable. In this source, testing an interaction effect means examining whether treatment effects differ between groups, such as across racial groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cefd2cc19541088330011a17413ba455e1e50eb1df348f65f774738ab5ac0551

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Chen; Berkalieva Asem; Mazumdar Madhu; Kwon Deukwoo. Power calculation for detecting interaction effect in cross-sectional stepped-wedge cluster randomized trials: an important tool for disparity research. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12874-024-02162-0; article XML SHA-256 205484023269303dfad4e7c751194866077da3bcabdd20b66f63f986b421c709. “Power calculation for detecting interaction effect in cross-sectional stepped-wedge cluster randomized trials: an important tool for disparity research” (10.1186/s12874-024-02162-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-024-02162-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interactional synchrony
<a id="interactional-synchrony"></a>

Interactional synchrony is the way two people’s body movements line up in time during social interaction, either on purpose or spontaneously. It is described as an important part of successful human interaction, and lower synchrony can reflect reduced sensitivity or attention to the other person’s movements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b2d6f0cd67540fd91dde674cfff4ec35c854f79528bfe6ce5f929d3bb4c949be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fitzpatrick Paula; Frazier Jean A.; Cochran David M.; Mitchell Teresa; Coleman Caitlin; Schmidt R. C.. Impairments of Social Motor Synchrony Evident in Autism Spectrum Disorder. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01323; article XML SHA-256 296fe6d03effca7dc52c14aa7a967f16c7a3a8327e993da0ad2feea9c67ce79c. “Impairments of Social Motor Synchrony Evident in Autism Spectrum Disorder” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01323).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01323). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interactive advertising
<a id="interactive-advertising"></a>

Interactive advertising is advertising designed so people actively engage with the content rather than only view it passively. In the source packet, this involves augmented-reality ads that respond to a user’s position and hand gestures to show different videos or images.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6432698d3cb2a10e7f40f47a4bc9ab3fa3d32564970529a7c224d456f22b6e0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Qiujiao; Xie Zhijie. ARIAS: An AR-based interactive advertising system. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285838; article XML SHA-256 1df4538d148b6ddb6091107d05b5497be083092e09a1557f5fdd37f06ffa8449. “ARIAS: An AR-based interactive advertising system” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285838).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285838). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interaural difference
<a id="interaural-difference"></a>

Interaural difference is the difference between the two ears on a measured auditory variable. In this source, it refers specifically to the left-versus-right ear difference in central conduction time along the auditory pathway.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da070cce010c5dd4da39d16ce2c933d47ea7b9b193162dda8cad4d6dad09593c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Xu-Jun; Lau Chi-Chuen. Central conduction time in auditory brainstem response and ear advantage in dichotic listening across menstrual cycle. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0187672; article XML SHA-256 cd05fadfc08bbdfb06e09800b9e06283eb65514091a01c851dc1f5bc413dcb65. “Central conduction time in auditory brainstem response and ear advantage in dichotic listening across menstrual cycle” (10.1371/journal.pone.0187672).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0187672). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intercoder reliability
<a id="intercoder-reliability"></a>

Intercoder reliability is the consistency with which different reviewers apply the same coding or screening decisions. In this source, it is supported by having reviewers work independently first and then compare and discuss disagreements so the criteria are applied more consistently.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 34d20b0bba06968eeac625d4a0c2bd26f257bb73899c942fa99d4e367264de89

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sodunke Temitayo; Agyapong-Opoku Gerald; Anjorin Omolayo; Agyapong Belinda; Sulyman Mutiat; Sridharan Sanjana; Henry Somtoo Rita; Eboreime Ejemai. Experiences of immigrants when accessing mental health services and psychosocial supports in Canada: Protocol for a scoping review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319743; article XML SHA-256 82b16725102cd05e225b52095b6e91aad5917f9ed4b625d0d4f73ba46e2775c5. “Experiences of immigrants when accessing mental health services and psychosocial supports in Canada: Protocol for a scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319743).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319743). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interdependence
<a id="interdependence"></a>

Interdependence is a condition in which people’s tasks or efforts are closely linked, so they need to work with one another to reach a shared goal. In teams, higher task interdependence generally promotes cooperation and helps align individual effort with the group’s objectives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e90b01ce75241b8579e7fa6a8e7a5b7f6b64b5b766dd0db38d870038bbd0749

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Xinchun; Wang Zhi; Xu Xianzhi. Research on the impact of team reward interdependence on employees’ innovative behavior in enterprises: a cross-level moderated mediation model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736513; article XML SHA-256 64b8b89fd441add0a78c4c90132edea09ca39486c2d93730e34f3e120080fb93. “Research on the impact of team reward interdependence on employees’ innovative behavior in enterprises: a cross-level moderated mediation model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736513).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736513). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interdisciplinary approach
<a id="interdisciplinary-approach"></a>

An interdisciplinary approach is a way of studying or addressing a problem by bringing together multiple fields of expertise rather than relying on just one. In this source, it means combining medicine, philosophy, sociology, and psychology to examine sensitive communication about severe diagnoses, with philosophy playing a central role in shaping the study and interpreting its results.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ac06382e1858109200f596f4132cd92fa23580c82e62dd5933176d7152b9b716

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Consolandi Monica. Philosophy leading the way: An interdisciplinary approach to study communication of severe diagnoses. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305937; article XML SHA-256 e076c2174bcbc0381f35185ad15517305d132edbfb32e04f4fe591636394d2ca. “Philosophy leading the way: An interdisciplinary approach to study communication of severe diagnoses” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305937).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305937). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interest
<a id="interest"></a>

Interest is a mental state of being curious, concerned, or attentive toward something.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e9de25825f25424b9f70658564c7a14ec9467650d3b7b6289642f557e9a2cb31

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Interest” (C60730).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interference
<a id="interference"></a>

Interference is the combining of wave effects so that they either strengthen each other or cancel each other out, as in hearing and vision. By analogy in psychology and physiology, it also means the mutual checking or cancellation of processes as inferred from their observable results.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b1a23e9c3722f46e8a977bf88253efdffe99809799366fd38f00cc10f387f656

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Interference” (Interference).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Interference). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intergenerational trauma
<a id="intergenerational-trauma"></a>

Intergenerational trauma is ongoing emotional distress seen in later generations of people who survived large-scale traumatic events, where descendants may experience effects as though they had lived through those events themselves. These trauma-related effects can continue across generations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0e578d5d13b19e7309e412e3b559fa1a5b2673cfa8a9334687882d0cf995ef4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Historical Trauma” (D000080037).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000080037). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intergroup conflict
<a id="intergroup-conflict"></a>

Intergroup conflict is conflict between social groups in which another group is seen as an adversary. In psychological terms, it can become tied to collective identity and be harder to reduce when the other group is perceived as a rival.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a3025ff78e3ca8b830e7a7b630b6f8f1fcc95114c939a3d61e9d9008bdf2a1c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reinhard David A; Gianiodis Peter T; Hirschberger Gilad; Leidner Bernhard. Perceived rivalry in intergroup conflict. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1875356; article XML SHA-256 fa1dec2c5a24d85dae320e1f494f10fae26fc53570ac3c5265eec9ce32506168. “Perceived rivalry in intergroup conflict” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1875356).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1875356). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interhemispheric fissure
<a id="interhemispheric-fissure"></a>

The interhemispheric fissure is the groove between the brain’s left and right hemispheres. In the sensorimotor cortex, nearby foot-representation areas are located within this region.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b10fb1e807815fd6f564a9eeec8414496da67610f4c624836cfcda8a9dd8a6d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tariq Madiha; Trivailo Pavel M.; Simic Milan. Mu-Beta event-related (de)synchronization and EEG classification of left-right foot dorsiflexion kinaesthetic motor imagery for BCI. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0230184; article XML SHA-256 386279c97eae0c82b25f5a2301dda6dbd9f82cf705ef40d6e5f699543f6681f5. “Mu-Beta event-related (de)synchronization and EEG classification of left-right foot dorsiflexion kinaesthetic motor imagery for BCI” (10.1371/journal.pone.0230184).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230184). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interindividual differences
<a id="interindividual-differences"></a>

Interindividual differences are variations between one person and another in how they behave or perform. In this source, the term refers to differences among toddlers in collaborative activity, such as how well they coordinate with a peer and how much they prefer doing things together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8e1be3f8866dcbab841f05e9ebc34085cc990055da16e98cc6e827e9146dd7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schuhmacher Nils; Kärtner Joscha. Explaining interindividual differences in toddlers' collaboration with unfamiliar peers: individual, dyadic, and social factors. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00493; article XML SHA-256 4872542e0c3eb968dc8ce259f7de194685c9dbae58855a1af201506e3d17da29. “Explaining interindividual differences in toddlers' collaboration with unfamiliar peers: individual, dyadic, and social factors” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00493).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00493). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interitem correlation
<a id="interitem-correlation"></a>

Interitem correlation is the degree to which the different items in a measure relate to one another. The average interitem correlation summarizes how strongly the items tend to move together across the scale and can be used when considering internal consistency or how independent the items are from each other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b6a787bd64cecbc170f374e2c3455c751db95ec013978324237bf25773faf76

Sources:
- Drafting source: [von Wyl Agnes; Toggweiler Stephan; Zollinger Ruedi. HoNOSCA-D As a Measure of the Severity of Diagnosed Mental Disorders in Children and Adolescents—Psychometric Properties of the German Translation. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00186; article XML SHA-256 f47ae86a3e603549741d167bed296f4127e2ee210ca2f5431ea967ccb56de9a1. “HoNOSCA-D As a Measure of the Severity of Diagnosed Mental Disorders in Children and Adolescents—Psychometric Properties of the German Translation” (10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00186).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00186). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intermarriage
<a id="intermarriage"></a>

In this historical source, intermarriage means marriage within a group sharing a condition or family connection, especially marriages between deaf people or between blood relatives. It is discussed as a supposed factor in congenital deaf-dumbness, though the passage also questions giving too much weight to marriage between relatives alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69231224efb16a47bd1352be7ab4862f494f0de3f17abb6e84d441ece7706fb8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1879500-1891500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intermediary variable
<a id="intermediary-variable"></a>

An intermediary variable is a factor that lies between an earlier influence and a later outcome, helping explain how the first is linked to the second. In the source, parental educational expectations act as the intermediary variable between family background and children’s educational attainment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e10d023955ddc22c398ea91f318edfec79f4be208136d8cbe46da2dfe6419e55

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lai Ting; Liu Fulan; Huang Yiheng. The Influence of Parental Educational Expectations on Children’s Higher Education Attainment: Re-estimation Based on Instrumental Variables. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.899348; article XML SHA-256 3159686498ca3fc50ed2213354d109c17a55f16af5019844d731f7f652b4a356. “The Influence of Parental Educational Expectations on Children’s Higher Education Attainment: Re-estimation Based on Instrumental Variables” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.899348).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.899348). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intermittent explosive disorder
<a id="intermittent-explosive-disorder"></a>

Intermittent explosive disorder is a mental disorder marked by repeated episodes of severe aggressive behavior, such as serious assaults or property destruction, caused by difficulty controlling aggressive impulses. The aggression is far greater than the situation would normally provoke and is not better explained by another mental disorder, a medical condition, or substance use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abce63dadf4f49053681f8f1f8016639a6725af840832c7b93bf0b10e3b1ee93

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Intermittent Explosive Disorder” (C94332).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intermodal matching
<a id="intermodal-matching"></a>

Intermodal matching is the proposed ability to connect what a person sees another individual do with the motor pattern needed to do the same action themselves, allowing imitation. In this source, it is discussed as part of a theory that such matching could operate automatically from birth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83bea0104028c47930c3e5f6857487687c02e0549111bf809e169950d955e8ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jones Susan S.. Human Toddlers’ Attempts to Match Two Simple Behaviors Provide No Evidence for an Inherited, Dedicated Imitation Mechanism. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0051326; article XML SHA-256 362aae07adbbdc3aa26b644a09874609f8230117379d3c69555226f5806fc2b2. “Human Toddlers’ Attempts to Match Two Simple Behaviors Provide No Evidence for an Inherited, Dedicated Imitation Mechanism” (10.1371/journal.pone.0051326).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051326). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## internal attribution
<a id="internal-attribution"></a>

Internal attribution is an attribution style in which a failure is explained in internal terms rather than external ones. In the supplied study on generative AI doctors, using internal attribution was associated with greater repair of users’ trust after a service failure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 29fd93e423e70cc05aa2b924f0fe7c74243f1cb8f50c8c6f98280d01032f1a1b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Yanjie; Luo Shujun; Yin Yukun. Are you willing to forgive generative AI doctors? Trust repair after failures in online health consultation services. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1668633; article XML SHA-256 9de462d80698c7b8428b2efe852f6582611d98b15b3eab0f1592efc0a13b98e2. “Are you willing to forgive generative AI doctors? Trust repair after failures in online health consultation services” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1668633).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1668633). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## internal capsule
<a id="internal-capsule"></a>

The internal capsule is a white matter pathway in the brain, bordered by groups of nerve cell bodies, that carries fibers traveling to and from the brainstem. It has three main parts: the anterior limb, the genu, and the posterior limb.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5aedc45497e1539d7eb6c797a2cc9208a9bd0c979e8c41c36d103147dda5714

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Internal Capsule” (D020772).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020772). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## internal carotid artery
<a id="internal-carotid-artery"></a>

The internal carotid artery is a major blood vessel that begins where the common carotid artery divides in the neck and travels into the head. Its branches supply blood to the front part of the brain as well as the eye, forehead, and nose.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 534a66532d265bd5666e42be660bd4ae828ac8ec7b7c59ad4d86b3b155322564

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Internal Carotid Artery” (C32836).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## internal consistency
<a id="internal-consistency"></a>

Internal consistency is the degree to which the items within a questionnaire or scale show a consistent pattern as part of the same measure. In this packet, it is treated as a psychometric property of a screener and was estimated with KR-21.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3b4bba03fa5a75ef0c9ca19ae9f57931051d044200c84b56494afeeb3ed0a068

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rizk Rana; Khattar Maroun; Salameh Pascale; Mahfouz Rana; Sacre Yonna; Hoteit Maha. Exploring the validity and internal consistency of the 12-point Mediterranean Diet Adherence Screener among Lebanese pregnant women. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351396; article XML SHA-256 e042ae0805a11aeee3240ed93639571c5680d0c412955231efb12f38a293ca24. “Exploring the validity and internal consistency of the 12-point Mediterranean Diet Adherence Screener among Lebanese pregnant women” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351396).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351396). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## internal granular layer
<a id="internal-granular-layer"></a>

The internal granular layer is a layer of the cerebellum where granule cells normally complete their migration and take up their final position. In the source, disturbed migration and placement of granule cells in this layer are used as signs of cerebellar alteration after hypoxic-ischemic injury or preconditioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9579047b25cf05a3211e7a8e996040e10ea568bb0e6b181f40f03e1e035750df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Benitez Sergio G.; Castro Analía E.; Patterson Sean I.; Muñoz Estela M.; Seltzer Alicia M.. Hypoxic Preconditioning Differentially Affects GABAergic and Glutamatergic Neuronal Cells in the Injured Cerebellum of the Neonatal Rat. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0102056; article XML SHA-256 8b1f7f59d801098b8e2ab3442764ad53c08f55ea53432209c242d99b4463aad6. “Hypoxic Preconditioning Differentially Affects GABAergic and Glutamatergic Neuronal Cells in the Injured Cerebellum of the Neonatal Rat” (10.1371/journal.pone.0102056).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102056). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## internal locus of control
<a id="internal-locus-of-control"></a>

Internal locus of control is a person’s general expectation that what happens in life depends mainly on their own actions, choices, abilities, or effort rather than on outside forces. It is described as a relatively stable style of explaining outcomes that affects thinking, emotions, and behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c35165cbe714fa133b4d5570dbed8ce318fc671aeb1cf4bfe6dadbd1af2d60e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cui Hongbo; Wang Yuxing; Tian Yue; Zhou Zhen; Lv Yanming; Lin Xiaoshan. The relationship between parental involvement matching and adolescents’ internal locus of control: a response surface analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1835772; article XML SHA-256 2be3fdd82f5ee9b42b0270a0fa83d6c887d8e349f1986f1cc226c78e6525dfe3. “The relationship between parental involvement matching and adolescents’ internal locus of control: a response surface analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1835772).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1835772). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## internal validity
<a id="internal-validity"></a>

Internal validity is the extent to which research findings are credible or can be taken as reflecting the truth of what was studied. In the source passage, it refers to confidence in the findings themselves, especially whether observed patterns are trustworthy rather than uncertain because of limitations such as a small sample.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 85f7d643de7a7f4ce258cd7b6b9fa604852e874cec9ec52c38c43edd97169b86

Sources:
- Drafting source: [BMC: Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies. Version of record 2018-11-21; DOI 10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7. “Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency” (05ea0554db4e6d0f11b4).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## internalization
<a id="internalization"></a>

In this social-psychology context, internalization means taking in and adopting appearance ideals, such as being very thin/low in body fat or looking muscular/athletic, as personal standards. In the study packet, stronger internalization was linked with more body-focused anxiety and monitoring, and with greater avoidance of physical activity or sport because of appearance concerns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1dd5c361cf1574a852c12aa4a250014a2d30047e9a5aed1af561b62ad9babc42

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Yang; Zhang Meilu; Xiao Xianlin; Li Huangyan. Appearance-ideal internalization and appearance-related physical activity avoidance among female university students in Sichuan, China: the role of social physique anxiety and body surveillance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870099; article XML SHA-256 e4903c742d168430eb78cc82282897b5a3a782ebf2fa3333c64ff486ca1669b8. “Appearance-ideal internalization and appearance-related physical activity avoidance among female university students in Sichuan, China: the role of social physique anxiety and body surveillance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870099).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870099). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## International Classification of Diseases
<a id="international-classification-of-diseases"></a>

The International Classification of Diseases is a worldwide system for coding and classifying diagnoses and health conditions in healthcare records. Its tenth revision, ICD-10, is widely used to organize health data for reporting, research, policy, planning, and related administrative purposes such as billing and claims processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e96b2590aede77c9262fe3981c49582d0f239ca5e11a3f8062138fd9fa4c17fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Paleczny Sarah; Osagie Nosakhare; Sethi Jai; Cusimano Michael D.. Validity and reliability International Classification of Diseases-10 codes for all forms of injury: A systematic review. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298411; article XML SHA-256 db34d3f3a98f66510e4b8ca56090c6ceb7547f2523ed8965a1474292223fc7cb. “Validity and reliability International Classification of Diseases-10 codes for all forms of injury: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298411).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298411). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## International Phonetic Alphabet
<a id="international-phonetic-alphabet"></a>

In this context, the International Phonetic Alphabet is a form of phonetic transcription used to represent spoken language for analysis. In neurolinguistic assessment tools, converting speech or text into this format helps support pronunciation and phonology analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5eca2c710680e59238e672f6b5bb927bc56d476c226ff493e7b08d82f0026b53

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Themistocleous Charalambos. Open Brain AI and language assessment. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1421435; article XML SHA-256 96a7799186131033cb469f1c3b5db1cff03dc0da5d59fad3103a8af9d8a4c812. “Open Brain AI and language assessment” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1421435).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1421435). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Internet addiction
<a id="internet-addiction"></a>

Internet addiction is a pattern of compulsive, problematic internet use that causes major difficulties in everyday functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4db9ff151641bd79e143b275fa4fc2b02c28b64a311f06a4cd38106b4d4dc906

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Internet Addiction Disorder” (D000082424).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000082424). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interneuron
<a id="interneuron"></a>

An interneuron is a neuron in the central nervous system that carries signals between other neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f65f97217c78e372a31b492681194688f582e043c769bcce61308691d46746b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Interneuron” (C12625).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interoception
<a id="interoception"></a>

Interoception is the ability to notice and be sensitive to signals that come from inside the body. It refers to sensing the body’s internal physiological condition as a whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ad2cb9a45c09280c1950f08a6cde1dcf781ca97251355d12ca774a04b23601d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Interoception” (D065812).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065812). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interocular transfer
<a id="interocular-transfer"></a>

Interocular transfer is the carryover of an aftereffect from one eye to the other after stimulation is shown to only one eye. Comparing whether an effect stays in the same eye or transfers across eyes can be used to infer whether it depends on earlier monocular processing or later binocular processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ecb2d58b1c55e5e93110ab1025b64dd03579a88e003f9f56197a780a07f447ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Wei; Zhang Zhi-Jun; Zhao Ya-Jun; Liu Zhi-Fang; Li Bing-Chen. Effects of Awareness on Numerosity Adaptation. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0077556; article XML SHA-256 1cb1903df4fa6576f5efaabd59340d61df748c00bb5b61b0565198ed3130d67c. “Effects of Awareness on Numerosity Adaptation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0077556).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077556). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interpersonal
<a id="interpersonal"></a>

Interpersonal refers to what happens between people, especially in their social relationships and interactions. In this packet, it is used for how people regulate closeness or distance with others in ways shaped by culture and relational patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0836b2a662321070fa290207100cac3fcc031f2d843e44e56ccd397ced5d5b08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Iandolo Giuseppe; López de la Nieta Oscar; Benedicto Carlos; Fong Seraphina; Carollo Alessandro; Esposito Gianluca; Angel Ardiaca Carolina; Alonso Campuzano Cristina; Koeneke Hoenicka Maria Alejandra. Cultural and relational factors in interpersonal distance regulation: evidence from a 2D screen-based task in Spain, Italy, and Japan. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1802960; article XML SHA-256 515e183000b0c18561d3c350341a16b43688df373a2ea5456ba12f0cf86cf30e. “Cultural and relational factors in interpersonal distance regulation: evidence from a 2D screen-based task in Spain, Italy, and Japan” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1802960).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1802960). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interpersonal conflict
<a id="interpersonal-conflict"></a>

Interpersonal conflict is a difficult part of social interaction in which people are at odds with each other and engage complex mental and emotional processes. In this state, research described reduced alignment between interaction partners compared with non-conflict interactions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 291a29d2cc623ab6651db4e72b5f58f9416fcfdac74a6c1c4b80eb2c5bd85ff8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cao Kang; Zhang Mingming; Zhang Yuxuan; Li Jie. Inhibited neural response during interpersonal conflict: insights from fNIRS hyperscanning. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1712278; article XML SHA-256 5a381c37cc06a7e2a4d05dcbeeae964f52b140292e559af1030899c62c385085. “Inhibited neural response during interpersonal conflict: insights from fNIRS hyperscanning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1712278).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1712278). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interpersonal distance
<a id="interpersonal-distance"></a>

Interpersonal distance is the amount of physical space people prefer to keep between themselves and others during social interaction. Regulating this space is a basic part of social communication, and it can vary across individuals and situations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abfda6147469ce71cdd94d5568e032c7dba3f3b6fb10f219178e3ab83bd9488b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Farkas Kinga; Pesthy Orsolya; Guttengéber Anna; Weigl Anna Szonja; Veres András; Szekely Anna; Komoróczy Eszter; Szuromi Bálint; Janacsek Karolina; Réthelyi János M; Németh Dezső. Altered interpersonal distance regulation in autism spectrum disorder. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0283761; article XML SHA-256 fbbe0fdc10e77326977a0adc93d8194ce87cb08b18ccf7432f207283f0317bcb. “Altered interpersonal distance regulation in autism spectrum disorder” (10.1371/journal.pone.0283761).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283761). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interpersonal perception
<a id="interpersonal-perception"></a>

Interpersonal perception is how one person sees and evaluates another person in an interaction, such as viewing a partner neutrally or negatively. In joint action, this social perception can shape how people coordinate, including how much they adjust their movements to each other and how well they act together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d34d254f268b21ac52f5453c43036a7890aca1006e81268b42cd5d50cb1feb23

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sacheli Lucia Maria; Candidi Matteo; Pavone Enea Francesco; Tidoni Emmanuele; Aglioti Salvatore Maria. And Yet They Act Together: Interpersonal Perception Modulates Visuo-Motor Interference and Mutual Adjustments during a Joint-Grasping Task. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0050223; article XML SHA-256 43286a6eca20d5595814754115e3849a347088d1401bb17f17fa8020b771e75e. “And Yet They Act Together: Interpersonal Perception Modulates Visuo-Motor Interference and Mutual Adjustments during a Joint-Grasping Task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0050223).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050223). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interpersonal process recall
<a id="interpersonal-process-recall"></a>

Interpersonal process recall is an interview approach used after therapy or supervision interactions to help participants reflect on what happened in the exchange. In this source, video from natural sessions was used to prompt therapists, clients, and supervisors to recall and discuss subtle relational and emotional processes that might be hard to put into words at the time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cd55f36214ecccf9ac611c3f960b2253651f42d2b16d2f9e05f1d7e618f77f43

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hoff Cecilie Hillestad; Strømme Hanne. The unbearable lightness of laughting: a reflexive thematic analysis of smiles and laughter in five psychotherapy training processes. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1720110; article XML SHA-256 69c3e220f8f1fb0f795b915a38ad401d0ef56ff62c5a5dc122d5d15fdb50579e. “The unbearable lightness of laughting: a reflexive thematic analysis of smiles and laughter in five psychotherapy training processes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1720110).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1720110). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Interpersonal Psychotherapy
<a id="interpersonal-psychotherapy"></a>

Interpersonal psychotherapy is a form of psychodynamic therapy that focuses on current difficulties in a person’s relationships. It uses ideas from attachment theory to understand how earlier relationships may shape present ones and to help resolve interpersonal problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06c2e1d3c782b7e6599b04bc5082b0c4e75a6ab240301bbf21b79dff98cb15cf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Interpersonal Psychotherapy” (D000079062).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000079062). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interpersonal relations
<a id="interpersonal-relations"></a>

Interpersonal relations are the mutual ways that two or more people interact with one another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01e72bf47de31e34275e2b7be8a7be323da29ad233209fd1d5b6b44d6e9b3397

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Interpersonal Relations” (D007398).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007398). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interpersonal theory
<a id="interpersonal-theory"></a>

In this packet, interpersonal theory refers to the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide, which explains suicidal desire as arising from thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness, with hopelessness examined as part of this pathway. It highlights how feeling disconnected, unaccepted, or like a burden in relationships can increase suicide risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3a2ee2000240cd45652dfc0948c8b1bbf12115be42f1c71e876d16df6526e7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cheung Andy Po Sze; Kwok Sylvia Yuk Ching Lai; Gu Minmin; Huang Yu. Mapping interpersonal-to-cognitive pathways with suicidal ideation: unforgiveness-based moderators within the interpersonal theory of suicide framework. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1749224; article XML SHA-256 e7d1cc78185a5223041470cd15bf38509a3d2b48aa280b832569a62e32317320. “Mapping interpersonal-to-cognitive pathways with suicidal ideation: unforgiveness-based moderators within the interpersonal theory of suicide framework” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1749224).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1749224). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## interpretation
<a id="interpretation"></a>

In this biological context, interpretation means making sense of TMS-EEG results by linking different measures to cortical reactivity, network dynamics, and oscillatory activity. It also involves judging findings in light of factors that can complicate meaning, such as artifacts, individual differences, baseline brain state, and limited standardization across studies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26284c5e8bb6aa83a87098aa3c05e8ae4900c270281ceaf0459f1e435486fcd9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Wei; He Yuyao; Xing Haoyang; Zhang Hongmei. Toward clinical translation of TMS-EEG: an integrative review of multidimensional neurophysiological measures. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1804482; article XML SHA-256 9ef1967f00a9c2dd3be202aa8b45a157b0fb68313cf5951c0ee24d8de9f4e017. “Toward clinical translation of TMS-EEG: an integrative review of multidimensional neurophysiological measures” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1804482).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1804482). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interpretive phenomenological analysis
<a id="interpretive-phenomenological-analysis"></a>

Interpretive phenomenological analysis is an approach for examining people’s reflected experiences by interpreting personal accounts such as diaries and interviews. In this study, it was used to explore how teachers made sense of emotionally charged incidents in their daily work.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4fa587306920e6ec4bf630c6fc303654facef8e347f6e4c1da499d86458432fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ghyasi Majid; Gurbuz Nurdan. Emotional labor and emotional capital: An interpretive phenomenological analysis of teachers of English. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0283981; article XML SHA-256 c22e0beecc1ce53e4eab0d5101edd79f63e908bf6e42b2616ebc321baea8a68e. “Emotional labor and emotional capital: An interpretive phenomenological analysis of teachers of English” (10.1371/journal.pone.0283981).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283981). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interpretive therapy
<a id="interpretive-therapy"></a>

Interpretive therapy is a Freudian form of psychotherapy that looks at the meaning of a person’s words, dreams, and interactions in relation to everyday life. It has also been described by some mental health professionals as helpful in shaping treatment approaches for chronic pain and pain syndromes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e4ac236b02b81d0b2bcec0028cf6924813f19fde13220f90f376a91577e6ed0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Interpretive Therapy” (C21056).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interquartile range
<a id="interquartile-range"></a>

The interquartile range is the difference between the 75th percentile and the 25th percentile. It is a robust way to describe how spread out scores are.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2f70c6a2e00381341fb204dc348e8107f54c5781ce9516469b8c96beecf7c68

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Interquartile Range” (interquartile_range.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/interquartile_range.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interresponse time
<a id="interresponse-time"></a>

Interresponse time is the elapsed time between one response and the next. In this source, it is discussed as the time since the most recent response, which can act as a controlling variable for choice behavior under concurrent reinforcement schedules.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8dfed0061aa8eba36fc8e0e20e380acdd3484cf6da75065137e0bdcb7fcb68ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cleaveland J. Mark. The active time model of concurrent choice. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0301173; article XML SHA-256 ed45bac9a92ec35d12c4c0f875a68b5755b3d124aab0e27c64bad1463cd09ef7. “The active time model of concurrent choice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0301173).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301173). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interrogative suggestibility
<a id="interrogative-suggestibility"></a>

Interrogative suggestibility is the degree to which a person’s responses are influenced by messages conveyed during formal questioning in a closed social interaction. In psychology, it refers to how questioning can shape or alter an individual’s answers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca18f605bfa9b99e3e5211e3ae3f6341ba3936b56ab0da17c45f35b0b53fb3b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Biondi Silvia; Mazza Cristina; Orrù Graziella; Monaro Merylin; Ferracuti Stefano; Ricci Eleonora; Di Domenico Alberto; Roma Paolo. Interrogative suggestibility in the elderly. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0241353; article XML SHA-256 2d77931f20d3f12d344f0310666a15e8b92b87e8a10782678b2ca12682b8d7cc. “Interrogative suggestibility in the elderly” (10.1371/journal.pone.0241353).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241353). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interrole conflict
<a id="interrole-conflict"></a>

Interrole conflict is tension that arises when the demands of one life role interfere with another, especially between work and non-work or family roles. In this research context, it is described as bidirectional and multidimensional, including conflicts tied to time, strain, and behaviour flowing from work to family or from family to work.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 334cf0f554d75ad0c12455884e5df452de3450d8557d661de79bb45f315cceec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Smoktunowicz Ewelina; Lesnierowska Magdalena; Ziolkowska Justyna; Roczniewska Marta. Crossover of the dimensions of work-family and family-work conflict in couples: Protocol for a qualitative study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290216; article XML SHA-256 33ca40d226f92f07960a77e0066e5663e9c4b89f05055926ccf9c0032f5a07f3. “Crossover of the dimensions of work-family and family-work conflict in couples: Protocol for a qualitative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290216).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290216). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interrupted time-series design
<a id="interrupted-time-series-design"></a>

An interrupted time-series design is a way of evaluating a change by tracking measures repeatedly over time and then examining how they shift after a clearly defined intervention or policy is introduced. It is used to look for immediate changes or changes in the pattern over time following that interruption.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d0e42a43d6497a63f4a31acb31027534f6d64f0c32b5207848e6c433701ae4ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aiken Alexander M.; Wanyoro Anthony K.; Mwangi Jonah; Juma Francis; Mugoya Isaac K.; Scott J. Anthony G. Changing Use of Surgical Antibiotic Prophylaxis in Thika Hospital, Kenya: A Quality Improvement Intervention with an Interrupted Time Series Design. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0078942; article XML SHA-256 66b862b8836aafa9d30757e24e9c0ff40cf8c77759f36372d49f84fd07ad125f. “Changing Use of Surgical Antibiotic Prophylaxis in Thika Hospital, Kenya: A Quality Improvement Intervention with an Interrupted Time Series Design” (10.1371/journal.pone.0078942).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0078942). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intersensory perception
<a id="intersensory-perception"></a>

Intersensory perception is the ability to detect that information from different senses, such as what is seen and what is heard, belongs together. In this context, it refers to perceiving the relation between auditory and visual speech, including matching a speaker’s visible mouth movements with the corresponding sounds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1cd8ed86ae2f83bce60661b4ed0e04d6ec72d8b0f00b9c14574e24011f258846

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kubicek Claudia; Hillairet de Boisferon Anne; Dupierrix Eve; Pascalis Olivier; Lœvenbruck Hélène; Gervain Judit; Schwarzer Gudrun. Cross-Modal Matching of Audio-Visual German and French Fluent Speech in Infancy. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0089275; article XML SHA-256 c5dcbaf31c82b25880927631c7e6c75d82bec270e92f3913d7aa3edc02264d59. “Cross-Modal Matching of Audio-Visual German and French Fluent Speech in Infancy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0089275).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089275). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interstimulus interval
<a id="interstimulus-interval"></a>

Interstimulus interval is the time gap between one stimulus and the next. In this biological context, changing that interval alters how heart muscle responds, including twitch timing and relaxation at higher stimulation frequencies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f8957bff92eb76faeb2e838ada61912c08303916b13788374497edc72786466

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Syomin Fyodor; Osepyan Anna; Tsaturyan Andrey. Computationally efficient model of myocardial electromechanics for multiscale simulations. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0255027; article XML SHA-256 aaa4349965f66f95961c7a66d6a41a741dc2cbe34340813c3be886219cdeeff3. “Computationally efficient model of myocardial electromechanics for multiscale simulations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0255027).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255027). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## interval
<a id="interval"></a>

An interval is the span of time between two events, understood in psychology in relation to those events rather than as something independent of them. In work on temporal consciousness, it also means the filled or empty duration between two limiting stimuli.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 10a8f19b31934ae4868016337522283f14983c38c30f2d93be2ad6d3454f3ced

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Interval” (Interval).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Interval). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intervening variable
<a id="intervening-variable"></a>

An intervening variable is a factor that comes between one variable and another in a relationship being studied, helping explain how one is linked to the other. In the source example, employee loyalty stands between positive workplace gossip and innovative behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 39aaa1d1be359d45b47328215a77ff2933bf18e7410cf0b3b37cba5b9ad19e42

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dai Yuping; Zhuo Xiangzhi; Hou Jie; Lyu Bei. Is not workplace gossip bad? The effect of positive workplace gossip on employee innovative behavior. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1017202; article XML SHA-256 9dcf2b4248ee2644999760e6d4a518839399814886c223f21d034e93d3317fa1. “Is not workplace gossip bad? The effect of positive workplace gossip on employee innovative behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1017202).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1017202). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intervention
<a id="intervention"></a>

An intervention is an action or measure used to bring about an effect or to change the course of a problem in a person or group. It is a broad term that can include medical, social, behavioral, environmental, or other actions with preventive or therapeutic impact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a623e45fa4e9359d22b6d3d23b426e4abe6e67bd863c96e5df755a44c5034edf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Intervention” (C16197).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intimacy
<a id="intimacy"></a>

Intimacy is a state of closeness shared between two people. It can involve emotional closeness, physical closeness, or both.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: adeb6014fddffdfb223642083055c3918298c7b73e3eadf80c215a2ffc38507c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Intimacy” (C89292).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intimate partner violence
<a id="intimate-partner-violence"></a>

Intimate partner violence is abuse within a close relationship, such as between current or former spouses or dating partners. It involves a pattern of assault and controlling behavior that can include physical, psychological, or sexual harm, as well as intimidation, stalking, isolation, deprivation, or reproductive coercion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a226bd31b276ece4a05bed09938b7ac05ef86aa4317a1081f78d0b172e390cec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Intimate Partner Violence” (D000066511).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000066511). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intonation
<a id="intonation"></a>

In this historical source, intonation means the voice’s pattern of pitch or vocal expression in spoken articulation. When it is impaired, speech may sound harsh and less pleasant.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3022db9be9526a92e008079ab6f7cfbc9a230867b1c455533dd1d76053a7f491

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Deafness and the Deaf” (Deafness and the Deaf).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Deafness and the Deaf). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intoxication
<a id="intoxication"></a>

Intoxication is the condition produced by drugs or poisons, often used more narrowly for drunkenness from alcohol. It usually appears soon after the substance is taken in and can involve noticeable changes in mind and behavior, such as excitement, lowered restraint, disorganized speech or conduct, and other less obvious disturbances that vary with the substance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4416adc2de918730b587e0469d79a0bfb7ffd55569a500349a37115d44b8a763

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Intoxication” (Intoxication).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Intoxication). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intracarotid amobarbital procedure
<a id="intracarotid-amobarbital-procedure"></a>

The intracarotid amobarbital procedure is an invasive test used before epilepsy surgery to determine which side of the brain is dominant for language. In this context, it is treated as the standard method against which noninvasive language-lateralization tests are compared.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a57bb573e4576c7f5724ac027ff48688363b59488053c499a126cdcb40818c14

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wilenius Juha; Lehtinen Henri; Paetau Ritva; Salmelin Riitta; Kirveskari Erika. A simple magnetoencephalographic auditory paradigm may aid in confirming left-hemispheric language dominance in epilepsy patients. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0200073; article XML SHA-256 c9fb7cab7ab10353e78b4cd42ed19c1151bf942b4bccd3348747b66b669fd161. “A simple magnetoencephalographic auditory paradigm may aid in confirming left-hemispheric language dominance in epilepsy patients” (10.1371/journal.pone.0200073).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200073). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intracerebral hemorrhage
<a id="intracerebral-hemorrhage"></a>

Intracerebral hemorrhage is bleeding within one or both halves of the brain, including deep structures such as the basal ganglia and the cerebral cortex. It is often linked with high blood pressure or head injury.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 27ffb9205d48a0162fdddda9f66f165773cebdbc1ddd4b1d6120d4d6488a17fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebral Hemorrhage” (D002543).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002543). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intraclass correlation
<a id="intraclass-correlation"></a>

Intraclass correlation is a statistical measure used to show how closely scores from different raters or scoring methods agree with each other. In this context, it was used to judge the reliability of AI and human pronunciation ratings across the same speech samples.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 713b8bba46839c7aeedde897535c3c8c645f32145616cdffcad0eaf417c7499d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Choi Whyunyoung. Pronunciation assessment in foreign language learning: Reliability and scoring bias in human–generative AI evaluation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354603; article XML SHA-256 f55a9b57e4b934629dca114afff7bc8025ef6141cef7cc606adb59d7a6f91b73. “Pronunciation assessment in foreign language learning: Reliability and scoring bias in human–generative AI evaluation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354603).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354603). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intracranial hemorrhage
<a id="intracranial-hemorrhage"></a>

Intracranial hemorrhage is bleeding inside the skull, a dangerous medical condition that can put pressure on the brain and cause severe complications or death. It includes several forms based on where the bleeding occurs, such as intraventricular, intraparenchymal, subarachnoid, epidural, and subdural hemorrhage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fdc22f7459fadcfe34e68d2d6cbcf4d84ff87c9d549e8a5e7ee00715cc5651a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Songsaeng Dittapong; Supratak Akara; Chantangphol Pantid; Sarumpakul Saowapot; Kaothanthong Natsuda. HU to RGB transformation with automatic windows selection for intracranial hemorrhage classification using ncCT. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327871; article XML SHA-256 12fd8a050641f3762130622ca95eec968f42599bf8c72e988aee15ead67a65ab. “HU to RGB transformation with automatic windows selection for intracranial hemorrhage classification using ncCT” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327871).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327871). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intracranial pressure
<a id="intracranial-pressure"></a>

Intracranial pressure is the pressure inside the skull. It is shaped by the amount of brain tissue, blood circulation, cerebrospinal fluid movement, and how rigid the skull is.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c2a210858b2b09397d67ebcc363505345213a1f5c3e4828f4b8a0ec1745e177

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Intracranial Pressure” (D007427).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007427). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intracranial stimulation
<a id="intracranial-stimulation"></a>

Intracranial stimulation is a research procedure in which electrodes are implanted in the brain and used to deliver electrical stimulation to a specific region. In the cited study, stimulation of the dorsal periaqueductal gray was used in adult rats to evoke and examine panic-like behaviors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1d8ffa5fae2aeeb509588b26fb7d19f99379f1804a5100f4e9bd1f2866d1daeb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Quintino-dos-Santos Jeyce Willig; Müller Cláudia Janaína Torres; Bernabé Cristie Setúbal; Rosa Caroline Azevedo; Tufik Sérgio; Schenberg Luiz Carlos. Evidence That the Periaqueductal Gray Matter Mediates the Facilitation of Panic-Like Reactions in Neonatally-Isolated Adult Rats. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0090726; article XML SHA-256 2d57106bf94afddddc045014384d8059d227ed16cd536884d89f24a72fcfc8a4. “Evidence That the Periaqueductal Gray Matter Mediates the Facilitation of Panic-Like Reactions in Neonatally-Isolated Adult Rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0090726).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090726). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intragroup conflict
<a id="intragroup-conflict"></a>

Intragroup conflict is disagreement or a sense of incompatibility among members of the same work group. It can stem from differences about how work should be done or from interpersonal clashes in personality, habits, or style.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7df41b4967b18e8a9fb5e38287930607d64d547115d2e783333036f86bf5b730

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Esbati Zinat; Korunka Christian. Does Intragroup Conflict Intensity Matter? The Moderating Effects of Conflict Management on Emotional Exhaustion and Work Engagement. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.614001; article XML SHA-256 f4fa89904e975fafe722f38dc0659a84430071dcda238b4ff01ccda95b29ae2a. “Does Intragroup Conflict Intensity Matter? The Moderating Effects of Conflict Management on Emotional Exhaustion and Work Engagement” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.614001).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.614001). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intraindividual differences
<a id="intraindividual-differences"></a>

Intraindividual differences are variations that occur within the same person over time, rather than differences between people. In this context, it refers to changes within an individual in attentional breadth and related brain responses across two measurement times.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6770e6017cb8c30684ca8fd9f959d8aeae113b5beef230c005bc4a28ef253b5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pitchford Brent; Arnell Karen M.. Individual Differences in Attentional Breadth Changes Over Time: An Event-Related Potential Investigation. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.605250; article XML SHA-256 ae1169018fc068ef8b12875478361fc433e15afd80b7891c47a02ad621fc0e8b. “Individual Differences in Attentional Breadth Changes Over Time: An Event-Related Potential Investigation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.605250).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.605250). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intramuscular injection
<a id="intramuscular-injection"></a>

In this source, an intramuscular injection is a painful event used to study pain perception and changes in salivary biomarkers measured before and after it. It serves as the stimulus for comparing adults with cerebral palsy and healthy individuals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6372ca5ed2fe3a69ad86b2289290403cfe626ce35c5e0738eff2279fa1d98202

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sabater-Gárriz Álvaro; Cerón José Joaquín; Montoya Pedro; Riquelme Inmaculada. Potential use of salivary TNF-α as a vaccine-induced pain biomarker in people with cerebral palsy and communication disorders. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308386; article XML SHA-256 bb1baa824a1ba7f4c0519e55ef709c2e40f73c60f1e1c45cedeef9fca50c94f0. “Potential use of salivary TNF-α as a vaccine-induced pain biomarker in people with cerebral palsy and communication disorders” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308386).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308386). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intraocular pressure
<a id="intraocular-pressure"></a>

Intraocular pressure is the pressure inside the eye. In the source material, it is described as becoming excessive when the production of aqueous humor and its drainage out of the eye are out of balance, and this excess pressure is a common cause of glaucoma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6531e16fbfc9b2331e33b5f19c72c9357949b5b7b423dfadfcbda91061ecbd8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Perone Jean-Marc; Vermion Jean-Charles; Zevering Yinka; Francois Julie; Nesseler Alice; Gan Grace; Goetz Christophe. Evolution of intraocular pressure after cataract surgery in nonglaucomatous patients: A post-hoc analysis of PERCEPOLIS clinical trial data. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349310; article XML SHA-256 bb6cbf5915fb89d08eec9d54781c724c34e2218332224358085f8d2f542bd875. “Evolution of intraocular pressure after cataract surgery in nonglaucomatous patients: A post-hoc analysis of PERCEPOLIS clinical trial data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349310).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349310). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intrapersonal
<a id="intrapersonal"></a>

Intrapersonal refers to processes that happen within one person, especially internal communication such as self-talk or imagined interactions. In this kind of communication, the same individual contains both the sending and receiving sides and uses self-directed activity to shape and interpret experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6429e7adb179ff99d72f34615717c952a39c671b60955056625eac38e78b6acd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bainbridge Constance; Bryant Gregory; Dale Rick. Reconsidering intrapersonal communication through an interdisciplinary lens. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569493; article XML SHA-256 c91e582154130f56f8825f7f92c93614d470b4405828f17adeb66a1c36733790. “Reconsidering intrapersonal communication through an interdisciplinary lens” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569493).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569493). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intrapsychic
<a id="intrapsychic"></a>

Intrapsychic refers to something happening within a person’s own mind, especially in their internal beliefs or mental structures rather than in relationships between people. In this source, it describes a model of harm understood as damage to belief structures inside the person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc5651c0cfb89b6e98a7680dede1a1abdb42c84bf2442ca5ad5fde0657ba4ee1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Acampora Christa; Munch-Jurisic Ditte M; Denne Sarah; Smith Jacob. Moral injury research at a crossroads: assumptions, limitations, and the promise of relational reorientation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1791225; article XML SHA-256 f67117ce1205fbc4e39ede87fb0a69323c1f79b8a14eeae24d92332984c7d494. “Moral injury research at a crossroads: assumptions, limitations, and the promise of relational reorientation” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1791225).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1791225). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intrinsic motivation
<a id="intrinsic-motivation"></a>

Intrinsic motivation is the inner drive to learn or gain new skills because of curiosity, interest, and a willingness to learn, rather than because of outside pressure. In school settings, higher intrinsic motivation is linked with benefits such as stronger engagement, better achievement and performance over time, and lower academic anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4c82adce958be08abf6e07a8185c0fba055e0ea6835247db607a4892ef999054

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Joy Angelina; Hartstone-Rose Adam; Knox Jerica; Mathews Channing J.; Cerda-Smith Jacqueline; Mulvey Kelly Lynn. STEM ability perceptions, basic needs satisfaction, and intrinsic motivation in adolescents: The role of inclusive perceptions in self-determination. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318266; article XML SHA-256 aa27d60c3e12bf2709977e253f8eb824533ee68f22ca2bc4e3278d61b6de2c51. “STEM ability perceptions, basic needs satisfaction, and intrinsic motivation in adolescents: The role of inclusive perceptions in self-determination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318266).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318266). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## introjection
<a id="introjection"></a>

Introjection is a historical term used by Avenarius for a theory about knowledge that treats consciousness as located inside the organism and treats what we know of the outer world as inner images or copies. In this usage, it also names the developmental tendency to think that other beings act from such inner representations and then to apply the same idea to oneself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b696ce35ccec8cede81e2a8d476be928b8119af68cef1ca318acc64bd765a195

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Introjection” (Introjection).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Introjection). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## introspection
<a id="introspection"></a>

Introspection is a person’s directed attention to their own mental states and processes as they happen, in order to understand them better. In historical psychology, it was also discussed under related ideas such as reflection or inner observation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: adec70d52b8f07de3a45985b99e8d4973081d066493181031e6b98e932c506ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Introspection” (Introspection).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Introspection). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## introspective method
<a id="introspective-method"></a>

The introspective method is the systematic use of self-observation to study mental experience for scientific purposes. In psychology it has been treated as a basic method, often used alongside experimental conditions and supplemented by inference and observation of mental activity as shown in others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 129e21cf62d9cf1e35b09819080eb0f0eb9d7f438a9943219f51eaacd8c8fe25

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Introspective Method” (Introspective).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Introspective). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## introversion
<a id="introversion"></a>

Introversion is a psychological state in which a person’s attention is directed mainly inward toward themselves.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 986a487849f49390313a15ece360fb21013737eef216fce079c2b65ff6227d84

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Introversion, Psychological” (D007439).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007439). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Introversion, Psychological
<a id="introversion-psychological"></a>

Psychological introversion is a state where a person’s attention is focused mostly on themselves rather than outward. It describes an inward direction of attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 775dead44656305e5657760a69e4885f2013b75a919b1f08c6a0282832e6a61e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Introversion, Psychological” (D007439).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007439). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intrusive thoughts
<a id="intrusive-thoughts"></a>

Intrusive thoughts are unwanted, persistent ideas, images, or thoughts that a person finds upsetting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2234fc04d0b7bf83bea706fa69eb0b682d7fd592406c9926aba0227affb9274d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Intrusive Thought” (C121661).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Intuition
<a id="intuition"></a>

Intuition is understanding or knowing something without consciously working through the reasoning process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9574e7edefc28c80cf7dfe0af1c161786cf7003ec4a82ea24e5203638ad662a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Intuition” (D019545).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019545). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intuitive judgment
<a id="intuitive-judgment"></a>

Intuitive judgment is a fast, immediate way of evaluating options or making choices with little deliberation. In this source, it refers to the kind of quick response that algorithmically curated digital cues can more easily guide than slower, more reflective decision-making.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22a371bdd92a5ab79e4de07c7b7d9ea36e1cea960520021bc0b74f27846d68eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Zhean; Wang Kai. Multimodal perceptual curation for cognitive autonomy in Generation Z decision making. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1868429; article XML SHA-256 4d55930cef39e2372be7498534c850411a37bb742ed32ebebefd5a82e6c761e4. “Multimodal perceptual curation for cognitive autonomy in Generation Z decision making” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1868429).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1868429). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intuitive knowledge
<a id="intuitive-knowledge"></a>

Intuitive knowledge is knowledge gained by direct, immediate awareness rather than by reasoning through steps or using symbols. In this historical usage, it can mean sense-based or inner awareness, or knowledge in which the parts are directly present to the mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec4536e7a33e06217a46a2eefdaec0325de7d3388a9f5dafbb8dfab21c75d1c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Intuition (in philosophy)” (Intuitionp).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Intuitionp). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## intuitive type
<a id="intuitive-type"></a>

In this historical usage, the intuitive type refers to immediate knowledge based on direct acquaintance, contrasted with comprehension, which is knowledge of relations or "knowledge about" something.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8166a61a5f3892d3df079d03e857eff0b4983c1572a69936c2bd837f0c814632

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Comprehension” (Comprehension).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C3defs.htm#Comprehension). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## invariance
<a id="invariance"></a>

Invariance in assessment means a measure works the same way across different groups, so score differences are more likely to reflect real differences in the underlying trait rather than bias in the items. Establishing this supports fair and meaningful comparisons between groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 316325b1e6b495cc122bff65d7bc9b369b661b19fc14f7e5890dfa51ef4ff573

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Silva Castillo Luis Hernando; Hernández-Rosas Enrique; Silas-Casillas Juan Carlos; Cazares Sarah Nayibe; Fonseca León Luis Carlos. Cross-sectional psychometric validation, convergent validity, and measurement invariance of the DASS-21 in Mexican university students. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1707786; article XML SHA-256 d530a09a86f9b8382ed1b4bbe444c61de15c8dd3e86e92fcbc6607d42a17e4fb. “Cross-sectional psychometric validation, convergent validity, and measurement invariance of the DASS-21 in Mexican university students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1707786).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1707786). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inverse relationship
<a id="inverse-relationship"></a>

An inverse relationship is a pattern in which two variables move in opposite directions, so higher levels of one are linked with lower levels of the other. In this source, it refers to higher dispositional mindfulness being associated with less procrastination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e9d2cd7f2bd8e05eb90499b930343c8054e73921d9c7cc9645f9bc5af3528d12

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ibili Gozde; Tree Jeremy John; Gurluk Yılmaz Orhun. Maladaptive perfectionism can explain the inverse relationship between dispositional mindfulness and procrastination. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318845; article XML SHA-256 b07ed4b90f690afc4aa2207b6c925d12a7188ada2929d48fa3d9be1b80a1661e. “Maladaptive perfectionism can explain the inverse relationship between dispositional mindfulness and procrastination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318845).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318845). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inversion
<a id="inversion"></a>

In this developmental context, inversion means a fundamental reversal in how development is understood. It refers to replacing an adult-centered, linear view of the child as incomplete with a relational view that treats the child as a present, active participant in mutual development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a034bb4e9813a8efad915e0f5c5acaf42ef570c56b7b6eb56a280fcda2a9974a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Yao; Yang Xi. The ontological inversion: transcending adultcentrism in the concept of development for the critical deconstruction of bleak pedagogy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794220; article XML SHA-256 d3d22ac55fa9289f04514c5d052c8e04702f8c5ffb137d7f04e397ca132701cb. “The ontological inversion: transcending adultcentrism in the concept of development for the critical deconstruction of bleak pedagogy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794220).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794220). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## inverted-U hypothesis
<a id="inverted-u-hypothesis"></a>

The inverted-U hypothesis is the idea that a response increases as complexity rises to a moderate level, then decreases when complexity becomes too low or too high. In this music-psychology context, it refers to the claim that rhythms with medium complexity produce a stronger pleasurable urge to move than very simple or very complex rhythms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d660fdb0efcfa09052aa6877b669afd4d745e4b5cd6d26c01a9a3df41d0cc169

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Senn Olivier; Hoesl Florian; Bechtold Toni Amadeus; Kilchenmann Lorenz; Jerjen Rafael; Witek Maria. Null effect of perceived drum pattern complexity on the experience of groove. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311877; article XML SHA-256 713af82a9b0996af6425cf1ce2a3616a50bd4baacb594cef6814d494d12f3ce4. “Null effect of perceived drum pattern complexity on the experience of groove” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311877).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311877). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## investigatory behavior
<a id="investigatory-behavior"></a>

Investigatory behavior is exploratory responding toward a stimulus used to assess how an animal evaluates it, especially in social tests. In the supplied source, it refers mainly to a mouse’s distance-based investigation of social stimuli, shaped in sequence by checking novelty through smell and then by tactile social contact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2adef759e5e0057e145b8b321112f3bb731249b690af191f536f5d31abe06ac7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Arakawa Hiroyuki. From Multisensory Assessment to Functional Interpretation of Social Behavioral Phenotype in Transgenic Mouse Models for Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.592408; article XML SHA-256 b5f0f73878e0b816d8f52bc83b916ac7667a1cea7320436bdfecef7ba4f353a2. “From Multisensory Assessment to Functional Interpretation of Social Behavioral Phenotype in Transgenic Mouse Models for Autism Spectrum Disorders” (10.3389/fpsyt.2020.592408).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.592408). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## investment
<a id="investment"></a>

In this historical source, investment means using capital in the expectation of making a profit, and it can also refer to the form that capital takes when used that way. The term is especially applied to more lasting forms such as real estate or securities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ed2266da1e092a9d15e69969f065d040b58156a2bb435ebd8460a2cbb9698d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Investment” (Investment).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Investment). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## investment model
<a id="investment-model"></a>

In developmental research, the investment model refers to the idea that a family’s economic resources affect children’s development by being turned into investments in the child’s life. These investments can be material, such as educational spending and learning materials, or relational, such as supportive parent–child interactions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09e97ea7d6275cf8e8b43d215bf3a3ee468362789ede315cb15fab9936100503

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kang Ran. Household income and academic performance in Korean adolescents: A longitudinal test of dual investment pathways. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353476; article XML SHA-256 304a4f851648632c5c465a07d3e716d620fab088efcf1240e6be55a86daf8822. “Household income and academic performance in Korean adolescents: A longitudinal test of dual investment pathways” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353476).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353476). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## invisible displacement
<a id="invisible-displacement"></a>

Invisible displacement is the hidden movement of an object from one place to another so that its transfer is not directly seen. In studies of object permanence, it refers to testing whether someone understands that the object still exists and can be found after this unseen move.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 85d4c6232e21845f6893b762a38a61669b1811032c5ebd70b132941f9880a495

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Forman Jemma; Rowe Jordan S; Leavens David A. Object permanence in domestic cats ( Felis catus ) using violation-of-expectancy by owner and stranger. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312225; article XML SHA-256 bd38c0615286da21af31624a2f13cea3d9d8c09e8a3b442521b6a66d1bb6e23d. “Object permanence in domestic cats ( Felis catus ) using violation-of-expectancy by owner and stranger” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312225).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312225). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## involuntary attention
<a id="involuntary-attention"></a>

Involuntary attention is attention that is drawn automatically by the natural pull of ideas, interests, or associations, rather than by deliberate effort. In James’s account, it differs less in kind from voluntary attention than in whether attention feels effortless or strained when competing interests are present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 020a331dcf1e7a2ca70215da364d95756c83d52d2e078a9c7ff96e9de106710a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## involuntary muscle
<a id="involuntary-muscle"></a>

In this packet, involuntary muscle activity means muscle activation that occurs during passive movement without the person intentionally producing it. In paratonia, this activity can either resist the movement or help it along.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 74efb8233d7e9ed7301d3ccf6884e76038963a4afe1a37c2691c3a5370b85e17

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Puce Luca; Marinelli Lucio; Currà Antonio; Mori Laura; Schenone Cristina; Cotellessa Filippo; Tatarelli Antonella; Pucci Daniele; Bragazzi Nicola Luigi; Trompetto Carlo. EMG-assessed paratonia: A novel approach to investigating motor response inhibition in healthy subjects. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315274; article XML SHA-256 e18c61c567abdd7d8372844c525070e572a6fc1770d687f2fc058d0e1d764059. “EMG-assessed paratonia: A novel approach to investigating motor response inhibition in healthy subjects” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315274).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315274). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## involuntary response
<a id="involuntary-response"></a>

An involuntary response is a complex automatic reaction to a sudden strong stimulus. It typically includes moving away from the stimulus, muscle tightening with bending of the limbs, blinking, and changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31001e44a6e02aecd5ec9929a6e67a06ae2b42065fd4354b0767c42f3d0a0d1d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reflex, Startle” (D013216).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013216). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## involuntary treatment
<a id="involuntary-treatment"></a>

Involuntary treatment is care given without a patient's agreement, used in this context when anorexia nervosa is judged to create serious risk to the person or others, and in some places to stop further worsening. It is described as a controversial practice because its use, timing, and effects are complex for both patients and clinicians.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 301f0eedc4e3bd4862f6e34eb55721f4cf359e3588d8fbc0df48f04a364f8df9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Clausen Loa. Perspectives on Involuntary Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.533288; article XML SHA-256 be910cac7d894b9f95e900080a70921b6759292e7edba3ad56791c3b8b3ac438. “Perspectives on Involuntary Treatment of Anorexia Nervosa” (10.3389/fpsyt.2020.533288).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.533288). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ion channel
<a id="ion-channel"></a>

An ion channel is a pore in a cell membrane that lets ions pass through the membrane along their electrochemical gradient. These channels usually prefer certain ions and may be always open or open in response to voltage or chemical signals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f4990810aba8902dd33233d75a2c21f1004e0c1a7100a64d4648f37b47064f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ion Channel” (C16754).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IOR
<a id="ior"></a>

IOR, or inhibition of return, is an attention effect seen in spatial cueing tasks where, after a short delay, people become slower to respond to a target appearing in a previously cued location than to one appearing elsewhere. It reflects a shift from early attention toward the cue to later reduced efficiency for returning attention there, which may help favor new locations during visual search.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 28398bf4fb55668c10018fd9d78a6c05f6a9e97c1e1aaa9861a976d4f77bf61b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yu Miaomiao; Dong Bo; Qian Feilong; Liu Jingfang; Wu Xiaogang. Modulating effect of emotional arousal intensity on selective attention in schizophrenia. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1593548; article XML SHA-256 49884391b595fc4045a653a2e342956724f7aaff79f5235e48a6b7d8a38f8508. “Modulating effect of emotional arousal intensity on selective attention in schizophrenia” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1593548).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1593548). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Iowa Gambling Task
<a id="iowa-gambling-task"></a>

The Iowa Gambling Task is a psychology task used to study decision making under ambiguity and risk by having a person repeatedly choose from four card decks that differ in short-term rewards and long-term losses. As feedback is given after each choice, it assesses how well someone learns from outcomes to favor options with better long-term results over immediately tempting but disadvantageous ones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40d6add6d627595c818936b4395508cc3a8720ceb0395b8ad85f566002d8d78a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Salice Silvia; Antonietti Alessandro; Colautti Laura. The effect of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on the Iowa Gambling Task: a scoping review. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1454796; article XML SHA-256 c3b78ff75cec7e302eb55dea4650a869f058ee8c4027bb2506f4ea264cea18ef. “The effect of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on the Iowa Gambling Task: a scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1454796).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1454796). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ip
<a id="ip"></a>

IP refers to a cancer treatment regimen that combines irinotecan and cisplatin. It is used for several cancers, including some lung, gastrointestinal, ovarian, and neuroendocrine cancers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3a07481f34451e9fd11f82666b89beb41ad233a3fe595251ab8bbf5946b7769c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cisplatin/Irinotecan Regimen” (C63383).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IPA
<a id="ipa"></a>

IPA, or Importance–Performance Analysis, is a simple visual method for comparing how important different attributes are with how well they are being performed. It is used to evaluate experiences and help decide which areas should be prioritized first.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 590db8888997d4c587a0ca3494661c6d8965f2a407a5aeae1e9fb1ef4cebff16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Eunjung; Kim Hae Ran. Importance and implementation of safe nursing behaviors in nursing students’ clinical practice: Importance–Performance Analysis (IPA), the borich needs assessment model, and the locus for focus model. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344741; article XML SHA-256 906162c9cf6a1535ab979b7ee90dfc1e6f44ae9c99bf4e7c2c3fec3cb296069b. “Importance and implementation of safe nursing behaviors in nursing students’ clinical practice: Importance–Performance Analysis (IPA), the borich needs assessment model, and the locus for focus model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344741).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344741). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IPL
<a id="ipl"></a>

IPL refers to interprofessional learning, in which people in healthcare training learn with or from other professional groups in educational or clinical settings. It is recognized as important for building interprofessional collaboration and teamwork, though opportunities for it differ across contexts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4d8ec3fd7091ea6cd7208d4604c581396ed12bfc18e20cd75c6c1b7e5f67b18

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Åhlund Kristina; Johnsson Anette; Rönnerhag Maria. Facilitators of and barriers to interprofessional learning between nurses and physiotherapists in hospital-based clinical practice: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355722; article XML SHA-256 745ef446f9021b572ccff405c00b3362c92c861b1f29f00087b21d5628f1ac54. “Facilitators of and barriers to interprofessional learning between nurses and physiotherapists in hospital-based clinical practice: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355722).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355722). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IPPA
<a id="ippa"></a>

IPPA usually refers to the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment–Revised, a self-report questionnaire designed to measure the quality of adolescents’ attachment to their mother, father, and peers. In the source packet, it is discussed as an attachment assessment tool that was adapted into Arabic and examined for reliability and measurement consistency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70a29711d695fc04d4a82a1f82266a9beafac3debc93b6b2a3157566d5cc0a6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tohme Pia; Yaktine Nour; Nassar Elma; Badr Karim; Grey Ian; Abi-Habib Rudy. Exploring attachment security in a sample of Lebanese adolescents: The validation of the Arabic IPPA-R. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298084; article XML SHA-256 8d7f898b52164633c0d4e0ff235901a14afdd790206033d94e5126d3cd72dfd5. “Exploring attachment security in a sample of Lebanese adolescents: The validation of the Arabic IPPA-R” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298084).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298084). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IPR
<a id="ipr"></a>

IPR stands for Internal Psychological Retrenchment, a proposed process in which a person inwardly pulls back from heavy emotional investment in broad social competition. In this study, it is described as the psychological link between outside pressures and a state of tactical readiness within the broader pattern of strategic withdrawal called Ego-Tucking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1b663985be890aa6f52bc414523f7e1f7698143890ea12b068e1ccfae00a341

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Linjun; Sun Yantong; Zhao Zongdi; Chai Luhao; Xue Tianying; Yan Sheng. Ego-Tucking: a novel psychological mechanism of strategic retrenchment and resilience among Chinese youth. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876249; article XML SHA-256 27e4aac8ecf62bd66e9ea5045ec879eec6b72947432ed5512c0e7d8f6c9a265a. “Ego-Tucking: a novel psychological mechanism of strategic retrenchment and resilience among Chinese youth” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876249).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876249). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IPS
<a id="ips"></a>

IPS refers to internalizing problems: a pattern in which distress is turned inward, leading to excessive inward emotional focus, difficulty regulating emotions, and symptoms such as anxiety, depression, and somatic complaints. In adolescents, these problems can begin from early anxiety or depression tendencies, are often hard for others to notice, and may continue over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b22004b4c44006a2a25bd854fd14b4244984a36ac0d69906126727a13b9038d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yaning; Lyu Jiaxin; Hong Hao; Wang Jixiang; Qiao Shen. The impact of negative life events on internalizing problems in adolescents: the chain mediating effects of physical activity and emotional competence. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1854312; article XML SHA-256 0373ff2de6a025e277eaf1b2ec482eff796f3a70c975e5f3fd331488ad87e93b. “The impact of negative life events on internalizing problems in adolescents: the chain mediating effects of physical activity and emotional competence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1854312).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1854312). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ipsilateral
<a id="ipsilateral"></a>

Ipsilateral means located on or affecting the same side of the body. In this context, ipsilateral lower limb muscles are the muscles on the same side as the gluteus medius being discussed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0caf4d243a780d5c9b47fc71dd199e9e238984f5d65c1cf743d825d47c0a4032

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Katirci Omer Kursad; Toderita Diana; Bull Anthony M J. Effects of artificially increased activation of the gluteus medius on ipsilateral lower limb muscles force during gait. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353269; article XML SHA-256 39467e7e998d5e0bc5a3523b02ca47496bf7de081cc075314e020379cba28e8c. “Effects of artificially increased activation of the gluteus medius on ipsilateral lower limb muscles force during gait” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353269).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353269). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ipsilateral eye
<a id="ipsilateral-eye"></a>

The ipsilateral eye is the eye on the same side as the brain area being discussed. In this source, it refers to eye input that can activate parts of the visual wulst and can also influence responses driven by the opposite eye.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 703a7395cfe03ab0803e63b653ef3810aac28190a8a37eb436e95e56624564c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Michael Neethu; Löwel Siegrid; Bischof Hans-Joachim. Features of the Retinotopic Representation in the Visual Wulst of a Laterally Eyed Bird, the Zebra Finch ( Taeniopygia guttata ). 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0124917; article XML SHA-256 f1be19e54551ecc6ae2036629cee4779fd9ac52bce5dfc9df057a6cde23409d5. “Features of the Retinotopic Representation in the Visual Wulst of a Laterally Eyed Bird, the Zebra Finch ( Taeniopygia guttata )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0124917).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0124917). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IPSP
<a id="ipsp"></a>

IPSP stands for inhibitory postsynaptic potential, a local change at a target neuron's synaptic membrane during neurotransmission that makes the membrane more negatively charged. This reduces the neuron's responsiveness to excitatory signals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e951b6038c31aecf4670cb27578f2da6847e5412c7f01fc608caa2548ff479f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials” (D053444).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D053444). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IPT
<a id="ipt"></a>

IPT stands for interpersonal psychotherapy, a psychological treatment that has been widely studied for depression and is also used for anxiety disorders. The source describes it as being applied across varied patient groups and treatment settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 915d2000fa4366d203da1220b4f034380371a2696ced8543f3a687f3f61708ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Laing Ebba; Acebo de Arriba Rita; Schramm Elisabeth; Schäffeler Norbert; Zipfel Stephan; Stengel Andreas; Graf Johanna. Tailoring interpersonal psychotherapy to psycho-oncology patients (TIPTOP): feasibility study protocol. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1531756; article XML SHA-256 6602f6e7fcc676fd7fc344e50cb2774d43ef775cbd115a7bdf6431db9be91fe3. “Tailoring interpersonal psychotherapy to psycho-oncology patients (TIPTOP): feasibility study protocol” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1531756).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1531756). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IQ
<a id="iq"></a>

IQ is a numerical score from a standardized test that estimates a person’s intellectual functioning relative to the general population.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e7d43abe12c9b813639fa0c049f2f28cf7b9190e3a963de6af546582e64b3cf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Intelligence Quotient” (C115125).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IQR
<a id="iqr"></a>

IQR, or interquartile range, is the difference between the 75th percentile and the 25th percentile of a set of scores. It is a measure of variability that is relatively resistant to the influence of extreme values.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4503e18d5dbeb860a0ce37eaaeec563fa8615c4c67863fa38db395ff359d9cb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Interquartile Range” (interquartile_range.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/interquartile_range.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IRB
<a id="irb"></a>

An IRB is a committee within a hospital or other institution that helps protect the welfare of people who take part in research. In the United States, federal rules require these committees to oversee federally funded biomedical and behavioral studies involving human participants.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17d5c8124ea8ce295469751b9e1a28c95708685cd6a4f893e60796aac52a7c84

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ethics Committees, Research” (D028744).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D028744). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## iridocyclitis
<a id="iridocyclitis"></a>

Iridocyclitis is an eye-related manifestation that can occur alongside inflammatory bowel disease, including Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. In the supplied source, it is listed as one of the more common ocular extraintestinal manifestations of these conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a016d13e5f0dbd4e756cddf8e27c3dfcea4aad4d156fa1d8445298fb801fd165

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Lian; Tang Xiaowei; Xu Jia; Bao Yuxi; Hu Xinyue; Zhong Xiaolin. The causal effects of inflammatory bowel disease on its ocular manifestations: A Mendelian randomization study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316437; article XML SHA-256 92f1ce9333dfa01648ca2b67a4bd5b0d26880161b0a8b4b7aa457bb96d145fbd. “The causal effects of inflammatory bowel disease on its ocular manifestations: A Mendelian randomization study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316437).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316437). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IRM
<a id="irm"></a>

IRM stands for Inclusive Research Methods, an approach to planning and conducting research so it is representative, accessible, and relevant to a wide range of people, including under-served groups. In this source, it is part of a broader strategy that uses co-production and practical methods to build inclusivity across the research process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 393d5926a26e2b5015cf7eef4440f94f35fedd547847e6389c54bd05a809b9d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Coleman Anna; Medahunsi Sheela; Elliott Joanne; Mould Jedidah; Thomas Abin; Varga Eliza; Verma Arpana. Developing an inclusive research (methods) strategy for the Manchester Biomedical Research Centre and Clinical Research Facility. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357608; article XML SHA-256 2ed962ff8ca8319cacec3504dd9895034cf5e8f657076781641209c81e26ef45. “Developing an inclusive research (methods) strategy for the Manchester Biomedical Research Centre and Clinical Research Facility” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357608).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357608). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## irradiation
<a id="irradiation"></a>

In this historical usage, irradiation means a spreading of nervous stimulation beyond its usual pathway, so that excitement from one sense organ can activate other parts of the nervous system not directly linked with it. The source notes that this diffusion might occur peripherally or in the spinal cord, especially with strong stimulation or when the system is already in a state of readiness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31f991cc3f18636eadac6439b6335ef65454c18d0122d02d9ed302a9e016cd43

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Irradiation” (Irradiation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Irradiation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## irrational
<a id="irrational"></a>

In this context, irrational refers to maladaptive beliefs or ideas about the world. In Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, these beliefs are understood as maintaining psychological distress and poorer mental health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad9a93231af2e07cf8cfd09528aa25467e1b798406e8fc53c56eb681d1d01f2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Michel-Kröhler Alena; Wong Michael; Turner Martin J.. Irrational beliefs in Bahasa Malaysia and Mandarin speaking populations: the cross-cultural validation of the irrational performance beliefs inventory. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03579-y; article XML SHA-256 c6c94795e7aa03ef4e76ffa2b365eeda64795c526ca50825565747d9f8d38f2d. “Irrational beliefs in Bahasa Malaysia and Mandarin speaking populations: the cross-cultural validation of the irrational performance beliefs inventory” (10.1186/s40359-025-03579-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03579-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## irregular
<a id="irregular"></a>

In this context, irregular means not happening on a steady or predictable schedule. It describes episodes that occur occasionally at uneven intervals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b5b650749fd33fb69905a40808d5c66966475dc2e7f52f7d33eb3b5db2f7805b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 340e646cd122c31f2ae7dd7aa7041a63efb2312a91d487d37080bcfec38efea9. “Bipolar Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## irrelevant language
<a id="irrelevant-language"></a>

Irrelevant language refers to a language or language variety that is not needed for the current task but may still become mentally active while a person is listening or speaking. In this context, it means non-target language forms that can be co-activated even when someone is meant to use a different language or variety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f696568fe30d485c882fe2a7323da4bb5498f8053218d72d90fdfa4a363e967d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Keller Laura; Viebahn Malte C.; Hervais-Adelman Alexis; Seeber Kilian G.. Unpacking the multilingualism continuum: An investigation of language variety co-activation in simultaneous interpreters. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0289484; article XML SHA-256 de6991a05b74c15bd4e60cd5d2508aa7a85b47024ab966b23223a8b956482acb. “Unpacking the multilingualism continuum: An investigation of language variety co-activation in simultaneous interpreters” (10.1371/journal.pone.0289484).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289484). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## irreversible coma
<a id="irreversible-coma"></a>

Irreversible coma is a clinical state described as having no realistic chance of recovery. In the context of advance care planning, it is one of the conditions in which a person may choose in advance to forgo life-sustaining treatment or artificial nutrition and hydration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9fe319c474fd01e2540a4dea9db4e273339243c0e7f9c7e6b7895d30a9b2f14b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Yi-Ling; Lin Tsai-Wen; Yang Chun-Yi; Wang Samuel Shih-Chih; Huang Sheng-Jean. Urban people’s preferences for life-sustaining treatment or artificial nutrition and hydration in advance decisions. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12910-024-01060-w; article XML SHA-256 7e899cb647ce81e23c5d6efbd72578b2fcd399f2c5c650b2f4afad4e502bcd4d. “Urban people’s preferences for life-sustaining treatment or artificial nutrition and hydration in advance decisions” (10.1186/s12910-024-01060-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-024-01060-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## irritability
<a id="irritability"></a>

In historical psychology and physiology, irritability means the capacity of active living tissue such as nerves, muscles, or glands to react when suitably stimulated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fba34189fee8dd78d7bdf3b9948263e4e697c43a2237364e536485030837d26c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Irritability” (Irritability).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Irritability). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## irritable bowel syndrome
<a id="irritable-bowel-syndrome"></a>

Irritable bowel syndrome is a common disorder of the brain-gut axis marked by abdominal pain linked to bowel movements and changes in stool frequency or form. It is a heterogeneous condition that can reduce daily functioning and quality of life, and within a biopsychosocial view, both bodily and psychosocial factors may contribute to its onset and persistence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 025d2f460f72627bdc9ac7efb22dd050f280b7075f408789bf8bdd13db4c0cfa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Häuser Winfried. Gut-directed hypnosis and hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome: a mini-review. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1389911; article XML SHA-256 b4fc7c9658f7aaf7aac6abae0131742ecf724ff81d4035d9e868ef06efa9e558. “Gut-directed hypnosis and hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome: a mini-review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1389911).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1389911). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ischemic penumbra
<a id="ischemic-penumbra"></a>

Ischemic penumbra is brain tissue around the core of a stroke that has too little blood flow to work normally but is still alive. This tissue can recover if blood flow is restored, but without reperfusion it is likely to die and become part of the infarct.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a75c451e23c2082daa3a654cabafc729d46c13296264a7ed2a542cc8b95f9ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tsai Yuan-Hsiung; Yuan Rui; Huang Yen-Chu; Weng Hsu-Huei; Yeh Mei-Yu; Lin Ching-Po; Biswal Bharat B.. Altered Resting-State fMRI Signals in Acute Stroke Patients with Ischemic Penumbra. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0105117; article XML SHA-256 6ef64db59438e3854f330b17dfdede293245929fdca6186bd498dc4782e0e485. “Altered Resting-State fMRI Signals in Acute Stroke Patients with Ischemic Penumbra” (10.1371/journal.pone.0105117).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105117). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ISI
<a id="isi"></a>

ISI stands for Insomnia Severity Index, a standardized measure used to assess how severe insomnia is. In this source, it is used alongside other sleep measures to estimate the level of sleep disturbance in a population.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 23918de00734adbf8247899fbbba54e6803cf48bfb30d8a7bc2e82d31ded3e51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Carpinelli Lucca Passow; Gauer Luis Eduardo; Soares Victor Henrique Dominiak; Williams Simone Blythe; Szepeilewicz Caroline Baldini; Pezzini Julia Valle; Neto Antônio Oesir Gonçalves; Ribeiro Sidarta Tollendal Gomes. Insomnia and poor sleep quality in refugee and asylum-seeking populations: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352964; article XML SHA-256 e2800c450e3c3701ba0a37dc5bff71aabe47aded5853ba061b10041cf25cec51. “Insomnia and poor sleep quality in refugee and asylum-seeking populations: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352964).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352964). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## island of Reil
<a id="island-of-reil"></a>

The island of Reil is a tucked-in area of the cerebral cortex located deep at the bottom of the Sylvian fissure on the side of the brain. It has roles in emotion and memory processing, as well as in higher-level autonomic regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5ec8eecdf6f54dbcc9b7c103f7e1ee8f7bd6f549b77eb39ca0e5aa45f55406da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Central Lobe” (C32278).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## isocarboxazid
<a id="isocarboxazid"></a>

Isocarboxazid is an antidepressant that works by blocking monoamine oxidase, an enzyme that breaks down brain chemicals such as norepinephrine and serotonin. By raising levels of these mood-related neurotransmitters, it can affect mood and emotions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 23f8a2615883d60a7817a0ded2fd1e83585c45bba25b6602407aea4aa69afc95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Isocarboxazid” (C47573).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## isolation
<a id="isolation"></a>

Isolation is the separation of one group of organisms from another in a lasting way that prevents interbreeding. In this historical usage, it was treated as an important condition for divergent evolution, including cases based on geographic separation or reproductive barriers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 837fd41d686e889590107ae734b5ee991bca0d1870443a103ffc58e4a35d5477

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Isolation” (Isolation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Isolation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## isolation experiment
<a id="isolation-experiment"></a>

An isolation experiment is a study condition in which the target items are presented alone rather than embedded in a larger context such as a sentence. In the source study, written items were shown in isolation so their learning could be compared with learning when the same kinds of items appeared within sentences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35252451f660ae893369c1c2242f7b79547749d7083863cc9917dffe6e15b8e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pérez-Serrano Mercedes; Nogueroles-López Marta; Duñabeitia Jon Andoni. Incidental vocabulary learning with subtitles in a new language: Orthographic markedness and number of exposures. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0246933; article XML SHA-256 a4e4656b530e3e5a075c9cc4405f7740f402199d832c1ef4fdf33828f972e38a. “Incidental vocabulary learning with subtitles in a new language: Orthographic markedness and number of exposures” (10.1371/journal.pone.0246933).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246933). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## isometric control
<a id="isometric-control"></a>

Isometric control, in this learning context, means regulating force output to match and hold a set target level, such as 40% of maximum force, during an isometric force task. It can also refer to how accurately that force is maintained and how well performance adapts when the target is unexpectedly changed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ab1135cf0f5d3d126d43414d5e7b7da8f1eb45571a2315b55d5d6415c3d45cf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [dos Santos Suziane Peixoto; Benda Rodolfo N.; Couto Crislaine Rangel; Campos Carlos Eduardo; Andrade André Gustavo Pereira; Lage Guilherme M.; Ugrinowitsch Herbert. The level of performance stabilization influences motor adaptation on an isometric force control task. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0185939; article XML SHA-256 6ed3c591c819487dc63b7d4b803e7407fe2a9327a1f7a018fa219941b29f492b. “The level of performance stabilization influences motor adaptation on an isometric force control task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0185939).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185939). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## isomorphism
<a id="isomorphism"></a>

Isomorphism is the idea that similar patterns of organization and governing rules can appear across different levels of a system, such as the mind, brain, and social relationships. In this framework, it means these levels function according to comparable principles, especially in balancing stability with the ability to adapt and change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da45dc28c5127979306c8629fe3f7c435d8be872b45c3faecad149275eed084b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [García-Toro Mauro; Gómez-Juanes Rocío. Schismogenesis in anxiety spectrum disorders: a biopsychosocial perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1667066; article XML SHA-256 f3ad98591b4b658ba8b2188fceb45ef6910732a88c310cf75794dadcbb7ced28. “Schismogenesis in anxiety spectrum disorders: a biopsychosocial perspective” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1667066).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1667066). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## isopropyl alcohol
<a id="isopropyl-alcohol"></a>

Isopropyl alcohol is a form of propyl alcohol with antibacterial effects. It is used as an antiseptic in products such as soaps and lotions and may work by damaging important cell components and membranes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d12761b5f38d5dc5f4218c80b602c088059b73c0f4cec66bd23b800ad490db40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Isopropyl Alcohol” (C602).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## isotonic control
<a id="isotonic-control"></a>

In this study context, isotonic control means the comparison condition in which isotonic saline was injected instead of the pain-producing hypertonic saline. It served as a non-pain control for judging whether changes in force and muscle activation were specifically related to pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8ede57f017d26b91cfad47c66dc66458ed977a9e01a7c51e99545ab6f34a5c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Salomoni Sauro; Tucker Kylie; Hug François; McPhee Megan; Hodges Paul. Reduced Maximal Force during Acute Anterior Knee Pain Is Associated with Deficits in Voluntary Muscle Activation. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0161487; article XML SHA-256 0961082990e9239bc65aac649bf8d0093179559610dcbc796b909f4c5a546f1e. “Reduced Maximal Force during Acute Anterior Knee Pain Is Associated with Deficits in Voluntary Muscle Activation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0161487).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161487). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IT
<a id="it"></a>

IT refers to giving a drug directly into the cerebrospinal fluid within the spinal subarachnoid space, including into the brain’s ventricles. This route is used to bypass the blood-brain barrier and produce rapid local effects in the meninges or along the cerebrospinal axis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03580c468013fc14f7e806268d2bd5a8bd75519ecbf8aba10fd6751244d6b6ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Intrathecal Route of Administration” (C38267).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## item analysis
<a id="item-analysis"></a>

Item analysis is the examination of individual questions or statements in a scale to judge how well they perform and which ones should be kept. In test or measure development, it is used before keeping retained items for later analyses such as factor analysis and validation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6b5d763105c472662aa158bae25c254d2945328007012a24755f72adf33b25ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Dongying; Wang Zheyuan. When leadership turns covert: conceptualizing and developing a scale for Leader’s Manipulative Workplace Behavior. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803662; article XML SHA-256 1f2a275ec3278f2e857e5370caabb84a295b3b33077dc5402a8996492135dfaf. “When leadership turns covert: conceptualizing and developing a scale for Leader’s Manipulative Workplace Behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803662).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803662). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## item response theory
<a id="item-response-theory"></a>

Item response theory is a psychometric approach for analyzing how individual test or questionnaire items perform. In assessment research, it is used to identify weaker items, refine a measure, and examine whether items function differently across groups while evaluating reliability and validity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c826bfcb2dd56aff934838d319fd123dcfca67990d0b8e9c4c2f8c728728b87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dåderman Anna M; Persson Björn N; Ahlstrand Inger; Hallgren Jenny; Larsson Ingrid; Larsson Margaretha; Sundler Annelie J; Hedén Lena; Nunstedt Håkan; Ekman Aimée; Lood Qarin; Andersson Hammar Isabelle; Pennbrant Sandra. Item response theory modelling of the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire-short form: item streamlining, differential item functioning, and validity in a Swedish multicenter cross-sectional study. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03271-1; article XML SHA-256 a47f8fb49014995427e7956aeaeb4657bb65aae088db544023314451efa9fbad. “Item response theory modelling of the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire-short form: item streamlining, differential item functioning, and validity in a Swedish multicenter cross-sectional study” (10.1186/s40359-025-03271-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03271-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## IUD
<a id="iud"></a>

IUD stands for intrauterine device, a form of intrauterine contraception. In this source, it is discussed in the context of post-abortion contraception and healthcare providers’ perceptions of barriers and supports affecting its provision and uptake.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 81232ee066aa66ca9b3126f17e6298e441e437a9b4d6f9c20fb6da8d51a55a7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kayiga Herbert; Looft-Trägårdh Emelie; Cleeve Amanda; Kakaire Othman; Tumwesigye Nazarius Mbona; Byamugisha Josaphat; Gemzell-Danielsson Kristina. Healthcare providers’ perceptions on post abortion intrauterine contraception: A qualitative study in central Uganda. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0301748; article XML SHA-256 7e2d72112c5468edb64ca92f4a54e981495ed6247ebdcf6a222c5ab57641e853. “Healthcare providers’ perceptions on post abortion intrauterine contraception: A qualitative study in central Uganda” (10.1371/journal.pone.0301748).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301748). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## jabberwocky
<a id="jabberwocky"></a>

In this context, jabberwocky refers to sentence-like language material that preserves syntactic structure while lacking normal lexical-semantic meaning. It is used to study language processing when grammatical form is present but word meaning is absent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd2310b493208660a64ec1323d2f5e3c0cb4ce2258a06c76dbf879352a313e3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [György Dávid; Saddy Douglas; Kotz Sonja A.; Franck Julie. Not primed to agree? Short or no effect of rhythmic priming on typical adults processing number agreement. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1512267; article XML SHA-256 e093e3aa5b88158a79a04f48c07fe409ad4449c6346a237a1549cc4b45e7a8d9. “Not primed to agree? Short or no effect of rhythmic priming on typical adults processing number agreement” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1512267).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1512267). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Jacobson’s organ
<a id="jacobsons-organ"></a>

Jacobson’s organ is an extra chemical-sensing structure, separate from the main smell lining, located near the base of the nasal septum by the vomer. It relays chemical cues such as pheromones to the central nervous system and can affect social and reproductive behavior; in humans, most of it regresses after birth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e3fb488fe9bfd1224ae1dea3301dc7174226cbd248042dce256006639c77307

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vomeronasal Organ” (D019147).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019147). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## jactitation
<a id="jactitation"></a>

Jactitation is restless, anxious tossing or shifting from one posture to another. In this source, it is described as a sign of distress, whether the person is aware of it or not, seen in severe mental disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abb22a7fee25bc3c7f8bf7c0b5e0f6f18a827bfb9c25c2fdc4849f457a800e9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-4147500-4159500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Jakob–Creutzfeldt disease
<a id="jakobcreutzfeldt-disease"></a>

Jakob–Creutzfeldt disease is a rare transmissible brain disorder that most often appears between ages 50 and 70 and causes rapidly worsening neurological and mental changes, such as sleep problems, personality change, movement abnormalities, language problems, visual loss, progressive dementia, and usually death within a year of onset. Familial and variant forms have also been described, and the disease is marked by spongiform brain degeneration and prions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a77db687912f64915aee969967575eb98662b9cc727841bc91490f56f10cf64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Creutzfeldt-Jakob Syndrome” (D007562).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007562). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Jealousy
<a id="jealousy"></a>

Jealousy is an irrational emotional reaction that may combine grief, lowered self-worth, hostility toward a rival, and self-critical feelings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d529ea7e06985586568dcd740406e1cb5e3e68562b2a54e2c3c59f04af3160cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Jealousy” (D007578).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007578). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## jet lag
<a id="jet-lag"></a>

Jet lag is a body-clock disorder caused by rapid travel across multiple time zones. It commonly involves sleep disruption such as insomnia or excessive sleepiness, along with fatigue and other symptoms like behavior changes, headaches, or stomach upset.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba4b8495c0cf98502ab938d838d6353c7b14a88b6c004de406ec8a5716cde739

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Jet Lag Syndrome” (D020179).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020179). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## jigsaw method
<a id="jigsaw-method"></a>

The jigsaw method is a structured cooperative learning approach in which lesson material is split into different parts, each student learns one part, works with peers studying the same part, and then teaches it back to their original small group. It is designed to create mutual dependence and individual responsibility so that students must combine their pieces to learn the full lesson.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc9e1287a660af2d934b9b55836ef5eb8354e1997b26b8f4a613c406d8a0114b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vives Eva; Bressan Marco; Poletti Céline; Caroti Denis; Butera Fabrizio; Huguet Pascal; ProFAN consortium; Régner Isabelle. Uncovering the relationship between working memory and performance in the Jigsaw classroom. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319495; article XML SHA-256 3f2093992f4411958db4fefe006bc6bd9fa39e25d294fbc31c4826876d26707f. “Uncovering the relationship between working memory and performance in the Jigsaw classroom” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319495).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319495). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## jittering
<a id="jittering"></a>

Jittering is the addition of small, rapid viewpoint shifts to a visual display, creating an optic flow that varies rather than remaining smooth. In this context, it is used in self-motion research because such visual jitter can strengthen the illusion of moving while the observer is actually still.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0cb7e9622b8d2795c5ea6f4d97543b7515c59de784c98a5426ec5846b0d7dd8c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Palmisano Stephen; Allison Robert S.; Ash April; Nakamura Shinji; Apthorp Deborah. Evidence against an ecological explanation of the jitter advantage for vection. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01297; article XML SHA-256 03e09c634ff492bedc78f1535dc75fba874af7e12d5c58026dcfef546d99d43f. “Evidence against an ecological explanation of the jitter advantage for vection” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01297).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01297). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## job involvement
<a id="job-involvement"></a>

Job involvement is the extent to which a person psychologically identifies with their job. Higher job involvement means the work feels more personally meaningful and valued, which can support stronger dedication to job tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5fca7306a921126835ba5bcb0eee47725a7d26a72b489eeec85d719ac53af023

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Wenyuan; Yuan Chuqin; Li Min. Person–Job Fit and Innovation Behavior: Roles of Job Involvement and Career Commitment. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01134; article XML SHA-256 20196fe61111471166f0bf1b64f988b6eb432a1216257796df616c31fd20e4cc. “Person–Job Fit and Innovation Behavior: Roles of Job Involvement and Career Commitment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01134).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01134). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## job performance
<a id="job-performance"></a>

Job performance is how well a person carries out their work, including both what they do and what they achieve on the job. It can be shaped by personal qualities such as knowledge, skills, and experience, as well as workplace conditions, resources, and broader outside demands or policies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d25f787dd677069e69c332fa38d85078cb77e137cd98484317f215994457cfd3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Xin; Zhang Yinrui; Wang Yuhang; Wang Haixia; Sun Shuaijun; Huang Xianhong. The impact of medical staff’s character strengths on job performance in Hangzhou hospitals. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1291851; article XML SHA-256 518a84eeda9ab804a3c6fec41e64d8701f4de28972d6a579a8d3f41c873d6f98. “The impact of medical staff’s character strengths on job performance in Hangzhou hospitals” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1291851).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1291851). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## job redesign
<a id="job-redesign"></a>

Job redesign is changing a current work situation so it fits a person’s abilities, resources, and wishes better. In this packet, job crafting is described as an active form of job redesign that can make work feel more manageable, meaningful, and supportive of well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1eefc7ee11d3770384d3d539e60840f45dc416d0518fd70ebfdfaffa65c80328

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jaldestad Ellen; Dellve Lotta. Antecedents for crafting a sense of coherence among healthcare employees. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1376472; article XML SHA-256 f82601f98a81a70fa149c618a3e0352c08788cee50915da70f3e9ebe168d8c69. “Antecedents for crafting a sense of coherence among healthcare employees” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1376472).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1376472). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## JOL
<a id="jol"></a>

JOL stands for judgment of learning, a person’s prediction of how likely they are to remember something later after studying it. It is used in self-regulated learning and reflects subjective metamemory, which can be fairly accurate overall but may differ from actual later memory performance, especially when judged immediately after learning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 89fcd53b99cc03c3d128500f1c6b10fa5870697371ba4efdb3266d9bfa21af3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Haiyan; Cai Ying; Liu Qi; Zhao Xiao; Wang Qiang; Chen Chuansheng; Xue Gui. Differential Neural Correlates Underlie Judgment of Learning and Subsequent Memory Performance. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01699; article XML SHA-256 00ffe4471f25a143a9f1f72a9a5a0e9dc44f4f96e42dec457897bb5c2d64bd1a. “Differential Neural Correlates Underlie Judgment of Learning and Subsequent Memory Performance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01699).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01699). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## joy
<a id="joy"></a>

Joy is a pleasurable emotional state that comes with awareness of some gain or advantage for oneself or another person. In this historical account, it is presented as the opposite of grief and is linked with outwardly expansive expressions such as lively movement, social display, and laughter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ae19134bf6df0d80378cb4595265cdabe317060311d0763c456258a9b62d85c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Joy” (Joy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/J1defs.htm#Joy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## judgment
<a id="judgment"></a>

Judgment is the mental process of recognizing or deciding the relationship between ideas, concepts, or situations, and it also refers to the capacity to make such evaluations. In psychology, it includes critically assessing a person, circumstance, or the meaning of a concept.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e634ddb552a30b17214d59e4814e5f46a8c1f06e3592e8d58954d0d42721bc9c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Judgment” (D007600).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007600). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## judgment sampling
<a id="judgment-sampling"></a>

Judgment sampling is a sampling method in which researchers use their own knowledge and expertise to select participants they consider most representative and appropriate for a study.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b11cb97025ea26fb3612919ff6b3b04bf3aeed1b4dadd35681c2e7a3d5ec429

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Judgment Sampling” (C71503).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## jumping stand
<a id="jumping-stand"></a>

A jumping stand is a behavioral testing apparatus used in discrimination and visual perception tasks in which an animal jumps from an elevated starting point toward one of two targets. Correct choices lead to a safe landing and reward, while incorrect choices lead to an immediate negative outcome, making it a way to study learning and stimulus-guided responding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 761fa531f7802a231d7afcfea037cb1449d012b6f209fe6969403e854a9f10e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Picq Jean-Luc; Villain Nicolas; Gary Charlotte; Pifferi Fabien; Dhenain Marc. Jumping Stand Apparatus Reveals Rapidly Specific Age-Related Cognitive Impairments in Mouse Lemur Primates. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0146238; article XML SHA-256 6a04f98bab48b7abee4e83d123d2acd2087ede8b4972654c977d8d25062011b9. “Jumping Stand Apparatus Reveals Rapidly Specific Age-Related Cognitive Impairments in Mouse Lemur Primates” (10.1371/journal.pone.0146238).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146238). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## juncture
<a id="juncture"></a>

Juncture means a particular point or stage in an ongoing process, especially one that is important for what happens next. In this context, a critical juncture is a key moment in how an idea or field is being developed or understood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5173804ce6cba69cc11d511c3a23f1987d2016574f8e0c107775f499367d1071

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Borges Lauren M.; Farnsworth Jacob K.; Barnes Sean M.; Walser Robyn D.. Acceptance and commitment therapy for moral injury: conceptualizing and intervening on moral injury through the lens of contextual behavioral science. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1923699; article XML SHA-256 d5f1be97646f054fd0130ead0b1b371964a4ca3739631e434a6e21fb22b68719. “Acceptance and commitment therapy for moral injury: conceptualizing and intervening on moral injury through the lens of contextual behavioral science” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1923699).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1923699). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Jungian typology
<a id="jungian-typology"></a>

Jungian typology is a theory of psychological type that describes people in terms of attitudes of extraversion versus introversion and functions such as sensing, intuition, feeling, and thinking. In this framework, these tendencies are organized as opposing pairs, and a person is understood as relying more on one relatively dominant or “superior” type or function than its opposite.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75fb08f6624b4bb136b765ca81fa53f4606ee3f7cd2b9aaff08f36fb7310be9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Sangin; Kim Jongwan. Testing the bipolar assumption of Singer-Loomis Type Deployment Inventory for Korean adults using classification and multidimensional scaling. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1249185; article XML SHA-256 0ba86724077f0a45061e85a08831bd5c10722837dc449b9f539eb8ed246d2296. “Testing the bipolar assumption of Singer-Loomis Type Deployment Inventory for Korean adults using classification and multidimensional scaling” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1249185).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1249185). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## just noticeable difference
<a id="just-noticeable-difference"></a>

In this historical psychophysics context, a just noticeable difference is the smallest change in sensation that can still be detected, and it may be taken as a unit for measuring sensation. In the account linked to Fechner’s law, such detectable differences are treated as proportional to the size of the stimulus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e3b07015376fffb80485876b73d0d4c65f07e3e89836ff0057fd5a41fe2e780

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fechner's Law” (Fechner's).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fechner's). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## just-world hypothesis
<a id="just-world-hypothesis"></a>

The just-world hypothesis is the belief that people generally get outcomes they deserve. In the research described here, stronger endorsement of this belief is associated with more victim-blaming, harsher moral judgments, and greater rationalization of inequality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 97051f13e8fdfe8d7520115c6b70e970dbf4bafab7ca5704cb9a27e8d1c1b305

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Andrade Gabriel. Agency, justice, and morality: exploring the intersection of belief in free will, the just world hypothesis, and health behavior. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1750010; article XML SHA-256 0cf47d306a75ec51d846da9c07ddcdb7065e4835ce9d09b0e3724ae4d747b2f5. “Agency, justice, and morality: exploring the intersection of belief in free will, the just world hypothesis, and health behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1750010).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1750010). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## justice
<a id="justice"></a>

Justice is the social and psychological recognition of the claims and duties that arise from status, custom, and shared rights, along with the enforcement of these expectations within a community. In ethics, it also means a settled disposition to respect the rights of others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 479b09e39de05dc750d912150c4e2c70aa57a742cf8e00c701d24f1562752f37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Justice” (Justice).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/J1defs.htm#Justice). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## juvenile delinquency
<a id="juvenile-delinquency"></a>

Juvenile delinquency refers to delinquent behavior in young people. In this source, it is described as a global public health concern and a target for prevention efforts, including structured exercise and sport-based programs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a18625e6bccc13b75639145d24dc4b090d8faaaec8e57d7ccfcaf2f4518723e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Jing; Chen Hongjin; Tian Mengdi. From body shaping to character formation: international research progress and mechanisms of exercise training interventions for juvenile delinquency. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1888577; article XML SHA-256 b87e9fbe327fc392a60335aacd260a8c545c0aae5b8907103b8bff06a1432b6b. “From body shaping to character formation: international research progress and mechanisms of exercise training interventions for juvenile delinquency” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1888577).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1888577). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## juvenile period
<a id="juvenile-period"></a>

The juvenile period is the extended stage of human development in childhood when the brain is especially plastic. In this period, the cerebral cortex shows more dynamic and variable patterns of gene expression across individuals than in adulthood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eadef4f00fd9e1e9c151c21be0797904882c8fdd163e6bf1ec2ffda52860b3d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sterner Kirstin N.; Weckle Amy; Chugani Harry T.; Tarca Adi L.; Sherwood Chet C.; Hof Patrick R.; Kuzawa Christopher W.; Boddy Amy M.; Abbas Asad; Raaum Ryan L.; Grégoire Lucie; Lipovich Leonard; Grossman Lawrence I.; Uddin Monica; Goodman Morris; Wildman Derek E.. Dynamic Gene Expression in the Human Cerebral Cortex Distinguishes Children from Adults. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0037714; article XML SHA-256 0867e7dd56cb2bf6ca3b9f14d604c75c5359c749d104bed254779333cac016ce. “Dynamic Gene Expression in the Human Cerebral Cortex Distinguishes Children from Adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0037714).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0037714). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## K complex
<a id="k-complex"></a>

A K complex is a prominent EEG waveform seen during the second stage of non-REM sleep. It is a biphasic slow wave that stands out from the background brain activity and may occur on its own or be triggered by external stimuli.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de594510cf70260ea143b6809321c8f1e43721dce69cbf0c866cebc8b66036ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kokkinos Vasileios; Koupparis Andreas M.; Kostopoulos George K.. An intra-K-complex oscillation with independent and labile frequency and topography in NREM sleep. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00163; article XML SHA-256 8b95006b9ff09171c1e55c1152477a7df72ebf133878c5d5e030c362cb25b19a. “An intra-K-complex oscillation with independent and labile frequency and topography in NREM sleep” (10.3389/fnhum.2013.00163).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00163). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## K-R 20
<a id="k-r-20"></a>

K-R 20 is a reliability formula used with test responses to estimate internal consistency, or how well responses fit a single measured trait. In this study, it was applied to person reliability by checking how the reliability estimate changed when each test taker was removed, helping flag response patterns that looked aberrant or did not covary with the group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 517fcdcb8e89c63c533ca930c29121efee565cea771b9290e266e9dfae8d54f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sideridis Georgios; Jaffari Fathima. Identifying person misfit using the person backward stepwise reliability curve (PBRC). 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1273582; article XML SHA-256 2c7a830e4c6242b09fd228a2d1a619c38c29e6845e628db9875b14f72161fa56. “Identifying person misfit using the person backward stepwise reliability curve (PBRC)” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1273582).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1273582). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## KABC
<a id="kabc"></a>

KABC is a clinical assessment tool used to evaluate a child’s cognitive abilities and mental processing, including areas of relative strength and weakness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ebaae6efc7d611bebec9a250d64aeb5566d847f8988b85e4cf8ba6cc39a1bcf5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children” (C115126).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## KAE
<a id="kae"></a>

KAE refers to kaempferol, a flavonol discussed in this source as a compound whose antiviral activity against Japanese encephalitis virus had not yet been described at the time of publication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6da247789e96a3774fdf1be6830b693f6c4885b2bb72dcdc12503cdfe4983c9d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Ting; Wu Zhiqiang; Du Jiang; Hu Yongfeng; Liu Liguo; Yang Fan; Jin Qi. Anti- Japanese-Encephalitis-Viral Effects of Kaempferol and Daidzin and Their RNA-Binding Characteristics. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0030259; article XML SHA-256 1d5878b80ad20522685622fc20d5ab46b736162e09b53cd9960bcbe6522b5dd8. “Anti- Japanese-Encephalitis-Viral Effects of Kaempferol and Daidzin and Their RNA-Binding Characteristics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0030259).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030259). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kainic acid
<a id="kainic-acid"></a>

Kainic acid is a substance obtained from a red alga that strongly stimulates some excitatory amino acid receptors. In research, it has been used to help distinguish receptor types and to produce neurotoxic effects experimentally.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05da3a34f83232cee4174f84593059f761f484a00f2392c3cdb1a89fed018697

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Kainic Acid” (D007608).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007608). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kangaroo care
<a id="kangaroo-care"></a>

Kangaroo care is a family-centered way of caring for an infant, especially in neonatal intensive care, by placing the baby in direct skin-to-skin contact on a parent's bare chest. It is used to support the infant’s physical stability and breastfeeding while also helping meet emotional needs and strengthen parental wellbeing, bonding, and attachment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75cc7267e6ef9443c92cb4c9a2556b98640b17103a2f291fe3b8437e6914e735

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hugoson Pernilla; Haslbeck Friederike Barbara; Ådén Ulrika; Eulau Louise. Parental singing during kangaroo care: parents' experiences of singing to their preterm infant in the NICU. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1440905; article XML SHA-256 6cdb394593d035e0469b9bec6da408e3f85fcd37026a6819e3c295fc4e6c9c88. “Parental singing during kangaroo care: parents' experiences of singing to their preterm infant in the NICU” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1440905).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1440905). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Kanizsa figure
<a id="kanizsa-figure"></a>

A Kanizsa figure is a visual pattern in which appropriately arranged openings in visible shapes, called inducers, make people perceive the edges and surface of a figure even though those contours are not physically drawn. In the example described, four circle segments can create the impression of an illusory rectangle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b17f9c9c41331ff5e8202669daccb328ac28ddac31bfe951225f700f489460d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [De Stefani Elisa; Pinello Luisa; Campana Gianluca; Mazzarolo Monica; Lo Giudice Giuseppe; Casco Clara. Illusory Contours over Pathological Retinal Scotomas. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0026154; article XML SHA-256 6ef0d977cba2e52e4bdb472b3c5a49d4cd50ccaad65a7769d5189421659f12a3. “Illusory Contours over Pathological Retinal Scotomas” (10.1371/journal.pone.0026154).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0026154). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Kanner’s syndrome
<a id="kanners-syndrome"></a>

Kanner’s syndrome is a childhood-onset disorder involving major difficulties in social interaction and communication, along with a very limited range of activities and interests. Its presentation can differ widely depending on a person’s age and developmental level.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 437efd8c088b9d9a685ebe1520d5360bea44e1d7d42d71a0e010fe83ac98bdfd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Autistic Disorder” (D001321).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001321). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kansei engineering
<a id="kansei-engineering"></a>

Kansei engineering is a design approach that translates people’s emotional impressions and preferences into product features. In this context, it is used to connect users’ feelings about color schemes with design decisions and evaluation of how well a design matches those emotional responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4d7f3145de9394d155132cd77be2e395c79685352f051ca85ba01c249c17b272

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Tianyu; Zhu Tianlu; Zhao Yiqian; Wu Cengjuan. A hybrid color emotional experience approach: Integrating the pleasure-arousal-dominance model with fuzzy grey relational analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341895; article XML SHA-256 7efc53d4f01e83c50f5dc17e3df6f871076a9ecdb6d10f3290a996653299e5c6. “A hybrid color emotional experience approach: Integrating the pleasure-arousal-dominance model with fuzzy grey relational analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341895).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341895). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kappa
<a id="kappa"></a>

In this source, kappa refers to the kappa opioid receptor, a biological receptor that can be activated by a kappa opioid receptor agonist such as difelikefalin. The study describes these receptors in kidney tissue and links their activation with protective effects in experimental acute kidney injury.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae97b4c9c366a86aaff34ddb803eaad7c5a82cb9d947e7dd2b599b1824ffe4ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sawanobori Yoshiharu; Nakano Daisuke; Kitamura Hiroaki; Kitada Kento; Asaga Takehiko; Suzuki Norio; Yamamoto Masayuki; Ogino Yuichi; Shirakami Gotaro; Nishiyama Akira. A kappa opioid receptor agonist, difelikefalin, improves acute kidney injury in experimental sepsis models. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343693; article XML SHA-256 fd160bc3f71d9b5f984b506cac32a86db0afe7efb183f8041f9efbf6bf843519. “A kappa opioid receptor agonist, difelikefalin, improves acute kidney injury in experimental sepsis models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343693).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343693). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kappa effect
<a id="kappa-effect"></a>

The kappa effect is a perceptual illusion in which judgments of how much time has passed between sensory events are biased by how far apart those events are in space. Greater spatial separation tends to make the interval seem longer, even when the actual timing is the same.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8607a808ecffdd35144db265e56930b82e6f2c808e7ee340aa1e908ff8fa9ff0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Youguo; Zhang Bangwu; Kording Konrad Paul. Speed Constancy or Only Slowness: What Drives the Kappa Effect. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0154013; article XML SHA-256 ce1238a8050b726c26ae2e5de19837531ef69182f503edc0c8b6a274a42d6405. “Speed Constancy or Only Slowness: What Drives the Kappa Effect” (10.1371/journal.pone.0154013).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154013). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kappa opioid receptor
<a id="kappa-opioid-receptor"></a>

A kappa opioid receptor is a body receptor that can be activated by certain opioid drugs, including the peripherally acting agonist difelikefalin. In the source, these receptors are discussed as being present outside the brain, including in kidney-related cells, where their activation may help reduce harmful inflammatory changes and protect against acute kidney injury in animal models.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35d06f9f253b8ace0f07193f6bebf29975d936f06b490a30b92a994e19d39510

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sawanobori Yoshiharu; Nakano Daisuke; Kitamura Hiroaki; Kitada Kento; Asaga Takehiko; Suzuki Norio; Yamamoto Masayuki; Ogino Yuichi; Shirakami Gotaro; Nishiyama Akira. A kappa opioid receptor agonist, difelikefalin, improves acute kidney injury in experimental sepsis models. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343693; article XML SHA-256 fd160bc3f71d9b5f984b506cac32a86db0afe7efb183f8041f9efbf6bf843519. “A kappa opioid receptor agonist, difelikefalin, improves acute kidney injury in experimental sepsis models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343693).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343693). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## karma
<a id="karma"></a>

In this historical usage, karma is the principle in Hindu thought by which a being’s accumulated moral consequences persist after death and shape a future life. It is the enduring moral force behind repeated rebirth and destiny until it is ended through spiritual liberation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6bdc1d1dbf66e4be5ce041dfcfe06af197cae073326af73e128c25bb5e993c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Karma” (Karma).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/K1defs.htm#Karma). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kat
<a id="kat"></a>

KAT stands for ketamine-assisted therapy. In this source, it is described as a form of psychedelic-assisted therapy and discussed in relation to therapist training, experiential learning, and perceived competence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22f6fba8aff9bd02f6af3c146d744ccccdccfe6df888e1e183703be756771803

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Argento Elena; Petker Tashia; Vig Jayesh; Robertson Cosette; Jaeger Alexandria; Necyk Candace; Thielking Paul; Walsh Zach. “This is you teaching you:” Exploring providers’ perspectives on experiential learning and enhancing patient safety and outcomes in ketamine-assisted therapy. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0306381; article XML SHA-256 d5726e69c674ac19325dcfa9a20d7f5957e0b7ede461c15c7d066b42e4d6a8d0. ““This is you teaching you:” Exploring providers’ perspectives on experiential learning and enhancing patient safety and outcomes in ketamine-assisted therapy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0306381).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306381). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
<a id="kaufman-assessment-battery-for-children"></a>

The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children is a clinical assessment designed to evaluate how a child thinks and processes information. It is used to identify areas of relative cognitive strength and weakness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 28bb0ed6023f32a3399802204ce5139187a43b7aabf59e4e16d4eea73a7b0f81

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children” (C115126).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kava
<a id="kava"></a>

Kava is a substance made from the dried roots and rhizome of Piper methysticum, a plant from Oceania, and is known for calming and sedative effects. The name also refers to a pungent drink prepared from the plant’s roots, and heavy use can cause adverse effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6d7fea1b4fe60f117f7f0d739f08789ce0aecb45d261702f267020fc5b1a08f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Kava” (D020901).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020901). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Kemadrin
<a id="kemadrin"></a>

Kemadrin is procyclidine hydrochloride, a drug with anticholinergic effects. It lowers acetylcholine activity in the striatum and may also increase dopamine activity, which can reduce akinesia, rigidity, and tremor linked to uncontrollable body movements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 27dad1a11e0a53abf41d81e3fcaecf14252a6c6d8193527e8e860f4e026e518a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Procyclidine Hydrochloride” (C47689).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Kendall’s coefficient of concordance
<a id="kendalls-coefficient-of-concordance"></a>

Kendall’s coefficient of concordance is a statistical measure of how much agreement there is across a group of raters or experts. In Delphi-style studies, it is used to show how consistently panel members rank or rate items, with higher values indicating stronger agreement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b19985291a0dfe77edba3771be5b679243b260e972fd60e5add06f23b626ca6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tsay Shwu-Feng; Hu Yi-Ting; Lo Shu-Fen. Development of an evidence-based pressure injury prevention care bundle for home-care settings: a systematic review and Delphi study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12912-026-04694-w; article XML SHA-256 94c31867ea0a1a17a4fea6595017d608b762d9d4d3ed20feb70d09b568ac1f0a. “Development of an evidence-based pressure injury prevention care bundle for home-care settings: a systematic review and Delphi study” (10.1186/s12912-026-04694-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-026-04694-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Kendall’s tau
<a id="kendalls-tau"></a>

Kendall’s tau is a statistical coefficient used to show how closely two rank orderings correspond. In this source, it measures the strength of rank-order correlation between groups’ ratings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f271bb139c99b48544dd68a7d94ab1a9cc653bb8348675f382d2a1035ebb6597

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kleppe Maranda; McCarey Jacob; Kedilaya Sujatha; Vining Robert. Assessing the importance and feasibility of quality measures for chiropractic care: a national survey of U.S. chiropractors. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12998-026-00635-1; article XML SHA-256 6aa814dc06cecdb4af37d4b5c2314ed3ae7e3afccdf8ddadbdea583f75781185. “Assessing the importance and feasibility of quality measures for chiropractic care: a national survey of U.S. chiropractors” (10.1186/s12998-026-00635-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12998-026-00635-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Kendall’s W
<a id="kendalls-w"></a>

Kendall’s W is a statistic used to show how strongly different groups or raters agree in the way they rank a set of items. Higher values indicate stronger rank-order agreement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 18c7dc23eaa5e160d9fd78bb5e41ff2ad2de53d1a3424fae8043abe7e8281135

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kleppe Maranda; McCarey Jacob; Kedilaya Sujatha; Vining Robert. Assessing the importance and feasibility of quality measures for chiropractic care: a national survey of U.S. chiropractors. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12998-026-00635-1; article XML SHA-256 6aa814dc06cecdb4af37d4b5c2314ed3ae7e3afccdf8ddadbdea583f75781185. “Assessing the importance and feasibility of quality measures for chiropractic care: a national survey of U.S. chiropractors” (10.1186/s12998-026-00635-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12998-026-00635-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## keratoconus
<a id="keratoconus"></a>

Keratoconus is a degenerative structural disorder of the eye in which the cornea bulges outward into a cone shape. This change can cause visual problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a25f60a81c527f7fd583920163687c48a015a79da01af0062f8cc1b77676728

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Keratoconus” (C26806).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kernicterus
<a id="kernicterus"></a>

Kernicterus is a brain injury syndrome caused by high levels of unconjugated bilirubin, which can enter the brain and damage areas such as the basal ganglia, brain stem, and cerebellum. It occurs mainly in newborns and may involve movement problems, abnormal muscle tone, impaired upward gaze, and hearing loss.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e04cd129b71460c20912e2192fff1282d612b40c6b952964dc83c4c422d75142

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Kernicterus” (D007647).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007647). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## khat
<a id="khat"></a>

In ancient Egyptian psychology, khat meant the physical body as one of the distinct elements thought to make up a human being. It was contrasted with other parts such as the soul, heart, and shadow.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84c61b88e2f6dc570873a0fb600728249d0f6d687760adc71f271f64b9eef01c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Oriental Philosophy (and Religion)” (Oriental Philosophy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O3defs.htm#Oriental Philosophy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia
<a id="kiddie-schedule-for-affective-disorders-and-schizophrenia"></a>

The Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia is a semi-structured clinical interview commonly used in child and adolescent psychiatric research to assess mental disorders in young people. The present and lifetime version has been updated to match DSM-5 categories and is described in the source as showing good validity and inter-rater reliability for clinical research use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 995fe32683e8bdec7e4511bc82bdb04d5f1ed6d94b8717c33867dded3e7163a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [de la Peña Francisco R; Villavicencio Lino R; Palacio Juan D; Félix Fernando J; Larraguibel Marcela; Viola Laura; Ortiz Silvia; Rosetti Marcos; Abadi Andrea; Montiel Cecilia; Mayer Pablo A; Fernández Sofía; Jaimes Aurora; Feria Miriam; Sosa Liz; Rodríguez Andrés; Zavaleta Patricia; Uribe Daniela; Galicia Frinne; Botero Diana; Estrada Santiago; Berber Arturo F; Pi-Davanzo Macarena; Aldunate Consuelo; Gómez Gabriela; Campodónico Ivannah; Tripicchio Paula; Gath Ignacio; Hernández Manuel; Palacios Lino; Ulloa Rosa E. Validity and reliability of the kiddie schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia present and lifetime version DSM-5 (K-SADS-PL-5) Spanish version. 2018; DOI 10.1186/s12888-018-1773-0; article XML SHA-256 3316c5cfa3d1609d39d4ecbddf376eec13d16f55ebb44d29beab674260a69a83. “Validity and reliability of the kiddie schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia present and lifetime version DSM-5 (K-SADS-PL-5) Spanish version” (10.1186/s12888-018-1773-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1773-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## kin recognition
<a id="kin-recognition"></a>

Kin recognition is the ability to tell whether another individual is a genetic relative and to use that information to guide behavior. In the source context, it refers especially to adjusting altruism or parental care depending on relatedness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1170d40180e50b92c8c7c85ed131a6d24bdfa6d6c9048a56570bab3c0899cbaa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lattore Martina; Nakagawa Shinichi; Burke Terry; Plaza Mireia; Schroeder Julia. No evidence for kin recognition in a passerine bird. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0213486; article XML SHA-256 979eb144239a9ccc8a82198ecd06b0c560b89b41f96b3236a6631acdbffd6965. “No evidence for kin recognition in a passerine bird” (10.1371/journal.pone.0213486).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213486). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kin selection
<a id="kin-selection"></a>

Kin selection is a way cooperation can evolve when interactions are not random and individuals are more likely than chance to interact with others like themselves, such as relatives. In this sense, greater relatedness can help cooperative behavior spread in a population.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e04c8e0cf9e753e121f03fdfa4f1c121998ad46f684ba61d2f2476310cfb9b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ale Som B.; Brown Joel S.; Sullivan Amy T.. Evolution of Cooperation: Combining Kin Selection and Reciprocal Altruism into Matrix Games with Social Dilemmas. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0063761; article XML SHA-256 21e38ed3ffb1d39eb6a94782942d6d139f965df954d82358a214873df0901621. “Evolution of Cooperation: Combining Kin Selection and Reciprocal Altruism into Matrix Games with Social Dilemmas” (10.1371/journal.pone.0063761).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0063761). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kindling
<a id="kindling"></a>

In the context of alcohol withdrawal, kindling is the idea that earlier episodes of complicated withdrawal make a later withdrawal episode more likely to become complicated as well. It describes how a person’s withdrawal history can strongly influence current risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2eb937b16b00f2bed1450b5cc9fcf519504b2a67aacfd633319710d27a98285f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bagi Otília; Kádár Bettina Kata; Farkas Fanni Fruzsina; Gajdics Janka; Pribék Ildikó Katalin; Lázár Bence András. The role of kindling mechanism: A validation study of the Hungarian version of the Prediction of Alcohol Withdrawal Severity Scale. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330629; article XML SHA-256 c237531f7650681a631dc5dd769b9f94482efb56e6d2fb242a19c9fcbb1531fd. “The role of kindling mechanism: A validation study of the Hungarian version of the Prediction of Alcohol Withdrawal Severity Scale” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330629).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330629). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kindred
<a id="kindred"></a>

Kindred is a group-based ketamine-assisted psychotherapy program that combines cognitive processing therapy to address identity-based trauma in transgender and gender-expansive people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0634ad092e435beec2bf4f210e9bb0c39ef442a3f3fb68062c98d105c35d96a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sevelius Jae M.; Golden Rachel Lynn; Stott Brooke L.; Kozicz Natavi Orion; Mukerjee Ronica; Cluesman Sabrina R.; Jones Tennessee; Cornelius Talea. Ketamine-assisted group psychotherapy integrating cognitive processing therapy to address identity-based trauma: a pilot study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1727487; article XML SHA-256 1101e8a1df10fd43f180331b5a1c8d0d29204f642e0285aa33e1a8df7c232cff. “Ketamine-assisted group psychotherapy integrating cognitive processing therapy to address identity-based trauma: a pilot study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1727487).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1727487). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kinematics
<a id="kinematics"></a>

Kinematics is the branch of physics that studies motion in its purely geometrical form. It considers how bodies move without bringing in their mutual action or force as a cause.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a07a79484f1ffc7cfc09df4eaaf0b8c9488cf810a001464f9a1adcbf9479e0ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Motion” (Motion).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M5defs.htm#Motion). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kinesia
<a id="kinesia"></a>

In this historical usage, kinesia means the power of movement, contrasted with aesthesia as the general power or process of feeling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa9617e45812be25f07cf33f1d72747f1b01d9fc1136105588beb3751ae7e7b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aesthesia” (Aesthesia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Aesthesia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kinesics
<a id="kinesics"></a>

Kinesics is the systematic study of how the body communicates through still and moving positions. It focuses on body posture and movement as forms of communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b992b876ee530186cec7ecf6c946b202346c0d2bcbc01cca71c34162e8c00902

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Kinesics” (D007697).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007697). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kinesimeter
<a id="kinesimeter"></a>

A kinesimeter is a historical psychology laboratory instrument: a regulated moving point used to examine the skin’s surface in studies of touch and related sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ff18b6cf677ff85d6f2c23c0bf461ce690755eb9645e118f59de0fc59dc0c775

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Laboratory (of psychology) and Apparatus” (Laboratory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Laboratory). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kinesiology
<a id="kinesiology"></a>

Kinesiology is a college field of study centered on sports and exercise, with related learning about health. In this context, students in kinesiology are described as having sustained exposure to physical activity and health-related knowledge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3736eae59c580d16eedebc9098aff371ab20d16c607f89f6d0cfafa27b28a297

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wen Miaomiao; Wang Xiaorui; Yin Zhihua. Development and validation of the interactive health literacy scale for college students majoring in kinesiology. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1647504; article XML SHA-256 9d3407bf275593b3786d9f79778c49abe6b8ad8f3c8af47732e1c3e0cc44fd57. “Development and validation of the interactive health literacy scale for college students majoring in kinesiology” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1647504).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1647504). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Kinesiophobia
<a id="kinesiophobia"></a>

Kinesiophobia is a mental health condition involving a lasting, irrational fear of movement after an injury. It is linked to feeling disabled by the injury and to catastrophic fears that movement will cause pain or reinjury.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 975c1d29ea604590bcb31437733329a14d65784e4e0e7ecc90c808230ff684ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Kinesiophobia” (D000092442).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000092442). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kinesis
<a id="kinesis"></a>

Kinesis is movement behavior that is not directed by steering toward or away from something, though the organism may turn in random directions. It refers to changes such as how fast it moves or how much it turns in relation to the strength of stimulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f22edeb2eed6f508ebdaab1ef3ae4fac8d050014b9aa584f6a5ac4295f7809e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Kinesis” (D007698).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007698). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Kinesthesis
<a id="kinesthesis"></a>

Kinesthesis is the sense that lets a person perceive movement in parts of the body, such as the fingers, elbows, knees, limbs, or when handling weights.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 219252e77f75ef98403f9276a7e57f6193c1d60d7e8491582450fbe25283674d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Kinesthesis” (D007699).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007699). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kinesthetic feedback
<a id="kinesthetic-feedback"></a>

Kinesthetic feedback is movement-related sensory input used to reflect the body’s sensorimotor loop and guide actions or imagined actions. In this context, it refers to artificial somatosensory cues, such as vibrotactile input, that provide a more intuitive sense of movement than visual information alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0c686d6fe3d6c46f28ad32383f752175cf4a6386c671a4046529aa1adb3c2c19

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hehenberger Lea; Batistic Luka; Sburlea Andreea I.; Müller-Putz Gernot R.. Directional Decoding From EEG in a Center-Out Motor Imagery Task With Visual and Vibrotactile Guidance. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2021.687252; article XML SHA-256 432797069abba648dc6bd2895d1cfa6d9ddcb6ffe2d1d238b66d6e73ca0bf14b. “Directional Decoding From EEG in a Center-Out Motor Imagery Task With Visual and Vibrotactile Guidance” (10.3389/fnhum.2021.687252).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.687252). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kinesthetic sense
<a id="kinesthetic-sense"></a>

Kinesthetic sense is the ability to sense the movement of parts of the body, such as the fingers, elbows, knees, limbs, or the handling of weights.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2652063508fd5427ce77cb23122d652f4a41628307c07e3f0e536aaffbf7ccf1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Kinesthesis” (D007699).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007699). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kinship
<a id="kinship"></a>

Kinship is blood relationship, or being related by common descent. In this historical source, it is presented as a relation originally understood across human groups as being traced through the mother.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9657cfd49a391d4febfee280eee4b0068434560fe4c957acbb5633ac9d47d469

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Kinship” (Kinship).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/K1defs.htm#Kinship). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Kleine–Levin syndrome
<a id="kleinelevin-syndrome"></a>

Kleine–Levin syndrome is a rare disorder marked by repeated episodes of extreme sleepiness, often with increased eating, confusion, restlessness, and sometimes hallucinations. The episodes usually last days to weeks, can recur several times a year, occur mainly in males in adolescence or early adulthood, and may go away on their own over several years.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 920b77ac3b24bac610f1b12a475eac913959b3fb60cb1300dba8d0bd5795836b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Kleine-Levin Syndrome” (D017593).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017593). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Kleinian
<a id="kleinian"></a>

Kleinian refers to a psychoanalytic view, associated with object relations theory, that early infancy organizes experience of people into split part-objects such as “good” and “bad” versions. In this view, these emotionally shaped inner representations can strongly color perception of others and contribute to projection, transference, and shifts in reality testing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c10ac8f738acbcb666d2d37981f8148d3394793a148b5e5c39e48db2043c5966

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Connolly Patrick. The Gravity of Objects: How Affectively Organized Generative Models Influence Perception and Social Behavior. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02599; article XML SHA-256 b5b83d4e437dbb9459175d5ddb51e2ff9fc887020b7f361eb7acab618269fb1d. “The Gravity of Objects: How Affectively Organized Generative Models Influence Perception and Social Behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02599).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02599). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Klüver–Bucy syndrome
<a id="kluverbucy-syndrome"></a>

Klüver–Bucy syndrome is a neurobehavioral disorder linked to dysfunction in both medial temporal lobes. It can involve unusually strong oral or touch-based exploration, hypersexuality, overeating, memory problems, unusual calmness, and difficulty recognizing objects or faces, and it may occur after brain injury or with conditions such as infections, Alzheimer disease, Pick disease, or cerebrovascular disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 87b796072daa74365c5a180862f9ccea5e5f810360540000d17b5d65f02d4429

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Kluver-Bucy Syndrome” (D020232).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020232). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## knockout
<a id="knockout"></a>

A knockout is an organism, or an experimentally created model, in which a specific gene or enzyme has been disabled so its usual function is absent. In this packet, knockout mice were made to lack particular kynurenine pathway enzymes in order to study the effects on metabolism and organ function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f59a3f87969d48d5a5451ae72f1f1f798a3ea5bcaf8bd621fdaa2305326cc90b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Summers Benjamin S.; Milham Luke; Bustamante Sonia; Gondal Krishan; Rentsch Peggy; Sundaram Gayathri; Lovelace Michael D.; Vissel Bryce; Brew Bruce J.. Renal and hepatic function is preserved following inducible knockout of kynurenine pathway enzymes KMO or QPRT in adult mice. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335906; article XML SHA-256 48502a2881fc8e5ba9352c1055d3509a310a31eb51b42d54d18f766152392b33. “Renal and hepatic function is preserved following inducible knockout of kynurenine pathway enzymes KMO or QPRT in adult mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335906).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335906). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## knowing
<a id="knowing"></a>

Knowing, in this sense, means grasping or understanding something without consciously working through the reasoning. It refers to an intuitive form of understanding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab6e1c9c57db8725b5d063618740788c47222e7de4cac635cee14a45f4a2f0ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Intuition” (D019545).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019545). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## knowledge
<a id="knowledge"></a>

Knowledge is the cognitive side of consciousness. It can mean either direct acquaintance or recognition of something, or a more developed understanding reached through intellectual comparison and expressed in judgment; the term is also sometimes used for what is known as a body of information, and in some contexts for certainty grounded on adequate objective support.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 157514e4cfef4d09e01e131551e92a6c586e9f3cee4d477eadb6b064ee3e8bab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Knowledge” (Knowledge).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/K1defs.htm#Knowledge). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## knowledge base
<a id="knowledge-base"></a>

A knowledge base is an organized collection of information drawn from source documents so an AI assistant can retrieve and use it to answer questions or provide technical support. In this context, it is built from structured extraction of educational materials rather than functioning as a fully validated tutor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b6d9a0322101b87ad792771a70ecf7cd7b6931630b083ffa88cd06a96865b157

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shen Xiaoqing; Feng Li; Hua Sun; Liu Diyu; Xie Zhaoyuan; Liu Bo. Towards sustainable AI knowledge-base assistants in computer science education: on-premise deployment and optimization with open educational resources. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1843444; article XML SHA-256 fbeee1dc70a5ff27a53f1a0b10535e3b7211d0a179209c1eddfed9e142a44355. “Towards sustainable AI knowledge-base assistants in computer science education: on-premise deployment and optimization with open educational resources” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1843444).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1843444). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## knowledge elicitation
<a id="knowledge-elicitation"></a>

Knowledge elicitation is the use of methods, such as semi-structured interviewing within Cognitive Task Analysis, to draw out how people use knowledge and deal with cognitive challenges in real-world practice. In this context, it helps reveal the flexible, conditional thinking behind expert performance and decision making.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f02fe33581dd1ca3c5fecb2473f66df8e11f3a689fb9d88ab8d015ce90c14885

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Taylor Jamie; Ashford Michael; Jefferson Matt. High performance coach cognition in the wild: using applied cognitive task analysis for practical insights–cognitive challenges and curriculum knowledge. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1154168; article XML SHA-256 0c256bf50ca5f9100a843091d963e68300c16fb471fce8d15d809747c8c6b336. “High performance coach cognition in the wild: using applied cognitive task analysis for practical insights–cognitive challenges and curriculum knowledge” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1154168).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1154168). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## knowledge of performance
<a id="knowledge-of-performance"></a>

Knowledge of performance is augmented feedback about how a movement was carried out, often given through video replay and specific technique cues to help refine and stabilize skill execution. In motor learning, it focuses on movement quality and can support learners’ error detection and correction as they develop a skill.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2d1b7809387df47fc62ae3d6c76d53b65820d7abab42786f0add30580467526

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Tianpeng; Li Kai; Zhang Xinmiao; Cai Yujun. Self-controlled and low-frequency KP feedback enhances gymnastics skill learning via motivation and metacognition. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1769157; article XML SHA-256 43f56fe5ed08f21e19381f0df7e3c8044e485e1650e71ae654edab6dd79d0f86. “Self-controlled and low-frequency KP feedback enhances gymnastics skill learning via motivation and metacognition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1769157).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1769157). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## knowledge of results
<a id="knowledge-of-results"></a>

Knowledge of results is feedback that tells a learner what outcome they actually achieved, such as showing whether their performance matched the intended result. In this context, it gives an objective basis for noticing errors and successes, which can support self-correction and build confidence through repeated mastery experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bb5b1313f0899b18604b8682e245ba196f5124b0515d616b0a9b0f33ccec88a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Yuze. Acoustic spectral feedback in vocal learning: a systematic review of psychological mechanisms and skill outcomes. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920074; article XML SHA-256 669edfe51e665d532fe70c2bca64655640dae96ba52eb00539a2b13d624d846b. “Acoustic spectral feedback in vocal learning: a systematic review of psychological mechanisms and skill outcomes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920074).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920074). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## knowledge representation
<a id="knowledge-representation"></a>

Knowledge representation is the way information or concepts are mentally organized so their relationships can be mapped or inferred. In this source, it refers to how emotional concepts are arranged in the mind, such as their coherence and grouping along dimensions like arousal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 872eb163a522d8e036dafd5017e2159fa743af0f6f880e3fb86e34841cf10d2c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barca Laura; Iodice Pierpaolo; Chaigneau Amine; Lancia GianLuca; Pezzulo Giovanni. Emotional distress and affective knowledge representation one year after the COVID-19 outbreak. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311009; article XML SHA-256 cedaf5255987c7ce94c60f17313df1454a445d615b810f45397566a7e2096ad1. “Emotional distress and affective knowledge representation one year after the COVID-19 outbreak” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311009).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311009). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics
<a id="knowledge-skills-abilities-and-other-characteristics"></a>

Knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) are the personal qualities and competencies a person needs to communicate effectively. In this context, the term is used for communication-related capacities and highlights that these can differ depending on whether communication happens face to face or through text-based digital media.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c39e01cef9f981221174f26e982bac1b0b87aafe2655639d412e7f0b243d10e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schulze Julian; Zagorscak Pavle; West Stephen G.; Schultze Martin; Krumm Stefan. Mind the context—The relevance of personality for face-to-face and computer-mediated communication. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0272938; article XML SHA-256 e7e9c746f527748b2d01990b912612ef7c89d882b5e03888615140cee39d169b. “Mind the context—The relevance of personality for face-to-face and computer-mediated communication” (10.1371/journal.pone.0272938).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272938). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Köhler effect
<a id="kohler-effect"></a>

The Köhler effect is a proposed explanation for why people may show a motivation gain when working in a group. In the source, it is described as distinct from social compensation and contrasted with social loafing, and its role may differ depending on whether group members are lower or higher performers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 646ae35903df088efe6fb0c9435ef96533bf50da3cc0cbbbc84e25967f1db678

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shim Yunsik; Shin Myoungjin. An empirical link between motivation gain and NBA statistics: applying hierarchical linear modelling. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s40359-023-01188-1; article XML SHA-256 0b040b287810c5ae086aaea9546cbd4fca06c2c9ce9000f50f1ef939540770db. “An empirical link between motivation gain and NBA statistics: applying hierarchical linear modelling” (10.1186/s40359-023-01188-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01188-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kola nut
<a id="kola-nut"></a>

Kola nut is the nut of Cola nitida, commonly consumed in Nigeria and West Africa. In the supplied source, it is discussed as a substance used by some pregnant women for morning sickness and dizziness, and as a biological exposure being studied for possible effects on brain development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 538347151347c915127ae39d090fb274a6c5a894b8a151fc69310bc105ce28a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Atiba Foluso A.; Fatokun Amos A.; Imosemi Innocent O.; Malomo Adefolarin O.. Kola nut from Cola nitida vent. Schott administered to pregnant rats induces histological alterations in pups’ cerebellum. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0247573; article XML SHA-256 b56aeef3b4cb4cd358aed7f54bb0816cfa722e13edadb90cd990d395de7e4049. “Kola nut from Cola nitida vent. Schott administered to pregnant rats induces histological alterations in pups’ cerebellum” (10.1371/journal.pone.0247573).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247573). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## KOR
<a id="kor"></a>

KOR refers to the kappa opioid receptor, a receptor in the brain whose activation is linked to the unpleasant or aversive effects of stress. In the source, KOR activity is described as shaping neural circuits involved in neurobehavioral disorders and as directly inhibiting dopamine-producing neurons in the ventral tegmental area.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8384665e61f28cc3a348ce5c72ff5385acb3d11076438230be834fdb85fec4e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Margolis Elyssa B; Wallace Tanya L; Van Orden Lori Jean; Martin William J. Differential effects of novel kappa opioid receptor antagonists on dopamine neurons using acute brain slice electrophysiology. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0232864; article XML SHA-256 a6b80621befeabe718a50035f54725d46e6a1a5f70a68a760ec3226f9e98e5ce. “Differential effects of novel kappa opioid receptor antagonists on dopamine neurons using acute brain slice electrophysiology” (10.1371/journal.pone.0232864).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232864). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## koro
<a id="koro"></a>

Koro is an acute delusional syndrome most often described in Malay and Southern Chinese cultures, in which a person suddenly feels depersonalized and believes the penis is shrinking into the abdomen and that death will follow. It is generally considered a culture-specific syndrome, though it has also been described outside Asian populations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 19d047c2e73932fcb5bbe2df24a61dafd53b13edbba326d12bae66de3c721508

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Koro” (D016911).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016911). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## KP
<a id="kp"></a>

KP refers to the kynurenine pathway, the main biological process by which tryptophan is broken down. It occurs mostly in the liver, with important enzyme activity also present in the kidney, and changes in this pathway can alter levels of related metabolites.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cfac673ffe3d4f914100b9c41c44a8581f804833aef98e974d9c0ed83186eaee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Summers Benjamin S.; Milham Luke; Bustamante Sonia; Gondal Krishan; Rentsch Peggy; Sundaram Gayathri; Lovelace Michael D.; Vissel Bryce; Brew Bruce J.. Renal and hepatic function is preserved following inducible knockout of kynurenine pathway enzymes KMO or QPRT in adult mice. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335906; article XML SHA-256 48502a2881fc8e5ba9352c1055d3509a310a31eb51b42d54d18f766152392b33. “Renal and hepatic function is preserved following inducible knockout of kynurenine pathway enzymes KMO or QPRT in adult mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335906).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335906). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## KR
<a id="kr"></a>

KR stands for knowledge of results, a feedback method that tells a person about the outcome of their performance. In this context, it is one of the feedback modalities used to study how people adapt their posture during balance disturbances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d8f90a9abc8bf25d6775756ae197ae453bc6f700d8797e1e3527c810ee80858

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tomita Yosuke; Mani Hiroki; Hasegawa Naoya. Visual feedback adaptation enhances arm-posture coordination during floor-surface perturbations. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1699598; article XML SHA-256 8a4a0e116ec30f5b4a04040487580ef8175db1c1597af4a4675843cabff8bab0. “Visual feedback adaptation enhances arm-posture coordination during floor-surface perturbations” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1699598).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1699598). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kriging
<a id="kriging"></a>

Kriging is a method for turning measurements taken at specific locations into a continuous map of predicted values across an area. It uses assumptions about how nearby locations are spatially related, and ordinary kriging in particular depends on modeling that spatial pattern from sufficiently dense samples.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9d8ded35970d26e45f8d5fba496b0f42453f09b40effe754930f7d7359460d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Veloso Gustavo Vieira; de Mello Danilo César; Fernandes-Filho Elpídio Inácio; de Souza Cristiano Marcelo Pereira; da Silva Lucas Augusto Pereira; Santo Mario Marcos Espirito; Vasques Gustavo Mattos; Coelho Maurício Rizzato; Demattê José A. M.. A novel methodological framework for predicting and mapping agriculture-related soil attributes using Euclidean distance, regular grids, and machine learning algorithms. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343624; article XML SHA-256 2a02fab7bd2ad8247bdb7332c0806cae020838430ec34616b4a6158a8a39346c. “A novel methodological framework for predicting and mapping agriculture-related soil attributes using Euclidean distance, regular grids, and machine learning algorithms” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343624).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343624). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## KSADS
<a id="ksads"></a>

KSADS is the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia, a structured or semi-structured interview used to diagnose psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents, including ADHD. The Present and Lifetime version (KSADS-PL) is described as a gold-standard approach for diagnosis and as a standardized way to identify these conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb7e53bf3f40eb407c26124f33e743d9f2038b8276a99f8f60123fde18fdcc8d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ngongi Leonida Isdory; Akiba Christopher Fittipaldi; Kilonzo Mrema Noel; Minja Anna Agape; Komba Charles Onesphor; Mbaga Mwajabu Rashidi; Msafiri Anna Celestini; Kajula Lusajo Joel; Kaaya Sylvia Florence; Pence Brian Wells; Gaynes Bradley Neil. Barriers, facilitators and potential solutions to implementing Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorder and Schizophrenia (KSADS) screening tool at Muhimbili National Hospital in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323502; article XML SHA-256 553a60bd6cdd51e7c601fc59d04c1b739c8437e4a4893336ce7592da0f4790cb. “Barriers, facilitators and potential solutions to implementing Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorder and Schizophrenia (KSADS) screening tool at Muhimbili National Hospital in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323502).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323502). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## KSAOs
<a id="ksaos"></a>

KSAOs are the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics involved in performing effectively in a particular area. In this source, the term is used for communication competencies, including those needed for face-to-face and text-based computer-mediated communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a3016010d2d888911e94f90881a6276a1f5334d9d1da86ad7bd3941bdc1ff29

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schulze Julian; Zagorscak Pavle; West Stephen G.; Schultze Martin; Krumm Stefan. Mind the context—The relevance of personality for face-to-face and computer-mediated communication. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0272938; article XML SHA-256 e7e9c746f527748b2d01990b912612ef7c89d882b5e03888615140cee39d169b. “Mind the context—The relevance of personality for face-to-face and computer-mediated communication” (10.1371/journal.pone.0272938).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272938). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Kugelberg–Welander disease
<a id="kugelbergwelander-disease"></a>

Kugelberg–Welander disease is a rare inherited disorder, also known as spinal muscular atrophy type 3, in which degeneration of motor nerve cells in the spinal cord and brain stem leads to low muscle tone and progressive muscle weakness. It usually appears in late childhood or adolescence, and although affected people can stand and walk, walking and climbing stairs become increasingly difficult over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 81427cc31a72f1b8fa18aed14bbd9b858ad17e92162398965f2654ccf766771a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Spinal Muscular Atrophy Type 3” (C118847).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kurtosis
<a id="kurtosis"></a>

Kurtosis is a statistical measure of how heavy or light the tails of a distribution are compared with a normal distribution. Distributions with longer tails are called leptokurtic, those with shorter tails are called platykurtic, and a normal distribution has zero kurtosis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 78a47be88f404a4e5a075efa2e94e45b1ddda6f7bb9aa72e747da01cbd7dcb61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Kurtosis” (kurtosis.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/kurtosis.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## kuru
<a id="kuru"></a>

Kuru is a rare prion disease that occurred among the Fore people of the New Guinea highlands, especially in adult women and children. It causes a gradual onset of shaking and loss of coordination, followed by worsening weakness and loss of bladder control, and is linked to ritual cannibalism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f72c4c1554343cac034951aead823ba2b0536d7623350a52807ad2efb4d1f7f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Kuru” (D007729).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007729). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## L-dopa
<a id="l-dopa"></a>

L-dopa, also called levodopa, is the naturally occurring form of dihydroxyphenylalanine and a direct precursor of dopamine. Unlike dopamine, it can be taken by mouth and cross into the brain, where nerve cells convert it to dopamine; it is used in treating parkinsonian disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e05f7992ce95f0b2d0fc8000234a7426dfde35b50a75ad0c8e4c322179f7d9a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Levodopa” (D007980).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007980). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## L-methylfolate
<a id="l-methylfolate"></a>

L-methylfolate is the biologically active form of vitamin B9 (folate) and is used as a nutritional supplement. In the source material, it is described as able to cross the blood-brain barrier and as having potential anticancer effects through effects on DNA methylation and tumor cell growth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a5f682ceffd70c1f8b3ed976db63a4ef2f34a0c1c92b735e3f4d7d3b0f2159dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Levomefolic Acid” (C81119).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## labeled lines
<a id="labeled-lines"></a>

Labeled lines are a neural coding pattern in which a neuron’s strongest response marks a particular stimulus feature. In the cortex, this can appear as signed labeled lines, where two different neurons represent opposite directions or values of the same quantitative feature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 78310477a3539a09560aa88ca09ec9633636ef79d93ee4bca0ebdede0247f516

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ballard Dana H.; Jehee Janneke. Dynamic Coding of Signed Quantities in Cortical Feedback Circuits. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00254; article XML SHA-256 e224f5ed571345ca7e1234c7288061112968893f5cd31fcbb776293bac028556. “Dynamic Coding of Signed Quantities in Cortical Feedback Circuits” (10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00254).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00254). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## labile affect
<a id="labile-affect"></a>

Labile affect is emotional instability in which a person’s mood shifts quickly and markedly. It refers to rapid, dramatic changes in emotional expression or feeling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a1073ba1ed44db63f80f55f103f38cbe2203fb7f15ee9e1b5c587bc25cb34b49

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Labile Affect” (C168306).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## labio-
<a id="labio"></a>

Labio- is a prefix referring to the lips. In the historical phonetics context of this packet, it appears in terms for speech sounds formed with the lips, or with the lower lip against the upper teeth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93228a1cd065f9d0eb2206953f724724f0e08a70384089a9f89ca10fb0d9496e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1690500-1702500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## labor relations
<a id="labor-relations"></a>

Labor relations refers to the workplace relationship climate within an enterprise, especially as it involves employees, management, and unions. In this packet, it is discussed as something shaped by union practices and by how much employees and management trust unions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 015559d8ff85d77a96049309ffa90d78a7c6fad43c30fff919fce39dcc175cc9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yuanling; Dai Zhongliang; Hu Xiao. Impact of union practices on labor relations in China: Institutional trust as a moderator. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.944574; article XML SHA-256 454c77331b6d198f92e04a210d5409badb0b12fdf3cf001a46953b11a048f848. “Impact of union practices on labor relations in China: Institutional trust as a moderator” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.944574).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.944574). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## laboratory research
<a id="laboratory-research"></a>

Laboratory research is research carried out in laboratory or experimental settings. In this context, it refers to studies used to examine how motor imagery is experienced and how it may contribute to learning, and such work often underpins later applications in healthcare and rehabilitation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6df14148e3fdfa50ebc2df48f8916019ead1ac1019b54c12db7d76dbf1cb3915

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rowe Juliet M; Gaughan Theresa C; Boe Shaun G. Mapping qualitative research on motor imagery: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348064; article XML SHA-256 4a26b887eecdbf857baf7fcb37fc8d03c3e9ac2ce304e8f38b288197dbf5366d. “Mapping qualitative research on motor imagery: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348064).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348064). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## labyrinth
<a id="labyrinth"></a>

The labyrinth is the essential inner part of the hearing organ. It includes a bony set of connected spaces in the temporal bone and a membranous system of sacs and tubules inside it, both containing specialized inner-ear fluids.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc7b99f094019a46cc53704f51d394bae4148cbb4cbaf0a73053e72d86ec86d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ear, Inner” (D007758).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007758). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## labyrinthitis
<a id="labyrinthitis"></a>

Labyrinthitis is inflammation of the inner ear caused by an infection, most often a viral one. It commonly brings severe dizziness, nausea, vomiting, pain, and sometimes anxiety, and it often follows a recent upper respiratory infection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6158c73aa3fc66d990a7f6b4251b26f422390549a11873d36734a02e57034b1c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Labyrinthitis” (C128369).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Lacanian Theory
<a id="lacanian-theory"></a>

Lacanian theory is a psychoanalytic approach started by Jacques Lacan that reinterprets Freud’s original ideas through philosophy and language. It frames Freud’s teachings in a linguistic and philosophical way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b101ba410bb2c36fc9ae8bc06d0391b343a6d7d7fc11d76335f8da100036d83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Lacanian Theory” (D000095494).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000095494). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lactogenic hormone
<a id="lactogenic-hormone"></a>

Lactogenic hormone is prolactin, a hormone released by the front part of the pituitary gland. It is mainly involved in milk production and, in some species, also affects reproduction, maternal behavior, fat metabolism, immune function, and the body’s water balance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea1d4ed369b6a1a92c55bee6f339574343fb9382588f679dcdbd5e7647568609

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Prolactin” (D011388).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011388). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lacuna
<a id="lacuna"></a>

Lacuna means a gap or missing part in knowledge, evidence, or discussion. In psychology-related writing, it often refers to an area that has not yet been adequately studied or explained.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 07449c84b7ae15fee5a804b3c85d55fae9b1234aa8c7aef272efb6a4a6d0ad80

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Lian; An Mei. L2 students’ academic emotions in teacher feedback and GAI-generated feedback on argumentative writing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1816731; article XML SHA-256 a06b2d0ef76d5b2520363aed537db67a9c15232adccf1915a1b70cebb8441ad3. “L2 students’ academic emotions in teacher feedback and GAI-generated feedback on argumentative writing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1816731).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1816731). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lacunar stroke
<a id="lacunar-stroke"></a>

Lacunar stroke is a type of stroke discussed here in the context of cerebral microangiopathy. In patients with acute lacunar stroke, brain changes such as leukoaraiosis and cerebral microbleeds commonly occur together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1af7e5075f43a0c691fbd3b009f9cbc3a5286b2b562365497fc78fa259c5dab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Park Jae-Hyun; Ryoo Sookyung; Kim Suk Jae; Kim Gyeong-Moon; Chung Chin-Sang; Lee Kwang Ho; Bang Oh Young. Differential Risk Factors for Lacunar Stroke Depending on the MRI (White and Red) Subtypes of Microangiopathy. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0044865; article XML SHA-256 29980fd888cc18ef81b438564c5dabffcd9b00d8f110587e8f6db7cda2e1132d. “Differential Risk Factors for Lacunar Stroke Depending on the MRI (White and Red) Subtypes of Microangiopathy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0044865).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044865). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lag
<a id="lag"></a>

In this source, a lag means a delayed change in one characteristic relative to another, such as brain size changing later than body size. It refers to a mismatch in timing within evolution rather than an immediate, synchronized adjustment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: da074229006616e231dd7c8be29572d972dadbda209a2cab9e30d01c7464902c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dunbar R. I. M.. Evolutionary lags in the primate brain size/body size relationship revisited. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351073; article XML SHA-256 a6f51ad109550007d93ce47c3927c65f5f1e8cb3ac031cec681ff05a0d5da604. “Evolutionary lags in the primate brain size/body size relationship revisited” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351073).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351073). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lalling
<a id="lalling"></a>

Lalling is a historical term for imprecise articulation resembling the speech of young children. It was described as a disorder when this childish speech pattern did not fade with development and education, and it could involve difficulty producing particular sounds or sound combinations clearly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40695cf1587c1cd641f2442ef6a521b1afc07506b02f9091428e48c433c1a730

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Lalling” (Lalling).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Lalling). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lalopathy
<a id="lalopathy"></a>

Lalopathy is a historical term for a disturbance of speech utterance involving the articulatory side of speaking, rather than thought formation or the links between thought and speech. Stuttering and stammering were described as common examples.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0be8725e8c96ca0b07f98e2423b1c25b481df5ac57c62f7cdc39e33d95e91fe8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Lalo-” (Lalo-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Lalo-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lambda
<a id="lambda"></a>

Lambda refers here to an early visually evoked brain response linked to eye-movement events during visual search. In this study, the lambda response was localized to primary visual cortex (V1) and reflected early visual processing under free-viewing conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66317a621831f8dfdf8eb537936d948e983064360249c7b5b2f98aea9d29391a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gonzalez Joaquin E.; Bauer Markus; Ries Anthony J.; Kamienkowski Juan E.; Ison Matias J.. Mapping neural activity during naturalistic visual and memory search. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1812919; article XML SHA-256 53f683aaf2185688e899f8042a2555a0f69881cbb2acb2002bdd6938b3795512. “Mapping neural activity during naturalistic visual and memory search” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1812919).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1812919). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lambda model
<a id="lambda-model"></a>

In this context, the lambda model is a regression-based model built from passive-stretch sensor data to derive biomarkers related to the neurogenic component of muscle spasticity. Its outputs were used to help estimate a spasticity rating comparable in meaning to the modified Ashworth scale grade.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e550293ad8c084157aee04c28b9e67541de35da22bc14aa810c754aeaeed497

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Xu; Tang Xiao; Zhu Xiaofei; Gao Xiaoping; Chen Xiang; Chen Xun. A Regression-Based Framework for Quantitative Assessment of Muscle Spasticity Using Combined EMG and Inertial Data From Wearable Sensors. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2019.00398; article XML SHA-256 94bcf0406ca225e4ac163ca727bd25596199f4795db9753306c032e6d6a932bc. “A Regression-Based Framework for Quantitative Assessment of Muscle Spasticity Using Combined EMG and Inertial Data From Wearable Sensors” (10.3389/fnins.2019.00398).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2019.00398). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## laminar organization
<a id="laminar-organization"></a>

Laminar organization is the layer-by-layer pattern of connections within the cortex. In this context, it refers to how excitatory intracortical network activity is arranged across the six cortical layers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e568f805e6051aabaac3b99493f7a25a0ca5dbf8d2a5ee8b28615f8c3a9c8d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Erlandson Melissa A.; Manzoni Olivier J.; Bureau Ingrid. The Functional Organization of Neocortical Networks Investigated in Slices with Local Field Recordings and Laser Scanning Photostimulation. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0132008; article XML SHA-256 df4f575fd4fe50f1ba09cab0cbe908f92a6c8b1a9fe85d2c3feb7a7aeb381256. “The Functional Organization of Neocortical Networks Investigated in Slices with Local Field Recordings and Laser Scanning Photostimulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0132008).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132008). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lamotrigine
<a id="lamotrigine"></a>

Lamotrigine is a synthetic drug with antiepileptic and pain-relieving properties. It appears to work by increasing inhibitory GABA activity and may also affect sodium channels, glutamate release, and serotonin reuptake, which can reduce pain-related nerve signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b2674fe94232ae6cdcee37b672a5dd5f2209d8b89782f5de2e6c40cbf928bae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lamotrigine” (C38703).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LAMP
<a id="lamp"></a>

LAMP refers to loop-mediated isothermal amplification, a rapid, low-resource method for amplifying DNA. In this source, it is discussed in a machine-learning context where digital images of LAMP test tubes are automatically classified as positive or negative to reduce errors from subjective visual reading.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 526e89785ee3db6d3a52a83d3a255119c0bd1ba212f5742c416457c1ab856d91

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mezgebo Biniyam; Chaffee Ryan; Castellanos L. Ricardo; Ashraf S.; Burke-Gaffney J.; Pitout Johann D. D.; Iorga Bogdan I.; MacDonald M. Ethan; Pillai Dylan R.. You Only Look Once (YOLO) based machine learning algorithm for real-time detection of loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) diagnostics. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339042; article XML SHA-256 a3e3b0fccfc76c8d44e9eca0bc7969666efee57eef6a6ff48717b74ad4549800. “You Only Look Once (YOLO) based machine learning algorithm for real-time detection of loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) diagnostics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339042).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339042). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Landau–Kleffner syndrome
<a id="landaukleffner-syndrome"></a>

Landau–Kleffner syndrome is a childhood neurological syndrome in which a previously otherwise normal child develops a language disorder, typically between ages 4 and 7, along with epileptiform activity on EEG. Seizures may occur, and while the EEG changes and seizures often improve by puberty, language problems may either improve or remain severe, including aphasia or difficulty recognizing sounds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e0d5783dbfa113e1015201a23fc77420aa92dc35eee45c6ebff786b075b71eaf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Landau-Kleffner Syndrome” (D018887).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018887). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## landmark
<a id="landmark"></a>

A landmark is a specific reference point that can be identified consistently across different people or types of images. It is used to help locate structures and create a shared coordinate system for comparison or measurement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7161d719b79685b4d417b4e0c7b17f9f28e466d3a5cccf38cccd444e4905afba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wei Zhixuan; Wijewickrema Sudanthi; Copson Bridget; Gerard Jean-Marc; O’Leary Stephen. A deep learning framework for the localization of landmarks on the lateral semi circular canals. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348976; article XML SHA-256 3cecec1539d7d12f4db966f3d79602765c1ce07205a8c47dc7be3c7e6c1076bf. “A deep learning framework for the localization of landmarks on the lateral semi circular canals” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348976).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348976). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## language
<a id="language"></a>

Language is any verbal or nonverbal way of communicating ideas or feelings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 238d62d4813f6ec97f2226f5165f4b0ce40651eafece686755d7223c659d6748

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Language” (D007802).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007802). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## language acquisition
<a id="language-acquisition"></a>

Language acquisition is the gradual development of understanding and using sounds and symbols with increasing complexity and meaning through maturation and learning. It commonly progresses through early vocalizations, imitation of words with growing thought processes, and eventually short sentences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3ae93dfe768e4318df9c6b06e26437b1e0379690c2d1296b7149081ed964efa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Language Development” (D007804).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007804). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## language contact
<a id="language-contact"></a>

Language contact is the meeting of speakers who use different languages. It is thought to speed up language change, especially when one group shifts to a new language and many new second-language speakers bring in forms that are then passed on.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b963ca9887e390c0260fd90dec83ba4c6b22b4852b32461c5ea31c67cec9759b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jon-And Anna; Aguilar Elliot. A model of contact-induced language change: Testing the role of second language speakers in the evolution of Mozambican Portuguese. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0212303; article XML SHA-256 7643619fe17841d32e863c56316d759cf1fe161b6ad8b93ffce49250c5bffa6d. “A model of contact-induced language change: Testing the role of second language speakers in the evolution of Mozambican Portuguese” (10.1371/journal.pone.0212303).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212303). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## language development
<a id="language-development"></a>

Language development is the gradual growth in how a person understands and uses sounds and symbols with increasing complexity and meaning through maturation and learning. It typically progresses through early vocalizing such as cooing and babbling, then word imitation and short sentences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7961e4a368e2754e0f13014e037b2ff6c025caebe5743f31adcf69a7959cbe9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Language Development” (D007804).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007804). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## language disability
<a id="language-disability"></a>

Language disability is a difficulty in language functioning. In this source, it is described alongside problems in rapid auditory processing and working memory, and is discussed in relation to abnormalities of cortical neuronal migration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8e24337683ba818cc6cfedcd242f1f3fd80b9ae993c86da54a60f3b9be35f0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fitch R Holly; Breslawski Heather; Rosen Glenn D; Chrobak James J. Persistent spatial working memory deficits in rats with bilateral cortical microgyria. 2008; DOI 10.1186/1744-9081-4-45; article XML SHA-256 e64253d8f271b02ed8a68f7f79718a9f0b2175ea66120d347b49f0f8af7e2420. “Persistent spatial working memory deficits in rats with bilateral cortical microgyria” (10.1186/1744-9081-4-45).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-4-45). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## language disorder
<a id="language-disorder"></a>

Language disorder, as described here in its developmental form, is a neurodevelopmental condition involving ongoing difficulty learning and processing language. It is associated with slower real-time language processing, weaker prediction during comprehension, and greater reliance on meaning-based cues than on grammatical information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e0baaf63b27f142f174d0e7f0768c195fac080a5ac7dda0f71ff292987fd850c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Ziteng; Jiang Qihang. Eye-tracking studies on developmental language disorder: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1862020; article XML SHA-256 5b255474bc9462360227aa41702eb69b8c17907cc37438ae1fa5651c526fe666. “Eye-tracking studies on developmental language disorder: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1862020).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1862020). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## language planning
<a id="language-planning"></a>

Language planning is the way a state or other institutions deliberately shape how a language is used, supported, and developed in society. In this source, it refers especially to moving beyond simple protection of a language toward strengthening its role and competitiveness in digital, educational, and public life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cea4e927ce8dbc7f06917cd198529e265ccb50885791c42a42bfae9a9e71033f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zharkynbekova Sholpan; Ayupova Gulbagira; Galiyeva Bakhyt; Shakhputova Zukhra; Zabrodskaja Anastassia. Digital linguistic sovereignty and Kazakh language policy in the digital environment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1858650; article XML SHA-256 e6f209bb50ce595ac872358396fc7dbb6b0150dd265548140f3219427b34aaee. “Digital linguistic sovereignty and Kazakh language policy in the digital environment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1858650).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1858650). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## language shift
<a id="language-shift"></a>

Language shift is the process in which a minority or heritage language loses strength across time as people move toward greater use and proficiency in the wider societal language. In this context, it is tied to erosion or attrition of the heritage language and can contribute to breaks in language continuity between generations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8cd2e2166c8434a7677fd1842c59908281b67c5a417a13d6be9ecadc7d99da4f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yining; Zhang Jie. From erosion to fluency: reversing language shift in Chinese Australian households. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1553439; article XML SHA-256 d06e9f69e9bfd505cd531e11056b011f555cd04aa4ca4d637bb286da20725792. “From erosion to fluency: reversing language shift in Chinese Australian households” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1553439).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1553439). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## language therapy
<a id="language-therapy"></a>

Language therapy is the assessment and training used in speech-language therapy to help people with language difficulties such as aphasia. In the source packet, it is discussed specifically as telepractice speech-language therapy delivered in live, delayed, or mixed formats.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2cb859ea30ec9e4b4af04b8a8eb4003486f204b20f0e1fc2c415ad38b9e8fdc7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kodani Yuhei; Nagami Shinsuke; Yokozeki Ayaka; Fukunaga Shinya; Nakamura Katsuya; Nakamura Hikaru. Current status of Tele-speech language therapy by type and support for patients with post-stroke aphasia: A scoping review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319805; article XML SHA-256 c18d90dfd7a27ef23ae6b38ee1b546e5e40452b0ac3b994bbc3c3018a4fe90e8. “Current status of Tele-speech language therapy by type and support for patients with post-stroke aphasia: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319805).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319805). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## languishing
<a id="languishing"></a>

Languishing is the low end of the flourishing–languishing continuum of well-being. In this framework, it is considered separate from depression, so a person may be languishing with or without depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d40fc8ea9f3f8077583cc4722c1d2b33544e8f97995b470c44f3e783a4601a14

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Oh Hans; Jacob Louis; Soffer-Dudek Nirit; Shin Jae Il; Smith Lee; Besecker Megan; Leaune Edouard; Pickering Trevor A. The synergy of depression and flourishing/languishing on suicidal thoughts and behaviors: Findings from a national sample of emerging adult students in higher education in the United States. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0309020; article XML SHA-256 a63469c9a570120eec7c0e6e0204de1d2addd7d9eb9f21c9d2900c19692cc224. “The synergy of depression and flourishing/languishing on suicidal thoughts and behaviors: Findings from a national sample of emerging adult students in higher education in the United States” (10.1371/journal.pone.0309020).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309020). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## laryngeal paralysis
<a id="laryngeal-paralysis"></a>

Laryngeal paralysis is a loss or marked reduction of normal movement in the larynx that can obstruct the upper airway. In the supplied source, it is identified by visually assessing laryngeal motion under light anesthesia, with more objective video-based measurement methods proposed to reduce observer disagreement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1eb1830f88cb47e06a73c39b4dca524a919881676ce204a1d9ac90abbf557823

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pan Po-ching; Savidge Christine; Amsellem Pierre; Hamilton Stephanie. Comparison between propofol and alfaxalone anesthesia for the evaluation of laryngeal function in healthy dogs utilizing computerized software. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0270812; article XML SHA-256 97bb7c78fbc78a0652527954250c9996c2ffdc93f83a8781dc5653aa53ef560c. “Comparison between propofol and alfaxalone anesthesia for the evaluation of laryngeal function in healthy dogs utilizing computerized software” (10.1371/journal.pone.0270812).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270812). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## laryngopharynx
<a id="laryngopharynx"></a>

The laryngopharynx is the lowest part of the pharynx, located behind and below the larynx. It runs from the laryngeal vestibule down to the esophagus at the lower edge of the cricoid cartilage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ff671a3210758c1edddb545ccaecf1ae3545d05f213a6503f886ac0e01845271

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Laryngopharynx” (C53631).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## larynx
<a id="larynx"></a>

The larynx is a structure in the vocal tract that contributes to voice production. In the source material, its lowered position in humans is described as helping speech become more expressive through prosody and melody, which supported richer emotional communication between people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 65c4bc7a45c408983737e21d8b409570667e5d238625a7490ba936e1f23c108c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lipp Hans-Peter. The cost of language: functionally over-dominant language circuits in the human brain may limit cognitive abilities and non-verbal executive functions. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1654703; article XML SHA-256 794b5e67238c23d5a3f15750c4318997ba4f2459c56fb4fa113e36ab1b07e655. “The cost of language: functionally over-dominant language circuits in the human brain may limit cognitive abilities and non-verbal executive functions” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1654703).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1654703). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LASS
<a id="lass"></a>

LASS, or Language and Situated Simulation theory, is a view of language comprehension that involves two interacting systems: a language system and a simulation system. It proposes that understanding words and phrases often depends on mentally re-creating or imagining the experiences, objects, and situations they refer to in a context-dependent way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 187f83e8b29076c68919f2254654717586685b224ab4759b7d51a0d059a469f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [MacNiven Sean; Tench Ralph. Keystrokes: A practical exploration of semantic drift in timed word association tasks. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305568; article XML SHA-256 6f863fbe86624cff568f5da5147fe5c9a4c1f52597e1ce506f8f7a94bb74a460. “Keystrokes: A practical exploration of semantic drift in timed word association tasks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305568).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305568). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## latent class analysis
<a id="latent-class-analysis"></a>

Latent class analysis is a statistical method that groups patterns in observed data into underlying categories that are not directly seen. It is used to infer hidden groupings or relationships, such as identifying clusters of symptoms in research data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6bdaf0efc37ed748016b038362fb42e822021a4612a3e9c14a8e4e3e2f624ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Latent Class Analysis” (D000077272).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077272). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## latent construct
<a id="latent-construct"></a>

A latent construct is an underlying psychological attribute or structure that is not observed directly but is inferred from measured indicators or items. Its latent form may be understood as categorical or dimensional, and that structure affects how the construct is defined, measured, and studied.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1f2d0bb3eda78387f7f48ef6fb16cd8e2dbdcd1660b65aca4050c9205ea87d58

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stamovlasis Dimitrios; Vaiopoulou Julie; Stavropoulou Georgia; Papagiannopoulou Theano. On the structure of psychoeducational constructs: taxometric analysis and epistemological implications. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1499960; article XML SHA-256 3e8809818dfe5fd0db8112351bef1afaa411116b8cf1cd22c93684124b46cc49. “On the structure of psychoeducational constructs: taxometric analysis and epistemological implications” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1499960).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1499960). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## latent factor
<a id="latent-factor"></a>

A latent factor is an underlying dimension that is not observed directly but is inferred from the pattern of correlations among survey items. In factor analysis, items that cluster together are treated as indicators of the same latent factor, which researchers interpret and label as a dimension of the construct being measured.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 779c25842c6108f0323ad131a363c76d04a458dec11c3f3dbf6a01735a18c9b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mancini Vincent O.; Moroney Darren M.; Howieson Jill A.. A general factor for trust?: Testing latent factor structures of trust across institutional and interpersonal contexts. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335172; article XML SHA-256 ac455e1bdb00d7df6dd288c4a6dd06780c5894a6f4f5245157a9cdbe0be00245. “A general factor for trust?: Testing latent factor structures of trust across institutional and interpersonal contexts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335172).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335172). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## latent structure analysis
<a id="latent-structure-analysis"></a>

Latent structure analysis is the examination of the hidden pattern or dimensions that underlie responses on a psychological measure. In this source, it refers to testing whether a scale is best understood as having one or several related underlying factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db79bae94ee7dfb1fe114b86d9aecb51b1330409d63674e9914be6ce52563f0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Denovan Andrew; Dagnall Neil; Peverell Matthew; Drinkwater Kenneth Graham; Escolà-Gascón Álex; Carter Daniel. Evaluating the psychometric properties of the Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale: a Rasch modelling approach. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1721668; article XML SHA-256 b1bbecafcf2aa86971d4843633b1ddba9900b2dc732add4f103d049d8ddc9b47. “Evaluating the psychometric properties of the Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale: a Rasch modelling approach” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1721668).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1721668). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lateral geniculate nucleus
<a id="lateral-geniculate-nucleus"></a>

The lateral geniculate nucleus is a part of the thalamus in the visual system that receives input from the retina and passes visual signals on toward primary visual cortex. Rather than acting as a purely passive relay, it helps filter and shape visual information early in the visual pathway.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66bf8aec9c2f96d42339a39a1245b67047b4a8f30eb5e535cab2b2ea92562a12

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Jiaying; Ardila Jimenez Silvia C.; Chakraborty Subhojit; Schultz Simon R.. Visual Receptive Field Properties of Neurons in the Mouse Lateral Geniculate Nucleus. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0146017; article XML SHA-256 6f3f0f1558df0418206902586fe4cd40eec33e05d303555c8200ecbeba53a3f5. “Visual Receptive Field Properties of Neurons in the Mouse Lateral Geniculate Nucleus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0146017).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146017). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lateral hypothalamus
<a id="lateral-hypothalamus"></a>

The lateral hypothalamus is a part of the hypothalamus identified by its position between nearby fiber tracts and adjacent brain regions. It includes the lateral hypothalamic nucleus, the tuberomammillary nucleus, the lateral tuberal nuclei, and fibers of the medial forebrain bundle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eebcf038b111429a70d49fdafe698dfff5dc0b97f1b34df12b8d439b061b271f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hypothalamic Area, Lateral” (D007026).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007026). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lateral inhibition
<a id="lateral-inhibition"></a>

Lateral inhibition is a visual-system coding process in which interneurons collect input from neighboring cells and send inhibitory feedback to them. In the retina, this creates center-surround receptive fields that sharpen spatial contrast and help explain how nearby areas can change perceived brightness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b4c5fc2d8f64994e862fd32217b62704472046ba53111cce66345c104cd806d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yeonan-Kim Jihyun; Bertalmío Marcelo. Retinal Lateral Inhibition Provides the Biological Basis of Long-Range Spatial Induction. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0168963; article XML SHA-256 dd134969d33b0453f8bc7fb22f438b52fab4a033635eafc9cba9b5ec282dfc5d. “Retinal Lateral Inhibition Provides the Biological Basis of Long-Range Spatial Induction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0168963).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0168963). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lateral-line system
<a id="lateral-line-system"></a>

The lateral-line system is a sensory system in aquatic vertebrates such as fish and amphibians. It consists of organs containing mechanoreceptors that detect water movement or displacement caused by nearby moving objects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f61ec0e6afa76c9c9229b95f5fa8bf273fe8661e89960a7dfb4582e9cea008cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lateral Line System” (D053403).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D053403). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lateral olfactory tract
<a id="lateral-olfactory-tract"></a>

The lateral olfactory tract is a pathway formed by axons from mitral cells that carries smell-related information toward the cerebral cortex, including the piriform cortex. Its normal development and positioning are important for proper innervation of olfactory cortical areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5efb25d1bae2806b26c9dd04a720ce827e114c50c198ebc5c5e7d17beb7a0ba6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Amaniti Eleni-Maria; Kelman Alexandra; Mason John O.; Theil Thomas. Cerebral Cortex Expression of Gli3 Is Required for Normal Development of the Lateral Olfactory Tract. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0141525; article XML SHA-256 b0f52b756d6ba80974e8247971e9a0b202c3f92117a1f131af9d06177cbb9c4e. “Cerebral Cortex Expression of Gli3 Is Required for Normal Development of the Lateral Olfactory Tract” (10.1371/journal.pone.0141525).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141525). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lateral posterior nucleus
<a id="lateral-posterior-nucleus"></a>

The lateral posterior nucleus is a thalamic nucleus that forms part of a narrow band of cell groups on the dorsomedial surface of the thalamus, within the lateral thalamic nuclei.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1555a9e18f5fda126a2e9373bffd035fb98875e93ca279c555fed4a5b9390d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lateral Thalamic Nuclei” (D020647).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020647). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lateral preoptic area
<a id="lateral-preoptic-area"></a>

The lateral preoptic area is an anatomical subregion examined alongside parts of the lateral hypothalamus in research on eating and reward-related behavior. In the cited study, optogenetic stimulation of this area produced relatively little food intake or self-stimulation compared with some nearby lateral hypothalamic subregions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d2b1e61227ed402387e714081ee8976176d63260db37c56d736d2b076a91e17

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Urstadt Kevin R; Berridge Kent C. Optogenetic mapping of feeding and self-stimulation within the lateral hypothalamus of the rat. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0224301; article XML SHA-256 edb01b4bcec8116ee8f708b7741cfbf44d4f2234f5106b3e2868bb2ad85f77f9. “Optogenetic mapping of feeding and self-stimulation within the lateral hypothalamus of the rat” (10.1371/journal.pone.0224301).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224301). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lateral rectus
<a id="lateral-rectus"></a>

The lateral rectus is a muscle of the eye that receives motor input from the sixth cranial nerve. It helps control horizontal eye movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 275bdf91998646f53af75307a8ef428fdf7911d09e1964d947911d7cf48e55b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Abducens Nerve” (D000010).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000010). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lateral thalamic nucleus
<a id="lateral-thalamic-nucleus"></a>

The lateral thalamic nucleus is a thalamic brain region discussed here as part of speech-motor control circuitry. In this study, the left ventral lateral thalamic nucleus was part of a feedforward control network, and weaker connectivity between it and the right anterior cerebellum was linked with speech blocks in adults who stutter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a78a7a8a33c07f2f7835b662a163628db1ec06117f026f3c0a7addbc64a4704

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rowe Hannah P.; Frankford Saul A.; Kim Jackie S.; Tourville Jason A.; Nieto-Castanon Alfonso; Guenther Frank H.. Differential involvement of feedback and feedforward control networks across disfluency types in adults who stutter: Evidence from resting state functional connectivity. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333205; article XML SHA-256 2df07f39851375fc02197f552261200d29953fc49ffdbdd2af10ca1dbb66991d. “Differential involvement of feedback and feedforward control networks across disfluency types in adults who stutter: Evidence from resting state functional connectivity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333205).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333205). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lateral ventricle
<a id="lateral-ventricle"></a>

A lateral ventricle is one of two fluid-filled spaces located deep within the cerebral hemispheres, one on each side of the brain. These cavities are part of the brain’s ventricular system and channel cerebrospinal fluid to the third ventricle through the foramen of Monroe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c23f445cb358f051bffa9f72ddab08e689d5c646c6c448107a2efe5d9d1302f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lateral Ventricle of Brain” (C12834).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## laterality
<a id="laterality"></a>

Laterality is the tendency for a structure or pathway to show stronger development or activity on one side of the body or brain than the other. In this source, it refers to left-right differences in the strength of auditory brain connections.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac299dd044287f33031310defe40c6af43d059c775ea4b0b9d47e5ce15f1374b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Flem Sophie; Berns Gregory; Inglis Ben; Niederhut Dillon; Montie Eric; Deacon Terrence; Miller Karla L.; Tyack Peter; Cook Peter F.. Lateralized cerebellar connectivity differentiates auditory pathways in echolocating and non-echolocating whales. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323617; article XML SHA-256 adb54559b116754579296425b75cc4d5edaaaa37cece940688f1f8370a0201f1. “Lateralized cerebellar connectivity differentiates auditory pathways in echolocating and non-echolocating whales” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323617).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323617). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lateralization
<a id="lateralization"></a>

Lateralization is the tendency for some brain functions or mental processes to be handled more by one cerebral hemisphere than the other. In cognition, this means that certain activities, such as language or spatial processing, rely more strongly on the left or right side of the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76ff4e4b2a37ebce8e98f418111e7c0b70214ddf919022167e50ada12a8bea24

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mundorf Annakarina; Merklein Sarah A; Reinke Petunia; Peterburs Jutta; Getzmann Stephan; Gajewski Patrick D; Larra Mauro; Wascher Edmund; Ocklenburg Sebastian. Effects of motor activity versus cognitive demand on asymmetries in EEG frequency bands and their relation to handedness. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1796350; article XML SHA-256 9323d0d14384aba7978d183a6f0a5639e6d360b6f8bcfa492315076efd6e7ced. “Effects of motor activity versus cognitive demand on asymmetries in EEG frequency bands and their relation to handedness” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1796350).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1796350). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lateralized readiness potential
<a id="lateralized-readiness-potential"></a>

The lateralized readiness potential is a neural measure used as an index of partial information transmission during choice tasks, including go/no-go tasks. In this context, its stimulus-locked and response-locked components are used to infer how processing unfolds before a response is carried out.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f74afb1388586cf8f34ad0703062264ad650645ca7defc6d7cc337ef1dbaae7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xie Jiaxin; Cui Ruifang; Ma Weiyi; Lu Jingqing; Wang Lin; Ying Shaofei; Yao Dezhong; Gong Diankun; Yan Guojian; Liu Tiejun. Information transmission in action video gaming experts: Inferences from the lateralized readiness potential. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2022.906123; article XML SHA-256 823ba0d10d9b5b55313052ca7fbf8d7b7422cc472d5fdd07182d3541cb28b33e. “Information transmission in action video gaming experts: Inferences from the lateralized readiness potential” (10.3389/fnhum.2022.906123).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.906123). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Latin square
<a id="latin-square"></a>

A Latin square is a block design used to arrange different test conditions across participants rather than giving everyone the same condition order. In this source, it refers to assigning different background conditions in a between-subjects way, which meant participants did not receive directly comparable tests or scores.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 72a83f2c60533e60fcf840d1b02e03b561b7ca4927af995c90050da551ee060d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Jianxin; Yin Ming; Shu Deming; Liu Dianzhi. The Establishment of Pseudorandom Ecological Microexpression Recognition Test (PREMERT) and Its Relevant Resting-State Brain Activity. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00281; article XML SHA-256 89d49313c3020ffd685b61a075583cd79d6bd615974c767a902df4e986523de6. “The Establishment of Pseudorandom Ecological Microexpression Recognition Test (PREMERT) and Its Relevant Resting-State Brain Activity” (10.3389/fnhum.2020.00281).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00281). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## laughing gas
<a id="laughing-gas"></a>

Laughing gas is nitrous oxide (N2O), a substance used recreationally. In the psychology context of this source, it refers to recreational nitrous oxide use studied in relation to adolescents’ well-being, school absence, truancy, and other substance use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86e6492f441e604f44e5433a066fb81c38b3f447fbd1cc0743198bbe6805a1e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van den Toren Suzanne J; van Grieken Amy; Raat Hein. Associations of socio-demographic characteristics, well-being, school absenteeism, and substance use with recreational nitrous oxide use among adolescents: A cross-sectional study. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0247230; article XML SHA-256 b0fab91f127b6ed4c63346fb4a83f93db7bd17a9df9362ec355177bd67317575. “Associations of socio-demographic characteristics, well-being, school absenteeism, and substance use with recreational nitrous oxide use among adolescents: A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0247230).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247230). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## laughter
<a id="laughter"></a>

Laughter is an involuntary expression of pleasure or merriment that involves both characteristic body movements and nonword vocal sounds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eea7761f93c4bb32f0be156eea6ceeb163967175c3accf5859ce7e656a57e0ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Laughter” (D007845).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007845). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Laurence–Moon–Bardet–Biedl syndrome
<a id="laurencemoonbardetbiedl-syndrome"></a>

Laurence–Moon–Bardet–Biedl syndrome is an inherited autosomal recessive condition marked by retinitis pigmentosa, extra fingers or toes, obesity, cognitive impairment, underdeveloped genitals, kidney malformation, and short stature. In the source packet, it is described as distinct from Laurence-Moon syndrome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed2a1122995e35b4bde36cd7144e69da4bd923761bb1d79e7eab109e657ed6bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bardet-Biedl Syndrome” (D020788).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020788). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## law
<a id="law"></a>

In this historical usage, a law is an abstract statement that formulates observed or demonstrated regular sequences and is accepted as having the highest available probability, amounting in practice to certainty. The term is contrasted with hypothesis and theory, which imply less certainty, and with practical or legal law, which prescribes conduct and carries sanction rather than merely describing regularity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76c3eca8bac382fd0b18ac4bd823e6aa3a9f128d9a537f9d1daab6ee54c32f79

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Law” (Law).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L2defs.htm#Law). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## law of closure
<a id="law-of-closure"></a>

The law of closure is the tendency to see an incomplete pattern or object as if it were finished and whole. In psychology, it refers to perceiving missing parts as filled in, as described in Gestalt theory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b17feb7b2a7521bb7be50204cbadf843a152ce088b5bd81cbd41668b6f53bf1a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Perceptual Closure” (D010466).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010466). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## law of constancy
<a id="law-of-constancy"></a>

In historical psychology, the law of constancy refers to the mind’s capacity to intend or mean the same thing again across different moments, even if the actual object or world may have changed. It describes a subjective feature of thought that lets us recognize identity and repeated experience by using the notion of sameness in our meanings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70a991b2d7dfa6669d7ed2f993edd04c39265337c89fef57f1d919b60ad6d69c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## law of contiguity
<a id="law-of-contiguity"></a>

In historical psychology, the law of contiguity is the principle that mental impressions or ideas become linked when they have previously occurred together. Because of this connection, one idea tends to call up another that has coexisted with it in the mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7be30b6ad3c4543ea788b580335eb1480581626174872822467260cd4a8194ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-567000-579000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## law of contrast
<a id="law-of-contrast"></a>

In early psychology, the law of contrast referred to the principle that an object’s seen colour or brightness is changed by the colours and brightnesses of other objects in the visual field, especially nearby ones. The effect tends toward opposition, so neighbouring areas can make a colour or lightness appear more like its opposite.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4440a880efa2a963d936797b98ccd7b68674bdee6b81a0a1de0db977593799fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: C4defs.htm” (ffd1bbd428b354054301).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## law of frequency
<a id="law-of-frequency"></a>

In historical associationist psychology, the law of frequency refers to the idea that mental connections are built by repeated joint occurrence, effectively treating frequency as a form of contiguity or habit. In the passage, it is specifically the view that perceived resemblance can be explained because similar things are often experienced together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ac8b292b839948dbaaa3c427c214bac751516597c83bdb1cfab59f7e9f359a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## law of proximity
<a id="law-of-proximity"></a>

The law of proximity is a Gestalt perceptual principle in which nearby elements tend to be grouped together. In the supplied source, it is described as a perceptual phenomenon related to grouping by proximity and linked to context effects in value-based choice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45d8a8c95aeeae0a5629992ba157ecf752229159ea21de0193273abe9adb631d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Izakson Liz; Zeevi Yoav; Levy Dino J.. Attraction to similar options: The Gestalt law of proximity is related to the attraction effect. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0240937; article XML SHA-256 8d7366a182083fb8e56a17bca4161901091a92a9ce3c156b0d8f6540677bc275. “Attraction to similar options: The Gestalt law of proximity is related to the attraction effect” (10.1371/journal.pone.0240937).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240937). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## law of similarity
<a id="law-of-similarity"></a>

In historical psychology, the law of similarity is one of the main laws of association: a mental impression or idea tends to call up other ideas that resemble it. It describes association based on likeness rather than on having occurred together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 91bb7ea9594263f3eeb1b6adc21e0f7195042632ef222fde5d6015d05deec048

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-567000-579000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## law of sufficient reason
<a id="law-of-sufficient-reason"></a>

In this historical usage, the law of sufficient reason is the principle Leibnitz treated as securing truths of fact, as contrasted with truths of reason, which he linked to the law of contradiction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d31ca76acc6546eb10141c0ff3a072b7d891aa7a00c3337003a6b75a4e943523

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fact” (Fact).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fact). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## laws of thought
<a id="laws-of-thought"></a>

In this historical usage, the laws of thought are the three familiar logical formulas of identity, contradiction, and excluded middle. The source says they have often been treated as basic laws of reasoning, but argues that this stronger doctrine is not defensible and that the formulas are better understood as clarifying the meanings of terms like “is” and “not.”

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ed2c2affcb174aa636ca37a18bc17ced1c3c2639879b4430518deb3dcd614b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Laws of Thought” (Laws of Thought).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L2defs.htm#Laws of Thought). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lazy eye
<a id="lazy-eye"></a>

Lazy eye is decreased vision caused by abnormal development of vision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66b6567dd0020d517cce10e8f45157aad86880d33702760ff1045d567c9c71b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Amblyopia” (C118764).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LCA
<a id="lca"></a>

LCA stands for life cycle assessment, a method for systematically evaluating environmental impacts across an entire supply chain. In this context, it is used alongside supply chain optimization to help assess sustainability more fully.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b22dc721b8db682e9e7dbc1e5da521aadbedb5c2b5d79c806059301ee2fee15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hülagü Selin; Dullaert Wout; Eruguz A Sena; Heijungs Reinout; Inghels Dirk. Integrating life cycle assessment into supply chain optimization. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316710; article XML SHA-256 a2b47ded323aea4463075723e7e68d57b02e812688339f74d377a0475742bc80. “Integrating life cycle assessment into supply chain optimization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316710).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316710). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LCU
<a id="lcu"></a>

LCU, or learning-centred use, refers to using generative AI in a way that stays focused on the academic task and supports learning rather than replacing the student’s own work. It treats AI use as a learner-managed practice in which the student keeps responsibility for planning, monitoring, checking, and revising.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: adc1f95c6322f51fa3dd7e22418b8234499d13ae69128e05b35a4b0cbbde821d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao Yang; Chen Jian; Dai Wei; Gu Yuan. Learning-centred use of generative AI and later academic functioning: a baseline-adjusted three-wave panel study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878514; article XML SHA-256 c96e9a65cc660d295c2221c7414e12a58c0663e713ae20c23f86130e1110b9f7. “Learning-centred use of generative AI and later academic functioning: a baseline-adjusted three-wave panel study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878514).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878514). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LE
<a id="le"></a>

LE refers to the Long-Evans rat, an outbred strain developed from crosses between female Wistar rats and a wild gray male. It is commonly used in research, including behavioral studies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 31b1c5a7a895f57fd0cf2dc6ffdc2aa4e1e3ab22de9be95d4290579d6e6af1c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “LE, Rat Strain” (C76188).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## leadership
<a id="leadership"></a>

Leadership is the role or process of guiding or influencing the actions or attitudes of a person or group, typically with at least some willing acceptance from those being led.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e92c5505edb6418d2917aad599517ffdc1507c4f3acf9a8ac8875fdd11fe000d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Leadership” (D007857).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007857). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## leadership theories
<a id="leadership-theories"></a>

In this packet, leadership theories refers to cognitive ideas or prototypes people use to judge who counts as a leader. These mental schemas emphasize certain attributes more than others, and their influence can depend on which other attributes are present and which leadership schema is activated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d1b176119ac94e9985679c4bd70fa2bfbbaa5d6217bbdcf12be2bb680a09ed5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tavares Gustavo M.; Sobral Filipe; Goldszmidt Rafael; Araújo Felipe. Opening the Implicit Leadership Theories’ Black Box: An Experimental Approach with Conjoint Analysis. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00100; article XML SHA-256 2a97f90bd7d0915f37197614d262531af2e821342e5a1dd1e4558e35e71b9d07. “Opening the Implicit Leadership Theories’ Black Box: An Experimental Approach with Conjoint Analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00100).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00100). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## learned helplessness
<a id="learned-helplessness"></a>

Learned helplessness is a learned belief that a person’s or animal’s actions do not affect rewards or unpleasant outcomes. It develops after repeated experiences of punishment or aversive events happening regardless of what is done, and can reduce later ability to learn effective responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2a5ab4dbea000b89573e5791bfd5ea13c63d26a9f64e35bf0012605da5aeb69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Helplessness, Learned” (D006380).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006380). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## learning
<a id="learning"></a>

Learning is a relatively lasting change in behavior that comes from past experience or practice. It also includes gaining knowledge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6e3ef47664fa28ac0e76014a221f2149f363a46eeb8307503251da431a9bf5d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Learning” (D007858).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007858). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## learning by doing
<a id="learning-by-doing"></a>

Learning by doing is improvement that comes from repeated experience carrying out a task. As people or teams do the work over time, they build knowledge and skill from past activity, so performance or outcomes tend to improve later even without a current increase in volume.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 55541c2354ec081567c30869eeb0b9ee8256e546d9d5db5477becbba2cb25369

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maharaj Ritesh. Does experience matter? Understanding the mechanism of the volume-outcome relationship: Learning-by-doing or economies of scale. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318808; article XML SHA-256 2efe8481fa23f58e307f6492615d40844d15419d855926fb2356705f489a6452. “Does experience matter? Understanding the mechanism of the volume-outcome relationship: Learning-by-doing or economies of scale” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318808).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318808). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## learning curve
<a id="learning-curve"></a>

A learning curve shows how a person’s or group’s learning progresses by charting performance over time. It describes the course of learning rather than a single result.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d9d70539bb9c3dc05a09eda9bb3b06e70277393ea7c6785dcd72f4a9c5056d4a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Learning Curve” (D059032).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D059032). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Learning Disabilities
<a id="learning-disabilities"></a>

Learning disabilities are conditions marked by a significant gap between a person’s perceived level of intellect and their ability to learn new language and other cognitive skills. They may result from organic or psychological conditions, and common types include dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d076afe8a19764df6bc79d3ecc47b3bd0859dd601675e9239cb8fc33bb78e8a3

Wording review pending: The eight-word intellect/ability comparison preserves the source phrasing; restructure the relationship while retaining its meaning.

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Learning Disabilities” (D007859).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007859). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## learning disability
<a id="learning-disability"></a>

A learning disability is a group of disorders that interfere with learning or with processing certain kinds of information, despite a person seeming to have a higher overall level of intellectual ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bff9ca2fd170a604df2e2105469a00f827ace3fd3369a458d0ba3e46fc82f9b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Learning Disorder” (C89334).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## learning disorder
<a id="learning-disorder"></a>

A learning disorder is a group of conditions that interfere with a person’s ability to learn or handle certain kinds of information, despite an apparently typical level of intellect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 589bc521c24687956ae27b0b2f31d706eeb4a5e9cea07ba4d54a3fbe226c85d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Learning Disorder” (C89334).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## learning model
<a id="learning-model"></a>

A learning model, in this source, refers to a machine-learning approach that combines multiple simpler learners to produce a stronger overall model. It can be applied to tasks such as prediction, classification, and approximating functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 366b5d8667abee2474ca5bc24a8bb9a3bc4bfd312fe7617fd7408b86e2d20794

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ensemble Learning” (D000098406).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000098406). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## learning paradigm
<a id="learning-paradigm"></a>

A learning paradigm in machine learning in which a system is trained on labeled input-output examples so it can predict outcomes for new cases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb0767a36fe0aa956804e67823691bc2acc3e7c9ab47f4b243e7df78e03bd6bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Supervised Machine Learning” (D000069553).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000069553). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## learning set
<a id="learning-set"></a>

A learning set is the whole collection of material learned in a task, such as all the category–exemplar pairs studied before later testing or restudy. In this source, initial retrieval of the full learning set reduced later forgetting of related items after selective retrieval.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a151bd63e429915469f328b08b7413f6c5aae6dad20600e9fb1d34b4ba7bf558

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Racsmány Mihály; Keresztes Attila. Initial retrieval shields against retrieval-induced forgetting. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00657; article XML SHA-256 e7a651521a6e405c69af55cd5acb095202ef132b3f428147119dbf55350fdfb4. “Initial retrieval shields against retrieval-induced forgetting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00657).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00657). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## learning strategy
<a id="learning-strategy"></a>

A learning strategy is an approach a learner chooses and uses to handle a particular kind of material or task. Different strategies may work better for different goals, so learners benefit from knowing several and applying the one that best fits the content or skill involved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 360765948f14daec31dfbd2e8ff2439bd1f46b667099a1736b3a93997a793a9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eka Woldeab Daniel; Tola Tiruwork Tamiru; Negasi Reda Darge. Effects of students’ mathematics learning strategy and perceived task difficulty on their achievement of mathematics. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337115; article XML SHA-256 c30d3f8952f9253a233e193c4eed524f962fd4710991117d1f042df3b4093243. “Effects of students’ mathematics learning strategy and perceived task difficulty on their achievement of mathematics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337115).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337115). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## learning technologies
<a id="learning-technologies"></a>

Learning technologies are technologies used in teaching and learning, especially in settings such as remote or blended education. Their role and value depend on the context in which they are adopted, including factors like student engagement, emergency conditions, and broader pedagogical needs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a733e2e9e3dba6805349ac6282062d03c10a2be95d785ad1cf68367f649fa8f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vasuthevan Kaveendra; Vaithilingam Santha; Ng Jason Wei Jian. Academics’ continuance intention to use learning technologies during COVID-19 and beyond. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0295746; article XML SHA-256 45714f79a4b5235e212a53a8a5a131cacdfd8dd036f4bbdc134eebb87e71437c. “Academics’ continuance intention to use learning technologies during COVID-19 and beyond” (10.1371/journal.pone.0295746).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295746). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## learning to learn
<a id="learning-to-learn"></a>

Learning to learn is the process by which knowledge gained from past learning experiences makes later learning faster or more effective, within the same area or in related areas. It is also called meta-learning and involves carrying forward useful information or strategies so new but similar tasks can be learned more easily.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3810bb205d5fca00bd42da555821786fd8ddf6797b513594d43f1cd692e50c65

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van den Berg Alexandra R.; Roelfsema Pieter R.; Bohte Sander M.. Biologically plausible gated recurrent neural networks for working memory and learning-to-learn. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316453; article XML SHA-256 477b7e08e5d8108effef0626c3e1b441f2e828ed04ac5808ec2092ce12f70d9e. “Biologically plausible gated recurrent neural networks for working memory and learning-to-learn” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316453).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316453). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## least effort principle
<a id="least-effort-principle"></a>

The least effort principle is the idea that people tend to organize language use to reduce effort while still communicating successfully. In the packet, it refers to a balance between efficiency and accuracy, helping explain why shorter forms are often used more frequently but are also shaped by other pressures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 933be6c76bb469be5bdc76a48df8a4ef370dd63d0cbee43a240f54ec10273c1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zaghir Jamil; Bjelogrlic Mina; Goldman Jean-Philippe; Ehrsam Julien; Gaudet-Blavignac Christophe; Lovis Christian. Human-machine interactions with clinical phrase prediction system, aligning with Zipf’s least effort principle?. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316177; article XML SHA-256 a815e59c9b83249960e6e836d28bd9aa986e24671d08acf77d961ca2d377f94f. “Human-machine interactions with clinical phrase prediction system, aligning with Zipf’s least effort principle?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316177).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316177). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## least squares regression
<a id="least-squares-regression"></a>

Least squares regression is a method that learns a mapping from input data to target labels by minimizing the average squared difference between predicted outputs and the labels. In classification, it projects cases into a label space, but standard forms may separate different classes poorly and may not preserve similarity within the same class.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a6322f1413edd23d1b2fa88a4165f0e79a5ae855adcf1aadcf6d31dfc466d2c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Kai; Ma Jiajun. Residual metric learning with class-specific consistency for multiclass classification. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345369; article XML SHA-256 17e80b28fbe493c9a957697e0ecfc890a13be6b21ee952d4e318001819ef3428. “Residual metric learning with class-specific consistency for multiclass classification” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345369).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345369). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Leber’s disease
<a id="lebers-disease"></a>

Leber’s disease is a maternally inherited genetic disorder in which central vision is lost suddenly or over a short period, typically in mid-life, often progressing to a central blind spot and blindness. It is linked to missense mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting polypeptides in respiratory chain complexes I, III, and IV.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c45c6db619422992c53506dc2557b1e56801ae0f012463ad0ceca3c93d0aa72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Optic Atrophy, Hereditary, Leber” (D029242).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D029242). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lecture method
<a id="lecture-method"></a>

In educational psychology, the lecture method is a teaching approach in which the teacher presents material as a monologue rather than through dialogue with learners. It is contrasted with developing or Socratic methods that rely on question-and-answer exchange.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1cd1952b25feb303841b0656def800a1511d7edde6a5dd8389425e09965b63d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Method (in education)” (Method (in education)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Method (in education)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## left brain
<a id="left-brain"></a>

In this historical account, the left brain means the left cerebral hemisphere, viewed as taking the leading role in speech and in turning more automatic activity into voluntary action. Injury to certain left-sided areas was described as causing aphasia, while the right hemisphere was thought to have a similar but usually less dominant part.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5ae8f199a01f61852c4649ebe1d1259aa538ad800328963a5b23711945f03b38

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2299500-2311500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## left-handedness
<a id="left-handedness"></a>

Left-handedness is the exceptional predominance of the left hand in skill or ease of use, contrasted with the usual predominance of the right hand. In this historical source, it is treated as the opposite pattern to right-handedness and as distinct from being equally skilled with both hands.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 190ef463bda8c05405dfa8dc0382a1ad73d916206766e31999c82835172d2dd7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ambidextrous” (Ambidextrous).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Ambidextrous). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## left hemisphere
<a id="left-hemisphere"></a>

The left hemisphere is the left half of the cerebrum. It controls muscles on the right side of the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42c6e4667526d7dc39b7479ad330473b0d101ace1b2cc1c51edda9d39e5d16fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Left Cerebral Hemisphere” (C32955).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## legal capacity
<a id="legal-capacity"></a>

In this historical medico-legal sense, legal capacity means whether a person with alleged mental disorder was able to understand the specific act in question and able to do it or refrain from doing it. It depends on both the nature of the act and the person’s power of understanding and self-control in relation to that act.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b9a763288e1bd6c9008488651888671a1fd88cc0ff9a80134b51591f455df790

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2677500-2689500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## legend
<a id="legend"></a>

A legend is a traditional story that develops around a historical person and is accepted uncritically, often for moral or uplifting purposes, even though it is not fully reliable as history. Unlike myth, it usually centers on a real person rather than a wholly fictional figure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b356501947fb479eeb1fdacca69bc466edff476becd404c5891b7cc541cc1ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Legend” (Legend).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Legend). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## leisure lifestyle
<a id="leisure-lifestyle"></a>

Leisure lifestyle means a way of living in which leisure time has an important place in everyday life. It involves valuing and choosing enjoyable, relaxing, or personally meaningful activities as part of one’s routine and future preferences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bdd30144112f30498e886cb1eed4a7ab9a0977c831d1cfd446ceb8d18fe26a39

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chiu En-Chi; Lee Shu-Chun. Development and validation of the leisure lifestyle and satisfaction assessment: A comprehensive tool for evaluating leisure engagement. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338099; article XML SHA-256 5512144e057c67c321f1fc270f6956c3f958b7b81c4c92221e99d7e9e3f2cfc3. “Development and validation of the leisure lifestyle and satisfaction assessment: A comprehensive tool for evaluating leisure engagement” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338099).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338099). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lemma
<a id="lemma"></a>

A lemma is an auxiliary theorem or assumed proposition inserted into a line of reasoning to provide support for another theorem. In older usage, especially in Aristotle and Stoic logic, the term could also mean a premise, particularly the major premise of a syllogism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b73dff21904c1c6ff5fb9307822200d1ebc622c105475e3b2bc87b6c0bef8383

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Lemma” (Lemma).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Lemma). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## length of stay
<a id="length-of-stay"></a>

Length of stay is the amount of time an individual remains in a care setting, measured from entry or intake until exit or outcome. As a summary measure, it describes how long people or animals are kept in care and is used to judge flow, capacity, and resource demands over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7855931d16525ab1405ffc07733df3c05234293ad829bd8b308081a8c310f39e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mavrovouniotis Michael Loizos. Use of Kaplan-Meier and Cox regressions in the distribution of length of stay in animal shelters for pre-specified calendar periods: Definition, computation, and examples of dog length of stay in orange county California. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342102; article XML SHA-256 851998e6e7a5a82fb17d93bec718cf7efb03056381769d5fc1482609ef921e18. “Use of Kaplan-Meier and Cox regressions in the distribution of length of stay in animal shelters for pre-specified calendar periods: Definition, computation, and examples of dog length of stay in orange county California” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342102).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342102). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lens
<a id="lens"></a>

The lens is the clear, curved structure inside the eye that focuses light onto the retina. It sits behind the iris, connects to the ciliary body by the zonule, and does not contain blood vessels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93f8a13547cb3a9d336a270e4ecff72a129fe20805a49eb8a995bb89ff664ecb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lens” (C12743).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lenticular nucleus
<a id="lenticular-nucleus"></a>

The lenticular nucleus is a brain structure within the basal ganglia. In this study, it was the area examined with proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy to measure neurometabolite ratios.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 653b70702ddec0204cef077b554ab3d0086b8618f332f271a0ebf29bbfc5e1b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liao Xiaoxiao; Lai Shunkai; Zhong Shuming; Wang Ying; Zhang Yiliang; Shen Shiyi; Huang Hui; Chen Guanmao; Chen Feng; Jia Yanbin. Interaction of Serum Copper and Neurometabolites on Executive Dysfunction in Unmedicated Patients With Major Depressive Disorder. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.564375; article XML SHA-256 96fb2c689e57fdb92187803ed9a06e2aaff861e3c17835ef5a759d94dc280f45. “Interaction of Serum Copper and Neurometabolites on Executive Dysfunction in Unmedicated Patients With Major Depressive Disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.564375).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.564375). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## leptokurtic
<a id="leptokurtic"></a>

Leptokurtic describes a distribution that has longer tails than a normal distribution. In research methods, this refers to a pattern of scores with relatively more extreme values.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0931d2b008c1a5c9e165f9fd9350dddaebd752d96b81de3d4fde1908dc7bfe1c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Leptokurtic” (leptokurtic.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/leptokurtic.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Lesch–Nyhan syndrome
<a id="leschnyhan-syndrome"></a>

Lesch–Nyhan syndrome is an inherited sex-linked disorder caused by deficiency of the purine-metabolism enzyme hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase. After appearing normal in the first year of life, affected people may develop delays in movement and development, abnormal movements, increasing muscle stiffness, seizures, and frequent self-injurious behavior such as biting the lips or fingers; uric acid can also build up and cause kidney stones and gout.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5bf05907fa02771cd71f4de9985fabc0d0c46f7aa58ba6eaa613bef7ffab89b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome” (D007926).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007926). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lesion
<a id="lesion"></a>

A lesion is a localized area of abnormal change or injury in tissue, an organ, or another body part. It involves structural damage, deformity, or a break in normal body tissue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ebbcc441c8a9efa5c6e09aa3a84ce204449fefcb64795323dd463ebbe1071c92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lesion” (C3824).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lethality
<a id="lethality"></a>

In mental health, lethality can refer to rating how medically dangerous a suicide method is. This scale groups the danger level into categories such as none, low, medium, or high.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4834ea799172092be887aaf25c8c65a082358c3407844afea5dbb28552da2268

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Beck Lethality Scale” (C118792).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lethargy
<a id="lethargy"></a>

Lethargy is a general state of sluggishness marked by low energy, lack of interest, tiredness, and trouble concentrating or carrying out simple tasks. It can occur in connection with conditions such as depression or drug addiction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 19fce5e00336794312933c963b02c6e974635658ae869bee3d796365c73d5fdf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lethargy” (D053609).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D053609). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## letter cancellation test
<a id="letter-cancellation-test"></a>

A letter cancellation test is an assessment task used to measure visuo-spatial neglect. In the supplied source, it is used to assess the severity of neglect after stroke.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: feba75d549c4dd702efa1d885ae6f8338ab190160bc29f5a4221bd853c0a9d1e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nijboer Tanja C. W.; Kollen Boudewijn J.; Kwakkel Gert. The Impact of Recovery of Visuo-Spatial Neglect on Motor Recovery of the Upper Paretic Limb after Stroke. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0100584; article XML SHA-256 cf74fff5533e3ef45196f7673984acfa30118c940b0ffdcc92b495fefbc50c54. “The Impact of Recovery of Visuo-Spatial Neglect on Motor Recovery of the Upper Paretic Limb after Stroke” (10.1371/journal.pone.0100584).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0100584). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Letter–Number Sequencing
<a id="letternumber-sequencing"></a>

Letter–Number Sequencing is a task used to assess verbal working memory. In the cited study, children were given a letter/number sequencing task so their working-memory performance could be compared across groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: aa536f91eaebd379f64321079e28575415f5ed1657beca22792a1cfc2c261a0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Andersen Per Normann; Hovik Kjell Tore; Skogli Erik Winther; Egeland Jens; Øie Merete. Symptoms of ADHD in Children with High-Functioning Autism Are Related to Impaired Verbal Working Memory and Verbal Delayed Recall. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0064842; article XML SHA-256 a9d35e658b45a6ef4028e4cfdb2aca4fdd42b870ebcb246e1f7ba93da3ac0be7. “Symptoms of ADHD in Children with High-Functioning Autism Are Related to Impaired Verbal Working Memory and Verbal Delayed Recall” (10.1371/journal.pone.0064842).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0064842). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## leukocyte
<a id="leukocyte"></a>

A leukocyte is a white blood cell. In the mental health context provided, leukocyte count is described as a clinically important risk marker in anorexia nervosa, and leukocytes include granulocytes and agranulocytes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 801ef04acbe9458f815d10fe3e730ab5e53b593263efa411c6e584276cbb35e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Zuo; Xu Can; Govind Risha; Keeler Johanna Louise; Stewart Robert; Treasure Janet; Himmerich Hubertus. Leukocyte concentrations of inpatients with anorexia nervosa. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1812727; article XML SHA-256 8fee1029128bc8460ff5e0bf02c39ce7058343cf9efbf96fd188c19277dff9f1. “Leukocyte concentrations of inpatients with anorexia nervosa” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1812727).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1812727). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## level
<a id="level"></a>

In research methods, a level is one of the specific conditions or values within a factor or variable. For example, if dosage is the factor, each different dose is a separate level.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76eef3a173dc6ef6b428cb146e23ce0a32ad248ea1dbeb1dc97572a1f5af4b58

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Level” (level.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/level.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## level of measurement
<a id="level-of-measurement"></a>

Level of measurement refers to the kind of scale used to describe data. Common levels are nominal, which uses labels; ordinal, which ranks values without true quantitative spacing; interval, which has equal units but no true zero; and ratio, which has equal units and a true zero, allowing meaningful comparisons such as one value being twice another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 860069e3b7ccca72f1beecdc0d5b87ef06da052e784dadde5dfbf5c5c9a931fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Levels of Measurement” (levels_of_measurement.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/levels_of_measurement.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## levels of consciousness
<a id="levels-of-consciousness"></a>

In this model, levels of consciousness are distinct degrees of human awareness or experience within a broader bio-psycho-social-spiritual-ecological framework. They are described as being shaped by moral development and a person’s locus of power, and as increasing alongside emotional literacy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a3647d08df25ebdf1ff23fd570906890e3920918c8b3ee957bcd427b290dcd39

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dragic Ivana. Emotional literacy and levels of consciousness in bio-psycho-social-spiritual-ecological (5D) model of human experience. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1520959; article XML SHA-256 3f08a88c738d233e12a6e97d71fb0cab4ef15f29b9a0b8835ae14d192ee55811. “Emotional literacy and levels of consciousness in bio-psycho-social-spiritual-ecological (5D) model of human experience” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1520959).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1520959). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## levitation
<a id="levitation"></a>

In this historical source, levitation refers to a delusional feeling that one’s body is rising or floating, linked to abnormal bodily and muscular sensations. It is described as occurring in certain forms of paralysis and hysterical insanity as part of disturbed body awareness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c19a692f0ce8efa4d46af22125baf0d528774b508cb8ac05cd6c4af3fa62468e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-640500-652500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## levodopa
<a id="levodopa"></a>

Levodopa is the natural form of dihydroxyphenylalanine that the body can turn into dopamine. Because it can be taken by mouth and reach the brain, it is used in parkinsonian disorders, often alongside medicines that reduce its conversion outside the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d922b9286305e6e0ca11e13c593dc9bd252a8460a600f75646de9ff54452f76

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Levodopa” (D007980).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007980). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## levomepromazine
<a id="levomepromazine"></a>

Levomepromazine is a phenothiazine, typical antipsychotic drug with sedating, anxiety-reducing, anti-nausea, pain-relieving, and antipsychotic effects. Its exact action is not fully known, but it appears to work by blocking several types of receptors in the central nervous system, including dopamine, serotonin, histamine, cholinergic, and adrenergic receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e6ee91ea71ae3d7177cc97a6c87e2eab16fc9dee6fddb630bddcddb1b6d54d19

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Levomepromazine” (C66118).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Levoprome
<a id="levoprome"></a>

Levoprome refers to levomepromazine, a phenothiazine typical antipsychotic with calming, sleep-inducing, anxiety-reducing, anti-nausea, pain-relieving, and antipsychotic effects. Its effects are linked to blocking several central nervous system receptor types, including adrenergic, dopamine, histamine, cholinergic, and serotonin receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1f0f3ef8d621095ca0dec09252650e58cf2e695a4880e36134060fad7be4890

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Levomepromazine” (C66118).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## levorphanol
<a id="levorphanol"></a>

Levorphanol is a narcotic pain-relieving drug that can lead to habit formation. The source also notes that it works almost as well when taken by mouth as when given by injection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4264d344c80f6c10806c5d96d8896f92eb630e45c3f7af4597691fbb84aa88c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Levorphanol” (D007981).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007981). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Lewy body dementia
<a id="lewy-body-dementia"></a>

Lewy body dementia is a progressive dementia linked to abnormal protein deposits called Lewy bodies in the midbrain and cerebral cortex, along with loss of cholinergic and dopaminergic neurons. Its symptoms can overlap with those seen in Alzheimer disease and Parkinson disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: af4cc914556dd94651c488fc192886233c910be66ddb244fe1d910de4908bbff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lewy Body Dementia” (C84826).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lexical access
<a id="lexical-access"></a>

Lexical access is the process of reaching and using word-related information during word processing. In this context, it includes abilities such as recognizing words, retrieving them, and activating their meanings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab9dbf6e2b504ae6688cb08f16645716976e1e7532b5977ab6340b12e0a91dd1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rojas Carlos; Vega-Rodríguez Yuri E.; Lagos Gabriel; Cabrera-Miguieles María Gabriela; Sandoval Yasna; Crisosto-Alarcón Jaime. Applicability and usefulness of pupillometry in the study of lexical access. A scoping review of primary research. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1372912; article XML SHA-256 5e883ef2d44e371258c96aa271f537e5901731356e60c64c7bfaf9c739d06c8b. “Applicability and usefulness of pupillometry in the study of lexical access. A scoping review of primary research” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1372912).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1372912). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lexical ambiguity
<a id="lexical-ambiguity"></a>

Lexical ambiguity is when a word has more than one possible meaning, such as a homonym, so the reader or listener must use context to decide which meaning fits. In language processing, this can involve activating both meanings or selecting the contextually appropriate one.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82a572fa533d246e74c72f8f7e94dcdce7c3bc35307d5053703b726cd700c082

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kousaie Shanna; Laliberté Christianne; López Zunini Rocío; Taler Vanessa. A Behavioral and Electrophysiological Investigation of the Effect of Bilingualism on Lexical Ambiguity Resolution in Young Adults. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00682; article XML SHA-256 ffabe440f888e19cd0afecdc41bac966d352d85138501e4429af3743fb9bba6f. “A Behavioral and Electrophysiological Investigation of the Effect of Bilingualism on Lexical Ambiguity Resolution in Young Adults” (10.3389/fnhum.2015.00682).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00682). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lexical decision
<a id="lexical-decision"></a>

Lexical decision is a task in which a person judges whether a presented letter string is a real word in a given language. In psychology and reading research, it is used as a quick measure related to word-reading skill.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 428ef53fed1900bb4b8f0bf7d3e460c9124a103149498e772bb143cb00339db6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Siebert Julian M; Jimenez Mia; Ma Wanjing Anya; Townley-Flores Carrie; Saavedra Ana; Yeatman Jason D. A fair lexical decision task for monolingual and multilingual Spanish-speakers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826045; article XML SHA-256 85a86275123c7f04d5e77c27135b784590c4d654eb014bcea66ce9bada530093. “A fair lexical decision task for monolingual and multilingual Spanish-speakers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826045).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826045). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lexicon
<a id="lexicon"></a>

In this context, a lexicon is a person’s stored knowledge of words, including their meanings. It contrasts with a proto-lexicon, which refers to familiarity with word forms that may exist without clear semantic knowledge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d8f801f1bc10d0ccc73d88455b6cb7f2c27c24b593919c3377c3cae049645e44

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mattingley Wakayo; Panther Forrest; Todd Simon; Hay Jennifer; King Jeanette; Keegan Peter J.. Exploring the role of meaning in non-Māori speakers’ ‘proto-lexicon’. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339325; article XML SHA-256 a8283e9655e0871cad41d8302cf217d61004827ce9692879ad8a5a316fd8471f. “Exploring the role of meaning in non-Māori speakers’ ‘proto-lexicon’” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339325).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339325). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LFA
<a id="lfa"></a>

LFA, or lateral flow assay, is a laboratory test method in which a sample moves along a test strip by capillary action and meets substances that react specifically with a target analyte. It is used to show within minutes whether the analyte is present or absent, and in some cases to give an approximate or measured level.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 263668f063b45d22842a56d232f5869f5d8d1622901b65f12d448cdaa78d0f7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lateral Flow Assay” (C189805).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LGBTQ
<a id="lgbtq"></a>

LGBTQ refers to people whose sexual orientation, gender identity, or reproductive development falls outside dominant cultural, social, or physiological norms, including groups such as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, asexual, and gender-nonconforming people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c4c5c81ec8ee3c1956be4a6f002df84452036015423b15659bb67116f18e526

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sexual and Gender Minorities” (D000072339).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000072339). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LGN
<a id="lgn"></a>

LGN refers to the lateral geniculate nucleus, a small subdivision of the thalamus. In this source, it is described as one of the thalamic nuclei that can be identified as a distinct cluster in anatomically informed brain segmentation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45f5f4b433db5538686a5df34fc64edb3ae23378c8cba102ad1bb49cd693b153

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Das Debottama; Iglehart Charles; Bilgin Ali; Saranathan Manojkumar. Robust thalamic nuclei segmentation using spectral clustering of fiber orientation distributions. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345649; article XML SHA-256 54c8a7672be59d4749eef04e62c6eaa7bf1c73cc25b3d769f48f08b82e04f18c. “Robust thalamic nuclei segmentation using spectral clustering of fiber orientation distributions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345649).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345649). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## liability
<a id="liability"></a>

In this mental health context, liability means the legal responsibility a psychiatrist, healthcare team, or institution may have in relation to a patient’s suicide or suicide risk. It refers to how the law may hold professionals or services accountable for their role in prevention and management.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62fbb76cdee84be7acc7adc807f26b93af19fcdfdba9f3e1e8181d68a0a9c313

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Saya Anna; Albanesi Giuseppe; Cichetti Diego; Di Molfetta Matteo; Guarino Yuri; Niolu Cinzia; Siracusano Alberto. Notes on psychiatrist liability around the world regarding suicide. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1466325; article XML SHA-256 dafd34c0a302ad972e0805041fb3cf4980bcdb9a00bfbb06bac2383e4da94e46. “Notes on psychiatrist liability around the world regarding suicide” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1466325).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1466325). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## liberalism
<a id="liberalism"></a>

Liberalism is a tendency toward free, unconstrained thinking and action, and also a social attitude that favors reform and progressive change. In this historical source, it is contrasted with conservatism, while an extreme form that embraces innovation for its own sake is called radicalism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c376d5c317b247fcf6466054777847b79b7955bbda79bb3c16ce736c24179242

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Liberalism” (Liberalism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Liberalism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## libido
<a id="libido"></a>

Libido is the mental drive or energy linked to sexual instinct in a broad sense, including the pursuit of pleasure and love objects. The term can also refer more generally to psychic energy tied to instincts that motivate behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4492243d2d5ac70e55cdb69bbafdcf072812e00245d09d199601a463145ec1d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Libido” (D007989).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007989). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Librium
<a id="librium"></a>

Librium refers to chlordiazepoxide hydrochloride, a long-acting benzodiazepine with anxiety-reducing, sedating, and sleep-promoting effects. It acts in the central nervous system at benzodiazepine sites on GABA receptor complexes, increasing inhibitory activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c99d61e93a5ec9374758ab4bf1ed4bc786437d7f3c2caeda998e37b9f68a78c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Chlordiazepoxide Hydrochloride” (C47973).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## licking behavior
<a id="licking-behavior"></a>

Licking behavior is the rhythmic tongue activity animals use to consume palatable liquids such as sucrose. In this source, it is treated as a measurable part of consummatory behavior that can be disrupted or altered by changes in nucleus accumbens D2 neuron activity and its timing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5b767b0c7f930dff91cfb0dff2571967e1ea05b3a58cf5decf49d24ad8444802

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Requejo-Mendoza Nikte; Arias-Montaño José-Antonio; Gutierrez Ranier. Nucleus accumbens D2-expressing neurons: Balancing reward and licking disruption through rhythmic optogenetic stimulation. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317605; article XML SHA-256 58ba02d7a3e250d415f423d7c86e534580372527027f109f5e0c515dbda9dc1c. “Nucleus accumbens D2-expressing neurons: Balancing reward and licking disruption through rhythmic optogenetic stimulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317605).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317605). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lickometer
<a id="lickometer"></a>

A lickometer is a device used in animal research to monitor drinking behavior by recording each lick an animal makes while fluids are available. It is used to study patterns of intake, such as how often and when drinking bouts occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 59b90d1676a41b74ca9782c1bbdc1ef971492dbdff8e53318e41e7b99e0429b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Anacker Allison M. J.; Ryabinin Andrey E.. Identification of subpopulations of prairie voles differentially susceptible to peer influence to decrease high alcohol intake. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fphar.2013.00084; article XML SHA-256 a5386ab5eea545a7cf58d70572d245688dee98e318a23e042f7e047cb26bfde4. “Identification of subpopulations of prairie voles differentially susceptible to peer influence to decrease high alcohol intake” (10.3389/fphar.2013.00084).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2013.00084). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lie
<a id="lie"></a>

A lie is an intentional attempt to deceive another person by making a false positive statement. In this historical source, its defining feature is the purpose to mislead, rather than questions about whether the act might be ethically justified.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c13201b3f1cfb103cc79df016a69a42271c9114a2244659cc87f47d93ca41ebb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Lie” (Lie).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Lie). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lie scale
<a id="lie-scale"></a>

A lie scale is a personality questionnaire measure reflecting a tendency to present oneself in a socially desirable way or to “fake good.” In this source, higher lie-scale scores were associated with greater reported use of smell-related cues in everyday decisions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 368bd43123176d05752ffb48454f0ab279a6ec3ed1928f483790113b8baa22fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Seo Han-Seok; Lee Suji; Cho Sungeun. Relationships between personality traits and attitudes toward the sense of smell. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00901; article XML SHA-256 78f607d6ffff2b5fe852428050c6e64bad22ed4c90878f0ed707ea84aced57b1. “Relationships between personality traits and attitudes toward the sense of smell” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00901).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00901). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## life cycle
<a id="life-cycle"></a>

Life cycle refers to the sequence of developmental stages and related measurable traits in an organism, such as survival and developmental timing. In assessment contexts, these life-cycle outcomes can be used as endpoints in long-term testing to evaluate the effects of exposures or toxicants.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8c55c92afe088f2c0f915719779173d7ccf2f0cd9eef393f7a970cf548dd9337

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Binde Doria Halina; Wagner Vivian; Foucault Quentin; Pfenninger Markus. Unveiling population-specific outcomes: Examining life cycle traits of different strains of Chironomus riparius exposed to microplastics and cadmium questions generality of ecotoxicological results. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304739; article XML SHA-256 800dcdc9ac3a9192630df28a8940e61e88d62e05b322bd93bd09942c8e92ad83. “Unveiling population-specific outcomes: Examining life cycle traits of different strains of Chironomus riparius exposed to microplastics and cadmium questions generality of ecotoxicological results” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304739).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304739). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## life events
<a id="life-events"></a>

Life events are things that happen in a person’s life that can be stressful and may lead to temporary worry or anxiety. In this context, they are contrasted with the persistent anxiety seen in generalized anxiety disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad14307d782ca9e12dc862b927bb765af702acf99166c1c257f76fe9cfd14888

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 77e8e3f9797bdd3e545d836e3c7a022d849dbcb9046d75b9663fada09c613399. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## life expectancy
<a id="life-expectancy"></a>

Life expectancy is a population-level measure of health and well-being that estimates how many more years people at a particular age would be expected to live if the current pattern of death rates continued. The version used most often is life expectancy at birth, which summarizes the average lifespan expected for newborns under present mortality conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c51f5d696f3ce6112ae17f18d1362b568a8fdbd3db669e377f8d2a852348b74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Taherian Reza; Karimi Ghahfarokhi Maryam; Zayeri Farid. A study of trends and projection of life expectancy and its association with socio-demographic index: Results from GBD study 2023. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347865; article XML SHA-256 1909da5c7648ca0dd589b484ad7b6e53c795c45fd8215255157046380ce2ca90. “A study of trends and projection of life expectancy and its association with socio-demographic index: Results from GBD study 2023” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347865).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347865). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## life goal
<a id="life-goal"></a>

A life goal is a broad aim or valued direction a person pursues, reflected in daily activities that help move them toward a hoped-for future or ideal self. In this source, life goals are treated as higher-level aims such as being fit, helpful, smart, talented, creative, or social.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 40ad5f633964073426bc833ee7046fdde6cdfaed08976c5ee5d1c0b73fad7f67

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Scheier Lawrence M.; Hansen William B.; Komarc Martin. Methodological strategies for linking superordinate life goals (values) and daily activities: a cross-sectional online study of adolescents. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1685340; article XML SHA-256 8d8fe4c36053598cb444804c3d3be09bf828ec163dea879ae25eaf9d78a19128. “Methodological strategies for linking superordinate life goals (values) and daily activities: a cross-sectional online study of adolescents” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1685340).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1685340). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## life history
<a id="life-history"></a>

In this context, life history refers to a person’s developmental pattern or calibration as shaped by childhood environment. In life-history theory, it is described in terms of trade-offs along a fast-to-slow continuum and used to study how early and current environments relate to later judgments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b2a652e94b9abe33206b31273a2798bdfa1f6f0308cf9c35f4fc45a00d0eac84

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Shaolingyun; Lu Hui Jing. Life-history strategy, adverse environment, and justification of life-ending decisions. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1568204; article XML SHA-256 5a5f3c68209f8416cf0af83d504c1c785bd472cfedabb0079f330e1c219d5f95. “Life-history strategy, adverse environment, and justification of life-ending decisions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1568204).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1568204). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## life satisfaction
<a id="life-satisfaction"></a>

Life satisfaction is a person’s sense that their needs or wants are being fulfilled and that they feel satisfied with their life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc42ebbaa77d8f1b3961a81c17afabe9dfaaa89d07992556ca1b73a2f8602107

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Personal Satisfaction” (D010549).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010549). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lifeline
<a id="lifeline"></a>

In this context, a lifeline is a continuous visual profile used in the DIDCO framework to organize and display several parts of a psychiatric work-capacity evaluation together. It is meant as a structured communication tool, so that smooth patterns suggest coherence across domains while breaks or mismatches may point to areas needing closer clinical review.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59365bd9551558f08492b6e3a4061e09196b78fb971bb4d60c9f4ec0ff67615e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Damsa Cristian. Straight or fractured? The DIDCO lifeline framework: a structured multidimensional model for psychiatric work capacity evaluation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1877131; article XML SHA-256 a6846702323d7d126c2ab0b3a6dd59ef5f46064d7e8e3445e56e6b36e6cea115. “Straight or fractured? The DIDCO lifeline framework: a structured multidimensional model for psychiatric work capacity evaluation” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1877131).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1877131). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lifespan
<a id="lifespan"></a>

Lifespan refers to the whole course of human life, from before birth through adulthood and later years. In this context, it emphasizes that development unfolds across all these stages within ongoing relationships and caregiving connections.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d8425ba8db4d8e43522ca117dd055a9dbbeddea342eadf32574014c20820ffc1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ho Jacky; Rahaman Mohammad Anisur. The influence of attachment and relational quality on developmental outcomes across the lifespan: a systematic review and meta-analytic insights (2014–2024). 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745013; article XML SHA-256 e5cd6f4904751c98daa06e76df6b69bf983f89b4f55515b003442f5d7ab8ee0e. “The influence of attachment and relational quality on developmental outcomes across the lifespan: a systematic review and meta-analytic insights (2014–2024)” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745013).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745013). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lifespan perspective
<a id="lifespan-perspective"></a>

The lifespan perspective is a view of development as a process that continues throughout life and involves both growth and decline in psychological characteristics. It holds that with age, some abilities tend to decrease while others, such as accumulated knowledge and skills, may stay stable or improve, and that motives and goals can also change over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 542afbc139bbc4115d0c8f793e82955d375ab79076119440bf5cfbb07b512551

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bohlmann Clarissa; Rauch Andreas; Zacher Hannes. A Lifespan Perspective on Entrepreneurship: Perceived Opportunities and Skills Explain the Negative Association between Age and Entrepreneurial Activity. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02015; article XML SHA-256 75131f9b27335b8760ec4167c79596559897b0ae3473212fc82bd530e9352b7a. “A Lifespan Perspective on Entrepreneurship: Perceived Opportunities and Skills Explain the Negative Association between Age and Entrepreneurial Activity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02015).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02015). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lifestyle
<a id="lifestyle"></a>

Lifestyle is the usual pattern of living that characterizes a person or a group, including their typical way of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d288392ce3e0194f7980db76c87ae3950d72c6909ef0861819e85e3ffcd7324f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Life Style” (D008019).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008019). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ligand
<a id="ligand"></a>

A ligand is a molecule that attaches to another molecule, often a smaller one binding specifically to a larger target such as a receptor, antibody, or enzyme. The term can also refer to a molecule that donates or accepts an electron pair to bond with a central metal atom in a coordination complex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ddd30aa28a1a2a06b6ecd0a00325e80898c210aeb4c7049568cc6c317c1b821

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ligands” (D008024).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008024). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## light adaptation
<a id="light-adaptation"></a>

Light adaptation is the eye’s adjustment to changes in brightness, especially when moving to stronger light and the threshold for detecting light becomes higher.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 881d84c62998e09128e7572d89bf4566c81b5930f9bf308e8be07177ba80cf3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Adaptation, Ocular” (D000221).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000221). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## light therapy
<a id="light-therapy"></a>

Light therapy, specifically bright light therapy, is a biological treatment that uses exposure to bright light and is described here as effective for mood disorders. In this source, four weeks of bright light exposure in people with mood disorders was associated with increased volume in the left dentate gyrus of the hippocampus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7452326c810db3e17c8aa454653370fbe57b4e9479612e2a0b1086fdc9d2713

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hirakawa Hirofumi; Muronaga Masaaki; Izumi Toshihiko; Kohno Kentaro. Melanopsin gene polymorphism and volumetric change in the left hippocampal dentate gyrus following light therapy in mood disorders: An exploratory study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1876421; article XML SHA-256 6534402e78056412e2a6bdf4653762190207a4bc3799431e88bdf02ca868373c. “Melanopsin gene polymorphism and volumetric change in the left hippocampal dentate gyrus following light therapy in mood disorders: An exploratory study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1876421).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1876421). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## light–dark cycle
<a id="lightdark-cycle"></a>

The light–dark cycle is the regular daily alternation of light and darkness used to match animals’ natural day–night rhythm. In this context, it signals resting versus active periods, with darkness marking the phase when rats are typically more active.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73bed266e53e0650582410f5b2585a31a50b49cbe7149095416aec1f19a9fa7e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Popik Piotr; Cyrano Ewelina; Golebiowska Joanna; Malikowska-Racia Natalia; Potasiewicz Agnieszka; Nikiforuk Agnieszka. Deep learning algorithms reveal increased social activity in rats at the onset of the dark phase of the light/dark cycle. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307794; article XML SHA-256 fee41be94a4b2f65a1bcdf1a5b204d89ce806fb02a06c077553358dc814599fa. “Deep learning algorithms reveal increased social activity in rats at the onset of the dark phase of the light/dark cycle” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307794).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307794). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## likelihood ratio
<a id="likelihood-ratio"></a>

A likelihood ratio is a statistical comparison, used in signal detection, of how probable an observed pattern is under one condition versus another. In this context, it helps classify brain-imaging findings by weighing whether they more closely match Alzheimer’s disease or normal control data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a15475b852083a308f84b012f08c9a9f1f41c823d600da8edc6976723caa378b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zheng Xiaoming; Cawood Justin; Hayre Chris; Wang Shaoyu; for the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative Group. Computer assisted diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease using statistical likelihood-ratio test. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0279574; article XML SHA-256 366874161d9994d03a41a40f8411e0bbf9ffb597594610acb26e0b22abaa7f28. “Computer assisted diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease using statistical likelihood-ratio test” (10.1371/journal.pone.0279574).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279574). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Likert scale
<a id="likert-scale"></a>

A Likert scale is a rating format often used in questionnaires to measure attitudes or opinions by asking people how much they agree or disagree with a statement. It is a type of psychometric scale based on graded response options.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5b30e930e964c536bdba28485dc26728d7e12a0691efd770f41c3d994e569a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Likert Scale” (C85429).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## limbic lobe
<a id="limbic-lobe"></a>

The limbic lobe is the part of the cerebral hemisphere on its inner surface that surrounds the brain stem.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 324edbd33c404b3e38bec5d78d5b33ba021b6bdb473f7d19c905860b22246835

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Limbic Lobe” (D065726).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065726). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## limbic system
<a id="limbic-system"></a>

The limbic system is a group of related forebrain structures found in mammals, identified by both their anatomy and what they do. It helps combine body, smell, and sensory information and is involved in maintaining internal balance and basic survival-related behaviors such as feeding, mating, and emotion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3291bf4c8dce5311b28e4f3bdb1201117ecb2cbda31040c1ea12b7b1b3cbb638

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Limbic System” (D008032).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008032). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## liminal
<a id="liminal"></a>

Liminal means being at the threshold. In historical psychology usage, it contrasts with subliminal, below the threshold, and supraliminal, above the threshold.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d6949b5b51a63e597d6cd6e91dc9eebb24582f72f5b934f001778990bd6035e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Limen” (Limen).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Limen). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## limited-capacity system
<a id="limited-capacity-system"></a>

A limited-capacity system is a mental system, such as working memory, that has only a restricted amount of processing resources available at one time. When those resources are occupied by one activity, less capacity remains for other experiences or tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a23008d2ab3c1fbbad4d8377efa3c3ccb28c6220f66e7aab3141e2807e817285

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Weigand Rosalie; Jacobsen Thomas. Beauty and the busy mind: Occupied working memory resources impair aesthetic experiences in everyday life. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248529; article XML SHA-256 ee2bb8fa63b7b450cc5e04243ebb24da7472c8a76b8a5b8fd9ddfb0b81d19002. “Beauty and the busy mind: Occupied working memory resources impair aesthetic experiences in everyday life” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248529).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248529). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## limited competency
<a id="limited-competency"></a>

Limited competency means having an insufficient level of ability, knowledge, skill, or confidence to carry out a professional task effectively. In this source, it refers to nurses’ or nursing students’ reduced readiness to assess and respond to patients’ spiritual needs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c44ed0aec86dc6df56a3790150e88ca83915fedad7b7688198110adfaccb300e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sun Peiyu; Shi Ya; Chen Guo; Chen Yun; Fan Guohua; Cao Yingying. Digital transformation of spiritual care education: A scoping review protocol of technology-enhanced learning for nursing students and professionals. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353851; article XML SHA-256 dba87948fa2e41467ed5c837ee56853eafdf1784af15ea54f25a1b3e644ce05e. “Digital transformation of spiritual care education: A scoping review protocol of technology-enhanced learning for nursing students and professionals” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353851).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353851). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## line graph
<a id="line-graph"></a>

A line graph is a display in which values are shown as points and connected with lines. It is mainly used to show how something changes over time and is appropriate when the horizontal axis follows an ordered sequence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a04002d4418eae52fdfb77b7620fcf7bc034b39c0da14a65b7e3f1d3e6fc49f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Line Graph” (line_graph.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/line_graph.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## line of beauty
<a id="line-of-beauty"></a>

In this historical aesthetic usage, the line of beauty is a curved, serpentine or waving line that Hogarth treated as the most pleasing kind of outline. Its beauty was linked to the variety in its shape, and he also connected the serpentine form with the phrase line of grace.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 532b0e55d71fd6cd1a62efeebe97c994fac278d60484011dd0566b0fa397198e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Line of Beauty” (Line of Beauty).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Line of Beauty). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## line of regard
<a id="line-of-regard"></a>

In historical psychology and vision terminology, line of regard means the straight line from the point being looked at to the eye’s center of rotation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aaa10de758d4353c4da16c38d849c8e304a54d326feb0e71e6e0a37bd2148676

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Line of Regard” (Line of Regard).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Line of Regard). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## linear
<a id="linear"></a>

In this context, linear refers to position or distance measured along the word-by-word sequence of a sentence rather than through the branching structure of a syntax tree. A linear distance is the number of words separating related words in that sequence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f51ce5184c53cc3c5412297fc2c71776fcbe00619f94bb95d38dd52cce0e94d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Yanran; Zhao Wei; Breitbarth Anne; Stoeckel Manuel; Mehler Alexander; Schlechtweg Dominik; Eger Steffen. Syntactic language change in English and German: Metrics, parsers, and convergences. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346096; article XML SHA-256 61b0fa9e3972f57eda325b2b6e5c5ef8876ad31e2652e652fb9b5f5b0d2f76a3. “Syntactic language change in English and German: Metrics, parsers, and convergences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346096).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346096). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## linear model
<a id="linear-model"></a>

A linear model is a type of statistical model used in data analysis. If it fits the observed data, it can be used to check the assumptions and estimate the parameters involved in the analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c530081a2e455af3bd0869217be09d81cb2841163745fc7339da407d51f73ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Models, Statistical” (D015233).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015233). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## linear regression
<a id="linear-regression"></a>

Linear regression is a research method used to predict an outcome variable from one or more predictor variables. In the simple form it fits a straight line to estimate the outcome from one predictor, typically choosing the line that minimizes squared prediction errors; multiple regression uses two or more predictors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f38b9f30aed40e7512ed44fba414b74e2eac632ac11b3f0a16258980b3dfef7f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Linear Regression” (linear_regression.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/linear_regression.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## linear relationship
<a id="linear-relationship"></a>

A linear relationship is a pattern between two variables in which the points on a scatterplot follow a straight-line trend. It can still be considered linear when points do not fall exactly on the line, as long as their departures are random rather than showing a systematic pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3873d3e5e2632c8e4b2988ae59c1f594133ac2c710c9bc5dd21d763b7f15eba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Linear Relationship” (linear_relationship.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/linear_relationship.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## linear system
<a id="linear-system"></a>

In this historical psychology passage, a linear system means one possible connected arrangement of lines within the same visual pattern. The term is used to describe how attention may shift so that the very same figure is seen as different line-groupings or forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dec45210549783f48f01a4241fdfb14d10154600999033f14dee2a55618653c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## linear transformation
<a id="linear-transformation"></a>

A linear transformation changes a variable by first multiplying it by a constant and then adding another constant. In formula form, the transformed value can be written as Y = aX + b.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e632147a80fbdd59f5597ee9af9570d83e257935802c373da9e834a7bc787585

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Linear Transformation” (linear_transformation.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/linear_transformation.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lineup
<a id="lineup"></a>

A lineup is an eyewitness identification procedure in which a suspect is shown together with other known-innocent people, and the witness is asked whether any of them is the person who committed the crime. In research and legal contexts, lineups may be described as target-present when the suspect is guilty or target-absent when the suspect is innocent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45cd1f4d5becca8442b354364f90e2f8c6b585b602c1110a946c617c5f499365

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pennekamp Pia; Ramey Michelle M.; Töredi Dilhan; Lampinen James Michael. Does visual attention to diagnostic facial features predict eyewitness identification accuracy? Implications for diagnostic feature detection theory. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355167; article XML SHA-256 b6d443806fcf0da12200b7062300add70c459c3b6fb026f3f34546a21b995aa0. “Does visual attention to diagnostic facial features predict eyewitness identification accuracy? Implications for diagnostic feature detection theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355167).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355167). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lingual gyrus
<a id="lingual-gyrus"></a>

The lingual gyrus is a brain region in the medial occipitotemporal visual area that appears to act as an intermediate stage in visual processing. It is described as linking early encoding of basic visual features with higher-level visual representation involved in recognizing objects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2ba5a718ba1274c43c92477d15a8714295760b035b7db2445a5de10be7b85e92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tian Jiawen; Zhang Hui; Wang Xinyu; Zhang Hongyu; Ma Longyao; Mei Bohui; Zhang Mengzhe; Lang Yan; Wei Yarui; Han Shaoqiang; Lv Qingqing; Zhang Yong. Altered long-range visual hierarchical connectivity in internet gaming disorder: reduced V1–LOC connectivity and its association with addiction severity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883842; article XML SHA-256 7910fcc8b522d8e073c4d4b0d664fb8c25a7724a89c7063d3c981449d22ccd28. “Altered long-range visual hierarchical connectivity in internet gaming disorder: reduced V1–LOC connectivity and its association with addiction severity” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883842).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883842). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lingual nerve
<a id="lingual-nerve"></a>

The lingual nerve is a sensory branch of the mandibular nerve, which belongs to the fifth cranial nerve. It carries general sensation from the front two-thirds of the tongue, the floor of the mouth, and the lower gums.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a5a7a164fefda657920640570a5cc54a53a92ce4a7d80314f1efa15a0a6a7ed6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lingual Nerve” (D008036).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008036). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## linguistic approach
<a id="linguistic-approach"></a>

A linguistic approach is a way of studying mental states or behavior by analyzing features of language use, such as word choice, sentence structure, and writing style. In this source, it refers specifically to a computational analysis of written language to detect changes associated with mental illness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a706712f669076dd2450d9f8cd579d3d79ad1e2598bfb27775162b933c9e8447

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rentoumi Vassiliki; Peters Timothy; Conlin Jonathan; Garrard Peter. The acute mania of King George III: A computational linguistic analysis. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0171626; article XML SHA-256 0a46a3176d283fc00aa69094c01e49f62b234c7820945d6d608717010558574c. “The acute mania of King George III: A computational linguistic analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0171626).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171626). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## linguistic relativity
<a id="linguistic-relativity"></a>

Linguistic relativity is the idea that features of language can influence how people think. In this source, it refers specifically to the possibility that the sound form of words, through learned emotional reactions, can shape what people avoid thinking or talking about.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c375f370502c42143bb5fe8109ff908ad54c1c6b8b8acba333ec9180ef77ff1c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bowers Jeffrey S.; Pleydell-Pearce Christopher W.. Swearing, Euphemisms, and Linguistic Relativity. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0022341; article XML SHA-256 257137d0d65ff62bc7cb380efa89c50332da22748aca79f66044b57eedd73d5f. “Swearing, Euphemisms, and Linguistic Relativity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0022341).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022341). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## linguistic universal
<a id="linguistic-universal"></a>

A linguistic universal is a pattern or property that appears across many or all human languages. In this source, such universals are described as possibly arising either from an innate universal grammar or from shared cognitive or perceptual biases, with cultural history also shaping how strongly the universal pattern appears.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5fc6d7b018c07961283d5019b2761772c038c4b464a59c1c17cc2421fd6c3d88

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baronchelli Andrea; Loreto Vittorio; Puglisi Andrea. Individual Biases, Cultural Evolution, and the Statistical Nature of Language Universals: The Case of Colour Naming Systems. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0125019; article XML SHA-256 c95c4d62b7756009de99fcc793b543d0398b1f1725828ad1f326335247ae7036. “Individual Biases, Cultural Evolution, and the Statistical Nature of Language Universals: The Case of Colour Naming Systems” (10.1371/journal.pone.0125019).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0125019). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lipreading
<a id="lipreading"></a>

Lipreading is understanding spoken speech by using visible mouth movements and other visual speech cues, especially when sound is limited or hard to hear. In this study context, it was measured as visual-only speech perception and related to people’s own ratings of their lipreading ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53227ecfe08526fcb5607f8d7400f51131b20146b2d656da6362403ea28ccb4f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schneider Anna Maria; Stöver Timo; Weissgerber Tobias. Impact of visual mouth image presentation on speech perception in noise in normal hearing subjects and cochlear implant users. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357983; article XML SHA-256 9ff9aaaf3a9de8b7d519f16525c7ba802822c7af1026e3158b4fb6483799ddb5. “Impact of visual mouth image presentation on speech perception in noise in normal hearing subjects and cochlear implant users” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357983).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357983). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lisdexamfetamine
<a id="lisdexamfetamine"></a>

Lisdexamfetamine is a stimulant-related drug that is inactive until the body converts it to dextroamphetamine. The active form increases central nervous system activity by boosting noradrenaline and dopamine signaling, which can change behavior and alertness and may suppress appetite.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2f913636b538ae7740731da3f0a10421223b1bf48d92f16b2d2a011e43592dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lisdexamfetamine” (C75114).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LISP
<a id="lisp"></a>

LISP, in this packet, refers to LISp-Miner software, a tool used to carry out GUHA data mining. It works through an active exchange between the user and the software, with settings adjusted to the dataset and the user’s questions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5ca43c45b057db75a78d80429adf761e37fbb545d2b8e063a9db0642690a450b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nosraty Lily; Turunen Esko; Kyrönlahti Saila; Nygård Clas-Håkan; KC Prakash; Neupane Subas. Application of GUHA data mining method in cohort data to explore paths associated with premature death: a 29-year follow-up study. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12874-025-02477-6; article XML SHA-256 e33d9f2cdb8b5c2ff6fca4c1093af61718dcad88905e99bf0463224c5dc275f3. “Application of GUHA data mining method in cohort data to explore paths associated with premature death: a 29-year follow-up study” (10.1186/s12874-025-02477-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-025-02477-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lissencephaly
<a id="lissencephaly"></a>

Lissencephaly is a malformation of the cerebral cortex in which the brain surface is unusually smooth because developing neurons do not reach their normal locations during brain formation. It involves absent or reduced brain folds, a thicker cortex with fewer layers than usual, and reduced cerebral white matter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3544af991e699ac8fc69f9c65b6e8064bec1dda8e2beb0825098cceb4df05fb6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lissencephaly” (D054082).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D054082). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## listening
<a id="listening"></a>

Listening, in this context, is the cognitive process of understanding spoken language. It is an important skill in language learning, but it can be hard when speech is fast, accents or cultural references are unfamiliar, or vocabulary knowledge is limited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3897edd5a93f0a7f9ab0b35e8d937e8204e292154343e1cfc23aa694deba3f61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Azzubaidi Khalid; Alhamidani Moteeb. Can AI-generated culturally contextualized listening materials enhance agentic engagement? An exploratory study with Saudi EFL students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861868; article XML SHA-256 57a7c83695c32c68b9531d75d2de59bb53c2d1ed1d927052c2dc37394e2bc66c. “Can AI-generated culturally contextualized listening materials enhance agentic engagement? An exploratory study with Saudi EFL students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861868).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861868). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## listening attitude
<a id="listening-attitude"></a>

In this historical usage, a listening attitude is a person’s sudden manner of pausing and seeming to attend to an unheard speaker. It was described as a sign that could suggest hearing voices, especially if the person then whispered or called back in reply.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73ce725c8fbc8e65849708639f200ce94b7187d7f376f81bc182ee049a71645d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1092000-1104000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## listening strategy
<a id="listening-strategy"></a>

A listening strategy is the way a person approaches and organizes what they hear when trying to make sense of speech. In this source, it refers especially to whether someone listens in a more discrete, category-based way or a more gradient, flexible way, with the latter helping more in difficult, noisy speech settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3431f3a085b2acb8e0b11593b51c398e73b1197c7e6ee801a3b5aff368e5694b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bidelman Gavin M; Bernard Fallon; Skubic Kimberly. Hearing in categories and speech perception at the “cocktail party”. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318600; article XML SHA-256 10452366aa186ae618fab9a7862802a54ccc8c53e6b0d43be9d58866113fe3e3. “Hearing in categories and speech perception at the “cocktail party”” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318600).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318600). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## listwise deletion
<a id="listwise-deletion"></a>

Listwise deletion is a way of handling missing data in which any participant or case with a missing value is removed from the analysis. In the source, it was used to reduce the sample to only those teachers with complete data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0b32f5d9b01b5eaabb7a4bcaaedc7cd257e6ff85248baecb6e1f3d0480ebf1c3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yuting Liu; Binti Ahmad Rashid Rabiatul-adawiah; Xiaoying Zhu; cheng Chen. The dynamics of educational transformation: Empirical insights into how innovation, collaboration, and professional development influence digital resource usage across 81 countries. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341914; article XML SHA-256 441415e1757ef634aece21a989ce0e5848adaa53b768016f66bf33335cdf0060. “The dynamics of educational transformation: Empirical insights into how innovation, collaboration, and professional development influence digital resource usage across 81 countries” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341914).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341914). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## literal replication
<a id="literal-replication"></a>

Literal replication is a type of dream incorporation in which something from waking life appears again in a dream in a direct, closely matching form. It contrasts with partial or indirect incorporations, where only some features of the waking event reappear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9119e68353585ad3f58df4f38eda37e30fbed304c9ff46e1b63250b95f6e8ff7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Blagrove Mark; Fouquet Nathalie C.; Henley-Einion Josephine A.; Pace-Schott Edward F.; Davies Anna C.; Neuschaffer Jennifer L.; Turnbull Oliver H.. Assessing the Dream-Lag Effect for REM and NREM Stage 2 Dreams. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0026708; article XML SHA-256 b97e932eac573d7c4ce3beeaaa324fdeb635019e5c360e9bf19490e912b585c7. “Assessing the Dream-Lag Effect for REM and NREM Stage 2 Dreams” (10.1371/journal.pone.0026708).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0026708). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lithium
<a id="lithium"></a>

Lithium, here referring to lithium carbonate, is a pharmacologic substance with mood-stabilizing and antimanic effects. It acts on nerve-cell signaling and neurotransmitter-related processes, although the exact way it produces its mood-stabilizing effect is not fully established.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d5d418b8659796a499e6f245ac0d65341bc701c3833fe4a1cdd735fee298c1dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lithium Carbonate” (C1318).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LLR
<a id="llr"></a>

LLR refers to lower limb robots, robotic devices used to help with rehabilitation of the legs. In the source context, they are discussed as part of brain-computer interface–based rehabilitation technology for people recovering from stroke.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f444ff0d4d540cba593e7f14f17c70b6c5a8d9d285031985a1aa0db75978ca7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shao Mengqi; Wang Xiurong; Wang Kui; Yang Kang; Zou Andi; Chen Bo; Zhang Hui; Meng Zhaoxiang; Jin Xing. Effects of BCI-based lower limb robots on lower limb function and cognition in stroke patients: a preliminary systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1782862; article XML SHA-256 ebfb32cdf22c63515ca04b5af8bb0c3703a4e6e00527702a4dd6bb7b274e0253. “Effects of BCI-based lower limb robots on lower limb function and cognition in stroke patients: a preliminary systematic review” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1782862).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1782862). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lobe
<a id="lobe"></a>

A lobe is a distinct section of an organ, such as part of the brain, lung, liver, or breast.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8de17e1eff141be36d6ebc6defc016666c4341f94a2b95f4d0a27ee331b80926

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lobe” (C13393).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LOC
<a id="loc"></a>

LOC stands for locus of control, a psychological construct assessed in research and the social sciences. In this packet, it refers to something that can be screened with the IE-4 short scale and is treated as a single underlying dimension when response-style bias is taken into account.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 95077c830f6755e3ea138acbd06dfc1c152bd824e9e403a37c89a5631cda0d45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Petrowski Katja; Duhm Julian; Renner Vanessa; Schmalbach Bjarne; Strauß Bernhard; Brähler Elmar. Psychometricre-evaluation of the locus of control short scale (IE-4) in the German general population: evidence of acquiescence bias. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05101-4; article XML SHA-256 28285b241c61994e26b0608eb8a612aa8684ae59b5d1b6374cd3dffb9d580139. “Psychometricre-evaluation of the locus of control short scale (IE-4) in the German general population: evidence of acquiescence bias” (10.1186/s40359-026-05101-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05101-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## localization
<a id="localization"></a>

In this context, localization means determining where specific cells or molecular materials are situated within predefined brain regions or within particular cell types. It is used to map the distribution of findings, such as CD163-positive macrophages or viral material, rather than to explain their cause by itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de17a76235a270284c0363258d9bc756bba022f8e615108bc69ab44d149265bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Klein Hans C; Guest Paul C; Benros Michael E; Tunvirachaisakul Chavit; Scheiber Christian; Maes Michael; Yolken Robert; Bechter Karl; Steiner Johann. CD163+ perivascular macrophages in schizophrenia: a research framework for testing macrophage-related mechanisms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1833449; article XML SHA-256 3310655daf1b28f19c6bb0852a2cc13025e17bafafc1e2eb6f8d0c02674a1f92. “CD163+ perivascular macrophages in schizophrenia: a research framework for testing macrophage-related mechanisms” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1833449).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1833449). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## localization of function
<a id="localization-of-function"></a>

Localization of function is the view that different parts of the cerebral hemispheres are specialized for different mental or sensory-motor activities. In this context, it means that functions such as movement, sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste, and certain language disturbances were linked to particular brain centres.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b33c0dfc67f13ea4b8f29d5e9fb110ee597e964ce57b7d05a8f83f6c6085a4b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## locked-in syndrome
<a id="locked-in-syndrome"></a>

Locked-in syndrome is an acquired neurological condition in which a person is fully conscious but has near-total paralysis of voluntary muscles, with only limited eye movements usually remaining under voluntary control. It results from damage or disconnection in the brainstem, especially around the pons, and may appear like coma even though thinking is preserved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb895d9a50794ec92d3253199b8aab26202723212d7ecf62dd00413c9aa251f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Locked-In Syndrome” (D000080422).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000080422). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## locomotor play
<a id="locomotor-play"></a>

Locomotor play is play behavior centered on active, coordinated movement. In this source, it refers to increased coordinated movement-based play seen when animals were given a social play opportunity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0ada159cb7baf1d5fdbc8b1dbeeed36a00ac0e614d60646310fb722adc69eb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moscovice Liza R.; Gimsa Ulrike; Otten Winfried; Eggert Anja. Salivary Cortisol, but Not Oxytocin, Varies With Social Challenges in Domestic Pigs: Implications for Measuring Emotions. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.899397; article XML SHA-256 29c15127394b8d40158f5e353dccd573705103463be1f253a8c9225e8b87cbd5. “Salivary Cortisol, but Not Oxytocin, Varies With Social Challenges in Domestic Pigs: Implications for Measuring Emotions” (10.3389/fnbeh.2022.899397).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2022.899397). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## locura
<a id="locura"></a>

Locura is a historical Spanish term used for insanity or madness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 314e79c34c954ccc54f11e2b1788d1107521c65ceced91536bab985ad3e46f7d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3990000-4002000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## locus ceruleus
<a id="locus-ceruleus"></a>

The locus ceruleus is a bluish area at the upper part of the floor of the fourth ventricle. Its color corresponds to melanin-like pigmented nerve cells located to the side of the periaqueductal gray.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a6c3dc8cfb716beb0c4bed110451eee0829c28657ff30af4397ca7c8b5201db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Locus Coeruleus” (D008125).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008125). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## locus of control
<a id="locus-of-control"></a>

Locus of control, in this packet, refers to a rating scale used in the Behavior Assessment System for Children. It assesses whether a person believes rewards and punishments are controlled by outside forces.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 827fbc8606fe8d29dd94b568933121e0cf2ff0a8b11ec2b358b378c8f17e10b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Locus of Control Scale” (C121274).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## log-linear analysis
<a id="log-linear-analysis"></a>

Log-linear analysis is a statistical method for studying associations in categorical data. It treats all variables equally rather than designating one as the outcome, which makes it useful for examining interactions, patterns of independence, and higher-order relationships without implying causation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7812904355a5f11640e25ba2042063caa24910f354a7f8dfab21fe3b79a26668

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kakaire Grace; Chumoh Edna Chepkemoi. Sex differences in alcohol and tobacco use in Ugandan adults: A log-linear analysis of interaction patterns. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337755; article XML SHA-256 14cf04c4d4e8ab99918d480ea22bae4f15827c02dd557c239ea2fcbc54dda746. “Sex differences in alcohol and tobacco use in Ugandan adults: A log-linear analysis of interaction patterns” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337755).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337755). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## logarithm
<a id="logarithm"></a>

A logarithm is the exponent that tells how many times a base number must be used as a power to produce a given number. For example, with base 10, the logarithm of 1,000 is 3 because 10 to the third power equals 1,000.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5f4baf6582aef2b02fc331030b1e4bf1a9172f49d7d27175319a9ffc47539458

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Logarithm” (log.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/log.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## logic
<a id="logic"></a>

Logic is the study of the principles that make reasoning and inference correct or dependable. It concerns the standards used to judge whether thinking and demonstration are valid across any area of knowledge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f997f204ba8704ac9d2c0f27bdf51df0279fa2b7fb992a5118c94fc42c5f8bed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Logic” (D008128).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008128). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## logical necessity
<a id="logical-necessity"></a>

Logical necessity is a kind of necessity that does not involve time. In this historical source, it is contrasted with causality, which concerns a necessary connection between events in a time sequence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 734ed5e8c47d415dc43370a4690f5720faa462327e3e99dfd43e26610ffa9510

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Causality” (Causality).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Causality). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## logistic regression
<a id="logistic-regression"></a>

Logistic regression is a statistical method for finding the mathematical relationship between a qualitative dependent variable and one or more independent variables. It estimates the best-fitting relationship by using likelihood functions rather than the straight-line, least-squares approach used in linear regression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aac1b0cc41f579b040b064e9d9b38d8d645803690973fcce3f0d45db0eb46df3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Regression Analysis” (D012044).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012044). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## logographic
<a id="logographic"></a>

Logographic describes a language or literacy background that uses a non-alphabetic writing system, such as Chinese, rather than an alphabet-based one. In this context, it matters because orthographic knowledge can affect how speech sounds are perceived and studied.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed30a144c2fd49014e4f62a3b80a92de8c71081b556dfd2b14b4129c5bbab53d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Jing; Chen Yufeng. Beyond orthography: a refined perceptual assimilation task paradigm for measuring cross-linguistic phonetic similarity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859283; article XML SHA-256 0e6e42e9df9ed65bd3b09d155754d44cd3885b5fe66f001945bfeaf10b192472. “Beyond orthography: a refined perceptual assimilation task paradigm for measuring cross-linguistic phonetic similarity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859283).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859283). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## logopathy
<a id="logopathy"></a>

Logopathy is a historical term for a disturbance in forming thoughts for the purpose of speaking. It uses the logo- root in the sense of intellectual processes, especially those leading into speech.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: feb9f4a74ce83acce8523b4c53f10bb524fc456b89c5847c9013120c324c83ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Logo-, &c.” (Logo-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L4defs.htm#Logo-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## logorrhea
<a id="logorrhea"></a>

Logorrhea is an excessive outpouring of words. In historical psychology writing, it was described as a common symptom in mania.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b49e28a88ff7a5515f4ec43c530ea786ec7b4618bb972cb5451da9b3a75ec687

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Logo-, &c.” (Logo-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L4defs.htm#Logo-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## logotherapy
<a id="logotherapy"></a>

Logotherapy is a directive form of existential psychotherapy that focuses on the importance of meaning in a person's life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b4963db458ef895e94bc3c3e604621628f46726aafde2fb59f51b2b66e96294

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Logotherapy” (D000081842).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000081842). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## loneliness
<a id="loneliness"></a>

Loneliness is a feeling of sadness or dejection that comes from lacking companionship or being separated from other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47d174778f662566fdfe6ff0ee934cd85adfedc9c01be0faa6b0fea8cf730579

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Loneliness” (D008132).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008132). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## long-term care facility
<a id="long-term-care-facility"></a>

A long-term care facility is a place where people with advanced illness, chronic health problems, older age, or limited mobility receive ongoing care, including help with basic daily activities. These facilities can include nursing hospitals, and patients’ medical needs may differ from those in acute care hospitals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4c16cd81a49bdf67e0f3a8ee172e692933064d269605f4824f7602bd6d58a691

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moon Soo-youn; Lim Kyoung Ree; Son Jun Seong. The role of infectious disease consultations in the management of patients with fever in a long-term care facility. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0291421; article XML SHA-256 b6455ab33fb4e0b596e26d114dfd806061a56b9432794a7ff608edc01b4cfb12. “The role of infectious disease consultations in the management of patients with fever in a long-term care facility” (10.1371/journal.pone.0291421).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291421). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## long-term depression
<a id="long-term-depression"></a>

Long-term depression is a lasting reduction in the strength of communication between neurons that depends on activity. It often follows repeated low-frequency input and is thought to contribute to memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b714c846d65ff81acf9dccc0daa9c028d5dec98b1159fba2a2a1a6b9bbd7739

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Long-Term Synaptic Depression” (D036881).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D036881). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## long-term memory
<a id="long-term-memory"></a>

Long-term memory is the capacity to encode, store, and later retrieve information over time. It includes verbal and visuospatial forms, and its performance depends in part on attention, control of interference, and working-memory processes that support remembering.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd8426b87004be7adda3e92ddc034866e06d5de0fd730b2a5b2ee2f54d9adc3c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Muschner Patric; Goldschmidt Lena; Gröning Luisa Sophie; Spohrs Jennifer; Willmund Gerd-Dieter; Piefke Martina. Combining trauma therapy with computer-based neurocognitive training in soldiers with post-traumatic stress disorder: a quasi-experimental study on symptom reduction and long-term memory functions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1750423; article XML SHA-256 653977d447a14b968552931ab01ce428fe2168a9f83040e8329c324070beac4e. “Combining trauma therapy with computer-based neurocognitive training in soldiers with post-traumatic stress disorder: a quasi-experimental study on symptom reduction and long-term memory functions” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1750423).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1750423). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## long-term potentiation
<a id="long-term-potentiation"></a>

Long-term potentiation is a lasting strengthening of how effectively one nerve cell signals another at a synapse, usually after those same connections have been activated in a suitable way. Its features suggest it may be one of the cellular processes involved in learning and memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a58b19699d737600c9ba4ee5e2ae5c8c20bcf44ca520676ecb8fadfb7cc0cd20

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Long-Term Potentiation” (D017774).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017774). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## longevity
<a id="longevity"></a>

In this psychology context, longevity refers to living into older age, and healthy longevity means not just surviving or avoiding disease but continuing to have a life that feels meaningful, connected, self-directed and socially recognized. It links long life with the quality and significance of a person’s later-life experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e250d033a3db63761d57e24942929f2e94258cab1d4f3a3d678155e70f542132

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cai Jiaxin; Yu Lei; Huang Huixia; Guo Yanlan; Shi Fengxue. Self-worth systems in aging societies: a narrative review and conceptual framework from self-esteem to healthy longevity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1879051; article XML SHA-256 56d2a7e9844332dcef8825fabef2829ab17cc3861d2bdf519e0562709a20a714. “Self-worth systems in aging societies: a narrative review and conceptual framework from self-esteem to healthy longevity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1879051).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1879051). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## longitudinal
<a id="longitudinal"></a>

In psychology research, longitudinal refers to looking at how something changes or has effects over time rather than at just one point in time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a8ce44852bb0b39f0b71176871e957eac11e603fcd109c4e9366dc55b4c9ba34

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Jinglun; Zhang Zhaomo. Longitudinal effects of social media feedback on psychological distress in young adults: the mediating roles of self-esteem and social comparison. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04912-9; article XML SHA-256 6c2362a0d706d5b106dca599f2ae0a5b1b4a93dfdc1a989bfe1283b9472e2e4f. “Longitudinal effects of social media feedback on psychological distress in young adults: the mediating roles of self-esteem and social comparison” (10.1186/s40359-026-04912-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04912-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## longitudinal design
<a id="longitudinal-design"></a>

A longitudinal design is a study approach that follows the same topic across multiple time points to observe how it changes over time. In mental health research, it can be used to track symptoms or experiences across a period in order to identify important patterns or timing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5582dbc85f3c18f3b83cf2c52f6d345af568fb3e38d273b1210bee00d38e1ac6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yanhong; Wei Sufei; Wang Ruirui; Chen Yaxin; Jin Qi; Zhang Ke; Liu Xiaoxia. Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in high-risk pregnant women during the perinatal period: a longitudinal study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1795171; article XML SHA-256 115f3ab698f22f1f2baaa8a21411cb9765a3708374f86552f3cdf6f6c7000318. “Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in high-risk pregnant women during the perinatal period: a longitudinal study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1795171).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1795171). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## longitudinal fissure
<a id="longitudinal-fissure"></a>

The longitudinal fissure is the long, deep groove that runs along the full length of the brain and divides the two cerebral hemispheres.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6698fb39712150b91a02c583ba76b4e04100525026bc485a358912cd91568e4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Longitudinal Fissure” (C33005).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## looming
<a id="looming"></a>

In this historical psychology source, looming is an illusion of distance perception in which an object, especially in fog, appears altered in its apparent distance or nearness because usual signs of depth are disturbed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7643a6baa749d6b5fabd08b4abcc37e5685af08496814b0f30c64401d4cdf166

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1176000-1188000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## loosening of associations
<a id="loosening-of-associations"></a>

Loosening of associations is a disturbance in how thoughts or meanings are connected, so associations between ideas become disordered. In the packet, it is described as a key feature of schizophrenic psychopathology and linked to thought disruption.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6875d91d64f4e0eff783cdf990a6563f9d3f8e846194d0e81616f604a562bdc0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Löw Andreas; Rockstroh Brigitte; Elbert Thomas; Silberman Yaron; Bentin Shlomo. Disordered semantic representation in schizophrenic temporal cortex revealed by neuromagnetic response patterns. 2006; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-6-23; article XML SHA-256 5be258b6057b864a8950e6d3bd5d26abb2266e341c887ab0defe8fbb650deb5f. “Disordered semantic representation in schizophrenic temporal cortex revealed by neuromagnetic response patterns” (10.1186/1471-244x-6-23).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-6-23). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## loperamide
<a id="loperamide"></a>

Loperamide is a long-acting synthetic antidiarrheal drug. It is described as having little absorption from the gut, no significant effects on the adrenergic or central nervous systems, and local actions that may oppose histamine and interfere with acetylcholine release.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43f1ca3783622d7548e6abf699e51552f9dcad704a5fae0996f718daba5380e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Loperamide” (D008139).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008139). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lorazepam
<a id="lorazepam"></a>

Lorazepam is a benzodiazepine medication used to reduce anxiety. It also has sleep-inducing, anticonvulsant, and strong sedative effects, and it has been proposed for use before anesthesia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 721b3effca64e145467804573b325239535615ccf86726e307f3d50b633db0c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lorazepam” (D008140).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008140). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lordosis
<a id="lordosis"></a>

Lordosis is an inward curvature of the lower back or neck seen from the side, and the term usually means this curve is abnormally exaggerated. In this usage, it does not mean the normal mating posture seen in some animals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4db76770a1ae094a5a002fba6b1bfe2ac2f0f6b9d789c9df30c3e0688b813727

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lordosis” (D008141).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008141). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Lord’s paradox
<a id="lords-paradox"></a>

Lord’s paradox refers to a misleading result that can appear when researchers study change from pretest to posttest while statistically adjusting for the pretest score. If the predictor is related to initial scores and those scores contain random error, this adjustment can create a regression-to-the-mean artifact that makes a variable seem to predict improvement when it may not.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f67f6b7eeae9db96632e62dc571fe7760f135e2bff4f46414bc287c9a004d91e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eriksson Kimmo; Häggström Olle. Lord’s Paradox in a Continuous Setting and a Regression Artifact in Numerical Cognition Research. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0095949; article XML SHA-256 95f0d4df6ca7f62304780c4d4913d7955933d516c80790889a140ad64c83f008. “Lord’s Paradox in a Continuous Setting and a Regression Artifact in Numerical Cognition Research” (10.1371/journal.pone.0095949).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0095949). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## loser effect
<a id="loser-effect"></a>

The loser effect is a self-reinforcing pattern in which an individual that loses a fight becomes more likely to lose again in later encounters. In studies of dominance hierarchies, this repeated effect can help produce stable, often linear rank orders within a group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3987bc4ac6d12d9bff8efb004a7088a0ba1280398e93d3311e238b1fc2b3028d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Haeringen Erik; Hemelrijk Charlotte. Hierarchical development of dominance through the winner-loser effect and socio-spatial structure. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243877; article XML SHA-256 8d1bead68b9532c837cfb4502082b4c2525fa831d0f0f533250df6c4a9b017bf. “Hierarchical development of dominance through the winner-loser effect and socio-spatial structure” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243877).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243877). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## loss aversion
<a id="loss-aversion"></a>

Loss aversion is the general tendency to give losses more weight than equally sized gains. In psychological terms, it reflects heightened sensitivity to negative information during evaluation and decision-making.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: aeeaedb4be2f494ab13e218f2f9d12426075d833729e57f0f90044094b296a08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Arioli Maria; Cattaneo Zaira; Canessa Nicola. A unifying account of loss aversion and loneliness: from neurocognitive bases to affective dysfunction. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777535; article XML SHA-256 2facd5f3a18a68db1794127f804220e352a9e1c443dd437219c2cdbd88548922. “A unifying account of loss aversion and loneliness: from neurocognitive bases to affective dysfunction” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777535).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777535). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Lou Gehrig’s disease
<a id="lou-gehrigs-disease"></a>

Lou Gehrig’s disease, also called amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, is a progressive degenerative illness of the nerve cells that control movement in the brain, brain stem, and spinal cord. It most often starts after age 50 and leads to increasing muscle weakness and wasting, twitching, exaggerated reflexes, speech and swallowing difficulties, and later failure of breathing muscles; death commonly occurs within 3 to 6 years.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59258f2d62b11d1ce7c539b66d29e1ad323d2b0eb2369753683daaf3982c8b18

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis” (D000690).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000690). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## loudness summation
<a id="loudness-summation"></a>

Loudness summation is the increase in perceived loudness that occurs when sound is combined across ears, especially for binaural broadband sounds. In this context, the term refers to how some listeners, particularly those with hearing impairment, may experience a stronger-than-expected rise in overall loudness even when narrower-band loudness has been normalized.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6f232fd2c445bd52e5bdd60857e8b9a3b7b079d5df92ced7d3ebc68df3e9a7b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Denk Florian; Oetting Dirk; Latzel Matthias; Bonsel Harald; Husstedt Hendrik. Prevalence of excess binaural broadband loudness summation in the hearing-impaired population and implications for hearing aid gain targets. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330517; article XML SHA-256 886a23b818fde4544f026a52151a26cf24eb398b01e389682d56335af82afa3d. “Prevalence of excess binaural broadband loudness summation in the hearing-impaired population and implications for hearing aid gain targets” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330517).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330517). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Louis-Bar syndrome
<a id="louis-bar-syndrome"></a>

Louis-Bar syndrome, also called ataxia-telangiectasia, is a recessively inherited childhood-onset condition marked by worsening balance and movement problems, involuntary movements, slurred speech, and visible widened small blood vessels in the eyes and skin. It also involves weakened B- and T-cell immunity and sensitivity to ionizing radiation, with higher risk of repeated sinus and lung infections and some cancers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 72a1330e9e0e4f4ba542b7e1d41da4e7851809b6f9b1db9c1ea87e0dfc4f2f7d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ataxia Telangiectasia” (D001260).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001260). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## love
<a id="love"></a>

Love is affection between people. In psychiatry, the term commonly refers to pleasure, especially the kind linked to gratifying experiences in relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ca22e82793f83a4e327aadd19180c02d06d6a1dabf98a2d4f516a43e5819f58

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Love” (D008149).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008149). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## love scale
<a id="love-scale"></a>

A love scale is a questionnaire used to assess romantic love in a relationship. In this packet, it refers to Sternberg’s love scale, which measures love through the related components of intimacy, passion, and commitment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b20664c33879629dba239b56cc04fbdc305f32dc7e86e348251b17f113e4643a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ventura-León José; Lino-Cruz Cristopher. Love, jealousy, satisfaction and violence in young couples: A network analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285555; article XML SHA-256 3977aca2acbc6c4aa33e14e0455817b96928aaa4678f8b5b7e61404a73c49978. “Love, jealousy, satisfaction and violence in young couples: A network analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285555).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285555). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## love withdrawal
<a id="love-withdrawal"></a>

Love withdrawal is a form of parental psychological control in which affection becomes conditional on a child’s obedience or meeting expectations. It can lead children to link being loved with compliance, increasing fear of rejection and disrupting healthy emotional and empathic development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 81e36db7cd618bbe148ecef130a2f233deb53d5dac65f6539abd23e06b799254

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jin Lei; Jiang Xinyi; Guo Feng. From parental psychological control to hidden emotional pressure: a multimodal review of children's socio-emotional development. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900170; article XML SHA-256 f080d03c725742830e8b28b1b7444f5a684af3fe218f7f2720d81000f402df20. “From parental psychological control to hidden emotional pressure: a multimodal review of children's socio-emotional development” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900170).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900170). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## low birth weight
<a id="low-birth-weight"></a>

Low birth weight means a baby weighs less than 2500 grams at birth, regardless of gestational age. It is an important public health indicator because it is linked with higher risks of neonatal problems, later developmental difficulties, and long-term health and behavioral outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08d456643bea37d6ab2ba744dfbc9c0318cfbe3a493ec66ca3937c4b29979315

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pokhrel Sadiksha; Pokharel Paras Kumar; Ghimire Anup; Yadav Birendra Kumar; Chakravartty Avaniendra; Poudel Swastika; Prajapati Laxmiswori; Acharya Akshaya. Determinants of low birth weight babies delivered at paropakar maternity and Women’s hospital: A case-control study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335107; article XML SHA-256 60043a88cdf7618f6774a8a96b47e70d5b2ce57b402366dd0a58f315f49a7595. “Determinants of low birth weight babies delivered at paropakar maternity and Women’s hospital: A case-control study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335107).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335107). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## low-pass filter
<a id="low-pass-filter"></a>

A low-pass filter is something that reduces higher-frequency parts of a sound while letting lower-frequency parts pass through more easily. In this context, face masks were described as acting like a low-pass filter because they dampen higher-frequency speech sounds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e8cab4e743fb043cf0146f07c2e339ba3d2bf7cdb904c894256d040200d6f73a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Badh Gursharan; Knowles Thea. Acoustic and perceptual impact of face masks on speech: A scoping review. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285009; article XML SHA-256 1183c0c82e61686df9cf7b89512c63395d4efaebbc4af237c91f1289f732f6c6. “Acoustic and perceptual impact of face masks on speech: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285009).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285009). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## low threshold
<a id="low-threshold"></a>

In this context, low threshold means support that is easy to access early and through everyday local services rather than only through specialist mental health care. It refers to a preventive form of help designed to be readily available within municipal social services.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c3e0b5eea0d9ee0a71d8b9d02b6af9807642cd7b69c54a705ea471f2af9fd2c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kapetanovic Sabina; Claesdotter-Knutsson Emma. S-FAME: a low-threshold municipal social services intervention for digital media–related family difficulties in children aged 10–14 years: protocol for a randomized controlled trial. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05302-x; article XML SHA-256 5c70542c9243343c94e69e29aa587d768ea691c0dbc703fd67c8de30d14e0086. “S-FAME: a low-threshold municipal social services intervention for digital media–related family difficulties in children aged 10–14 years: protocol for a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s40359-026-05302-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05302-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Lowe syndrome
<a id="lowe-syndrome"></a>

Lowe syndrome, also called oculocerebrorenal syndrome, is an inherited sex-linked recessive disorder that affects the eyes, nervous system, and kidneys. It commonly involves cataracts present at birth, cognitive impairment, kidney tubular problems, and scoliosis, and is linked to a deficiency in an enzyme involved in phosphatidylinositol metabolism and inositol signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fba2ecd58564859d7feed14a63bc9d7ecbcb302e69fb818f27802aeb18cd5fb5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oculocerebrorenal Syndrome” (D009800).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009800). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lower hinge
<a id="lower-hinge"></a>

In research methods, the lower hinge is the point on a box plot that marks the 25th percentile of the data. It represents the lower quarter position in the distribution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b894dc5465465e50bf5155c3182b539d349d9e964cd4ca0a13117df26c833fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Lower Hinge” (lower_hinge.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/lower_hinge.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lPOA
<a id="lpoa"></a>

LPOA refers to a linear programming optimization algorithm used in assessment to combine several initial indicator weights into a final set of weights, here within confidence intervals estimated from a t-distribution. In this use, it is intended to reduce overemphasis on any single indicator in a multi-factor risk assessment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 15d3be1e9f8b1c3e3382c1dbf36f248112435ffd867bbe4d28229d468df0769f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Li; Lin Hanjie; Qiang Yue; Zhang Yi; Hu Shengchao; Li Hongjian; Liang Siyu; Xu Xinlong. A combination weighting method for debris flow risk assessment based on t-distribution and linear programming optimization algorithm. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0303698; article XML SHA-256 5e56938ff241f1775fdddda43e55a7fbd4c0f49258af51fb8d57e94ba61d50bf. “A combination weighting method for debris flow risk assessment based on t-distribution and linear programming optimization algorithm” (10.1371/journal.pone.0303698).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303698). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LR
<a id="lr"></a>

LR stands for leprosy reactions, periods in leprosy when neuropathy can worsen. The packet identifies two types: type 1 in people with a cell-mediated immune response to M. leprae, and type 2 in multibacillary cases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 81fd5d7207608f0f343eb866a7aad4f81208389c407cc5f131cba9f0f370ad95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [dos Santos Diogo Fernandes; Carvalho Iago Resende; Borges Isabella Sabião; Alves1 Pedro Henrique Sirotheau Corrêa; de Oliveira Cirino Fernanda; Antunes Douglas Eulálio; Pereira Raquel Campos; Gonçalves Marcus Vinicius Magno; Bernardes Goulart Isabela Maria. Leprosy neuropathy and demyelinating impairment: How should we interpret this neurophysiological pattern?. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343962; article XML SHA-256 b4b57a744b86556d2831e4e5c83e526467f27fcf09c98c79df3d3b51d49f9cc3. “Leprosy neuropathy and demyelinating impairment: How should we interpret this neurophysiological pattern?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343962).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343962). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LSD
<a id="lsd"></a>

LSD, or lysergic acid diethylamide, is a semisynthetic compound derived from ergot that strongly alters perception and produces hallucinations. It acts in complex ways on serotonin systems in both the body and brain, although exactly how it causes its hallucinogenic effects is not fully understood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18d25ac8416d24eacc2e928da7641a885cc2dce10414f95cd08cf4c6e83e2d31

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lysergic Acid Diethylamide” (D008238).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008238). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LTD
<a id="ltd"></a>

LTD is the weakening of synaptic connections between neurons, a form of synaptic plasticity often discussed alongside long-term potentiation in learning and memory. It is typically reflected by a decrease in measures of postsynaptic electrical response or neural population firing after stimulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a925d72c84a365572fa23f4da3887bf8905edc3a10edebda00da05cee6052cc7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [S Shiju; Sriram K. Multi-scale modeling of the circadian modulation of learning and memory. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0219915; article XML SHA-256 fd706cee9e608b8c501e8a8dd565427b63fd79b25d9c348216d32e0f30867e64. “Multi-scale modeling of the circadian modulation of learning and memory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0219915).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219915). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LTM
<a id="ltm"></a>

LTM stands for long-term memory. It refers to the large store of knowledge or mental representations about past events that is kept in human memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 217388ef79bb1cff903635055a60e2874fd83e336a2efe942b8db4f66cf81302

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Küchelmann Thomas; Velentzas Konstantinos; Schütz Christian; Schack Thomas. Expertise-dependent mental representation in chess: evaluation and comparisons based on structural dimensional analysis-motoric. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1695175; article XML SHA-256 2c6ded671df7989dff2ebc65447c81946b44b31eeb0684d2aea173588d9dd991. “Expertise-dependent mental representation in chess: evaluation and comparisons based on structural dimensional analysis-motoric” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1695175).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1695175). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LTP
<a id="ltp"></a>

LTP, or long-term potentiation, is a lasting strengthening of signal transmission at synapses after neurons are repeatedly activated together. It is widely used as a model for how the brain may support long-term memory, although its direct link to memory performance is still not fully established.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 531555fd9bd86ef0b8f765825dd3f4ddb9fc5862be0cfc79de86f1348bc93d38

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Spriggs Meg J.; Thompson Chris S.; Moreau David; McNair Nicolas A.; Wu C. Carolyn; Lamb Yvette N.; McKay Nicole S.; King Rohan O. C.; Antia Ushtana; Shelling Andrew N.; Hamm Jeff P.; Teyler Timothy J.; Russell Bruce R.; Waldie Karen E.; Kirk Ian J.. Human Sensory LTP Predicts Memory Performance and Is Modulated by the BDNF Val 66 Met Polymorphism. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00022; article XML SHA-256 1a8db899843ba2e7a15dd6c42b7e582f49313c8d9e17d3b2a493fbb6d8d98943. “Human Sensory LTP Predicts Memory Performance and Is Modulated by the BDNF Val 66 Met Polymorphism” (10.3389/fnhum.2019.00022).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00022). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lucid dream
<a id="lucid-dream"></a>

A lucid dream is a dream in which the person knows they are dreaming and may be able to deliberately affect what happens in the dream. It usually occurs during REM sleep, though it has also been observed in some NREM sleep cases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3df375a5eec8034e80899ae53ed0edb4ae999144b56ca2729bfe381643271b8b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Erlacher Daniel; Stumbrys Tadas. Wake Up, Work on Dreams, Back to Bed and Lucid Dream: A Sleep Laboratory Study. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01383; article XML SHA-256 07cc6ebf16a82e848fbc24ce88575a1fedf069a787ac54397e1281dabd217477. “Wake Up, Work on Dreams, Back to Bed and Lucid Dream: A Sleep Laboratory Study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01383).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01383). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lucid interval
<a id="lucid-interval"></a>

In historical psychology and psychiatry, a lucid interval is a period during mental illness when the person temporarily thinks clearly, recognizes relationships accurately, and returns to a more usual pattern of thought instead of being dominated by delusions. It refers to more than a simple pause in symptoms or a gap between episodes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 29b2f3b8c075947c4b3a5c21495b3a1e8db8d1d10a4f8e68e91a587c7a02925d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Lucidity” (Lucidity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L4defs.htm#Lucidity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lucidity
<a id="lucidity"></a>

Historically, lucidity referred in mental illness to a temporary return of clear thinking and normal understanding, as in a lucid interval when delusions and disordered habits of thought are absent. The term was also used for an alleged ability to perceive beyond the ordinary senses, similar to clairvoyance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76eb95cad5598d29419e829f615f167869e08473bcdd689cee8f2585d655fb6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Lucidity” (Lucidity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L4defs.htm#Lucidity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lues
<a id="lues"></a>

Historically, lues is a Latin term meaning a spreading or contagious disease. In this source it appears in the old expressions lues deifica and lues divina, which were former names for epilepsy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5cd03d961622f72ed5380197885b5231d1cf10d9c23175a586f256dbc9efc979

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-147000-159000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lumbar puncture
<a id="lumbar-puncture"></a>

A lumbar puncture is an invasive medical procedure in which a hollow needle is inserted between bones in the lower back to reach the space around the spinal cord. It is used to collect cerebrospinal fluid or to deliver medication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f37cdac6753dfcdb48f30d67cb376c2ed16a09bf8de1cb7873b1d48ec155481

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lumbar Puncture” (C15327).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lumbosacral plexus
<a id="lumbosacral-plexus"></a>

The lumbosacral plexus is the combined network of nerves formed by the lumbar and sacral plexuses. Its nerve fibers arise from spinal cord levels L1 to S3 and supply the lower limbs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0bb84ab24429b6517b97cc7715f56301824efea952f0b21f2c4d5328c27ef4a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lumbosacral Plexus” (D008160).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008160). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Luminal
<a id="luminal"></a>

In this packet, luminal refers to a subtype of breast cancer. The source describes luminal breast cancer in younger patients as tending to show more aggressive tumor behavior and poorer outcomes, with certain genomic changes linked to higher-risk disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db00dd02058422a9abd2e8cbe52c7b4b8a4f6c20b6c5c118caa0ada104b85719

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zheng Le-Wei; Liu Yi-Ming; Yu Ke-Da; Liu Cui-Cui. A fusion-deletion genomic-event underlies poor prognosis in young patients with luminal breast cancer. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349410; article XML SHA-256 2f4f046b53ff26c2eee01dff1373dde201a1fdd4c6555b818543d46bdf742ef9. “A fusion-deletion genomic-event underlies poor prognosis in young patients with luminal breast cancer” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349410).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349410). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## luminosity
<a id="luminosity"></a>

In this historical vision context, luminosity means the degree of brightness in a visual sensation or colour. It is treated as the lightness aspect of what is seen, as distinct from the colour character itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f4fbc73ce1b4e786970d66375325c5996632d36c18ac1e790fc2722c471bd85

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4420500-4432500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lunacy
<a id="lunacy"></a>

Lunacy is a historical term for insanity, originally tied to the old belief that madness could come and go with the phases of the moon. In legal and institutional usage, it referred broadly to a person considered insane, often with special attention to whether the person could manage their own affairs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1d69ff781b2b241c8b98ce771f82eda401c85485fcec890f7f237e8baa818e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Lunacy” (Lunacy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L4defs.htm#Lunacy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lunatic asylum
<a id="lunatic-asylum"></a>

A lunatic asylum is a historical term for an institution connected with the legal and general handling of insanity. In this older usage, it referred to a place for people regarded under law or common usage as lunatics, meaning persons considered insane.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9484b77708f3a35a6171761b65f200033e1c2793181700c78afda5516a9c44b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Lunacy” (Lunacy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L4defs.htm#Lunacy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lurasidone
<a id="lurasidone"></a>

Lurasidone is a second-generation antipsychotic medication commonly used in the context of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. The source also notes that it is considered to have a relatively favorable metabolic profile, while its possible effects on development are not yet well understood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 910ce17445ce0820407f12fbbdc936f48b2146efb4258df33413246514e08764

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Wentian; Wang Fang; Feng Zhe; Cheng Qianqian; Huang Yuqing; Zhu Lisheng; Xiao Han; Gong Hongjian. Lurasidone induces developmental toxicity and behavioral impairments in zebrafish embryos. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1581524; article XML SHA-256 77f2caf87bce94baefcea015efbe59de6618d07b21496b9237250cc8d320c3c0. “Lurasidone induces developmental toxicity and behavioral impairments in zebrafish embryos” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1581524).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1581524). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Luria–Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery
<a id="lurianebraska-neuropsychological-battery"></a>

The Luria–Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery is a set of tests used to evaluate neuropsychological functioning. It helps identify specific problems related to brain dysfunction and can also indicate which side of the brain is more involved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e9f1fe62614999505b3df64b5d0712136c07cb2c6f901ffceb25acc69cf32fb2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery” (D008182).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008182). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Luvox
<a id="luvox"></a>

Luvox is fluvoxamine maleate, a drug with antidepressant and anti-obsessive-compulsive effects that has also been described as having antibulimic activity. It works by blocking serotonin reuptake, which raises serotonin levels between nerve cells and strengthens serotonin signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2ae3243f018db2a6967ef8d2afc58fc86bc11323cb5e650a306fee28efb9f64c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fluvoxamine Maleate” (C29063).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lux
<a id="lux"></a>

Lux refers to a measured level of light in an environment, such as how much artificial light is present at night. In this packet, it is used to compare different night-time lighting conditions from darkness to brighter illumination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2076b72a2072d96aed7110ee6a5e813f8119b850d8e8b3ad110831d781a6e26e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Underwood Charlotte N; Ford Alex T; Robson Samuel C; Wijnen Herman. Behavioural rhythms of two amphipod species Marinogammarus marinus and Gammarus pulex under increasing levels of light at night. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329449; article XML SHA-256 3e4add852589d32b8a6fb34b3681b93fd45a837ae9b6acd0f6ad7121fccd4a23. “Behavioural rhythms of two amphipod species Marinogammarus marinus and Gammarus pulex under increasing levels of light at night” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329449).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329449). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## LVP
<a id="lvp"></a>

LVP stands for large volume parenteral, referring here to a large medical solution bottle with a narrow opening and irregular shape. In the source, the term is used in the context of visually inspecting the bottle bottom for foreign material, a task made difficult by the bottle’s shape.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f045b2327360e5ae50be826988e5de6e11d2e813405c3e1518a6b987afe77fa7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yuan Pi; Li Chen; Tang Peng; Yuan Bin; Yin Yongjing. Machine vision model for detection of foreign substances at the bottom of empty large volume parenteral. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298108; article XML SHA-256 bbd41abc1753bd5397be588b51b70d6679857543403ebae3c1e76eebdcfbe720. “Machine vision model for detection of foreign substances at the bottom of empty large volume parenteral” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298108).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298108). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lycanthropy
<a id="lycanthropy"></a>

Lycanthropy is a historical term for the supposed transformation of a person into a wolf or other beast, especially in folklore and witchcraft beliefs. In older psychological writing, it was also discussed by some physicians as a mental disorder in which the affected person was thought to believe or appear to become such an animal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2496fbf47dcd9788f6766066c188a6e89c14a8c586df425fb60d36c731e37cc8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-157500-169500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lynching
<a id="lynching"></a>

In this historical source, lynching is used as an example of the community acting together to avenge an act it sees as hostile to social welfare. It refers to communal vengeance or punishment carried out by the public rather than by a single injured person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ff6cf0b7ba49971c17149ccef7e56fa030d7b85753163e462e2617d8e3ca86a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Crime (in sociology)” (Crime (in sociology)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Crime (in sociology)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## lysergic acid diethylamide
<a id="lysergic-acid-diethylamide"></a>

Lysergic acid diethylamide is a semisynthetic substance derived from ergot that has complex effects on serotonin systems in the body and brain. It is a powerful hallucinogen, although its hallucinogenic action is not fully understood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b21485db5f037c533c1abb7cb88f66ced400443474a213f84b063ebb15873f00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lysergic Acid Diethylamide” (D008238).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008238). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## M
<a id="m"></a>

In this historical source, M is the logical symbol used for the middle term.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb8c28a9a6ce8977ed95a0a49398158961b612d8c7a5a75ae3644230ad231bc9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “M.” (M).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M1defs.htm#M). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MA
<a id="ma"></a>

MA stands for Master of Arts, an academic degree in a non-science subject that is usually earned after one or two years of postgraduate study.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e825bbbcc55e74b7d3be491076aa9ab4e460903722e76df7605ecf66b786fd5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Master of Arts” (C71364).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status
<a id="macarthur-scale-of-subjective-social-status"></a>

The MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status is a simple self-report measure of socioeconomic status that uses a ladder image to ask people where they see themselves in relation to others in their community. It reflects perceived social standing rather than objective indicators such as income, education, assets, or housing conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 25d2a750202bc11e3d97c41491c87588c3e1881ccb46d2d89a9c674fe180c076

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao Maryann; Huang Chuan-Chin; Mendoza Milagros; Tovar Ximena; Lecca Leonid; Murray Megan. Subjective socioeconomic status: an alternative to objective socioeconomic status. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12874-023-01890-z; article XML SHA-256 25b2abb51544ed71eda3bb8fd132a138ae04efceb74d49f77f01f69e59a8d7e4. “Subjective socioeconomic status: an alternative to objective socioeconomic status” (10.1186/s12874-023-01890-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-023-01890-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Mach bands
<a id="mach-bands"></a>

Mach bands are a visual illusion in which faint bright and dark stripes appear near changes in luminance, such as at the edges of a luminance trapezoid. They are used to study brightness perception and spatial vision, and have been explained as arising from early visual processes including local response normalization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 129054b8d3bda435964d766491fa64b4a0c2d71461e84da336eeebdb7965f44a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kingdom Frederick A. A.. Mach bands explained by response normalization. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00843; article XML SHA-256 baca3c69c8b639d0039b7b7acda127d0aaca1dee50c4aaeb7c27ec41dbedaf18. “Mach bands explained by response normalization” (10.3389/fnhum.2014.00843).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00843). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Mach card
<a id="mach-card"></a>

A Mach card is a bent card display used to show that the same visual image can be seen with different apparent depth, such as convex or concave, and that this depth interpretation can change perceived brightness or lightness across its surfaces. In the classic effect, unequal illumination across the card may go unnoticed in one depth percept but become obvious when the card is seen with the opposite depth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4425c7c92f54bbcae32935935f4e67d2f26efd080dbf4a9119cb91da2e924cfc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Arai Tetsuya; Masuda Tomohiro; Igarashi Yuka; Omori Keiko; Aizawa Yasunori; Masuda Naoe. Depth inversion with a 3D structure influences brightness perception. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0224192; article XML SHA-256 b488fbc8af795442bad5c423e1903f75599ac51cbd248ef2f18382ccfcb798d4. “Depth inversion with a 3D structure influences brightness perception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0224192).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224192). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Machiavellianism
<a id="machiavellianism"></a>

Machiavellianism is a personality dimension marked by a tendency to manipulate other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f6502b1b209edf8e096cdbadaac6d064a4f5dde7edb19cac2c78443c577d3cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Machiavellianism” (D008257).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008257). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mAChR
<a id="machr"></a>

mAChR is a receptor through which acetylcholine, or the similar compound carbachol, can trigger intracellular signaling. In the supplied source, activation of mAChR in enterochromaffin cells starts an IP3-related calcium pathway that helps promote serotonin (5-HT) release.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4214ae55aa04e1c7b5ae4b8359eda433b475e7f638f97fe576f64f79aa455e51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tong Shuo; Wang Yujuan; Wang Jianxin; Qu Chengxin; Pang Shude; Zhao Wenwen; Dong Hui. Molecular regulatory mechanism of TRPV4-mediated calcium-dependent 5-HT secretion from enterochromaffin cells and its involvement in ulcerative colitis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355169; article XML SHA-256 c4c0842949ca5be1cd548244a2ce9b859634c04279eb9d81097cabb6fe437cb7. “Molecular regulatory mechanism of TRPV4-mediated calcium-dependent 5-HT secretion from enterochromaffin cells and its involvement in ulcerative colitis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355169).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355169). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## macrocephaly
<a id="macrocephaly"></a>

Macrocephaly is an unusually large head size, measured as increased head circumference. It can result from different underlying causes, such as excess fluid in the brain, an enlarged brain, or overgrowth of the skull bones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7bff338bc5bfaa968b4bdceeb65c1d88df2492e4a79e6d784d7f6c8c3678905

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Macrocephaly” (C35268).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## macroelectrode
<a id="macroelectrode"></a>

A macroelectrode is the chronic electrode used in deep brain stimulation after the intraoperative microelectrode is removed. Compared with a microelectrode, its larger geometry mainly changes the strength of stimulation effects rather than their overall pattern, although differences in placement can produce different stimulation of nearby nerve fibers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: caf9ea16706112c8c1e5ba9d75c7c42e9b207baf106f3f6d8b0976c280e9167a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Paffi Alessandra; Camera Francesca; Apollonio Francesca; d’Inzeo Guglielmo; Liberti Micaela. Numerical characterization of intraoperative and chronic electrodes in deep brain stimulation. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fncom.2015.00002; article XML SHA-256 38213b59bfc55f275aefe449831e2314b3f188af519d9379ab6c7edafdb02df2. “Numerical characterization of intraoperative and chronic electrodes in deep brain stimulation” (10.3389/fncom.2015.00002).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fncom.2015.00002). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## macropsia
<a id="macropsia"></a>

Macropsia is a change in visual perception in which things are seen as larger than they really are.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad7a5c1438263393ec3dda1130b053f8c3fd4b624817f951aea0d2fa010f0486

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Macropsia” (C118305).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## macula
<a id="macula"></a>

The macula is a yellow, pigmented oval area near the center of the retina that includes the fovea and is made up mainly of cone cells. It is responsible for sharp central vision, so damage to it can partly or completely impair central sight.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d978ebeac07536ba1520b763a9d571cc5377da11e4ca0e0e7450aaa505e71d81

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Macula” (C26464).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## macula lutea
<a id="macula-lutea"></a>

The macula lutea is an oval yellow-pigmented area of the retina near the back of the eye that contains the fovea at its center. It is the region responsible for the sharpest visual acuity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4cbea19dd2271ea15f855ac0402fb958aeb49105937ad821536e0ba8748b6f0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Macula Lutea” (D008266).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008266). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## macular degeneration
<a id="macular-degeneration"></a>

Macular degeneration is a condition, usually affecting older adults, in which degeneration of the retina damages the macula and causes loss of central vision. It can occur in dry or wet forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f2d2c168555d80a65dedbebf88cc6ba7ab951c00150c089bc998de2ec046fc0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Macular Degeneration” (D008268).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008268). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MADD
<a id="madd"></a>

MADD stands for multiple acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, a rare inherited metabolic disorder passed down in an autosomal recessive pattern. It is caused by changes in the ETFA, ETFB, or ETFDH genes that lead to deficiency in electron transfer flavoprotein or its dehydrogenase, and it can involve physical abnormalities, low muscle tone, heart enlargement, liver enlargement, metabolic acidosis, low blood sugar, and behavioral changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 59d751e3bdd7ea99c42679f872e178154d7b1730cc244bf787ca38c0bb6820cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Multiple Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase Deficiency” (C84907).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## madness
<a id="madness"></a>

Madness is presented here as a historically discussed form of human experience, including experiences like hearing voices, whose meaning has often been overridden by biomedical psychiatry. In this context, the term highlights how people’s own understanding of these experiences can be dismissed or silenced.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9926fce572b652263d3d11d0210a0503828fc46abe480367f2d39d41e149cbe9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ynnesdal Haugen Lill Susann. Towards validating invalidated knowledge: a discourse analysis of firsthand accounts of hearing voices. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s40359-024-02023-x; article XML SHA-256 c3de59d40021df8330f9690d7f5a6648a3b426ede841d307a5cb62bb508fcfd3. “Towards validating invalidated knowledge: a discourse analysis of firsthand accounts of hearing voices” (10.1186/s40359-024-02023-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-02023-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## magic
<a id="magic"></a>

Magic, or illusionism, is a set of effects and techniques that deliberately creates the experience of an impossible or unexplained event. In psychology, it is useful for studying how attention, perception, expectation, memory, causal reasoning, and emotion shape the mind’s construction and misinterpretation of reality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c96341b2878b8f8a891828fd4c18340cd3d60d4d6eae8d4559681344e06b0855

Sources:
- Drafting source: [De Lucas Miguel; Duñabeitia Jon Andoni. Magic and cognition: a scoping review of empirical evidence on cognitive and neural processes. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1921905; article XML SHA-256 75e0c1de12bbac469742fef671f87e20014e8b8faf82f4115015dc28f36b3b52. “Magic and cognition: a scoping review of empirical evidence on cognitive and neural processes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1921905).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1921905). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## magical thinking
<a id="magical-thinking"></a>

Magical thinking is a pattern of believing that one’s thoughts or acts can bring about outcomes in ways that are not realistically possible. It can appear in everyday life as well as in mental health problems, including obsessive-compulsive disorder and schizophrenia-related thinking, and may sometimes be linked with distress or impaired functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 261c09b0a7b1a52b5cf61a8ebcdbd8f049425cdfaa9fcea03e28ac759d4a1d2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eddy Clare M. The many manifestations of magical thinking: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759906; article XML SHA-256 029a29bafb99aebfbc95f95be269413dcb7111ac1498cec74dd7e6e9607de378. “The many manifestations of magical thinking: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759906).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759906). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## magnetic resonance imaging
<a id="magnetic-resonance-imaging"></a>

Magnetic resonance imaging is a non-invasive brain imaging method used to study brain structure, function, and white-matter pathways. In developmental research, it is used to examine how prenatal exposures may affect the developing brain and how early brain findings relate to later infant outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a54dc42b2758ad75eda5819f08cd552eb0e963998fb97372094345e225fc3ed3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shah Leela; Yoon Christy D.; LaJeunesse Alessandra M.; Schirmer Lilly G.; Rapallini Emma W.; Planalp Elizabeth M.; Dean Douglas C.. Prenatal substance exposure and infant neurodevelopment: a review of magnetic resonance imaging studies. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1613084; article XML SHA-256 5ca2c9640c876db56a21b779f426cb4551ef5300cc308e721fd97ba68b7330e6. “Prenatal substance exposure and infant neurodevelopment: a review of magnetic resonance imaging studies” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1613084).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1613084). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## magnetic sense
<a id="magnetic-sense"></a>

Magnetic sense is the ability to detect features of the Earth’s magnetic field and use them for navigation. The packet supports this meaning mainly in animals, where sensitivity to magnetic direction, strength, or polarity has been investigated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc3d5553863235e6ef3185ee2be4e8c0dce4c817f02bdd8a67ee2182476e879b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ahlers Malte T; Block Christoph T; Winklhofer Michael; Greschner Martin. Integration and evaluation of magnetic stimulation in physiology setups. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0271765; article XML SHA-256 4e033c71080e510758596ec6b227dfd7f4c54b5282eb191bb621893c437fa0e7. “Integration and evaluation of magnetic stimulation in physiology setups” (10.1371/journal.pone.0271765).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0271765). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## magnetoencephalography
<a id="magnetoencephalography"></a>

Magnetoencephalography is a method for recording the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain from measurements taken over the head. It helps show where brain activity is occurring and can be used on its own or alongside electroencephalography for spontaneous or evoked brain activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 159e4909961ffbb20819b1edea4b27cc64c1424a1b61caad2c95224c9d9c8199

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Magnetoencephalography” (D015225).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015225). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## magnitude effect
<a id="magnitude-effect"></a>

The magnitude effect is a time-perception phenomenon in which a stimulus that is greater on some non-time feature, such as size, pitch, brightness, or numerical value, is experienced as lasting longer than a smaller or weaker stimulus even when both last the same objective time. In other words, differences in magnitude can distort perceived duration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2c1d4f971999a95cea6038b043f833287cf7dfa8d01b137cc38b838df78fe03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gottlieb Amihai; Zakay Dan. The effect of magnitude in a simultaneous duration assessment task among children – a replication study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285564; article XML SHA-256 1de18b548f6afff28041c05814c0e7e6396ef1534b6cba119d0a5bdca24eb23d. “The effect of magnitude in a simultaneous duration assessment task among children – a replication study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285564).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285564). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## magnitude estimation
<a id="magnitude-estimation"></a>

Magnitude estimation is the process of judging or producing the size of a quantity, such as how many items are present or where a number belongs on a number line. In this source, it refers specifically to estimating number magnitude in tasks involving non-symbolic quantities and number line judgments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f2da7d043cf63c712a1294cfe40744e40306f10ff81425f6b1452029023c645

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reinert Regina Miriam; Hartmann Matthias; Huber Stefan; Moeller Korbinian. Unbounded number line estimation as a measure of numerical estimation. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0213102; article XML SHA-256 7402c90de484f103d997b70c6b7940f5bfe3d93c79e842f8e119f3d5878eff35. “Unbounded number line estimation as a measure of numerical estimation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0213102).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213102). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## magnitude production
<a id="magnitude-production"></a>

Magnitude production is a direct time-judgment task in which a person is given a duration value, such as a number of seconds, and tries to produce an interval of that length. In psychophysical research, it is paired with magnitude estimation to study how perceived duration relates to actual clock time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db43bb537382f94a7b4f9e45b32fd91c03dfe763ffd749e68b5aad18651f83d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kornbrot Diana E.; Msetfi Rachel M.; Grimwood Melvyn J.. Time Perception and Depressive Realism: Judgment Type, Psychophysical Functions and Bias. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0071585; article XML SHA-256 6c8e7e4b0a61ca063a91c3883b1aae6f288fe252203e83b763e704a2411b8351. “Time Perception and Depressive Realism: Judgment Type, Psychophysical Functions and Bias” (10.1371/journal.pone.0071585).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071585). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## magnocellular system
<a id="magnocellular-system"></a>

The magnocellular system is the visual pathway associated with processing motion, beginning in the retina and continuing through dorsal stream visual areas. It is described as functionally and anatomically separate from the parvocellular pathway, which is linked to color processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 37a1363dc0fffd6f4c2e8b13e42668f24d6eabf6db8b06b2eab1a4af8297fe80

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tchernikov Illia; Fallah Mazyar. A Color Hierarchy for Automatic Target Selection. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0009338; article XML SHA-256 1dd5f78ff0c82c0877d5700cc0f2e2bf1d12d05b0c92b23d7dd89a0b6663aac8. “A Color Hierarchy for Automatic Target Selection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0009338).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0009338). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## main effect
<a id="main-effect"></a>

A main effect is the effect of one independent variable considered across, or averaged over, all levels of the other variable or variables in a study. For example, it can describe the overall difference linked to one factor while ignoring how that difference may vary across another factor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80f1b855e37ca4e5d280e2af5051e08418acaa76a0c6d5f275e2073f891ec258

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Main Effect” (main_effect.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/main_effect.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## major neurocognitive disorder
<a id="major-neurocognitive-disorder"></a>

Major neurocognitive disorder is a DSM-5 classification for severe cognitive decline that is documented in one or more cognitive areas and is serious enough to interfere with a person’s independence in everyday activities. In this framework, other possible causes or exclusionary conditions are also considered.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83e09d42dcbc0547cf104b260b14e9af96f5ca45fc05432a3591768cf14ee5b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gross Alden L; Nichols Emma; Angrisani Marco; Ganguli Mary; Jin Haomiao; Khobragade Pranali; Langa Kenneth M; Meijer Erik; Varghese Mathew; Dey A B; Lee Jinkook. Prevalence of DSM-5 mild and major neurocognitive disorder in India: Results from the LASI-DAD. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297220; article XML SHA-256 4036a1d6bf456b494c2c7c76ba6cba17ed2e8fa589d5dc5121ded4ba9ada93b1. “Prevalence of DSM-5 mild and major neurocognitive disorder in India: Results from the LASI-DAD” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297220).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297220). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## major tranquilizer
<a id="major-tranquilizer"></a>

A major tranquilizer is a drug used to calm severely agitated psychotic behavior and to lessen acute psychotic states and other psychotic symptoms. The term often overlaps with antipsychotic drugs and is sometimes linked with the name neuroleptics because many such drugs can have neurological side effects, though not all do.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5322d3b457bb1334da3b15060d2ebc0c375afc3f4723655a732c2395c5683e9c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Antipsychotic Agents” (D014150).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014150). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## majority influence
<a id="majority-influence"></a>

Majority influence is a form of social influence in which a person’s judgment or choice is shaped by the apparent opinion of most other people. In the source context, it refers to conformity prompted by the balance of positive versus negative comments or reviews.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 04280e25cdcc6c93bd004c406d8a1b050e32ca04bc4d9f0dc60566df0691f0f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xie Ying; Chen Mingliang; Lai Hongxia; Zhang Wuke; Zhao Zhen; Anwar Ch. Mahmood. Neural Basis of Two Kinds of Social Influence: Obedience and Conformity. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00051; article XML SHA-256 f31336675807ae01359af711f778c33ed0673d6e5604c86f6d9d08457f89d8a7. “Neural Basis of Two Kinds of Social Influence: Obedience and Conformity” (10.3389/fnhum.2016.00051).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00051). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## male–male competition
<a id="malemale-competition"></a>

Male–male competition is intrasexual competition in which males compete with other males for access to mates. In the source, it is linked to sexual signals that can communicate a male’s competitive qualities and readiness to invest in reproduction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5f92d84421bb808316e15c6b54c77892560f07104bf2b6591e490fc9a6e1a8cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Carranza Juan; de la Peña Eva; Mateos Concha; Pérez-González Javier; Alarcos Susana; Torres-Porras Jerónimo; Valencia Juliana; Sánchez-Prieto Cristina; Castillo Leticia. The dark ventral patch: A bimodal flexible trait related to male competition in red deer. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0241374; article XML SHA-256 f22cdf143010c2e5061c089246e47f7c6c7ec52dd0ecba14817fb7018ffad73f. “The dark ventral patch: A bimodal flexible trait related to male competition in red deer” (10.1371/journal.pone.0241374).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241374). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## malice aforethought
<a id="malice-aforethought"></a>

In this historical source, malice aforethought means the malicious intent that is treated as a required element of murder. More broadly, it rests on the idea of an evil intention to commit a wrongful act that harms another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2bfa5082c72c459f0753f5b752cb3ce6a785e32415b98f302103c8ec61fb4cdd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Malice (in law)” (Malice (in law)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M1defs.htm#Malice (in law)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## malingering
<a id="malingering"></a>

Malingering is the deliberate faking or exaggerating of illness or injury symptoms to mislead others for some external purpose or advantage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8def10be4cad154564a1b5e60c2e562532be3e1cbb514237fab1cb4d556e9746

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Malingering” (D008306).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008306). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## malleus
<a id="malleus"></a>

The malleus is the largest of the tiny bones in the middle ear. It is attached to the eardrum and connects with the incus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09a8ef4f7f8cb1717c44b716e47154896920ecbfd3a46f7a57789c985db87d6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Malleus” (D008307).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008307). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## malnutrition
<a id="malnutrition"></a>

Malnutrition is a condition caused by a mismatch between the nutrients the body needs and what is taken in through diet. It includes both undernutrition and overnutrition and can affect physical health as well as growth and brain development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08b5ac00083cfea3e97377b33bae3f138aad01d0fc5587f38a394aa61d4d072b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bastola Deepak; Li Yang. Deep learning approaches show promise for predicting childhood malnutrition: A comparative study with traditional machine learning methods using survey data. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353969; article XML SHA-256 1d33e9ba71b5951cbccc70a2fb7485f6a8b738df952e65fd103946b05782f359. “Deep learning approaches show promise for predicting childhood malnutrition: A comparative study with traditional machine learning methods using survey data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353969).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353969). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## malum
<a id="malum"></a>

Historically, malum in law distinguishes acts that are wrong only because the law forbids them from acts seen as wrong in themselves by reason or natural law. The phrase covers both malum prohibitum and malum in se.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03f954252c6f72572307424bd39ce34a8f19a3e87ac859efe927a586e281d937

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Malum (in law)” (Malum (in law)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M1defs.htm#Malum (in law)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## malum in se
<a id="malum-in-se"></a>

Malum in se is a historical legal term for an act seen as inherently wrong according to reason or natural law, not merely wrong because a law forbids it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e581bab6937ac542c23bb9e61e66e3d5c6840e9bd12dc7a120a1cbf537da943

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Malum (in law)” (Malum (in law)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M1defs.htm#Malum (in law)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## malum prohibitum
<a id="malum-prohibitum"></a>

Malum prohibitum is a historical legal term for an act considered wrong because the law forbids it, even if it is not necessarily seen as morally wrong by reason or natural law.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2ac657d40ad35782b4d2a9517bbdda24ffa96f47d8371aaedc20600ff3febb40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Malum (in law)” (Malum (in law)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M1defs.htm#Malum (in law)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mammillary body
<a id="mammillary-body"></a>

The mammillary body is a brain structure long linked with memory-related function. Evidence described here suggests its medial and lateral parts belong to partly separate networks, with the medial part more related to memory and the lateral part more related to spatial navigation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c13d84cb083da24a2a9d5781b3b369e75acab7f8fc936bba3e227a351dcc0fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tanaka Masaki; Osada Takahiro; Ogawa Akitoshi; Kamagata Koji; Aoki Shigeki; Konishi Seiki. Dissociable Networks of the Lateral/Medial Mammillary Body in the Human Brain. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00228; article XML SHA-256 5fda282cd3a1b794d18168e019020a75ca5fe0fca98020e2704696b449dab9bc. “Dissociable Networks of the Lateral/Medial Mammillary Body in the Human Brain” (10.3389/fnhum.2020.00228).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00228). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mammography
<a id="mammography"></a>

Mammography is an imaging method commonly used to detect breast cancer. In research on computerized image analysis, differences in how mammograms are acquired can change the images and affect how well assessment models perform.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e5047b6463f65b6eda735ab9e33ad85f8a157186a23befcbe380f5e75ae49cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hernández Nicole; Pakarinen Tomppa; Salminen Annukka; Castro Santiago Laguna; Karhunen-Enckell Ulla; Hannula Markus; Heljasvaara Ritva; Hyttinen Jari; Joensuu Katriina; Jokelainen Otto; Jukkola Arja; Karppinen Sanna-Maria; Lindgren Auni; Lääperi Eero; Peuhu Emilia; Pihlajaniemi Taina; Prunskaite-Hyyryläinen Renata; Rilla Kirsi; Ruusuvuori Pekka; Latonen Leena; Tolonen Teemu; Valkonen Masi; Valkonen Mira; Vuorlaakso Miska; Pertuz Said; Rinta-Kiikka Irina; Arponen Otso. A systematic approach to study the effects of acquisition parameters and biological factors on computerized mammography analysis using ex vivo human tissue: A protocol description. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321658; article XML SHA-256 244a9b14ea2720ea07e194eeb52a1d3889598561685b5743055cbd82015ac4b2. “A systematic approach to study the effects of acquisition parameters and biological factors on computerized mammography analysis using ex vivo human tissue: A protocol description” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321658).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321658). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mania
<a id="mania"></a>

Mania is a state of unusually elevated excitement and overactivity, sometimes with psychotic features such as psychomotor agitation, inflated self-esteem, and rapidly shifting ideas. It is often linked with mental disorders such as cyclothymic disorder and bipolar disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5bd993fc49ae1f05b4fde1ba1fe7760bddca8c62bc54fdab0bd85b5331f32692

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mania” (D000087122).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000087122). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## manic
<a id="manic"></a>

Manic describes a state of extreme excitement at a psychotic level, with unusually high mental and physical activity, disorganised behaviour, and an elevated mood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ad54a58d8a47c69f809407a906371ef7ca86e2bc013d35d5f39bc537521a97e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mania” (C61374).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## manic-depressive illness
<a id="manic-depressive-illness"></a>

Manic-depressive illness, also called bipolar disorder, is a severe episodic condition involving disturbances in mood, thinking, and behaviour. The packet also links it to the brain systems that help regulate behaviour across different time scales and notes particular relevance to manic states.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a33926635633d39412abfe5643623c5dff1ab665a0b03f4a2e9ad53333db45e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Indic Premananda; Salvatore Paola; Maggini Carlo; Ghidini Stefano; Ferraro Gabriella; Baldessarini Ross J.; Murray Greg. Scaling Behavior of Human Locomotor Activity Amplitude: Association with Bipolar Disorder. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0020650; article XML SHA-256 fa1046d7f11e5555ec3d2bce152cb1268a637c19a6cbdf7ef010b1cf06d3a727. “Scaling Behavior of Human Locomotor Activity Amplitude: Association with Bipolar Disorder” (10.1371/journal.pone.0020650).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0020650). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## manic episode
<a id="manic-episode"></a>

A manic episode is a period when a person with bipolar disorder feels unusually happy or "up" and has much more energy and activity than is typical for them. It is one of the episodic mood states seen in bipolar disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed9464ed904d42fd9b3e29273412f89d5944e94225e13b3212f9a338ea098fec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar Disorder in Children and Teens. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0efc8ed70ccbb4dbf61d1606b9718eb7a26d1ec80d6bdf3718206b4ad79262dc. “Bipolar Disorder in Children and Teens” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder-in-children-and-teens).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder-in-children-and-teens). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Manifest Anxiety Scale
<a id="manifest-anxiety-scale"></a>

The Manifest Anxiety Scale is a true-or-false questionnaire intended to identify signs of anxiety. The person responds verbally to statements that describe them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f5cc72aa161622df249a70ddc4a2e0761d30db03bd7a815b80a78b3cbaa71559

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Manifest Anxiety Scale” (D008347).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008347). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## manipulandum
<a id="manipulandum"></a>

A manipulandum is a large laboratory device used in motor learning experiments for participants to manipulate while their movements are studied. In this context, it is described as expensive and space-demanding equipment typically kept in a lab.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f34291c71634713faa1768a3ff1c6966c86a4c792da3e284e4a359827563c2b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Takiyama Ken; Shinya Masahiro. Development of a Portable Motor Learning Laboratory (PoMLab). 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0157588; article XML SHA-256 b3cf9fa3a5e7ea4fe35f5afb5dac810fb33e172ff5af50765ce6232c41839992. “Development of a Portable Motor Learning Laboratory (PoMLab)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0157588).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157588). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## manipulation
<a id="manipulation"></a>

In this assessment context, manipulation means attempts to influence the stock market through trading tactics, information tactics, or a combination of both. It is treated as a risk pattern marked by unusual changes across company disclosures, investor sentiment, and trading behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6973d30ef56bd3d5032f71d83f5a2339bd7962e7531f8f6a1a25b4aab150d3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Yuting; Zhang Jian; Zhang Changlu; Ma Zhichao. Risk assessment of stock market manipulation through the fusion of multi-source textual and trading data: Evidence from China’s A-share market. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343442; article XML SHA-256 d011d6cf7cb8cc26ebc8f2c13e0e0a98844a6d3f7e126cef124ff1c8bd2ca658. “Risk assessment of stock market manipulation through the fusion of multi-source textual and trading data: Evidence from China’s A-share market” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343442).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343442). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mannerism
<a id="mannerism"></a>

Mannerism is a person's characteristic, habitual style in thought, speech, gesture, movement, or social bearing. In this historical psychology passage, it refers especially to the fixed habits and "ways of the shop" that develop through upbringing or professional life and become hard to change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1059712c6168af8f8a9d245b4a5317d206151f0c36e929510b73d1e9b4fdff38

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## manners
<a id="manners"></a>

Manners are socially appropriate behaviors used when interacting with other people. In this context, they are part of social skills involved in getting along with others and expressing or recognizing emotions appropriately.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 36d8320735a5e0c8359138a7f2f75c8018ac5b3db9b3e61f5a368795038d1579

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Social Skills” (C121201).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## manual communication
<a id="manual-communication"></a>

Manual communication is a form of nonverbal communication that uses hand movements to represent speech. It conveys language or meaning through the hands rather than spoken words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf8631bd78480d0b9c7df77ab8484e092064e2096def8703aa1c42fcd8bceba3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Manual Communication” (D008369).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008369). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MAO
<a id="mao"></a>

MAO, or monoamine oxidase, is an enzyme found in mitochondrial membranes that breaks down naturally occurring monoamines. It helps regulate the metabolism of neurotransmitter-related chemicals such as catecholamines and serotonin, and in the liver it also helps inactivate monoamines circulating in the body, including tyramine absorbed from the gut.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d60934b77876d1fee261ddbdd73d127cecec3c90855eaace3b09f8dd5825c57f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Monoamine Oxidase” (D008995).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008995). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MAOI
<a id="maoi"></a>

An MAOI is a substance that blocks monoamine oxidase, an enzyme involved in breaking down monoamines. Because this enzyme helps inactivate neurotransmitters, MAOIs affect neurotransmitter activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f35a8e55ba91a0ea39d1d00dd342744a60c99b35bc3b67304ce6261f12f4674f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitor” (C667).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MAP
<a id="map"></a>

MAP, or System Support Mapping, is a guided method in which trained facilitators help people make a visual diagram of their self-management activities within the context of their everyday lives. The map is used to make these activities easier to see and understand, supporting self-awareness and more active participation in managing them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 58aa8e293950752d5492c62c5e92658f30d64446d7aad9010113434f1c5c5da8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “System Support Mapping” (C148263).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## maple-syrup urine disease
<a id="maple-syrup-urine-disease"></a>

Maple-syrup urine disease is an inherited autosomal recessive metabolic disorder in which the body cannot properly break down branched-chain amino acids. Their buildup in body fluids gives a maple-syrup odor, and the condition can appear in several forms, with severe symptoms beginning in the first week of life or later episodes of ataxia and vomiting in childhood or beyond.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75bae99c1d40fa5c838f63983e6463b28cf2b55b9ff980487121c3773b643d5f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Maple Syrup Urine Disease” (D008375).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008375). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MAR
<a id="mar"></a>

MAR stands for missing at random, a missing-data mechanism used when comparing how methods handle incomplete clinical datasets. It refers to one of the main patterns of missingness considered alongside missing completely at random and missing not at random.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 708ef6190ec73b59108a3fbf863588d3338f51d0b47b524d98e3d1681dc62286

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kotan Kurban; Kırışoğlu Serdar. Evaluating the Cyclical Hybrid Imputation Technique (CHIT) under MCAR, MAR, and MNAR missing data mechanisms: Evidence from health datasets. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359577; article XML SHA-256 3115fc68e92d081ff1213ddc55e62912c0be2304ec541415c467d412caa0403b. “Evaluating the Cyclical Hybrid Imputation Technique (CHIT) under MCAR, MAR, and MNAR missing data mechanisms: Evidence from health datasets” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359577).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359577). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## margin of error
<a id="margin-of-error"></a>

Margin of error is the amount by which a sample statistic differs from either end of its confidence interval when the statistic is used to estimate a population parameter. It expresses the distance from the estimate to the interval boundary, commonly for a 95% confidence interval unless another level is specified.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d30ad20b2efa6dfd5fc8126a9e08beaf5926227a7bcb42bf9eeed3638d451df2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Margin of Error” (margin_error.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/margin_error.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## marginalization
<a id="marginalization"></a>

Marginalization is the sense of being outside the social mainstream and feeling unseen, unrecognized, or unimportant. In this context, it is shaped by social factors such as gender, race, disability, age, and physical appearance and reflects perceived structural barriers across a person’s life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 735387e246f92076ebaca7b283193db9438d908e8737368c6c1ba9f033d13144

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Seran; Yang Hyunjung; Lee Ki-Hak. Profiles of economic constraints and marginalization among Korean working adults: differences in work and life outcomes. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1563787; article XML SHA-256 ccbd347381707b4b3bb66ae50a6c2857ef91d04186a59680e142966444e7ea22. “Profiles of economic constraints and marginalization among Korean working adults: differences in work and life outcomes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1563787).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1563787). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome
<a id="marinescosjogren-syndrome"></a>

Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome is a rare inherited biological disorder that begins in early infancy and is marked mainly by problems with coordination from cerebellar dysfunction, progressive muscle disease, cataracts, and intellectual disability. In many affected people, it is linked to damaging variants in the SIL1 gene that lead to loss of the SIL1 protein.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38ed0434df9d130098848a234a91809f6725334c88fe3c6acc950edec1fe8f2d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lavigna Giada; Grasso Anna; Pasini Chiara; Grande Valentina; Mignogna Laura; Restelli Elena; Masone Antonio; Fracasso Claudia; Lucchetti Jacopo; Gobbi Marco; Chiesa Roberto. Trazodone, dibenzoylmethane and tauroursodeoxycholic acid do not prevent motor dysfunction and neurodegeneration in Marinesco-Sjögren syndrome mice. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317404; article XML SHA-256 9a1186e723fb8852254c09cc09171b9ab40030c6f42daea076cb340e5bee5dd1. “Trazodone, dibenzoylmethane and tauroursodeoxycholic acid do not prevent motor dysfunction and neurodegeneration in Marinesco-Sjögren syndrome mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317404).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317404). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Marinol
<a id="marinol"></a>

Marinol refers to dronabinol, a form of tetrahydrocannabinol that acts on cannabinoid receptors in the central nervous system. It can stimulate appetite, reduce vomiting, and produce pain-relieving effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 340e0bbe96f82b369609d7e3745c7ffb58a4d21b74235e4264a253830c805444

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dronabinol” (C867).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## marital conflict
<a id="marital-conflict"></a>

Marital conflict is disagreement or dispute between spouses about issues in family life, including both emotional and physical forms of conflict. In psychology, it is commonly treated as an indicator of family functioning and the overall quality of family life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 101bc054aab12f154cd039600194e54ae297cefa1473e36cb6c7fd2e0f0ea4a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Zheng; Wang Jing; Jing Yongxian; Zang Wanqin; Wan Pa Wan Ahmad Munsif. Physical activity as a modest behavioral pathway between parental marital conflict and adolescent anxiety: exploring gender differences. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1742433; article XML SHA-256 ccd5f68d5a841b537131f68f9033648349b18ae610bfd390aa8023a5bb95e7e8. “Physical activity as a modest behavioral pathway between parental marital conflict and adolescent anxiety: exploring gender differences” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1742433).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1742433). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## Marital Therapy
<a id="marital-therapy"></a>

Marital therapy is a type of psychotherapy in which both spouses take part together. Its aim is to help improve the marital relationship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef0190c62af852380138ccce6889d2fce98dc961c7e0e8d24656d7be902c1a33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Marital Therapy” (D008388).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008388). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## marker
<a id="marker"></a>

A marker is a visual sign used to show a position, place, or route.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 830a2cc1459367e4f9f93619953135579256ef12c29f5e266da775720e3a66ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Marker” (C177671).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Markov chain
<a id="markov-chain"></a>

A Markov chain is a random process in which what happens next depends on the current state and not on the earlier history of the system. In other words, once the present state is known, past information does not change the probability of future states.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0423d93648876989ceb799606bd2c855def6847cb38c7e8a445be21b7eae856

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Markov Chains” (D008390).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008390). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale
<a id="marlowecrowne-social-desirability-scale"></a>

The Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale is a psychological measure commonly used to assess defensiveness, a trait involving avoidance, denial, or repression of information felt to be threatening. It is used to capture a tendency to present oneself in socially desirable ways, such as conforming to others’ views or minimizing inappropriate behavior or poor performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61d7acaf7671900b12657b5508ec707cbec5366115b9b3f8c7311ce8890c935d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Starnino Louisia; Busque Lambert; Tardif Jean-Claude; D’Antono Bianca. Psychological Profiles in the Prediction of Leukocyte Telomere Length in Healthy Individuals. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0165482; article XML SHA-256 a00d79e2384e1c3e863b7a9122dbc050e238e75eaebe719a9b9522ed2431d535. “Psychological Profiles in the Prediction of Leukocyte Telomere Length in Healthy Individuals” (10.1371/journal.pone.0165482).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165482). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Marplan
<a id="marplan"></a>

Marplan is isocarboxazid, a monoamine oxidase inhibitor antidepressant. It works by reducing the breakdown of certain brain chemicals, which raises levels of neurotransmitters involved in mood and emotion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4f6c826e4fab086620220517b2aa89f74664a32538d8833a5218ac26835d6fac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Isocarboxazid” (C47573).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## marriage
<a id="marriage"></a>

Marriage is a social institution in which people are formally joined through legal recognition, religious sanction, or both.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f812fecf7c28117192b0abd64ccb4a9f38f9af71d4df5b44ce63b02827c9e04a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Marriage” (D008393).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008393). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## masculinity
<a id="masculinity"></a>

Masculinity refers to the social roles and patterns of behavior that are associated with being male, apart from biological functions. It describes culturally linked expectations about maleness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2f4d98dc9300f9c1c2f779d5beba9c3e7f7a4a4b92845e35a507a7eb823b3d27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Masculinity” (D057228).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D057228). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## masking
<a id="masking"></a>

Masking is the effort to hide or make up for ADHD-related traits in order to fit social expectations. In this context, it is described as a possible response to stigma and negative judgment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: eaeff371370779f76b48e0fee25ae5931ed750481ed81b6fd6b45f04333886d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maeda Chiharu; Knouse Laura E; Takeda Konoka; Masudomi Chisato; Takahashi Eriko; Katsuragawa Taisuke; Kumano Hiroaki. A narrative review of stigma and masking in ADHD: insights from English-language research and the Japanese cultural context. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1807337; article XML SHA-256 39f16edec075cf22cf8c62bec2359edab2d3bd3e022d3f02ee341e6e417f420e. “A narrative review of stigma and masking in ADHD: insights from English-language research and the Japanese cultural context” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1807337).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1807337). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## masking level difference
<a id="masking-level-difference"></a>

Masking level difference is a laboratory measure of binaural hearing that describes how much the threshold for just detecting a sound in noise changes when the signal or the masking noise is presented differently to the two ears, such as with a phase inversion at one ear. It reflects the improvement in detecting a signal in noise that can occur when the brain uses differences between the ears.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02d1b18777f8a15e972bf5d1485252f81e02914a9a6d8b8dc17f59683627d794

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ho Cheng-Yu; Li Pei-Chun; Chiang Yuan-Chuan; Young Shuenn-Tsong; Chu Woei-Chyn. The Binaural Masking-Level Difference of Mandarin Tone Detection and the Binaural Intelligibility-Level Difference of Mandarin Tone Recognition in the Presence of Speech-Spectrum Noise. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0120977; article XML SHA-256 d6b546e91c164e1c851a43d092ee97af54a9bd2ec235ce07ddffec8bf13b99cd. “The Binaural Masking-Level Difference of Mandarin Tone Detection and the Binaural Intelligibility-Level Difference of Mandarin Tone Recognition in the Presence of Speech-Spectrum Noise” (10.1371/journal.pone.0120977).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120977). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## masking pattern
<a id="masking-pattern"></a>

A masking pattern is a statistical result in which an indirect association goes in the opposite direction from a direct association, so it partly hides or offsets the overall link between two variables. In this study, lower adaptability helped produce an indirect association that counterbalanced part of the positive association between problematic screen use and academic burnout.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2337a0de4434a0aa6055c7f9037df847488945fd3b89490b1e93e5e5fadc7e87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xianghui Yan; Keyu Li; Huiwen Yong; Xianglan Zhang; Yifan Cui. From problematic screen use to stress: psychological quality and academic burnout among 10- and 13-year-olds children. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1819969; article XML SHA-256 044b04010e6a2971a6334f1660942c2f660dab5a5eef41f0fcf00b89704905ee. “From problematic screen use to stress: psychological quality and academic burnout among 10- and 13-year-olds children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1819969).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1819969). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Maslach Burnout Inventory
<a id="maslach-burnout-inventory"></a>

The Maslach Burnout Inventory is a research measure used to assess occupational burnout. In this packet, its general survey version is described as measuring burnout and its three dimensions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e22326fd0bf197b61a22b25833b0624d9715faa1ecbe85ab4d74beb108b4d7cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Weiheng; Zhu Shouxi; Shao Kequan; Liang Kejia. Research on the relationship between work-family conflict and burnout among civil aviation pilots after the COVID-19 pandemic. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340375; article XML SHA-256 8f5d2fd0daceb0308046c17f3bae20f987b017521f503b5dd60062ed6b10d1fa. “Research on the relationship between work-family conflict and burnout among civil aviation pilots after the COVID-19 pandemic” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340375).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340375). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## masochism
<a id="masochism"></a>

Masochism is deriving pleasure from being physically or psychologically hurt or humiliated, whether by oneself or by another person. The term includes sexual masochism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f930fdfcca71b2164288079ab25a8be4e1850bc9bc938910f65fe86f666cfdfe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Masochism” (D008398).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008398). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Mass Gatherings
<a id="mass-gatherings"></a>

Mass gatherings are organized or unplanned events where enough people come together that the host community’s planning and emergency response resources may be stretched. They can also include crowds formed because of natural disasters or conflict.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dba9021c439365b49a507f155bab401e2d5c9ae6adbe56e810d50f8689037f7e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Mass Gatherings” (D000090522).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000090522). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mass-spring model
<a id="mass-spring-model"></a>

A mass-spring model is a network model in which nodes act like masses connected by springs, allowing researchers to examine how the arrangement of masses across the network changes the system’s vibration frequencies. In this source, it is used to study how matching mass placement to node position influences overall collective dynamics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4cb70549db5cdf6f1e9e08a28e2087e3ea2346a15bbc59cb5011c492919a9408

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhan Meng; Liu Shuai; He Zhiwei. Matching Rules for Collective Behaviors on Complex Networks: Optimal Configurations for Vibration Frequencies of Networked Harmonic Oscillators. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0082161; article XML SHA-256 017e1bc45426510f208dbac03a6c851e9ea8331278b57430dc1628013ef6774d. “Matching Rules for Collective Behaviors on Complex Networks: Optimal Configurations for Vibration Frequencies of Networked Harmonic Oscillators” (10.1371/journal.pone.0082161).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082161). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## massage
<a id="massage"></a>

Massage is a complementary health approach that some people with bipolar disorder may try to support general well-being and reduce stress. In this source, it is not presented as an approved or well-established treatment for bipolar disorder symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6780ec604e62469e84fc2fabc4622f15c14326b52f02d729c94fe439b685202

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 340e646cd122c31f2ae7dd7aa7041a63efb2312a91d487d37080bcfec38efea9. “Bipolar Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## massed practice
<a id="massed-practice"></a>

Massed practice is a learning schedule in which the full amount of study or practice time is done in a single session rather than being spread across multiple sessions. In the study context provided, it meant completing the same practice sets all on one day.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 223406283737a802bfbe9917313a931932b4afcf9dac4c895023b007b3e61612

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barzagar Nazari Katharina; Ebersbach Mirjam. Distributed Practice: Rarely Realized in Self-Regulated Mathematical Learning. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02170; article XML SHA-256 b99c4fcdf9d54a659cb2ba9d0884ce719687777d0dc9d77af20bb73f53b53f1c. “Distributed Practice: Rarely Realized in Self-Regulated Mathematical Learning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02170).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02170). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Masson disk
<a id="masson-disk"></a>

A Masson disk is a laboratory device used in early psychology to study fluctuations of visual attention. It is a rotating white disk marked with a segmented black line that produces concentric grey rings, allowing the observer to note the alternating appearance and disappearance of an outer ring over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d29bf6bea8e1c8012e88e7ace2a820aaf6ace6c53b426c7798d8826ec9b72c0d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Laboratory (of psychology) and Apparatus” (Laboratory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Laboratory). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mastery learning
<a id="mastery-learning"></a>

Mastery learning is an instructional approach in which progress is organized around achieving solid command of material before moving on. In the source, it is presented as part of a cognitively grounded teaching model intended to promote durable learning, alongside retrieval practice, adaptive sequencing, feedback, and instructional supports.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d777eedaf9e84da2e4f4a012b2b6ac1f482c54f1c4a05620920d0c78499b251

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meylani Rusen; Kaya Ismet. Effectiveness of a cognitively grounded mathematics intervention in a high school blended learning environment: achievement gains, implementation fidelity, and demographic variability. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800998; article XML SHA-256 1bbe8f8ae87cba6ed4fa11cbd7403c5228bfd20572821303966f89739e08e3ad. “Effectiveness of a cognitively grounded mathematics intervention in a high school blended learning environment: achievement gains, implementation fidelity, and demographic variability” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800998).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800998). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Matching Familiar Figures Test
<a id="matching-familiar-figures-test"></a>

The Matching Familiar Figures Test is a learning-related measure used to assess how quickly and accurately a person responds when choosing among alternatives. In this context, its response latency and error rate are used as indicators of conceptual tempo, distinguishing more impulsive fast-but-error-prone responding from more reflective slower-and-more-accurate responding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9d0aa2943cc32181ca2342e3dd3d07ed3bad98c8a0d0c53f821dde425484a16a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Abukhiran Ahmad Jamil; Ozuturk Guliz. Dictogloss-based instruction and conjunction use in Palestinian tenth-grade EFL learners. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1935764; article XML SHA-256 20eedd8d7b9b8099adb2e97050f4b41d6e6b376e3669ef0fcdc0fa1b74391a89. “Dictogloss-based instruction and conjunction use in Palestinian tenth-grade EFL learners” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1935764).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1935764). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## matching hypothesis
<a id="matching-hypothesis"></a>

In social psychology, the matching hypothesis is the idea that people are more likely to form a committed relationship with someone whose level of attractiveness is similar to their own. The source also notes that apparent support for this pattern can arise from how matching occurs in social networks, not only from an active preference for similar partners.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd8bb5cd017857cbea1b6308aaed8d4763e209272579499da0f79771f5850252

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jia Tao; Spivey Robert F.; Szymanski Boleslaw; Korniss Gyorgy. An Analysis of the Matching Hypothesis in Networks. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0129804; article XML SHA-256 0ae67986c0ef1d1478f8c40bc7df4cab53a5c07b81343bed02498bc1605312b3. “An Analysis of the Matching Hypothesis in Networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0129804).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0129804). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## matching law
<a id="matching-law"></a>

The matching law is the idea that, when choosing among options, behavior tends to be divided in proportion to the rewards previously received from each option. In other words, an option that has provided more reward is chosen more often, with choice frequency roughly matching its share of past reward.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53344fffacffd209f1018796ab4ae8194e33c6931cf5f0aabd0fd188301d4bbc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sakai Yutaka; Fukai Tomoki. When Does Reward Maximization Lead to Matching Law?. 2008; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0003795; article XML SHA-256 6552dea7778900d868a5c4dfe1ac0546bba64589ea2c8387239ea0ae353a22b1. “When Does Reward Maximization Lead to Matching Law?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0003795).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0003795). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## matching patients
<a id="matching-patients"></a>

Matching patients refers to the process of determining whether a patient fits a particular clinical trial by comparing the person’s record with the trial’s eligibility information. In the source packet, this is done with explainable AI using features such as cancer type, performance status, genetic mutation, and measurable disease, and produces a match score with supporting evidence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2622b24439839ffa143f1538efd9ebb9747a295428b6aa16f2676fe6eb971534

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ghosh Satanu; Abushukair Hassan Mohammed; Ganesan Arjun; Pan Chongle; Naqash Abdul Rafeh; Lu Kun. Harnessing explainable artificial intelligence for patient-to-clinical-trial matching: A proof-of-concept pilot study using phase I oncology trials. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311510; article XML SHA-256 c4a57912afc2a408a1db113f06940466a0c6d71e59f71b98a4037489dd99776a. “Harnessing explainable artificial intelligence for patient-to-clinical-trial matching: A proof-of-concept pilot study using phase I oncology trials” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311510).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311510). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## matching to sample
<a id="matching-to-sample"></a>

Matching to sample is a learning task in which one stimulus is presented first and the subject must then pick the identical or corresponding stimulus from two options to receive a reward. It is used to assess whether the subject can learn and apply a matching rule, including with abstract cues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d2d609c4b21e09717d5be6c9fa26c6b66d3eaa46dc04af89d1ab5db17793123

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aellen Mélisande; Siebeck Ulrike E; Bshary Redouan. Cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiatus perform above chance in a “matching-to-sample” experiment. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0262351; article XML SHA-256 59d0050a4946b59d2fad220e139bec9230fc13aebbecdbf87e10e68fa591e553. “Cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiatus perform above chance in a “matching-to-sample” experiment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0262351).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262351). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mate guarding
<a id="mate-guarding"></a>

Mate guarding is a reproductive behavior in which one animal keeps hold of a potential mating partner before copulation. In the source described here, a male copepod clasps another individual, usually a female, and maintains the pair until mating unless the captured individual actively rejects the attempt.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b5cb509e685496b8ef12449a7a28450f7c95fcf56f764fc4c2b464b563e35bf9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tsuboko-Ishii Satomi; Burton Ronald S.. Sex-specific rejection in mate-guarding pair formation in the intertidal copepod, Tigriopus californicus. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0183758; article XML SHA-256 6c086ca133f8ae2a14da4a3f15dc131d00323041ebb3198437c9647820f2a04c. “Sex-specific rejection in mate-guarding pair formation in the intertidal copepod, Tigriopus californicus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0183758).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0183758). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mate selection
<a id="mate-selection"></a>

Mate selection is the process of choosing a mating partner based on cues that may signal reproductive or offspring-survival advantages. In the source material, it is described especially as females assessing potential mates using information such as body size, fitness, dominance, territory, and other cues rather than relying on a single trait alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7affe19da2af5ca849abe46e9d14739005a3454bb6ac262cfe60b6a1ababc55c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Allen Maximilian L.; Wittmer Heiko U.; Houghtaling Paul; Smith Justine; Elbroch L. Mark; Wilmers Christopher C.. The Role of Scent Marking in Mate Selection by Female Pumas ( Puma concolor ). 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0139087; article XML SHA-256 a17a898bdb530a641ef1518ee76a3831ce528142fccefbcd8c46d4319325c25e. “The Role of Scent Marking in Mate Selection by Female Pumas ( Puma concolor )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0139087).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139087). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mate swapping
<a id="mate-swapping"></a>

Mate swapping is a sexual practice in which heterosexual couples exchange partners with other couples, often in the context of swinging. In the source, it is mentioned alongside group sex involving other couples or heterosexual singles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 77126bd0aff013644f51e7a711be8102beb154f143854d19df0f718343ed8104

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kampman Carolina J. G.; Hautvast Jeannine L. A.; Koedijk Femke D. H.; Bijen Marieke E. M.; Hoebe Christian J. P. A.. Sexual behaviour and STI testing among Dutch swingers: A cross-sectional internet based survey performed in 2011 and 2018. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0239750; article XML SHA-256 5a8a48e9427cff2aaa626193d27216b5b64f7b66335a3c4f913fa31895525183. “Sexual behaviour and STI testing among Dutch swingers: A cross-sectional internet based survey performed in 2011 and 2018” (10.1371/journal.pone.0239750).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239750). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mate value
<a id="mate-value"></a>

Mate value is a person’s perceived desirability as a romantic partner. In this research context, it refers to how desirable someone is compared with their partner or other possible partners, and differences in partners’ mate value are linked to relationship satisfaction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e523df3139731b0c387925b6fa7116a91a1cd17e69edb9aa2b8e3a96463468ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Babaeizad Ali; Fallahchai Reza; Abbasnejad Tayebeh. Mate-value and relationship satisfaction: The moderating roles of mate retention behaviors. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0262154; article XML SHA-256 f1bc3f5befc58dac5f06210d86e03d31b7ea57327436b34e3a3786f511af7d1f. “Mate-value and relationship satisfaction: The moderating roles of mate retention behaviors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0262154).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262154). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## material cause
<a id="material-cause"></a>

In this historical Aristotelian usage, material cause means the matter out of which a living creature or organized body is made. Baldwin contrasts it with the formal cause, which for Aristotle was the soul as the organizing form of the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3be9fe4c2e319d263f9c797256708f4e15bbbb35aa426056f1bd457026b6399a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Life and Organic” (Life and Organic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Life and Organic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## materialism
<a id="materialism"></a>

Materialism is the metaphysical view that everything in the universe can be explained in terms of matter and its movements or changes. In this view, even consciousness and other mental events are treated as results of physical processes, with psychical life reduced to transformations of material elements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 825e6f8db223482eadef3f858c47ac62b596ecab4faa81c4ab927a228a083058

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Materialism” (Materialism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M1defs.htm#Materialism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## materialization
<a id="materialization"></a>

In historical discussions of spiritualism, materialization refers to séance phenomena in which mediums were said to produce visible ghostlike human forms, often resembling dead persons. The passage presents it as part of reported mediumistic manifestations rather than an established psychological fact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c47a9616924cbc9c9b5c370e7186cc0c0da57cf1d7c142606697815106274615

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3318000-3330000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## maternal aggression
<a id="maternal-aggression"></a>

Maternal aggression is aggressive behavior shown by a mother during lactation and treated as part of the maternal behavioral profile. In the source, it is described as a maternal behavior that can be reduced when central corticotropin-releasing factor activity is increased.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5056a002e86e246da4d0cd2d7fc153b108730446723ed91dcaacf6fee4c31d5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gammie Stephen C; Bethea Emily D; Stevenson Sharon A. Altered maternal profiles in corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 deficient mice. 2007; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-8-17; article XML SHA-256 77fffa10d03a2507c2a89403efe237774ff4c1d4ff1566bed0d45cdb413b4da3. “Altered maternal profiles in corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 deficient mice” (10.1186/1471-2202-8-17).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-8-17). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## maternal attitudes
<a id="maternal-attitudes"></a>

Maternal attitudes are a mother’s views or orientations about parenting and infant development, such as favoring more relational or more autonomous ways of raising a child. In this context, they are treated as beliefs that may shape, but do not always accurately predict, an infant’s day-to-day early environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b458e8c7de1c49a7cf286f99d77e52c0a7f11049e74d4ff5bebd839cafaea3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Holden Eve; Buryn-Weitzel Joanna C.; Atim Santa; Biroch Hellen; Donnellan Ed; Graham Kirsty E.; Hoffman Maggie; Jurua Michael; Knapper Charlotte V.; Lahiff Nicole J.; Marshall Sophie; Paricia Josephine; Tusiime Florence; Wilke Claudia; Majid Asifa; Slocombe Katie E.. Maternal attitudes and behaviours differentially shape infant early life experience: A cross cultural study. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0278378; article XML SHA-256 977dfdd747c538e8999dea6e562baa49495cbbc30a626eed0e606aaa56f3cbd0. “Maternal attitudes and behaviours differentially shape infant early life experience: A cross cultural study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0278378).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278378). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Maternal Behavior
<a id="maternal-behavior"></a>

Maternal behavior refers to the patterns of behavior that are linked with being a mother or are typical of a mother.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a30fc4a8909cc741f5f7d82cf4337101f5492675702dfd72dc22f8363231300

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Maternal Behavior” (D008425).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008425). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## maternal brain
<a id="maternal-brain"></a>

Maternal brain refers to the postpartum brain state associated with the transition to motherhood. In this context, it is characterized by natural changes related to social bonding and increased sociability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f10f8218c7b519fb729337e0d0321e1f9ae3358f15e57891f04ae4f7c9a1a17

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eisinger Brian E; Saul Michael C; Driessen Terri M; Gammie Stephen C. Development of a versatile enrichment analysis tool reveals associations between the maternal brain and mental health disorders, including autism. 2013; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-14-147; article XML SHA-256 741eda7b14e25ac56840c02b347d45ed868ace1ebb097c52cd2bcd727097416a. “Development of a versatile enrichment analysis tool reveals associations between the maternal brain and mental health disorders, including autism” (10.1186/1471-2202-14-147).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-14-147). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## maternal deprivation
<a id="maternal-deprivation"></a>

Maternal deprivation is a long period in which an offspring is separated from its mother.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d379d6a16e81be0c8966807e88554f42158ad18e54e0c7e03e08f21402a6b78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Maternal Deprivation” (D008426).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008426). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mathematical biology
<a id="mathematical-biology"></a>

Mathematical biology is a research area that uses mathematical models and dynamical systems to study biological processes. In the packet, it is shown through modeling disease transmission, testing properties such as stability and equilibrium, and using simulations to understand behavior and support prediction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8dc39d038620c85e5fe102b3571cc5da83134b32dc7f97475ef150f2a1f68aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Farman Muhammad; Ahmad Aqeel; Atta Usama; Nisar Kottakkaran Sooppy; Ghaffar Abdul. Hyers Ulam stability and bifurcation control of leptospirosis disease dynamics and preventations: Modeling with singular and non-singular kernels. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314095; article XML SHA-256 430d9f85accc99988e57a62ca713d73bbfaf94e09f09aef9a3700cfb9be2d1a6. “Hyers Ulam stability and bifurcation control of leptospirosis disease dynamics and preventations: Modeling with singular and non-singular kernels” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314095).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314095). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mathematical psychology
<a id="mathematical-psychology"></a>

Mathematical psychology is an approach to psychology that uses mathematical equations and analysis to model behavior. In this source, it refers to developing and studying formal models of operant-control behavior, including probabilistic solutions and theoretical tools such as fixed point methods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 79ca1f206b3d821917b51d5641317ec3074433bb83b943d269401dd5eebf079b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Monica S.; Ramesh Kumar D.. Functional equation modeling of adaptive operant-control systems via Matkowski fixed point theory. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339678; article XML SHA-256 2f4de28dedba425d3846d25010c8c356d8a8a37160bb8828c1566dea05a2a150. “Functional equation modeling of adaptive operant-control systems via Matkowski fixed point theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339678).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339678). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mathematics anxiety
<a id="mathematics-anxiety"></a>

Mathematics anxiety is a negative emotional response to mathematics marked by fear, tension, avoidance, and feelings of inferiority related to math. It can interfere with learning in the short term and may also affect later academic achievement and career development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 74eceb821fae9e4e05329fe3c25e2f9fa8322068cb18cf6cb9f054b213e4c964

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Yu; Jing Bin; Wang Qin; Zhang Jing. What shapes mathematics anxiety in K-12 education? A scoping review of research from 2019 to 2025. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1894090; article XML SHA-256 49c07a4832585460f553f932c4879b038ab749aee10208ab66729c0d657503ce. “What shapes mathematics anxiety in K-12 education? A scoping review of research from 2019 to 2025” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1894090).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1894090). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mating behavior
<a id="mating-behavior"></a>

Mating behavior is the set of actions and sensory processes involved in achieving copulation and remating. In the studied species, it included reliance on vision, physical contact such as the male’s foretarsi, and patterns of repeated mating that affected reproductive success.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 95115e255a9390e5c7da51bd2a71833758431e1b7805a08339d85c85671b3bcc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gleason Jennifer M; Danborno Barnabas; Nigro Marena; Escobar Henry; Cobbs Micalea J. Mating dynamics of a sperm-limited drosophilid, Zaprionus indianus. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300426; article XML SHA-256 909666977b63078db92251a47023df4f49562d431b39499a29d8f05af79d5b37. “Mating dynamics of a sperm-limited drosophilid, Zaprionus indianus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300426).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300426). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mating system
<a id="mating-system"></a>

A mating system is the pattern of mating behavior in a population, such as whether females typically mate with one partner or with multiple partners. In this source, it refers to reproductive strategies whose evolution can interact with the spread of sexually transmitted disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 737e3fb0be12e8df7ac418a1b899243975681afae93ebf9d8d5c0f391ecaea1b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tarantino Riccardo; Garcia-Gonzalez Francisco. Agent-based modelling reveals feedback loops and non-linearity between mating system evolution and disease dynamics. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336020; article XML SHA-256 7cfc45c659c6e121cb6616d3d79b4a3c9f981a9f201a0e6fae74985af4487047. “Agent-based modelling reveals feedback loops and non-linearity between mating system evolution and disease dynamics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336020).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336020). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## maturation
<a id="maturation"></a>

In this source, maturation refers to biological development status, considered as a factor that may influence physical performance outcomes in youth athletes. The packet does not provide a fuller general definition beyond this context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a499f9faed22c02712040cd0228d6a2d646016ab4f40f3b4041c1baa2690f239

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Holík Roman; Krejčí Jakub; De Ste Croix Mark; Lehnert Michal. The effect of plyometric training on physical performance in youth soccer players: A randomized controlled trial with maturation status as a covariate. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349011; article XML SHA-256 25b8875a8cc22c30c3f0d1baf1a6e3ad6d5be5207059803a81715c3563cc7626. “The effect of plyometric training on physical performance in youth soccer players: A randomized controlled trial with maturation status as a covariate” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349011).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349011). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## maximum likelihood
<a id="maximum-likelihood"></a>

Maximum likelihood is a statistical estimation approach used here to model perceptual sorting data by identifying the values that best fit the observed responses. In psychology research, it can support relatively efficient and robust measurement of perceptual discrimination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a158a26742c956d75c71ddde2df1f616dedd86debca9ce136bf73ccf1cb74149

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Yulong; Li Huazhi; Xiang Yali; Zhou Mengni; Li Qingqing; Yu Hongtao; Ejima Yoshimichi; Takahashi Satoshi; Yang Jiajia; Bai Bin; Yi Xinian; Wu Jinglong. Maximum likelihood estimation of perceptual differences in sorting tasks. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349396; article XML SHA-256 770d9a523faa15b634177a9e5564fe9293fab0eef6c540d4caca57463a2c7220. “Maximum likelihood estimation of perceptual differences in sorting tasks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349396).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349396). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Maze Learning
<a id="maze-learning"></a>

Maze learning is a form of learning in which a person or animal learns the correct path through a maze in order to receive reinforcement. It is used with both human and animal subjects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5977bb8d6aa7b5460649d12a43af4da91acaafaafe20c98f6869704435d1374

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Maze Learning” (D018782).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018782). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MBD
<a id="mbd"></a>

MBD stands for mania/bipolar disorder. In this source, it is one of the mood-disorder categories used to group people for machine-learning classification alongside healthy controls and major depressive disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71b82b1dfbb33c7737a84b6f290bf02cc5d9cf500f80d9d7fdfc5f8c74852768

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mohamad Yusof Umi Kalsom; Ward Joey; Lyall Laura M; Strawbridge Rona J. Multimodal classification of mood disorders using structural MRI and polygenic risk scores: a machine learning ablation study in UK Biobank. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883424; article XML SHA-256 73ed2981480d9a52282440c98320941d741288cd4c3ee89b3679f0d179d938b9. “Multimodal classification of mood disorders using structural MRI and polygenic risk scores: a machine learning ablation study in UK Biobank” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883424).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883424). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MBE
<a id="mbe"></a>

MBE refers to mind-body exercise. In this context, it is described as helping improve attention in people with ADHD, while evidence for benefits on other symptoms as an additional treatment remains limited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b369cd8961de8b6b5118e9d46f856e5e226605aab839c8e80a701c1e976c3215

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Peng Jin; Wang Weiran; Wang Yiting; Hu Fengting; Jia Mingyuan. Effects of mind-body exercise on individuals with ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1490708; article XML SHA-256 cde0e91d003e2751a37349e3eefb6a385ba97beb89d64a636877280a62088552. “Effects of mind-body exercise on individuals with ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1490708).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1490708). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MBI
<a id="mbi"></a>

MBI stands for mild behavioral impairment, a pre-dementia syndrome in which neuropsychiatric symptoms appear before clear cognitive decline can be detected. It is considered relevant to prevention efforts in neurodegenerative disorders because these behavioral changes may come early in the disease process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b74d6cf2a897caa945fe13f3aecca66e3382e8f51f0f642dc8ba4c81e878cc3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Song Lin; Subramaniam Ponnusamy; Siau Ching Sin; Chong Agnes Shu Sze; Liu Fang. Risk factors of mild behavioral impairment: a systematic review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1586418; article XML SHA-256 189aa51622d2e7f9a1aedcd582c6a1f3db2c52e8774c7ec084dfbf8f565e95e1. “Risk factors of mild behavioral impairment: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1586418).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1586418). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MCA
<a id="mca"></a>

MCA usually refers to the middle cerebral artery, the largest end branch of the internal carotid artery. It travels in the Sylvian fissure and sends branches to parts of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes, as well as the basal ganglia and internal capsule.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a460437fa2f879476f5d92692b05619a857638ed8fbcb7e479ded9c1896c796a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Middle Cerebral Artery” (C12830).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities
<a id="mccarthy-scales-of-childrens-abilities"></a>

The McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities is a cognitive test used to assess and track children’s development from about 2.5 to 8.5 years of age. A short form is described as easy to administer in busy clinical settings and has been used with school-age children.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8857d9b5d9f5001348a97e0fbc4ec22a0860a21bd9263bac068f6d91bb6d650

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kandawasvika Gwendoline Q; Mapingure Paul M; Nhembe Margaret; Mtereredzi Richard; Stray-Pedersen Babill. Validation of a culturally modified short form of the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities in 6 to 8 year old Zimbabwean school children: a cross section study. 2012; DOI 10.1186/1471-2377-12-147; article XML SHA-256 1d926aea272a0978d4ceae5f0f90cc85f937e806a12f7726afbae10233b9fd86. “Validation of a culturally modified short form of the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities in 6 to 8 year old Zimbabwean school children: a cross section study” (10.1186/1471-2377-12-147).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2377-12-147). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MCE
<a id="mce"></a>

MCE usually refers to a Master of Civil Engineering, a postgraduate degree completed after a one- to three-year program. It recognizes advanced university study in civil engineering, including the design and construction of structures such as roads, bridges, dams, and buildings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 095f55f43e4f2a2a3d4004ef10dd636fbb785f84554dec1bd6d996c13e2991e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Master of Civil Engineering” (C71366).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MCI
<a id="mci"></a>

MCI stands for mild cognitive impairment, a term for the stage between typical cognitive aging and more clearly impaired or dysfunctional cognitive aging. It commonly refers to performance about 1 to 1.5 standard deviations below age-based norms on cognitive testing, and it may be amnestic when memory is mainly affected or non-amnestic when other thinking abilities are mainly affected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9bc630ece05da776e7080f24927ce8a5cee58cb47d2e4941d6849aa462d1b90

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cankaya Seyda; Akturk Aynur; Karakus Ayse; Hanoğlu Lütfü; Mardinoglu Adil; Yulug Burak. Targeting the parietal memory network with tDCS in MCI: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1661790; article XML SHA-256 ef09d7b88aef63d16df657e1655f6302405caa92541e8213d7149f4d441ac11a. “Targeting the parietal memory network with tDCS in MCI: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1661790).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1661790). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MD
<a id="md"></a>

MD stands for Doctor of Medicine, a first professional postgraduate degree in medical science that qualifies someone to begin medical practice. It represents an advanced academic standard in medicine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2849abfc8a9bbd5c180b766c32e22704feede1fbc3dbed18c885649d3d066ff4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Doctor of Medicine” (C39383).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MDMA
<a id="mdma"></a>

MDMA is a synthetic amphetamine-like drug, commonly called ecstasy, that is classified as a hallucinogen. It is widely abused and can produce strong, long-lasting changes in the brain’s serotonin-related systems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76f80562284029af2a374dd8284c511df2ae59a7018167ec0a6f52f67cc52037

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine” (D018817).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018817). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## me
<a id="me"></a>

ME refers to myalgic encephalomyelitis, also described here as ME/CFS. In this source, it is presented as a disabling condition whose uncertain causes, varied diagnostic definitions, and history of being mischaracterized as psychosomatic create important ethical and practical challenges for research, including the need to reduce participant burden and build trust with affected communities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7fcf03bafda4292db99bff34a037947e35bdc57c19a0d5c96dca53e8d32ad7b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Abken Ella; Tyson Sarah; Kingdon Caroline. Overcoming barriers in myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome research: the CureME participatory model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1826525; article XML SHA-256 9af56d80e4d4cc8badda50dd575215ee66269e57e01368cdf38f19cc0fbbbb23. “Overcoming barriers in myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome research: the CureME participatory model” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1826525).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1826525). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mean
<a id="mean"></a>

The mean, or arithmetic mean, is the usual sense of “average” and is a measure of central tendency found by adding all values and dividing by how many values there are. It is widely used, but it can be misleading when a distribution is skewed or includes outliers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c054afc6cbf4741b8bad6f7c94598bd54ec206049b27ab590fd82a8430d0fb67

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Mean” (mean.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/mean.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mean deviation
<a id="mean-deviation"></a>

Mean deviation is a statistical measure of how far observations fall from the mean value taken as the type. It is found by adding the sizes of all deviations from the mean while treating them as positive amounts, and dividing that total by the number of observations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 431716a16004a325b4f8b5c5c3e3ff33faf577f3c9be929ff8d8b4e1583fbb6a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4273500-4285500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mean difference
<a id="mean-difference"></a>

Mean difference is the difference between the average scores of two sets of observations, such as two groups or two measurements from the same participants. In research methods, it is used to describe the size of an observed effect and can be expressed in raw units or standardized for effect size reporting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 540dad61f532c1be92b2cefe7e522fd85797a7b4794f1dcd2ec02d8c1b0d1c77

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mean effect size
<a id="mean-effect-size"></a>

Mean effect size is the average magnitude of the effect being studied across the set of studies included in a meta-analysis. It is used to summarize the overall size of the investigated effect, distinct from heterogeneity, which reflects how consistent that effect is across studies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3da3785f9a951242a7408a2b7dbfec1e52ed8b508a17a5082ef53d80cf900bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hönekopp Johannes; Linden Audrey Helen. Heterogeneity estimates in a biased world. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0262809; article XML SHA-256 e7d02afdb2a94d32de304f1b28c5939f1c9f8f6aa1388a5b06e43b2fa5edf515. “Heterogeneity estimates in a biased world” (10.1371/journal.pone.0262809).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262809). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mean length of utterance
<a id="mean-length-of-utterance"></a>

Mean length of utterance is a language-development measure that captures the average length of a person’s spoken utterances. In this packet, it is measured in morphemes (MLUm) and used as a microstructure indicator in children’s narratives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e18fd483865ccf7dafd080ea8abbfc984342b07b96cf2d1535fa79dfd893623

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hayes Richy Lewis; Kan Pui Fong. Shared and divergent patterns in narrative skills: comparing English monolingual and Japanese–English bilingual children. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1747702; article XML SHA-256 2945a7f209a9d90890c0538ea4e5fd11e26346e9381c893936c2459a9acbe4bd. “Shared and divergent patterns in narrative skills: comparing English monolingual and Japanese–English bilingual children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1747702).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1747702). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mean square error
<a id="mean-square-error"></a>

Mean square error is a measure of approximation error based on squaring the differences between signals and their approximations and then averaging them. In this source, it is the quantity minimized at each step to choose a representation that best fits a set of signals overall.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6f349775e8030d01909d02adaf6670fd3c7e4b5fbc7eaa4e505777d73baabe46

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rebollo-Neira Laura. Simultaneous optimized orthogonal matching pursuit with application to ECG compression. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325555; article XML SHA-256 b2b1d90032ba62f20cc842335e3a013acb033c3cf5fa35b7b59a95c5386d1240. “Simultaneous optimized orthogonal matching pursuit with application to ECG compression” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325555).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325555). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meaning
<a id="meaning"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, meaning is a notion understood in terms of the wider connections and implications needed to make it adequate. It still includes its imaginal aspect, but does not focus on the notion’s conative or purposive value.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 282782ce6c192e9a6b339716cdad0d754fc94d8dd889a52e903dc3599867f80c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Meaning” (Meaning).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Meaning). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## measurement
<a id="measurement"></a>

Measurement is the finding of how much of some attribute or condition there is by comparing it with a standard unit. In this historical psychology source, measurement applies to qualities linked with an object rather than the object itself, and psychology’s ability to measure mental processes is described as an open question.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ead761788d9c77d3b17e72691c91fcf269de9e27f59451ba0be2d12b4062ce5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Measurement” (Measurement).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Measurement). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## measurement invariance
<a id="measurement-invariance"></a>

Measurement invariance is the property of a measure showing that it assesses the same underlying construct in a comparable way across different groups. It is needed before comparing group mean scores on latent traits, so that score differences are interpreted as real group differences rather than differences in how groups understand or respond to the items.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b57b01b40f640d6cb76f875f73e37bdb765ee25b6054ac7927c1976255bc99f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Savic Bianca; Staudt Andreas; Moehring Anne; Guertler Diana; Rumpf Hans-Juergen; John Ulrich; Baumann Sophie. Assessing evidence of measurement invariance of the Mental Health Inventory (MHI-5) by gender in a German adult sample. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07463-2; article XML SHA-256 5eb09d87d7ffd142ca5a7dc206110e0b261b9e635e0524a4ca36a7d270be2791. “Assessing evidence of measurement invariance of the Mental Health Inventory (MHI-5) by gender in a German adult sample” (10.1186/s12888-025-07463-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07463-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## measurement scale
<a id="measurement-scale"></a>

A measurement scale is a set of items used to assess a psychological construct in a structured way. In this context, it was developed to measure social media mindfulness through multiple related factors and to examine how that construct relates to psychological wellbeing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: deb74eb95953e074dc7ee2768fde77fffa5f10a32f091d374b5091244be14b06

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Mengyu; Chen Hao. Scale development and validation of social media mindfulness: evidence from Chinese Douyin users. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1660076; article XML SHA-256 9fe4095953780591a3c547f0fdb1f07735547fd29983fc232ad9ee86a213cded. “Scale development and validation of social media mindfulness: evidence from Chinese Douyin users” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1660076).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1660076). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## measurement theory
<a id="measurement-theory"></a>

Measurement theory is the set of ideas and methods used to examine whether an assessment actually measures the underlying trait it is intended to measure. In this context, it focuses on issues such as dimensionality and whether the items reflect one common latent variable, because scores are hard to interpret if the instrument is not measuring the intended construct.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5bf36b078a252b598de1d14a18dd8420f2c2811cc34c43909ff04d59b1280bac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bergman Johanna; Haak Maria; Nilsson Lindström Petra; Bringsén Åsa; Westergren Albert. Exploring the dimensionality of the 5C positive youth development very short form using Rasch measurement theory in Swedish upper secondary school contexts. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340051; article XML SHA-256 12601da0b86e070771d0e784644bda8484d64498c1b5f9d3a748e17ffc65ca89. “Exploring the dimensionality of the 5C positive youth development very short form using Rasch measurement theory in Swedish upper secondary school contexts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340051).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340051). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mecamylamine
<a id="mecamylamine"></a>

Mecamylamine is a drug that blocks nicotinic receptors, is absorbed through the digestive tract, and can enter the brain. It was used to block autonomic ganglia in treating high blood pressure, but is now used more often as a research tool.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c77e7470c2838b1f23608fac3aacccbcbaba53f3f7fda1adfed7fcc1bb99e5a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mecamylamine” (D008464).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008464). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mechanical causality
<a id="mechanical-causality"></a>

Mechanical causality is the kind of cause-and-effect explanation used for nature or the world of observable phenomena. In this historical usage, it means explaining events by regular natural processes rather than by miraculous or supernatural agency, often in contrast with explanations based on purposes or ends.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9964d9b38d48a102971848774dcccefa330e376b412f248991068c3334f09b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-346500-358500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mechanical intelligence
<a id="mechanical-intelligence"></a>

Mechanical intelligence refers to intelligence in machines or robots, such as the ability to carry out reasoning or emotion-related functions in ways that resemble human abilities. In this source, it is discussed in contrast with biological intelligence and as something that may be linked with biological systems to build more capable robot controllers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b0e6216c0a16baa855bed22f036806bf0bf1554987d68cceb8642f57136f0e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yongcheng; Sun Rong; Wang Yuechao; Li Hongyi; Zheng Xiongfei. A Novel Robot System Integrating Biological and Mechanical Intelligence Based on Dissociated Neural Network-Controlled Closed-Loop Environment. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0165600; article XML SHA-256 4ad73be083dce5ec00e38c32f1ec6b7124fa38952d5b3afaa0f9daae58d32ee6. “A Novel Robot System Integrating Biological and Mechanical Intelligence Based on Dissociated Neural Network-Controlled Closed-Loop Environment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0165600).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165600). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mechanoreceptor
<a id="mechanoreceptor"></a>

A mechanoreceptor is a specialized cell that detects physical forces such as pressure, movement, or vibration and sends that information to the nervous system. Examples include inner ear hair cells involved in hearing and balance, and body sensory receptors that may work with supportive non-neural structures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 56ebb4b64cb137c1082ac4772feebd6f441acf9c3a4d82fbddd8e7d0a72a5c78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mechanoreceptors” (D008465).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008465). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Media Exposure
<a id="media-exposure"></a>

Media exposure is the degree to which a person encounters messages and content through communication media.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e19df90ca6193ddb953b1f37b962858d1cff7e09398eda407baffc285ae5c7de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Media Exposure” (D000097822).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000097822). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## media psychology
<a id="media-psychology"></a>

Media psychology is a psychological perspective for understanding how features of media experiences, such as emotional cues, story and task structure, ease of interaction, and clear links between actions and outcomes, influence involvement and intention. In this view, immersion can support engagement, but it is not the only factor shaping intentions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9d2ade56866d96a8f995d25a39a7b144e049691dd4e25f6dc98e1deb98bd5db7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Dan; Jung Jungho. Modeling immersion pathways in XR-based cultural heritage IP narrative experiences: an integrated approach based on TAM, experience economy, and grounded theory. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1818614; article XML SHA-256 638c054debc3bf8ffda00466545936da5be4bbadffdc771854b6da0936191de2. “Modeling immersion pathways in XR-based cultural heritage IP narrative experiences: an integrated approach based on TAM, experience economy, and grounded theory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1818614).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1818614). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## medial amygdala
<a id="medial-amygdala"></a>

The medial amygdala is a brain region within the social neural network. In the supplied source, variation in estrogen receptor alpha expression in this area is described as being related to social behavior in male mammals, including affiliation, aggression, and monogamy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3ac4a59faff6abe64997a5abd2d3f60becd341f1b8c17ef274495dee188af793

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cushing Bruce S.. Estrogen Receptor Alpha Distribution and Expression in the Social Neural Network of Monogamous and Polygynous Peromyscus. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0150373; article XML SHA-256 07cbfbfb64b250be2ced99fa015d605dba6628593e9062ce935473e0136f3b8a. “Estrogen Receptor Alpha Distribution and Expression in the Social Neural Network of Monogamous and Polygynous Peromyscus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0150373).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0150373). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## medial forebrain bundle
<a id="medial-forebrain-bundle"></a>

The medial forebrain bundle is a complex set of nerve fibers that begins in basal olfactory areas, the periamygdaloid region, and the septal nuclei, and travels to the lateral hypothalamus. Some of these fibers extend further into the tegmentum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61ef6136bea3a1b8d12f104bb88690389b0df19a7d629cdff3d6fe233a6729c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Medial Forebrain Bundle” (D008474).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008474). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## medial prefrontal cortex
<a id="medial-prefrontal-cortex"></a>

The medial prefrontal cortex is a brain region involved in goal-directed behavior, weighing value and reward, and aspects of social planning and self-insight. In humans, it is also linked to self-worth, and changes in its activity can influence how a person is perceived by others without that person being aware of the change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 598e3ee65a7a028e1f750b9b63dfd12f5cc5c84e2572d4469536296fb3a67e1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zorns Samantha; Sierzputowski Claudia; Ash Sydney; Skowron Molly; Minervini Anthony; LaVarco Adriana; Pardillo Matthew; Keenan Julian Paul. Attraction is altered via modulation of the medial prefrontal cortex without explicit knowledge. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1333733; article XML SHA-256 84298b14967cc998be784bdadb770c606384de25c589d0f38e9b31fe45d7e812. “Attraction is altered via modulation of the medial prefrontal cortex without explicit knowledge” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1333733).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1333733). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## medial temporal gyrus
<a id="medial-temporal-gyrus"></a>

The medial temporal gyrus is a brain area that, in this study, was active when people remembered faces they had seen before. It is therefore implicated here in memory for faces during social perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05493761a765b22b2ee06e66c7a8e03d4a25a7d9c56ab6fc06da1e8e1b726b83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Proverbio Alice Mado; La Mastra Francesca; Zani Alberto. How Negative Social Bias Affects Memory for Faces: An Electrical Neuroimaging Study. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0162671; article XML SHA-256 9baa5cc56fa3d5ef58da828cb0224de52bcfa59f2baf17496f4f122cb6c929d1. “How Negative Social Bias Affects Memory for Faces: An Electrical Neuroimaging Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0162671).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162671). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## median
<a id="median"></a>

The median is a measure of central tendency that identifies the middle value in an ordered set of scores, or the average of the two middle values when there is an even number of scores. It represents the 50th percentile and is often preferred over the mean when a distribution is skewed or contains outliers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61ddd25102a55292fde939935426d43bcef8b0c4c3ad77ab3cb50beaffd47306

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Median” (median.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/median.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## median nerve
<a id="median-nerve"></a>

The median nerve is a major nerve in the upper limb. In humans, it arises from nerve fibers from the lower neck and upper chest spinal cord through the brachial plexus and provides both feeling and movement to parts of the forearm and hand.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4bf3d2f50f247475718bb62b25d6142300d414119f10fbe20562cd8d77b0726

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Median Nerve” (D008475).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008475). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mediation
<a id="mediation"></a>

Mediation is a historical theological idea about how a transcendent God can bring about effects in the world without acting on it directly. In Christian usage, it also refers to Christ’s role as the intermediary through whom revelation, atonement, and reconciliation with God are made possible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8e54f5eee63ab9d35833692e3e3d40b559366fc6c4b484cb52dbe5e8e6004f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mediation” (Mediation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Mediation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Medicaid
<a id="medicaid"></a>

Medicaid is a U.S. government health coverage program, established in 1965 under the Social Security Act, that is run by the states and provides health care benefits for people who are poor or medically needy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69aa208a0559c2d3e25ec4d9166b13c86f8f4adf06d142b6eab07ef92c8fba7f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Medicaid” (D008484).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008484). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Medicaid Waiver
<a id="medicaid-waiver"></a>

A Medicaid Waiver, in this context, is a state program under Home and Community Based Services 1915(c) that allows disability services to be funded in community settings rather than only through standard arrangements. Eligibility and individual funding levels are determined by judging a person’s needs and matching support budgets to their service requirements, with states varying in the tools they use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf37d8f0fe33b13bb8ac02a9bb8375b53c8848be270df3f8ac384bfaca9dc401

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Piccorelli Annalisa V.; Moody Eric J.; Heath David; Dahl Ethan; Root-Elledge Sandy. Support needs and adaptive behavior surveys: Services prediction and relationship. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0294539; article XML SHA-256 6c0f36d3d240400499f0d27913eda30f8c9f43afc85ba45c7b618550f7e40801. “Support needs and adaptive behavior surveys: Services prediction and relationship” (10.1371/journal.pone.0294539).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294539). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## medical anthropology
<a id="medical-anthropology"></a>

Medical anthropology is a social science field that studies how health status and health-related beliefs differ across human groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22724e5a3f2b18483e751e0d7bb8384793f55311611022b1290c1ae38774858d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anthropology, Medical” (D060432).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D060432). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## medical home
<a id="medical-home"></a>

In this historical usage, a medical home is a residential place where a patient can be removed from ordinary domestic surroundings and cared for under nursing supervision during treatment. It is described as offering more oversight than private lodgings, because the patient is also under the supervision of the home's manager.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bacb95a324a5006190d3b404d3bf87d46115807abfa1cc915e4b0bc39f0ab4f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-745500-757500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## medical model
<a id="medical-model"></a>

In this context, the medical model is a way of understanding distress through a syndrome-based, illness-focused lens that treats painful thoughts and emotions as symptoms to be corrected or reduced. It can frame moral suffering as pathology rather than as a human moral response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: badb952253fffbe2171c256fcb8015af60501a36bba8e7dd6aedc102af0db86e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Borges Lauren M.; Farnsworth Jacob K.; Barnes Sean M.; Walser Robyn D.. Acceptance and commitment therapy for moral injury: conceptualizing and intervening on moral injury through the lens of contextual behavioral science. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1923699; article XML SHA-256 d5f1be97646f054fd0130ead0b1b371964a4ca3739631e434a6e21fb22b68719. “Acceptance and commitment therapy for moral injury: conceptualizing and intervening on moral injury through the lens of contextual behavioral science” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1923699).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1923699). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## medical psychology
<a id="medical-psychology"></a>

Medical psychology is the study of abnormal and diseased mental states and their symptoms, considered chiefly from a medical viewpoint. In historical usage, the term was closely connected with psychological medicine and related to psychiatry, psychopathology, and mental pathology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e103e91f901839c2e2437d6a3da4c2613a9e9b8b9dc901de295280e7ffe79c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Medical Psychology” (Medical Psychology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Medical Psychology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Medicare
<a id="medicare"></a>

Medicare is a U.S. federal health insurance program established in 1965 under the Social Security Act. It provides health insurance benefits for people age 65 and older and some other people eligible for Social Security benefits, through coordinated hospital insurance and supplementary medical insurance programs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2fbfe90a6114f58989ee6e64fad4c2c1e405816c3ff76c003c1305e363ebe9ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Medicare” (D006278).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006278). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mediodorsal nucleus
<a id="mediodorsal-nucleus"></a>

The mediodorsal nucleus is the largest of the thalamus’s medial nuclei. It has widespread connections with most of the other thalamic nuclei.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf6133a71808a99c4e2622a7042a3c4826fcb5a0f0e97e3a133fcfe0f03bc0b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mediodorsal Thalamic Nucleus” (D020645).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020645). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Meditation
<a id="meditation"></a>

Meditation is a state of consciousness in which a person reduces awareness of outside distractions so the mind can concentrate on one focus. It uses various techniques to clear stressful interference and promote relaxation and stress relief.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d5e2bf02eec8b638f691432669b50cff6c3f1da2efe6d7b5494e25a2151d81c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Meditation” (D019122).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019122). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## medium
<a id="medium"></a>

In historical psychology and related movements such as hypnotism and spiritualism, a medium is a person thought to speak or act under the control of another personality or a disembodied spirit, sometimes while in a trance-like, partly conscious state. The term was also used for someone believed to gain knowledge or communicate in a supernatural way, though historical accounts note that some reported displays were deceptive while others were treated as genuine phenomena.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a8e7ac11c2566e6cd75016b9e02fd6e1d1df4e617e0e020c7f804df27e93b22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Medium” (Medium).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Medium). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## medium trance
<a id="medium-trance"></a>

In historical psychology, medium trance refers to a trance state associated with mediumship in which a person may seem to speak or act from another source. It can range from partial states, where the ordinary self still takes part, to more complete trances marked by altered speech or manner and little or no memory afterward; its early stages were described as resembling hypnotic suggestion and shaped by expectation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 72c99b596b706cfef7d8585dc3d7532e6ba1fc40d60459b47124eee42e16ffa2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## medulla
<a id="medulla"></a>

The medulla is the lowest part of the brainstem, lying between the pons and the spinal cord. It contains pathways that carry signals up and down, along with lower cranial nerve nuclei, much of the brainstem reticular system, and related structures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d40180cd75c5dc4c4d7bcad41c10c502e5d33a3e26193b2dd5f2b5493dd5ed8f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Medulla Oblongata” (C12442).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## medulla oblongata
<a id="medulla-oblongata"></a>

The medulla oblongata is the lowest part of the brain stem, located below the pons and in front of the cerebellum. It links the brain with the spinal cord and helps control breathing, heart and blood vessel activity, and basic reflexes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2447a401205bfb2d511a3bfbdaaa89e2418e736f62eed6a2bb82977edb4b8c45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Medulla Oblongata” (D008526).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008526). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## medullary sheath
<a id="medullary-sheath"></a>

The medullary sheath is the covering that may form around a nerve fibre’s axis cylinder after it leaves the nerve cell. In this account, it is one of the nerve’s sheaths and serves mainly to insulate and protect the fibre.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e381dc2bf7cbd1975489a513aef9566d722c53891333a3969f36e22ae7be1f0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nervous System” (Nervous System).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N2defs.htm#Nervous System). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mefloquine
<a id="mefloquine"></a>

Mefloquine is a quinolinemethanol-derived drug best known for antimalarial effects and also described as having anti-inflammatory, chemosensitizing, and radiosensitizing activity. It appears to act in part by building up in lysosomes and disrupting their function, which may affect autophagy, and it is noted to cross the blood-brain barrier relatively well.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 568bccc1bf7f7d48cefa50e7f87cf1475d0b036bfe766ad8b6d560b368cdcdaf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mefloquine” (C61827).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MEG
<a id="meg"></a>

MEG, or magnetoencephalography, is a method for recording the very small magnetic fields generated by electrical activity in the brain, typically from outside the head with highly sensitive equipment. It helps show where brain activity is occurring and provides information that complements electroencephalography.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 680978e0f0b0ea355d1395d9a7efa0de1c4025da92decd9c75432287f8d4bcd9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Magnetoencephalography” (C16811).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## megalencephaly
<a id="megalencephaly"></a>

Megalencephaly is a congenital abnormality in which the occipitofrontal head circumference is more than two standard deviations above the average for the person’s age. It can occur with hydrocephalus, subdural effusion, arachnoid cysts, or as part of a genetic condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69749556ca75e75ca510e226b850e4c063e094395092ee5f34dab6707a3a14d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Megalencephaly” (D058627).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058627). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## megalomania
<a id="megalomania"></a>

Historically, megalomania meant a form of delusion seen in some mental illnesses in which a person feels intensely exalted and believes they have extraordinary powers, talents, possessions, or importance. The beliefs can become increasingly grand and unrealistic, with little awareness of the mismatch between them and ordinary reality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4ce07bfede0108715a711edc1a6e4ade674a258312dd4dda96e629786e818a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Megalomania” (Megalomania).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Megalomania). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## megavitamin therapy
<a id="megavitamin-therapy"></a>

Megavitamin therapy, also called orthomolecular therapy, is the use of very large doses of vitamins or other naturally occurring substances that are normally present in the body, often as an approach to treating mental disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8809d28f97b06a0be95181b0ebb3eca4c20a4395b8d5c3decee10bbd94384a0d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Orthomolecular Therapy” (D009974).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009974). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Meissner’s corpuscle
<a id="meissners-corpuscle"></a>

Meissner’s corpuscle is a small oval structure in the skin’s papillae, especially in the fingers and toes. It is a touch receptor made of a connective tissue capsule containing nerve endings around wedge-shaped epithelioid cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e7b4e0e801565b7af2c46427a1e285a36355ad8b2a6bea720b38051862aa940

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Meissner Corpuscle” (C13171).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## melancholia
<a id="melancholia"></a>

Melancholia is a historical term for abnormal mental states mainly marked by deep depression. Earlier it was used more broadly, even as a near-synonym for monomania or madness, but in later use it became tied especially to gloom, self-reproach, anxiety, slowed or disturbed thought and activity, and sometimes delusions, hallucinations, stupor, or suicidal impulses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce06eefaa52289e4f1a067902dbaf8ba3d713b5212af6760fea98d99c824aa2a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Melancholia” (Melancholia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Melancholia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## melancholic features
<a id="melancholic-features"></a>

Melancholic features are a depression specifier describing a depressive episode marked by a deeply bleak mood, such as profound hopelessness, despair, moroseness, or feeling emotionally empty. In the supplied source, this subtype is also linked with especially severe negative rumination compared with depression with anxious distress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb6ce8c9326a25d618c5ed7bfd3f632776c66661863b214061e06313c0d97b72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Hong-li; Shi Xiao-ning; Zhao Jin-long; Jia Qiong; Xu Wei; Dun Wen-wen; Zhao Ying-ying. Negative rumination in depression subtypes with melancholic features and anxious distress. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1515500; article XML SHA-256 125f30dd108a130194b92759edde5327a3fb56046addbf8284243028278749ac. “Negative rumination in depression subtypes with melancholic features and anxious distress” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1515500).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1515500). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## melancholic type
<a id="melancholic-type"></a>

In this historical source, melancholic type refers to a less common form of adolescent insanity marked by depressed mood rather than mania, with remissions that are less clear-cut than in maniacal cases. It is described as involving hypochondriacal concern, extreme self-absorption, frequent religious depression or delusional ideas, possible suicidal tendency, and in persistent cases a progression into stupor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 597046325fdd54de16860154c7290a9b72c583552b439e27c901f73d56b1598a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Developmental Insanities” (Developmental Insanities).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Developmental Insanities). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## melanocortin-4 receptor
<a id="melanocortin-4-receptor"></a>

The melanocortin-4 receptor is a type of melanocortin receptor found mainly in the brain. It binds selectively to alpha-MSH, beta-MSH, and adrenocorticotropic hormone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 068698962469dfc6346a93572aded1ea4774c18fa49e58230164fe9e9e4acb1a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4” (D044105).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D044105). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## melanocyte-stimulating hormone
<a id="melanocyte-stimulating-hormone"></a>

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone is a group of peptide hormones that increase pigmentation by stimulating melanocytes and related pigment cells to make and distribute melanin. These hormones are derived from pro-opiomelanocortin and are produced in parts of the pituitary and hypothalamus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b838db9dc97aa0ccfe234dee6f7c661c52f548cf014c41941873bac2172041e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormones” (D009074).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009074). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## melatonin
<a id="melatonin"></a>

Melatonin is a hormone and tryptophan-derived neurotransmitter that helps regulate sleep and wake cycles. It is produced from serotonin in the pineal gland and retina and can affect the activity of other neurotransmitters such as dopamine and GABA.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 529fb966dc76dfc6268bd99d6e6cd30ca4d85039df0e6ccc1175049ccd39502d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Melatonin” (C2267).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## membrane potential
<a id="membrane-potential"></a>

Membrane potential is the electrical voltage across a cell membrane, comparing the inside of the cell with the space outside it. It results from differences in how ions such as potassium, chloride, and sodium are distributed and move across the membrane, and it is especially important in the electrical activity of nerve and muscle cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8fc18a9c1036b10f80879b1a8b6b47598677855c88b08bc03c8871677300e0ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Johnson Matthew P.; Hamka Abdul Aziz; Chacar Stephanie; Ekpo Okobi; Nader Moni; Hughes Michael Pycraft. Dielectrophoretic estimation of resting membrane potential in excitable cells. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355723; article XML SHA-256 3f8b5f89cee5f86e5ce2a3eba8254da8c1ed52f2caa1f6c87719bdd7c552489a. “Dielectrophoretic estimation of resting membrane potential in excitable cells” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355723).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355723). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meme
<a id="meme"></a>

In this social-media context, a meme is an image post that is not centered on the poster’s own appearance or self-image. Compared with selfies or photos of oneself taken by others, meme posts were linked more often to explanations based on audience reaction than to personal qualities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c5003ffb1af87087ec6383203272750cf7c8940be074d75b7c71f44fec3454f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Desjarlais Malinda. It’s not you, it’s me: A thematic analysis of written causal attributions for favorable and unfavorable feedback on different types of Instagram image sharing. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346413; article XML SHA-256 aac69716af9f292ce05a7807ad1e0c5940b5f5a730ed578e8e4b76b3feb7c6e1. “It’s not you, it’s me: A thematic analysis of written causal attributions for favorable and unfavorable feedback on different types of Instagram image sharing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346413).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346413). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Memory
<a id="memory"></a>

The ability to keep information from an experience and bring it back later.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe22e2def0bcf86d2626fb9096b4efb491b4d795eb1055931f23c5fce48d2c27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Memory” (D008568).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008568). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## memory abilities
<a id="memory-abilities"></a>

A natural age-related decline in learning and memory abilities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9cfb793c541655a2630da8abfc9017b9722b8cbf5d25e0b2eccaf11afb562a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cognitive Aging” (D000066492).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000066492). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## memory aid
<a id="memory-aid"></a>

A memory aid is a clinical or research tool patients use in the moment to record information, keep track of tasks, or help them remember things. It supports real-time data collection, task management, or recall.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a5645dc84ea7e2c247008dbf051fb794cabe3c084350e3acdc633cdd3d9607a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Clinical or Research Assessment Memory Aid” (C226290).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## memory color
<a id="memory-color"></a>

Memory color is the remembered or expected color linked to a familiar object based on past experience. It describes how people tend to associate typical colors with known objects, such as yellow with bananas or blue with the sky.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c0ac77acdf9c4d407c2b013f7435b6b851f56cdbb2353871893d8c58c02ede0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kimura Atsushi; Wada Yuji; Masuda Tomohiro; Goto Sho-ichi; Tsuzuki Daisuke; Hibino Haruo; Cai Dongsheng; Dan Ippeita. Memory Color Effect Induced by Familiarity of Brand Logos. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0068474; article XML SHA-256 9659ad1d8596c63bce4ade60585d9feac304caf717422b946aa0ef49009735a0. “Memory Color Effect Induced by Familiarity of Brand Logos” (10.1371/journal.pone.0068474).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068474). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Memory Consolidation
<a id="memory-consolidation"></a>

Memory consolidation is the brain process that changes learned information into long-term memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1c291c38e962efaacc6d3c66bb47ed5fc63fa775b7b14bcb0b762e0024524f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Memory Consolidation” (D000069077).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000069077). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## memory decay
<a id="memory-decay"></a>

Memory decay is the gradual weakening of a memory trace over time, such as in short-lasting sensory memory. Its rate can vary depending on the properties of the stimulus and on prior language experience or long-term memory representations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8ff27140f53c6cff4fdb499c8610b963eae97f73f32ed52ff8151e8b2d84ec7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yu Yan H.; Shafer Valerie L.; Sussman Elyse S.. The Duration of Auditory Sensory Memory for Vowel Processing: Neurophysiological and Behavioral Measures. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00335; article XML SHA-256 e4e188b0d1a60fe7724ef7534bd59d47650effeca0e8fa229aeb98964b72d971. “The Duration of Auditory Sensory Memory for Vowel Processing: Neurophysiological and Behavioral Measures” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00335).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00335). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## memory disorder
<a id="memory-disorder"></a>

A memory disorder is a problem in which memory is impaired. In this source, memory impairment is described as affecting memory retention or recall and may be linked to injury or disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d041b5534df8076d40687e6597442c9b37157ca696abe7c23ab48b9a7df7dccb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Roeder Brent M.; Riley Mitchell R.; She Xiwei; Dakos Alexander S.; Robinson Brian S.; Moore Bryan J.; Couture Daniel E.; Laxton Adrian W.; Popli Gautam; Munger Clary Heidi M.; Sam Maria; Heck Christi; Nune George; Lee Brian; Liu Charles; Shaw Susan; Gong Hui; Marmarelis Vasilis Z.; Berger Theodore W.; Deadwyler Sam A.; Song Dong; Hampson Robert E.. Patterned Hippocampal Stimulation Facilitates Memory in Patients With a History of Head Impact and/or Brain Injury. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2022.933401; article XML SHA-256 7ae4f10ef0b8016b22c78106f431a3e7daba878db2423b6e65086d55d3800d1a. “Patterned Hippocampal Stimulation Facilitates Memory in Patients With a History of Head Impact and/or Brain Injury” (10.3389/fnhum.2022.933401).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.933401). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## memory distortion
<a id="memory-distortion"></a>

Memory distortion is an abnormal change in remembering in which recollection is altered rather than simply lost, such as false recall, mistaken familiarity, confused timing or order, or added details that were not actually part of the experience. In this historical source, it is treated as a defect of memory and linked with paramnesia, meaning distorted or illusory memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f5ca84615c39b4947782cb0ebd7110710b917a41f3a6c3430f94427811cb1889

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Memory (defects of)” (Memory (defects of)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Memory (defects of)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## memory-enhancing drug
<a id="memory-enhancing-drug"></a>

A memory-enhancing drug is a substance that improves memory or other aspects of cognitive performance. In this source, the term is used for a compound that lessens experimentally induced memory deficits and may have value against cognitive impairment linked to neurodegenerative disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe539b78f87587473c3b0c15223eb3de8afadcc7f98d05115bfa90001d28aceb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Cong; Wang Yan; Xu Teng; Li Qi; Wang Donghui; Zhang Lijing; Fan Bei; Wang Fengzhong; Liu Xinmin. Genistein Ameliorates Scopolamine-Induced Amnesia in Mice Through the Regulation of the Cholinergic Neurotransmission, Antioxidant System and the ERK/CREB/BDNF Signaling. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fphar.2018.01153; article XML SHA-256 a2180ec2a4c82adba38fe85c90b360d3896fdec60c827aae381c869b7fcdb8b9. “Genistein Ameliorates Scopolamine-Induced Amnesia in Mice Through the Regulation of the Cholinergic Neurotransmission, Antioxidant System and the ERK/CREB/BDNF Signaling” (10.3389/fphar.2018.01153).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2018.01153). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## memory illusion
<a id="memory-illusion"></a>

Memory illusion is a distortion of memory in which a person has a false recollection. It can involve misplacing an event in time, adding imagined details to a real event, or seeming to remember something that was not actually experienced.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc46732b187087fa195e447aa484f0609de79c654f91e7ac7eef84fd50a265ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Memory (defects of)” (Memory (defects of)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Memory (defects of)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## memory impairment
<a id="memory-impairment"></a>

Memory impairment is a disorder in which memory function has worsened or declined.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 68f638e60c952c19b23b076ff91531435e2f52c32d3f1e313473bf4c14e0d51b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Memory Impairment, CTCAE” (C146763).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Memory, Short-Term
<a id="memory-short-term"></a>

Short-term memory is the ability to hold and recall information for a brief period, ranging from a few seconds to several hours.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 172251f0a0c6a4f94415e3c40483118c3a1bc548d0338baca6e6c52ee3a0e9e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Memory, Short-Term” (D008570).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008570). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## memory storage
<a id="memory-storage"></a>

Memory storage is the part of working memory that keeps recent information active so it can be used during a task. When this storage demand is reduced, people can maintain better performance for longer on tasks that depend on keeping past choices in mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d293107ab2432707ec494175078ffaf2858b8bf9966d8d49f3831e9e0978a9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Biesaga Mikołaj; Nowak Andrzej. The role of the working memory storage component in a random-like series generation. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296731; article XML SHA-256 b191f27977ddd274366364974b5033d98057501b3f93e6971da34f17239bd7ad. “The role of the working memory storage component in a random-like series generation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296731).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296731). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## memory trace
<a id="memory-trace"></a>

A memory trace is the information being temporarily held in working memory. In verbal working memory, it can be kept active through rehearsal and may be rebuilt from long-term memory through a process called redintegration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bac9cb3d632b484cfba239eaa5b67f3ae7a6c323c14f990afdf9675e96d5701f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bruns Gunnar. Re-analyzing and confirming a differential use of redintegration in students with mild and borderline intellectual disabilities. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1278458; article XML SHA-256 64b10de6d9d12dce62792fb8cc5ba857aec052e38b569472016fa9d9993bd84d. “Re-analyzing and confirming a differential use of redintegration in students with mild and borderline intellectual disabilities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1278458).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1278458). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meninges
<a id="meninges"></a>

The meninges are the three protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord: the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2f742b612a03ba659f8ce60ebfe0cbb1a15aa27aab1a024521a6e91e4b3ade0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Meninges” (D008578).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008578). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meningioma
<a id="meningioma"></a>

Meningioma is a relatively common tumor of the central nervous system that develops from arachnoid cells. It usually grows slowly and is less likely to invade nearby tissue, though malignant forms can occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7177b95229ed307ac3bfe19544d4023be08a18c4808f54522630087048e297e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Meningioma” (D008579).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008579). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meningitis
<a id="meningitis"></a>

Meningitis is inflammation of the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. It is most often caused by infection, but it can also result from bleeding, chemical irritation, cancer-related spread, or other inflammatory conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 459e18251e8ea928793411c300c626ac71134f6394c93e0dc6925686a1c4c9a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Meningitis” (D008581).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008581). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meningocele
<a id="meningocele"></a>

Meningocele is a congenital or acquired condition in which the meninges bulge outward through a bone defect in the skull or spine without any neural tissue being part of the protrusion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73cc7d6e9b64f3715da440714047e10a44d715e0a449ee5b0eb4fed67c939705

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Meningocele” (D008588).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008588). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meningococcal meningitis
<a id="meningococcal-meningitis"></a>

Meningococcal meningitis is a severe, sudden infection caused by Neisseria meningitidis that can produce fever, rash, irritation of the meninges, meningitis, and sometimes death. It is a major public health problem worldwide and can leave some survivors with long-term neurological complications.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1eb2a4db805ed46bfc16cccaebd57ea76756ca764ede026a45077d8fffe35bc0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Che Xinren; Liu Yan; Wang Jun; Xu Yuyang; Zhang Xuechao; Gu Wenwen; Jiang Wei; Du Jian; Zhang Xiaoping. Booster immunization of meningococcal meningitis vaccine among children in Hangzhou, China, 2014-2019. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0251567; article XML SHA-256 88d18d5925baad7c44b3333be712ef70199d0897a7e2424b6b47a9368a20ff04. “Booster immunization of meningococcal meningitis vaccine among children in Hangzhou, China, 2014-2019” (10.1371/journal.pone.0251567).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251567). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meningoencephalitis
<a id="meningoencephalitis"></a>

Meningoencephalitis is inflammation affecting both the brain and its surrounding membranes. It is usually caused by infectious organisms entering the central nervous system, but it can also result from toxins, autoimmune problems, or other conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 300a31c142e8be88d63adf2229ff7ae870f9fe0c8f0917184962c3c7b83e9fa0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Meningoencephalitis” (D008590).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008590). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meningomyelocele
<a id="meningomyelocele"></a>

Meningomyelocele is a usually congenital condition in which the membranes around the spinal cord and the spinal cord itself bulge out through a defect in the bones of the spine, most often in the lower back. It commonly causes paralysis, reduced feeling in the lower body, and loss of bladder or bowel control, and it may occur with Arnold-Chiari malformation or hydrocephalus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d56f40cc4f6e3b89de7512638fb62e79663d6d764b611e4ed84b02d7b0506b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Meningomyelocele” (D008591).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008591). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## menopausal depression
<a id="menopausal-depression"></a>

Menopausal depression is depression that develops during the transition from perimenopause to postmenopause. It is described as being closely associated with falling and fluctuating estrogen levels and may involve low mood along with anxiety, sleep problems, and cognitive difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d365fa04756ec6ebe273fc1e59bb9610f77dafe3e4b33e6de6a796ffdeacd6ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Hongyu; Li Shuang; Cui Shicheng; Wang Yanqiong; Zhu Ying; Zhou Rujia; Zhong Zihao; Zhang Xiaolin; Xiao Zixian; Qin Qian; Feng Jiacheng; Wang Pengfei; Li Dong. Optimal doses of different exercise types for improving depressive symptoms in climacteric women: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1727315; article XML SHA-256 b326ba16a4764ded68a787ea2fd4996bcddfce5efdfccbefbde61a4b40274489. “Optimal doses of different exercise types for improving depressive symptoms in climacteric women: a systematic review and network meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1727315).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1727315). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## menopause
<a id="menopause"></a>

Menopause is the stage when reproductive hormone activity changes, with estrogen levels declining irregularly during the transition. In this source, it is described as naturally occurring around ages 45 to 50, with menopause before 40 termed premature and between 40 and 44 termed early, and these hormonal changes are linked to longer-term changes in cognitive function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac4f6893cd5535d7d9f82ca94c952c616ce70e53fbb0b24e9b59dfb6b313d4ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kundu Sampurna; Acharya Sanghmitra Sheel. Linkage of premature and early menopause with psychosocial well-being: a moderated multiple mediation approach. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s40359-023-01267-3; article XML SHA-256 ccaaf6998d51c1c61d469b737daa9654f0269353adafa00906ff070c82e47303. “Linkage of premature and early menopause with psychosocial well-being: a moderated multiple mediation approach” (10.1186/s40359-023-01267-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01267-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## menstruation
<a id="menstruation"></a>

Menstruation is a biological event that is also shaped by social and cultural beliefs, norms, and everyday practices. In this context, its meaning and impact extend beyond the body to include experiences related to well-being, distress, and social inclusion or exclusion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa729860db08a462cec113daf12f96104bf8f3818fb6fe5e687b87890fdc157a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alam Marufa; Al-Mamun Md. Unspoken cycles: A qualitative study exploring the lived experiences of women’s menstruation in the urban informal settlements of Bangladesh. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354260; article XML SHA-256 0aa6a1b1744b9a8f6f52aaff50bdc6969f396623ff640ae55e2f3d2afc03d4dd. “Unspoken cycles: A qualitative study exploring the lived experiences of women’s menstruation in the urban informal settlements of Bangladesh” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354260).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354260). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental aberration
<a id="mental-aberration"></a>

In this historical source, mental aberration means a broad disturbance or deviation in mental functioning that can arise from many different causes. It is used more widely than the technical term insanity, which the passage treats as a narrower medical or legal category.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48ba5f24ed2b8d78fcd50790ccd3d87f475bf97a6fdc89fa714ee747dc60f978

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1900500-1912500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental abilities
<a id="mental-abilities"></a>

Mental abilities are capacities of the mind that involve neurocognitive processes. In this source, they are described as part of how dancers integrate body and mind through movement within embodied cognition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26f87827843f3f016349bc18f82d530f3525c24b042173f8f5c668f534034979

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Ching-Ju; Yu Hsin-Yen; Hong Tzu-Yi; Shih Chung-Heng; Yeh Tzu-Chen; Chen Li-Fen; Hsieh Jen-Chuen. Trait representation of embodied cognition in dancers pivoting on the extended mirror neuron system: a resting-state fMRI study. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1173993; article XML SHA-256 3580d3f420a7528b56537e26219e4f5dcde4aaf77e5a4928ef668519fc2a9710. “Trait representation of embodied cognition in dancers pivoting on the extended mirror neuron system: a resting-state fMRI study” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1173993).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1173993). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental accounting
<a id="mental-accounting"></a>

In this source, mental accounting refers to a cognitive approach to temporal decision-making in which people mentally organize time-related resources. It includes tendencies such as loss aversion, mental budgeting, and flexibility, and is linked to how people balance short-term and long-term rewards.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6af1336d017f8314e4de5ed3f92da7e8408a2ca5d5ab4e6c38557f159676600f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Jie; Zhang Mingwei; Yu Tao; He Lidong; Wu Yuzhen; Pan Xiaofu. Time mental accounting and novice employees’ intertemporal choices: mediating effects of time management disposition and future self-continuity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1743618; article XML SHA-256 1fc3a72bf7c3884fea5884070cecfe1cac27528333b3129caab8900cea3fe3e1. “Time mental accounting and novice employees’ intertemporal choices: mediating effects of time management disposition and future self-continuity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1743618).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1743618). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental apparatus
<a id="mental-apparatus"></a>

In Freudian theory, the mental apparatus is the basic organization of mental activity along two main modes: a primary process that tends to form associations and a secondary process that supports perspective-taking. In this framework, primary process thinking is linked especially with the unconscious and dreams, while secondary process thinking follows more reflective rules.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5136eeae218f1d46960812bec133814d49ed0b4f6def93fa497392512b7dc2ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Steinig Jana; Bazan Ariane; Happe Svenja; Antonetti Sarah; Shevrin Howard. Processing of a Subliminal Rebus during Sleep: Idiosyncratic Primary versus Secondary Process Associations upon Awakening from REM- versus Non-REM-Sleep. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01955; article XML SHA-256 c9f475471ae617c779ef31c0e866a49f9aebb42f117e65bae5fcc53974cd8f69. “Processing of a Subliminal Rebus during Sleep: Idiosyncratic Primary versus Secondary Process Associations upon Awakening from REM- versus Non-REM-Sleep” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01955).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01955). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental balance
<a id="mental-balance"></a>

In this historical source, mental balance means the current state of equilibrium among the brain or nerve-centres that underlies a person’s mental condition and outward expression. A fixed mental balance refers to a state in which this equilibrium is held rigidly, with little spontaneity or readiness to respond.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6f51f2bb9fe07e8a3ff91e90e0bc087b62c8b3b0120742a8f24df34ab5fe03d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2803500-2815500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental block
<a id="mental-block"></a>

A mental block is trouble recalling something or a sudden break in thinking or speaking that is linked to emotional factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1d28dfdfaea98ca7582860a9d8a4c52f313770172c4be43392568b277253f5f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mental Blocking” (C86946).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental chronometry
<a id="mental-chronometry"></a>

Mental chronometry is the study of the timing of cognitive processes, focusing on their temporal aspects. In this context, methods such as event-related potentials can be used to estimate when cognitive processes occur with high temporal precision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00ee7dfa092de85ef24883460b70fdc916ee19e0355b53f484d05fd511849986

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wascher Edmund; Sharifian Fariba; Gutberlet Marie; Schneider Daniel; Getzmann Stephan; Arnau Stefan. Mental chronometry in big noisy data. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0268916; article XML SHA-256 c0a0ae9a48afe44198e05459475ea40a23ec577913aafea1e2ed63dc1b3f78e2. “Mental chronometry in big noisy data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0268916).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268916). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental combination
<a id="mental-combination"></a>

Mental combination refers to a joining of mental elements in which the parts are still qualitatively distinguishable rather than blending into an indistinct whole. In this historical usage, it can also refer more specifically to combining different presented contents in perceiving a single object.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02c0cf7f773139291d4b21026de2753da3b75b522047efade7db7b1b3e230345

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Integration (in psychology)” (Integrationp).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Integrationp). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental development
<a id="mental-development"></a>

Mental development is the natural course of changes the individual mind goes through over the lifespan, from birth to death. In this historical usage, it refers to the development of one individual mind rather than the broader evolution of mental life across a species, and it concerns how mental states arise and change from one stage to another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73c528f6cb88de28839905f886b8055eb41fb35d2ee3d3ea854cfd941b451b83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mental Development” (Mental Development).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Mental Development). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental disease
<a id="mental-disease"></a>

In this historical source, mental disease is a general label for pathological conditions of the mind, understood through more specific named mental disorders. It is linked broadly with categories such as psychosis and neurosis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4f38dd50c66f93566bf787a9c989b9c4801b2a0c2359598149256532676dbf8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mental Disease” (Mental Disease).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Mental Disease). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental disorder
<a id="mental-disorder"></a>

A mental disorder is a condition involving behavioral or psychological problems, often with physical symptoms as well. These symptoms can be serious enough to cause distress or interfere with social or work functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18cbd2c061280cbb6612f54eb91bbef5ba5f7c9b2a205a8e16594268babb21ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Psychiatric Disorder” (C2893).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Mental Disorders
<a id="mental-disorders"></a>

Mental disorders are psychiatric illnesses in which a person’s ability to adapt is disrupted, mainly showing up as unusual patterns of thinking, feeling, or behavior. These problems cause distress or interfere with functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98de154decd6e0218bff8b95eb9a79c1d4a2bf52dea6a53f6b7c7117a773ac65

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Mental Disorders” (D001523).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001523). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental energy
<a id="mental-energy"></a>

Mental energy, in competitive sport, refers to a person’s sense that they have enough cognitive, emotional, and motivational resources to meet performance demands. It is described as a multidimensional psychological resource linked with staying engaged, self-regulated, emotionally steady, and resistant to fatigue under pressure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e1857bcdbb75b6e7cd2a3c51f4f6956429dd753f951394c1c4eb2ad40ebdae9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Xiawei; Zhou Yang; Li Lan; Wang Qinghe. Exploring the determinants of wellbeing in university athletes: roles of athletic identity, mental energy, and social support. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884039; article XML SHA-256 3333c9989898d55cf866a53f3b5a2523c00903dc2ffdcd1d527910b648178523. “Exploring the determinants of wellbeing in university athletes: roles of athletic identity, mental energy, and social support” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884039).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884039). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental examination
<a id="mental-examination"></a>

In this historical legal-psychiatric context, a mental examination means a personal assessment of an accused person’s mental state before trial. The passage presents it as a medico-legal inquiry that could raise concern if it led to a confession and so affected criminal proceedings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e4688d534ef667e9aaf9d12f541be77cc05e8c2f393e2909255c8232c795dbd9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-1606500-1618500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental faculty
<a id="mental-faculty"></a>

A mental faculty is a capacity of the mind. In this source, mindfulness is treated as a mental faculty and is described as something meditation can strengthen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 809162baca41f4a6fe64d738fc7c91446c011ed73ada373df2d1c5a97bdc646b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Blasche Gerhard; deBloom Jessica; Chang Adrienne; Pichlhoefer Otto. Is a meditation retreat the better vacation? effect of retreats and vacations on fatigue, emotional well-being, and acting with awareness. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0246038; article XML SHA-256 73d95840ad97fbccc64e7e66a35549f4240198278a4005b1f45cd8d943d28d0b. “Is a meditation retreat the better vacation? effect of retreats and vacations on fatigue, emotional well-being, and acting with awareness” (10.1371/journal.pone.0246038).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246038). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental fog
<a id="mental-fog"></a>

Mental fog is a state of reduced alertness or impaired thinking, usually linked to prolonged mental effort or stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 385ea4192047f747244e12b17489b61f0fa2bdfc18d1ae0876edc89bf83f6ccd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mental Fatigue” (D005222).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005222). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental healing
<a id="mental-healing"></a>

Mental healing is the idea or practice of using the mind to bring about a cure for disease, especially bodily illness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8a28fbffe0a3e3a4f60fad03b01e468b73afce533faf7ee15ec060ddd3781311

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mental Healing” (D008602).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008602). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental health
<a id="mental-health"></a>

Mental health is a person’s or group’s emotional, psychological, and social well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 073d7df1f9d6d3fe09387cf11c80dcd80ca3cbe8e4a989dabfcee2f37eaf69c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mental Health” (D008603).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008603). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Mental Health America
<a id="mental-health-america"></a>

Mental Health America is an organization listed as a possible source of resources and encouragement for parents and caregivers seeking additional support and professional help.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67ce99fcf88c850650cf578e75cb1cf27ba806c618c462f94e3d538261a09fc1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 2f1e06df6de4eaffe8d6a05ad39220c840ff0b6e8aaec6f86c36cc150507fdf3. “Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental health care
<a id="mental-health-care"></a>

Mental health care is a branch of psychiatry focused on organizing and delivering coordinated mental health services for a particular population. It addresses the social, psychological, and physical factors involved in causes, prevention, and support of positive mental health in the community.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd6e8380f7e0323b967b1be5515f2855a5701268b3337d0711c45d3d55666a87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Community Psychiatry” (D003158).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003158). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental health counselor
<a id="mental-health-counselor"></a>

A mental health counselor is a trained person who provides care and support to people with mental or behavioral health problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 182aa9ae5a05f2a7a4cee879cb8fd3d02de58174038d8f0ff791bcbb9d354943

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mental Health Counselor” (C93244).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental health nursing
<a id="mental-health-nursing"></a>

Mental health nursing is a nursing specialty that applies psychiatric principles in the care of people with mental illness. It also refers to the nursing care given to people who are mentally ill.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6df6b068bea96be54ac5fe3346bec12f49c72b14f8ffe3fcfc80c789dc676445

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychiatric Nursing” (D011568).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011568). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental health program
<a id="mental-health-program"></a>

A mental health program is an organized service model that provides mental health support, such as case management, counseling, psychiatric consultation, and short-term follow-up care. In this source, it is described as a flexible, hub-based program that helps primary care doctors connect patients with mental health, hospital, and community resources.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 040d3fc389789316887c492dcd57f5a5833f129e27bf1b13ba3ca094776cd1a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Whitmore Carly; Emam Mona; Pariser Pauline; Bolea Blanca. Implementation and adaptation of a hub-based psychiatric and primary care program: A qualitative descriptive analysis of The Seamless Care Optimizing the Patient Experience (SCOPE) Mental Health program. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0303750; article XML SHA-256 cab198d21bcd2bca5c9e483377cb5915f5c9e8e434c1c2bf58be7dae1a175200. “Implementation and adaptation of a hub-based psychiatric and primary care program: A qualitative descriptive analysis of The Seamless Care Optimizing the Patient Experience (SCOPE) Mental Health program” (10.1371/journal.pone.0303750).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303750). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental hospital
<a id="mental-hospital"></a>

A mental hospital is a hospital that provides mental healthcare for people with mental disorders. In the packet, it is described as a setting for admissions and outpatient care related to conditions such as psychosis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 484a58dd7884d55be675db1228401b28d8a578c7b195e66f6f3c8f9da725e514

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Apio Angela; Agarukamu Grifine; Amuron Gloria Nicole; Ojuka Silas; Mugisha Mike; Rajab Kalidi. Coping mechanisms to drug stock-outs among patients seeking mental healthcare at outpatient department in Butabika National Referral Mental Hospital, Uganda: A cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340898; article XML SHA-256 35f848517d7be2a2a036aa9fda9333522dbef1ac410cc84d3446c930cddb7c8c. “Coping mechanisms to drug stock-outs among patients seeking mental healthcare at outpatient department in Butabika National Referral Mental Hospital, Uganda: A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340898).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340898). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental hygiene
<a id="mental-hygiene"></a>

Mental hygiene refers to the emotional, psychological, and social well-being of a person or a group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3bf0249b24670284e6c0d430491fc605a31a11da5e32a15f136bd2ffabe15503

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mental Health” (D008603).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008603). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental illness
<a id="mental-illness"></a>

Mental illness refers to psychiatric conditions in which a person’s ability to adapt is disrupted, shown mainly through unusual patterns of thinking, feeling, or behavior that cause distress or interfere with functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf1b568776329cb3ac23d7ddd44f39549a633171164790399aabb05fad84a80a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mental Disorders” (D001523).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001523). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental imagery
<a id="mental-imagery"></a>

Mental imagery is the internal creation and processing of an image-like experience without external sensory input, often involving more than one sense. It also refers to the ability to inspect, maintain, generate, and mentally manipulate different kinds of images.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c3d94998cc400d55ec4cc6e55079cfd89cfd5d12347b92f822019f4002ca1cb9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Di Corrado Donatella; Guarnera Maria; Guerrera Claudia Savia; Maldonato Nelson Mauro; Di Nuovo Santo; Castellano Sabrina; Coco Marinella. Mental Imagery Skills in Competitive Young Athletes and Non-athletes. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00633; article XML SHA-256 deeb2206d8061e2204645f47661469fd370e86b29d559cf9fed62389c23026b1. “Mental Imagery Skills in Competitive Young Athletes and Non-athletes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00633).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00633). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental lexicon
<a id="mental-lexicon"></a>

The mental lexicon is the mind’s store of words. In this source, it refers specifically to stored phonological word forms and the similarity links among them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b9897634754229a3bfd4c9b3e7621af336df7f4dda726db49be8cab983c5f4ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vitevitch Michael S.; Sale Mary. Identifying the phonological backbone in the mental lexicon. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0287197; article XML SHA-256 981ba87331af76ad7d655ff2d657ce6cede2b5a882ce67e87e1ee97260696e82. “Identifying the phonological backbone in the mental lexicon” (10.1371/journal.pone.0287197).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287197). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental load
<a id="mental-load"></a>

Mental load is the burden of invisible household or caregiving work, especially the ongoing planning, organizing, and remembering that happens in the mind rather than through visible tasks. It is often described as constantly thinking about what needs to be done and feeling that the tasks are never fully finished.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a0cd18d697994f434941d0300d35f026159782be1a098c49e971fb86d7c4d05

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jungmann Stefanie M.; Garbe Huedo Stella F.; Jacobs Karlotta A. S.; Pothorn Nina K.. Mental load in women and mothers: Causes of distress, personality traits, and psychopathology. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356255; article XML SHA-256 4c6204ca6ea2206a9b5f55c4719288abf77bb16030a329fa6b4740ec387b3072. “Mental load in women and mothers: Causes of distress, personality traits, and psychopathology” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356255).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356255). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental map
<a id="mental-map"></a>

A mental map is an internal representation that can refer either to how a person remembers and represents space and routes, or to a diagram-like organization of ideas and information. In psychology, the term broadly links memory for spaces with symbolic ways of arranging concepts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c0837afa2a7e030cd0d7cf472cef4fc715d311850d17cfac2f529de797d3fa0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guelton Bernard. “Mental maps”: Between memorial transcription and symbolic projection. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1142238; article XML SHA-256 18a5a2b713b1954bcb25c1badd0f11b80a70a9c90e9ba43075683b33fd9a0dfb. ““Mental maps”: Between memorial transcription and symbolic projection” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1142238).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1142238). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental maturity
<a id="mental-maturity"></a>

Mental maturity is the state of having reached full mental development. In this source, it is used to describe a level of development that some youths younger than 15 may not yet have attained.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67e29c55c96ad8dd77f03b3b2967a5280e33217f48dd8d5aae19549d97f04a65

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tamornpark Ratipark; Apidechkul Tawatchai; Upala Panupong; Chomchoei Chalitar; Yeemard Fartima. Factors influencing early sexual initiation among hill tribe youths in Chiang Rai Province, Northern Thailand: A community-based cross-sectional study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321083; article XML SHA-256 11c1c48d7f073905bb4b0e3774cc2dd8072c80d6e93c6b6f85c916d27403d1e6. “Factors influencing early sexual initiation among hill tribe youths in Chiang Rai Province, Northern Thailand: A community-based cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321083).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321083). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental model
<a id="mental-model"></a>

A mental model is a person’s internal understanding of how something works, which they use to interpret it and make judgments about it. In this context, a better mental model means a more developed understanding of a technology, which can relate to familiarity, experience, and trust.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a3e62626f082e5571198f1c5790628d44f88e7c6b4e623ff5e7f078a13c5a8e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Chunxi; He Dengbo; Wen Xiao; Yan Song. Beyond adaptive cruise control and lane centering control: drivers’ mental model of and trust in emerging ADAS technologies. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1236062; article XML SHA-256 860677a0c03bf9618c5e6df4104bb152dfd4982c07cbbfc4d6764967a43e2eee. “Beyond adaptive cruise control and lane centering control: drivers’ mental model of and trust in emerging ADAS technologies” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1236062).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1236062). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental practice
<a id="mental-practice"></a>

Mental practice is a training method that uses repeated motor imagery, meaning mentally simulating a movement, to improve actual motor performance. In rehabilitation and motor learning contexts, it is used as a simple, low-cost way to rehearse actions without physically performing them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6241deeb08423bcf48e73cfcbe46dcad78a04e14a68d899e13d9bad7cc59dd83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Umeno Kazuya; Itaguchi Yoshihiro. Effects of bilateral and unilateral mental practice on actual motor performance and event-related desynchronization. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325860; article XML SHA-256 3a91342b4b4757faaa65d2c30fbcf4725f0ade55c1d77f683425da285793f96d. “Effects of bilateral and unilateral mental practice on actual motor performance and event-related desynchronization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325860).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325860). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental rehearsal
<a id="mental-rehearsal"></a>

Mental rehearsal is the process of practicing an action in the mind by holding its movement pattern in working memory without physically carrying it out. In this context, it refers to imagining the action itself as a way to prepare or prime later performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 365d3eaa24de5b8f7ee8ff9b785de20f3e24fc42fd2f85e9b82fd5ef4bef2011

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tacchino Andrea; Pedullà Ludovico; Podda Jessica; Monti Bragadin Margherita; Battaglia Mario Alberto; Bisio Ambra; Bove Marco; Brichetto Giampaolo. Motor imagery has a priming effect on motor execution in people with multiple sclerosis. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1179789; article XML SHA-256 bcaec606319db4fc1e1911034702a2841e1ce3f03ad3b76e87dc209853f7e2e7. “Motor imagery has a priming effect on motor execution in people with multiple sclerosis” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1179789).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1179789). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental rotation
<a id="mental-rotation"></a>

Mental rotation is a spatial thinking ability in which a person forms a mental image of an object and imagines how it would look after being turned to a different orientation. It is used to recognize the same object from a new viewpoint.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 676b99e0357263c293c9d6858ee75b107ac0f83c7193599e9ecab0325efadce9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moore David S.; Moore Dawn Michele; Johnson Scott P.. Minding the gap: a sex difference in young infants’ mental rotation through thirty degrees of arc. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1415651; article XML SHA-256 999c046ec5b9cfcd7ed21f13d62224953c6232ea93ce4d4a02fed48f212858e4. “Minding the gap: a sex difference in young infants’ mental rotation through thirty degrees of arc” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1415651).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1415651). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Mental scale
<a id="mental-scale"></a>

A mental scale is a range of values used to describe a person’s level of mental development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 60226c78d106cf6c48f513772e254e32583508132fc72bb59f7b1d0df7ae25f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mental Scale” (C81264).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental status
<a id="mental-status"></a>

Mental status refers to a change in a person’s intellectual abilities, emotional condition, or overall mental health, described here as an adverse event.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c63222f9968ea3aaba2cf5508755617521059822d1e6b61d6ea223292a0e9dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mental Status, CTCAE” (C55432).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Mental Status Schedule
<a id="mental-status-schedule"></a>

A Mental Status Schedule is a standardized clinical interview used to evaluate a person’s current psychopathology by rating how they respond to its questions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bac8c0e21835f181adde4ef195c476f79082d951d1e2bd51f4531651ca47e90f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Mental Status Schedule” (D008609).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008609). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental synthesis
<a id="mental-synthesis"></a>

In this historical usage, mental synthesis is the combining of elements in consciousness so that some contents take the form of, or help form, others. It can include such processes as fusion, association, recognition, and the awareness of identity or resemblance, viewed in terms of how presented elements come together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cbfd9709a50a5c93a3ea2729fb82988e6fa22b2605bae1f6b19610aaca02d516

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Assimilation (in psychology)” (Assimilation (in psychology)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Assimilation (in psychology)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental test
<a id="mental-test"></a>

A mental test is an organized procedure for examining some aspect of mental functioning by giving a person a task and observing or measuring the result. In this historical usage, such tests covered many functions, from sensory discrimination and movement to memory, judgment, and interest, and could be carried out through methods like reproduction, selection, recognition, or ordered arrangement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abb7b814dbb01ee419ddf04b10dcc6082f3d5fe952132a865546fc0b8dea5c36

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3874500-3886500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mental workload
<a id="mental-workload"></a>

Mental workload is the mental cost involved in carrying out an activity. It refers to how demanding a task is on a person’s cognitive resources and can vary with the task’s complexity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69a41162b295140c2bae64f32caa682611747283d1cc091a7201a783b2af726c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Louis Lina-Estelle Linelle; Moussaoui Saïd; Van Langhenhove Aurélien; Ravoux Sébastien; Le Jan Thomas; Roualdes Vincent; Milleville-Pennel Isabelle. Cognitive tasks and combined statistical methods to evaluate, model, and predict mental workload. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1122793; article XML SHA-256 0a03ab791e1a852ea2520499bc16dadf1a4fbc3b42f55b9bebdaf1215a2d45d3. “Cognitive tasks and combined statistical methods to evaluate, model, and predict mental workload” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1122793).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1122793). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mentality
<a id="mentality"></a>

Mentality is the distinctive character or quality of a person’s mind or conscious life considered in an abstract way. It is also used to refer to different levels or grades of mental endowment, implying relatively higher or lower mentality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4182c9ad0933772ab1290def4fd327acf9042642308db74e3504dcd9d2395db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mentality” (Mentality).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Mentality). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mentalization
<a id="mentalization"></a>

Mentalization is the process of understanding your own and other people’s actions by seeing them as driven by mental states such as desires, needs, feelings, beliefs, and reasons. It can happen both automatically and consciously.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 226dbeeae4e0f5990157340bef22b0a7c638edd700b7ad73363c12512cc89302

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mentalization” (D000076563).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000076563). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mentor
<a id="mentor"></a>

A mentor is a person in a mentoring relationship who provides support that helps a student’s development, especially around degree progress, career direction, and serving as a role model. Mentors may come from within or outside an institution and can include peers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 12efa9ebbe3349bab9ca2d1c646b842bf25b88d30921755344e2e994c68ec900

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Loyola Irizarry Héctor G; Donis Krista; González Roxana; Uzcategui Mia; McCartney Melissa. Mentorship across institutional contexts: Insights from biology and biomedical science undergraduates at two institutions. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355290; article XML SHA-256 ff7bfcda5ac332faa878c21956bae8f591dfdc16c554ff0b96ca00807e420c5f. “Mentorship across institutional contexts: Insights from biology and biomedical science undergraduates at two institutions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355290).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355290). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mentoring
<a id="mentoring"></a>

Mentoring is the practice of helping a less experienced or less knowledgeable person develop through guidance, support, training, and counseling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34abfa775ca9f562c4235949c61599f6b51d08e749e0bd96dc694b9c63ad157e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mentoring” (D000071252).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000071252). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meperidine
<a id="meperidine"></a>

Meperidine is a narcotic pain-relieving drug used for moderate to severe pain. In mental health contexts, it is relevant because prolonged use can cause morphine-type dependence, and withdrawal begins sooner than with morphine and tends to last a shorter time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54e3bf001be5c4ed830da15ae6e685d0fd899c8f1378c21975cb07d8060f3707

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Meperidine” (D008614).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008614). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mephenytoin
<a id="mephenytoin"></a>

Mephenytoin is a heterocyclic anticonvulsant drug used to help prevent seizures. It appears to limit the spread of seizure activity in the brain by affecting sodium movement in neurons and raising resistance to excessive stimulation, but its use was limited because it could cause serious blood problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 308abfb347f863fb397d77ab4d28eb9188ce0fcfcf34db2f853b5c175c8f4ffe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mephenytoin” (C66091).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meprobamate
<a id="meprobamate"></a>

Meprobamate is a carbamate drug with sedative, sleep-inducing, and some muscle-relaxing effects. In mental health care, it has been used to treat anxiety disorders and for short-term management of insomnia, though it has largely been replaced by benzodiazepines.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5de390b4a3292195081d43490ef93a9fc84ae3ebde29ec1d450bfb01959ffba7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Meprobamate” (D008620).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008620). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mercy
<a id="mercy"></a>

Mercy is a character trait that leads a person to lessen penalties that could justly be imposed for wrongdoing. In the source, it is contrasted with justice because it softens what is deserved, and distinguished from compassion because compassion responds mainly to suffering rather than to blameworthiness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 49aa8577b9cf48d9405da03b1939de9e25f60f5e7eb229804f504e6eab3372fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mercy” (Mercy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Mercy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mere-exposure effect
<a id="mere-exposure-effect"></a>

The mere-exposure effect is the tendency for repeated contact with something that was initially unfamiliar to increase how positively it is felt or liked. In this source, it is described as an affective preference linked to familiarity, with evidence that higher anxiety is associated with a weaker effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f5c42f514229c6b3586512056adaa6e7e2d2a6fb341a3dbbc5c45daeaa6ddd8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ladd Sandra L.; Gabrieli John D. E.. Trait and state anxiety reduce the mere exposure effect. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00701; article XML SHA-256 a546894bfc97352d4ed0f01011d7b83e2309b02cf2fb3df910b25eafcba80db0. “Trait and state anxiety reduce the mere exposure effect” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00701).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00701). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Meridia
<a id="meridia"></a>

Meridia is sibutramine hydrochloride, a phenethylamine-derived drug with appetite-suppressing effects. Its active metabolites reduce reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin, and to a lesser extent dopamine, which can increase feelings of fullness and lower calorie intake.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f31df3681b1e35535b2fa43000e16a3a119742ddd62634148f26290ff11dbeeb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sibutramine Hydrochloride” (C47718).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meritocracy
<a id="meritocracy"></a>

Meritocracy is the idea that rewards and opportunities should go to people because of their ability and effort rather than unrelated personal factors. In psychology and education, it can also mean a person’s belief that success, especially academic success, mainly comes from effort and ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 436d9dae7159659e8c16100d4219b1f44a67a025e5924b720e86fe628a107a16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Yinfan. Meritocracy beliefs and empathic concern among Chinese college students: a moderated serial mediation model of zero-sum thinking and Protestant work ethic. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1837514; article XML SHA-256 d82b1b82cd2073757ac632d12bf1532c7003c574e19ac32a4b9d1b3a7d306a39. “Meritocracy beliefs and empathic concern among Chinese college students: a moderated serial mediation model of zero-sum thinking and Protestant work ethic” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1837514).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1837514). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Merkel’s corpuscle
<a id="merkels-corpuscle"></a>

Merkel’s corpuscle is a specialized touch-sensitive nerve ending in the epidermis. It consists of the cup-shaped end of an intraepidermal axon that contacts the base of a single modified keratinocyte.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aea97d1b9edf40eec6421fed934606ebeef188cd5240699f72a51f40a6443301

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Merkel's Corpuscle” (C13173).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Merkel’s tactile disk
<a id="merkels-tactile-disk"></a>

Merkel’s tactile disk is a specialized touch receptor in the epidermis. It consists of a cup-shaped ending of a nerve fiber that contacts the base of a single modified keratinocyte.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e6db7fccf6ded665cd6f6623015fce7cae42a77afd5b07c262eb93b461311447

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Merkel's Corpuscle” (C13173).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## merycism
<a id="merycism"></a>

Merycism is a gastrointestinal disorder in which recently eaten food is repeatedly and effortlessly brought back up from the stomach into the mouth soon after eating. It is linked with functional digestive problems and can occur alongside psychiatric conditions such as anxiety or depression, and it is distinct from reflux disease and vomiting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aaea0b3f1641be848ab3b6ee9b5ad9a4054c9ec20e94f18768fcba4bdf39ba95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Rumination Syndrome” (D000079562).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000079562). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mescaline
<a id="mescaline"></a>

Mescaline is a hallucinogenic alkaloid found in peyote, a cactus traditionally used in some Indigenous religious ceremonies. It can produce psychotomimetic effects and acts as an agonist at some serotonin receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9830008aebb80eb22e9058079dc193f32b03add352f779741361c4577aa9adab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mescaline” (D008635).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008635). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mesencephalic nucleus
<a id="mesencephalic-nucleus"></a>

The mesencephalic nucleus is one of the brainstem nerve-cell groups associated with the fifth cranial nerve. It is one of four trigeminal nuclei.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe97383bb7fdb68c173a7e79b0713b83019274c456cc857cadf280369c1beb45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Trigeminal Nucleus” (C12807).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mesencephalic tegmentum
<a id="mesencephalic-tegmentum"></a>

The mesencephalic tegmentum is the part of the midbrain located beneath the dorsal tectum. In this ventral midbrain region are major fiber pathways in the cerebral peduncles, along with structures such as the periaqueductal gray, substantia nigra, and red nucleus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 437ae74f108f87a82b8ea0410eb3def7c3703f50306f9e058ebd3380911f8618

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tegmentum Mesencephali” (D013681).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013681). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mesencephalon
<a id="mesencephalon"></a>

The mesencephalon is the embryonic middle brain vesicle that becomes the midbrain. In the mature brain, it is a short region linking the pons and diencephalon and includes dorsal and ventral parts involved in visual, auditory, and other sensorimotor functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7827c7a1bf687418b2c02f955c91c450dda189c5140e7f4476795ed07c35584e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mesencephalon” (D008636).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008636). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mesial temporal lobe epilepsy
<a id="mesial-temporal-lobe-epilepsy"></a>

Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy is a form of epilepsy that affects the inner part of the temporal lobe and is described here as the most common type seen in adults in surgical series. In this syndrome, hippocampal sclerosis has been used as a clinical sign linked to poor response to drug treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d4f2604992ff217fef95d149373ae83f6b8813f44fc5afac9e243be708db391

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Silva-Alves Mariana S.; Secolin Rodrigo; Carvalho Benilton S.; Yasuda Clarissa L.; Bilevicius Elizabeth; Alvim Marina K. M.; Santos Renato O.; Maurer-Morelli Claudia V.; Cendes Fernando; Lopes-Cendes Iscia. A Prediction Algorithm for Drug Response in Patients with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Based on Clinical and Genetic Information. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0169214; article XML SHA-256 2c1016ea7593a216a22fdecdd6746e1673e430af5f38a1e2ed143aa31c92cccd. “A Prediction Algorithm for Drug Response in Patients with Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Based on Clinical and Genetic Information” (10.1371/journal.pone.0169214).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169214). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meso-
<a id="meso"></a>

Meso- is a prefix meaning middle, moderate, or intermediate in size or position. In compounds, it indicates something between extremes, such as a medium length or form.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df92984f7a86477648ccbda67b65176d57a0c68ddc57a5a0ee33a2a59e9f328d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Meso-” (Meso-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Meso-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mesocephalic
<a id="mesocephalic"></a>

Mesocephalic means having a head of medium length, occupying a middle position between extremes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fea6a25a9ff430e3456dfe41a8fc06662d569c69511e42d55bb041b881a3bc62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Meso-” (Meso-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Meso-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mesocortical system
<a id="mesocortical-system"></a>

The mesocortical system is described here as a dopaminergic reward pathway that ends in parts of the frontal cortex such as the orbitofrontal cortex. In this context, it refers to a brain system involved in reward-related activity in the frontal region.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 81d69592bae5b7eaf86f6825ed4049bb79b8df1477c3db37485cbec5cc9c4db4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kosugi Wataru; Sumali Brian; Hamada Nozomu; Mitsukura Yasue. Effect of carbonated water on cerebral blood flow in the frontal region: a study using near-infrared spectroscopy. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnbeh.2024.1409123; article XML SHA-256 4683cf2fe5a7567eb6e2478cba3113f15105410e677dcdc107b875a1c26bbf73. “Effect of carbonated water on cerebral blood flow in the frontal region: a study using near-infrared spectroscopy” (10.3389/fnbeh.2024.1409123).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2024.1409123). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mesoderm
<a id="mesoderm"></a>

Mesoderm is the middle tissue layer in the developing embryo. It forms from paired masses of embryonic tissue located alongside the neural tube.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b1540b14b91594f6d8de21077bd056945b0166217c3f405429e8b9ac2835cd52

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mesoderm” (D008648).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008648). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mesolimbic system
<a id="mesolimbic-system"></a>

The mesolimbic system is a major dopamine pathway in the brain that links the midbrain with the limbic system. It runs from the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens and also connects with areas including the amygdala and prefrontal cortex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 874a9da731498e6ff7e975a546f5c54cc8a5deb4f073acb393f5d06f301008e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mesolimbic System” (D000098559).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000098559). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mesopic vision
<a id="mesopic-vision"></a>

Mesopic vision is the eye’s visual function under intermediate lighting conditions, when both rod and cone photoreceptors are active at the same time in processing light.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 28ddea7ad6617a2acb6942f3720c6f2829fbc7d6476ad424ba84246827f68bc7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mesopic Vision” (D055255).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055255). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mesosystem
<a id="mesosystem"></a>

In Ecological Systems Theory, the mesosystem is the interpersonal level that covers relationship-based influences. In this source, it includes factors such as the parent-child relationship and marital satisfaction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a93abdcaf3fdd7230b84687a43751a7ab9729bcc8876845054eb74be3b5155d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ren Xiaohe; Cai Yingying; Wang Jingyi; Chen Ou. A systematic review of parental burnout and related factors among parents. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12889-024-17829-y; article XML SHA-256 b0db0b642dba296de6a93774abf5e95b8a27ccca97530bd1428be8ef570d9940. “A systematic review of parental burnout and related factors among parents” (10.1186/s12889-024-17829-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-17829-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meta-analysis
<a id="meta-analysis"></a>

A meta-analysis is a research method used to systematically evaluate the effects of an intervention or other factor across studies, and it may also examine patterns such as dose–response relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5403f6e11afee592b04915d12bc37619d54c6ccd49cf3942243d8d1ce97363a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Ziqi; Mao Sujie; Wang Yaxin; Yang Huimin; Liu Chang; Wu Jiahe; Kang Jianxin. Dose–response relationship of exercise interventions on sleep quality in patients with depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1795196; article XML SHA-256 b00548c2f0bccd71690509b6e9f409d4699302aab4ccc6934e80cfbc8f3def18. “Dose–response relationship of exercise interventions on sleep quality in patients with depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1795196).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1795196). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meta-attention
<a id="meta-attention"></a>

Meta-attention is a learning-model mechanism used to give greater weight to the most relevant information when handling multiple tasks. In the source, it is described as helping a medical recommendation system prioritize useful data and knowledge so diagnosis can be modeled more effectively.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93da1ac0c0abd2010585b62ca0154f78a1eca8fbba74fa0005f38fd16ab105d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang YingShuai; Wan YanLi; Hu HongPu. Multi-task meta-attention network for traditional Chinese medicine diagnostic recommendation. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpubh.2025.1549679; article XML SHA-256 0f5429c0a6238f0e871d29cb26bddb4f2f7bcd72b573a741c6761d9cbf1d111e. “Multi-task meta-attention network for traditional Chinese medicine diagnostic recommendation” (10.3389/fpubh.2025.1549679).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2025.1549679). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metabolic encephalopathy
<a id="metabolic-encephalopathy"></a>

Metabolic encephalopathy is a group of brain disorders that happen when the brain’s chemical processes are disrupted. It typically involves reduced alertness and generally lowered brain functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e5758ca7c0c960045721c162745f1190aef4db76e925089f0923ef4df3ce2e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Metabolic Encephalopathy” (C197933).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metabolic rate
<a id="metabolic-rate"></a>

In this packet, metabolic rate refers to the body’s energy expenditure, especially resting metabolic rate, which is a major part of total daily energy use. It can vary with factors such as age, sex, and body composition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bb6847355459ed25f1e34b853d51d8a6748b9a64b33ca7a4f87ba9bc3afee69f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Herrera-Amante Carlos Abraham; Yáñez-Sepúlveda Rodrigo; Báez-San Martín Eduardo; Ramos-García César Octavio; Guzmán-Muñoz Eduardo; Olivares Rodrigo; López-Gil José Francisco. Estimation of resting metabolic rate in professional soccer players: A cross-sectional study comparing traditional predictive equations and a preliminary machine learning model against indirect calorimetry. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354973; article XML SHA-256 918ceb342080aebfe4d3edcd6a4837b2d5f4803d921b64aa724c6897852de81e. “Estimation of resting metabolic rate in professional soccer players: A cross-sectional study comparing traditional predictive equations and a preliminary machine learning model against indirect calorimetry” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354973).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354973). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metabolic screening
<a id="metabolic-screening"></a>

Metabolic screening is preventive testing used to check for cardiometabolic health risks, especially problems such as diabetes and abnormal blood lipids. In this context, it refers to measures like haemoglobin A1c and lipid testing to identify physical health risks that may be missed in people with serious mental illness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9d4cb85d8ab3f870c641eaf56303e246970beff5540aedbca5587c73cbe470c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hwong Alison R.; Chagwedera D. Nyasha; Thomas Marilyn; Niu Grace; Quan Judy; Vittinghoff Eric; Schillinger Dean; Newcomer John W.; Gonzalez Ana; Essock Susan; Mangurian Christina. CRANIUM: a quasi-experimental study to improve metabolic screening and HIV testing in community mental health clinics compared to usual care. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-04293-4; article XML SHA-256 9037ececff0d77e4b3576f2f79ccec7546b51fc5de5d0dc930d02d841980ffb7. “CRANIUM: a quasi-experimental study to improve metabolic screening and HIV testing in community mental health clinics compared to usual care” (10.1186/s12888-022-04293-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-04293-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metabolism
<a id="metabolism"></a>

Metabolism is the total set of changes taking place in a living body, including both building up and breaking down. It covers the constructive formation of living tissue from food materials and the destructive breakdown of living substance into simpler compounds that release energy for the organism’s activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c679d7188a4f3da03d6f899030d783dd84f9faf68982a2325c906ee77d76da1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Metabolism” (Metabolism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Metabolism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metachromatic leukodystrophy
<a id="metachromatic-leukodystrophy"></a>

Metachromatic leukodystrophy is an inherited disorder in which deficient arylsulfatase A leads to abnormal myelin development. It has late infantile, juvenile, and adult forms, and can involve problems with walking, developmental or mental decline, seizures, and in adults psychotic symptoms and dementia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a84dd59cce44a421363c5608d46528476fafd5d53063fa98c56183f10bd4afe9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Metachromatic Leukodystrophy” (C61251).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Metacognition
<a id="metacognition"></a>

Metacognition is awareness and understanding of your own thinking processes. It involves noticing and making sense of how you think.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 320df0a0fbb6f96f4cd2478557246744dd57ebe2cb337b4b2de1a6dcea71d85e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Metacognition” (D000067489).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067489). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metacontrast
<a id="metacontrast"></a>

Metacontrast is a kind of backward visual masking in which a briefly shown target becomes harder to see, or may disappear from awareness, when a following mask appears without overlapping it in space. Its masking effect usually follows a Type B pattern, with the strongest disruption at intermediate delays between target and mask, while very short delays can sometimes improve visibility if the two stimuli combine into a coherent perceptual whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b23606c4cba42da3be80a7b1faa8e4a769988d7ef997b82049ec1fde97cd29a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Contemori Giulio; Musa Marianna; Oletto Carolina Maria; Vicentin Stefano; Battaglini Luca; Cona Giorgia; Bertamini Marco. Metacontrast masking of symmetric stimuli. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330019; article XML SHA-256 1f2e41856a8d1762b2f01149ff7f6e0755754bef0d7f1df02111edf8f6869dfd. “Metacontrast masking of symmetric stimuli” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330019).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330019). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Metadate
<a id="metadate"></a>

Metadate CD is a once-daily form of methylphenidate used in treating attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In the source material, it is described as having a different release pattern from Concerta, with stronger symptom control earlier in the day.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b9df3cd5dfead6e9e69b04b98474789e52ac938c88b9b41f4dad519661757845

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sonuga-Barke Edmund JS; Swanson James M; Coghill David; DeCory Heleen H; Hatch Simon J. Efficacy of two once-daily methylphenidate formulations compared across dose levels at different times of the day: Preliminary indications from a secondary analysis of the COMACS study data. 2004; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-4-28; article XML SHA-256 b03bb14d984bbfd8cedc6e7d1ba53609af5e4618b1269d6bc265c62f524a2870. “Efficacy of two once-daily methylphenidate formulations compared across dose levels at different times of the day: Preliminary indications from a secondary analysis of the COMACS study data” (10.1186/1471-244x-4-28).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-4-28). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metalinguistic awareness
<a id="metalinguistic-awareness"></a>

Metalinguistic awareness is the ability to think about language as an object and consciously work with its structural features. It includes awareness of sounds, word parts, and written patterns, and is linked to vocabulary and literacy development across one or more languages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd937759ff9d3037dc6437819dfc85f1cb8a22c299cd37b2b9bcbae2ae291003

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shao Tongtong; Chen Lulu; Li Fan; Lu Feng; Zhang Haomin. The effect of metalinguistic awareness on bilingual vocabulary knowledge in Chinese deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1827855; article XML SHA-256 8a91f65a13cb33027ca5034d97d46afa77646e9554c8824ee82099a9f298ee3a. “The effect of metalinguistic awareness on bilingual vocabulary knowledge in Chinese deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1827855).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1827855). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metamemory
<a id="metamemory"></a>

Metamemory is a person’s awareness of their own memory and their ability to monitor, judge, and manage memory-related thinking and behavior. It includes understanding memory states such as knowing, remembering, and forgetting, and is closely linked to learning and everyday memory use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: afd998a79d806d3e5eb7b0beb410747736b5aab5a9bee78388bd4c449a062661

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Uehara Izumi. Developmental sequence of young children's understanding of “knowing,” “forgetting,” and “remembering”. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1626407; article XML SHA-256 1d0a184d229dba2d558b23ca65496d2445e2c4cb631c3a97f7be7337bdd0f904. “Developmental sequence of young children's understanding of “knowing,” “forgetting,” and “remembering”” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1626407).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1626407). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metamorphopsia
<a id="metamorphopsia"></a>

Metamorphopsia is a distortion of local or spatial perception in which sensations are referred to the wrong place, especially in vision when a displaced but still light-sensitive part of the retina no longer matches the outside world. The term was also applied historically to similar errors of localization in the skin after tissue has been shifted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 583f631dfa23208f05bcfe9f8e44f8721efc55df7477f8959f20577539386b36

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Metamorphopsia” (Metamorphopsia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Metamorphopsia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metamorphosis
<a id="metamorphosis"></a>

Metamorphosis is a marked, relatively sudden change in an individual’s form that noticeably alters its overall appearance and characteristics during development. It refers to abrupt developmental shifts, such as one life stage changing into another, rather than to gradual development from embryo to adult.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fb0e91aa97f1bfd46736007b3f36cec053ac0cd9d246302d4ac6c2c47e16432

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Metamorphosis” (Metamorphosis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Metamorphosis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metaphor
<a id="metaphor"></a>

In this source, metaphor refers specifically to grammatical metaphor: a way of expressing meaning through grammatical forms rather than only through individual words. It is used as a framework for examining how language becomes more abstract and technical, especially in academic and scientific writing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd91b7c1c5a54c0ffc318e454cca55ce105bb8395344d37f1c89d6507450691b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yu Yanchun; Wang Tianhua. Grammatical metaphor studies: historical review and outlook. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774523; article XML SHA-256 d4da77b2c39a0fc64bd91a59985576b826228127381f3c1a0b71de7cca77ab4e. “Grammatical metaphor studies: historical review and outlook” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774523).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774523). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metaphysics
<a id="metaphysics"></a>

Metaphysics is the central branch of philosophy concerned with understanding being and giving a systematic interpretation of experience as a connected whole. In this source, it is presented not as a study cut off from experience, but as an effort to think experience clearly, consistently, and in relation to all its parts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de5d81a900fc019e6154f0a0002c871afb6ae60d14d2c18ff001c3ad982fb474

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Metaphysics” (Metaphysics).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Metaphysics). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metempirical
<a id="metempirical"></a>

Metempirical refers to what lies beyond experience and cannot be checked or verified within the limits of possible experience. In its usual historical sense, it names inquiries excluded from science because they go past what experience can establish.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a28a5123cad85c078b708fc9d6b09afa751a83efb72c3bb0886b007785ad30f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Metempirical” (Metempirical).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Metempirical). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metempsychosis
<a id="metempsychosis"></a>

Metempsychosis is the belief that the soul passes after death from one body into another, whether human or animal. In historical thought, it is an early form of belief in the soul’s survival and prior existence, sometimes linked to moral consequences across lives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 32e0f10903a816a4cefe644669f8bab2e6b049b045582a3197c20199b6cc81be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Metempsychosis” (Metempsychosis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Metempsychosis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## metencephalon
<a id="metencephalon"></a>

The metencephalon is the front part of the developing hindbrain. It later forms the pons and cerebellum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d72737128de5e1a79a9d3165c3b9a10229512c60f47c34b45b1b27588b55477

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Metencephalon” (D020540).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020540). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## meth
<a id="meth"></a>

Meth is methamphetamine, a stimulant drug that acts on the central nervous system and has effects similar to dextroamphetamine. Its smokable form is commonly misused and is often called crystal meth, ice, crank, or speed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7b63c489a1388a35dbe83a76c625816b197ba65fa8394256862fcd69a1373ca3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Methamphetamine” (D008694).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008694). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## methadone
<a id="methadone"></a>

Methadone is a synthetic opioid drug that acts on central nervous system opioid receptors, especially the mu receptor, and has morphine-like effects such as pain relief, sedation, euphoria, and physical dependence. Compared with other morphine-like opioids, its withdrawal tends to begin more slowly, last longer, and be less severe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bddbcc87fcda5f78bf623c6a81a3cb88b3b5591be45b2b5a657339b1f53617f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Methadone” (C62044).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## methadone maintenance therapy
<a id="methadone-maintenance-therapy"></a>

Methadone maintenance therapy is a harm-reduction program for people who inject drugs that uses methadone and is intended to help prevent and control HIV and other blood-borne infections linked to needle sharing. In the source, people enrolled in this program are described as a high-risk group for hepatitis C and as having reduced injecting behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5abb17ce689289613cf82685a84b63141903d8b34a29f7bc8c7eae7d5e003693

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baharudin Mohd Hafiidz; Mokhtar Siti Aisah; Azman Ahmad Zaid Fattah; Mohd Nazan Ahmad Iqmer Nashriq. Utilizing Theory of Planned Behaviour to increase intention to participate in hepatitis C treatment therapy among Methadone maintenance therapy clients (MMT) in Malaysia: A cluster randomised control trial. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324718; article XML SHA-256 120ba7c250d22e751acced04af22c3248e5403fba9a9ddd7080547ff60c753a6. “Utilizing Theory of Planned Behaviour to increase intention to participate in hepatitis C treatment therapy among Methadone maintenance therapy clients (MMT) in Malaysia: A cluster randomised control trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324718).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324718). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## methamphetamine
<a id="methamphetamine"></a>

Methamphetamine is a stimulant that affects the central nervous system and activates the body's sympathetic response. It has effects similar to dextroamphetamine, and its smokable form is commonly misused and known by names such as crystal meth, ice, crank, and speed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: adaf13474fd9310a487f4d007988998528c73c96447dbdfcb8ff234d15de0cd3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Methamphetamine” (D008694).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008694). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## methaqualone
<a id="methaqualone"></a>

Methaqualone is a quinazoline-derived drug with sedative and sleep-inducing effects. In many countries it was removed from the market because of concerns about abuse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d871aa57a1b1808d6bc52761592f7ef3f5b6ccbc97ade12e644acb3114c4b8d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Methaqualone” (D008702).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008702). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## methocarbamol
<a id="methocarbamol"></a>

Methocarbamol is a carbamate drug with centrally acting muscle-relaxant effects. Its exact action is not established, but it is thought to work through cholinesterase inhibition in the autonomic nervous system, neuromuscular junction, and central nervous system, rather than by directly acting on the muscle’s contractile machinery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3421b5999fddb4b65daba191f8129c826b763e937dec2482021ecdbd8dd26d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Methocarbamol” (C29252).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## method of agreement
<a id="method-of-agreement"></a>

The method of agreement is a historical reasoning method that compares several cases in which a phenomenon occurs and looks for the one shared circumstance among otherwise differing cases. That common factor is then taken as evidence of a real connection, usually as a possible cause or effect, though the method is recognized as imperfect and often hard to apply in complex experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1311077468c50d3b37545936ad025c9241f8c9dd8880e4f699de24a72308dd2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aggrement (method of)” (Agreement (method of)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Agreement (method of)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## method of average error
<a id="method-of-average-error"></a>

A psychophysical error method in which one stimulus is adjusted until it seems equal to another, and the average discrepancy across repeated trials is then computed. It is used to study relations between stimuli and sensations and the accuracy of perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba8b33560d9b9787c1ba15e210b45a2903917b70a17cae946a4a17ebb1a0a2fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2226000-2238000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## method of constant stimuli
<a id="method-of-constant-stimuli"></a>

The method of constant stimuli is a psychophysical procedure for finding a person’s point of subjective equality by presenting a standard stimulus alongside a set of comparison stimuli spread at fixed intervals across a range. The comparison stimuli are shown one at a time in random order, usually many times, and the person judges which stimulus has more or less of the target quality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c72a5c95356da018d21daf2e20b08dd1ab95ef9b10c9c8c85b9bda0a9b69c1b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vidotto Giulio; Anselmi Pasquale; Robusto Egidio. New Perspectives in Computing the Point of Subjective Equality Using Rasch Models. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02793; article XML SHA-256 994f2419d0ffacdbec8b55637272a766581e5ab7968061fd6021ab22b34a6888. “New Perspectives in Computing the Point of Subjective Equality Using Rasch Models” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02793).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02793). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## method of difference
<a id="method-of-difference"></a>

The method of difference is a historical logical method used in discovery or proof by comparing two situations that are alike except that the phenomenon being studied is present in one and absent in the other. The reasoning is that the factor that changes along with the phenomenon may be its cause, its effect, or an essential part of its cause, and the method is especially suited to experiment because such controlled differences are hard to obtain in ordinary observation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db6f7d834355b25a1ce9d777d2df5cae7e0aababde5dbfd15dc856a8f5e88ed4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Difference (method of)” (Difference (method of)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Difference (method of)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## method of equal-appearing intervals
<a id="method-of-equal-appearing-intervals"></a>

A psychophysical method for studying larger perceived differences by arranging three stimuli so that the gap from the first to the second seems equal to the gap from the second to the third. It compares stimulus changes that look equally large, rather than changes that are merely just noticeable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c974de9d26c76a61d1f3eb3797d80184cf92b4e26b724c8ceb5fdcc069a708d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## method of exclusion
<a id="method-of-exclusion"></a>

The method of exclusion is an approach used to identify behavior differences that may be cultural by ruling out other likely explanations, such as ecological or genetic variation, as far as possible. It is mainly used to catalog candidate cultural traits for later study of their causes and the social learning processes involved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 134d0d017e45ec8ddc56a6e7253fc969bc46d8125dc0589e015411fc9be6555b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Robbins Martha M.; Ando Chieko; Fawcett Katherine A.; Grueter Cyril C.; Hedwig Daniela; Iwata Yuji; Lodwick Jessica L.; Masi Shelly; Salmi Roberta; Stoinski Tara S.; Todd Angelique; Vercellio Veronica; Yamagiwa Juichi. Behavioral Variation in Gorillas: Evidence of Potential Cultural Traits. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0160483; article XML SHA-256 6006011df9cdf041c7dd1fba558b603d972502cc943c00d24db824f9d9a687a6. “Behavioral Variation in Gorillas: Evidence of Potential Cultural Traits” (10.1371/journal.pone.0160483).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0160483). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## method of limits
<a id="method-of-limits"></a>

The method of limits is a staircase-type adaptive procedure used to estimate sensory thresholds, such as auditory thresholds. In this source, it is listed as one of the classic methods for threshold estimation in psychoacoustics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b8e641138972e6206c63b1340db772a14d9c1adb6af3842cbaa6d56436fad35

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Soranzo Alessandro; Grassi Massimo. PSYCHOACOUSTICS: a comprehensive MATLAB toolbox for auditory testing. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00712; article XML SHA-256 fd1c9df2bbc7b665ff473e506b12a1e68fd0b677c454ab61772f72ea6e6ca3e4. “PSYCHOACOUSTICS: a comprehensive MATLAB toolbox for auditory testing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00712).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00712). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## method of loci
<a id="method-of-loci"></a>

The method of loci is a memory strategy that uses imagined familiar places to help encode and later recall information. A person mentally places items in selected locations within a remembered environment and then retrieves them by mentally moving through that “memory palace.”

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 48ccf23d984ea6d914d8945b12c72627255e0f475259e52caf34df87a37d9aa8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sousa Ana Elisa; Mahdid Yacine; Brodeur Mathieu; Lepage Martin. A Feasibility Study on the Use of the Method of Loci for Improving Episodic Memory Performance in Schizophrenia and Non-clinical Subjects. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.612681; article XML SHA-256 0775f3483dee20ed2aab4dada5e19aa011bd50cfc756fe47c3d78048e09fcb84. “A Feasibility Study on the Use of the Method of Loci for Improving Episodic Memory Performance in Schizophrenia and Non-clinical Subjects” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.612681).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.612681). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## method of right and wrong cases
<a id="method-of-right-and-wrong-cases"></a>

In historical psychophysics, the method of right and wrong cases is an error method in which two stimuli that differ only slightly are presented and the observer judges which seems greater. It was used to study how accurately small differences in sensation or perception can be detected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c4f8b5c5c001551c5ced21ace2fc53d111a296559d9471b93fed7489c2f25c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2226000-2238000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## method of triads
<a id="method-of-triads"></a>

The method of triads is a validation approach that compares three different ways of measuring the same construct to estimate how well each reflects an underlying true value. In this study context, it used questionnaire, diary, and device-based sleep measures to calculate a validity coefficient for sleep duration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2cb836989a523f00e68bee4e4b6053f075602870ffa093084b00ae35c38b0819

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Donzella Sidney M; Masters Matthew; Phipps Amanda I; Patel Alpa V; Zhong Charlie. Validity of self-reported sleep duration in the Cancer Prevention Study– 3. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307409; article XML SHA-256 4ab58d40e835c314d4e720225dfbd96e21a6ae2c44a4f2ee2a922cf8c4709818. “Validity of self-reported sleep duration in the Cancer Prevention Study– 3” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307409).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307409). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## methodological individualism
<a id="methodological-individualism"></a>

Methodological individualism is an approach to studying cognition that centers explanation on the individual, especially on internal cognitive mechanisms. In the source context, it is contrasted with wider approaches that also include interactions with other people, groups, tools, and the environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53cf01528c7d48ec744cf45bd099d0923a3979e53400534d414800428504a67a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Miłkowski Marcin; Clowes Robert; Rucińska Zuzanna; Przegalińska Aleksandra; Zawidzki Tadeusz; Krueger Joel; Gies Adam; McGann Marek; Afeltowicz Łukasz; Wachowski Witold; Stjernberg Fredrik; Loughlin Victor; Hohol Mateusz. From Wide Cognition to Mechanisms: A Silent Revolution. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02393; article XML SHA-256 d672e7db6dde4bcbae6653985811bf38a883ae71dd3432dce201c64d48571418. “From Wide Cognition to Mechanisms: A Silent Revolution” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02393).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02393). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## methodological pluralism
<a id="methodological-pluralism"></a>

Methodological pluralism means that the studies in a body of research use a range of different methods rather than one uniform approach. In this context, it refers to expected variation in how eligible studies were designed, making a narrative summary more suitable than combining findings in a single standardized way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b02c68a55ef95af8232ec8616f4cd32fd26b4af2d5b20c86779a9b1a44f8e43d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mohamed Hind; Salsberg Jon; Kelly Dervla. An integrative review protocol on interventions to improve users’ ability to identify trustworthy online health information. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0284028; article XML SHA-256 a4e5ff864fc751865eb45bb5fa8db76edc6773da9989162ee32e5bffeaf028ec. “An integrative review protocol on interventions to improve users’ ability to identify trustworthy online health information” (10.1371/journal.pone.0284028).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284028). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## methodological triangulation
<a id="methodological-triangulation"></a>

Methodological triangulation is the use of more than one research method to study the same question so each method adds a different kind of evidence. In this packet, it refers to combining structural equation modeling with fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis to capture both average relationships between variables and multiple context-dependent pathways to the same outcome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26fec9996d749b86d80e2b0866afea22ad2b9e953472d3133d35cb658531a2c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiao Yongji; Cheng Hai; Huang Xinyi; Ouyang Jieyu; Li Qishu; Wang Ruirui. From net effects to configurational pathways: a dual examination of employee innovative behavior through integrated SEM-fsQCA framework. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1729200; article XML SHA-256 6b572be0ac469c0b8ed391973fbb226e8afcb58540e1a76be206a98b9337eb59. “From net effects to configurational pathways: a dual examination of employee innovative behavior through integrated SEM-fsQCA framework” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1729200).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1729200). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## methotrimeprazine
<a id="methotrimeprazine"></a>

Methotrimeprazine is a phenothiazine, or typical antipsychotic, with calming and sleep-promoting effects as well as anti-anxiety, anti-nausea, pain-relieving, and antipsychotic actions. It appears to work by blocking several central nervous system receptor systems, including dopamine, histamine, serotonin, cholinergic, and adrenergic receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ff256802036c289ec3b1553bf79ced7b9ae75708efdd472b01ed575ae32b0642

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Levomepromazine” (C66118).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## methoxyhydroxyphenylglycol
<a id="methoxyhydroxyphenylglycol"></a>

Methoxyhydroxyphenylglycol is a substance produced in the body from epinephrine and norepinephrine. It can be measured in the brain, blood, cerebrospinal fluid, and urine, and its levels are used as an indicator of catecholamine turnover.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3313d02830598dcef1d9ae6cbaf1db3b285cac7ad9c8d2149e62db534d47c43b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Methoxyhydroxyphenylglycol” (D008734).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008734). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## methyldopa
<a id="methyldopa"></a>

Methyldopa is a drug with blood-pressure-lowering effects. It is converted in the central nervous system into a substance that stimulates central alpha-2 receptors, which reduces sympathetic nerve activity and lowers blood pressure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c93d1647938fd0a6f44b9068f6a8260e9e39c469e66d6e75cb13fe60692f45d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Methyldopa” (C47616).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## methylphenidate
<a id="methylphenidate"></a>

Methylphenidate is a central nervous system stimulant most often used to treat attention deficit disorder in children and narcolepsy. It has effects that appear similar to dextroamphetamine, and its d-isomer is called dexmethylphenidate hydrochloride.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8912b136d03695b06ba1ea48f98b1e5eb9c3b8d7eb88d607e379787327633443

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Methylphenidate” (D008774).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008774). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## methysergide
<a id="methysergide"></a>

Methysergide is an ergot-derived drug related to lysergic acid diethylamide that blocks serotonin’s effects in blood vessels and gastrointestinal smooth muscle. It has been used to help prevent migraine and other vascular headaches and to counter serotonin effects in carcinoid syndrome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 651dd355dd3c423a0061d44c5c505dec55df21b13aa671712b13531c5f8c577b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Methysergide” (D008784).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008784). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MFF
<a id="mff"></a>

MFF stands for multimodal feature fusion. In this context, it is a model component that combines different feature outputs, along with fusion at the decision level, to make motor imagery signal decoding more robust.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6192f926506ddee5a7fd26d51b7acd2d0e68bc416f4c7c69fa30d7ed3c1cd467

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cao DianGuo; Yu ZhenYuan; Wang Jinqiang; Wu Yuqiang. SMMTM: Motor imagery EEG decoding algorithm using a hybrid multi-branch separable convolutional self-attention temporal convolutional network. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333805; article XML SHA-256 01d6e31b3cadecff2048be31c4c50c9ded2b8b1f4d75ed9d58bdbc117e29caec. “SMMTM: Motor imagery EEG decoding algorithm using a hybrid multi-branch separable convolutional self-attention temporal convolutional network” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333805).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333805). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MHC
<a id="mhc"></a>

MHC usually refers here to the Mental Health Continuum-Short Form, a questionnaire used to assess well-being. In this source, it is examined in both a retrospective two-week form and a daily diary version, with strongest support for measuring overall well-being and emotional well-being and more caution needed for psychological and social well-being in daily assessment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 28af61038f6a18acfca87e1e35a10cfd7903a30eecf9fabb3f57ea0308c5b1b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ploke Veronika; Batinic Bernad; Stieger Stefan. Capturing daily well-being: psychometric evaluation of the MHC-SF in a daily diary design. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887563; article XML SHA-256 81da85b0c57155373629975178026a10adc66bc0f891a467d68f95fbfe970826. “Capturing daily well-being: psychometric evaluation of the MHC-SF in a daily diary design” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887563).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887563). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MHPG
<a id="mhpg"></a>

MHPG, or methoxyhydroxyphenylglycol, is a body-produced breakdown product of epinephrine and norepinephrine. It can be detected in the brain, blood, cerebrospinal fluid, and urine, and the amount present is used to reflect catecholamine turnover.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8fd253fbefb38adb0af5cc06956377359e6aaa03f049fdfe16e69a09b7795a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Methoxyhydroxyphenylglycol” (D008734).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008734). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MHV
<a id="mhv"></a>

MHV refers to murine hepatitis virus, a coronavirus that infects mice and can cause hepatitis. Different strains have been identified, including one that targets nervous system tissue and can produce widespread brain and spinal cord inflammation with loss of myelin, as well as localized liver tissue death.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 28dc21724a31e6b3ddba10f0a4ea08f89221637b235ffd147723fd5245708be6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Murine hepatitis virus” (D006517).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006517). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mianserin
<a id="mianserin"></a>

Mianserin is a tetracyclic antidepressant. It can cause drowsiness and blood-related side effects, and its therapeutic action is not fully understood, though it appears to block alpha-adrenergic, histamine H1, and some serotonin receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d419350bf30d03c99783c78611ed009c2bf01478c34230f1fe165ab3ec9938d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mianserin” (D008803).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008803). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test
<a id="michigan-alcoholism-screening-test"></a>

The Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test is a screening measure used to assess the level or severity of alcohol dependence in people with alcohol use problems. In the source material, it was used to measure alcohol dependence level in adults with alcohol use disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e502c020affb32e6a02d49efa41ab6d434524fde358c8320b9e5c58f9873c053

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Yuyu; Zhao Ke; Chen Yingjie; Wu Liujun; Qiu Feng; Yuan Yuying; Shen Guanghui; Wang Kexin; Kang Yimin; Jiang Yongsheng; Wang Wei; Chen Li; Liu Yanlong; Pan Xuebo; Wang Fan; Xie Longteng. The interaction between the major vault protein rs4788186 polymorphism, alcohol dependence, and depression among male Chinese problem drinkers. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1111712; article XML SHA-256 e171bfe2c1af41d3aa30b9cd56749be2abd10c5439f5e4fc7ab7bd1678315eba. “The interaction between the major vault protein rs4788186 polymorphism, alcohol dependence, and depression among male Chinese problem drinkers” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1111712).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1111712). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## micro-
<a id="micro"></a>

In this context, micro- means the individual level. It refers to personal factors within a person, such as coping patterns or individual characteristics, in contrast to larger organizational levels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5606f384c79bf169c1bd6936a5119c83f8af5390ac2fa68e5ebcaf6b13940039

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Straub Gloria Ch.; Prinz Wolfgang H.; Lueger-Schuster Brigitte. Soldiers’ resilience? A systematic review of micro-, meso-, and macro-level resilience factors in the military. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857328; article XML SHA-256 7581bed4e7e836d39f6838605f8d9f565b35f4f635f33d1412a915c51e74f345. “Soldiers’ resilience? A systematic review of micro-, meso-, and macro-level resilience factors in the military” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857328).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857328). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## microaggression
<a id="microaggression"></a>

A microaggression is a brief comment, action, or situation that conveys a hostile, insulting, or negative slight toward someone. It can be deliberate or unintentional and includes openly discriminatory acts, subtle demeaning messages, and dismissals or negations of a person’s identity or thoughts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07c09a404c60e19a4ea272d52116227da094a36e26082cc19f75fabc2d021918

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Microaggression” (D000088828).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000088828). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## microcephaly
<a id="microcephaly"></a>

Microcephaly is a congenital condition in which the cerebrum does not fully develop and the fontanels close too early, resulting in an abnormally small head.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d283ed1f2fa345e3ab16cf8af85e6757c60a4e75f728b1e638b7b595290897b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Microcephaly” (D008831).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008831). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## microcounseling
<a id="microcounseling"></a>

Microcounseling is a counselling theory that identifies basic techniques shared across counselling and organizes them into a hierarchical framework. It breaks broader interpersonal communication abilities into specific skills that can be analyzed, taught, and evaluated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b90743dc96a3ff4e8ad7386e602e793c0d03c3cef30765d8e95730a1afd4d78e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kondo Junko; Tomizawa Rie; Jibu Tetsuya; Kamide Kei. Developing an interpersonal communication skill scale targeting female nursing students. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s13104-020-4896-6; article XML SHA-256 efa7ee11e2cb895207dc95b06f92c5acaa1417478f0c16dcdebe0504c93cd213. “Developing an interpersonal communication skill scale targeting female nursing students” (10.1186/s13104-020-4896-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-020-4896-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## microdialysis
<a id="microdialysis"></a>

Microdialysis is a blood-sampling method used to collect small molecules from the interstitial space, the fluid around cells. It is used to measure substances such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and peptides in a study subject.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 30971cc102b9555885d4a0343f05556b28785bc2506be7ceda8e8f1478fc1842

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Microdialysis” (C116642).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## microglia
<a id="microglia"></a>

Microglia are a type of glial cell in the central nervous system, distinct from the macroglia such as astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Their form can differ by developmental stage, location, and activity, and they can engulf material, contribute to immune-related functions, and help with nervous system development, remodeling, and disease processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6b081fca409462cce9dd19b73b5b8671bfc8666eb67a3207fda40265609439f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Microglia” (D017628).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017628). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## micrographia
<a id="micrographia"></a>

Micrographia is a handwriting problem marked by abnormally small writing, described as a reduction in writing amplitude. It occurs frequently in Parkinson’s disease and often makes handwriting harder to read.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cce649cf147538558902e822337baddf8699d51cefd0e21fd586e7557d83ab73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nackaerts Evelien; Broeder Sanne; Pereira Marcelo P.; Swinnen Stephan P.; Vandenberghe Wim; Nieuwboer Alice; Heremans Elke. Handwriting training in Parkinson’s disease: A trade-off between size, speed and fluency. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0190223; article XML SHA-256 04fe4ad3c99f6bc1aa46b7e964c72ea3e517a99bf9d6906c9d20586932a052bc. “Handwriting training in Parkinson’s disease: A trade-off between size, speed and fluency” (10.1371/journal.pone.0190223).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190223). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## micropolygyria
<a id="micropolygyria"></a>

Micropolygyria is a group of brain cortex malformations in which there are too many unusually small, partly fused folds, shallow grooves, and abnormal layering of the cortex. It is understood as arising from abnormal later-stage development of neurons in the cerebral cortex and is associated with epilepsy and learning difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f000ace5b5da63c36f4192e8c88494172bac8a2d7d9a68932657cd2724917be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Polymicrogyria” (D065706).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065706). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## micropsia
<a id="micropsia"></a>

Micropsia is a visual perceptual distortion in which things are seen as smaller than they really are.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7184855d8dc89b595abcf99aaa7c52132e10fcf7fd9b360c01dd531cef14ca9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Micropsia” (C118304).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## micropsychosis
<a id="micropsychosis"></a>

Micropsychosis is a historical term for spontaneous, fragmentary mental activity or vague thought that is not guided by current surroundings. In the passage, it is described especially in infants and children, and compared with dreams, wandering thoughts, and other uncontrolled thought in adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce7883ec5f9ca48f6349584dff2e50c8217170f86bf50b21e6ef9cdd58a38144

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2719500-2731500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## microsaccades
<a id="microsaccades"></a>

Microsaccades are tiny, involuntary eye movements that happen while a person is trying to keep their gaze fixed. In psychology and vision research, they are studied because they relate to visual processing and appear to track shifts in attention, including both perceptual and working-memory attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 075a72cfe7071f39f8da53b2f3d4c3d3a77a7cdc7deeb7dd7742826aa4c18be5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gu Quan; Zhang Qikai; Han Yueming; Li Pengfei; Gao Zaifeng; Shen Mowei. Microsaccades reflect attention shifts: a mini review of 20 years of microsaccade research. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1364939; article XML SHA-256 db939c40528077864570a402a57ccbe13e22c6f8628c89a7bdb653b08001b831. “Microsaccades reflect attention shifts: a mini review of 20 years of microsaccade research” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1364939).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1364939). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## microscopic level
<a id="microscopic-level"></a>

Microscopic level refers to viewing or representing a tissue or cell sample at the scale seen through a microscope. In the source context, it describes the level of detail captured in a digital slide image of a complete specimen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ad29e15b52d193b400c2ceaa8db10a261a76ca445c8642f2531f7bd6ae62521c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Della Mea Vincenzo; Baroni Giulia L; Pilutti David; Di Loreto Carla. SlideJ: An ImageJ plugin for automated processing of whole slide images. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0180540; article XML SHA-256 509ed9eff39d1e4f96f99ea181a8c37bfc7b2d5006b8a42d046a1b10f98d30a7. “SlideJ: An ImageJ plugin for automated processing of whole slide images” (10.1371/journal.pone.0180540).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180540). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## microsystem
<a id="microsystem"></a>

In this model, the microsystem is the immediate social environment that can encourage professional help-seeking, especially through family support and peers serving as examples. It is one level of environmental influence shaping how a student responds to mental health difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 279ed8d7478c668a5422c7af0c7bbccb2109b8c89328cb2c25cec6f9ccf80554

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Chao. Facilitators of professional psychological help-seeking among university students: a narrative review from an individual–environment dual-dimensional perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1917476; article XML SHA-256 070e5617c037a58122b672eebd7e1c17e3b1c6f99fe41ab0d310fba07b45175f. “Facilitators of professional psychological help-seeking among university students: a narrative review from an individual–environment dual-dimensional perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1917476).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1917476). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## microtubule
<a id="microtubule"></a>

A microtubule is a cellular structure made through tubulin polymerization, and it can be disrupted by compounds that bind tubulin. Because blocking microtubule formation can halt cells in the G2–M phase, microtubules are important targets in cancer research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e03ad4322d846034fa34c70438146f0c95729914befc806f4e693af76e05f1a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Herman Jean; Vanstreels Els; Bardiot Dorothée; Prota Andrea E.; Gaillard Natacha; Gao Ling-Jie; Vercruysse Thomas; Persoons Leentje; Daems Tinne; Waer Mark; Herdewijn Piet; Louat Thierry; Steinmetz Michel O.; De Jonghe Steven; Sprangers Ben; Daelemans Dirk. 3-nitropyridine analogues as novel microtubule-targeting agents. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307153; article XML SHA-256 a43ab75717a36269572fd3ad75cf6bc67b5b7d0cbe7efdc4927c6eb48aeea1de. “3-nitropyridine analogues as novel microtubule-targeting agents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307153).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307153). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## midazolam
<a id="midazolam"></a>

Midazolam is a short-acting benzodiazepine with anxiety-reducing, memory-impairing, sleep-inducing, anticonvulsant, and sedating effects. It works in the central nervous system by acting at the GABA receptor complex to strengthen GABA’s inhibitory effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df4f451dfea699033bcf2e80fc23d2705431b75a2eb5820bcdd73dab1555e671

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Midazolam” (C62049).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## midbrain
<a id="midbrain"></a>

The midbrain is the upper part of the brainstem, situated between the pons and the diencephalon. It includes major nerve pathways and structures such as the cerebral peduncles, substantia nigra, and several nuclei.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5fa685101f0f3c907c4dedc1ba48b06f57786259e6aa9388ee1497dda76b4c19

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Midbrain” (C12510).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## middle cerebral artery
<a id="middle-cerebral-artery"></a>

The middle cerebral artery is the largest artery of the cerebrum. It divides into temporal, frontal, and parietal branches that supply much of the cortex in those lobes, including areas important for movement, sensation, and speech.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b7bdc3c63a674a5a4181dd9aeb00746adfe1ba40646945b8b4ee5b67a11542d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Middle Cerebral Artery” (D020768).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020768). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## middle cranial fossa
<a id="middle-cranial-fossa"></a>

The middle cranial fossa is a hollowed area at the base of the skull located behind and below the anterior cranial fossa and in front of the posterior cranial fossa. It supports the temporal lobes of the brain and the pituitary gland.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b062ba3562d5281d55b205114296b3d1e0f2ecbc13bbf3e69fdae5675fb502d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Middle Cranial Fossa” (C33117).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## middle ear
<a id="middle-ear"></a>

The middle ear is the air-filled space and related structures just behind the eardrum and before the inner ear. It includes the tiny hearing bones and the Eustachian tube, which links this cavity to the upper throat.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 638fadbe167235c69bd62aa66dbdf511e7277da1685d98996d6e98af01db2236

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ear, Middle” (D004432).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004432). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## middle temporal gyrus
<a id="middle-temporal-gyrus"></a>

The middle temporal gyrus is a brain region; the packet specifically describes its left posterior part as helping with higher-level semantic processing for recognizing objects and integrating visual information. In this study context, it appears to support recognizing shapes and reconstructing them during drawing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa04086c552d411558c764ada46e0d4c35b8beee7b9827d4d215b7ea4169eed5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Okamoto Nakako; Seiyama Akitoshi; Hori Shota; Takahashi Satoru. Role of the left posterior middle temporal gyrus in shape recognition and its reconstruction during drawing: A study combining transcranial magnetic stimulation and functional near infrared spectroscopy. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302375; article XML SHA-256 2cc286ad347f50ac5d171edf0da73cb8d6ca91f393b79e10196c36287cc151d7. “Role of the left posterior middle temporal gyrus in shape recognition and its reconstruction during drawing: A study combining transcranial magnetic stimulation and functional near infrared spectroscopy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302375).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302375). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## migraine headache
<a id="migraine-headache"></a>

Migraine headache is a disabling primary headache disorder marked by repeated throbbing headaches, often on one side of the head. Major forms include migraine without aura and migraine with aura or other neurological symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba0404791b22ea2a6ddc0b8a6732272e42c3b2686a3ab1e20d3a6945f23949c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Migraine Disorders” (D008881).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008881). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Migranal
<a id="migranal"></a>

Migranal is dihydroergotamine mesylate, an ergot-derived drug that acts on alpha-adrenergic, serotonin, and dopamine receptors. It is used to relieve migraine headaches, likely by stimulating 5-HT1D receptors to narrow brain blood vessels and possibly reduce inflammatory neuropeptide release from trigeminal sensory nerves.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e142d2e56858f4d7e0153c1e091c29e3347bb4cbacf7fb16e2ef2d92b0d05afb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dihydroergotamine Mesylate” (C47491).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MIH
<a id="mih"></a>

Mih refers to Mih Teih, a Chinese thinker presented here as opposing the principle of “each for himself.” He taught that social disorder comes from lack of mutual love and that order depends on universal, reciprocal affection among people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 19c0dde08e3b633a583072575ff5630729516ab00b9b926ecfc39684e383d295

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1365000-1377000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mild cognitive impairment
<a id="mild-cognitive-impairment"></a>

Mild cognitive impairment is a state in which memory, language, and judgment are reduced, but not enough to interfere with usual daily activities. It can come before dementia develops.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c13f7bc7c50dd1cff397aa49de0115e3ea69fc706f53536a43ee12003f88577

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mild Cognitive Impairment” (C215366).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## milieu
<a id="milieu"></a>

Milieu means the environment or surrounding conditions in which a person or organism exists. In historical usage, the term was broadened from biology to include intellectual surroundings and was also used in sociology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df78b828ccb75bb9d49e1dd33f39c56b0d789de268f86a9cdaf36db9681dda28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Milieu” (Milieu).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Milieu). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Milieu Therapy
<a id="milieu-therapy"></a>

Milieu therapy is a treatment program in which medical staff deliberately shape a patient’s surroundings as part of care. In this approach, the patient does not take part in planning the treatment regimen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b6e00fb079604d697370f83a0baf8afba639f7321cac53a7c89500451973d2b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Milieu Therapy” (D008884).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008884). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## military environment
<a id="military-environment"></a>

In this source, a military environment means the operational setting in which soldiers and cadets work and prepare to lead. It is described as changeable, complex, unpredictable, and ambiguous, requiring training for how to act, make decisions, and perform effectively under demanding physical and psychological conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3bca972c70c2597dc2f44f214b9e5f35ff6ff6e587e8bacc025cc429dfa15f13

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bekesiene Svajone. Impact of personality on cadet academic and military performance within mediating role of self-efficacy. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1266236; article XML SHA-256 48517810f06c341f2ae2ba8fbc891ba6af51a13c37d27569ac48ca86db74bc10. “Impact of personality on cadet academic and military performance within mediating role of self-efficacy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1266236).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1266236). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## military psychology
<a id="military-psychology"></a>

Military psychology is an applied area of psychology focused on the mental and behavioral aspects of work in the armed forces, including how personnel are selected, assigned, trained, and supported in morale.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5cc8dd3e92489b6e5073470211927390ccf8a4a9a6935387f5a15475f50900e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychology, Military” (D011592).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011592). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Military Sexual Trauma
<a id="military-sexual-trauma"></a>

Military sexual trauma refers to physical and psychological harm caused by sexual violence that occurs during military service.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8985713bc5f0c14c04ad237c3cfe3d1aaf58ea9b04302c124addba020cc71d79

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Military Sexual Trauma” (D000094964).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000094964). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## millenarianism
<a id="millenarianism"></a>

Millenarianism is the belief that Christ will personally reign on earth in a future era when evil is held in check and Christianity becomes universally dominant. It grows out of messianic hopes for a coming golden age of both worldly and spiritual prosperity, with the expected time and duration left indefinite.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e176f0e504c975025802696af416ce4e7509dae442384ceeb105a13747443e62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Millenarianism” (Millenarianism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Millenarianism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory
<a id="millon-clinical-multiaxial-inventory"></a>

The Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory is a psychological assessment that uses true/false questions. It is used with adults as a screening or clinical evaluation tool when they have emotional or interpersonal difficulties or are being assessed during psychotherapy or a psychodiagnostic evaluation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a1e946de38c2bb5a4215906b9b2844c21a7f0f507736b406f6459ed80443726

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory” (D058010).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058010). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Miltown
<a id="miltown"></a>

Miltown is meprobamate, a carbamate-derived drug with calming and sleep-inducing effects. It can reduce anxiety, act as a sedative and anticonvulsant, and has some indirect muscle-relaxing properties by depressing activity at multiple sites in the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0de2fa901b5bfbdb6d9b9f705a320e5209322a911d3eeb72656bd1a3880cdcde

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Meprobamate” (C47603).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mimetic
<a id="mimetic"></a>

Mimetic means resembling or imitating something else in its structure or effects. In this source, it refers to compounds that act like GABA by activating GABA receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69f8178fdf2a8ada4efb58ecd77efa1fda3340fd44bd66a7689171824577c988

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meera Pratap; Uusi-Oukari Mikko; Wallner Martin; Lipshutz Gerald S. Guanidino compounds with native GABA(A) δ receptor selectivity: a tale of homeostatic compensation in δ-KO mice. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12868-025-00987-z; article XML SHA-256 5638c5112b0e77ed64d0b4bf29b9b5a28ab410c2544ea7bf658eba6c156e0cbe. “Guanidino compounds with native GABA(A) δ receptor selectivity: a tale of homeostatic compensation in δ-KO mice” (10.1186/s12868-025-00987-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-025-00987-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mind control
<a id="mind-control"></a>

Mind control refers to a broad set of intense, often coercive methods used to bring about major changes in a person's attitudes, beliefs, and emotions. It has commonly been discussed in relation to prisoners of war and members of religious cults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 32cd04834760379e3186692ae11eeef57ef180722c075f5e42cd1a5804e0ae27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brainwashing” (D000096965).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000096965). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mind wandering
<a id="mind-wandering"></a>

In this historical source, mind wandering means a temporary drifting or straying of thought seen during acute illness, especially fever. It refers to a mild delirious state in which attention to the present weakens and the person’s mind turns away from current surroundings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b9013ef2f6cd298b0089c2d3223cf01caab5e59885860fdf0664f19bb2c49b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1911000-1923000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mind–body intervention
<a id="mindbody-intervention"></a>

A mind–body intervention is a healthcare approach used for physical and psychological therapy that directs attention to the body and to inner experience. It can include trance-like or hypnotic elements and may involve a non-ordinary state of consciousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35ab4a5360a17435de7ed3ff55bdfe31bf92a1a7f502ed46a0eb6cc7407d1202

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zech Nina; Busch Martin; Jaeger Veronika; Hansen Ernil. Trance states during a mind–body intervention monitored by BIS. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1728381; article XML SHA-256 95b1db970f52b62ba3251a35c427b48225ba2e34b757a62422bf7fa739ef4c59. “Trance states during a mind–body intervention monitored by BIS” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1728381).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1728381). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mindfulness
<a id="mindfulness"></a>

Mindfulness is a state of aware attention to present experience without judging it. The term can also refer to practices that cultivate this awareness, a way of processing information, and a personal characteristic.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 279de3cbcafa48d53da0e2e025e218366c37b7738d457dcb14b2a0cea0ddedc8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mindfulness” (D064866).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D064866). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mindfulness meditation
<a id="mindfulness-meditation"></a>

Mindfulness meditation is a therapeutic practice used to support mental well-being by helping reduce anxiety, depressive symptoms, and distress while improving mood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cfcabfa55ca74bcf457adf10333929f5567505f571c2278b7a72342cd81c8bc3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mindfulness Relaxation” (C93327).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Mini-Mental State Examination
<a id="mini-mental-state-examination"></a>

The Mini-Mental State Examination is a widely used cognitive screening test for people with neurological or psychiatric disorders. In ALS, it is used to screen cognitive functioning, but because it is not adjusted for motor impairment it may be less suitable than ALS-specific tools for detecting milder early cognitive problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b878b1067a916ff361a4e556d8a2b8a557d0315e1cc1871324acb33fc680f5f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Serian Angela; Finsel Julia; Ludolph Albert C; Uttner Ingo; Lulé Dorothée. Screening instruments of cognition: The relation of the mini-mental state examination to the Edinburgh cognitive and behavioural ALS screen in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304593; article XML SHA-256 ea4f8b830cd5a31485dd5cc4d524ad2217c0a4bd0358cf21883b4f1da8fb03ba. “Screening instruments of cognition: The relation of the mini-mental state examination to the Edinburgh cognitive and behavioural ALS screen in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304593).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304593). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## minimal brain dysfunction
<a id="minimal-brain-dysfunction"></a>

Minimal brain dysfunction is an older diagnostic label that was used for children with hard-to-manage behavior before ADHD became the more established psychiatric term. In the source, it is described as a broad and poorly defined category that often did not clearly distinguish socially troublesome behavior from a smaller number of biologically based difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c0830e807bf9f897745dc4323d2c8cee756b6585d1d65b895b973dd2b130c31

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mills Sheelah. The scientific integrity of ADHD: A critical examination of the underpinning theoretical constructs. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1062484; article XML SHA-256 c519fad793654b7d6b548782f78b86e0015970a0e5d374f7d578d4831e05f476. “The scientific integrity of ADHD: A critical examination of the underpinning theoretical constructs” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1062484).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1062484). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## minimal group
<a id="minimal-group"></a>

A minimal group is a newly created social category formed using trivial or arbitrary criteria, such as a simple sorting task rather than any real conflict or shared history. In the minimal group paradigm, people assigned to these groups often identify with their assigned group and show favoritism toward its members.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 52e019fafb828b2b7ef2b1e7b623ee1c8bb737b99b5d79872a995f905193a3d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Deist Melanie; Fourie Melike M. (Not) part of the team: Racial empathy bias in a South African minimal group study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0283902; article XML SHA-256 8a6cb3eb8e8cdf396350a5dec31a8f0fbd661146e0414474172cab238046610c. “(Not) part of the team: Racial empathy bias in a South African minimal group study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0283902).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283902). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## minimal pair
<a id="minimal-pair"></a>

A minimal pair is a pair of words or word-like forms that are the same except for one speech sound, such as an initial consonant or a vowel. In this context, researchers use minimal pairs to study how learners notice small phonetic differences when linking words to meanings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43532336395f288e2c9a349f9db1d875af484f50b157b1d1f1aae4a788f5caa8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Escudero Paola; Best Catherine T.; Kitamura Christine; Mulak Karen E.. Magnitude of phonetic distinction predicts success at early word learning in native and non-native accents. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01059; article XML SHA-256 b82282f4f2302ceb7bf64ce1d45773af3fd46a864f6bb1d8d47e3ef0cbb96852. “Magnitude of phonetic distinction predicts success at early word learning in native and non-native accents” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01059).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01059). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## minimally conscious state
<a id="minimally-conscious-state"></a>

A minimally conscious state is a condition seen after coma in which a person has very limited but present consciousness. People in this state may have major movement impairment and no speech, yet can sometimes take an active role and interact with their surroundings, especially with supportive technology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 545d9e311ff0af06e062febf66f302b30084daa2cc33a963a83477d8cdd0c365

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lancioni Giulio E.; Singh Nirbhay N.; O’Reilly Mark F.; Sigafoos Jeff; Olivetti Belardinelli Marta; Buonocunto Francesca; D’Amico Fiora; Navarro Jorge; Lanzilotti Crocifissa; Ferlisi Gabriele; Denitto Floriana. Technology-aided programs for post-coma patients emerged from or in a minimally conscious state. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00931; article XML SHA-256 010912914abf982fae9addb2838093bf31405c344a6dadf32aa4c5d34ac1cfe2. “Technology-aided programs for post-coma patients emerged from or in a minimally conscious state” (10.3389/fnhum.2014.00931).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00931). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
<a id="minnesota-multiphasic-personality-inventory"></a>

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory is a personality test in which a person responds yes or no to a series of statements. Clinicians look at the overall response pattern to understand personality traits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae41c61f200290e476aacd30cc343c08b7b9b12e18142864fb2c05bf4c5d746b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “MMPI” (D008950).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008950). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## minor
<a id="minor"></a>

In this historical source, minor refers to one of the two basic musical scales or keys in modern music. It is distinguished by having a minor third above the fundamental tone, with harmonic and melodic forms described separately.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f6608150eca27e39beae184c996a982d1621e3ba63fe2232044decbd427a641e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Minor” (Minor).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Minor). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## miosis
<a id="miosis"></a>

Miosis is constriction of the pupil. It can occur because the muscle that widens the pupil is absent from birth, because sympathetic nerve supply is impaired, or because the conjunctiva or cornea is irritated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1fe6fa4fd50ec4a6691cad94d717d069e190a02579a6893cfc85558e9c459fea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Miosis” (D015877).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015877). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mirror drawing
<a id="mirror-drawing"></a>

Mirror drawing is a motor learning task used to assess and practice eye-hand coordination. It serves as a testbed for studying how learned motor skills are acquired under different conditions and can be carried out in either real-world or virtual reality settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 430660ab088b01d7b1e5d43fc868d12fd75b2c324695ca528e99d73daab62f02

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alrubaye Zainab; Hudhud Mughrabi Moaaz; Manav Banu; Batmaz Anil Ufuk. Effects of color cues on eye-hand coordination training with a mirror drawing task in virtual environment. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1307590; article XML SHA-256 55629f362cefa785bbc10c04088e2b97c969b93214bdeb957b095b1b69def7a5. “Effects of color cues on eye-hand coordination training with a mirror drawing task in virtual environment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1307590).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1307590). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mirror neuron
<a id="mirror-neuron"></a>

A mirror neuron is part of a neural system that becomes active both when a person performs an action and when they watch someone else perform that action. This system has also been linked to understanding another person’s intention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b1fec8fc0809a625a22818d8814a9b6ce8f9dfda377e58ba13c53228909f24c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Osaki Tomoki; Minamoto Takehiro. Effects of intention understanding and brief imitative experience on the mirror neuron system: An EEG study using Japanese sign language. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335885; article XML SHA-256 27deff0292ffc1e0b669cfbe4dd78199df1cc1b3dda180a952187f95f2425b2f. “Effects of intention understanding and brief imitative experience on the mirror neuron system: An EEG study using Japanese sign language” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335885).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335885). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mirror reading
<a id="mirror-reading"></a>

Mirror reading is a non-motor procedural learning task or skill in which a person learns to read mirror-inverted words through practice. It is used to study how people acquire and retain cognitive procedural learning, including both general mirror-reading skill and learning for specific repeated words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: daeabbbef373f00e689922bc37f9a1b1382f7761036091c981b75bf044eb1749

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Panouillères Muriel T N; Tofaris George K; Brown Peter; Jenkinson Ned. Intact Acquisition and Short-Term Retention of Non-Motor Procedural Learning in Parkinson’s Disease. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0149224; article XML SHA-256 27c6d06d581ea70739e1bd441543ecf6c7b0647ff30faa14ca30d12fbcfba515. “Intact Acquisition and Short-Term Retention of Non-Motor Procedural Learning in Parkinson’s Disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0149224).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0149224). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mirror writing
<a id="mirror-writing"></a>

Mirror writing is handwriting reversed so that it looks normal when viewed in a mirror. It can appear in children whose writing is still developing and in left-hand writing by many right-handed adults, especially when the hand copies the movement pattern of the other hand rather than the usual visual form of the letters.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b72128a9349175662b2009c4b72b106ed580525d24c79b693a30a560a403229

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mirror Writing” (Mirror).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Mirror). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mirroring
<a id="mirroring"></a>

In this historical psychology passage, mirroring means corresponding to or reflecting something in the mind. James uses it to describe subjective mental changes that match the relations or connections among the things we think about.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 52a12b259c9afe4ceed267bba444336e02defaea13020391da0c3dee321b1e7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mirtazapine
<a id="mirtazapine"></a>

Mirtazapine is a tetracyclic antidepressant that increases norepinephrine and serotonin release by blocking presynaptic alpha-2 adrenergic receptors. It also blocks certain serotonin receptors and strongly blocks histamine H1 receptors, and is used to treat depression and may also help with anxiety disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b1de601388b424b9d6615d4d7a92b7fb380b6237ce61e6c9ac4152f10b646b3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mirtazapine” (D000078785).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000078785). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## misarticulation
<a id="misarticulation"></a>

Misarticulation is a speech problem in which the quality of spoken sounds is affected because phonemes are substituted, left out, distorted, or added.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ca1109524f63fbeb721688c5b58ec8c5ef4e19ff7da4812c6142895d900cfc7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Articulation Disorders” (D001184).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001184). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## misattunement
<a id="misattunement"></a>

Misattunement is a mismatch in emotional connection or understanding within a relationship, where one person does not feel accurately recognized, responded to, or supported by the other. In this context, it describes relational breakdowns that can contribute to distress and anger.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26d5cc90dedfa013a41c49de9405b3efb4c3df50ad8300074541e4ff89f24f20

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mazumdar Ketoki; Kour Praachint. Mothering on the edge: exploring maternal anger through feminist psychoanalysis and socio-ecological inequities of two mothers in urban India. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fgwh.2026.1751532; article XML SHA-256 d436d6b923872372f8b8d41f7316995927fa8fc036c355f0193ea424aaead2db. “Mothering on the edge: exploring maternal anger through feminist psychoanalysis and socio-ecological inequities of two mothers in urban India” (10.3389/fgwh.2026.1751532).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fgwh.2026.1751532). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## misclassification cost
<a id="misclassification-cost"></a>

Misclassification cost is the penalty value a classification method assigns to making an incorrect class decision. In the packet, it refers to using different error costs in an SVM loss function so the model can better address class imbalance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f24b96a4a0047de7b107e74b753c2c43e7f83220b2231fd577f12bce09a2b4d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Lijue; Wu Xiaoyu; Li Shihao; Li Yi; Tan Shiyang; Bai Yongping. Solving the class imbalance problem using ensemble algorithm: application of screening for aortic dissection. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12911-022-01821-w; article XML SHA-256 8169e9ec68abd9886cb885b5d9f1f45cf5b22a5678f39303bf6aa5a43a18dde0. “Solving the class imbalance problem using ensemble algorithm: application of screening for aortic dissection” (10.1186/s12911-022-01821-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-022-01821-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## misdiagnosis
<a id="misdiagnosis"></a>

Misdiagnosis is an incorrect diagnosis that can happen when one condition’s symptoms resemble those of another illness or are mimicked by a medical condition or drug effects. In mental health assessment, avoiding misdiagnosis involves looking at how symptoms change over days and weeks instead of judging only the person’s current symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a2423144af3043300179c761c430a062dc98b327df28cad4beb0d94747d875e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 340e646cd122c31f2ae7dd7aa7041a63efb2312a91d487d37080bcfec38efea9. “Bipolar Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## misidentification
<a id="misidentification"></a>

Misidentification is the incorrect identification of one condition as another. In this context, it refers to confusion between bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder because their clinical presentations can overlap.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 300c4967636bfb7e30f81791f60b3b5eaa32fa930ecc9a9ba30d7826b755c449

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yuxi; Zhu Pengyu; Xiang Jialin; Gu Junchen; Chen Xiong; Chen Fang; Zou Lulu; Qin Fuyi; Cheng Dan; Guan Dong; Qin Kun; Ai Chunqi; Chen Wen. Distinct patterns of default mode network functional connectivity between adolescents with bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1809961; article XML SHA-256 526a3368b447ab73c8c67edf89403810562f7f98cb368a5b35a9bb17ab13ad26. “Distinct patterns of default mode network functional connectivity between adolescents with bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1809961).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1809961). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## misinformation effect
<a id="misinformation-effect"></a>

The misinformation effect is a memory distortion in which a person’s report of an event comes to include incorrect details taken from information encountered after the event rather than from the event itself. It is especially important in eyewitness testimony because outside information can alter what a witness remembers and reports.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a1823e080fd2ccfd3e3d6d4c4f6359514d8524579ff9de61f3b2af1a85fa7377

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Szpitalak Malwina; Polczyk Romuald. Inducing resistance to the misinformation effect by means of reinforced self-affirmation: The importance of positive feedback. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0210987; article XML SHA-256 7fce89cdfeb8669f0a3b0f541820d52f2617408d7365b41e8d5053e2e9aab14d. “Inducing resistance to the misinformation effect by means of reinforced self-affirmation: The importance of positive feedback” (10.1371/journal.pone.0210987).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210987). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## misologia
<a id="misologia"></a>

Misologia is hatred of reason and a despairing attitude toward rational thought. It is sometimes used for intellectual pessimism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 30f09fba539da27c3078889a9cc6be53763b917f805b5df30e9f069d7033cc2e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Misology” (Misology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Misology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## misoneism
<a id="misoneism"></a>

Misoneism means a dislike or hatred of what is new. In historical usage, it was applied both to a pathological tendency and to social conservatism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad2f407ba75d7412644f80dad22848feb2f53b1503a10650d9ce205369cce919

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3864000-3876000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## missing fundamental
<a id="missing-fundamental"></a>

Missing fundamental refers to a psychoacoustic situation in which a sound lacks its lowest fundamental frequency, yet some listeners still perceive that pitch by using the pattern of the higher harmonics that are present. In this context, performance on a missing fundamental task can reveal whether a person tends to rely more on the overall harmonic relationship or on the lowest audible components of a complex sound.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f166580b8386c4cc644a4afc017d054ec6dbec7fd6716c4532e959d083cac1b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Postma-Nilsenová Marie; Postma Eric. Auditory perception bias in speech imitation. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00826; article XML SHA-256 d92033ae1c7031d8688fb8f2a199cc5eaaae409596f5fe19c18ea2218304c414. “Auditory perception bias in speech imitation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00826).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00826). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## misspecification
<a id="misspecification"></a>

Misspecification is the use of a statistical model that is set up incorrectly, such as leaving out or wrongly defining important effects or the pattern of relationships in the data. In the source, this kind of error can distort estimates and lead to misleading results, including higher false-positive rates or reduced power.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c4ad9dd993e5f287960b7becca151f2ee018f0a0353312cb80cc469deb893bf5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Wei; Cong Ning; Chen Tian; Zhang Hui; Zhang Bo. A note on misspecification in general linear models with correlated errors for the analysis of crossover clinical trials. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0213436; article XML SHA-256 89d173d92f04953d8dde2cdb82e5c35f82859aa69270a523ae749fde5d2e8307. “A note on misspecification in general linear models with correlated errors for the analysis of crossover clinical trials” (10.1371/journal.pone.0213436).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213436). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mistrust
<a id="mistrust"></a>

Mistrust, in this context, is a persistent psychological withdrawal marked by a strong belief that other people are unreliable and that information from others is irrelevant, harmful in intent, or not worth using. Although it can develop as an adaptive response to adverse circumstances, it blocks learning from social experience and can contribute to social isolation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c73c5ecd5dc6abbc483d4d3e83eee948513f24e888917d7b94f6ad429ad4d2d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schwarzer Nicola-Hans; Behringer Noëlle; Dees Paula; Gingelmaier Stephan; Henter Melanie; Kirsch Holger; Kreuzer Tillmann; Langnickel Robert; Link Pierre-Carl; Müller Sascha; Turner Agnes; Nolte Tobias. Replicability or revision? Further evidence on the psychometric quality of the German version of the epistemic trust, mistrust and credulity questionnaire. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04810-0; article XML SHA-256 577056bedf57e85b7e86b26a366093394d02eaf3afdc2f979b35305d6ae57253. “Replicability or revision? Further evidence on the psychometric quality of the German version of the epistemic trust, mistrust and credulity questionnaire” (10.1186/s40359-026-04810-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04810-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MIT
<a id="mit"></a>

MIT, or motor imagery training, is a cognitive method in which a person mentally practices a specific movement without actually producing the movement. In psychology and motor research, it is used as a task-focused form of mental rehearsal that engages brain pathways similar to those involved in carrying out the action itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71a2445e48b7732c90f384045ad3acc9039b89447e302e2e957dd591ecfa8cd8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yao Wan X.; Mamone Bernadett; Wu Yuntao; Jiang Bo Y.; Zhang John Q.; Guan Jianmin; Yue Guang H.. Motor imagery and resistance training improve strength in older adults through distinct effects on agonist–antagonist coordination. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817866; article XML SHA-256 294425fc76f3c185bfc1997f6f64fbb3bd4f4e41eb850bfd23f36658fd75b4ef. “Motor imagery and resistance training improve strength in older adults through distinct effects on agonist–antagonist coordination” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817866).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817866). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mitosis
<a id="mitosis"></a>

Mitosis is the usual indirect way a cell nucleus divides. In this process, the nuclear material forms threadlike structures that separate into chromosomes, split, and move to opposite sides of the spindle, where they are rebuilt as two daughter nuclei.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0049a9cb9cdbc65cd31e61a4b5cf9d4290b1039f78e1c6e644c5b925eb92ede0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mitosis” (Mitosis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Mitosis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mitral cell
<a id="mitral-cell"></a>

A mitral cell is a nerve cell in the olfactory pathway whose dendrites receive incoming smell-related impulses in a glomerule. In this account, it serves as an early relay through which stimulation from the nasal lining can pass onward toward higher brain regions involved in smell.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05cdf8d51822bcdc63b5ddcbe360fa4bf5b4d09af2adbda2f236604674c3fa7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: B3defs.htm” (d9eb8eee52e9327abc9b).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B3defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Mixed Dementias
<a id="mixed-dementias"></a>

Mixed dementias are dementias that result from more than one underlying cause at the same time, rather than a single disease process. Examples include combinations involving Alzheimer disease, vascular dementia, or Lewy body disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8823e2831097107d9df9c04e449639057f2782d6eebdbce1418d0e26b9a507df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Mixed Dementias” (D000093902).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000093902). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mixed design
<a id="mixed-design"></a>

A mixed design is a research design used to study the combined effects of different factors in one study. In this packet, it refers to examining translation performance by relating learners’ anxiety levels to how the same learners perform on translation tasks with different complexity levels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fcad210d4c2a9ff170e2006e34a4df56abf20462ec66b6ab976bcb821d100bc2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Xiangyan; Liu Xiaodong. Exploring the effects of task complexity and translation anxiety on EFL learners’ translation performance: Evidence from a mixed-design study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346731; article XML SHA-256 bb6415500d690b9baf08989c5cafe5af1ef850627882ae89371d5fd6ce5de4d3. “Exploring the effects of task complexity and translation anxiety on EFL learners’ translation performance: Evidence from a mixed-design study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346731).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346731). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mixed-design analysis of variance
<a id="mixed-design-analysis-of-variance"></a>

A mixed-design analysis of variance is a statistical test used when a study compares both differences between groups and changes within the same participants across conditions or time. In the example here, it was used to examine the separate and combined effects of sex and mental-fatigue condition (before versus after) on landing measures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 578554453c6f1fd932dbd33f18506635d732b8750420346255129dce8613bb31

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Zilong; Feng Ziqi; Cui Huizi; Meng Lingyue; Wang Pengfei; Lu Mengya; Liu Tao; Zhang Qiuxia; Wang Xiangdong. Sex differences in the effects of mental fatigue on single-leg drop landing biomechanics among sport science university students. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1678338; article XML SHA-256 4f525002080e3e7c15e00c9318a5811bacbd83cae8aabaab5e3ddb9460c392d3. “Sex differences in the effects of mental fatigue on single-leg drop landing biomechanics among sport science university students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1678338).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1678338). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mixed-effects model
<a id="mixed-effects-model"></a>

A mixed-effects model is a statistical approach for repeated or longitudinal data that estimates both overall patterns in a population and differences in change within individual subjects over time. It is commonly used when the same people are measured at multiple time points, especially when trajectories may vary across individuals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9ea62e6d5ac79edfe15a31de04246549ee56f9a761516ed8697b0feb6ca7337b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ferede Melkamu M.; Dagne Getachew A.; Mwalili Samuel M.; Bilchut Workagegnehu H.; Engida Habtamu A.; Karanja Simon M.. Flexible Bayesian semiparametric mixed-effects model for skewed longitudinal data. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12874-024-02164-y; article XML SHA-256 6aa0bed8e46dda53f7f202ecd8b6dd2287d652f69af6eff69fd7fdbde111305a. “Flexible Bayesian semiparametric mixed-effects model for skewed longitudinal data” (10.1186/s12874-024-02164-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-024-02164-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mixed emotions
<a id="mixed-emotions"></a>

Mixed emotions are the experience of feeling more than one emotion at the same time, including opposing feelings such as being happy and sad together. In the source packet, they are described as states that are often uncomfortable and seen as undesirable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c27b5eb9fdbd0871f1f7701aea8921c1fc0f14f4c12c20103ab0704cf401f93a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Oh Vincent Y. S.. Direct versus indirect measures of mixed emotions in predictive models: a comparison of predictive validity, multicollinearity, and the influence of confounding variables. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1231845; article XML SHA-256 19cee50e56296e1225452313ca27d5ac4922fc529b786aa44a15e7c8cf372639. “Direct versus indirect measures of mixed emotions in predictive models: a comparison of predictive validity, multicollinearity, and the influence of confounding variables” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1231845).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1231845). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mixed episode
<a id="mixed-episode"></a>

A mixed episode is a period in bipolar disorder when a person has both manic and depressive symptoms at the same time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a172b1dab15ae9d2dd6f1f3f3a7852808a5b08026c52d1befdf7497eac9aa91

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 340e646cd122c31f2ae7dd7aa7041a63efb2312a91d487d37080bcfec38efea9. “Bipolar Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mixed-methods research
<a id="mixed-methods-research"></a>

Mixed-methods research is an approach that combines different kinds of research methods, especially qualitative and quantitative ones, within a single study. In the packet’s example, this meant using qualitative content analysis together with linguistic analysis at the same time to study reflective writing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a13e24f24fce2a1b29c56dd4decbbb5762d86b54d41827fc14f14187ade633cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gläser-Zikuda Michaela; Zhang Chengming; Hofmann Florian; Plößl Lea; Pösse Lisa; Artmann Michaela. Mixed methods research on reflective writing in teacher education. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1394641; article XML SHA-256 def5187402d1857d5e04da890daa44a2db4e4b8a62909d763974fdc5e2b8101d. “Mixed methods research on reflective writing in teacher education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1394641).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1394641). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mixed model
<a id="mixed-model"></a>

A mixed model is a statistical approach for analyzing data that include repeated measurements or clustered groups while accounting for random effects. In the context described here, it can be extended to handle several related outcomes together, so change over time or differences between groups can be studied within a multilevel framework.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6957c801b97f483d4fa2b6332244d4cd4f2349dc66f9afff37c81ad3207646d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Miatke Aaron; Stanford Ty; Olds Tim; Fraysse Francois; Maher Carol; Martin-Fernandez Josep Antoni; Dumuid Dot. When the outcome is compositional: A method for conducting compositional response linear mixed models for physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep research. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340373; article XML SHA-256 57f25d87025f0644c64728f231a7ed92575aafb9fe9002ba5841da3747f27f4c. “When the outcome is compositional: A method for conducting compositional response linear mixed models for physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep research” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340373).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340373). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mixed-model analysis of variance
<a id="mixed-model-analysis-of-variance"></a>

Mixed-model analysis of variance is a statistical method used when a study includes both between-subjects factors, such as different groups, and within-subjects factors, such as repeated measurements over time. It tests effects across both kinds of comparisons in the same analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2d6d7560347915566418b4adc0f2369908ce78743548ffa5a5f49f27a2d100d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Michalski Stefan Carlo; Szpak Ancret; Saredakis Dimitrios; Ross Tyler James; Billinghurst Mark; Loetscher Tobias. Getting your game on: Using virtual reality to improve real table tennis skills. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0222351; article XML SHA-256 153fa569d3bf17c46504f3976da04772c8f697947b69cf777838d6d17daf167c. “Getting your game on: Using virtual reality to improve real table tennis skills” (10.1371/journal.pone.0222351).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222351). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mixed receptive-expressive language disorder
<a id="mixed-receptive-expressive-language-disorder"></a>

A disorder in which both understanding language and expressing language are impaired, despite nonverbal intellectual abilities being relatively stronger. It may arise during development or be acquired after brain injury such as a lesion or head trauma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3a5f39827deb196cf8efa7375a2754420c91f27884c9ae612151143aa617efd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mixed Receptive-Expressive Language Disorder” (C92563).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MLD
<a id="mld"></a>

MLD stands for mathematical learning difficulties, meaning problems in developing early math understanding and skills. In this packet, it refers to children who may be at risk for difficulty with foundational numerical concepts such as counting, order, and quantity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b538b21e80850b29f6131d07cf7daf119aa95494b95ca10eee8fb973c03a406

Sources:
- Drafting source: [de Freitas Fernanda Rocha; Herzog Moritz; Gomides Mariuche; Ehlert Antje; Fritz Annemarie; Haase Vitor Geraldi. Screening early numerical development in Brazilian children: adaptation and validation of MARKO-S. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794101; article XML SHA-256 146b20e34dbe4277b94ec06e53bb323650804ea7bfd6e712ffe580d9061572a9. “Screening early numerical development in Brazilian children: adaptation and validation of MARKO-S” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794101).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794101). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MLE
<a id="mle"></a>

MLE stands for maximum likelihood estimation, a statistical approach used here to build a model that estimates perceptual differences from sorting-task responses. In this context, it is presented as a way to balance efficiency and accuracy when measuring perceptual discrimination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9e822fcad205f806f2da86135d26d5d2328348aef14968b8c4f7016cbaa51ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Yulong; Li Huazhi; Xiang Yali; Zhou Mengni; Li Qingqing; Yu Hongtao; Ejima Yoshimichi; Takahashi Satoshi; Yang Jiajia; Bai Bin; Yi Xinian; Wu Jinglong. Maximum likelihood estimation of perceptual differences in sorting tasks. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349396; article XML SHA-256 770d9a523faa15b634177a9e5564fe9293fab0eef6c540d4caca57463a2c7220. “Maximum likelihood estimation of perceptual differences in sorting tasks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349396).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349396). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MMPI
<a id="mmpi"></a>

MMPI is a personality assessment made up of statements a person marks as true or false for themselves. The overall response pattern is used to indicate certain personality characteristics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ace33a2beca8bf5a97f6b35ff5dda57d77bc7c562e2fda62d5da28be2816464f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “MMPI” (D008950).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008950). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MMSE
<a id="mmse"></a>

MMSE, or Mini-Mental Status Exam, is a standardized structured interview used to assess a person's cognitive functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: af1604c376ad1f4c8ba4a633755bd36282f937cf8633142df66e784145e1fd20

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mini-Mental Status Exam” (C74982).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MMT
<a id="mmt"></a>

MMT stands for methadone maintenance treatment, a methadone-based maintenance approach used for opioid use disorder. In this context, it refers to patients receiving ongoing methadone treatment, sometimes discussed alongside related sleep disturbances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b4e9d66abe8734f188050f4eddb94f46741c376957104dc597c228283db4800

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cui Feng; Chang Yan; Ma Xin-Wei; Wang Tang-Fen; Zhang Xin; Hu Tao; Guo Qing-Qian; Feng Xiao-Yu; Guo Xu; Shen Tian-Xiao; Yang Xiao-Dong; Zheng Jian; Hu Ke-Jia; Zhu Jian-Bing. The effects of sleep disturbances on patients receiving methadone treatment for opioid use disorder: cortical thickness evidence. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1688680; article XML SHA-256 b08537195e6035e470d2f5edf7ca455e04dc5ef289ab5fb909b4e80a04d90737. “The effects of sleep disturbances on patients receiving methadone treatment for opioid use disorder: cortical thickness evidence” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1688680).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1688680). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mnemonic
<a id="mnemonic"></a>

In this historical logical sense, a mnemonic is a verse or set of words used as an aid to memory. Such formulas help people remember logical forms, relations, or syllogistic patterns by encoding them in easy-to-recall wording.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 13fecd1f607abe24f8060bf2b1251801a4deafbf1e0835762a4dcfdc79afe14d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mnemonic Verses and Words (in logic)” (Mnemonic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Mnemonic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mnestic
<a id="mnestic"></a>

Mnestic means related to memory or the brain systems involved in memory. In this context, it refers to structures whose disturbance can affect the ability to form or retain memories.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2b4e761c38cd641c0a186d8131a6ccad8beb7f6863a646f2e314047390372b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Werner Ralph; Ekstrom Alexandra; Kureck Ingo; Wöhrle Johannes C.. Vertebral artery hypoplasia and hemodynamic impairment in transient global amnesia: a case control study. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fneur.2024.1398352; article XML SHA-256 43bccb0927a4c72a3d9cbcaf2c52f9a650fcb4a9e6fd51afbbecb240038607ad. “Vertebral artery hypoplasia and hemodynamic impairment in transient global amnesia: a case control study” (10.3389/fneur.2024.1398352).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2024.1398352). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mob
<a id="mob"></a>

Historically, a mob meant a crowd or populace. The related term rabble referred to the most disreputable kind of mob.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8835604547448afdfbfc4d3dd190ce5346a4380ff2b12011545a966a0a809d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mob” (Mob).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Mob). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Moban
<a id="moban"></a>

Moban is an antipsychotic medicine form of molindone hydrochloride. It works by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain, which can reduce excessive dopamine activity linked with schizophrenia-related symptoms and certain agitated or overactive behaviors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f8fea6da89154a02ab9ff9eadd23ceb89579157b151b68ce47ebbe269098c3f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Molindone Hydrochloride” (C47624).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mobility
<a id="mobility"></a>

Mobility is the quality of matter that allows it to change place in space when it is not blocked or restrained by other matter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2512b1ec04c3b4cbb1120d542a18bbc4e76a44e9b0f2c018f346ea2e5fd3dc34

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mobility” (Mobility).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Mobility). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MoCA
<a id="moca"></a>

MoCA is a standardized screening test used to look for mild cognitive problems or impairment. It evaluates several areas of thinking, including attention, concentration, executive functioning, memory, language, visuoconstructional ability, conceptual thinking, calculation, and orientation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 929d58a014fa977d35f1ae9f269d87ff5a467ac32651c313fcbb5b0797e2f6d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Montreal Cognitive Assessment Functional Test” (C123667).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## modafinil
<a id="modafinil"></a>

Modafinil is a synthetic central nervous system stimulant that promotes wakefulness. It appears to work in part by blocking dopamine reuptake, which raises dopamine levels outside nerve cells, and it may improve cognitive function in some clinical situations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 472f2e0a6c17854c4480865ca9465ecc6fe63b14a3fb2b5717a11c6d29bfa3a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Modafinil” (C26661).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## modal
<a id="modal"></a>

In historical logic, modal refers to a proposition or judgment qualified by a mode such as possible, impossible, necessary, or contingent. More broadly, it means a statement whose predication is marked by this kind of qualification rather than being stated simply as true or false.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 56b83c1c56a8dc2182ae872fd06d731114478bd1be715ae68a66b652db255cd3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Modality” (Modality).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Modality). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## modality
<a id="modality"></a>

Modality is the logical way a statement or fact is qualified by such modes as possible, impossible, necessary, or contingent. In this historical sense, it concerns whether something is presented as required, allowed, excluded, or dependent on circumstances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed08051c4e34d29efa5e595d6e524e0d7e4762789417179809f3c39445a7399c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Modality” (Modality).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Modality). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## modality effect
<a id="modality-effect"></a>

In numerical cognition, the modality effect refers to a change in performance, such as reaction time, depending on the form in which a number was presented, such as an Arabic digit versus a written number word. In this context, such an effect suggests that numbers may be stored or retrieved in notation-specific memory representations rather than through a single fully abstract format.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae352dfb7dd41aa93c86157fff732b66a0677415cbc7a682e6b62c75c1eff449

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Myers Timothy; Szücs Dénes. Arithmetic Memory Is Modality Specific. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0145614; article XML SHA-256 d04eb166acefbf5072289beeae483b9da182e32eca32a38c3df109654c9d4e70. “Arithmetic Memory Is Modality Specific” (10.1371/journal.pone.0145614).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145614). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mode
<a id="mode"></a>

Mode is a measure of central tendency that identifies the value that appears most often in a set of data. It can differ substantially from the mean or median.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa4888df1a729ab66064c92342bd7ae95089fa1a598580cd83f7155349130aa5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Mode” (mode.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/mode.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## model
<a id="model"></a>

In psychology, a model is the person, act, or thing presented for conscious imitation. In historical usage, it is narrower than a copy, and “example” was often used when the model was deliberately selected and followed, especially in moral contexts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e33039c35a6256d69645baf00e042e2213e8b1389965c346c516f1c87941497f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Model” (Model).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Model). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## model psychosis
<a id="model-psychosis"></a>

Model psychosis refers to an experimentally induced psychosis-like state in healthy people used to study possible mechanisms of psychotic experiences. In the source, mescaline is described as being used this way to explore self-disturbances linked to schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0177a2835286e6c7d0d8276dfcddb8f0f78cd7bf8194b1b39ccc8eecc5e3a88e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sterzer Philipp; Mishara Aaron L.; Voss Martin; Heinz Andreas. Thought Insertion as a Self-Disturbance: An Integration of Predictive Coding and Phenomenological Approaches. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00502; article XML SHA-256 461e43c438e448e397ae6a22d427474bf7d9a7561780def166dc6f714d5d45b7. “Thought Insertion as a Self-Disturbance: An Integration of Predictive Coding and Phenomenological Approaches” (10.3389/fnhum.2016.00502).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00502). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## modeling theory
<a id="modeling-theory"></a>

Modeling theory is the use of formal mathematical models to represent how an epidemic spreads and ends, and to test explanations such as whether transmission is limited by the number of susceptible people. In this context, it also highlights that the assumptions built into a model can strongly shape the conclusions drawn from observed data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad81cefd29f5c7825fec0f3579cb86502c0b1ffdaa6fceb981ee7203ca037298

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Olson Connor D.; Reluga Timothy C.. John Cross, epidemic theory, and mathematically modeling the Norwich smallpox epidemic of 1819. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312744; article XML SHA-256 13aa8eb308bc4db6dc9c0b7c10d37800346dfa18c9d5a9a7049745b4ff0fc6c9. “John Cross, epidemic theory, and mathematically modeling the Norwich smallpox epidemic of 1819” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312744).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312744). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## moderating effect
<a id="moderating-effect"></a>

A moderating effect is when a third factor changes how strongly two other variables are related. In this study, psychological resilience acted as a moderator by weakening the link between smartphone addiction and depression symptoms, and also between bedtime procrastination and depression symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 110c871ab41669fefa07ee0d441a53aef6ef6ab5378fd2a3cfbbe98fa164e8fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Zeng; Zhang Shiyuan; Li Zhong; Feng Wei; Zhang Fulan; Wang Aolun; Yan Chuqi. The impact of Smartphone addiction on depression symptoms among college students: the mediating role of bedtime procrastination and the moderating effect of psychological resilience. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1784047; article XML SHA-256 652e434d38a5307a7cd9734c356100ae11493d29dfa3c6873accb6fed446a941. “The impact of Smartphone addiction on depression symptoms among college students: the mediating role of bedtime procrastination and the moderating effect of psychological resilience” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1784047).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1784047). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## modernization
<a id="modernization"></a>

Modernization refers to broad social changes such as urbanization, market integration, formal schooling, language shift, and cultural commodification that reshape how well-being is understood and maintained. In this context, it can place Indigenous identities, knowledge, and practices under outside standards of value, with possible effects on belonging, cultural continuity, and sense of self.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 803465c9694ee7eb2e8a0be566e3c31a0d7adfb361283c35ae69f3af8337c47e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Ting-Ting; Chen Jun-Yi. Indigenous oral traditions and psychological well-being under modernization: from external valuation to relational selfhood. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1912239; article XML SHA-256 81527ac8395c00d8be7511cff9aeb4957725c6ab7fc1828c146a5b52b0360063. “Indigenous oral traditions and psychological well-being under modernization: from external valuation to relational selfhood” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1912239).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1912239). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## modes of learning
<a id="modes-of-learning"></a>

Modes of learning are the different ways a child can take part in learning. In this source, they include learning through multiple senses, interaction with other people, and hands-on activity, especially in play-based settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0cdd7dd9db485f846fabd905efa2c4b034c15cffc3249d69e381c5ca9d30d55e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Xiuhan; Zhang Xiaoman; Zhao Yongle; Zhang Lu; Shang Junjie. Exploring the role of learning through play in promoting multimodal learning among children: a pilot study in Chinese first-tier cities. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1103311; article XML SHA-256 0b5d690dcba4e5f7fd536d75c46690ef19a04d18ddce5a6e172577a4c510a964. “Exploring the role of learning through play in promoting multimodal learning among children: a pilot study in Chinese first-tier cities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1103311).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1103311). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## modesty
<a id="modesty"></a>

In historical psychology, modesty is a kind of timidity or shyness that arises from reflective self-consciousness. The term has also been used more loosely for a generally humble or lowly attitude, and it can overlap with feelings such as shame or coyness depending on the situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5cb97a1ee0effa8cdc626ce7ca11008aec69eaea45558bc43908a1470883cd15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Modesty” (Modesty).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Modesty). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## modifier
<a id="modifier"></a>

In this context, a modifier is a clinical qualifier used to indicate that loneliness is persistent, distressing, and important enough to affect a person’s psychiatric presentation, functioning, treatment involvement, prognosis, or recovery. It is based not just on severity, but also on the person’s developmental and cultural context, relationships, subjective meaning, consequences, and whether the disconnection is unwanted rather than a chosen or short-term solitude.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c4e491410b626ce8cb263db9567c9e4c480ac40b1066bf99255259532f4b263

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Warren Alison. Toward a transdiagnostic modifier for clinically significant loneliness in psychiatry: a conceptual mini review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1863015; article XML SHA-256 271dd86e14cac016d45553a478880f7ad1e6a7310aab4acfb6b51846d053bd53. “Toward a transdiagnostic modifier for clinically significant loneliness in psychiatry: a conceptual mini review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1863015).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1863015). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## modularity
<a id="modularity"></a>

Modularity is a network measure of how much a system is divided into separate clusters or subgroups rather than being broadly interconnected. In lexical-semantic networks, higher modularity indicates a more fragmented and less integrated organization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fa76fbc6ed22895e2a3f46e62731445ac8cbed3a65dd55766d1d8f462ff8746

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pham Catherine T; Castro Nichol; Lee Jiyeon. Lexical retrieval in fluent and nonfluent aphasia: a network analysis of verbal fluency data. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1710907; article XML SHA-256 aa5fd4bba8a8ad79888dcac0861b69ddec40f10ff97b661ed357dc1710b4d7c1. “Lexical retrieval in fluent and nonfluent aphasia: a network analysis of verbal fluency data” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1710907).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1710907). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## modulation
<a id="modulation"></a>

Modulation is the adjustment or shaping of effort or bodily regulation rather than simply holding the same outward form. In this context, it refers to changing how effort is organized, which may alter autonomic regulation even when the posture looks the same.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9350f80c30bc983ea4072edb5d60c4c0bb967409d5422e278c673fc00aacfca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Phadke Leena; Boegle Reinhard; Bhavsar S N; Phadke Sanjay. Relaxation in action: enhanced vagal modulation during Virabhadrasana (a standing yoga-asana) despite orthostatic demand suggests efficient regulation of effort. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1887856; article XML SHA-256 fc7638422b7d3100e5ff9f881bc3251e8ed42b445f69369c2c584c40bb7cf656. “Relaxation in action: enhanced vagal modulation during Virabhadrasana (a standing yoga-asana) despite orthostatic demand suggests efficient regulation of effort” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1887856).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1887856). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## modulus
<a id="modulus"></a>

In this historical source, modulus is a logic term proposed by Schröder for four basic relational forms used in reasoning with dual relatives: negation, identity, exclusion from a universe, and inclusion within a universe. The entry also points to a second use under errors of observation, but it does not explain that meaning here.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8cf74b141d5c8e43bd3caf44fb4c609bbc0acdf4396e92c567264347ccbe0502

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Modulus” (Modulus).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Modulus). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## modus operandi
<a id="modus-operandi"></a>

Modus operandi means a person's way of carrying out an activity or performance. In this historical psychology context, it refers to the process by which a muscle reader works, even when the performer is only partly aware of how they do it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b997623916303b26cbacb0c9ea470a7ac91664a109c7846c411b6ed17ca33c3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Muscle Reading” (Muscle Reading).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M5defs.htm#Muscle Reading). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mogilalia
<a id="mogilalia"></a>

Mogilalia is a historical term for a speech articulation defect limited to a few particular sounds. It refers to difficulty pronouncing certain letters or speech sounds, treated in this source as a peripheral problem of articulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9e2d009aab41a0519cb4c3949487dc44fbd5fea5a1f1730d132e8b10e11d9c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Alalia and Dyslalia” (Alalia and Dyslalia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Alalia and Dyslalia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## molar
<a id="molar"></a>

A molar is a permanent tooth whose shape develops over time and can be altered by environmental disruptions during growth. In this packet, first molars are discussed as teeth in which linear enamel hypoplasia can mark developmental stress and be linked with small changes in crown form and cusp pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3241678a987f28bc7645b5077d43d6044db1cb531678a2576761b116a696daa9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Blankenship-Sefczek Erin C.; Goodman Alan H.; Hubbe Mark; Hunter John P.; Sefczek Timothy M.; Guatelli-Steinberg Debbie. Tracing early life stress in human molar morphology: Associations between linear enamel hypoplasia and maxillary first molar form. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354698; article XML SHA-256 c48f18473930f2b06a35b1ff5b43374aec881131442fdd47e7a831ca1c134f4d. “Tracing early life stress in human molar morphology: Associations between linear enamel hypoplasia and maxillary first molar form” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354698).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354698). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## molecular
<a id="molecular"></a>

Molecular refers to biological features studied at the level of genes, signaling pathways, and drug targets rather than only whole cells or symptoms. In this context, it describes subtypes or differences identified from patterns in gene activity and related biological mechanisms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 27a4ba7413924860f882c463e95d826ca81124f3916dc1d34cb15e7ef4210e04

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sun Bin; Lu Yiqiao; Liu Wei; Wang Chengze. Systems pharmacology reveals type I interferon and myeloid-like B cell reprogramming as candidate druggable axes in antiphospholipid syndrome. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349155; article XML SHA-256 9633ab6e0bb8e44e6e8f7f127fbde73f162f1bcfdbd55c904585b8126d3f15e4. “Systems pharmacology reveals type I interferon and myeloid-like B cell reprogramming as candidate druggable axes in antiphospholipid syndrome” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349155).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349155). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## molecular genetics
<a id="molecular-genetics"></a>

Molecular genetics refers to experimental methods used to study and alter genes at the molecular level. In this context, it includes tools for genetic transformation, targeted mutagenesis, and introducing genes to track cellular components or gene expression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5208e8d6f4a2d79dd9e0ec65014f368c8cf53f411198aadb9a4cee63b173a9fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Oostlander Anne Geertje; Brodde Laura; von Bargen Miriam; Slippers Bernard; Becker Yvonne; Brandt Ulrike; Klawonn Frank; Grobler Christiaan; Well Lucas; Stenlid Jan; Oliva Jonas; Elfstrand Malin; Fleissner Andre. Development of a molecular genetics and cell biology toolbox for the filamentous fungus Diplodia sapinea. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308794; article XML SHA-256 cf4472896e0ce88478a08b89b675691ea49d0b18226c439fd7831462b4c92e4b. “Development of a molecular genetics and cell biology toolbox for the filamentous fungus Diplodia sapinea” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308794).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308794). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## molecular layer
<a id="molecular-layer"></a>

The molecular layer is a layer of the dentate gyrus where asymmetric, likely excitatory, synaptic contacts are found. In this source it includes an inner and outer molecular layer, with mossy fiber sprouting occurring in the inner part after injury-related seizures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b394e99a5f619e26b0f8130a68964c98cb3e15a9866f11ebf7b362b655be045

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bittencourt Simone; Covolan Luciene; Hamani Clement; Longo Beatriz M.; Faria Flávio P.; Freymuller Edna; Ottersen Ole P.; Mello Luiz E.. Replacement of Asymmetric Synaptic Profiles in the Molecular Layer of Dentate Gyrus Following Cycloheximide in the Pilocarpine Model in Rats. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00157; article XML SHA-256 32a32c9a33565e6d212f6f1f0a48f5287e2ecff91771e101943de8ce949aede2. “Replacement of Asymmetric Synaptic Profiles in the Molecular Layer of Dentate Gyrus Following Cycloheximide in the Pilocarpine Model in Rats” (10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00157).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00157). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## molindone
<a id="molindone"></a>

Molindone is an antipsychotic drug used for schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, and it may also help with aggressive behavior in the undersocialized type of conduct disorder. It is an indole-derived medication with relatively low activity at dopamine, cholinergic, and alpha-adrenergic receptors compared with many other antipsychotics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6961118ba16f7fa78a853943e00bfddde1fe4642ea258a67d48084bc81667ab8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Molindone” (D008972).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008972). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## monaural
<a id="monaural"></a>

Monaural refers to sound presented within a single auditory channel, so that two nearby frequencies are combined before reaching the listener. Their overlap produces a perceived rhythmic beat at the difference between the two frequencies, and this can be delivered to one ear or to both ears at the same time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7c188dbcf1baf8226b08d83ef05519cb5788f3caf101a838ad3520499dd1b9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chang Ming; Tanaka Kenta; Naruse Yasushi; Imamura Yasuhiko; Fujii Shinya. Influence of monaural auditory stimulation combined with music on brain activity. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1311602; article XML SHA-256 27f29669224d3c91c916bacc6b29648b3d44402c27568d5a8db2ba3dc2b69cea. “Influence of monaural auditory stimulation combined with music on brain activity” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1311602).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1311602). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mongolism
<a id="mongolism"></a>

Mongolism refers to Down syndrome, a genetic condition involving an extra chromosome 21 or an equivalent extra amount of chromosome 21 material. It is linked with characteristic physical features, intellectual disability, and higher rates of problems such as heart and digestive malformations, leukemia, and earlier Alzheimer disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9df1695bff427e0ad8581fb4847f754fb791bcad56ec7894696731fe9e648921

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Down Syndrome” (D004314).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004314). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## monism
<a id="monism"></a>

Monism is the view that the universe is the expression or operation of one underlying principle. In historical philosophical and psychological discussion, it has been contrasted with dualism and pluralism, and has also been used more narrowly for positions that treat mind and body as different aspects or manifestations of a single basis rather than two separate interacting substances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4919a58cf58665ebd657d5854c6ee8af634a2083dcf0063cd60e519ffc58d0d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Monism” (Monism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M4defs.htm#Monism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mono-
<a id="mono"></a>

Mono- is a prefix meaning single or only. In historical psychological and medical usage, it can mean limited to one respect, or affecting one part or member of the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bac1a3e395d91f35b66f6a5a0501530fd95169797215d94772231b848d3fd9be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mono-” (Mono-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M4defs.htm#Mono-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## monoamine hypothesis
<a id="monoamine-hypothesis"></a>

The monoamine hypothesis is the idea that problems in the brain’s monoamine neurotransmitter systems are a major factor in the development of some mental disorders. In this source, it is presented as a long-standing explanation, while noting that treatments based on it have had limited success.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97360fcbff672b3085e64a99fbc9ed12d0a595d78393b8f3259d774cedb63c0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Teng Youyou; Gu Ziqi; Ding Ling; Shi Huicong; Gao Zhifei; Xu Haiyun. The applications of TMS in brain function assessment and treatment of mental disorders: a narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1860185; article XML SHA-256 c6f19af1274b8914ce39511d20a239b65cf79165acc1b33169b647df0195ce7a. “The applications of TMS in brain function assessment and treatment of mental disorders: a narrative review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1860185).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1860185). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## monoamine oxidase
<a id="monoamine-oxidase"></a>

Monoamine oxidase is an enzyme found in mitochondrial membranes in nerve endings, the liver, and other organs that breaks down naturally occurring monoamines by oxidative deamination. It helps regulate the metabolism of catecholamines and serotonin, and in the liver it also helps inactivate circulating monoamines such as tyramine absorbed from the gut.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 49e492196db659cfeb1246aaf541d4760bddbecf86dc699a39ff3610e0f707c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Monoamine Oxidase” (D008995).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008995). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## monoamine oxidase inhibitor
<a id="monoamine-oxidase-inhibitor"></a>

A monoamine oxidase inhibitor is a substance that blocks the enzyme monoamine oxidase. This enzyme normally helps break down monoamines and contributes to the inactivation of neurotransmitters.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6500aaffb6574f4b27f4f51b5ae5e408d216468970e28ccc7c128a40d37655b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitor” (C667).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## monochromatic light
<a id="monochromatic-light"></a>

Monochromatic light is light made up of a single wavelength, such as short-wavelength or middle-wavelength light matched to the peak sensitivity of different retinal cone types. In this context, switching between two monochromatic lights changes where the eye focuses and can alter refractive and eye-growth responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8635521abd439ed10579968f533c51c122bc6922e32ad41434e502cd740e3360

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qian Yi-Feng; Dai Jin-Hui; Liu Rui; Chen Min-Jie; Zhou Xing-Tao; Chu Ren-Yuan. Effects of the Chromatic Defocus Caused by Interchange of Two Monochromatic Lights on Refraction and Ocular Dimension in Guinea Pigs. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0063229; article XML SHA-256 8dd6a97b48f631dd6a86c017a457a3da7e74121fd770d0064f7ce5d5cba4248c. “Effects of the Chromatic Defocus Caused by Interchange of Two Monochromatic Lights on Refraction and Ocular Dimension in Guinea Pigs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0063229).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0063229). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## monocular
<a id="monocular"></a>

Monocular refers to something presented to or seen by only one eye rather than both eyes together. In the packet’s context, a monocular image is shown to one eye against a binocular background, which can create conflict between the eyes and affect visual performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 344860f0525286ee0ff7abd4bb3a7039499eb873e3b35d42f00910e783352313

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bayle Elodie; Hourlier Sylvain; Lelandais Sylvie; Salasc Charles-Antoine; Leroy Laure; Plantier Justin; Neveu Pascaline. Interocular conflict from a monocular augmented reality display: Impact of visual characteristics on performance. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0256766; article XML SHA-256 641f157aff4e5628797a2aea1ecff7d594fc569174013a6a91b346cf1be2d8c7. “Interocular conflict from a monocular augmented reality display: Impact of visual characteristics on performance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0256766).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256766). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## monocular cue
<a id="monocular-cue"></a>

A monocular cue is a depth signal available from one eye alone. In this source, it refers to increasing retinal size, which makes a sentence appear to loom out from the screen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76c6310b1ed11ea8060f5ea25349d3e0419fab8ea49ef74d4eb62de23d2fb998

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schotter Elizabeth R.; Blythe Hazel I.; Kirkby Julie A.; Rayner Keith; Holliman Nicolas S.; Liversedge Simon P.. Binocular Coordination: Reading Stereoscopic Sentences in Depth. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0035608; article XML SHA-256 29ab09322d367bde9710b1197a48d49a6c675b19d64c77a0c4bb328ebee74e9d. “Binocular Coordination: Reading Stereoscopic Sentences in Depth” (10.1371/journal.pone.0035608).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035608). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## monocular vision
<a id="monocular-vision"></a>

Monocular vision is vision using only one eye, described in the source as a visual impairment. In the example discussed, it may make it harder to notice and respond to events occurring on the side of the normally sighted eye.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4f237e02c4d3d6406a8da97ad66c2fadabf76a3704e4b94c4bf16b444a7b608

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Adrian Julien; Le Brun Johan; Miller Neil R.; Sahel José-Alain; Saillant Gérard; Bodaghi Bahram. Implications of monocular vision for racing drivers. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0226308; article XML SHA-256 e0b24c48d81a7df89fbb95dd995c57c7b1fb26fc1516b4d678b369491e86e151. “Implications of monocular vision for racing drivers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0226308).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226308). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## monoideism
<a id="monoideism"></a>

Monoideism is a mental state in which attention stays fixed on one idea for an unusually sustained period, with a rigid or artificially concentrated quality. In this historical usage, it refers to abnormal fixity of attention rather than ordinary focused attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb798fc4eb259ed5404581848a7b121e4d31443662056b3931d6d6b706d003ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Monoideism” (Monoideism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M4defs.htm#Monoideism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## monomania
<a id="monomania"></a>

Monomania is a historical psychiatric term for a supposed partial insanity in which disturbance was thought to be limited to a particular set of ideas or delusions rather than the whole mind. In later usage it was largely abandoned because such cases were seen as belonging to more specific conditions, especially paranoia and other psychoses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82fc947ffe832269a31aecef0cfc0b167dbe39022d3c6fa1d399a0fde8240983

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Monomania” (Monomania).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M4defs.htm#Monomania). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Montreal Cognitive Assessment
<a id="montreal-cognitive-assessment"></a>

The Montreal Cognitive Assessment is a standardized screening measure used to identify mild problems with cognition. It looks at multiple areas of thinking, including attention, concentration, executive functioning, memory, language, visuospatial construction, abstract thinking, calculation, and orientation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0e750a7ae2e7ff9820aa1a51a552fe719b79c591d7eb5e3cdf728b75e32eb7b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Montreal Cognitive Assessment Functional Test” (C123667).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mood
<a id="mood"></a>

Mood is a marked emotional tone that is not tied to any specific object or thought. In this historical sense, it is described as being strongly coloured by bodily or organic sensations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f95b1e8fb90359f9a1cf1172cf2471dbb0ffb24b9ed78acac6c7afe846fdcee0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mood” (Mood).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M4defs.htm#Mood). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mood congruent
<a id="mood-congruent"></a>

Mood congruent describes a match between a person’s current mood and the emotional information they attend to, such as sadness being linked with greater attention to sad faces. In this context, it refers to a mood-specific bias toward material with the same emotional tone as the mood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70ce257e7a4480980ef94be36d8f6b2263f108c2c76c48e990f53b503268bab8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Grossheinrich Nicola; Firk Christine; Schulte-Rüther Martin; von Leupoldt Andreas; Konrad Kerstin; Huestegge Lynn. Looking While Unhappy: A Mood-Congruent Attention Bias Toward Sad Adult Faces in Children. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02577; article XML SHA-256 e9f9cd77e4f72ef076caa0aa47ea0bd802362d44a1c4834590cedc84ef266b56. “Looking While Unhappy: A Mood-Congruent Attention Bias Toward Sad Adult Faces in Children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02577).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02577). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mood-congruent memory
<a id="mood-congruent-memory"></a>

Mood-congruent memory is a pattern in which what a person remembers is influenced by their current mood. In the packet, it is described as a typical feature of depression across different levels of severity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93babcbcdfe7dc0c9191eb53088c09c917b2fccb112357bb05c1758ed50f1128

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Mi; Zhong Ning; Lu Shengfu; Wang Gang; Feng Lei; Hu Bin. Cognitive Behavioral Performance of Untreated Depressed Patients with Mild Depressive Symptoms. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0146356; article XML SHA-256 104063f52b96079fbc3a2486f8f3d41a1b7c2e0b44a303b6ace37cbb4cefd688. “Cognitive Behavioral Performance of Untreated Depressed Patients with Mild Depressive Symptoms” (10.1371/journal.pone.0146356).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146356). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mood disorder
<a id="mood-disorder"></a>

A mood disorder is a group of psychiatric conditions in which the main problem is a disturbance in mood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c67dd0185edda581defcfd332c381d4c483f680ff59cb7bbe4fc48db864ee246

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mood Disorder” (C92200).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Mood Disorders
<a id="mood-disorders"></a>

Mood disorders are disorders where the main feature is a disturbance in mood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5835fc7ba2035f619e5b49fae45fb1ba0dec6d532df350b776baa7fed3f6625d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Mood Disorders” (D019964).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019964). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mood induction
<a id="mood-induction"></a>

Mood induction is a research procedure used to shift participants into a targeted positive, negative, or neutral mood so scientists can study how mood influences psychological, cognitive, and bodily processes. It can use methods such as emotionally toned sentences, music, or autobiographical memory recall, and its effects may be brief.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee4f8e1f53a2d587c588dd4fe235510fdb9f34b0873fa9e857bd3db27d4d2a4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Monno Yasunaga; Nawa Norberto Eiji; Yamagishi Noriko. Duration of mood effects following a Japanese version of the mood induction task. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293871; article XML SHA-256 9a8beefc1d912f0940ccc7179255e7c48099f7e54043c642810d706c4ad432d6. “Duration of mood effects following a Japanese version of the mood induction task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293871).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293871). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mood swing
<a id="mood-swing"></a>

Mood swing is a pattern of frequent shifts in mood with emotional responses that are stronger than expected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b0ee095c90bdea1b61a6ddab580d432aa93cf46562916bf63d65990cb4170573

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mood Lability” (C117252).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## moral
<a id="moral"></a>

Moral refers to matters involving ideas about right and wrong in human behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 23bb52a4c9a4e161b2b6c3bf64deb6d6183d07a3fe4cd41eeb1c907f8e316cf5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Moral” (C94315).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## moral code
<a id="moral-code"></a>

A moral code is a set of standards about right and wrong that is treated as having objective authority. In this historical source, it is contrasted with a code of honour, which is tied more to social position and convention where the two differ.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 72655154a3c45c337128ec8e76c0c2b38c5ab4011f764a8ffdba9caf7d82dc6c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Honour” (Honour).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Honour). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## moral commitment
<a id="moral-commitment"></a>

Moral commitment is a person’s steady dedication to ethical values that helps give desire, conduct, and emotional life an ethical direction. In the source, it is presented as part of a Confucian path of self-cultivation and psychological reorientation under suffering and instability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c0d8d39a00f5d0d0a44572cff553ff897eec4219903e63acfa8c3d61097c420

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Junhong. Yan Hui and Zhuangzi: the way of spiritual healing in the twin peaks of Confucianism and Daoism. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770947; article XML SHA-256 24f4119e2b1f285397a109d9aadb9dabc4cc3103eccc6595d679fdae7fd58b90. “Yan Hui and Zhuangzi: the way of spiritual healing in the twin peaks of Confucianism and Daoism” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770947).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770947). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## moral development
<a id="moral-development"></a>

Moral development is the process through which a person adopts and makes their own standards about what is right and wrong.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6cca58bb35c01995ea0fbd940babd4b5d3597f705ce26faaf75a2054eeb52021

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Moral Development” (D035863).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D035863). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## moral exclusion
<a id="moral-exclusion"></a>

Moral exclusion is the process of placing people outside one’s psychological boundary of justice, so normal moral rules and standards of fairness are not fully applied to them. People seen as useful for important goals are more likely to stay inside this boundary, while those seen as obstructive or expendable are more vulnerable to unfair or harmful treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a4748faeba94dec73b1897088faf7d58c0a6ddbf73767a7f8960e6e12833c8d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Qin; Zhao Shuming; Li Fangjun; Wang Jiapeng; Zou Yuxin; Albani Iqbal Fajri. Follower proactive behavior reducing supervisory abuse: the role of leader future orientation and follower in-role performance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1916692; article XML SHA-256 9c63816636efd2b94944fa10cac95d595861e7aa95c25ded81e3ac5240d89649. “Follower proactive behavior reducing supervisory abuse: the role of leader future orientation and follower in-role performance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1916692).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1916692). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## moral independence
<a id="moral-independence"></a>

Moral independence is a person’s freedom to direct their own life and make their own moral choices. In ethics, it reflects the principle that each person’s autonomy should be respected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0997493375a5d0c5a4a2b696375704d32ec192b420ecc6c6f481ca76ee870af1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Personal Autonomy” (D026684).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D026684). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## moral judgment
<a id="moral-judgment"></a>

Moral judgment is an evaluation of the ethical quality of a person's conduct or character. In a broader historical sense, it can also mean a value judgment that appraises what is fitting or worthwhile by reference to some standard or ideal, rather than simply what is true.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9246fd88990c48db3c77d5fa5c8a1c899957f9ca066448698ffd57e5d813f4c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Moral Judgment” (Moral Judgment).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M4defs.htm#Moral Judgment). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Moral Obligations
<a id="moral-obligations"></a>

Moral obligations are duties a person is expected to meet because of ethical principles rather than legal requirements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac1d891a9bb5231b65c3c898e81aa74f7312db4b3933d0c346e6de14801d9b54

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Moral Obligations” (D028681).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D028681). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## moral relativism
<a id="moral-relativism"></a>

Moral relativism is the view or tendency to question whether there are universal moral norms that apply to everyone. In this context, it is presented as a challenge to shared ethical standards.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cad1ab3532885702ca9c1605e65be9066e0d2490fe07c941ed4379ead19adf49

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vveinhardt Jolita. The Dilemma of Postmodern Business Ethics: Employee Reification in a Perspective of Preserving Human Dignity. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.813255; article XML SHA-256 18538be02da112f53ee03aa9630c44bad14d229fc628e7ec750f3fd78d18ab5e. “The Dilemma of Postmodern Business Ethics: Employee Reification in a Perspective of Preserving Human Dignity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.813255).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.813255). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## morale
<a id="morale"></a>

Morale is the overall mood, spirit, or level of confidence of a person or group as it relates to the work, duties, or roles expected of them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9227133cd31ca86e44d937e84c0547bb20815a7d614f58ce474dad41581bcd32

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Morale” (D009013).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009013). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## morality
<a id="morality"></a>

Morality is the relation of a person’s conduct or character to a moral standard. It can also mean conduct or a disposition regarded as ethically good, as opposed to what is immoral.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d157aef6fea0091fe34df0b2ddc211247508fec11112a47e1384d07507f7de3f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Morality” (Morality).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M4defs.htm#Morality). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## morals
<a id="morals"></a>

Morals are standards for behavior that people use to judge what is right and what is wrong.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4f57dd743d613013fa5492eeb270277bcfd072d84d9f19b00418a1bc7c9b5a00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Morals” (D009014).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009014). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## morbid
<a id="morbid"></a>

Morbid means abnormal or diseased in a psychological sense, as in older usage where morbid psychology referred to what would be called abnormal psychology. It can also mean an over-sensitive, gloomy state marked by self-focused brooding and giving too much importance to shifts in feeling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 13734524457cc64bc82137014ac30b3d76c5717dfca2aea351010c859745dc18

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Morbid” (Morbid).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M4defs.htm#Morbid). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## morbid jealousy
<a id="morbid-jealousy"></a>

In this historical source, morbid jealousy is described as an abnormal form of jealousy counted among disordered mental phenomena. The passage specifically notes it as being observed in relation to the menopause.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8cc577766ffbda19fadbbf3ef77d6498718d30de98f4a0c70b25e12a2a5b37a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-451500-463500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## -morph
<a id="morph"></a>

In this packet, -morph refers to a distinct form or variant within the same species. The forms described differ in features such as morphology, behaviour, habitat use, and feeding ecology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07452d56f7e48c033a3f1cd13ea4415603b41bb3b8be9b9e0d5f8ad6b8bdb7a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jónsdóttir Guðbjörg Ósk; von Elm Laura-Marie; Ingimarsson Finnur; Tersigni Samuel; Snorrason Sigurður Sveinn; Pálsson Arnar; Steele Sarah Elizabeth. Diversity in the internal functional feeding elements of sympatric morphs of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus). 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300359; article XML SHA-256 5c67be8230ac38266afdf7d100f1b8ad9449bf1319bce19b85a8d04942331578. “Diversity in the internal functional feeding elements of sympatric morphs of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300359).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300359). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## morphine
<a id="morphine"></a>

Morphine is an opiate substance obtained from the opium poppy or made synthetically that activates opioid receptors in the brain and body. Its effects on the central nervous system can include pain relief, reduced anxiety, euphoria, sedation, and slowed breathing, along with effects on the gastrointestinal system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17c0917d6e59314852ad001552eeb6019c4a16288793d8a71d69106e3458f9b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Morphine” (C62051).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## morpho-
<a id="morpho"></a>

morpho- is a word part used in biological terms about an organism’s form or structural features, such as visible body traits and measured body dimensions. In the packet, it appears in expressions like morpho-structural, morphological, and morphometric traits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eea06cb4df6864d175f5d6768646198cb2b2fec849f58149ab41214ca222b7b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Culhe Deiby T; Matola Matilde F; Muatareque Elio; Morrombe Milton P; Manhique Matilde A; Tseu Ramos J; Changule Abílio P; Taela Maria da G; Bila Custódio G; Garcia-Herreros Manuel. Phenotypic characterization of Landim and Pafúri goat populations in Southern Mozambique based on morpho-structural traits and zoometric indices. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331271; article XML SHA-256 79cdcac43f88a8cdccb46ac6c25c8e0fea25ebc4a0bf64fa3cf4f23c09c7f6bb. “Phenotypic characterization of Landim and Pafúri goat populations in Southern Mozambique based on morpho-structural traits and zoometric indices” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331271).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331271). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## morphogenesis
<a id="morphogenesis"></a>

Morphogenesis is the biological process through which a tissue develops its form and structural organization. In this source, it refers especially to how skeletal muscle fibers and related mesoderm-derived tissues take shape and are arranged during development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3838c4f3c36ec0ae6431ada8136922266a76e3c7f6f631a15ffa4449250e483a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Valberg Stephanie J.; Williams Zoë J.; Ames Elizabeth G.; Mickelson James R.; Nout-Lomas Yvette S.; Landolt Gabriele; Sanz Macarena; Gardner Keri. Aberrant skeletal muscle morphogenesis and myofiber differentiation characterize equine myotonic dystrophy. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341655; article XML SHA-256 873ee7b607f7a7eb161bd58de3d993f344fbbae79ba7ff172609bef385fbca0c. “Aberrant skeletal muscle morphogenesis and myofiber differentiation characterize equine myotonic dystrophy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341655).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341655). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## morphology
<a id="morphology"></a>

Morphology is the study of form, especially in living organisms. In this historical usage, it refers to the philosophical study of comparative anatomy, focusing on how bodily structures and parts arise and correspond across organisms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93d7bb0429171918f621255143ca62d5b9fc6fb11bacc8589266f54fd42cf0b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Morphology” (Morphology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M4defs.htm#Morphology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## morphometrics
<a id="morphometrics"></a>

Morphometrics refers to measuring the size, shape, or other structural features of body tissues or organs. In this source, it means assessing physical characteristics of the rumen and cecum, such as papillae size and numbers of specific cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 270850ebab4a456d9a16a4b1c4cc9436c972e27121f9b0562ccce9ea5caa647c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ferreira da Silva Leandro Aparecido; Casali Daniel Moretto; Lélis Ana Laura Januário; Leiva Tiago; Rodrigues Murilo Chuba; Barroso José Paulo Roman; Lasmar Pedro Veloso Facury; Araújo Giovanna Lombardi de Oliveira; Virgínio Júnior Gercino Ferreira; de Souza Johnny Maciel; Millen Danilo Domingues. Effects of increasing narasin doses on feedlot performance, feeding behavior, carcass traits, and rumen-cecum morphometrics in Nellore cattle. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344240; article XML SHA-256 941921e83235ecf4dea94d4918dca7b651459fe06e6acd401345c2d1aa917bcc. “Effects of increasing narasin doses on feedlot performance, feeding behavior, carcass traits, and rumen-cecum morphometrics in Nellore cattle” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344240).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344240). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Morris water maze
<a id="morris-water-maze"></a>

The Morris water maze is a cognitive test used to assess spatial learning and memory by measuring how well someone can learn and remember the location of a hidden platform in a circular pool.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3457f0dbff7d49b10a554befc1e7d04482d9792236b6bcbb19f048dbf82e9f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Morris Water Maze” (C226094).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mortality effect
<a id="mortality-effect"></a>

Mortality effect is the death-producing impact of an exposure or agent, measured by how much mortality it causes and when that mortality occurs. In this source, it refers to broflanilide causing a dose-dependent and delayed increase in mosquito deaths after exposure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f7faddb6cd47140492e96f51081984f34f6f353116944fa6da5d98d474fc5e8b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Govoetchan Renaud; Odjo Abibath; Todjinou Damien; Small Graham; Fongnikin Augustin; Ngufor Corine. Investigating discriminating concentrations for monitoring susceptibility to broflanilide and cross resistance to other insecticide classes in Anopheles gambiae sensu lato, using the new WHO bottle bioassay method. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0276246; article XML SHA-256 df8eaf9a9e966eb489335709b234ec24403168e6af2019d8c3cd40629f24c91a. “Investigating discriminating concentrations for monitoring susceptibility to broflanilide and cross resistance to other insecticide classes in Anopheles gambiae sensu lato, using the new WHO bottle bioassay method” (10.1371/journal.pone.0276246).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276246). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motility
<a id="motility"></a>

Motility is the active movement of an entire cell from one place to another. It refers to the cell body changing location, rather than only parts of the cell moving.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fde59e5e691409b64dfb6c40b4a6b8e6088721dd58338acb1dbe91d5a30a24dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cell Motility” (C16404).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motion aftereffect
<a id="motion-aftereffect"></a>

A motion aftereffect is a change in motion perception that occurs after viewing a motion signal, shifting later judgments about movement direction. In this source, it refers to a bias produced even by static images that imply motion, such as another person’s gaze toward an object.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b35c120268d9ff718ee0892f3e977d529e787870f95e7e4d8f257e50e710bd2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Renet Christian; Löfström Ronja; Randall William; Guterstam Arvid. Motion aftereffects from viewing another’s gaze are restricted to the line of sight. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1796537; article XML SHA-256 1dcc292e62f3e4d958af1a25d7f5c997cb89f2399a15c1f717b1e72b8c430965. “Motion aftereffects from viewing another’s gaze are restricted to the line of sight” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1796537).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1796537). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motion detection
<a id="motion-detection"></a>

Motion detection is the process of identifying movement in a scene and separating different kinds of movement, such as motion from the camera, moving objects, the background, or both at once. In dynamic environments, it is used to support accurate tracking when both targets and surroundings may be in motion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6578a632691c19256746245005f2e35e98c3e9ef7f1770fece6a1f2852826d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rehman Sameed Ur; Ullah Irshad; Akbar Wajahat; Hussain Altaf; Hussain Tariq; Alzubi Ahmad Ali; Ullah Insaf; Li Shuguang. Robust motion detection and classification in real-life scenarios using motion vectors. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333191; article XML SHA-256 8108eca23bb8fdc6553a8aac6b70cbfb72d2c739e04b4444a6d61e76c2c3d3d3. “Robust motion detection and classification in real-life scenarios using motion vectors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333191).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333191). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motion economy
<a id="motion-economy"></a>

Motion economy is the efficiency with which a person carries out a movement-based task. In skill training, it refers to using movements that are smoother, less excessive, and closer to expert performance while completing the task.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cfb0d292f4b93433edf0bdf3a4956b7a1ffcdeb648272cb90160611c07a6773d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Salame Gerard; Holden Matthew; Lucas Brian P.; Portillo Albert. Change in economy of ultrasound probe motion among general medicine trainees. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s13089-023-00345-2; article XML SHA-256 6a7a05cd946a7dedb0ec3c9ba273f1c38d93941a6039d4456eba463dd38ae183. “Change in economy of ultrasound probe motion among general medicine trainees” (10.1186/s13089-023-00345-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13089-023-00345-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motion sickness
<a id="motion-sickness"></a>

Motion sickness is a feeling of physical discomfort caused by a mismatch between what a person sees as movement and what their balance system senses. It commonly involves dizziness, nausea, and vomiting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e65f4d265cde6925d33c67ead8d8c1b8a5867dbfc431857df8d458e151fcc98

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Motion Sickness” (C34824).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Motivation
<a id="motivation"></a>

Motivation is the set of influences that moves a person or other organism to act, especially in ways directed toward goals or satisfaction. It can arise from internal bodily drives as well as from events or cues in the environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 973323ebe7a83eed4b95b96d9216b36856355520d58352c1d1c707d1eafca9f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Motivation” (D009042).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009042). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motivational enhancement therapy
<a id="motivational-enhancement-therapy"></a>

Motivational enhancement therapy is an evidence-based psychosocial intervention intended to help reduce substance misuse. In this source, it is described as one of the behavioural change approaches being adapted for looked after children and care leavers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98b32015bc98b400ed96326a671bd375e6c222b17e95ededf969e57530626037

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alderson Hayley; Brown Rebecca; Copello Alex; Kaner Eileen; Tober Gillian; Lingam Raghu; McGovern Ruth. The key therapeutic factors needed to deliver behavioural change interventions to decrease risky substance use (drug and alcohol) for looked after children and care leavers: a qualitative exploration with young people, carers and front line workers. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s12874-019-0674-3; article XML SHA-256 14d5ccc3c2af4c192cc5987563095d2a203ca3757eb614ee9f22ebe2cfce2c18. “The key therapeutic factors needed to deliver behavioural change interventions to decrease risky substance use (drug and alcohol) for looked after children and care leavers: a qualitative exploration with young people, carers and front line workers” (10.1186/s12874-019-0674-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-019-0674-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motivational interviewing
<a id="motivational-interviewing"></a>

Motivational interviewing is a client-centered but guiding counselling method that aims to help a person find their own motivation to change. It uses open questions, reflective listening, and a nonjudgmental, nonconfrontational style to encourage open discussion and reduce resistance around risky or problem behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 92d862e76a17bcba0b85065f7778176e2f566c56f6877dc1e0e50ba3ac70c081

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Motivational Interviewing” (D062405).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D062405). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motivational style
<a id="motivational-style"></a>

Motivational style refers to how a teacher’s interpersonal behavior shapes students’ motivation, either by supporting or undermining their basic psychological needs. In this source, it includes supportive and thwarting ways of relating to students across autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45b14229ff5a3c13e49cb078e63fc68d52f89f25b0f7c1c314b833b2023f93ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Leo Francisco M; Sánchez-Oliva David; Fernandez-Rio Javier; López-Gajardo Miguel A; Pulido Juan J. Validation of the teaching interpersonal style questionnaire in physical education. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1702118; article XML SHA-256 a553a86b55ea2aed1df6966e323459f23346f080ee81a9967acbb18f740f7c2f. “Validation of the teaching interpersonal style questionnaire in physical education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1702118).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1702118). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motivators
<a id="motivators"></a>

Motivators are factors or reasons that encourage someone to take part in an activity or make them more willing to be involved. In this context, the term refers to influences that affect participation in research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e28be7ac1c892151013701ad640f4ed1636b49bdf159a506ef35c35f40b9910f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kotiusheva Ksenia; Hilliker Laurel; Ibbotson Tracy; Baylan Satu; Gardani Maria; Learmonth Gemma. Widening participation in cognitive neuroscience: a mixed-methods study of age-related motivators, barriers and attitudes towards imaging methods. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12874-026-02911-3; article XML SHA-256 8c098e77f28dc6a70bafda3de89388bc4a3f787104bd45e852ccf2635ea721c3. “Widening participation in cognitive neuroscience: a mixed-methods study of age-related motivators, barriers and attitudes towards imaging methods” (10.1186/s12874-026-02911-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-026-02911-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motive
<a id="motive"></a>

A motive is any conscious factor that helps determine an act of will. In this historical usage, the term is broader than a consciously pictured goal or end, and can include both ideational ends and other determining influences in voluntary choice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e8bc42e162d28f776bba0094670b663696db8d7c82c4c790dc81a51749d8b02

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Motive” (Motive).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M5defs.htm#Motive). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motoneuron
<a id="motoneuron"></a>

A motoneuron is a nerve cell that carries signals outward from the central nervous system to skeletal muscles, helping produce muscle movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aadc0217ef081b4d8462728bbb2ca16ce8468aae3007aed719a8516045e6f288

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Motor Neuron” (C12644).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor
<a id="motor"></a>

Motor refers to what concerns action and movement, including the bodily machinery for acting and the awareness of acting. In psychology, it is contrasted with sensory, and it can also describe theories that explain mental life in terms of movement-related elements and striving.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9fa0ff5d3805841b97bb84bed7031aa470d30c18b464c176efe7d75139306865

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Motor” (Motor).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M5defs.htm#Motor). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor area
<a id="motor-area"></a>

The motor area is a region of the frontal lobe involved in primary control of movement, located in the dorsal precentral gyrus just in front of the central sulcus. It includes the primary motor cortex, the premotor cortex, and the supplementary motor area.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e806f4e411bddd0ee5e520a269fd8ef56d22624e7e7f9c319763f8816f8a24ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Motor Cortex” (D009044).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009044). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor behavior
<a id="motor-behavior"></a>

Motor behavior is the performance of movements, especially the complex movement patterns used in everyday activities and social interaction. It depends on learning and carrying out movement sequences, including their order and timing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 510c44771adc1dac2f1835c24fc17d8f61298a0d9bd9cfe2898f13fb0140fc7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Prashad Shikha; Paek Andrew Y.; Fournier Lisa R.. Longer chronic cannabis use in humans is associated with impaired implicit motor learning and supranormal resting state cortical activity. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338082; article XML SHA-256 8b33b70557f19fdec5a38f63e50d102166a5255b9321df215ddcbd9e2634bf2f. “Longer chronic cannabis use in humans is associated with impaired implicit motor learning and supranormal resting state cortical activity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338082).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338082). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor control
<a id="motor-control"></a>

Motor control is the set of processes involved in initiating and carrying out goal-directed motor actions. In this context, it refers to how movement is started and how it is executed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e39921786f9b2114d49e42d78e23525aca4a6d125af42c4d0c92578784b5d253

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barutchu Ayla; Spence Charles. Faster to react, slower to move: differential effects of multisensory facilitation on movement initiation and execution across the adult lifespan. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811531; article XML SHA-256 93520f34f574888a1fe7a08ade2eb888e842a928d36ea15736b0f62711e0300d. “Faster to react, slower to move: differential effects of multisensory facilitation on movement initiation and execution across the adult lifespan” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811531).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811531). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor coordination
<a id="motor-coordination"></a>

Motor coordination is the integrated working together of the nervous system and the musculoskeletal system to produce movement. In children, it is a broad physical ability that combines different movement skills and is closely linked with neurological maturation and with language, cognitive, and emotional development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b44cd6c49b77d12df3846b7b56f2ec4ea79ca15e2077451e23e70f427ad23a9c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hua Lijun; Song Zhenpeng; Liu Jiao; Zhang Bin. Intervention effect of physical activity on motor coordination in children and adolescents with developmental coordination disorder: a meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1630439; article XML SHA-256 ce9c5c9c5f63d8bc903db8bb0c168ac1f1d8689c4af25e8112e6d847cc065304. “Intervention effect of physical activity on motor coordination in children and adolescents with developmental coordination disorder: a meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1630439).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1630439). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor development
<a id="motor-development"></a>

Motor development is the lifelong progression of movement abilities and motor tasks. It involves ongoing changes in motor behavior shaped by the interaction between a person’s biological makeup and their environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01a414b1659edee0f7a3b25d91506ff7857cc7f1042f4137a81d4d9f786a8ea0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yilmaz Ozan; Bayazit Betul. The effect of motor skills and imagery application on psychomotor development in children. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1682612; article XML SHA-256 fc1273b0b0acef895f720c28fd482ff9abbca32ab54cb94416602c197448f28e. “The effect of motor skills and imagery application on psychomotor development in children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1682612).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1682612). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor dominance
<a id="motor-dominance"></a>

Motor dominance is a consistent bias to use one side of the body, limb, or direction of movement more than the other, sometimes called motor handedness. It refers to asymmetry in motor behavior and can occur independently of other left-right asymmetries in the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6143493e43c86fe98cef15be142c94ebd54ed139a7a004156a56e6bb28dc9a0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Downes Joanna C.; Birsoy Bilge; Chipman Kyle C.; Rothman Joel H.. Handedness of a Motor Program in C. elegans Is Independent of Left-Right Body Asymmetry. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0052138; article XML SHA-256 9721ca121e7cdd708070cf5d3cc39ebc65f6f91a5dcd8d8f5e79fffaf5f883d6. “Handedness of a Motor Program in C. elegans Is Independent of Left-Right Body Asymmetry” (10.1371/journal.pone.0052138).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0052138). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor end plate
<a id="motor-end-plate"></a>

The motor end plate is the specialized part of a muscle cell located directly opposite the end of a motor neuron across the synaptic gap. It contains structural folds and a high concentration of cholinergic receptors that help receive nerve signals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35d0e5117cdebc72ab8193c41273b92215dc5f35f4ec037f7365c06c2364e42a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Motor Endplate” (D009045).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009045). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor equivalence
<a id="motor-equivalence"></a>

Motor equivalence is the principle that the same action goal can be achieved by using different body parts as the movement’s effective end point. In the source, this is illustrated by reaching or avoidance behavior that can be directed through arbitrary selected body parts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4fae8af138202aa8171b7b4b2b125bab1e41cdef1c02a88da532948bfd4eced2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Roncone Alessandro; Hoffmann Matej; Pattacini Ugo; Fadiga Luciano; Metta Giorgio. Peripersonal Space and Margin of Safety around the Body: Learning Visuo-Tactile Associations in a Humanoid Robot with Artificial Skin. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0163713; article XML SHA-256 dec0245d2e1ad38d5fd8b17c64709ee1802c992dc7122aab0e5fa2d053da7544. “Peripersonal Space and Margin of Safety around the Body: Learning Visuo-Tactile Associations in a Humanoid Robot with Artificial Skin” (10.1371/journal.pone.0163713).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163713). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor learning
<a id="motor-learning"></a>

Motor learning is the process of improving and retaining movement skills over time, and it is a major focus in rehabilitation after neurological injury. In this framework, it unfolds across stages such as acquiring a skill, consolidating it, and later retaining it in memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7da7448ac45ac463633bf21486166fcf00d5dd693a27df29668b43d0f4d99f9d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao Jingwang; Zhang Guanghu; Xu Dongsheng. The effect of reward on motor learning: different stage, different effect. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1381935; article XML SHA-256 a08be6664a1fb642d6178fefd00bf4faca692d0434e82924ec0adac241226294. “The effect of reward on motor learning: different stage, different effect” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1381935).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1381935). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor memory
<a id="motor-memory"></a>

Motor memory is the memory for learned movements or movement patterns. In this historical source, it is illustrated by speech and writing: a person may still be able to move the tongue, lips, hand, or arm, yet lose the remembered co-ordinated acts needed to articulate words or form letters.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 480840b281a344f31578f3d3d61cc07b349eac284e0da717611555ccdad2120d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-430500-442500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor milestones
<a id="motor-milestones"></a>

Motor milestones are developmental movement achievements in infancy that signal progress and create new ways for infants to engage with their surroundings and other people. They matter in psychology because early motor development is closely linked with social and language development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 537bb739383eb85906a19e7d2acb11d5e1af56a8baa92fef8552b87a7bf66de9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Laudańska Zuzanna; Malinowska-Korczak Anna; Babis Karolina; Mąka Szymon; Lozano Itziar; Marschik Peter B.; Zhang Dajie; Patsis Katerina; Szmytke Magdalena; Podstolak Monika; Araszkiewicz Weronika; Tomalski Przemysław. Sit and face the world: ontogenetic adaptation in infant vocal production and visual attention during the transition to independent sitting. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-02645-9; article XML SHA-256 a7f1b43775e3edda1df2fbba8348eaa14abd1f52127abeb460528d2eaf7dbbb1. “Sit and face the world: ontogenetic adaptation in infant vocal production and visual attention during the transition to independent sitting” (10.1186/s40359-025-02645-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02645-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor neuron
<a id="motor-neuron"></a>

A motor neuron is a nerve cell that carries signals away from the central nervous system to skeletal muscles, helping produce movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd5b8272c2b55365512572a88707f231a43451db349b78713585d6f2e39a611e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Motor Neuron” (C12644).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor neuron disease
<a id="motor-neuron-disease"></a>

Motor neuron disease is a group of disorders in which the nerve cells that control movement in the spinal cord, brainstem, or motor cortex gradually degenerate. Different forms are defined by which motor neuron areas are mainly affected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 567bf8b8ab6472e937c74e79ddc70e994b0e38f659ba1e6bb3d2b028c49f1dbb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Motor Neuron Disease” (D016472).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016472). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor neuron pool
<a id="motor-neuron-pool"></a>

A motor neuron pool is the group of motor neurons whose output reflects the combined effects of incoming signals from descending corticomotor pathways and spinal reflex pathways. Its activity can be described in terms of how readily these neurons are recruited to produce a response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26c2f18af976d5e80e9880e8a99cee8015e10928c33db1c880dc34796230d7bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lopez Alejandro J.; Xu Jiang; Hoque Maruf M.; McMullen Carly; Kesar Trisha M.; Borich Michael R.. Integration of Convergent Sensorimotor Inputs Within Spinal Reflex Circuits in Healthy Adults. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2020.592013; article XML SHA-256 3de068c5439c79e902728f7e7dcaca53986f8b0b8e616add2680d6aa5ccf4b44. “Integration of Convergent Sensorimotor Inputs Within Spinal Reflex Circuits in Healthy Adults” (10.3389/fnhum.2020.592013).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.592013). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor overflow
<a id="motor-overflow"></a>

Motor overflow is a neuromotor phenomenon in which muscles that are not needed for an intended movement become involuntarily active at the same time. It is understood as a loss of normal inhibitory control within and between the brain’s motor systems, causing motor activity to spread to unintended body areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f0809a5c390320a23721a49d32be4f5c019ec39ef22d027c8a247e9dacb74f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pereira Gabrielly Santos; De Araújo João Eduardo; Rosa Gustavo Henrique De Mello; Zhang Kelly; Da Silva Marcelo Lourenço; Ferreira Luciano Maia Alves. Transcranial magnetic stimulation and motor overflow: a systematic review in neurological disorders. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2026.1819449; article XML SHA-256 b7afab13be3774bb467184a227a25d2809d32ac98ab3f98f663daa908faaf042. “Transcranial magnetic stimulation and motor overflow: a systematic review in neurological disorders” (10.3389/fnins.2026.1819449).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2026.1819449). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor pathway
<a id="motor-pathway"></a>

In birdsong research, the motor pathway is the set of connected brain nuclei responsible for producing song by coordinating the muscle systems used for vocalization. In the source packet, this pathway includes HVC, the robust nucleus of the arcopallium, and the tracheosyringeal motor nucleus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b263ec12ccbc1f652902e8834cc941c424e0f56eb0df9edd3de9c9655d2c522

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Giordani Cristiano; Rivera-Gutierrez Hector; Zhe Sun; Micheletto Ruggero. Simulation of the song motor pathway in birds: A single neuron initiates a chain of events that produces birdsong with realistic spectra properties. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0200998; article XML SHA-256 b62c8d19316c9d71ecf655a4ff1e171564806d1e19e8c6a87c9badd4ccbe8808. “Simulation of the song motor pathway in birds: A single neuron initiates a chain of events that produces birdsong with realistic spectra properties” (10.1371/journal.pone.0200998).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200998). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor planning
<a id="motor-planning"></a>

Motor planning is the process of preparing a movement in advance based on sensory information and the demands of the task. It includes selecting and specifying how the movement will be carried out so the body can produce the needed motor commands, especially when there is more than one possible way to reach a goal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 137fe499d3c40bd75d3f3b5f86f8c3023445d999f75ff9546ca322ad8019fb4c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vyazmin Alexander; Behera Sangram; See Geok Lan; Moiseeva Victoria; Feurra Matteo. A comprehensive approach to studying motor planning and execution using 3D-printed objects and motion tracking technology. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1620526; article XML SHA-256 021804bab22404bd200e8f82f807bf2a86c413eb0e80de4ae3d4983f35a173d2. “A comprehensive approach to studying motor planning and execution using 3D-printed objects and motion tracking technology” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1620526).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1620526). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor root
<a id="motor-root"></a>

The motor root is the larger part of the facial nerve, also called the facial nerve proper. It carries outgoing nerve signals involved in facial expression and related gland functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a78fce1189a1a1d7e67c23832ba428ade18084074acac0d0ec955b80b7770266

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Facial Nerve” (D005154).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005154). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Motor scale
<a id="motor-scale"></a>

A motor scale is a structured measure used to assess motor functioning by rating a person’s ability to perform movement-related activities and the amount of assistance needed. In this source, it refers to a smaller gross motor scale developed for people with Rett syndrome, with items grouped into general motor skills and more complex gross motor skills.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c90bf912ee028d4ed7dd45180f5af86ab6eabf0d0950adde722c19ea58663523

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Downs Jenny; Stahlhut Michelle; Wong Kingsley; Syhler Birgit; Bisgaard Anne-Marie; Jacoby Peter; Leonard Helen. Validating the Rett Syndrome Gross Motor Scale. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0147555; article XML SHA-256 806a7ec396039b9d096300652982f280efc042c1fb7751cc23cff6c629ff65cc. “Validating the Rett Syndrome Gross Motor Scale” (10.1371/journal.pone.0147555).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147555). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor test
<a id="motor-test"></a>

A motor test is an assessment of motor performance or motor skills, often used in children to measure general movement-related abilities as part of screening or talent identification. In this context, it is used alongside other measures to estimate a child’s motor potential and developmental readiness for later sport-specific performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 399765d369cefd765a37cd27b560d4767224036c0a2ac9a10e229a8b785e2c4e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stolz Isabel; Bokeloh Tabea; Feldhaus Chiara; Bös Klaus. The role of relative age effects in generic motor skill diagnostics using the German motor test (6–18): diagnostic outcomes and recruitment of 9–10-year-old children to sports schools in Germany. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814502; article XML SHA-256 10a89f71afc9d9c632f6191eefff8abe1872dbdb6cbabf19f76a1e26dbe00682. “The role of relative age effects in generic motor skill diagnostics using the German motor test (6–18): diagnostic outcomes and recruitment of 9–10-year-old children to sports schools in Germany” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814502).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814502). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## motor theory of speech perception
<a id="motor-theory-of-speech-perception"></a>

Motor theory of speech perception is the view that understanding speech involves the listener’s knowledge of how speech sounds are produced, including activation of motor patterns for the lips, tongue, and other articulators. In this account, perceiving a spoken sound partly depends on recovering or matching the speaker’s intended articulatory action, which may be especially helpful in noisy conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b97e33d4791ae2b4079706922c808f153ade7b6cfd12ce0fe66fb363a107d23c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Castellini Claudio; Badino Leonardo; Metta Giorgio; Sandini Giulio; Tavella Michele; Grimaldi Mirko; Fadiga Luciano. The Use of Phonetic Motor Invariants Can Improve Automatic Phoneme Discrimination. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0024055; article XML SHA-256 a2ff68d3a1b82218e4bc492769301ca2f208fc0d0d23d2933241f3a56568ea49. “The Use of Phonetic Motor Invariants Can Improve Automatic Phoneme Discrimination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0024055).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024055). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mouches volantes
<a id="mouches-volantes"></a>

Mouches volantes are entoptic visual appearances caused by small bodies within the vitreous humor of the eye. They are described as floating bright threads, dots, or tiny circles that typically drift downward across the visual field.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d259934b8e2ef929a450fcf728cf94202cfec31f76affe5882e7e73b06ee2ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Muscae Volitantes” (Muscae).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M5defs.htm#Muscae). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mourning
<a id="mourning"></a>

Mourning is the overall process of grieving after a loss. It is linked with a strong sense of loss and sadness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ca2f49a630111df37888eaa267c3c69e9f6b54bd5bb4e077bb7a307b6b58a0f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bereavement” (D001601).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001601). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## movement
<a id="movement"></a>

Movement is the act or result of changing place or position. It includes motion of the whole body or of any body part, not just moving the entire body from one place to another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa317a0d4d1f006a2a947418bb198ec0cc0421e13bded7f6d1977a36fa0c4f07

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Movement” (D009068).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009068). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## movement disorder
<a id="movement-disorder"></a>

A movement disorder is a neurological condition that causes abnormal voluntary or involuntary movement. It can affect how fast, smooth, coordinated, and easy a person’s movements are.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90988d4a2e3cd853d65f5ca83ae35df55e9d83b760dfeca76875f0c42fbd5180

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Movement Disorder” (C116757).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## movement perspective
<a id="movement-perspective"></a>

In temporal thinking, a movement perspective is the viewpoint used to imagine motion between oneself and time. It can take the form of seeing oneself as moving forward through time or seeing time as moving toward oneself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0bbd152eceb5fc2e82d7af30e3df22c9f35fb08edeb85558a1bfd5236fab0141

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zheng Weiqi; Liu Ye; Liu Chang Hong; Chen Yu-Hsin; Cui Qian; Fu Xiaolan. The Influence of Event Valence and Emotional States on the Metaphorical Comprehension of Time. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00410; article XML SHA-256 626a2485cf7fcdf94abf65c44e5612c25eb9ffb596c41568a63a80e1440cdd48. “The Influence of Event Valence and Emotional States on the Metaphorical Comprehension of Time” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00410).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00410). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## movement sense
<a id="movement-sense"></a>

In this historical usage, movement sense means the felt awareness of one’s own movement or activity, contrasted with passive sensation. It was treated as part of the “muscular” element in experience and as important for how the mind comes to apprehend external objects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7905f721e6eb8a9020e9643c916bf25103049a3d80d09c695ba507cf80f95913

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-252000-264000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## moving-window technique
<a id="moving-window-technique"></a>

The moving-window technique is a research method that limits what a person can see to a small movable area on a visual display. In psychology studies, it is used to track which parts of a stimulus someone actively examines and can serve as a more direct measure of attention than standard eye-tracking in some tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 55a6a555b08467f6999a242623df9fae1f2f94b3d2644a86ca0b04ea69325e51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Birmingham Elina; Svärd Joakim; Kanan Christopher; Fischer Håkan. Exploring emotional expression recognition in aging adults using the Moving Window Technique. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0205341; article XML SHA-256 bec01c36834969b40b096ac5e9a8adcc6d88d7ca5e25f7299a8a54787d4cdceb. “Exploring emotional expression recognition in aging adults using the Moving Window Technique” (10.1371/journal.pone.0205341).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205341). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Mozart effect
<a id="mozart-effect"></a>

The Mozart effect refers to the idea that listening to music before starting a cognitive task may influence later performance, in contrast to music played during the task. In this source, it is described as prior-to-task music listening that might change memory performance by reducing distraction, although findings are mixed and often show no benefit in healthy adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53da0c46de48ab480447cf55f3d15fbf38388bc0ad0af17742f35a9b37452a5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Silva Susana; Belim Filipa; Castro São Luís. The Mozart Effect on the Episodic Memory of Healthy Adults Is Null, but Low-Functioning Older Adults May Be an Exception. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.538194; article XML SHA-256 5bb825c71e5f70a774a98bd59fb07f931de38fe56c425a32af342c260db67883. “The Mozart Effect on the Episodic Memory of Healthy Adults Is Null, but Low-Functioning Older Adults May Be an Exception” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.538194).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.538194). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MPTP
<a id="mptp"></a>

MPTP is a substance that is toxic to dopamine-related nerve systems and can cause lasting clinical, chemical, and tissue changes that resemble those seen in Parkinson disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6534a0338a50cba78bf7731aae030c592050f4670b789e485eb473ea67dbd75c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine” (D015632).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015632). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MR
<a id="mr"></a>

MR stands for magnetic resonance, a way of creating images that can be done quickly enough for real-time use. In this context, it refers to imaging methods where fast data collection and image reconstruction are important for low-delay, high-temporal-resolution applications.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a9d9cb15e9378e438a2fd71ba509587268a252904cf8c5be003859bb317287f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Topalis Johanna; Dexl Jakob; Jeblick Katharina; Klaar Rabea; Kurz Christopher; Löhr Timo; Mittermeier Andreas; Schachtner Balthasar; Stüber Anna Theresa; Weber Tobias; Wesp Philipp; Ricke Jens; Seidensticker Max; Landry Guillaume; Ingrisch Michael; Dietrich Olaf. Fast machine learning image reconstruction of radially undersampled k-space data for low-latency real-time MRI. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334604; article XML SHA-256 be0f8714edcab5dfbb4f5ea4533a6a05e8066b9ea6cf2b15e41a23b6ee3c8cd5. “Fast machine learning image reconstruction of radially undersampled k-space data for low-latency real-time MRI” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334604).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334604). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MRI
<a id="mri"></a>

MRI is an essential diagnostic imaging test used in radiology. In mental health contexts, it may be discussed because undergoing an MRI can cause significant anxiety that may affect a patient’s cooperation and the quality of the images.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed778d90eec60be791c5c15d4188f0b8ea683e324ea16fc4555ce2b62099ddb9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Peng; Zhang Lei; Ren Jie; Wang Meng. Music intervention for reducing anxiety in patients undergoing CT or MRI examinations: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1864214; article XML SHA-256 5ad876b7391c008a7c807d07701d64c22b0f42ad6226ce0fa273f8e474c2b222. “Music intervention for reducing anxiety in patients undergoing CT or MRI examinations: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1864214).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1864214). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MRT
<a id="mrt"></a>

MRT stands for muscle response testing, a form of manual muscle testing mainly used in complementary and alternative care. Unlike standard manual muscle testing, which checks neuromusculoskeletal function and strength, MRT repeatedly tests usually a single muscle as conditions change in order to look for the presence of a target condition or factors thought to contribute to it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8d15935ed2590c1ce6c01d8c18fdaa907b588aed5d018471e3075c226748d15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jensen Anne M.; Stevens Richard J.; Burls Amanda J.. Exploring the variation in muscle response testing accuracy through repeatability and reproducibility. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326208; article XML SHA-256 09d5679f83dbad3aa710e00015598697e578dbd7232801aa4f05e127f6b82193. “Exploring the variation in muscle response testing accuracy through repeatability and reproducibility” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326208).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326208). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MS
<a id="ms"></a>

MS is a neuroblastoma stage in which an L1 or L2 tumor has spread only to the skin, liver, and/or bone marrow.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ebd48b5135f8b5ab7e78d28c52029a06f9ddf34dc5f2cdf9f722129d4433bb87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “INRG Stage MS” (C133431).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MSE
<a id="mse"></a>

MSE refers to muscle-strengthening exercise. In this source, it is described as a health-related behavior in adolescents that often occurs alongside other lifestyle patterns, including higher physical activity, healthier eating, and efforts to manage body weight.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 629c83368324d8608abb90a7f0e1891ee0bb9139a98f5213e161fb5b06e466cf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ge Yiwei; Bi Jingkun. Correlates of muscle strengthening exercise in adolescents: A machine learning based analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354343; article XML SHA-256 79383f16d7477a7ec83ba0e5a4cc7668d0327a6a2181447f0237d8c4aa246cd5. “Correlates of muscle strengthening exercise in adolescents: A machine learning based analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354343).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354343). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MSH
<a id="msh"></a>

MSH stands for melanocyte-stimulating hormones, a group of peptides that act on pigment cells to promote melanin production and spread, leading to increased coloring of the skin and other tissues. These hormones come from pro-opiomelanocortin and are made in parts of the pituitary and in hypothalamic neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 354919441e93a14b3ab88c164e1411cba0246661367fb51fccba3d90369eb588

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormones” (D009074).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009074). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MSH2
<a id="msh2"></a>

MSH2 is a DNA mismatch repair gene discussed here in relation to Lynch syndrome. In this study, disease-related inherited variants in MSH2 were found in some people and families with colorectal and other Lynch syndrome-associated cancers, including one pathogenic variant shared across a large related group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8fdbd6da2e511705007d596c19311acfb329e5b76d111bcdc4a0834b3c39ddf1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wanitsuwan Worrawit; Kanjanapradit Kanet; Jearanai Supakool; Suphasynth Yuthasak; Supaattagorn Pongsatorn; Vijasika Sukanya; Wanram Surasak; Ngamphiw Chumpol; Nakhonsri Vorthunju; Tongsima Sissades; Satsue Palakorn; Sangkeaw Natnaree; Horpaopan Sukanya. WGS identifies Lynch syndrome (LS) patients and uncovers a large family with MSH2 -related LS in Southern Thailand. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348867; article XML SHA-256 ec1fa8b9bf91ecdd9a0c3442b7af166347c616106acc448850e4c2cda8ed5051. “WGS identifies Lynch syndrome (LS) patients and uncovers a large family with MSH2 -related LS in Southern Thailand” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348867).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348867). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MSI
<a id="msi"></a>

MSI, in this source, refers to the Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index, a self-report assessment used to measure musical sophistication in adolescence and adulthood. It is presented as an instrument for studying engagement-related aspects of musicality, in contrast to a child-adapted version developed for younger ages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e19400f41686215742c5537c8fe675059a201e36abeee4ec3b417150aa8b197a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [MacGregor Chloe; Mednicoff Solena; Vollweiler David J.; Hannon Erin; Müllensiefen Daniel. The child Musicality Index: A child-friendly version of the Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339261; article XML SHA-256 8dfe08e619c3628ba17579d899e16d50785b65c417bcde930dcd64d913cd8899. “The child Musicality Index: A child-friendly version of the Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339261).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339261). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MSLT
<a id="mslt"></a>

MSLT stands for Multiple Sleep Latency Test. It is an evaluation used to measure objective sleep propensity, meaning how likely a person is to fall asleep during the day.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b6a6b77921206f1e6e19c8111a1e083a7762c22eb02186a5556c189572072590

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Uchida Sunao; Maruo Takashi; Takagi Shunsuke; Sugihara Genichi; Takahashi Hidehiko. Subjective sleepiness and objective sleep propensity in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder referred for multiple sleep latency testing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848254; article XML SHA-256 7b3a82b4ad212fc30d97e1a8fa3b91b7561aa13df6666a611dce1ac1bb176e21. “Subjective sleepiness and objective sleep propensity in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder referred for multiple sleep latency testing” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848254).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848254). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MSP
<a id="msp"></a>

MSP refers to the Marchigian Sardinian alcohol-preferring rat, a preclinical research strain used to model vulnerability to alcohol use disorder. In the supplied source, these rats show disturbed sleep and wake patterns that resemble some changes seen in people with alcohol-related problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: de09de9e19052e6808d0c35fb7cfcb12da73802e25c17e185c2507457ce82ba2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ficiarà Eleonora; Faniyan Oluwatomisin O.; Simayi Reyila; Del Gallo Federico; Roberto Marisa; Ciccocioppo Roberto; Bellesi Michele; de Vivo Luisa. Sleep phenotyping in a rat model of susceptibility to substance use disorders. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324459; article XML SHA-256 d8e65d0ec1fdd69181901a27f1b9ef9cf5d63f06090d291f69bd030e1e47ca10. “Sleep phenotyping in a rat model of susceptibility to substance use disorders” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324459).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324459). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MSR
<a id="msr"></a>

MSR stands for megaproject social responsibility. It refers to how large construction projects address their social and environmental responsibilities across the project life cycle, including how these efforts relate to stakeholder participation and satisfaction with environmental compensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f1031c4b2372355a3a1867211b88ea6db1ba21264f74b0bc5ac8695e5220a3c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zeng Zixuan; Shen Yongtao; Yang Jijun; Hengsadeekul Thammanoon. The impact of international megaproject social responsibility on satisfaction with the environmental compensation mechanism: The role of stakeholder participation. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334291; article XML SHA-256 7e173b42d03cb2303635385ab5c05d0759e68200eb6202c9ea7736a4ddc828b5. “The impact of international megaproject social responsibility on satisfaction with the environmental compensation mechanism: The role of stakeholder participation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334291).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334291). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MST
<a id="mst"></a>

MST refers to magnetic seizure therapy, a psychiatric treatment that uses high-intensity, high-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation to trigger therapeutic seizure activity. In the source, it is described as an approach for severe psychiatric disorders that aims to stimulate more targeted areas of the cerebral cortex than electroconvulsive therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 72ed3b10ee42f22666abf26e1c0e77aac3cba4026628bff62acc51fa08890445

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Yu-hang; Zhou Xue; Chen Jun-shan. Comparative efficacy and cognitive function of magnetic seizure therapy and electroconvulsive therapy for major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1886955; article XML SHA-256 14a50bfc4231af479371a3159dfc11033c84d73bbfa2c94496f32e5ba65a04ed. “Comparative efficacy and cognitive function of magnetic seizure therapy and electroconvulsive therapy for major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1886955).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1886955). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MT
<a id="mt"></a>

MT usually refers to Master of Theology, an advanced academic degree in theological study. It may be earned after, or instead of, other theology-related master's degrees and can vary from shorter general study to longer, more specialized theological research training.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17fcbd993522408df163119a208b94c260e2a6edc750f34faa358a1d2bcb9e32

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Master of Theology” (C71377).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MTMM
<a id="mtmm"></a>

MTMM stands for multitrait-multimethod, a measurement design used to examine the validity of constructs by assessing attributes across multiple traits and multiple methods. In longitudinal MTMM designs, this approach is used to study change and stability over time while accounting for differences among methods of measurement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f3fe82a605b1c997daed9474474b7d3d05f59128e32176770b1b9ab9f7d7d5ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Koch Tobias; Schultze Martin; Eid Michael; Geiser Christian. A longitudinal multilevel CFA-MTMM model for interchangeable and structurally different methods. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00311; article XML SHA-256 84c13e49b609c73dcea3fb4d5081b461e77fb1f12cd46f0449bec8725c59d85b. “A longitudinal multilevel CFA-MTMM model for interchangeable and structurally different methods” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00311).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00311). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mu
<a id="mu"></a>

Mu is an EEG sensorimotor rhythm made up of two nonharmonic oscillatory components in the alpha and beta frequency ranges. In psychology and cognitive research, it is used as a neural marker of sensorimotor integration during speech perception and comprehension.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7fb788479bcb94f87d8f96b953adb81d3276ee80fb5922959339b078c25a5be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chegodaev Dmitry A; Pavlova Polina A; Karpova Natalia. What electrodes can be used to measure mu rhythm (de)synchronization in the context of speech comprehension studies? An insight from theoretical analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1676434; article XML SHA-256 2dd00fb64880a070c869683932b4d8f0f9ff1182352c6e7b99e7f168f14c43c3. “What electrodes can be used to measure mu rhythm (de)synchronization in the context of speech comprehension studies? An insight from theoretical analysis” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1676434).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1676434). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mu opioid receptor
<a id="mu-opioid-receptor"></a>

The mu opioid receptor is a cell receptor targeted by opioid pain medicines and can trigger different internal signaling pathways after activation. In this source, it is discussed because drugs aimed at this receptor may keep pain-relieving effects while possibly changing side effects such as breathing, gut, and autonomic nervous system responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9edbc086eeb3c4c32bdc60cb589c7c796f39bf82f741d39f4ef8ac5537abe87c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Yi; Chen Qiuxiang; Zhou Yuanyuan; Zeng Qingjun; Cui Haishan; Zhou Yukai. Autonomic nervous system modulation by G protein-biased mu-opioid receptor agonists: A translational scoping review protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349596; article XML SHA-256 b7286e64a86aa7817d78283654cdfa9ed3b82048681f6644ced54044866e5ce1. “Autonomic nervous system modulation by G protein-biased mu-opioid receptor agonists: A translational scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349596).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349596). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Müller cell
<a id="muller-cell"></a>

A Müller cell is a retinal cell that helps regulate the retina’s metabolism and ion balance. It also releases inflammatory signaling molecules and is notably involved in retinal changes such as diabetic retinopathy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed18cdb1e3c2df0479b90e6b0b690caaba2a710dc80c3867201c01d90a24dd74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Li; Steinle Jena J. Loss of TLR4 in mouse Müller cells inhibits both MyD88-dependent and –independent signaling. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0190253; article XML SHA-256 0972bf8bba8ddfc8a751d9068bd365f0bc8d9ccff0564116be6f5384452ac1be. “Loss of TLR4 in mouse Müller cells inhibits both MyD88-dependent and –independent signaling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0190253).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190253). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Müller-Lyer illusion
<a id="muller-lyer-illusion"></a>

The Müller-Lyer illusion is a classic geometric illusion in which a line appears to have a different length depending on whether its ends are marked like arrow tails or arrowheads. In other words, the perceived length changes even though the physical line itself does not.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9504439fe856e2ac4a9e835af4b63d07a330106a02ec9b3465a857e9c8c516fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sakiyama Tomoko; Gunji Yukio-Pegio. The Müller-Lyer Illusion in Ant Foraging. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0081714; article XML SHA-256 e08664cf60c52ce5e7309bc816c5177de5ee4c89f70c42d0250ebde1ec4977dd. “The Müller-Lyer Illusion in Ant Foraging” (10.1371/journal.pone.0081714).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081714). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Müllerian mimicry
<a id="mullerian-mimicry"></a>

Müllerian mimicry is a mutual form of resemblance in which unpalatable, warning-signaled species evolve similar appearances, so their shared pattern is linked with reciprocal selective pressure and coevolution. In the source example, two butterfly species show parallel warning coloration and repeated codivergence consistent with this process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a73d7253a7435c5d1092805c94943c30ca5d67ac4cc9296928ee97ace2f9dfb5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hoyal Cuthill Jennifer; Charleston Michael. Phylogenetic Codivergence Supports Coevolution of Mimetic Heliconius Butterflies. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0036464; article XML SHA-256 733ccadd1da7a69704a6f6342502891cc28924fa0059078297df78ca83339b6c. “Phylogenetic Codivergence Supports Coevolution of Mimetic Heliconius Butterflies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0036464).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036464). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multi-infarct dementia
<a id="multi-infarct-dementia"></a>

Multi-infarct dementia is a common type of dementia that results from multiple areas of brain tissue damage caused by interrupted blood supply in the cortex or deeper brain regions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3135fc971c7b780398c84958e98228eb42b44095b0ef718f2b48f8eaeaad44af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Multi-Infarct Dementia” (C34522).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multicultural education
<a id="multicultural-education"></a>

Multicultural education is an approach to education that reforms teaching and school structures so learners can participate fully while encountering and valuing cultural diversity. It emphasizes respect for and acceptance of different cultures, intercultural competence, and greater equity across the educational process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea39c6b1cea414e7ba498c211c8f46922bfba2fdf5965bfd058c3b5eee66bafb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lai Ying-Hsun. Multi-ethnic computational thinking and cultural respect in unmanned aerial vehicle-assisted culturally responsive teaching. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1098812; article XML SHA-256 1cd4747592d55f7428123e61431f145b67c0047ef62e9c72e8c7f67abf8328ea. “Multi-ethnic computational thinking and cultural respect in unmanned aerial vehicle-assisted culturally responsive teaching” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1098812).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1098812). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multiculturalism
<a id="multiculturalism"></a>

Multiculturalism is the presence and ongoing coexistence of multiple distinct cultural, ethnic, racial, or religious groups within the same society, organization, or population.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c3eb9795ccd7feff984112dd0d1c77d2553c1411cd91b5878e37a1e5398ec63

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cultural Diversity” (D018864).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018864). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multidimensional scaling
<a id="multidimensional-scaling"></a>

Multidimensional scaling is a research method for showing how similar or different a set of data points are in a visual map. It places the points in a space with multiple dimensions so that the distances between them reflect the pattern of similarities in the original data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f4c9340f460a95b7c231a7e175ceac2a305492d3a89146cf99bbb2b7804091f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Multidimensional Scaling Analysis” (D000084142).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000084142). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multidisciplinary team
<a id="multidisciplinary-team"></a>

A multidisciplinary team is a group of professionals from more than one discipline who work together to manage complex cases that need input from different areas of expertise. In hospital settings, this kind of teamwork depends on effective collaboration across departments and is strengthened by supportive culture, leadership, and motivation to participate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2285490bd7b73634bcd1c0192b75e8b5f0369e51b2ab6038b437c87cc12ec816

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meng Zhengnan; Tang Jiamin; Yang Jie; Wu Huaineng; Cui Linlin; Zhu Simin; Wang Xiaohe; Huang Xianhong. Fostering participation motivation and multidisciplinary teamwork collaboration through hospital culture and team leadership in Chinese tertiary public hospitals—A cross-sectional study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334831; article XML SHA-256 93e377a5290d37942f4e62544b2d94c75b2fb13e75b271b81ab67b99f35b5e85. “Fostering participation motivation and multidisciplinary teamwork collaboration through hospital culture and team leadership in Chinese tertiary public hospitals—A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334831).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334831). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multifactorial
<a id="multifactorial"></a>

Multifactorial means that an outcome is understood as arising from several interacting influences rather than a single cause. In this context, mental health is seen as shaped by a combination of experiences and conditions before migration, during migration, and after resettlement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1f03a7f44c7cba3d332a1d4f205d1966fc729f9fec2d71adf65354e3f48b7f1a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sainz-Elías Helena; Giné-Vázquez Iago; Butt Butt Fajar Matloob; Ayad Ahmed Wala; Bayes-Marin Ivet; Lloret-Pineda Amanda; Franch-Roca Marta; Mellor-Marsá Blanca; Gabarrell-Pascuet Aina; Villalobos Felipe; Alos-Belenguer Maria Del Carmen; He Yuelu; Salomon Mallat Elisabeth; Aparicio Lola; Espinal Cabeza Mercedes; Álvarez Bobo Óscar; Osorio López Yolanda; Haro Josep Maria; Cristóbal-Narváez Paula. A multifactorial model of factors associated with PTSD, anxiety and depression among migrants in Spain. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1848469; article XML SHA-256 7640746b00672b0209d153c2e8b33499c9a49316f4054ca0e65f4862209b323e. “A multifactorial model of factors associated with PTSD, anxiety and depression among migrants in Spain” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1848469).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1848469). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multifunctional antidepressant
<a id="multifunctional-antidepressant"></a>

A multifunctional antidepressant is an antidepressant-derived compound that has been altered to do more than one job, such as still interacting with monoamine transporter targets while also allowing covalent attachment and fluorescent labeling. In the source packet, this refers to a bifunctional probe designed to preserve antidepressant-like binding properties while enabling target visualization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2cb23dcc349f34ebb3bc2394d70e98bfeedefbde8cb347b490f3d0891179250a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kirmeier Thomas; Gopalakrishnan Ranganath; Gormanns Vanessa; Werner Anna M.; Cuboni Serena; Rudolf Georg C.; Höfner Georg; Wanner Klaus T.; Sieber Stephan A.; Schmidt Ulrike; Holsboer Florian; Rein Theo; Hausch Felix. Azidobupramine, an Antidepressant-Derived Bifunctional Neurotransmitter Transporter Ligand Allowing Covalent Labeling and Attachment of Fluorophores. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0148608; article XML SHA-256 c2acf1d9fabbde1e6f0139afb3e8fba7d6a9882dad492726e7618bb1f684c067. “Azidobupramine, an Antidepressant-Derived Bifunctional Neurotransmitter Transporter Ligand Allowing Covalent Labeling and Attachment of Fluorophores” (10.1371/journal.pone.0148608).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148608). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multigenerational trauma
<a id="multigenerational-trauma"></a>

Multigenerational trauma is trauma that extends across more than one generation in a family, so the effects in parents can also negatively affect their children.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 605cd636b8d958c8995c1ec494e40b766fd8ed259b8c6f728520a25501967262

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ouma Simple; Abbo Catherine; Natala Nakita; McCoy Molly; Kroupina Maria. Victimization among adolescents of female sex workers: findings from the children of at-risk parents (CARP) study in Uganda. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12887-023-04131-w; article XML SHA-256 983919b878980547b5102ea4f55cf9595f8335f4f47db5df0171aea8da217c79. “Victimization among adolescents of female sex workers: findings from the children of at-risk parents (CARP) study in Uganda” (10.1186/s12887-023-04131-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-023-04131-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multilevel model
<a id="multilevel-model"></a>

A multilevel model is an integrative framework that explains a phenomenon by linking several interacting levels or domains rather than relying on a single mechanism. In this source, it refers to a unified account that connects psychological processes, identity-related factors, neurocognitive mechanisms, and clinical outcomes to show how they work together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee8ed80ac5a6509654f1613115a503fa7990e8ef79bb3da1675749d320e66f00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Si; Vermol Verly Veto; Yu Jiarui; Jiang Huizhi. Immersive metaverse art as a psychological intervention for depression and anxiety: a narrative review and multilevel model integrating engagement, cultural identity, and neurocognitive mechanisms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1829947; article XML SHA-256 085928374135a5ab25661bf542570bc367971f925eb00b018e9425282ed6f853. “Immersive metaverse art as a psychological intervention for depression and anxiety: a narrative review and multilevel model integrating engagement, cultural identity, and neurocognitive mechanisms” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1829947).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1829947). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multimodal treatment
<a id="multimodal-treatment"></a>

Multimodal treatment is an integrated care approach that uses more than one type of intervention together, such as psychotherapy, medication, and movement-based practices like Tai Chi. In this context, it means combining different methods so their roles and possible benefits can complement one another in mental health care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d8f02a2a5da2bb4e7e49606fd384e3e7aa0dcc4a6bd6bceca3dcb13b8ce7a519

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Xiaoqi; Wei Jianqiao; Xiu Tao. Tai chi in mental health interventions: a narrative review comparing its role with pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738619; article XML SHA-256 307e3b93e52cbc48497b47eeb83f2bbd43add8577a8f657230c4c5a1fd051a3f. “Tai chi in mental health interventions: a narrative review comparing its role with pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738619).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738619). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multiparous
<a id="multiparous"></a>

Multiparous refers to a family or parent who has already had a child before, rather than being in a first birth experience. In this context, multiparous families are described as having more established parenting routines while also managing added demands such as caring for older children and handling greater time and household pressures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93cec1ddf56052f8e1f2164eeecc9718edf1c66de8f961a368002e66a3b21d69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hironaka Aiko; Sugao Shoko; Endo Masayuki; Watanabe Hiroko. Paternity leave, supportive involvement, and maternal postpartum adjustment: parity-stratified associations in a structural equation model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1807103; article XML SHA-256 99355371f50f82a152855c5eb5d466e15e8b728792faff6e428cacd897282040. “Paternity leave, supportive involvement, and maternal postpartum adjustment: parity-stratified associations in a structural equation model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1807103).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1807103). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multiple-choice experiment
<a id="multiple-choice-experiment"></a>

A multiple-choice experiment is a study design in which an organism or biological system is presented with several different options at the same time so researchers can compare its responses across those alternatives. In the source example, fungal hyphae were exposed to different soil patches with different amendments and their growth into each patch was measured.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 882222668be0e073bccf6b8407f067161fc7f722c3fe65e3e5166f087176e9ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bukovská Petra; Gryndler Milan; Gryndlerová Hana; Püschel David; Jansa Jan. Organic Nitrogen-Driven Stimulation of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Hyphae Correlates with Abundance of Ammonia Oxidizers. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00711; article XML SHA-256 387c7c9ad498b64645b2eebf7f0659e2624b0a095047e7b10db7d24e402f04e5. “Organic Nitrogen-Driven Stimulation of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Hyphae Correlates with Abundance of Ammonia Oxidizers” (10.3389/fmicb.2016.00711).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.00711). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multiple-choice question
<a id="multiple-choice-question"></a>

A multiple-choice question is a test item that asks a person to choose an answer from several provided options. In this source, it was used as a four-option question covering the content of a text to check reading comprehension.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2fe37436bba16a8853f597d85f2c8bdbcd344caa246a762d6d3f3e5281f2569

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Akincioglu Ural; Aydemir Onder; Cil Ahmet; Baydere Muhammed. An ICEEMDAN and SAX-based method for determining English reading comprehension status using functional near-infrared spectroscopy signals. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326359; article XML SHA-256 08ae9c82664e9867825736dad6be9d131e66d892359322959d4fcba6d83f4b1c. “An ICEEMDAN and SAX-based method for determining English reading comprehension status using functional near-infrared spectroscopy signals” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326359).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326359). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multiple comparison test
<a id="multiple-comparison-test"></a>

A multiple comparison test is a statistical method used to compare several treatments or groups to see which ones differ significantly from one another. In the source packet, the Dunnett-Tukey-Kramer test is given as a traditional example of this kind of test.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e0f9919ec442826cd8e6183fcc3033f7d7a416d7a797e5b1d1d53a9d03ad772b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Dong Sub; Kim Steven B.; Fennimore Steven A.. Incorporating statistical strategy into image analysis to estimate effects of steam and allyl isocyanate on weed control. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0222695; article XML SHA-256 16e3bde48a81d9c953c42582ff7a956ac5083e464b088c4b04b09a804181acea. “Incorporating statistical strategy into image analysis to estimate effects of steam and allyl isocyanate on weed control” (10.1371/journal.pone.0222695).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222695). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multiple correlation coefficient
<a id="multiple-correlation-coefficient"></a>

A multiple correlation coefficient is a statistical value used in analyses with several related factors to show how strongly those factors, taken together, are associated with an outcome or score. In this study, it summarized how well the measured factors were related to teachers’ eHealth literacy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6fadace609b77fe2a9d23c4cff056fc66bfce1a9f8a978474ca32af8567d5cde

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Khancolabi Mehdi; Nowrozian Zahra; Shahrabadi Reza; Gharib Mitra; Saadati Hassan; Nowrouzian Saeed. eHealth literacy level and its predictors among primary school teachers. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12889-025-22799-w; article XML SHA-256 c8b1c02467cb75335077c494e1fc2971976d788444a21c8b9de76b526bca7a55. “eHealth literacy level and its predictors among primary school teachers” (10.1186/s12889-025-22799-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-22799-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multiple imputation
<a id="multiple-imputation"></a>

Multiple imputation is a way of handling missing data in research analyses. It uses available information, often including extra related variables, to estimate the missing values, but the results can still be biased when the missingness depends on unobserved data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae529abb0fadc7374ee6b81f261bcbe3dc7e986446afd1cac72b423d43dc759a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Curnow Elinor; Cornish Rosie P; Heron Jon E; Carpenter James R; Tilling Kate. Multiple imputation using auxiliary imputation variables that only predict missingness can increase bias due to data missing not at random. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12874-024-02353-9; article XML SHA-256 5ab9f9f87225d09db50423fba7aeeec96596403411b2225092c3b34c16772868. “Multiple imputation using auxiliary imputation variables that only predict missingness can increase bias due to data missing not at random” (10.1186/s12874-024-02353-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-024-02353-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multiple linear regression
<a id="multiple-linear-regression"></a>

Multiple linear regression is a statistical method used to examine how one outcome is related to several predictor variables at the same time. In the source context, it is used when some measurements may be limited or left-censored, so the analysis must account for those incomplete values carefully.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3280ca05b3bf2829175428c120aee5123a1b56fbc0ae6258c557df9fc2575f09

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hafermann Lorena; Yokota Isao; Kalski Linda; Wolfarth Bernd; Herrmann Carolin. Multiple linear regression modeling with values below a lower limit of quantification – a statistical method comparison. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12874-026-02770-y; article XML SHA-256 aea96dc4f3cc6e6d057c76c7d8639c72edccb17238d03361314fb5f675d9a3dd. “Multiple linear regression modeling with values below a lower limit of quantification – a statistical method comparison” (10.1186/s12874-026-02770-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-026-02770-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multiple personality disorder
<a id="multiple-personality-disorder"></a>

Multiple personality disorder is a dissociative disorder in which a person has two or more distinct personalities. Each personality functions as a complex, integrated identity with its own memories, behavior patterns, and social relationships, and shifts between personalities happen suddenly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cfa375952866fbd0606aace5abd260659cd40a99fabf79bb36e22afb767162a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dissociative Identity Disorder” (D009105).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009105). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multiple range test
<a id="multiple-range-test"></a>

A multiple range test is a statistical follow-up procedure used after an analysis of variance to compare group means and determine which ones differ from each other. In the source packet, it appears as Duncan’s Multiple Range Test for post-ANOVA mean comparisons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 132e80d6e5e59ee8b3e817744ea4da8926aaec5b874fa8bd965bcd6baff4741c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Weldemichael Micheale Yifter; Bitima Tesfaye Dissasa; Abrha Getachew Tafere; Tesfu Kalkidan; Gebremedhn Hailay Mehari; Kassa Abraha Birhan; Kindeya Yirga Belay; Mossa Mohammed Mebrahtu. Improving desirable agronomic traits of M2 lines on fourteen Ethiopian Sesame ( Sesamum indicum L.) genotypes using Ethyl Methane Sulphonate (EMS). 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0287246; article XML SHA-256 3e3517b2fe986975c43e6a8bd783797682af99d67cd1066932552a556b4b24f3. “Improving desirable agronomic traits of M2 lines on fourteen Ethiopian Sesame ( Sesamum indicum L.) genotypes using Ethyl Methane Sulphonate (EMS)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0287246).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287246). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multiple regression
<a id="multiple-regression"></a>

Multiple regression is a form of linear regression that uses two or more predictor variables to estimate or predict a criterion variable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 12bd035d9254331450b67d5e3610765bfe1a15ba2e63813519d2d7924ecd347c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Multiple Regression” (multiple_regression.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/multiple_regression.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multiple sclerosis
<a id="multiple-sclerosis"></a>

Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease that mainly affects young adults and damages myelin in the central nervous system, producing multiple areas of demyelination in the brain and spinal cord. It often follows a pattern of repeated attacks with partial recovery, though progressive forms also occur, and can cause problems such as vision changes, weakness, numbness, poor coordination, speech difficulties, spasticity, and bladder dysfunction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e2092ea78301c4b989f6e81a31d1e2568e267b609074022066d17536e7ce739

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Multiple Sclerosis” (D009103).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009103). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Multiple Sleep Latency Test
<a id="multiple-sleep-latency-test"></a>

The Multiple Sleep Latency Test is a standard physiological test that measures how quickly a person falls asleep during the day, as an objective indicator of daytime sleep tendency. It is used in the evaluation of excessive daytime sleepiness and is central to assessing conditions such as narcolepsy and idiopathic hypersomnia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c19697495fedb00cf7e2729a923042f9d67d69c31152d3aac9d352c20c4fe4e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Uchida Sunao; Maruo Takashi; Takagi Shunsuke; Sugihara Genichi; Takahashi Hidehiko. Subjective sleepiness and objective sleep propensity in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder referred for multiple sleep latency testing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848254; article XML SHA-256 7b3a82b4ad212fc30d97e1a8fa3b91b7561aa13df6666a611dce1ac1bb176e21. “Subjective sleepiness and objective sleep propensity in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder referred for multiple sleep latency testing” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848254).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848254). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multiple-task performance
<a id="multiple-task-performance"></a>

Multiple-task performance is a person’s ability to coordinate and carry out several tasks at the same time, especially when they must be monitored under tight deadlines. In this source, it is treated as a form of multitasking linked to executive functioning across adulthood, with spatial ability also contributing in some groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7cf95e1cc3f8d9dd05ce0d0fab9ecb4e5dfaf7f1576276c6aeb000941462b7fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Todorov Ivo; Del Missier Fabio; Mäntylä Timo. Age-Related Differences in Multiple Task Monitoring. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0107619; article XML SHA-256 320cb62137a7eec91d82d7f895b772a6bf7a898d5f586d215afaf5aaffa40355. “Age-Related Differences in Multiple Task Monitoring” (10.1371/journal.pone.0107619).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107619). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multipolar neuron
<a id="multipolar-neuron"></a>

A multipolar neuron is a nerve cell that has several extensions from its body, typically one axon and three or more dendrites.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec4c4c189943ef61222aa77d40df5be8cb1b97057771082752427a4b1cce16fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Multipolar Neuron” (C33143).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multisensory method
<a id="multisensory-method"></a>

A multisensory method is a learning approach that uses more than one sense at the same time, such as combining visual and haptic exploration of a stimulus. In the described study, this approach improved learning of visual-auditory associations compared with a visual-only method.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa540faf57de6167d2b6db94da254f7cdebf1601c15b05bb823675a2bc1275ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fredembach Benjamin; de Boisferon Anne Hillairet; Gentaz Edouard. Learning of Arbitrary Association between Visual and Auditory Novel Stimuli in Adults: The “Bond Effect” of Haptic Exploration. 2009; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0004844; article XML SHA-256 87cc7c6885a7d92fcd02d70100c6a277cf1d96cf5053d5f4f522295df2a83ee5. “Learning of Arbitrary Association between Visual and Auditory Novel Stimuli in Adults: The “Bond Effect” of Haptic Exploration” (10.1371/journal.pone.0004844).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004844). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multitrait–multimethod matrix
<a id="multitraitmultimethod-matrix"></a>

A multitrait–multimethod matrix is a research approach for analyzing how several traits or variables relate when they are measured using multiple methods or informants. In this context, it is used to separate the effects of who provides the information from the traits being studied and to test whether combining sources adds predictive value.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3517d68e6cc777bd2e1ced6d2ee84248d044963b67b6c8cff60713537c5c71db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Izquierdo-Sotorrío Eva; Holgado-Tello Francisco P.; Carrasco Miguel Á.. Incremental Validity and Informant Effect from a Multi-Method Perspective: Assessing Relations between Parental Acceptance and Children’s Behavioral Problems. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00664; article XML SHA-256 097cfe8df7f08551386033a7f1407e8c6338bd8e2498f3146a96f2e33d940e2a. “Incremental Validity and Informant Effect from a Multi-Method Perspective: Assessing Relations between Parental Acceptance and Children’s Behavioral Problems” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00664).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00664). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multivariate
<a id="multivariate"></a>

Multivariate refers to statistical methods used to examine variation in several variables at the same time. It can also mean analysis that studies two or more dependent variables simultaneously.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f638abb9a2e6795b709f66977f091112837036b3d931b3a8611f2ac78ad5f2f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Multivariate Analysis” (D015999).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015999). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multivariate analysis
<a id="multivariate-analysis"></a>

Multivariate analysis is a group of statistical methods used to examine variation in several variables at the same time. In statistics, it refers to analyses that study two or more dependent variables simultaneously.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf0af872f76f8020069920cc27a074e410b0e4d22d15f55a09a42c190deb3b06

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Multivariate Analysis” (D015999).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015999). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multivariate analysis of covariance
<a id="multivariate-analysis-of-covariance"></a>

Multivariate analysis of covariance is a statistical method used to compare groups on several outcome measures at the same time while accounting for the influence of other variables. In this study, it was used to examine gait measures across injury groups after adjusting for body mass index, Lysholm score, and walking speed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c132ac8f5603cf1b90265bf5ec48c226fd837f88afd25d19976be164bea028a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lan Xinya; Li Yaping; Gao Jiaxin; Xu Yongyi; Su Qingping; Xu Pan; Chen Jianhao; Lin Zhonghua; Jiang Cai. Gait kinematics and kinetics in patients with different grades of meniscus injury: A cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347740; article XML SHA-256 2fcc745d1e84c4d6dcb2df284e2473c819b69e51b034d662b2a0364e5fe01448. “Gait kinematics and kinetics in patients with different grades of meniscus injury: A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347740).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347740). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multivariate analysis of variance
<a id="multivariate-analysis-of-variance"></a>

Multivariate analysis of variance is a statistical method used to test whether a group shows significant differences across several measured outcomes at the same time. In this study, a repeated-measures version was used to examine pre- to post-course changes in multiple self-reported skills together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b8a1559499161032a93cd3994b2487bce06a59a1b176554616d64fe9a09f667b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sun Ting; Drane Denise; McGee Richard; Campa Henry; Goldberg Bennett B; Hokanson Sarah Chobot. A national professional development program fills mentoring gaps for postdoctoral researchers. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0275767; article XML SHA-256 d7a792aa2fc491b1b3e72de21b23c35f0871d40bb7d43b7b8f6f0a93f39ed216. “A national professional development program fills mentoring gaps for postdoctoral researchers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0275767).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275767). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multivariate normal distribution
<a id="multivariate-normal-distribution"></a>

A multivariate normal distribution is a probability model for several continuous variables considered together. In this context, it is used as the assumed joint distribution for continuous multivariate data when building Gaussian graphical models.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 64bead79bac5988ef7c4ef5325716d5216f8a728a2d34af3ed252965c6f7d78a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Strobl Ralf; Grill Eva; Mansmann Ulrich. Graphical modeling of binary data using the LASSO: a simulation study. 2012; DOI 10.1186/1471-2288-12-16; article XML SHA-256 04f5d8c2d835cdfaa67be6079c58824c80e1c0868b6b1fc2abcdbee34b0f5abd. “Graphical modeling of binary data using the LASSO: a simulation study” (10.1186/1471-2288-12-16).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-12-16). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## multivariate research
<a id="multivariate-research"></a>

Multivariate research studies patterns involving several variables at the same time rather than examining one variable alone. It is used to compare groups across the full joint distribution of those variables, including differences in overall level, spread, and how the variables vary together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be93bd59f7cefadc620f698127c29193e12d48814d5b34eb76cd0f9423b16390

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Del Giudice Marco. Relative density clouds: Visualizing and exploring multivariate patterns of group differences. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0287784; article XML SHA-256 f864ddc156905eb0d09edc2fe5033eff76ee5a30ad95251fc892c8813de674a5. “Relative density clouds: Visualizing and exploring multivariate patterns of group differences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0287784).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287784). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Munchausen Syndrome
<a id="munchausen-syndrome"></a>

Munchausen syndrome is a factitious disorder in which a person repeatedly seeks hospital care for what seems to be a sudden illness while giving a convincing and dramatic story that is not true.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f95c801abbcc352ffffeed9826d6f97503cd072bb52174ea933fcfd85fced3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Munchausen Syndrome” (D009110).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009110). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Münchausen syndrome by proxy
<a id="munchausen-syndrome-by-proxy"></a>

Münchausen syndrome by proxy is a form of child abuse in which someone other than the patient, usually a parent, makes up illness symptoms and brings the child for medical care. This can lead to unnecessary and often painful examinations and treatments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c8a0141ab5a0df5032a574643ca22ddaf691c8d3767f0dfe32e78c8b4528fcf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy” (D016735).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016735). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## muscae volitantes
<a id="muscae-volitantes"></a>

Muscae volitantes are floating visual appearances seen within the eye, caused by small particles in the vitreous humor. They may look like bright threads, bead-like strings, dots, or tiny rings, and commonly seem to drift downward across the visual field.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4699ee6f005c17cee3f4e2c2ad3c9ea55d0116e4d4310042846fed24a84ef5eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Muscae Volitantes” (Muscae).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M5defs.htm#Muscae). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## muscarinic receptor
<a id="muscarinic-receptor"></a>

A muscarinic receptor is a cell receptor that responds to acetylcholine. In this source, the M3 muscarinic receptor is described as activating PKC and p38 MAPK signaling, which increased miR-222 expression and cell proliferation, and its effects were blocked by atropine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8640f550783c380a9ecfe3da73ab093e3bb12c60f1080bf5872efd952c968c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Larabee Shannon M; Cheng Kunrong; Raufman Jean-Pierre; Hu Shien. Muscarinic receptor activation in colon cancer selectively augments pro-proliferative microRNA-21, microRNA-221 and microRNA-222 expression. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0269618; article XML SHA-256 40e175d1ebd3b658cff7cbf263e4c75953b77520779d588a8f90ba99c5eb9f26. “Muscarinic receptor activation in colon cancer selectively augments pro-proliferative microRNA-21, microRNA-221 and microRNA-222 expression” (10.1371/journal.pone.0269618).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269618). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## muscimol
<a id="muscimol"></a>

Muscimol is a neurotoxic isoxazole found in Amanita mushrooms and formed by decarboxylation of ibotenic acid. It strongly activates GABA-A receptors and is used mainly as an experimental substance in animal and tissue research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 575e9685c3d0b7a1af4215f8814c0f370c058fbfb43ebac0ee8c699b3fdcce83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Muscimol” (D009118).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009118). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## muscle
<a id="muscle"></a>

Muscle is a specialized contractile tissue that produces animal movement by shortening when stimulated and drawing its points of attachment closer together. In humans and other higher vertebrates, it includes smooth muscle of the internal organs and blood vessels, heart muscle, and voluntary skeletal muscle that makes up most of the body's fleshy parts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9d9f16e2336aab5a7226070d4af953977fb6043809d2f0815da50d4fad6c3e4a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Muscle” (Muscle).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M5defs.htm#Muscle). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## muscle contraction
<a id="muscle-contraction"></a>

Muscle contraction is the activation of a muscle that produces muscle activity, such as the sustained voluntary tightening used to hold an index finger in position. In this context, it refers to ongoing voluntary muscle activity that can be measured with electromyography.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7b01a62f3b15bfd2665d15bce836cd57e02f5bd382072e04b2bd61cc0c83f67

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Heimbuch Ian S.; Fan Tiffany K.; Wu Allan D.; Faas Guido C.; Charles Andrew C.; Iacoboni Marco. Ultrasound stimulation of the motor cortex during tonic muscle contraction. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0267268; article XML SHA-256 2a3c093a4fba5b6f1c66a6574707ae1a97d8bfebf350411b4155b2e4389ebfb2. “Ultrasound stimulation of the motor cortex during tonic muscle contraction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0267268).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267268). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## muscle relaxant
<a id="muscle-relaxant"></a>

A muscle relaxant is a drug used in surgical anesthesia to reduce muscle activity. In the supplied source, pancuronium is an example that inhibits muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which blocks the signaling that activates muscle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3403d3c78c2b0ac9e260ae4f6f4e49929fbd6f66c15f897eaf35db644b51c816

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sakata Souhei; Ono Fumihito. Allosteric inhibition of muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptors by a neuromuscular blocking agent pancuronium. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0292262; article XML SHA-256 d79389699d04486d9a8bc627ab99225394ab4fb349d29c68aba777bfc02d2456. “Allosteric inhibition of muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptors by a neuromuscular blocking agent pancuronium” (10.1371/journal.pone.0292262).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292262). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## muscle sensation
<a id="muscle-sensation"></a>

Muscle sensation is a historical psychology term used broadly for the combined bodily feelings from skin, joints, muscles, and tendons that contribute to sensing movement, resistance, and weight, and more narrowly for a dull, diffuse feeling produced in a stimulated muscle itself. It was also used for the feeling of muscular fatigue after prolonged activity, understood as a mixture of these kinds of sensations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44f2411c8c81617f476debe32f3d28c02effc344d665af7d616d5cbd5ab78ea7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Muscular (or Muscle) Sensation” (Muscular).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M5defs.htm#Muscular). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## muscle spindle
<a id="muscle-spindle"></a>

A muscle spindle is a sensory structure in skeletal muscle made of intrafusal fibers that run alongside the main muscle fibers. When the muscle is stretched, it signals the spinal cord and helps trigger a reflex contraction that opposes further stretch, supporting normal muscle tone and indicating muscle length rather than muscle tension.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b84bbcf3ef18beab6ab63e12101c0947e3e69c879901d5b5e9deb330ae165059

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Muscle Spindle” (C13824).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## muscle twitch
<a id="muscle-twitch"></a>

A muscle twitch is a brief, involuntary contraction of muscle fibers supplied by a motor unit, often seen as a small twitch or dimpling under the skin. It usually is not strong enough to move a limb and may be harmless or linked to motor neuron or peripheral nervous system disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f6d2362f1bcbe50fbbe330fb04db0e6ba771af7aff274592ae887090cb21e43

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Fasciculation” (D005207).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005207). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## muscular dystrophy
<a id="muscular-dystrophy"></a>

Muscular dystrophy is a group of inherited muscle diseases that cause progressive weakness and wasting of skeletal muscles. Different forms are distinguished by which muscles are mainly affected, when symptoms begin, and how the condition is inherited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f67b9031e195368019fa769941af254ea5f0f38b510d321f2bf1daf35ecf843

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Muscular Dystrophies” (D009136).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009136). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## musculocutaneous nerve
<a id="musculocutaneous-nerve"></a>

The musculocutaneous nerve is a major nerve of the upper limb that arises from lower cervical spinal cord fibers, usually C5 to C7, through the lateral cord of the brachial plexus. It carries motor and sensory signals for parts of the upper arm, elbow, and forearm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84e65fb0823c78bcd26c11604fc0e2fbe79c76f2d56eb95a0590347eb9545cf6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Musculocutaneous Nerve” (D009138).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009138). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Musculoskeletal Pain
<a id="musculoskeletal-pain"></a>

Musculoskeletal pain is discomfort that comes from the muscles, ligaments, tendons, or bones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f5f65fc3a804bd684c1ea4bd4ec346ed908af2d24e4f39430ff7d7a7dfa2d1d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Musculoskeletal Pain” (D059352).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D059352). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Music Therapy
<a id="music-therapy"></a>

Music therapy is the use of music as an added therapeutic approach to help in treating neurological, mental, or behavioral disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 569b6b48f66ddf6fdbbceda61c65a9e4b4191fe2779024072ec96815b68a2ad1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Music Therapy” (D009147).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009147). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## musty
<a id="musty"></a>

Musty is a sensory descriptor for a smell quality used to characterize the aroma of intact cannabis flowers. In this source, it is one of the terms in a standardized aroma vocabulary and was reported more often for type I than type III samples.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3a6171cc7940eb7367d8056b4feeb32bec348edd8d3f7bc3a334406820d27343

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Isaacson Solomon E.; Wilson-Poe Adrianne R.; Ye Tingting; Qian Yanping L.; Shellhammer Thomas H.. Beyond potency: A proposed lexicon for sensory differentiation of Cannabis sativa L. aroma. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335125; article XML SHA-256 f070863f28a0880d38ecb7e5309176a818d61f961ddf1005ea346bee08c72180. “Beyond potency: A proposed lexicon for sensory differentiation of Cannabis sativa L. aroma” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335125).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335125). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mutism
<a id="mutism"></a>

Mutism is a condition in which a person cannot produce spoken words even though they can understand speech. It can occur with mental disorders or brain disease, and may also appear as selective mutism, in which a child consistently does not speak in social situations despite speaking to certain people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 13982fbe590ae5f5bf7c43d2f7b1f6625199c9d2e25e3c58f549bcaf6859ea5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mutism” (D009155).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009155). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## muttering delirium
<a id="muttering-delirium"></a>

In historical psychiatric writing, muttering delirium refers to a low, feeble delirious state marked by muttering speech. In this source it appears as part of a terminal picture of extreme mental and physical exhaustion, apathy, and collapse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22e74054851d53bd2e64065d665939fb91fd4781ed86639541a7f1a5648b05d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-294000-306000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mutual support group
<a id="mutual-support-group"></a>

A mutual support group is a group setting in which people help one another while learning and practicing behavior change techniques. In this context, members support each other as part of group therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dfbb42be936a414c1fdd92c37ade6f2db632a3242aac00ed0aaae361657fa2cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alduraywish Shatha A; Alnofaie Meaad F; Alrajhi Balqes F; Balsharaf Fatima A; Alblaihed Sarah S; Alsowigh Alaa A; Alotaibi Wafa S; Aldakheel Fahad M. Knowledge, attitude, and beliefs toward group behavior therapy programs among male adults attending smoking cessation clinics, cross-sectional analysis. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12889-021-10924-4; article XML SHA-256 aaf0ab8c1423fa27d8eb162b36cf3f2a17700b43ee26948c71e040bbfb188926. “Knowledge, attitude, and beliefs toward group behavior therapy programs among male adults attending smoking cessation clinics, cross-sectional analysis” (10.1186/s12889-021-10924-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10924-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mutuality
<a id="mutuality"></a>

Mutuality is a reciprocal relationship of give-and-take in which each side stands in the same relation to the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b393a920e425d742529e8a9055e5898826fddbbb639a0f5f74938574c5f79c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mutuality” (Mutuality).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M5defs.htm#Mutuality). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mutually exclusive events
<a id="mutually-exclusive-events"></a>

Mutually exclusive events are events that cannot both occur in the same case. In probability, the chance that one or the other will occur is found by adding their separate probabilities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: aaf84934bd7d80f8ae94f1d499e65e84cda522f2e969202936b1985be565c79f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1963500-1975500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myasthenia
<a id="myasthenia"></a>

Myasthenia is a condition in which communication between nerves and muscles is impaired, causing weakness that worsens with activity. It often affects the eye muscles and can also involve the face, swallowing, breathing, and nearby limb muscles; some cases stay confined to the eyes and are linked to antibodies against acetylcholine receptors or MuSK.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b31076eafe96a5655e8b1550d0573b8c930e65d8d8325cd15e39018d461c35bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Myasthenia Gravis” (D009157).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009157). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myasthenia gravis
<a id="myasthenia-gravis"></a>

Myasthenia gravis is a disorder of neuromuscular transmission that causes muscle weakness that becomes more pronounced with use, especially in the eye, face, bulbar, breathing, and nearby limb muscles. It is associated with autoantibodies to acetylcholine receptors or MuSK, and in some people the weakness remains limited to the eye muscles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec14d732a5934c7f68c972b9800f22a822fc4660ff8bbc78e0e25ab49772b9ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Myasthenia Gravis” (D009157).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009157). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myelencephalon
<a id="myelencephalon"></a>

The myelencephalon is the rearmost part of the hindbrain. It is the developmental brain region that gives rise to the medulla oblongata.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b70d894032eda7f110e6479c47ed12ddf01164e5a8b33f9a7297380bf624d920

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Myelencephalon” (D054024).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D054024). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myelin
<a id="myelin"></a>

Myelin is a fatty, protein-rich covering around neuronal axons. It electrically insulates the axon, helping nerve impulses travel more quickly than they do in fibers without myelin.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d9dad2b37bafc9356dfe3a5fecde38c1d28fa68948b5a53d1267bc79294559f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Myelin Sheath” (C13261).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myelin sheath
<a id="myelin-sheath"></a>

The myelin sheath is a fatty covering around axons in the central and peripheral nervous systems. It acts as an electrical insulator that helps nerve impulses travel faster and with less energy, and it is formed from the membranes of glial cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5675962caa6823495d6fbeb8c3f4ffa34fa29daa61918db78e7527b31fbe86c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Myelin Sheath” (D009186).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009186). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myelination
<a id="myelination"></a>

Myelination is the process in which oligodendrocyte precursor cells develop in ways that produce myelin, a covering that gives neurons structural and metabolic support and helps nerve signals travel efficiently along axons. When myelin is lost, neurons become more vulnerable and can undergo degeneration, contributing to lasting disability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 94eec2fe8704a3cf425afeb4fb0361a8889912d997332658471ac77b156b26a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [De Herdt Dille; Lefevere Evy; Brouwers Véronique; Hartvig Line; Geeraerts Emiel; Hsiao Cheng-Chih; Chen J. Q. Alida; Pinto Rui; Duvey Guillaume; Burbidge Stephen; Harmeier Anja; Knuesel Irene. Selective GPR17 antagonism enhances structural and functional recovery in animal models of demyelination. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354525; article XML SHA-256 020a90f06de5ec237b488ab825746395775e54c6139cf43a77aa8453855e630b. “Selective GPR17 antagonism enhances structural and functional recovery in animal models of demyelination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354525).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354525). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myelitis
<a id="myelitis"></a>

Myelitis is inflammation of the spinal cord. It can result from causes such as infection, autoimmune disease, or reduced blood supply, and often leads to weakness, changes in sensation, pain, loss of bladder or bowel control, or other autonomic problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a6398ee826937316670feded856ae293276c74fcfcf0a5faa314708fdc660eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Myelitis” (D009187).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009187). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myeloarchitecture
<a id="myeloarchitecture"></a>

Myeloarchitecture is the organized pattern and arrangement of myelinated nerve fibers within brain tissue, such as the layers of the cerebral cortex. In cortical dysplasia, this myelin-based structure can be reduced or disorganized.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 536ac44bfe71ffa0648f90e1d444e7cb7b5766c1df52498e30b3fc857ff051fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ortega-Fimbres Olimpia; Ríos-Carrillo Ricardo; Gaspar-Martínez Edith; Ruiz-Acosta Priscila; Regalado Mirelta; Luna-Munguía Hiram; Ramírez-Manzanares Alonso; Concha Luis. Analysis of cortical dysplasias using b-tensor encoding diffusion MRI in an animal model. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346132; article XML SHA-256 67859b67b0b053c26b5d299c7bbe6921835d6904c8734fb1088788699ceeb7b2. “Analysis of cortical dysplasias using b-tensor encoding diffusion MRI in an animal model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346132).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346132). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myelomeningocele
<a id="myelomeningocele"></a>

Myelomeningocele is a birth defect, and less often an acquired condition, in which the spinal cord and its surrounding membranes bulge out through an opening in the spine, most commonly in the lower back. It can lead to paralysis, reduced feeling in the lower body, and problems with bladder or bowel control, and it may occur with Arnold-Chiari malformation or hydrocephalus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 32b96d3aec1797716bde9fd59e5637dbe9e14e6adf6802faaac300f97c7f19b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Meningomyelocele” (D008591).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008591). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myenteric plexus
<a id="myenteric-plexus"></a>

The myenteric plexus, also called Auerbach's plexus, is one of the two nerve networks that make up the enteric nervous system. It lies between the longitudinal and circular muscle layers of the gut and helps control and organize gut movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3707ef99141916ed1780eabc112399c1ffe117dc0d15c44f99029c3ad7ede20f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Myenteric Plexus” (D009197).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009197). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Myers–Briggs Type Indicator
<a id="myersbriggs-type-indicator"></a>

The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator is a personality assessment tool, rooted in Jung’s psychology, that sorts people into paired trait preferences on four axes. In this source, those axes are extraversion–introversion, sensing–intuition, thinking–feeling, and judging–perceiving.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 815807aaa65d4466647bad05b56ee29d81e8e1a6aede15a8de39c358ee472c45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gindre Cyrille; Patoz Aurélien; Breine Bastiaan; Lussiana Thibault. Personality in motion: How intuition and sensing personality traits relate to lower limb rebound performance. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0310130; article XML SHA-256 c7422b85123133b36512bcd918200905bbf62408498bf02ef233a5fd1dadb41e. “Personality in motion: How intuition and sensing personality traits relate to lower limb rebound performance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0310130).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310130). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myo-
<a id="myo"></a>

Myo- is a combining form meaning muscle, used in compound words and expressions that refer to muscles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4683257eabcced935319a91566eb6bc66f3b46f619cff485569895fc979931f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Myo-” (Myo-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M5defs.htm#Myo-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myoclonic epilepsy
<a id="myoclonic-epilepsy"></a>

Myoclonic epilepsy is a varied group of epilepsy syndromes marked by myoclonic seizures, or by myoclonus occurring along with other kinds of seizures. These syndromes are commonly grouped by cause into familial, cryptogenic, and symptomatic forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a49b1e02271e9569328652f120c42198478a655bd26a4166c8a0506044d69192

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Epilepsies, Myoclonic” (D004831).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004831). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myoclonic movements
<a id="myoclonic-movements"></a>

Myoclonic movements are a type of movement disorder. In some cases, their severity may be influenced or increased by psychosomatic or other psychogenic factors, such as anger.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fbca92633f29d6408a0c47c7e692c094ab0d22fc0fb58381deb3a4144103cb73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sugimoto Koreaki; Theoharides Theoharis C; Kempuraj Duraisamy; Conti Pio. Response of spinal myoclonus to a combination therapy of autogenic training and biofeedback. 2007; DOI 10.1186/1751-0759-1-18; article XML SHA-256 3a09d0a04db182b3b4cdaff285cce136c8814898bd7d90578aafb38e6239a7a7. “Response of spinal myoclonus to a combination therapy of autogenic training and biofeedback” (10.1186/1751-0759-1-18).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1751-0759-1-18). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myoclonus
<a id="myoclonus"></a>

Myoclonus is a sudden, involuntary, shock-like jerking of one muscle or a group of muscles, with irregular timing and strength, followed by relaxation. It can occur as a feature of some central nervous system disorders, including myoclonic epilepsy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8df3da8f6c59457210075629939dc1398f9970ffefa0d1cddd1dfe326b1cdfcd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Myoclonus” (D009207).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009207). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myoneural junction
<a id="myoneural-junction"></a>

A myoneural junction is the synapse where a neuron connects with a muscle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8eb66fd92285ae3311757203862a697913ce831dba494dd97b456d771826f48f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuromuscular Junction” (D009469).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009469). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myopia
<a id="myopia"></a>

Myopia is nearsightedness, a vision problem in which light focuses in front of the retina when the eye is relaxed, so distant objects are not brought into normal focus. It is linked to an overly curved cornea or an eyeball that is too long from front to back.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b2ab8817d2ee176a945912f9bfc2bf400f8bf437357ca99e55273288192fa482

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Myopia” (D009216).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009216). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myosin
<a id="myosin"></a>

Myosin, here referring to Myosin-3, is a muscle-related protein involved in muscle development and regeneration. In the source material, changes in the MYH3 gene are described as potentially disrupting energy-dependent myosin activity and impairing muscle regeneration, which may worsen Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4c7e3e81f0229d0f76e8fe6d3fd2132608b372e84d459d4209e612701eabc45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hakami Mohammed Ageeli; Alsaiari Ahad Amer; Mohammad Taj; Shamsi Anas. Decoding Myosin-3 mutational hotspots: Linking deleterious variants to Duchenne muscular dystrophy severity and psychiatric comorbidities. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328503; article XML SHA-256 bfcda4c1da6131643dc1381fa0def9480086b9abb06b79abcdf98e648fbdfe2e. “Decoding Myosin-3 mutational hotspots: Linking deleterious variants to Duchenne muscular dystrophy severity and psychiatric comorbidities” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328503).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328503). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## myotonia
<a id="myotonia"></a>

Myotonia is a delayed relaxation of muscle after it has contracted. It can appear after a person intentionally tightens a muscle, or after the muscle is tapped or electrically stimulated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ed9336ec678beb794b13b9d7f61a63ec6698267c1d6dab89f87746d560165fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Myotonia” (D009222).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009222). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mysticism
<a id="mysticism"></a>

Mysticism is a form of religious or speculative thought that claims a direct, immediate experience of the divine or the ultimate basis of existence. In this view, ordinary reflective thought is set aside in favor of a supposed higher, supra-rational union in which the sense of separate individuality may disappear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 716ff5bc32de0a47e8f622173893d8e1bf46a5e45811119fdb80f0ca4c7850cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mysticism” (Mysticism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M5defs.htm#Mysticism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Mytelase
<a id="mytelase"></a>

Mytelase is ambenonium chloride, a drug that acts on the parasympathetic nervous system. It works by reversibly blocking acetylcholinesterase, which prevents the breakdown of acetylcholine and prolongs its action at nicotinic receptors in the neuromuscular junction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5f20e46f0df4111af584d169c21de1dfdc28d543456306aafe8f34464e513929

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ambenonium Chloride” (C47388).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## mythology
<a id="mythology"></a>

Mythology is a collection of stories, often with uncertain or forgotten origins, that people use to explain beliefs, customs, institutions, or natural events. It can include legends and folk tales and may refer to either ancient traditions or modern systems of thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 376e9253fb4fbf02556e974fbf7c9f903028d56b8a6ff4a30f1ac428b7b2ab64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mythology” (D009229).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009229). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## MZ twins
<a id="mz-twins"></a>

MZ twins are identical twins. In research on twin differences, the term is used when comparing one twin with the co-twin to study how experiences or behaviour can differ within an otherwise closely matched pair.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 52562d777cdfb8d81eb4379a584140da89c42e2b7078c74e032d9b52aa63d993

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Asbury Kathryn; Moran Nicola; Plomin Robert. Do MZ twins have discordant experiences of friendship? A qualitative hypothesis-generating MZ twin differences study. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0180521; article XML SHA-256 8fd685618a407d80024e1b1b0390ef88d1b70e2fab2cee32fa053eae67a185db. “Do MZ twins have discordant experiences of friendship? A qualitative hypothesis-generating MZ twin differences study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0180521).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180521). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## n-Ach
<a id="n-ach"></a>

N. Ach refers to a historical psychologist cited in discussions of systematic experimental introspection, especially work on will, thought, and the careful reporting of conscious experience. In this context, Ach is associated with stressing complete description, caution about suggestive questioning, and the need to check introspective reports by varying experimental conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8fc90da055371df8bb350e37e7482847eddbf7c81da8f623d86a9d7b9afaa39d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Titchener, The Schema of Introspection, 1912. 1912 American Journal of Psychology 23, 485–508. “Titchener, The Schema of Introspection, 1912” (3df3e717981e5484759c).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/introspection.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/introspection.htm). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## N1 component
<a id="n1-component"></a>

The N1 component is an event-related brain response used to examine very early stages of attention during information processing. In this source, differences in N1 amplitude are interpreted as showing changes in early attentional control and the speed of early attention processing under emotional interference.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b588f5a882c0efc43ddff912f118288164654f0302fd008b39af7f373d0e34e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tao Yachen; Zhu Zhi; Liu Yan. The influence of bilingual experience on executive function under emotional interference: Evidence from the N1 component. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1107994; article XML SHA-256 d86573e2c7fa59be029f51811a2a6057b134b71cb62e9acea79088d075e4d7ec. “The influence of bilingual experience on executive function under emotional interference: Evidence from the N1 component” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1107994).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1107994). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NA
<a id="na"></a>

In this context, NA stands for network analysis, a way of examining how stress and burnout are interconnected. It is used to look at the underlying links among these occupational mental health problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 33910f1d47a66a01a5404e2e86a49d89c742c5aefbc817fd0d02a1cf27490632

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cai Jinhua; Zhang Qiao; Wang Yifan; Meng Yujia; Duan Haijun. Occupational stress and burnout among teachers in China: latent profile and network analyses. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1862159; article XML SHA-256 a8f3d24558e19b03e4217a2787eb4df5cde18f4a5832e0ed715b2dd21eaeda86. “Occupational stress and burnout among teachers in China: latent profile and network analyses” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1862159).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1862159). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nabilone
<a id="nabilone"></a>

Nabilone is a synthetic cannabinoid compound with anti-nausea effects. It is thought to act strongly and selectively at CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, with CB1 activity linked to reducing chemotherapy-related nausea.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 157f340139e7918afad166f31bb244b37b07a2b00cef3accc2a98455fcfd223a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nabilone” (C1171).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nAchR
<a id="nachr"></a>

nAchR refers to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, a transmembrane protein complex that opens a cation channel when acetylcholine or nicotine binds to it. These receptors are found in many tissues and help support neurotransmission, muscle contraction, and inflammatory processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f6fa0ab684778a6aa0ad989afe6519234d1fca66aa189e210dd66f59c92c0048

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor” (C187222).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nail biting
<a id="nail-biting"></a>

Nail biting is a common habitual act of manipulating the body by biting the nails. It is understood as a sign or expression of tension.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 26edd1d319dc2050983aba853a25fb7ab8dbbfcf22f820657c19fd2cf40b94e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nail Biting” (D009259).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009259). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## naive realism
<a id="naive-realism"></a>

Naive realism is the ordinary, unreflective form of natural realism. It holds that perception gives trustworthy, direct knowledge of both mind and matter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4210b41144667e9d93590fbcfb19878c30980ab811e04c246b273f7a7e26e5bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Natural Realism” (Natural Realism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N1defs.htm#Natural Realism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nalmefene
<a id="nalmefene"></a>

Nalmefene is a small-molecule mu opioid receptor antagonist that is used as an antidote for fentanyl and related opioid overdose. It is structurally similar to naloxone but has a much longer elimination half-life in humans, about 11 hours, which may help extend reversal of opioid effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 643d766a16523378a76592f3572fe818a1dc5700e39bc97393b48cb5fd3ffdee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Averick Saadyah E.; Kassick Andrew J.; Song Daihyun; Zhang Borui; Vigliaturo Jennifer; Luengas Diego; Silva-Ortiz Pedro; Pravetoni Marco; Raleigh Michael D.. Evaluating the rate of reversal of fentanyl-induced respiratory depression using a novel long-acting naloxone nanoparticle, cNLX-NP. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1366186; article XML SHA-256 d55b8f53034570215d662fae4d7827124c14a3ffcd216cf025d10ee96b0664c9. “Evaluating the rate of reversal of fentanyl-induced respiratory depression using a novel long-acting naloxone nanoparticle, cNLX-NP” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1366186).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1366186). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## naltrexone
<a id="naltrexone"></a>

Naltrexone is a long-acting opioid-blocking medicine related to naloxone and active when taken by mouth. In mental health and addiction care, it is used for alcohol dependence and has also been proposed for heroin addiction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e4d30ac8a96bc56ca232e3df9f7c8850ba8e7bc06bdf4d1c885cd8f2a2de564

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Naltrexone” (D009271).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009271). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## naming
<a id="naming"></a>

Naming is a cognitive task that assesses whether a person can identify and say the names of pictured animals. In the described test, three animal pictures are shown and the person is asked to name each one.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 89d0f669851318b2cd7a6c39c6d1441bcd129e357d1854d73b771a07a8b9203f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Montreal Cognitive Assessment Naming Test” (C162710).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## naming task
<a id="naming-task"></a>

A naming task is a cognitive assessment activity in which a person is asked to name objects and fingers, producing a summary score of performance. In this packet, the term refers specifically to the naming component of the ADAS-Cog CDISC version.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 208ef078e67d2edce114a3f709ee395309486de08959fa27fe63791014d8fe9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “CDISC ADAS-Cog - Naming Objects and Fingers Summary Score” (C100191).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## narcissism
<a id="narcissism"></a>

Narcissism is a personality trait within the Dark Triad, alongside Machiavellianism and psychopathy. The packet describes two main forms, grandiose and vulnerable narcissism, and notes that although narcissism is often linked with negative outcomes, grandiose narcissism may in some settings be associated with stronger learning-related and cognitive performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e1f7ee07364def7189a30ce8a73489a0a1e0ead0a00a344f49d9b1f5e9e17ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stefanova Vasilena; Scheepers Christoph; Wilson Paul; Papageorgiou Kostas A. Grandiose narcissism associates with higher cognitive performance under stress through more efficient attention distribution: An eye-tracking study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302644; article XML SHA-256 a39e0ea08284cc50e019068b4774d969301763ba4aab0e2755c0e7bd5d6505d6. “Grandiose narcissism associates with higher cognitive performance under stress through more efficient attention distribution: An eye-tracking study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302644).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302644). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## narcissistic personality
<a id="narcissistic-personality"></a>

Narcissistic personality is described here as a pattern in which a person relies on an idealized, performative sense of self to defend against deep insecurity and existential anxiety. In this account, both grandiose and vulnerable forms are understood as different ways of coping with the same disturbed relationship to self, others, meaning, and mortality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5390a41d3a07a6815192fab511163ce22d4da2ea86548fa7886a7b024e2b9f0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sun Jian. The existential fracture model: reconceptualizing narcissistic personality disorder through a phenomenological-existential lens. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1771661; article XML SHA-256 8e9e3bf65e51812bfd45edfe41d07cef4ea80aa08c62ccfd208ba82071eb4b74. “The existential fracture model: reconceptualizing narcissistic personality disorder through a phenomenological-existential lens” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1771661).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1771661). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## narcissistic personality disorder
<a id="narcissistic-personality-disorder"></a>

Narcissistic personality disorder is a diagnosis marked by an ongoing pattern of grandiosity, a strong need for admiration, and limited empathy for others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d4f20f8f77c7c1bfbe445e9fb994675eb6e955d66286351463a40b8330b2c73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Narcissistic Personality Disorder” (D000097165).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000097165). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## narcoanalysis
<a id="narcoanalysis"></a>

Narcoanalysis is a therapeutic process in which intravenous drugs such as sodium amytal or sodium pentothal are used to bring about a more relaxed, talkative state. It is one form of narcotherapy that uses these medications as an aid to communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d74c8abf29cf23ca71e8eb14bfff90648952eb15b7c087284db69460571b761

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Narcotherapy” (D009291).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009291). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Narcolepsy
<a id="narcolepsy"></a>

Narcolepsy is a disorder marked by repeated episodes of excessive daytime sleepiness and brief lapses into sleep or reduced awareness, sometimes with automatic behavior and later amnesia for what happened. It is often accompanied by cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and vivid hallucinations as a person is falling asleep, and involves rapid eye movement sleep starting unusually early.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 41f51e3bb646214e2a2e064e43997957c50de8fa48c0952961cbb57d329b4db1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Narcolepsy” (D009290).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009290). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## narcosynthesis
<a id="narcosynthesis"></a>

Narcosynthesis is a therapeutic method in which an intravenous barbiturate such as sodium amytal or sodium pentothal is used to help a person become calmer and more able to talk. It is one of the narcotherapy approaches that use these drugs as aids to the therapeutic process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9697ffbecd71e1510e9c7a3fedc23c22430237f83b2d850dff48115d34e30168

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Narcotherapy” (D009291).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009291). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## narcotherapy
<a id="narcotherapy"></a>

Narcotherapy is the use of intravenous barbiturate drugs such as sodium amytal or sodium pentothal to produce a relaxed, more talkative state. Related therapeutic uses of this drug-assisted state include narcosuggestion, narcosynthesis, and narcoanalysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ee0863b2bbc0f75e92bd34a7fa56e49f2ce3fa36ca5d9b79aed6f475004b1166

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Narcotherapy” (D009291).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009291). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## narcotic
<a id="narcotic"></a>

A narcotic is an opioid-type drug, often synthetic and similar to opium-derived substances, that has pain-relieving effects. It works by attaching to opiate receptors and producing opiate-like effects on nerve cells and other body cells, influencing pain and behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f160f85992ab14cbcbcc6c27d8c0c7e0ef81af273eff7da12f7bba49643c78b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Opioid” (C1506).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Narcotic-Related Disorders
<a id="narcotic-related-disorders"></a>

Narcotic-related disorders are problems that are connected to or caused by the abuse or misuse of narcotic drugs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e11629184d1076fca61ea6df62dc7cd9ce45acfd1a26fd95d99494763024de5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Narcotic-Related Disorders” (D000079524).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000079524). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## Nardil
<a id="nardil"></a>

Nardil is a monoamine oxidase inhibitor used for antidepressant and anti-anxiety effects. It works by irreversibly blocking MAO, which raises levels of monoamine neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine and serotonin in the brain, and it may also increase GABA through one of its metabolites.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 443e577ac02269617b08dcf8978ff91c100b24e8403f187aac6e19a84b05aa12

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Phenelzine Sulfate” (C47668).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## narrative therapy
<a id="narrative-therapy"></a>

Narrative therapy is a form of psychotherapy that treats people as the knowledgeable authors of their own lives rather than defining them by their difficulties. It separates the problem from the person and emphasizes the person’s existing strengths, values, beliefs, and abilities as resources for reducing the problem’s impact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5c028680b618cce23215c744c440ca767aa5f14d1cb11a84a35a02edc64a0fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Narrative Therapy” (D062525).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D062525). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NASA Task Load Index
<a id="nasa-task-load-index"></a>

The NASA Task Load Index is a self-report measure used to rate how demanding a task felt in terms of mental workload. In the source, it was used after a driving task to capture participants’ perceived workload.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1e468463447f9d51643c23d3938ba5b25a559aad7e0e3bc6816702929b8a9c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Yuyu; Kumada Takatsune. Relationship between workload and mind-wandering in simulated driving. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0176962; article XML SHA-256 934215387697560d53143efb964bb94939c0c1f62970967e8d21e1765c461a59. “Relationship between workload and mind-wandering in simulated driving” (10.1371/journal.pone.0176962).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176962). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nasal
<a id="nasal"></a>

In this mental health context, nasal means a medicine is given through the nose, such as a spray. The packet only supports this delivery-related meaning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d97f6b17d70668a5c70075135455d1fefa9be72ccb632877b82e317d9499543f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 5e865d35b1103be91b52db38911aadcdf861e23a0de4e1b3e1eeb01399b987b8. “Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## National Health Interview Survey
<a id="national-health-interview-survey"></a>

The National Health Interview Survey is an ongoing U.S. nationwide household interview survey that provides national estimates about health conditions, disability, health care use, and related topics. Its data are coded using the International Classification of Diseases and the survey is periodically updated to focus on current health issues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d0cacd214e2d3906cacf75239a837a3385b143f036922d83169bccf51551b7f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “National Health Interview Survey” (C19752).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## National Institute of Mental Health
<a id="national-institute-of-mental-health"></a>

The National Institute of Mental Health is a part of the National Institutes of Health focused on improving understanding and treatment of mental illnesses through basic and clinical research. Its mission includes advancing prevention, recovery, and cure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cff8e659e04523a7d9f506b11c05a9451f8d537c0cff607afcfe196de5dff9ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “National Institute of Mental Health” (C16894).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## National Mental Health Association
<a id="national-mental-health-association"></a>

The National Mental Health Association was a voluntary U.S. organization focused on promoting mental health by supporting education and research in psychiatry. It developed from an earlier group founded in 1909 as the National Committee for Mental Hygiene and was linked with state and local mental health associations through charter and affiliation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 56b6524048b4f8b264df9d94cfc55ca35842305fde01e4f8698db12a7bd760f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mental Health Associations” (D008604).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008604). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## National Science Foundation
<a id="national-science-foundation"></a>

The National Science Foundation is a U.S. organization described here as supporting graduate education and research training. In this context, it sponsors the Research Traineeship program to promote interdisciplinary learning and professional skill development so scholars can work across disciplinary boundaries and prepare for varied careers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d9ac250e749447a7c3205345e8f90ddf3af2b4c362d1593e5ef258e820d71563

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kumar Jyothi; Worosz Michelle R.; Shiu Shin-Han; Templer Pamela H.; McNeal Karen S.. Lessons learned from interdisciplinary US national science foundation research traineeship-supported graduate programs. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343307; article XML SHA-256 9a7070bf028f01e28191f66086aecb09885b2dfb05a24f9db98aaf158a87cb60. “Lessons learned from interdisciplinary US national science foundation research traineeship-supported graduate programs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343307).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343307). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nationalism
<a id="nationalism"></a>

Nationalism is a complex social phenomenon involving civic pride, cultural identity, loyalty to institutions, and shared ethnic or symbolic resources. It centers on defining who belongs to the group and who does not, and in digital media it can become especially visible in more exclusionary and aggressive public expressions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8c92a864e86d61727965e733e5b11781bd2b0ee5ceac32a0305b1df01ae3e1e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qin Siwei; Lee Wonjae. From environmental concerns to nationalist waves: Mapping the evolving Fukushima wastewater discourse on Weibo. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352452; article XML SHA-256 2c34d89578c03beaaca0e1ecaac170bcf7f2b643bbbc4346911c0357661c631c. “From environmental concerns to nationalist waves: Mapping the evolving Fukushima wastewater discourse on Weibo” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352452).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352452). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nativism
<a id="nativism"></a>

Nativism is the view that, in whatever area it is applied, some feature or capacity is inborn rather than acquired. In this historical usage, it can refer to claims about innate knowledge or intuition, native forms of space and time, or inborn biological characters.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b2152c2dea89effb435c559682f8304df41e90f0b34b7dce0fee50af1cef3009

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nativism” (Nativism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N1defs.htm#Nativism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nativistic theory
<a id="nativistic-theory"></a>

Nativistic theory is the view that rational or necessary knowledge depends in some way on an inborn endowment rather than coming wholly from an individual's sensory experience. In later historical use, the term was also tied to the question of whether knowledge could reflect inherited results of ancestral experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8049411d95bcac90e4b0a68f7346251c1647538616c36555c0dde5558a52aee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-756000-768000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## natural category
<a id="natural-category"></a>

A natural category is a group of real-world things that are understood as belonging together because they share meaningful similarities. In learning contexts, it refers to noticing the common features or relationships that unite the members of that group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 818d4184a16601948f8f4891615e21013dc7fd11458b8c312e1c3f727046b158

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jee Benjamin D.; Anggoro Florencia K.. Designing Exhibits to Support Relational Learning in a Science Museum. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.636030; article XML SHA-256 b675aeb9c7f8ce149534b3200672c6177b95a2f731703332ff93fd29b3c43aa2. “Designing Exhibits to Support Relational Learning in a Science Museum” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.636030).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.636030). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## natural consequences
<a id="natural-consequences"></a>

In this historical legal sense, natural consequences are the outcomes that flow from a person’s free action. They are the kinds of results that may be attributed to that person when legal responsibility is assigned.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f74fe5d06a3cc239de93047b08ec08d14ca88f5ff15d6d6e85da71ea7e386ecb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Imputation (in law)” (Imputationl).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Imputationl). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## natural experiment
<a id="natural-experiment"></a>

A natural experiment is a research design that compares people or groups living in different real-world conditions that are not assigned by the researchers, in order to study how those contrasting environments relate to outcomes. It is used to strengthen causal inference when stable, long-term differences in exposure help establish that exposure came before the measured effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de386ce1ba232d6dcfbabc467b665c8428f6fba14ae68a346f8fa912ee7a9894

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Krismanuel Hari; Tjhin Purnamawati. Precision public health: A natural experiment on chronic high-contrast PM 2.5 exposure and pulmonary function among older adults. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349025; article XML SHA-256 ec48b57bc574b34cdded6145deb58c4bba46d5251fe64006ebe8f3e4a8670141. “Precision public health: A natural experiment on chronic high-contrast PM 2.5 exposure and pulmonary function among older adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349025).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349025). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## natural family planning
<a id="natural-family-planning"></a>

Natural family planning is a family-planning approach that uses signs of potential fertility during the menstrual cycle, such as bodily biomarkers, to identify times when intercourse is more likely to lead to pregnancy. Couples can use this information to adjust sexual behavior depending on whether they want to avoid pregnancy or conceive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e6993dd71e085063b92ceb95f5b9db9c663b9bb112ec20884bf1418aa896c3d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stanford Joseph B.; Najmabadi Shahpar; Chang Chun-Pin Esther; Agyemang Daniel Opoku; Rivet Kathy; Porucznik Christina A.. Pregnancies, intentions, and fertility behaviors during use of the Creighton Model FertilityCare System after initial intention to avoid pregnancy: Results from the Creighton Model effectiveness, intentions, behaviors assessment study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328806; article XML SHA-256 f780e96a280b9120cdfb81a3f243469a63c826d296be1b427e54827d6556661c. “Pregnancies, intentions, and fertility behaviors during use of the Creighton Model FertilityCare System after initial intention to avoid pregnancy: Results from the Creighton Model effectiveness, intentions, behaviors assessment study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328806).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328806). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## natural killer cell
<a id="natural-killer-cell"></a>

A natural killer cell is an immune cell. In this packet, it is discussed as a donor cell that can be infused after stem cell transplantation to study whether it may help reduce early relapse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 991d48c9db044916e9ffa2e99a0c6819defd1e8dbb04323c03f869dee9b2becd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Choi Young Bae; Son Meong Hi; Cho Hee Won; Ma Youngeun; Lee Ji Won; Kang Eun-Suk; Yoo Keon Hee; Her Jung Hyun; Lim Okjae; Jung Miyoung; Hwang Yu Kyeong; Sung Ki Woong; Koo Hong Hoe. Safety and immune cell kinetics after donor natural killer cell infusion following haploidentical stem cell transplantation in children with recurrent neuroblastoma. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0225998; article XML SHA-256 4ea44f0ff86f8d27de18ff6629fe3fad4e1c15ff01eab22069babc6e884b3d91. “Safety and immune cell kinetics after donor natural killer cell infusion following haploidentical stem cell transplantation in children with recurrent neuroblastoma” (10.1371/journal.pone.0225998).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0225998). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## natural selection
<a id="natural-selection"></a>

Natural selection is the theory that, because living things multiply and struggle to survive under limited conditions, individuals with more useful variations are more likely to survive. Over many generations, the build-up of these advantageous differences leads to evolutionary change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0d136643d488805fdc3c4af7f186d8d9206d7d00a2514f65fff921626c617c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Natural Selection” (Natural Selection).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N1defs.htm#Natural Selection). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## naturalism
<a id="naturalism"></a>

Naturalism is the view that the world and human experience, including mind and morals, should be explained through nature and methods like those of the sciences rather than by spiritual, supernatural, or transcendental causes. In older usage it can also mean a position close to positivism or even materialism, though the source notes a broader use that includes mental and moral life within nature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bcfce45066102102ce2de69b7baf83a485921b6a9688db0c96dd833f5f253e28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Naturalism” (Naturalism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N1defs.htm#Naturalism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nature
<a id="nature"></a>

In historical philosophical usage, nature can mean what belongs to a thing from the start—its native constitution, essential character, or the source of its way of acting. It can also mean the world as a whole, either viewed as an active producing power or simply as the total physical order of things and events. Because of these different uses, the term has long been notably broad and ambiguous.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2200abeb771fb6ca7d1c52fac5b6a676d6126b2017a5d61c52d5f520ca0c58e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nature” (Nature).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N1defs.htm#Nature). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## naturopathy
<a id="naturopathy"></a>

Naturopathy is a drug-free approach to therapy that uses physical methods such as air, light, water, heat, and massage. It often emphasizes diet and nutrition and considers a person’s history and lifestyle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1eb4f9f1990b322ccfcafb372a94adf302f9993c6111e6c2e667aec0d2fa0ee5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Naturopathy” (D009324).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009324). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Navane
<a id="navane"></a>

Navane is thiothixene hydrochloride, a drug with antipsychotic effects. It works mainly by blocking dopamine receptors, which lowers dopamine activity and can reduce psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18a4adcd3f15bdb0ef57b535232e8e81144ee8f299802859cba27547226ff411

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Thiothixene Hydrochloride” (C47753).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## navigation
<a id="navigation"></a>

Navigation is the process of finding and following a route to move from one place to another. In this context, it can be supported either by step-by-step guidance or by a simple route display, and it is linked to how people attend to their surroundings and learn spatial layouts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a947cb289ea4b44117fc4bf6026b2d23738fcd8d2f768f50416f0951d4bb44fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Savino Gian-Luca; de Bellis Emanuel; Kirkham Reuben; Schöning Johannes. Evaluating route preview as an alternative to turn-by-turn navigation in pedestrian mobility. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340711; article XML SHA-256 9257a4de9c106857706a223f8f56adac2dcf42b967c2a59dae7b16d59b0069f5. “Evaluating route preview as an alternative to turn-by-turn navigation in pedestrian mobility” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340711).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340711). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NE
<a id="ne"></a>

NE, also called error negativity or error-related negativity, is a brain-wave signal seen in EEG as a brief negative shift about 50 milliseconds after a person makes an error. It is understood as reflecting the brain’s processing of errors and has been studied in relation to later behavioral adjustment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb1348761efe0658c50d3d5d4a1a483d8baa080ed931b710c83cf01f883a3de7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [LoTemplio Sara B.; Lopes Clara Louise; McDonnell Amy S.; Scott Emily E.; Payne Brennan R.; Strayer David L.. Updating the relationship of the Ne/ERN to task-related behavior: A brief review and suggestions for future research. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1150244; article XML SHA-256 524c321d85879a16742b8508ae7d0e51232bc2b71731cfc8feccfb12f76eacd4. “Updating the relationship of the Ne/ERN to task-related behavior: A brief review and suggestions for future research” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1150244).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1150244). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nearsightedness
<a id="nearsightedness"></a>

Nearsightedness is a focusing problem of the eye where incoming light comes to a point before it reaches the retina when the eye is not adjusting focus. It is associated with a cornea that bends light too much or an eyeball that is longer than usual from front to back.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a70f2a20c837745529ded826f88f2f43f179d391c70bad30126853b51a62aa03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Myopia” (D009216).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009216). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## necessary condition
<a id="necessary-condition"></a>

A necessary condition is a factor that is required for a particular outcome, meaning it is considered essential for that outcome to happen. In this context, it refers to influences identified as crucial for students’ retention behavior in online courses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ce911d38d431900d2ecfd3d825df5842a64876dee30379877b7c911def053169

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huacui Zhang; Hossain Md. Nahin; Zhen Kong; Kumar Nilesh. Understanding the success factors of MOOCs’ retention intention: A Necessary Condition Analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0310006; article XML SHA-256 330ac029e6c76193e6f9f984e17a9b00f77be5ae4b3c64e44be88095bea61d4b. “Understanding the success factors of MOOCs’ retention intention: A Necessary Condition Analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0310006).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310006). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Necker cube
<a id="necker-cube"></a>

The Necker cube is an ambiguous drawing of a cube that can be seen in two roughly equally likely three-dimensional ways. When people look at it, perception often flips suddenly and seemingly spontaneously from one interpretation to the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 23de81969116c586f4ac00198adda865195c5158cf03d89b540ac59931c06db9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wilson Mareike; Hecker Lukas; Joos Ellen; Aertsen Ad; Tebartz van Elst Ludger; Kornmeier Jürgen. Spontaneous Necker-cube reversals may not be that spontaneous. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1179081; article XML SHA-256 ba6b62aa95b8509a554a035e510486fa3cc5f845aa9c1d284f5b4c014a98a5de. “Spontaneous Necker-cube reversals may not be that spontaneous” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1179081).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1179081). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## need
<a id="need"></a>

Need is something necessary that is missing, and in psychology it also means an internal state that prompts a person or organism to act toward a wanted goal. It gives behavior a sense of purpose and direction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e6ae903ed0543695958b089cd29ca840a33951a45bcfe352d9c23ec6d3dd9764

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Need” (C41204).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## need for achievement
<a id="need-for-achievement"></a>

Need for achievement is an implicit motivational tendency to strive for excellence, seek distinctive accomplishments, and avoid routine. In this source, it is treated as one of the major motives that can shape behavior and, together with other motives, influence leadership effectiveness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9d08083e050e11c9e7ab8d30eaf7459dd8f5043a0c182aab8fa69dce76198763

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Steinmann Barbara; Ötting Sonja K.; Maier Günter W.. Need for Affiliation as a Motivational Add-On for Leadership Behaviors and Managerial Success. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01972; article XML SHA-256 ab413055c17d7c6f6193e49f76751be18e33d16dd56231169d74c2ed2a724afe. “Need for Affiliation as a Motivational Add-On for Leadership Behaviors and Managerial Success” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01972).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01972). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## need for affect
<a id="need-for-affect"></a>

Need for affect is a person’s tendency to orient toward the emotional or feeling-based aspects of information and messages. In persuasion research, people higher in need for affect are more likely to be influenced by the emotional tone or valence of a message.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cb38e1480bc24e119a31727b948bcfe65c83118d8a20ca57abfcc0ba8f42b1f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Giammusso Isabella; Aquino Antonio; Alparone Francesca Romana; Mirisola Alberto. The matching effect in persuasive communication about lockdown. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.987114; article XML SHA-256 00ff523f298a587f132f459919ac495d579ad598af8300e3a52e92d6b5a10509. “The matching effect in persuasive communication about lockdown” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.987114).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.987114). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## need for affection
<a id="need-for-affection"></a>

The need for affection is the basic human need for affectionate connection with others. The source supports it as an inborn need, while noting that how affection is communicated varies across cultures and over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70e22d4583c7cb76460311894c1b16e3df5becedda069e6a05e17fc163c02d1a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Michael Shengtao; Li Boyuan; Zhu Liangliang; Zhou Chan. Culture Change and Affectionate Communication in China and the United States: Evidence From Google Digitized Books 1960–2008. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01110; article XML SHA-256 9aedd34407e334919d82e42b0d23210557f602cdca8b221864edd4c8d01b46ba. “Culture Change and Affectionate Communication in China and the United States: Evidence From Google Digitized Books 1960–2008” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01110).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01110). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## need for closure
<a id="need-for-closure"></a>

Need for closure is a tendency to want a quick, definite answer, leading a person to settle on a judgment rapidly and then resist new information that might change it. Low need for closure involves keeping thinking open and delaying firm conclusions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 355fa820621520c17fbbf8c3ba820a18957e9904592dffc1cde9a7f4df519551

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Livi Stefano; Pica Gennaro; Carrus Giuseppe; Rullo Marika; Gentile Marta. Motivated Shield From Chronic Noise Environment: Moderation of the Relationship Between Noise Sensitivity and Work Wellbeing by Need for Closure. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00663; article XML SHA-256 4f640c006125fe1e8bc922ac00c400eb196f77bbd8b726b05d35bc6da01f36d0. “Motivated Shield From Chronic Noise Environment: Moderation of the Relationship Between Noise Sensitivity and Work Wellbeing by Need for Closure” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00663).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00663). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## need for cognition
<a id="need-for-cognition"></a>

Need for cognition is a person’s tendency to engage in thinking and to enjoy mentally effortful activity. In this research context, it is described as a cognitive motivational factor linked to better self-control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c16257d63b32f4555fb1a1a90541ce9d63492ea0f8ac54694b107ef70520997d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Colling Jonne; Wollschläger Rachel; Keller Ulrich; Grass Julia; Strobel Anja; Preckel Franzis; Fischbach Antoine. The relation between Self-Control, Need for Cognition and Action Orientation in secondary school students: A conceptual replication study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0286714; article XML SHA-256 5585364501407a5981261ec07acf809dfb31256db8427cba60319504d5a1d64a. “The relation between Self-Control, Need for Cognition and Action Orientation in secondary school students: A conceptual replication study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0286714).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286714). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## need to belong
<a id="need-to-belong"></a>

Need to belong is a person’s motivation to form and maintain at least a minimal number of meaningful interpersonal relationships. It reflects how strongly someone seeks social connection and a sense of inclusion with others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6beb6d5fece491a9dcc90da8e959b7be973a8324e1a9949b4a9f9a63a5fe2d92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhai Manman; Saarimäki Heini; Hietanen Jari K. The perception of eye contact is associated with men’s need to belong, self-esteem, and loneliness. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319974; article XML SHA-256 4122235551714a4f19b666d6fed629ac9a111be4fa49a22c0d812c05113f3ed7. “The perception of eye contact is associated with men’s need to belong, self-esteem, and loneliness” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319974).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319974). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## needs assessment
<a id="needs-assessment"></a>

Needs assessment is a systematic process for identifying the needs of a population or evaluating an individual to decide what level of services is required.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6aa4e2ba97664ffa62f490b00cbf8f710dd95a0f3f48c539753d06c08741642

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Needs Assessment” (D020380).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020380). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negation
<a id="negation"></a>

Negation is the relation of being negative rather than affirmative or positive. In this historical source, it is mainly a logical idea: a proposition or predicate can be negated so that it stands in contradiction to the original, while the source also notes a broader metaphysical use in contrast to what is positive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 57d5c12c87e657e5e60aa64184c486a1de6c8e09ca50bc0366bc5e6ae929982e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Negation” (Negation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N2defs.htm#Negation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative
<a id="negative"></a>

In this historical psychology and logic usage, negative refers to something understood through negation or through the absence of a character rather than its presence. A negative name or term describes an object by what it lacks, and a negative mark is evidence based on a positive event not occurring under certain conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e54e1f0d29146eb853151c484706d21c09722151ad6e5b113ddbe09bdd40aed9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Negative” (Negative).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N2defs.htm#Negative). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative adaptation
<a id="negative-adaptation"></a>

Negative adaptation is a learning-related neural effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus is followed by a reduced brain response to that stimulus later. In this source, it was found for stimuli that were attended but made unreportable by masking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ecddd90803d2e264ce84482a924b47996440a1fbc544a57a1e463187a023075f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meuwese Julia D. I.; Scholte H. Steven; Lamme Victor A. F.. Latent Memory of Unattended Stimuli Reactivated by Practice: An fMRI Study on the Role of Consciousness and Attention in Learning. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0090098; article XML SHA-256 ee75375ae06a1118e3757aa56d2a215078c0689bc9496c60e04bcd68db7af474. “Latent Memory of Unattended Stimuli Reactivated by Practice: An fMRI Study on the Role of Consciousness and Attention in Learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0090098).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090098). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative attitude
<a id="negative-attitude"></a>

In this historical passage, a negative attitude means a rejecting or opposed stance toward something. It is used specifically of the Epicureans’ opposition to religious ideas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7add83392d868710415fd157fdcc7716f2d8df1e223a9d619d897171ea750c78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2814000-2826000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative contingency
<a id="negative-contingency"></a>

Negative contingency is an action–outcome relationship in which doing the action lowers the chance of the outcome. In the example described, pressing the lever prevents reward delivery, so the subject must withhold the action to obtain the reward.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6b1640b8dce06d5ab662b13db75dc6439293d462de29fe21085225f5bd21afda

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Coutureau Etienne; Esclassan Frederic; Di Scala Georges; Marchand Alain R.. The Role of the Rat Medial Prefrontal Cortex in Adapting to Changes in Instrumental Contingency. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0033302; article XML SHA-256 cc964dfa7ba5e1d13b265d68cdb5c531acf1f0c702b78186dafa1d90c9ab9ae8. “The Role of the Rat Medial Prefrontal Cortex in Adapting to Changes in Instrumental Contingency” (10.1371/journal.pone.0033302).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0033302). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative correlation
<a id="negative-correlation"></a>

A negative correlation is a relationship between two variables in which higher levels of one are associated with lower levels of the other. In this packet, it refers to findings such as greater teacher support being linked with fewer bullying experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5b2538ce125aa13e2bf14e79c82190b497b84622b31fe9750fceb44961b4e7b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zeng Lihong; Chen Xihua. Teacher support and bullying victimization among Chinese migrant children: the mediating role of trait emotional intelligence and the moderating role of gender. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901698; article XML SHA-256 20c48335b3ea832c285b6f2efaf5fe97e53a9d12f165c8974d960729277b23cc. “Teacher support and bullying victimization among Chinese migrant children: the mediating role of trait emotional intelligence and the moderating role of gender” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901698).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901698). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative feedback
<a id="negative-feedback"></a>

Negative feedback is information from another person that critically evaluates someone’s work, performance, or personal characteristics. In learning contexts, it is an external signal that can influence motivation, thinking, and behavior, and may weaken overly positive beliefs such as self-deception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 833518b9cda011b159a0227ac4622cfa98f5837291c606832d8b48942dbab2fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Juan; Ding Wenjun; Deng Liying; Tan Min; Guan Peipei. The influence of different negative feedback on the decay of self-deception. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1499089; article XML SHA-256 f434841f3217e9448016f6f4d2fc54539e0afbce8f6396534fd4ddb003a6e0be. “The influence of different negative feedback on the decay of self-deception” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1499089).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1499089). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative hallucination
<a id="negative-hallucination"></a>

A negative hallucination is a state, usually linked here to hypnotic suggestion, in which a person does not perceive something that is actually present. For example, the person may overlook an object, a person, or part of written text despite it being there.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8eb02f51f7c35978abf799ab8553f7ab8128c036aeb41d58194965d7fb440843

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hallucination” (Hallucination).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Hallucination). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative imagery
<a id="negative-imagery"></a>

Negative imagery is distressing mental pictures about oneself, especially in social situations. In the supplied source, it refers to negative self-imagery that is commonly reported by socially anxious adolescents and is considered a possible factor that helps keep social anxiety going.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ef7d6be1f778ec4d9baaa0dd6defbc1c743724f32bc243cba32f8b682e6bba5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Leigh Eleanor; Chiu Kenny; Clark David M. The effects of modifying mental imagery in adolescent social anxiety. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0230826; article XML SHA-256 87244155f0c2a992f05a70ed80b600aed3fdfb10440908e9552c885dbdb790ff. “The effects of modifying mental imagery in adolescent social anxiety” (10.1371/journal.pone.0230826).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230826). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative incentive
<a id="negative-incentive"></a>

A negative incentive is a penalty-based influence on choice, where the possibility of losses for violating rules is used to encourage a desired behavior. In this context, raising the level of negative incentive increased workers’ decisions to reduce waste, although the added effect became smaller at higher levels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b65b9ba21fc183c6ec9a7da27befa49081502459a9e32873f4fcac5d50b4e30

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Shuitai; Zhou Yuhui; Xu Simei; Liu Jingkuang; Chen Qirong; Xue Fei; Zhu Wenxing. Decision-making of construction workers' waste reduction behavior: a study based on Cost-Benefit Theory and Cumulative Prospect Theory. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1557736; article XML SHA-256 01738ca3550738a95a4eeb1f2f3f1eae036c777d6dd47c55041e86a3c96dd00d. “Decision-making of construction workers' waste reduction behavior: a study based on Cost-Benefit Theory and Cumulative Prospect Theory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1557736).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1557736). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative induction
<a id="negative-induction"></a>

Negative induction is a historical logical method described in Nyāya reasoning for testing a general rule by using a contrasting or dissimilar case. In the example given, it supports a conclusion by showing that the subject does not belong with things that have the opposite property.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea0c9ddc88e65c69f281c97822baadda3fb87caee740b6abfc776d6510adf26e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Oriental Philosophy (and Religion)” (Oriental Philosophy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O3defs.htm#Oriental Philosophy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative reinforcement
<a id="negative-reinforcement"></a>

In this packet, negative reinforcement refers to a behavior being maintained because it reduces or dampens an unpleasant internal state, such as intense distress or hyper-arousal. Here, self-injury is described as serving this relief-based function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f91071679f6a7701acbb731ff70c5045f63bbb33a9f659f6bb997d6885ce6b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Cheng-Han; Qian Jing; Qian Jing-Ze; Wang Xiao-Hong; Zhang Qian-Qian. Beyond distress relief: the Anhedonic Subtype of nonsuicidal self-injury and the imperative for Positive Affect Treatment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1837385; article XML SHA-256 0afd5f002662225bdc12ad48da371d0ebbd34f95e7a1d9de14da9ff418ebfef4. “Beyond distress relief: the Anhedonic Subtype of nonsuicidal self-injury and the imperative for Positive Affect Treatment” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1837385).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1837385). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative relationship
<a id="negative-relationship"></a>

A negative relationship is a linear association between two variables in which they move in opposite directions. In correlation, a perfect negative relationship is represented by a value of -1.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0be862d1d1e70f64d72aac722869f282a8874e03ada63539ae63a0797155adba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Pearson's r” (pearson_r.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/pearson_r.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative self-talk
<a id="negative-self-talk"></a>

Negative self-talk is a person’s internal speech with negatively toned content, such as thoughts linked to anxiety or frustration. In this source, it is described as usually spontaneous or automatic, and in sport it is associated with greater anxiety and poorer performance when it occurs during competition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 51c1c388c2c2b7fb9f0f304de9e7265ea83c5e219c7f5501b1d4f91365916b02

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Santos-Rosa Francisco J.; Montero-Carretero Carlos; Gómez-Landero Luis Arturo; Torregrossa Miquel; Cervelló Eduardo. Positive and negative spontaneous self-talk and performance in gymnastics: The role of contextual, personal and situational factors. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0265809; article XML SHA-256 9d0449227186e3674dbd9424c65fa6dce5030cc170ac9090b66eafea3acfffc6. “Positive and negative spontaneous self-talk and performance in gymnastics: The role of contextual, personal and situational factors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0265809).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265809). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative skew
<a id="negative-skew"></a>

Negative skew is a pattern in a distribution where the left side stretches farther than the right side. In other words, the distribution has a longer tail on the left.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7b292fb07bcb7983a551b36e2296a49bb2bd938499f788d6fbaed7bfe417c23f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Skew” (skew.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/skew.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative suggestion
<a id="negative-suggestion"></a>

In this historical source, negative suggestion refers to misleading another person by what is suggested rather than by making a direct false statement. It is contrasted with both outright positive misrepresentation and simply leaving out the truth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a66c55471e6e81c818df6b3d41b089dddcfa8b1f9b19fcc371fc1b28dd1eeea0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Lie” (Lie).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Lie). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative symptom
<a id="negative-symptom"></a>

A negative symptom is a core feature of psychotic disorders that may be present from the first episode of psychosis and is linked with poorer day-to-day functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cfd0a33c2d40b4928d847ea0b0d6a955bc6505ecceb34c2874d5e01a200b1b63

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ingabire Germaine; Scarabelot Luis Felipe; Del-Ben Cristina Marta; Corsi-Zuelli Fabiana. Peripheral blood immune markers associated with negative symptoms in first episode psychosis: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1782134; article XML SHA-256 b96b679a6d7dce098d45e700f8c27ed3536e5666c641744315d445d32ccba9f6. “Peripheral blood immune markers associated with negative symptoms in first episode psychosis: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1782134).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1782134). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negative transfer
<a id="negative-transfer"></a>

Negative transfer is when using data or learning from other people in a transfer-learning approach makes performance worse instead of better. It can happen when information is applied blindly rather than selected from sources with similar features.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c229e8ab36af1d271445d1168c36b91efc99604681b9eba7055a6b001f72598b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lin Yuan-Pin; Jung Tzyy-Ping. Improving EEG-Based Emotion Classification Using Conditional Transfer Learning. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00334; article XML SHA-256 b06ca48f63d8b3c7b2d0eefda79c603fcc123cf8004389aa4bd0529355816e26. “Improving EEG-Based Emotion Classification Using Conditional Transfer Learning” (10.3389/fnhum.2017.00334).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00334). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negativism
<a id="negativism"></a>

Negativism is a pattern of mind or behavior marked by strong skepticism and ongoing opposition or resistance to what other people suggest or advise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd6b35679be8eff1a050f1212a8edb7765180f8feda519bec23217e225ba9771

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Negativism” (D009341).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009341). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negativistic personality disorder
<a id="negativistic-personality-disorder"></a>

Negativistic personality disorder is a personality disorder marked by indirect resistance to social or work demands and by hidden expressions of anger or opposition to authority and others’ expectations. This may show up as obstruction, procrastination, stubbornness, dawdling, forgetfulness, or deliberate inefficiency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9864f0655e9b035dd5ead8cb3c14489716571008dbd80d6b4c045adff6e21442

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder” (D010324).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010324). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negativity bias
<a id="negativity-bias"></a>

Negativity bias is the tendency for negative events or information to stand out more and capture attention more strongly than neutral or positive material. People with a stronger negativity bias also tend to react more intensely and form more negative responses to negative input.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99db6f3e0060c3346f13ccfc381c89ff058e03d43cbab1c8f4cfe64415108098

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chai Jing; Qu Weina; Sun Xianghong; Zhang Kan; Ge Yan. Negativity Bias in Dangerous Drivers. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0147083; article XML SHA-256 09294f0d191513119e513901e2ef02687be0f2ee85ff43c33e6d1cfd62bf7022. “Negativity Bias in Dangerous Drivers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0147083).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147083). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neglect
<a id="neglect"></a>

Visual neglect is a condition that can follow damage to the right side of the brain, in which a person tends to miss visual information on one side of space. It may be obvious or subtle, and can become more noticeable when attention is divided or task demands are high.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f99980ea5386fd20d929d7ed9831e5bf24071fd243ac962e8d9f1fcd175f2e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vasyura Elizaveta; Kovyazina Maria; Stepanov Georgiy; Russkikh Olga; Terentiy Daria; Propustina Victoria; Skvortsov Anatoliy; Varako Nataliya; Vasilyeva Svetlana; Daminov Vadim; Zinchenko Yuri. Validation of the Keen Eye computer-based method for diagnosing visual neglect using a dual-task paradigm. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323832; article XML SHA-256 9e6ae1c4ce58d3b882989f67391a578d41a1d56ed46c6b8d7ea95b5ec0b4e11c. “Validation of the Keen Eye computer-based method for diagnosing visual neglect using a dual-task paradigm” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323832).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323832). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## neglect dyslexia
<a id="neglect-dyslexia"></a>

Neglect dyslexia is an acquired peripheral reading disorder, usually described after right-brain damage and spatial neglect, in which a person makes reading errors on the left side of written words. It is linked to spatial neglect with altered eye movements and commonly shows left-sided omissions when reading single words or pseudowords.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e6c04e6f7a8b11d8fb6ed145d326d5f0872ae4a32c5f3961017cf7d4397f3a29

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Veronelli Laura; Daini Roberta; Primativo Silvia; Toneatto Carlo; Ghielmi Lucia; Pino Silvia; Gilardone Giulia; Martelli Marialuisa; Arduino Lisa S. The spacing words and pseudowords reading test: normative data to measure peripheral acquired dyslexia in the Italian adult population. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911950; article XML SHA-256 05285a07bdfbc5a555edb6e6d8e032198d3caeb93579e6eaaaa8ad19344f3b94. “The spacing words and pseudowords reading test: normative data to measure peripheral acquired dyslexia in the Italian adult population” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911950).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911950). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negligence
<a id="negligence"></a>

In mental health context, negligence here means a caregiver or guardian failing to obtain or permit timely, appropriate care for a person’s medical, dental, or psychological needs. Negligence by professionals is treated separately as professional negligence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db449d021455625ffea7dc16048fd8ce84b7420b530a9aab7d8b2171394e6965

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Medical Neglect” (D000097824).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000097824). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## negotiation
<a id="negotiation"></a>

Negotiation is the process of bargaining to reach an agreement or compromise on an important matter for the people involved. It can also refer to using a chosen third party to decide a dispute or help reconcile the parties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e44c14a00fac90e0297ca94822b69d1e9bb9ef7eeea883874af5607fe75e92ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Negotiating” (D017008).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017008). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Nembutal
<a id="nembutal"></a>

Nembutal is pentobarbital sodium, a short-acting barbiturate that depresses central nervous system activity. It acts mainly by increasing the inhibitory effects of GABA-A receptors and also reduces some excitatory nerve signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f77e6fd1acceb72217daae3fa6b5132afff3f37f2db3ba2c22f621caeadb0661

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pentobarbital Sodium” (C47662).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NEO Personality Inventory
<a id="neo-personality-inventory"></a>

The NEO Personality Inventory is a questionnaire used to assess personality traits. In the source material, the revised NEO version was used in research examining how traits such as neuroticism relate to problematic internet use and interoceptive awareness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86a3eba000bb9a03c206ddad9d74c75cb49721519753da43dcb6591e7532e630

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Simkute Dovile; Wang Grace Y.; Griskova-Bulanova Inga. Interoception, personality, and internet use: Preliminary insights into their association. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328260; article XML SHA-256 47ab57944ab5ee55ca2a76aefcd8444de44947c58feda43a3d39255f4cff3caa. “Interoception, personality, and internet use: Preliminary insights into their association” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328260).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328260). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neocortex
<a id="neocortex"></a>

The neocortex is the largest part of the cerebral cortex in mammals. Its nerve cells are organized into six distinct layers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d32ae464d1718c5c00b85d4fb2d4477ac20a356d246e5bc32fbfe7779c84896

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neocortex” (D019579).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019579). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neologism
<a id="neologism"></a>

A neologism is a newly created word or label introduced to name an idea or belief, such as the article’s use of “designism” for a particular assumption about research design.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b10d145726e84daff513c00d413afcbac8587637dcc11f48256e1dd278725500

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neonatal imitation
<a id="neonatal-imitation"></a>

Neonatal imitation is a proposed phenomenon in developmental psychology in which newborns are studied for signs of differential imitation after seeing another person’s behavior. Its existence is still unsettled, and the article emphasizes that if it occurs, it may not look like the usual, obvious form of imitation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e3d49b7c2145915fe489dbcf16c3167abc4b2a29315d48ee9993f3e3c655dd4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vincini Stefano; Jhang Yuna; Buder Eugene H.; Gallagher Shaun. Neonatal Imitation: Theory, Experimental Design, and Significance for the Field of Social Cognition. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01323; article XML SHA-256 4daec220200c84083404e467cb89eaf0eb353580058276e2927a00f734209235. “Neonatal Imitation: Theory, Experimental Design, and Significance for the Field of Social Cognition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01323).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01323). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neonatal period
<a id="neonatal-period"></a>

The neonatal period is the newborn stage soon after birth. In the packet, it is described as a highly sensitive time for synapse development, so events in this period may affect later learning and memory-related brain processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 58e0ea29be8590699c5a2c23691acdf5e8322407650fb77e64c4f824c915f20b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nazarizadeh Shadi; Ghotbeddin Zohreh; Ghafouri Samireh; Sarkaki Alireza. The protective effect of DMI on hippocampus EEG, behavioral and biochemical parameters in hypoxia-induced seizure on neonatal period. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0309240; article XML SHA-256 6babd5e0e6c6eb4c1137d8ead2d7b47e27d9f9c63d29a7a1341c6c2c30cf6955. “The protective effect of DMI on hippocampus EEG, behavioral and biochemical parameters in hypoxia-induced seizure on neonatal period” (10.1371/journal.pone.0309240).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309240). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neopallium
<a id="neopallium"></a>

Neopallium is the largest part of the mammalian cerebral cortex. Its neurons are organized into six layers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c18c94bf0c46f065d55d5d66fe39debb6b178b94a91e234765a98c1cd5e4d23

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neocortex” (D019579).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019579). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neophobia
<a id="neophobia"></a>

Neophobia is an abhorrence of anything new. In this historical source, it means a strong aversion to novelty.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b2322691261db7c58b7ce600a8ff1e0f5e32d87b960ec50e4391c006e9b3078

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Neo-” (Neo-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N2defs.htm#Neo-). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neostigmine
<a id="neostigmine"></a>

Neostigmine is a drug that blocks cholinesterase activity. It is used to treat myasthenia gravis and to reverse the effects of certain muscle-relaxing drugs, and it does not cross the blood-brain barrier.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3dbf2c9e978be578b258fba1a0fd40574905b8c5abb234656b6c6a4edd4c3eb7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neostigmine” (D009388).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009388). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neostriatum
<a id="neostriatum"></a>

The neostriatum is the evolutionarily newer part of the corpus striatum, made up of the caudate nucleus and putamen. It is also often referred to simply as the striatum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 257f80676fff49d97b83147e5c2f036d7ef85debab822e110b21348316576567

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neostriatum” (D017072).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017072). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neoteny
<a id="neoteny"></a>

Neoteny is the slowing of growth and development, which extends dependence on caring or protective adults and allows juvenile features to continue into later life. In the packet’s developmental context, this prolonged transition makes the move from childhood to sexual maturity more difficult and potentially more stressful.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8d58b70af62644d43acbd283bec8d1cc1ce68c985aca73520408d88e170ece6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Giacolini Teodosio; Alcaro Antonio; Conversi David; Tarsitani Lorenzo. Depression in adolescence and young adulthood: the difficulty to integrate motivational/emotional systems. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1391664; article XML SHA-256 fbeda7406dd93889b54cb3e06d3fc02182615c19a311424ece081985cbd216b2. “Depression in adolescence and young adulthood: the difficulty to integrate motivational/emotional systems” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1391664).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1391664). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nephrogenic diabetes insipidus
<a id="nephrogenic-diabetes-insipidus"></a>

Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus is a kidney-related adverse effect that can occur in some people who take lithium. In this context, it is described as affecting about 15–20% of lithium users and as being linked to a higher risk of chronic kidney disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07b0d53ff67ced334bde9000a5e34261516250a1b0862cdc8586d1df3d995997

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fotso Soh Jocelyn; Torres-Platas Susana G; Beaulieu Serge; Mantere Outi; Platt Robert; Mucsi Istvan; Saury Sybille; Renaud Suzane; Levinson Andrea; Andreazza Ana C; Mulsant Benoit H; Müller Daniel; Schaffer Ayal; Dols Annemiek; Cervantes Pablo; Low Nancy CP; Herrmann Nathan; Christensen Birgitte M; Trepiccione Francesco; Rajji Tarek; Rej Soham. Atorvastatin in the treatment of Lithium-induced nephrogenic diabetes insipidus: the protocol of a randomized controlled trial. 2018; DOI 10.1186/s12888-018-1793-9; article XML SHA-256 c047728b64edca5d41ec4047121fac1f335aa7e713201b0126eacf7294b51050. “Atorvastatin in the treatment of Lithium-induced nephrogenic diabetes insipidus: the protocol of a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-018-1793-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1793-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nerve cell
<a id="nerve-cell"></a>

A nerve cell is a neuron, a cell in the nervous system that can be damaged or die after severe nerve injury. Loss of these cells can limit nerve regrowth and reduce recovery of function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: deaa1a5ccd2b9968ed8bd008feea3ea2430e928b5042560f348920e73fd3fbad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Iwata Shinji; Yamada Hiroyuki; Teraoka Masato; Tanaka Takemichi; Kimura Takuya; Joko Tomonori; Tabata Yasuhiko; Wakisaka Hiroyuki; Hato Naohito. Basic fibroblast growth factor helps protect facial nerve cells in a freeze-induced paralysis model. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312357; article XML SHA-256 788847a2a020f0bf6de3ba47de57648d42f871ae0346a5bbe2d5c75244951f8a. “Basic fibroblast growth factor helps protect facial nerve cells in a freeze-induced paralysis model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312357).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312357). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nerve fiber
<a id="nerve-fiber"></a>

A nerve fiber is a projection of a neuron that carries electrical signals away from the cell body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e8c098cd44f21dd02ead293265a8289149beed1e56b12ac28988add247f98bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Axon” (C32177).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nerve growth factor
<a id="nerve-growth-factor"></a>

Nerve growth factor is a neurotrophic factor that affects the growth and development of sympathetic and sensory neurons. It is made of alpha, beta, and gamma subunits, with the beta subunit producing the growth-stimulating effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b4ad57b33f7ab52214c6081d1fffef84cc20d1d045b84f9189789e621438c6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nerve Growth Factor” (D020932).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020932). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nerve impulse
<a id="nerve-impulse"></a>

A nerve impulse is the passing of a signal along a nerve, moving away from the place where it was triggered by stimulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 29721362afbb5a7cd075bff051e9dd61cb83b0cdc9ce1fd85735fe90101d0be3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neural Conduction” (D009431).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009431). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nerve tissue
<a id="nerve-tissue"></a>

Nerve tissue is body tissue that produces and carries electrical signals. It includes neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f75682d3f283a77553d88d58eb0709f1b9ce6c97f9777f1b93ab3b7c45a37a62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nerve Tissue” (C13052).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nerve–muscle preparation
<a id="nervemuscle-preparation"></a>

In historical physiology, a nerve–muscle preparation is an experimental setup consisting of a nerve connected to a muscle, used to observe how stimulation of the nerve affects muscular contraction. In the passage, it is used to illustrate that a muscle may contract when a steady electrical stimulus is withdrawn, especially if the withdrawal is sudden.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8104066c8e156c27f8cb6d602172235da0f40f0e1d6e9b42da372864f6e20556

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3979500-3991500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nervous
<a id="nervous"></a>

Nervous means feeling worried or anxious. In this source, it refers to worry that can happen in everyday life, but in generalized anxiety disorder it is felt more often or more strongly and may be out of proportion to the situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aed280ea6cc041ad600174041f668fd0cadd6a7b74839a5e097fc0704b4ddb2d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 77e8e3f9797bdd3e545d836e3c7a022d849dbcb9046d75b9663fada09c613399. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nervous exhaustion
<a id="nervous-exhaustion"></a>

Nervous exhaustion is a historical name for neurasthenia, meaning an unusually marked form of nervous weakness or debility with morbid symptoms. In this older usage, it referred to a long-lasting functional nervous condition whose symptoms could involve mental as well as sensory or motor difficulties and often fluctuated over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 10d283cfecdef16498285928385c3d4aa163f5b15164c417030649b7f0b778c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Neurasthenia” (Neurasthenia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Neurasthenia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nervous prostration
<a id="nervous-prostration"></a>

In this historical usage, nervous prostration was a popular name for neurasthenia: a state of marked nervous weakness or exhaustion. The source also uses it for chronic exhaustion thought to arise from weakening conditions, as opposed to a more constitutional form.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07eb018ff226713f2224df39453fe6ccae3b422709ca70661c5e343921446073

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Neurasthenia” (Neurasthenia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Neurasthenia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nervous system
<a id="nervous-system"></a>

The nervous system is the body’s full network of nerve structures. It includes the central part—the brain and spinal cord—and the peripheral part, such as the cranial and spinal nerves, autonomic ganglia, and plexuses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba6e251c171f4aa88362df0fb19f8fde8787555b3fef270f326356f91216e384

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nervous System” (D009420).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009420). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nervous tissue
<a id="nervous-tissue"></a>

Nervous tissue is body tissue that produces and carries electrical signals. It includes neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45089e7d52009ecdc6b1e6185c046b4c007380ae2faf417d8d8312f27865e83e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nerve Tissue” (C13052).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nervousness
<a id="nervousness"></a>

Nervousness is a state of instability in the nervous system that can show up in behavior, feelings, and thinking. It may be a temporary and normal reaction to stress, fear, or apprehension, but it can also describe a temperamental tendency toward poor emotional control and, in stronger forms, may be linked with pathological conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2ccdbea427acd1a6191e28fd52b1063271736446725d5717de9ef77f3b49b99d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nervousness” (Nervousness).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N2defs.htm#Nervousness). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NES
<a id="nes"></a>

NES refers to night eating syndrome, a pattern of eating in which a substantial amount of food is eaten after the evening meal and/or during the night while the person is aware of the eating. It is also associated with features such as reduced appetite in the morning, sleep problems, low mood later in the day, and distress or problems in functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 402a0b1e3611ae10cac876656c91d538fbfa20bb7a97e4d8a2905f262c7914fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kaur Jasmine; Dang An Binh; Gan Jasmine; An Zhen; Krug Isabel. Night Eating Syndrome in Patients With Obesity and Binge Eating Disorder: A Systematic Review. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.766827; article XML SHA-256 570f04d57d095e1247114ad5954124846e3474fcedbd6a924ea487c6f4ba4e3e. “Night Eating Syndrome in Patients With Obesity and Binge Eating Disorder: A Systematic Review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.766827).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.766827). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nest building
<a id="nest-building"></a>

Nest building is a construction behavior in birds in which they make nests using particular materials, structures, and locations. In learning research, it is used to study social learning, conformity, and the development of behavioral traditions because birds can learn nest-building choices from others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3f3d44fcf3def08c29bdf1de8c9d92a63b6e616e4f489ccd8e92109e7fb4874f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Self Julia L; Camacho-Alpízar Andrés; Binwal Priya; Mir Umama; Stanescu Stefan; Whittaker Benjamin A; Guillette Lauren M. Conformity and individual preference shape nest material use in zebra finches ( Taeniopygia guttata ). 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342277; article XML SHA-256 84b301db2c1efcaa2aa2b9f3305cbea280129ca5d20f77793ff645b46e9fe3ab. “Conformity and individual preference shape nest material use in zebra finches ( Taeniopygia guttata )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342277).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342277). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nesting
<a id="nesting"></a>

Nesting is animal behavior related to the nest, including building it, the effects of its size and materials, and the adult’s behavior during the nesting period. It also includes how the nest influences the behavior of the young.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46e8f9d175599d8d33793da8bcded209f50cb48b6173519e93405ff8b6997ff2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nesting Behavior” (D009425).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009425). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## network
<a id="network"></a>

In this context, a network is an organized group of connected centers, hubs, and treatment programs that work together around early psychosis care and research. It links regional and national parts of the system so data and resources can be coordinated across many programs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 88d2707506c6fbf40caeece164b3fa76c73a684eab725641b1b365da9223b38f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Understanding Psychosis. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 8dfe261c13780de86a75c02b329ce1d2b047733dadb8ae4c0494d4fcb34d13be. “Understanding Psychosis” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/understanding-psychosis).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/understanding-psychosis). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## network analysis
<a id="network-analysis"></a>

Network analysis is a way of studying how symptoms are linked to one another as a network. In mental health research, it is used to examine the pattern of connections among symptoms and to identify which symptoms are the most central within that pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00a6518bd6a64c2223fe70faac0eb2a0d66f75d6863fa8288bbd0e738a519041

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lund Caroline; Karstoft Karen-Inge; Nielsen Anni B S; Folke Sofie. A network analysis of ICD-11 complex posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking military veterans. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-07954-w; article XML SHA-256 391a50143392aec6394efb07d54c111ab3da4619599bbd7219732957353e29c6. “A network analysis of ICD-11 complex posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking military veterans” (10.1186/s12888-026-07954-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-07954-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## networking
<a id="networking"></a>

In this context, networking means building strong social ties within the Deaf community while valuing the region’s sign language. It also includes supporting sign language in education, bilingual ASL/English programs, and technology that helps reduce communication barriers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a42db9e0982b5d47ca89bac6222917749f754aa0fbc2ac3c80c7cb9394ccac69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Deaf Culture” (D000096282).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000096282). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural
<a id="neural"></a>

Neural means related to neurons or to the nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6bc1415fb99e6a59a6b20bde7d6dedcb2f9e45c20d71f7bb06aef5a9d21ffeca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neural” (C25363).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural axis
<a id="neural-axis"></a>

A neural axis is a connected nerve network considered as a functional pathway across which neuronal activity can be assessed. In this source, it refers specifically to the cardiac neural axis, meaning the linked neural components involved in controlling heart rate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c345a1367790cd0b08617ac351ae3904e81a101033ef8e30315a485098f4a37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kember Guy; Ardell Jeffrey L.; Armour John A.; Zamir Mair. Vagal Nerve Stimulation Therapy: What Is Being Stimulated?. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0114498; article XML SHA-256 fac2e6a60f4b6fc2117c395791ecae4680e02f263f47ed5e897512c9ed99398f. “Vagal Nerve Stimulation Therapy: What Is Being Stimulated?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0114498).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0114498). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural circuit
<a id="neural-circuit"></a>

A neural circuit is a connected set of brain regions that work together through their interactions to support a function. In this packet, the term refers to the cortex-limbic network, including areas such as the amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate cortex, and prefrontal cortex, involved in emotion, learning, memory, and regulation of emotional responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6cf2789632d50f5e904c12c71fa23ee10ea632a130f20499ecb664ba8bbb4bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Xinrui; Yin Zhiyang; Sun Qikun; Jiang Xiaowei; Chao Li; Dai Xu; Tang Yanqing. Comparative Study on the Functional Connectivity of Amygdala and Hippocampal Neural Circuits in Patients With First-Episode Schizophrenia and Other High-Risk Populations. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.627198; article XML SHA-256 2b2b9ce96b3c54aa1474db9842b814d386a974e1d10f799b19921e0b9c207f88. “Comparative Study on the Functional Connectivity of Amygdala and Hippocampal Neural Circuits in Patients With First-Episode Schizophrenia and Other High-Risk Populations” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.627198).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.627198). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural conduction
<a id="neural-conduction"></a>

Neural conduction is the transmission of a nerve impulse along a nerve, moving away from the point where it was stimulated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddd86dde03268baf421ea041ca53d2ed21f6908d33cf96ed864a8b6278f0eeaf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neural Conduction” (D009431).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009431). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural crest
<a id="neural-crest"></a>

Neural crest refers to the two lengthwise ridges that appear along the primitive streak near the end of gastrulation as the nervous system begins to form. They arise from folding of the neural plate, with a groove between them that later closes to become the neural tube.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 33681fdceb6f44e7c5c970efe880035382601f402506a3505bea0c1705e64d10

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neural Crest” (D009432).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009432). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural folds
<a id="neural-folds"></a>

Neural folds are two lengthwise ridges in the embryo that develop from the neural plate. They move together and fuse to make the neural tube.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 656f98c1e66dbac3a449909a3309a6740da453bfe3e5843006a07802470f9932

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neural Fold” (C34223).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural groove
<a id="neural-groove"></a>

The neural groove is a narrow lengthwise indentation in the embryo’s neural plate between the neural folds. As those folds come together in the middle, the groove deepens and develops into the neural canal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ecc180e64dd9e28d4033ecd41c471a15c80b35a207c6948684b53491d556e408

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neural Groove” (C34224).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural network
<a id="neural-network"></a>

A neural network is a computer algorithm used to solve complex, non-linear optimization problems. It was designed by analogy to how the brain’s densely interconnected, parallel structure processes information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e227c7bb9b1c67713a566fd113973c97fab8741e473ea8fca7e6a4cb16eebdc9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neural Network” (C17429).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural pathway
<a id="neural-pathway"></a>

A neural pathway is the route a nerve signal follows through connected axons. It links different parts of the central nervous system or carries information from the peripheral nervous system to the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83a38575d522cd25ff9898bbc5402a18529839cd913f1c6a0d3a9578bcc7e5fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neural Pathway” (C13079).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural plasticity
<a id="neural-plasticity"></a>

Neural plasticity is the nervous system’s ability to alter how it responds after repeated activation or use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bcf4ebdcc7833c807ce0325590648f7a8dbb667dd6eaeecdd80e59c7dd6f3642

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuronal Plasticity” (D009473).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009473). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural plate
<a id="neural-plate"></a>

The neural plate is an area of the dorsal ectoderm in a chordate embryo that develops into the future central nervous system. Its tissue is called neuroectoderm, a term often used interchangeably with neural plate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0eedf2e93c325695f53c15261fb6cebbd89ccf0c6eb0e14012a4550f6b659e88

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neural Plate” (D054258).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D054258). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural progenitor cell
<a id="neural-progenitor-cell"></a>

A neural progenitor cell is an immature cell in the developing nervous system that can take on different neural fates as it differentiates. In the source, these cells are used to study how chronic opioid exposure and withdrawal may alter early brain development at a molecular level.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8244d1f6057db0c1e7020781fae49efc0efa896d641452635866022844dae165

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sullivan Rhea E.; Miller Claire J.; Ahrens Quinn; Fronheiser Brittany J.; Gardner Fumiyuki C.; Raich Emma; Mills-Huffnagle Sara; Oji-Mmuo Christiana; Hicks Steven D.. Overexpression of miR-149 attenuates opioid-related perturbations in neural stem cell fates and serves as a translational biomarker for infants with prenatal opioid exposure. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345640; article XML SHA-256 49459c1d07799986b71ce85bf702bfe9e1a9998a9fe8570e65c716c46b0ae53a. “Overexpression of miR-149 attenuates opioid-related perturbations in neural stem cell fates and serves as a translational biomarker for infants with prenatal opioid exposure” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345640).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345640). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural representation
<a id="neural-representation"></a>

In this historical source, neural representation means the supposed pattern of combined activity or union among nerve-centres that stands for a thought in the brain. It is described as a preparatory neural arrangement, analogous to the way nerve-centres organize themselves before carrying out a coordinated movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d5a6af50295c2fe77617ae51eae3762ce25b4ca0aee9d79e42ef7ced63a8ff2c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-1743000-1755000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural retina
<a id="neural-retina"></a>

The neural retina is the layer of nerve cells in the retina. It develops as part of the brain, and light passes through its nerve fibres and intermediate nerve cells before reaching the rods and cones next to the pigmented retinal epithelium.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a52d39eb46b499ea8dc0a51214ac41e1831cf35234880386f98a362fbb250e23

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neural Retina” (C33166).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural stem cell
<a id="neural-stem-cell"></a>

A neural stem cell is a stem cell from embryonic sources or adult nervous tissue that can develop into the various cell types of the brain and spinal cord.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6412a1f3f7bebece8373880711e6e61cf2f8ae083d0e88f9cbbbe93937f1fe7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neural Stem Cell” (C12985).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural synchrony
<a id="neural-synchrony"></a>

Neural synchrony is the matching or similarity of neural activity patterns between people during interaction, used as a biological sign of how closely they are aligning cognitively and socially. In the source packet, it refers specifically to interbrain similarity measured from EEG signals during naturalistic dialogue or a shared task.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61efaccb4a81987f9d69e759e275bf2eb8ad52b7446ff9b27491fc920a334cdf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stoyanova Vyara; Ashwin Chris; Scarampi Chiara; Hijazy Muhammad; Carter Felix; Stothart George; Hinvest Neal. Greater similarity of conscientiousness scores in dyads is associated with greater interpersonal neural synchrony while completing a goal-oriented task: a brief report. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1622203; article XML SHA-256 7bc5ee4c9cdd991014d0a0e7bad430e92d0859ac97af00dc27fae6af61539b05. “Greater similarity of conscientiousness scores in dyads is associated with greater interpersonal neural synchrony while completing a goal-oriented task: a brief report” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1622203).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1622203). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural transmission
<a id="neural-transmission"></a>

Neural transmission is the process by which a neuron communicates with another neuron, a muscle cell, or a secretory cell across a synapse. This can happen chemically, through neurotransmitters that activate receptors on the target cell, or electrically, through direct ionic current flow across electrical synapses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 256e57c73b3a96b73b013a6605912feca26e82b4a9cb76d869e2cd3743123302

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Synaptic Transmission” (D009435).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009435). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neural tube
<a id="neural-tube"></a>

The neural tube is an early embryonic tube made from ectoderm that develops into the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord. Its inner space, called the neural canal, later forms the brain’s ventricles and the spinal cord’s central canal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a954edd1cd582dde2d4f4e8d790c9507016fc302411175f5b2f41e8d6044c47

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neural Tube” (D054259).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D054259). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuralgia
<a id="neuralgia"></a>

Neuralgia is intense or aching pain felt along the path or distribution of a peripheral or cranial nerve.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ac85be5819d2d75f3a6d2ebb0304fd3337501eca4845c71ecdeedcfbdb39235

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuralgia” (D009437).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009437). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Neurasthenia
<a id="neurasthenia"></a>

Neurasthenia is a mental disorder marked by long-lasting fatigue along with related physical symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 026995a34947635854357dced00d4f9f38b843f58be1637b2efc276e53c34a90

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Neurasthenia” (D009440).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009440). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuraxis
<a id="neuraxis"></a>

Neuraxis is the cerebrospinal axis, meaning the central nervous system as a whole, including the brain and spinal cord.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8cee5053efe6a21d5dac0cae43d20aef13ac47f8594fb36d60e30cf43b58b632

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Neuraxis” (Neuraxis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Neuraxis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurite
<a id="neurite"></a>

A neurite is the main process that extends away from a nerve cell body. In this historical usage, it is the axis-cylinder process, usually simpler than a dendrite, though it may give off side branches and ends in terminal branching or an end-organ.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d97c024aeddd422fe9883c1ecc9a201a3ed0e4f30bbbff3daf7583fadb53cfc1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Neurite” (Neurite).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Neurite). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuritic plaque
<a id="neuritic-plaque"></a>

A neuritic plaque is a beta-amyloid plaque that can be seen with PET imaging using an amyloid-binding tracer. The amount of neuritic plaque present may be a sign of Alzheimer’s disease or other neurologic conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf37381c3af74a94f75fca24d734cff2ae1862837c5d65988d146352ed26cbe7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Florbetapir F-18” (C171884).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuritis
<a id="neuritis"></a>

Neuritis is a general term for inflammation of a peripheral or cranial nerve. It can be associated with symptoms such as pain, unusual sensations, weakness, or reduced sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a93ada391af95d9883c7122f2a82f05654552cce01dfa505e46e46f569011220

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuritis” (D009443).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009443). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuroanatomy
<a id="neuroanatomy"></a>

Neuroanatomy is the branch of biological study that focuses on the structure of the nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f45226c1da652058594f5f45706ead73ece1007b52d101675d86a2489dac7ce3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuroanatomy” (D009445).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009445). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurobiology
<a id="neurobiology"></a>

Neurobiology is the study of neurons and the nervous system, including their structure, growth, activities, and functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 682f8b06c11691165be97c6f43cfbaac217fee0b5509dbd869239f6a88abbe08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurobiology” (D009446).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009446). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuroblast
<a id="neuroblast"></a>

A neuroblast is an immature nerve cell in the embryo that can develop into a neuron.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 008ad4bce2452e8476039be336c8f97c70b3b291d8527f6937bdd93f002589e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neuroblast” (C12991).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurochemistry
<a id="neurochemistry"></a>

Neurochemistry is the study of the nervous system in terms of its chemical makeup, the structures of its chemicals, and the chemical reactions that occur in it or its parts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3a16d928052ab7b8f6854cf6edc91e68f10c13fdd65c0a76b2b5acda5f621b7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurochemistry” (D009448).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009448). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurocrine
<a id="neurocrine"></a>

Neurocrine refers to control or signaling by substances released from neurons that act on nearby tissues or cells. In this source, vasoactive intestinal peptide is described as a neurocrine factor from enteric neurons that helps regulate intestinal calcium transport.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e1eb13ea4c6a268d5539107995c5e51e07b3ad77c62bed8aba5c48f3c81b1822

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rodrat Mayuree; Wongdee Kannikar; Teerapornpuntakit Jarinthorn; Thongbunchoo Jirawan; Tanramluk Duangrudee; Aeimlapa Ratchaneevan; Thammayon Nithipak; Thonapan Natchayaporn; Wattano Pathnaree; Charoenphandhu Narattaphol. Vasoactive intestinal peptide and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator contribute to the transepithelial calcium transport across intestinal epithelium-like Caco-2 monolayer. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0277096; article XML SHA-256 1e9fbbb0a907c226bb2fc2ccf7353fb8c637ee1d5fa43bfe283a22d633525157. “Vasoactive intestinal peptide and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator contribute to the transepithelial calcium transport across intestinal epithelium-like Caco-2 monolayer” (10.1371/journal.pone.0277096).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277096). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurodegenerative disease
<a id="neurodegenerative-disease"></a>

A neurodegenerative disease marked by dementia, mild parkinsonism, and changing levels of attention and alertness. Mental and behavioral symptoms often appear before slowed movement and rigidity, and delusions and visual hallucinations are common; examination of brain tissue shows Lewy bodies in the cortex and brain stem.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16008e65a12df63662527abaa9033839b86c3b9b40de11fb601a51d16ccce407

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lewy Body Disease” (D020961).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020961). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurodermatitis
<a id="neurodermatitis"></a>

Neurodermatitis is a highly variable eczema-like skin condition thought to result from repeated scratching, rubbing, or pinching in response to intense itching. Its severity and appearance can differ widely between people, and some views describe it as having a psychogenic component; a localized form is often called lichen simplex chronicus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 772b9d319238ccbbadda9d08b4b71965ba8914eb38ade7929a7d1080bc410b78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurodermatitis” (D009450).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009450). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuroeducation
<a id="neuroeducation"></a>

Neuroeducation is presented as a neuroscience-based area of knowledge that helps teachers understand how students learn and how the brain retains knowledge. In this context, it supports more inclusive teaching adapted to diverse learners, including students with special educational needs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a02e2c8692c2f1260c298a59c14faec636e36571691fb9428c241e0608b8874

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Procopio Marcos; Fernandes Procopio Leandra; Yáñez-Araque Benito; Fernández-Cézar Raquel. Cooperative work and neuroeducation in mathematics education of future teachers: A good combination?. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1005609; article XML SHA-256 9848222f39e2005450c980cbd21dc01e500f4793fb3523231b60ee2d0f2425af. “Cooperative work and neuroeducation in mathematics education of future teachers: A good combination?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1005609).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1005609). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuroeffector junction
<a id="neuroeffector-junction"></a>

A neuroeffector junction is a synapse where a neuron connects with an effector cell rather than with another neuron. These junctions include connections from nerves to muscle cells and to secretory cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c0e71fce195cc574fb91f4a4bef5e12cd8716fed687fe951bdb2fbbed4e7463

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuroeffector Junction” (D009451).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009451). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuroendocrinology
<a id="neuroendocrinology"></a>

Neuroendocrinology is the study of how the nervous system and the endocrine system are connected in structure and how they influence each other in function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bcbcaa72a6c45e80b9251b2164e9b4129413cfa35c0b8c82ab2998eb89fd94df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuroendocrinology” (D009452).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009452). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuroethics
<a id="neuroethics"></a>

Neuroethics is the area of ethics concerned with the ethical questions raised by neuroscience and neuroscientific innovations. It also becomes especially relevant where neuroscience overlaps with AI and neurotechnology in research, healthcare, and related applications.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1074ab0f869946e17c82e9aa917bbcc153c7b5448d7a836b00aa1fe17a787ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Salles Arleen; Farisco Michele. Neuroethics and AI ethics: a proposal for collaboration. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12868-024-00888-7; article XML SHA-256 edbedc421358dd15122eb7445863458d830df1e2efda281fa540329c738d7d64. “Neuroethics and AI ethics: a proposal for collaboration” (10.1186/s12868-024-00888-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-024-00888-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurofeedback
<a id="neurofeedback"></a>

Neurofeedback is a method that gives a person feedback about their brain activity so they can learn to regulate it. The aim is to shift brain activity toward patterns linked with a desired state or function, which may help improve performance or control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e21b8bd9e1962390fd6f29c48301f7ef67ef283b7593b97c6758a05ab416c893

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurofeedback” (D058765).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058765). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurofibrillary tangles
<a id="neurofibrillary-tangles"></a>

Neurofibrillary tangles are abnormal clumps inside brain cells made of tightly packed twisted filaments involving neurofilaments, microtubule-related proteins, actin, and ubiquitins. They are a major biological feature of Alzheimer disease and, after death, higher numbers of tangles are associated with more severe dementia during life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa8881ded4120c59abe10475a0556dab0288d6740aac3bfc19c45cfb3bcb982c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurofibrillary Tangles” (D016874).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016874). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurofibroma
<a id="neurofibroma"></a>

A neurofibroma is a benign, moderately firm, encapsulated tumor made up of overgrowth of Schwann cells and fibroblasts that includes parts of nerve fibers. It usually develops along peripheral or cranial nerves and is a central feature of neurofibromatosis type 1.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a1db35b224bf400235fbe941bccae3711cbfbb35bf669342758d339a7291e069

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurofibroma” (D009455).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009455). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurofibromatosis
<a id="neurofibromatosis"></a>

Neurofibromatosis is an inherited disorder, passed in an autosomal dominant pattern, that causes tumor growth and related physical abnormalities. It includes two recognized forms: type 1, which is linked with features such as café-au-lait skin spots, multiple neurofibromas, optic nerve gliomas, and bone lesions, and type 2, which is linked with schwannomas, meningiomas, and gliomas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e438f2495228bb428c979854f890a370159d2dacfb436dda1819616498446b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neurofibromatosis” (C6727).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurofilament
<a id="neurofilament"></a>

A neurofilament is a structural protein fiber in the intermediate filament family that is located in the axons of neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90c9c860daed0cdac6ac362fd6cfc8f1a8317ce1b15e0211fafed15b098f3f8c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neurofilament” (C13263).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurogenesis
<a id="neurogenesis"></a>

Neurogenesis is the process of forming neurons. It involves stem cells dividing and differentiating so that one or both resulting daughter cells become neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46c390af3a068df4026e9a570498ff40a0f5c9f0f5154521d8de4ff43656fb68

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurogenesis” (D055495).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055495). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuroglia
<a id="neuroglia"></a>

Neuroglia are the cells in the nervous system that are not neurons. They help maintain and protect nervous tissue by supporting neurons, shaping the surrounding chemical environment, contributing to protective barriers, insulating nerve pathways with myelin, aiding development, and sharing materials with neurons; they may also take part in signaling, though that role is not yet well understood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ecc7f25117e7b16e445d6ac0fbdcb7ebe0b424a56836c96b024114aec31b977b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuroglia” (D009457).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009457). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurogram
<a id="neurogram"></a>

A neurogram is a recorded trace of nerve activity. In this context, a phrenic neurogram is the recording of neural output in the phrenic nerve related to breathing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1498195a686873127f316a921099187d899d83d7101dbd7dfb2efd43494a5a5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Akay Metin. Hypoxia silences the neural activities in the early phase of the phrenic neurogram of eupnea in the piglet. 2005; DOI 10.1186/1743-0003-2-32; article XML SHA-256 820f5e623915055c4ab3ddca77053f8ec75d1d38dd3f241f884bba53fe01826c. “Hypoxia silences the neural activities in the early phase of the phrenic neurogram of eupnea in the piglet” (10.1186/1743-0003-2-32).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-0003-2-32). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurohypophysis
<a id="neurohypophysis"></a>

The neurohypophysis is the neural part of the pituitary gland, also called the posterior pituitary. It is made up of the far ends of nerve fibers from hypothalamic neurons that carry vasopressin and oxytocin down the pituitary stalk to the posterior lobe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b077300f3563bdb1d2d4b651f9881b36acf6c43eb60ed5c6791689f37de9751b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pituitary Gland, Posterior” (D010904).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010904). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuroimaging
<a id="neuroimaging"></a>

Neuroimaging refers to noninvasive ways of making pictures of the central nervous system, especially the brain, using different imaging methods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5381e9a33782f45e5ee0219a058d04eabd7ff32c936d06fdeff38b8957a52eb7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuroimaging” (D059906).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D059906). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuroleptic
<a id="neuroleptic"></a>

Neuroleptic refers to an antipsychotic drug that helps calm agitated psychotic behavior, ease acute psychotic states, and reduce psychotic symptoms. The term also points to the tendency of many of these drugs to cause neurological side effects, although not all antipsychotics do so.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 57efcc26a87264734cd862a1eff8877c4c8d3531bb7100b9deba2051d6c0655d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Antipsychotic Agents” (D014150).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014150). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Neurolinguistic Programming
<a id="neurolinguistic-programming"></a>

Neurolinguistic programming is an approach that uses models of how communication and subjective experience influence each other. It focuses on patterns linking the brain, language, and body, and uses these patterns to try to alter a person’s internal representations and behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ded4b155fcf7026d9a74666efe3eae471f2dceb5a3ca421e04112e1c01920ee0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Neurolinguistic Programming” (D020557).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020557). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurolinguistics
<a id="neurolinguistics"></a>

Neurolinguistics is the study of how brain processes are involved in language and language development. In this context, it views language growth as an active, embodied process shaped by interaction, feedback, and multimodal engagement rather than by input alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 76dffbefa0bfd6ec48c98181d546a60126f59aeeb760b1cb74809f58d930940e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nguyen Quang Nhat; Doan Dung Thi Hue. Beyond comprehensible input: a neuro-ecological critique of Krashen's hypothesis in language education. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1636777; article XML SHA-256 35cee20891e71fbe28f10e1fbfb4ffc77cb6ad2d6392b603e82863c651139cab. “Beyond comprehensible input: a neuro-ecological critique of Krashen's hypothesis in language education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1636777).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1636777). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurological evaluation
<a id="neurological-evaluation"></a>

A neurological evaluation is an assessment of a person’s neurological status and symptoms. In this context, it was used together with neuropsychological testing to examine cognitive and other nervous-system-related features after COVID-19.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 15b0d94fa180ab8f18512bc68e8c3657b957d14903209f598a0d9ac8c4db3294

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lauria Alessandra; Carfì Angelo; Benvenuto Francesca; Bramato Giulia; Ciciarello Francesca; Rocchi Sara; Rota Elisabetta; Salerno Andrea; Stella Leonardo; Tritto Marcello; Di Paola Antonella; Pais Cristina; Tosato Matteo; Janiri Delfina; Sani Gabriele; Lo Monaco Rita; Pagano Francesco C.; Fantoni Massimo; Bernabei Roberto; Landi Francesco; Bizzarro Alessandra; Gemelli Against COVID-19 Post-acute Care Group. Neuropsychological measures of post-COVID-19 cognitive status. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1136667; article XML SHA-256 a297ea954317be0796968e91442529c2d7681a9e769c654cddca49e1955bf3a0. “Neuropsychological measures of post-COVID-19 cognitive status” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1136667).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1136667). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurological impairment
<a id="neurological-impairment"></a>

Neurological impairment refers to an acquired problem affecting the nervous system that occurs after an injury or disease. In this packet, the term is used for adults living with such impairments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a84cee5bb90ea3f12007f14361c9bfdd1b9945d7ca217065a71da209456ece8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Steensgaard Randi; Hundborg Michele Offenbach; Pallesen Hanne; Aadal Lena. What is a meaningful life for persons with acquired neurological impairments? A scoping review protocol. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0269125; article XML SHA-256 b4f715d6d1b6c4147a6c39455d2198e3773ee1fb729686b583b743deea8fe371. “What is a meaningful life for persons with acquired neurological impairments? A scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0269125).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269125). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurology
<a id="neurology"></a>

Neurology is the medical specialty focused on the nervous system, including its structure, how it works, and the diseases that affect it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5cc8c9738e5f9f65fcb50c89df532df5e6b2460cf5a15927b02cae62fc6b17b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurology” (D009462).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009462). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuromarketing
<a id="neuromarketing"></a>

Neuromarketing is the use of neuroscience-based methods to study what drives consumers’ choices and responses. It examines reactions to advertisements or products, such as through measures like eye movements, to inform advertising and brand promotion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8629be28236620eb60815a244cbefa8e4549bbf89204ae1dda73a0ad5454373

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Zeren; Jin Yuanqing; Su Yushun; Jia Kan; Lin Chien-Liang; Liu Xiaoxin. Bibliometric-Based Evaluation of the Neuromarketing Research Trend: 2010–2021. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872468; article XML SHA-256 90b346317e22f61f09cc0fb38886af6b7402799b544754edc4986711c50a5307. “Bibliometric-Based Evaluation of the Neuromarketing Research Trend: 2010–2021” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872468).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872468). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuromodulator
<a id="neuromodulator"></a>

A neuromodulator is a substance that acts in the brain to influence how it functions. In this packet, hydrogen sulfide is described as a neuromodulator and is linked with cognitive impairment in schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a27377366b8a79ff603d6d2d28a36134137c36e34a9194b89586b882ce84ae1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang You-Chang; Li Yi-Heng; Li Long; Xiong Jian-Wen; Wei Bo; Yang Yuan-Jian; Zhao Ying; Zhan Hai-Yan. Changes in plasma hydrogen sulfide are associated with cognitive improvements in schizophrenia patients treated with atypical antipsychotics. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1789058; article XML SHA-256 1c2296ecf0bd151b1b5d780720da09d5ad3dc322cd82848f6d8cc1be2e5f2850. “Changes in plasma hydrogen sulfide are associated with cognitive improvements in schizophrenia patients treated with atypical antipsychotics” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1789058).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1789058). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuromuscular junction
<a id="neuromuscular-junction"></a>

A neuromuscular junction is the connection point where a nerve cell communicates with a muscle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 37348a6ce737640f76796c7ce6723373eca8837f8fd9511635c561ecd19104d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuromuscular Junction” (D009469).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009469). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuromuscular system
<a id="neuromuscular-system"></a>

The neuromuscular system is the part of an organism made up of nerves and muscles and the connections between them, called neuromuscular junctions. In this source, it includes muscles, their nerve supply, and the junctions where nerve endings contact muscle tissue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1dad32aca74ba100ae87efdb9f764008948ea2ab3631e61548fdd67e1710de76

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reyes-Maldonado Roberto; Ramírez Alonso; Marie Bruno. The neuromuscular system of Chironomus vitellinus (Diptera: Chironomidae). 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326394; article XML SHA-256 075784fe1d22e60520d93cab4760090c5b0eca0bc0a59c0b99e67d11d2a45edf. “The neuromuscular system of Chironomus vitellinus (Diptera: Chironomidae)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326394).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326394). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuron
<a id="neuron"></a>

A neuron is a nerve cell that carries signals in the nervous system. It typically has a cell body, several short branching extensions called dendrites, and one long extension called an axon that ends in smaller branches.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 089b071cf49b08dcbafaf219278cb949b51ee7b4d3ab29338d651aa3357261e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neuron” (C12623).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuronal cell death
<a id="neuronal-cell-death"></a>

Neuronal cell death is the loss of nerve cells. In this packet, it refers to the death of hypothalamic neurons linked to oxidative stress, reactive oxygen species, and inflammatory signaling in a Parkinson’s disease model.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7164fa24912f1cd60cfccec61832e1866c0015a009e8241df7e24d0b42931f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kubota Maho; Kobayashi Nahoko; Sugizaki Toshifumi; Shimoda Mikako; Kawahara Masahiro; Tanaka Ken-ichiro. Carnosine suppresses neuronal cell death and inflammation induced by 6-hydroxydopamine in an in vitro model of Parkinson's disease. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0240448; article XML SHA-256 f6d1d5d8bff60fa43f8ecb86ddb460832eba5cf7eedfe0c9f6058de6eb931111. “Carnosine suppresses neuronal cell death and inflammation induced by 6-hydroxydopamine in an in vitro model of Parkinson's disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0240448).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240448). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuronal differentiation
<a id="neuronal-differentiation"></a>

Neuronal differentiation is a biological finding showing that cells are developing the structural features typical of neurons, or nerve cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43b367850448b78f8fe178fc5448338bd29628d0a33edef66aec425267496cf8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neuronal Differentiation” (C42083).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuronal regeneration
<a id="neuronal-regeneration"></a>

Neuronal regeneration is the repair or regrowth of damaged neurons, including renewed neurite outgrowth. In the central nervous system, this process can be blocked by factors such as reticulon-4 (Nogo), which inhibits neurite growth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 56cb0294ad28f949aaff1dfde76629c88d440ecb5969577678944244d780cecd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Atinumab” (C97942).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuronal transmission
<a id="neuronal-transmission"></a>

Neuronal transmission is the process by which one nerve cell passes a signal to another across a connection between them. The signal is conveyed either by releasing neurotransmitters or by direct electrical flow through specialized channels, and it is fundamental to how neurons work.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1d6601b933c88c24e1ac584ee29a262a791e65a98a13b869a597b0408e475df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neuronal Transmission” (C21575).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurone
<a id="neurone"></a>

Neurone is a historical term for the basic unit of nervous structure: the nerve cell, also called a neurocyte. In this source, the spelling neurone is preferred because it was seen as less ambiguous than the German form neuron.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0fee2aaa5f516888150b0147762aeae21c58e75ea67c4b7268c31f5da0f056ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Neurone” (Neurone).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Neurone). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuropathic pain
<a id="neuropathic-pain"></a>

Neuropathic pain is long-lasting pain that results from damage to nerve fibers. It is commonly linked with tissue injury.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cfd38b61d0b340d4cea6e021fb245ab390e7008f4310c044ebfb484cf458770e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neuropathic Pain” (C96210).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuropathology
<a id="neuropathology"></a>

Neuropathology is the area of medicine and biomedical science that focuses on diseases affecting the nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c2bc4204a642742db25a99e236995228ecc2c09e31ad3a2eac83b4a7f22456b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuropathology” (D000069338).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000069338). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuropathy
<a id="neuropathy"></a>

Neuropathy is a disorder of the cranial nerves or the peripheral nervous system. It commonly causes pain, tingling, numbness, and muscle weakness, and can result from injury, toxins, viral illness, diabetes, kidney failure, cancer, or certain drugs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d9bcbe2730863efb9809d39847747a0ccf522a01dc6388311ac0870a41208593

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neuropathy” (C4731).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuropeptide
<a id="neuropeptide"></a>

A neuropeptide is a naturally produced peptide that affects nervous system activity, either by acting directly at synapses or by changing how neural signals are regulated. It can be released by neurons as a neurotransmitter or by non-neuronal cells as a hormone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe9e26910e945035fd3ef7a5610c1dfa8057e03db1d99d80f31145cf8022bb07

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neuropeptide” (C686).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuropeptide Y
<a id="neuropeptide-y"></a>

Neuropeptide Y is a small peptide found in many organs and in sympathetic noradrenergic neurons. It helps regulate blood flow, glandular secretion, and smooth muscle activity, and it also affects feeding, drinking, and pituitary hormone secretion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f55e4a4ef2a5daca439d17749ae2989a13246035a470cf9183e673e7c88d6eb1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuropeptide Y” (D009478).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009478). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuropharmacology
<a id="neuropharmacology"></a>

Neuropharmacology is the area of pharmacology that studies how drugs act on different parts of the nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97541773ad60094845e1c477c2eb2cffd3ed5fa2c6592b25a2620c970da4e8f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuropharmacology” (D009480).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009480). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurophysiology
<a id="neurophysiology"></a>

Neurophysiology is the scientific study of how the nervous system functions. It focuses on the body's nervous system from a physiological perspective.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18762358d17212762f64ff2ce74f6a2e394cd16e1257b1869a10b4cd3e2f4991

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurophysiology” (D009482).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009482). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuropil
<a id="neuropil"></a>

Neuropil is the dense meshwork found between nerve cell bodies in the gray matter of the central nervous system. It is made up of intertwined glial extensions, fibers, synaptic endings, axons, and dendrites.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 79d3cc208a29383d1aa0f3ce0a060f9cf079f67e874e01ce5042f7aca866ca2e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuropil” (D019581).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019581). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuroplasticity
<a id="neuroplasticity"></a>

Neuroplasticity is the nervous system’s ability to alter how it responds over time as a result of repeated or ongoing activation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fa73c1c8d9182df8376fa667a740fde3dc8e800bc3c8e72f748c878630db679

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuronal Plasticity” (D009473).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009473). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuropsychological assessment
<a id="neuropsychological-assessment"></a>

Neuropsychological assessment is a performance-based evaluation of cognitive functioning. It is used to look at the effects of brain injury, brain disease, or severe mental illness on thinking abilities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b53ddf597981531bbe88a3855fd137d188ac026c78953631d3e6acc583d942b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neuropsychological Assessment” (C165543).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Neuropsychological Assessment Battery
<a id="neuropsychological-assessment-battery"></a>

The Neuropsychological Assessment Battery is a neuropsychological test battery used to assess cognitive functioning. In this source, its Executive Functions Module is used to measure executive functions through subtests such as planning, mazes, fluency, judgment, and categorization, and it also provides a Total Index score reflecting overall cognitive ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8705016e8d6f2e2ac3b72d267502f6fb6d550049c07855e186ff72e90c09074a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Buczylowska Dorota; Petermann Franz. Intraindividual Variability in Executive Function Performance in Healthy Adults: Cross-Sectional Analysis of the NAB Executive Functions Module. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00329; article XML SHA-256 df4f2a39e25705f9a76c9d60fb11d829eede6efc1c5a12ca997bffa833213571. “Intraindividual Variability in Executive Function Performance in Healthy Adults: Cross-Sectional Analysis of the NAB Executive Functions Module” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00329).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00329). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuropsychological test
<a id="neuropsychological-test"></a>

A neuropsychological test is an assessment used to measure brain-related functions as they show up in behavior. It helps identify brain dysfunction, damage, or disorders and injuries affecting the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5fc2c1ae104fc271c3b3c80e406e6ae684eb204b29b0bd14dbe2b3bd05834dcc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuropsychological Tests” (D009483).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009483). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuropsychology
<a id="neuropsychology"></a>

Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology that studies how behavior and experience relate to underlying nervous system processes. It emphasizes the central role of the nervous system and is defined more narrowly than physiological psychology or psychophysiology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f31b37d4705cf7bd4363f56bb66e84e56a570b6d7aedafa9e371a1e1ed3eca37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuropsychology” (D009484).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009484). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurosecretion
<a id="neurosecretion"></a>

Neurosecretion is the process by which nerve cells make and release chemical substances, including neurotransmitters and hormones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2f26ffe705eca98a4ad458ce077a07aad442cbf4c58e287bd34285dca33dacf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurosecretion” (D009489).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009489). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurosignature
<a id="neurosignature"></a>

A neurosignature is a characteristic pattern of brain-network activity or connectivity associated with a condition or process. In this source, it refers to a pattern that may show both shared disruption in pain and emotion regulation systems and distinct pathways for different disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eedc19d7a45251e3f9cefd779ac74766281d89af7bfcbf552f555e7f9db687ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tocchetto Betina Franceschini; Moreira Andrea Cristiane Janz; de Oliveira Franco Álvaro; Torres Iraci L. S.; Fregni Felipe; Caumo Wolnei. Seed-based resting-state connectivity as a neurosignature in fibromyalgia and depression: a narrative systematic review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1548617; article XML SHA-256 0c028f0c0ce916ee7718dbede36aed6605111515c91181e38e4253d19222e873. “Seed-based resting-state connectivity as a neurosignature in fibromyalgia and depression: a narrative systematic review” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1548617).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1548617). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurosis
<a id="neurosis"></a>

Neurosis is a functional mental disorder marked by troubling emotional reactions. It can involve anxiety, obsessive thoughts, compulsive actions, or irrational fears.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40fed9e5b54d5f0bcc932898cb25d0a801558bc492cd15113b1108a7c7e9471e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neurosis” (C34848).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurosurgery
<a id="neurosurgery"></a>

Neurosurgery is the medical specialty that uses surgery to treat disorders affecting the brain, spinal cord, and the peripheral and sympathetic nervous systems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cce2e4829217b61e28fef402b8f6a4d84909fbfd9e3677424297023a0e3dc363

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurosurgery” (D009493).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009493). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurosyphilis
<a id="neurosyphilis"></a>

Neurosyphilis is an infection of the central nervous system caused by Treponema pallidum. It can be mild or unnoticed at first, may stay hidden for years, and can later appear in several forms, including stroke-like illness, progressive dementia, and other brain, spinal cord, or optic nerve problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47b2ae45068e899fd56fcba7946d4e99715132344e1578b12fbd2bacb1a113ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurosyphilis” (D009494).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009494). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurotensin
<a id="neurotensin"></a>

Neurotensin is a biologically active peptide first isolated from the hypothalamus. Evidence indicates it functions as a neurotransmitter in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, and it also has effects on blood pressure and smooth muscle activity in animal studies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73167e3acfcbbae37e9c37e930152e5d6b89185a1037d404ac88e7fbd41a2788

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurotensin” (D009496).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009496). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neuroticism
<a id="neuroticism"></a>

Neuroticism is a personality trait marked by a greater tendency to react to threat, frustration, or loss with negative emotions such as anger, anxiety, embarrassment, or sadness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c6b265b7492d88ff75c384279bbb0f09699b537b3cd1ebbc12137472c283093

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuroticism” (D000075384).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000075384). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurotoxin
<a id="neurotoxin"></a>

A neurotoxin is a poisonous substance produced by microorganisms, plants, or animals that disrupts how the nervous system works. Many venoms contain neurotoxins, and this term also includes myotoxins.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba39991b130a7342e3a2bac0082ea72183c494f8653838684c615ceb80e94ec2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurotoxins” (D009498).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009498). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurotransmission
<a id="neurotransmission"></a>

Neurotransmission is the sending of signals from a neuron to another cell at a synapse, including another neuron, a muscle cell, or a secretory cell. It may occur through chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap and trigger receptors in the receiving cell, or through direct ionic current flow at electrical synapses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f462b50d631520ee516c297c26ca13a1e88cd5b31dc31660581f07e9ce91db12

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Synaptic Transmission” (D009435).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009435). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurotransmitter
<a id="neurotransmitter"></a>

A neurotransmitter is a naturally produced signaling chemical that changes the activity of neurons or other target cells. In the broad sense, it includes substances that act directly on ion channels, work through second-messenger pathways, or influence cells at some distance from where they are released, including effects outside synapses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3ec2beb5a8e85b2218dd2caeb217d1a8057de3f100387763c2490410a5cbdac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neurotransmitter” (C687).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurotransmitter receptor
<a id="neurotransmitter-receptor"></a>

A neurotransmitter receptor is a receptor on a cell’s surface that binds chemical signals released by neurons and turns them into changes inside the cell that affect how the cell functions. The term includes receptors for many kinds of neural messengers, including those that influence ion channels, second-messenger systems, or act away from the site where they were released.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 085b9a974cc574c415290edefb31802ad5c17dd7ec80ea25f94c357021b41e9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Receptors, Neurotransmitter” (D017981).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017981). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurotrophin
<a id="neurotrophin"></a>

A neurotrophin is a member of a family of protein growth factors made by the nervous system and by tissues it connects with. These proteins are important for the development, growth, repair, survival, and specialization of neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00dc9bfbbb094e82e77ec66d2d6ad8bc53c16b5944e97b7d0c688f26c9994c6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neurotrophic Factor” (C20391).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neurulation
<a id="neurulation"></a>

Neurulation is an early stage of embryonic development in chordates in which movements of the ectoderm form the neural plate, neural crest, and neural tube. If the neural groove does not close properly during this process, neural tube defects can result.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddc9e5c28980e95ad487341040f53a2b85c4ea31a531894650b7f5308d07b0c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurulation” (D054261).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D054261). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neutral point
<a id="neutral-point"></a>

In this context, a neutral point is the position on a facial emotion continuum where a person judges a face as equally happy and angry. It marks the perceiver’s balance point for seeing an expression as neither leaning clearly positive nor clearly negative.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6abe07b3f0f3f48225ac71ce6c714cbc0b327913b9f963a5897e7d7522f3c4a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Harris Daniel A.; Hayes-Skelton Sarah A.; Ciaramitaro Vivian M.. What’s in a Face? How Face Gender and Current Affect Influence Perceived Emotion. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01468; article XML SHA-256 0debb8260621a6d34862c437c1aaa17a107ca80df6f12e93f3013b9f9af3ac69. “What’s in a Face? How Face Gender and Current Affect Influence Perceived Emotion” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01468).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01468). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neutrality
<a id="neutrality"></a>

In this historical visual-perception context, neutrality means the tendency of colour sensation to shift toward a neutral appearance when the retina remains exposed to the same stimulus. It is described as part of general visual adaptation, alongside a drift of brightness toward a middle level.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eaeb40e51bfa345ce1af93b2d8ac8904a6c11515f7be5a02b093c240f51f42da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Adaptation (visual)” (Adaptation (visual)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Adaptation (visual)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## neutralization
<a id="neutralization"></a>

Neutralization refers to a cognitive rationalization process in which a person justifies unethical behavior in ways that preserve a sense of being moral. In this context, it helps reduce guilt or inner conflict and can support actions such as academic dishonesty.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abcfb052052146cdea980221b5086c36ac2b291d4ae9859333ca117c829f74f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Flutti Emma; Travaini Guido; Roma Paolo; Ongis Martino. Neutralization techniques and academic dishonesty among Italian university students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766612; article XML SHA-256 487317ee9830b21b3f451f4dfb7e99d453985735287f8d82abd3debe189f5e3c. “Neutralization techniques and academic dishonesty among Italian university students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766612).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766612). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nexus
<a id="nexus"></a>

Nexus is a bond or connection in which different parts of an ordered series depend on one another and are joined into a unified whole. In psychology and related historical writing, it is often used in the phrase causal nexus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1bbc9eb05f4bbfc70e87ecdc57fd4f8c2f7cf13d8c1408b4f1fc573097177dff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nexus” (Nexus).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nexus). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NGF
<a id="ngf"></a>

NGF, or nerve growth factor, is a neurotrophic factor that helps guide the growth and specialization of sympathetic and sensory neurons. It has alpha, beta, and gamma parts, with the beta part producing its growth-promoting effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b23e0ce623f540b1657112ec74545f8a1609498e6034b4092db8a36a6ce89b29

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nerve Growth Factor” (D020932).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020932). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NGT
<a id="ngt"></a>

NGT, or Nominal Group Technique, is a structured method for generating consensus within a group of people who have relevant knowledge about a topic. It typically involves individuals first producing ideas on their own, then sharing and clarifying them in turn, followed by private scoring or ranking to identify priorities or agreement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 818a6b32cf4635ad125b7c2511ba68da7d2fb1f2fb7bc9d2eb5fe55cba03e9f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Riley-Bennett Frances; Russell Lal; Fisher Rebecca. An example of the adaptation of the Nominal Group Technique (NGT) to a virtual format (vNGT) within healthcare research. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12874-024-02362-8; article XML SHA-256 4b52dd7d4d8256a993758979e0f7268b0569060d412176a5426193425d8e2623. “An example of the adaptation of the Nominal Group Technique (NGT) to a virtual format (vNGT) within healthcare research” (10.1186/s12874-024-02362-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-024-02362-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NH
<a id="nh"></a>

NH stands for normal hearing. In this context, it refers to children with typical hearing used as a comparison group for studying pitch recognition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c2e69ffa7ee978d1760effce3bc0df7e391ebb38de4db1771ddfd5bb14b5e463

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gu Yishun; An Fuhai; Ge Shengnan; Guo Qiang; Yin Minmin. A comparative study of pitch recognition in children with cochlear implants and normal hearing peers across Mandarin tones. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783243; article XML SHA-256 48d646e2404c24dc93174241a31111cc66ef038ef89b85573b9f51109cfd82b3. “A comparative study of pitch recognition in children with cochlear implants and normal hearing peers across Mandarin tones” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783243).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783243). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NHIS
<a id="nhis"></a>

NHIS refers to the National Health Interview Survey, an ongoing U.S. household interview survey that gathers nationwide information on health conditions, disability, and use of health care. The findings are used to produce national estimates on a range of health-related topics, and reported conditions are classified with the International Classification of Diseases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cde40ee4384e1aaec75fe75e5092b1bd76d08c0cbc0924531d4d4295b4b5e42b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “National Health Interview Survey” (C19752).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nicotine
<a id="nicotine"></a>

Nicotine is a highly toxic alkaloid found in tobacco smoke. It strongly activates nicotinic cholinergic receptors, stimulating neurons and eventually blocking synaptic transmission.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e87b0c44354c075a53c688af4dd1f0af5ed70198b3414e91d0c84c09e2871bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nicotine” (D009538).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009538). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nicotine withdrawal
<a id="nicotine-withdrawal"></a>

Nicotine withdrawal is a mental health condition that can happen after a person stops using nicotine. It commonly involves craving nicotine, irritability, anxiety, low mood, and increased appetite, and these symptoms can begin quickly and may lead the person to start using nicotine again.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6bca6817d518a9e09410ca2efb4218b0a7006e27271977310bf3ae4034bc033b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nicotine Withdrawal” (C7698).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nicotinic receptor
<a id="nicotinic-receptor"></a>

A nicotinic receptor is one of the two main kinds of cholinergic receptor. It was originally identified by responding more to nicotine than to muscarine, and it is commonly grouped into muscle-type and neuronal-type forms based on its pharmacology and receptor subunits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4015921034ba384e5803612c146f58b307ea604016ae245a92adbd1120d83fc3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Receptors, Nicotinic” (D011978).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011978). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Niemann–Pick disease
<a id="niemannpick-disease"></a>

Niemann–Pick disease is an inherited lysosomal storage disorder passed down in an autosomal recessive pattern in which too little sphingomyelinase causes sphingomyelin to build up in organs such as the liver, spleen, brain, lungs, and bone marrow. It can lead to an enlarged liver and spleen, low blood cell counts, problems with coordination and movement, and dementia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dca08f5c168e8ddd4bce7a50a6e6688c35ba872bac92e9833cadee75e0201ee7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Niemann-Pick Disease” (C61269).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## night blindness
<a id="night-blindness"></a>

Night blindness is unusually poor vision in dim light or at night, ranging from mild difficulty to near blindness, while vision in strong daylight may stay almost normal. In this source it is described as a symptom often linked to intraocular disease such as retinitis pigmentosa, and also as a distinct disorder seen with general malnutrition; the opposite condition is day-blindness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7793dbbd44b99b6afc269ac1146c6c0b80f71574aaf8ed6c0525a0ad6ace6953

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Night-blindness” (Night-blindness).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Night-blindness). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Night Eating Syndrome
<a id="night-eating-syndrome"></a>

Night eating syndrome is a pattern in which a person has little or no appetite for breakfast because they eat more food after dinner than during dinner, with over half of their daily food intake happening after the dinner hour.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ab937b80aeb28942f25cdfc13a93a7e2f0482e2ae268680cc0793e028c623a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Night Eating Syndrome” (D000074043).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000074043). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nightmare
<a id="nightmare"></a>

A nightmare is a disturbing dream during rapid eye movement sleep that brings intense fear, terror, distress, or anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70c84b4016b6f63ab0465aac4e60ad193e3206450682eb7c55af5e2b9f3e20d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nightmare” (C117263).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nihilism
<a id="nihilism"></a>

Nihilism is the view, in its strictest sense, that nothing truly exists and therefore knowledge or objective truth and moral obligation are not possible. The term has also been used more loosely, often by critics, for doctrines seen as tending toward the destruction of accepted beliefs or institutions, including political and social programs seeking to abolish existing social order.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d9b986e0233e12c9252772034c37e6bc8b368caf6508ab1c7f0571df6a7f86f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nihilism” (Nihilism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nihilism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NIMH
<a id="nimh"></a>

NIMH stands for the National Institute of Mental Health, a part of the National Institutes of Health in the United States. It oversees and supports mental health research, planning, and programs, and was established in 1949.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c469ae6bc0d95484682ef436f8156bbe806104b54e382e83d2ee8ed557a6205

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “National Institute of Mental Health (U.S.)” (D009315).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009315). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nirvana
<a id="nirvana"></a>

In this historical source, nirvana is a state of blissful repose and release from the cycle of death and rebirth, reached when the drive toward separate individual existence has been extinguished. It is described as freedom from illusion and, in some traditions, union with the absolute, while in others it is treated more as the ending or negation of individual existence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 15511787452fea1a1911cd50ad545613e3e57bf6217fb98a1ed89ee1c35c6111

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nirvana” (Nirvana).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nirvana). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Nissl bodies
<a id="nissl-bodies"></a>

Nissl bodies are small structures in the cell bodies and dendrites of nerve cells. They are made up of rough endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5fc03207156b4553b3859f1c2ac7980a4a12d6cd6c6643365c613de24431c7b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nissl Bodies” (D009562).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009562). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nisus
<a id="nisus"></a>

Nisus is a historical term for an inbuilt striving in a changing process to push past obstacles toward its proper outcome. In Leibniz’s usage, it refers to an active tendency that remains present even when its expression is blocked; “nisus formativus” was also used for a supposed built-in drive in an embryo to develop the form of its species.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b91727693312060e6eba1543d562a22674308b80f23f0d2d0c5888da13a8913

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nisus” (Nisus).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nisus). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nitric oxide
<a id="nitric-oxide"></a>

Nitric oxide is an unstable, water-soluble free-radical gas made naturally in many tissues. It helps cells communicate with each other and is involved in processes such as widening blood vessels, inflammation, and neurotransmission.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8098f1ce80762ad143415c06b000a1b8984337c5b66f387aba6845d1865986cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nitric Oxide” (C695).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NLP
<a id="nlp"></a>

NLP, or natural language processing, is a branch of artificial intelligence that allows computers to interpret and work with human language. In this context, it is used to help analyse large amounts of narrative text more quickly and at greater scale than manual review alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da971b758617799fd5e25295d6e6e627002dc2b5137cde9d4e87000530162143

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cook Darren; Cook Elizabeth A; Roy Sumanta; Thiara Ravi; Selvarajah Rani. A collaborative approach to applying Natural Language Processing (NLP) to Domestic Homicide Reviews (DHRs): A study protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348948; article XML SHA-256 6356d08e58b232f248f20859a2c825b32921e5e845ceffebb7a482dd2bb20eb3. “A collaborative approach to applying Natural Language Processing (NLP) to Domestic Homicide Reviews (DHRs): A study protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348948).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348948). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NMDA
<a id="nmda"></a>

In this review context, NMDA refers to a glutamatergic mechanism implicated in the recall, or efferent, pathways of conditioned immune enhancement. It is described as one of several neurochemical systems that may help learned sensory cues influence immune responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e620d87c1b19a7d817a557583e712bf74d4685c523b032bb6004a2ea1fe1f78d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rueckels Markus; Boreddy Srinivas Reddy; Picard-Maureau Marcus. The efferent pathway hypothesis—A mini-review on conditioned immune enhancement. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1845376; article XML SHA-256 21f6b364a4cfa9c954a9b3fe28d7e2c1f3e918cf6e1eefebd85b03260c928bd1. “The efferent pathway hypothesis—A mini-review on conditioned immune enhancement” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1845376).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1845376). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NMDA receptor
<a id="nmda-receptor"></a>

An NMDA receptor is a type of glutamate receptor that forms an ion channel activated by N-methyl-D-aspartate. It opens efficiently only when glycine is also bound, is regulated by voltage-dependent magnesium binding, and is notable for letting calcium pass in ways important for neuronal plasticity and excitotoxicity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f7e83577d44fcd7de19e0384f8a4cb8a3b25bd0611302a1ae5887d43e536d0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate” (D016194).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016194). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NMR
<a id="nmr"></a>

NMR refers to nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, an analytical method used in metabolomics to monitor changes in metabolite levels. Compared with mass spectrometry methods, it is less sensitive but more reproducible, non-destructive, needs little sample preparation, and provides quantitative and structural information that helps identify metabolites.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c7ba28b2bd1a781c2ca342fe11a9494742a94b0526432de86259c2d48d50a22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kakhki Nima Rezvani; Hegedűs Zita; Tóvári József; Mirzahosseini Arash; Noszál Béla; Kraszni Márta. Metabolic profiling of human melanoma cell lines with high and low metastatic capacity by 1 H-NMR spectroscopy. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352639; article XML SHA-256 1c07446955898c09f4c8349f67f237cd313d93786a35c68d0b4efb5361d2e195. “Metabolic profiling of human melanoma cell lines with high and low metastatic capacity by 1 H-NMR spectroscopy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352639).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352639). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## No Child Left Behind Act
<a id="no-child-left-behind-act"></a>

The No Child Left Behind Act is an education reform law described here as promoting high-stakes standardized testing and accountability benchmarks. In this context, it is linked to increased use of highly structured “no excuses” school models and strict behavior policies in elementary schools.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 04fdcea488f3f148050d74a757bc67facbfa707cd2e580d3afed388b70df55b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bailey Rebecca; Meland Emily A.; Brion-Meisels Gretchen; Jones Stephanie M.. Getting Developmental Science Back Into Schools: Can What We Know About Self-Regulation Help Change How We Think About “No Excuses”?. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01885; article XML SHA-256 6845eeae278f725a315be3e846453ba071a4ea5d12941be94aeaa7ed802faf49. “Getting Developmental Science Back Into Schools: Can What We Know About Self-Regulation Help Change How We Think About “No Excuses”?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01885).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01885). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## no excuse
<a id="no-excuse"></a>

Historically, in legal usage, “no excuse” refers to the maxim that not knowing the law does not excuse a person’s act. The source contrasts this with ignorance of facts, which may in some cases be treated as an excuse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18ee72311653b59581f43280ae50784a66883356488d5d2760fe60efa542d19d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ignorance (in law)” (Ignorance).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Ignorance). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## no-treatment control group
<a id="no-treatment-control-group"></a>

A no-treatment control group is a comparison group in a study whose members do not receive the treatment being tested. It is used to show whether outcomes in treated participants differ from what happens when no intervention is given.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a77b8a53518b4fe03091c1360c53c3c62d511be8bfb5fe4f03691a34337754d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Chi Wang; Colagiuri Ben. Can an Educational Handout Enhance Placebo Analgesia for Experimentally-Induced Pain?. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0077544; article XML SHA-256 37c2d480a47305a5a0a52cdfd380dcf2b454497b136a4ff1b5fda50e404005af. “Can an Educational Handout Enhance Placebo Analgesia for Experimentally-Induced Pain?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0077544).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077544). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nociceptin
<a id="nociceptin"></a>

Nociceptin is a small protein made from the human PNOC gene. It is involved in how pain is perceived.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44736dcd0ec9bfb596c063c0b52f9ddeeebc7dc1a5977e0e862085f6390e382e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nociceptin” (C118223).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nociception
<a id="nociception"></a>

Nociception is the sensing of harmful mechanical, heat-related, or chemical stimuli by nociceptors. It is the sensory part of pain arising from body tissues or internal organs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ffb504eec01dde5a89faadb2921225365b1e4ccd50f31ad4e2faf2793eb33d0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nociception” (D059225).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D059225). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nociceptive reflex
<a id="nociceptive-reflex"></a>

A nociceptive reflex is an automatic withdrawal of a body part when a painful or uncomfortable stimulus is perceived. It refers to this involuntary pain-related response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ee200dd0c8667e0635d68a49ee4e86dc6adaf93ee4c1bf4016e3ec4e0f85214b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nociceptive Reflex Assessment” (C226163).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nocturnal enuresis
<a id="nocturnal-enuresis"></a>

Nocturnal enuresis is the involuntary passing of urine during sleep at night after the age when bladder control is normally expected to be fully developed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c06d6d45d001eda7d4d4e06df40fe032e22d0a8f2b85825b7d6830edabfcef7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nocturnal Enuresis” (D053206).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D053206). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Nocturnal Paroxysmal Dystonia
<a id="nocturnal-paroxysmal-dystonia"></a>

Nocturnal paroxysmal dystonia is a parasomnia marked by sudden episodes during non-REM sleep in which a person shows abnormal movements such as twisting, flinging, or writhing, sometimes with partly purposeful-looking activity. These episodes usually happen repeatedly over the course of a night.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 58bafc9f2451b96c83231507ce5da27fba54f9dd5c21b5008ad22d279343fdc8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Nocturnal Paroxysmal Dystonia” (D020183).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020183). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nodal point
<a id="nodal-point"></a>

In this historical optics usage, the nodal point is the reference point in the “reduced” eye through which a straight line from a luminous point is drawn and extended to the retina. It serves to determine where that light source is represented on the retina.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 754fe3ce09d7487d829b5285552ab8f0ff4869f5e2730e584fc0616b2ac5ec7d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Line of Direction” (Line of Direction).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Line of Direction). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## node of Ranvier
<a id="node-of-ranvier"></a>

A node of Ranvier is a gap between sections of the myelin sheath along the axon of some neurons. These gaps help nerve impulses travel quickly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 110ca1a716d1eb07456a3c78de78c1133664e42fc58edc9fbd05e715a1c1ced2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Node of Ranvier” (C33172).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## noesis
<a id="noesis"></a>

Noesis is direct, self-sufficient knowing understood as immediate and intuitive rather than reflective or indirect thought. In this historical usage, it contrasts with discursive or mediate knowledge and is associated with intellectus in scholastic terminology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6bc80cc490674ef4283d2cc172485fc8fed4e36e692eb1924920202faf11836b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4105500-4117500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## noetic
<a id="noetic"></a>

Noetic refers to what belongs to thought or reason rather than to the senses. In a stricter philosophical use, it means ideas taken to arise directly from reason itself, while in a broader use it means ideas considered apart from sensory reference; it can also describe mental processes that involve cognition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c09b4025603d890e4b6bc0dec8deba92f603659247e357e00fd5b6d56d43adfa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Noetic” (Noetic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Noetic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## noise
<a id="noise"></a>

In historical psychology, noise is a hearing sensation distinguished from tone, though it commonly occurs together with tone. It is described by its loudness, length, and pitch, and was understood as arising from air vibrations with mixed or rapidly changing rates, generally attributed to the cochlea rather than the vestibule.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f98acee4b65d4595a6c82d777a5e3d2caaf0ad0280de87770d41c71e17e9cd95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Noise” (Noise).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Noise). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## noise effects
<a id="noise-effects"></a>

In cognitive psychology, noise effects are changes in performance caused by noise, especially in complex activities such as reading, writing, or calculation. The source emphasizes that to understand these effects in real settings like schools or offices, researchers should study the complex task itself rather than relying only on simpler underlying abilities such as working memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e53a03d39a1bc851adfd9e30c5a507b0881b012a7ba7bdb0764bf658dd62b0d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sörqvist Patrik. On interpretation and task selection: the sub-component hypothesis of cognitive noise effects. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01598; article XML SHA-256 cc8c5e098b409576e3a495903f0812e489a18b83e73144b3078654b256681b9e. “On interpretation and task selection: the sub-component hypothesis of cognitive noise effects” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01598).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01598). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## noise-induced hearing loss
<a id="noise-induced-hearing-loss"></a>

Noise-induced hearing loss is a type of hearing impairment linked to exposure to noise. In the source, it is discussed as hearing loss identified in people with noise exposure and examined in relation to factors such as age and diet.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: daef582232a0c85dd56d398bfb19b525c5773e06f2331fe547ec137d1ff9777a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Hyun Jin; Lee Juhyung; Yoon Chulyoung; Park Yesai; Joo Young-Hoon; Park Jun-Ook; Seo Young Joon; Park Kyoung Ho. Association of dietary factors with noise-induced hearing loss in Korean population: A 3-year national cohort study. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0279884; article XML SHA-256 48d411297bbcee9f9c3611836b2a76f7ca6f491a398431aeb9dbdc1abea6a425. “Association of dietary factors with noise-induced hearing loss in Korean population: A 3-year national cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0279884).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279884). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## noise pollution
<a id="noise-pollution"></a>

Noise pollution is unwanted environmental sound spread across a place, often mapped to show where noise levels are higher or lower. In people, it is associated with greater stress, poorer thinking performance, and illness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3333e351f12ef9b9b1f5e1feb0809546f66907c4d773d3e05f8ec4e316e77f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zipf Lucy; Primack Richard B; Rothendler Matthew. Citizen scientists and university students monitor noise pollution in cities and protected areas with smartphones. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0236785; article XML SHA-256 9569f2ec3d6ca5a5bea5cb31aab1fcded89f16a2559962eb331559ed35be7849. “Citizen scientists and university students monitor noise pollution in cities and protected areas with smartphones” (10.1371/journal.pone.0236785).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236785). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nomifensine
<a id="nomifensine"></a>

Nomifensine is an isoquinoline compound that blocks dopamine reuptake. It was formerly used to treat depression, but was withdrawn worldwide because it could cause severe blood destruction and sometimes kidney failure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34a04730ec3381d2cfa11c3c55a4b83662f25bbecabef6e5b816003d8fe70043

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nomifensine” (D009627).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009627). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nominal
<a id="nominal"></a>

Nominal refers to something that belongs to a name, term, or mental concept rather than to something taken as real. In this historical usage, a nominal definition explains the meaning of a word by stating the conditions or distinguishing features that are enough to apply the term.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b3411ac4b094f54a1bd1530ed07303f6df8728fce1cc8a8ea7591456ecf134f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nominal” (Nominal).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nominal). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nominalism
<a id="nominalism"></a>

Nominalism is the view that universals do not have objective existence or validity. In its strongest form, it holds that such general concepts are only names created in language for convenient communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5793e1a8c7797ce6fa3548838caa10a98332bc46c28a5b85f0ec5051cf67f2e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nominalism” (Nominalism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nominalism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nominative
<a id="nominative"></a>

In historical grammar, the nominative is the “upright” case, treated as the basic noun form from which the other cases were viewed as departures. It marks the substantive idea that is presented in connection with the action expressed by the verb, giving that action its concrete psychological form in the sentence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9d0c4862acc1a9dc3bd30761759c1702189023d184859cadc61c66cb54fef427

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Declension” (Declension).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Declension). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nomological validity
<a id="nomological-validity"></a>

Nomological validity is evidence that a measure fits into an expected pattern of relationships with other variables or constructs. In this source, it was examined by testing whether parts of the scale were related to migrants’ acculturative stress in the predicted way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8103dd5fda785f2a7a9831d54f7d9a3755f2a04f7433f488e7c893eb9d29770a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Renzaho Andre M N; Polonsky Michael J; Ferdous Ahmed; Yusuf Adnan; Abood Julianne; Salami Bukola Oladunni; Woodward Kerry; Green Julie. Establishing the psychometric properties of constructs from the conceptual ‘Settlement Services Literacy’ framework and their relationship with migrants’ acculturative stress in Australia. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0266200; article XML SHA-256 47751b7e67607d17eac8343ed8b1b08afb0d52ca3fc9918551030bcb02bafa0c. “Establishing the psychometric properties of constructs from the conceptual ‘Settlement Services Literacy’ framework and their relationship with migrants’ acculturative stress in Australia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0266200).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266200). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nomology
<a id="nomology"></a>

Nomology is the study of laws or lawful regularities, such as in general psychology or general physics. In this historical usage, it is contrasted with sciences focused mainly on classification or explanation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d3016669eb1d9bf28671702502fac8ef32e397ce9b416544123c8b42ea6a008

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nomology” (Nomology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nomology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## non compos mentis
<a id="non-compos-mentis"></a>

Non compos mentis is a historical Latin term for being mentally incapable of managing one’s own affairs because of mental illness or impairment. It is usually used in a legal or technical sense.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6cff57be80221587ceb22bacc550bc31b76039e4e77ef9577c34313c3beaddeb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Non compos mentis” (Non compos mentis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Non compos mentis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## non-Duchenne smile
<a id="non-duchenne-smile"></a>

A non-Duchenne smile is a type of smile that, in this source, is linked with greater psychological distance rather than closeness. It is associated with more abstract, less detail-focused ways of perceiving information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17bfc69f9230a91b371f3581b1a88adf18823c6a25f9a37d61e766ca8d6fa2a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bogodistov Yevgen; Dost Florian. Proximity Begins with a Smile, But Which One? Associating Non-duchenne Smiles with Higher Psychological Distance. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01374; article XML SHA-256 77dd9fc5b36b194547dc2dd0c68b39a93dbcfac4184661960c6018c4091dc5f5. “Proximity Begins with a Smile, But Which One? Associating Non-duchenne Smiles with Higher Psychological Distance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01374).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01374). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## non sequitur
<a id="non-sequitur"></a>

Non sequitur is a historical logic term for an argument in which the conclusion does not validly follow from what came before. More specifically, it often refers to the mistake of treating a one-way relation as reversible, as if because one thing implies another, the second must also imply the first.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 452693a8a99e9258871b853d6c7f0e23269c9745adf906aef882b3c8e35c0151

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nonsequitur” (Nonsequitur).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nonsequitur). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nonadherence
<a id="nonadherence"></a>

Nonadherence is not following a prescribed medication plan as intended. In this context, it refers to antidepressant use being disrupted in everyday practice, often because of worries about long-term effects, difficulty tolerating side effects, or social and cultural influences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9c98f2d55ce84ae0bce4ed570f94f9147af4c91dc05a1fed94a191933a3195b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bağcaz Arda; Özel Beren. The short-term effectiveness of antidepressants in a transdiagnostic sample and determinants of side effects and medication nonadherence: an observational study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1752173; article XML SHA-256 f9c179642de273019515edd15f2856b118321b2e594bca5e50136975ae32b2b4. “The short-term effectiveness of antidepressants in a transdiagnostic sample and determinants of side effects and medication nonadherence: an observational study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1752173).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1752173). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nonassociative learning
<a id="nonassociative-learning"></a>

Nonassociative learning is a basic form of learning seen across animals in which repeated or significant stimulation changes the strength of responding without involving links between different stimuli or events. In this source, its classic forms are habituation and sensitization, which alter stimulus-response pathways and help filter incoming sensory information and attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d5e7f595d0c271208c5f2f949b6249f24c2ae006837e75d35ff0e8be37b25178

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Poon Chi-Sang; Young Daniel L. Nonassociative learning as gated neural integrator and differentiator in stimulus-response pathways. 2006; DOI 10.1186/1744-9081-2-29; article XML SHA-256 0ea60e3f86dd5b9177399b8c17b1a523cf4bb3bd5bc71c9121a44fc4a753bcb2. “Nonassociative learning as gated neural integrator and differentiator in stimulus-response pathways” (10.1186/1744-9081-2-29).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-2-29). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## noncompliance
<a id="noncompliance"></a>

In this context, noncompliance means not starting, tolerating, or completing the recommended elements of treatment, such as enough exposure and response prevention practice between sessions. The source also notes that what is labeled noncompliance may often reflect limited capacity to carry out treatment rather than simple unwillingness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e5a88cb599cf42e15ef872ab28a0871c04e816959b03347d834dbe1179997b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Laurent Nicole. Enhancing readiness for exposure and response prevention in obsessive compulsive disorder: ketogenic metabolic therapy as a candidate readiness adjunct. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770306; article XML SHA-256 049ea1e9757407eac14592943352ec5d60b800c108d2ab75cf592035e050f3cd. “Enhancing readiness for exposure and response prevention in obsessive compulsive disorder: ketogenic metabolic therapy as a candidate readiness adjunct” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770306).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770306). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nonconformity
<a id="nonconformity"></a>

Nonconformity is being seen as not fitting expected educational norms, such as matching peers, meeting teaching standards, or following school rules. In this context, it is a socially judged difference that can lead adults to view ordinary school diversity as a possible problem or pathology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31b6e9eb7691d7441a90ac6930be6436eb1001eef3ed13e8d61dc4c84861c5fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Iudici Antonio; Caraglia Cristiana; Cottone Paolo. Discourses leading to diagnostic excess: an ethnopsychological study in Italian schools. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1672345; article XML SHA-256 079501fde2e457bc80ce42a8ce45b8827929b625054008950ab0c975b6bc6554. “Discourses leading to diagnostic excess: an ethnopsychological study in Italian schools” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1672345).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1672345). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nondirectional test
<a id="nondirectional-test"></a>

A nondirectional test is a significance test that evaluates whether a result differs from the null hypothesis in either direction, not just one specified direction. It uses a two-tailed probability, counting outcomes that are as extreme or more extreme on both the higher and lower sides of the null value.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c0c3652ef512d9ef7c2b627055ad6fcbbad2f12c1ff0d32f5812eb3ced8c12db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Two Tailed” (two_tailed.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/two_tailed.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nongenetic inheritance
<a id="nongenetic-inheritance"></a>

Nongenetic inheritance is the passing of traits or behavior patterns from one generation to the next through influences other than DNA sequence. In the packet’s example, differences in maternal care continued even when genetic differences were removed, showing that aspects of behavior can be inherited through non-genetic, including epigenetic, processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c77d0e5b56b78cb480256a36ec43c995f708205854bdbe024ca8ec752334993b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Carola Valeria; Mirabeau Olivier; Gross Cornelius T.. Hidden Markov Model Analysis of Maternal Behavior Patterns in Inbred and Reciprocal Hybrid Mice. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0014753; article XML SHA-256 eee914e89321ade4d6d17d0a90968f8e91d0539a21839137592391b3162331b7. “Hidden Markov Model Analysis of Maternal Behavior Patterns in Inbred and Reciprocal Hybrid Mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0014753).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0014753). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nonlinear relationship
<a id="nonlinear-relationship"></a>

A nonlinear relationship is a link between two variables in which changes in one are not matched by a simple straight-line increase or decrease in the other. In psychology research, this means the association can vary across different levels of the variable rather than staying constant.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 21852b0c01e014190bf5cf2ee8af840dd7ef5320cdc2a84c1db2bf713ed22bd7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Ying; Wan Yuhui; Xu Shaojun; Zhang Shichen; Hao Jiahu; Tao Fangbiao. Nonlinear relationship between sleep duration and non-suicidal self-injurious behaviour among Chinese adolescents. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12888-021-03539-x; article XML SHA-256 36387fd1309a5d4eff2029db21dcffc6462035a29730fc49798851608ad1f87c. “Nonlinear relationship between sleep duration and non-suicidal self-injurious behaviour among Chinese adolescents” (10.1186/s12888-021-03539-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03539-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nonnormative
<a id="nonnormative"></a>

Nonnormative describes behaviors, especially sexual behaviors in this source, that are outside what is commonly seen as typical or standard. Here the term is used descriptively rather than as evidence of psychopathology, and is treated as part of human sexual diversity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 05abc25ac03108dc8d3c8c91900684a1d27a8caecdb713de2dd03807986c47b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Paramio Alberto; Tejeiro Ricardo; Romero-Moreno Antonio; Rusillo-Molina María; Cruces-Montes Serafín. Sexual desire for non-normative sexual behaviors: differences between centennials and millennials considering sexual orientation. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fsoc.2024.1509111; article XML SHA-256 aa2eebdbc83d5eab060b7a7785d13ded92fbf2b3734d49985d6cf690ad06160d. “Sexual desire for non-normative sexual behaviors: differences between centennials and millennials considering sexual orientation” (10.3389/fsoc.2024.1509111).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2024.1509111). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nonparametric statistics
<a id="nonparametric-statistics"></a>

Nonparametric statistics are statistical methods that can be used with many different kinds of probability distributions to test things such as association, differences in location, or independence. They often work by simplifying the original data, for example by using ranks, whether values fall above or below a cutoff like the median, or patterns such as runs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd51b9aa55885585a5dfe797ec64513c6f71e26b841c619a06347befb6321b71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Statistics, Nonparametric” (D018709).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018709). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nonrandomized clinical trial
<a id="nonrandomized-clinical-trial"></a>

A nonrandomized clinical trial is a clinical study that tests an intervention or compares groups without assigning participants by chance. In this context, it was used to examine exercise-related effects on brain function measures in older adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 25fbecc423906b5bfe57bd38b238dfed1e86ed28fb3c1e5cc6d4c82c5e27c602

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vidoni Eric D.; Morris Jill K.; Palmer Jacqueline A.; Li Yanming; White Dreu; Kueck Paul J.; John Casey S.; Honea Robyn A.; Lepping Rebecca J.; Lee Phil; Mahnken Jonathan D.; Martin Laura E.; Billinger Sandra A.. Dementia risk and dynamic response to exercise: A non-randomized clinical trial. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0265860; article XML SHA-256 a69b20974281beab7aab5da574ae3f7d272a1b2a775b255c4638d93185782c0d. “Dementia risk and dynamic response to exercise: A non-randomized clinical trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0265860).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265860). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nonsense syllable
<a id="nonsense-syllable"></a>

A nonsense syllable is a syllable with no meaningful word content, used as verbal material in learning or short-term memory tasks. In this context, people were asked to remember sequences of such syllables presented as written letters or fingerspelling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2408126ea95954b097f32b45099138ef4118094aca34cc65e77a91a804a42714

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kanazawa Yuji; Nakamura Kimihiro; Ishii Toru; Aso Toshihiko; Yamazaki Hiroshi; Omori Koichi. Phonological memory in sign language relies on the visuomotor neural system outside the left hemisphere language network. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0177599; article XML SHA-256 c015d05e5ef0d44bd296a0246f89bb7765fd33ed03e7d367c522b7fef1d8c7ab. “Phonological memory in sign language relies on the visuomotor neural system outside the left hemisphere language network” (10.1371/journal.pone.0177599).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177599). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nonverbal ability
<a id="nonverbal-ability"></a>

Nonverbal ability is the capacity to reason through visual or abstract information, such as patterns, shapes, and spatial relationships, without depending much on language or previously learned knowledge. In assessment, it is used as an indicator of fluid reasoning while aiming to reduce the effects of language, schooling, and cultural background on test performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 545cd26c2354f9db1ca89296d35fe3792f68da3a71eb93658b81013fb44ef272

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bildiren Ahmet; Kavruk Sevinç Zeynep. Psychometric properties of the test of nonverbal intelligence–third edition (TONI-3) in Turkish middle school students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497; article XML SHA-256 a4a096a40e0edce8af562b432fc016fa30766ad5e78fb72ab4200f955ac5df50. “Psychometric properties of the test of nonverbal intelligence–third edition (TONI-3) in Turkish middle school students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nonverbal behavior
<a id="nonverbal-behavior"></a>

Nonverbal behavior is communication expressed without words through actions and physical cues such as body posture, eye contact, smiling, and touch. These signals can subtly and automatically convey emotional states and shape how others judge qualities like warmth, attention, empathy, and competence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f02f63387adc9d6d7887efd15b4cd99f1e20a0ff305e9a70ce45566df4633595

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kraft-Todd Gordon T.; Reinero Diego A.; Kelley John M.; Heberlein Andrea S.; Baer Lee; Riess Helen. Empathic nonverbal behavior increases ratings of both warmth and competence in a medical context. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0177758; article XML SHA-256 d4fe7ec0a1afdbffea6d13f7e00dd5bcb3b7029036a7ddbc855bf1798c35b58a. “Empathic nonverbal behavior increases ratings of both warmth and competence in a medical context” (10.1371/journal.pone.0177758).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177758). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nonverbal communication
<a id="nonverbal-communication"></a>

Nonverbal communication is the sharing of emotions, ideas, and attitudes between people through means other than spoken language.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8bb78d1f98d73dda90d606ef155d7444e0c52fa8798a1a7de4941bc79ed061a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nonverbal Communication” (D009633).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009633). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nonverbal intelligence
<a id="nonverbal-intelligence"></a>

Nonverbal intelligence is a cognitive capacity centered on solving problems through nonlinguistic reasoning and visuospatial processing rather than through language or previously learned verbal knowledge. It is distinct from verbal intelligence and appears especially important for novel problem solving, while also supporting academic performance in areas such as language-related learning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9692462ba0d6bfea0989eff4b338f4dbda2cdad28843bd708e5b9e3b00361d90

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bildiren Ahmet; Kavruk Sevinç Zeynep. Psychometric properties of the test of nonverbal intelligence–third edition (TONI-3) in Turkish middle school students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497; article XML SHA-256 a4a096a40e0edce8af562b432fc016fa30766ad5e78fb72ab4200f955ac5df50. “Psychometric properties of the test of nonverbal intelligence–third edition (TONI-3) in Turkish middle school students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## noology
<a id="noology"></a>

Noology is a historical term for the branch of philosophy concerned with intuitive truths of reason, contrasted with discursive or demonstrative reasoning. The term had little general use, and it was also used by Crusius to mean psychology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70a29a6882bee4f074378cfcde6360a241e2220944dc37d6df8cae7ccc74c772

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Noology” (Noology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Noology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Noonan syndrome
<a id="noonan-syndrome"></a>

Noonan syndrome is a genetically varied disorder that affects physical development and commonly involves short stature, distinctive head and neck features, skeletal differences, heart problems, and hormonal or reproductive abnormalities. It can also involve some degree of intellectual disability and occurs in both males and females with a normal karyotype.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ca920c6bdede09083ee5b7b4b283d0c2af080bf1d6df1883419598b5dee9001

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Noonan Syndrome” (D009634).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009634). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nootropic
<a id="nootropic"></a>

A nootropic is a drug intended to improve learning or memory, especially to help prevent thinking and memory problems linked with dementias. This term refers to a group of agents that may work through different biological mechanisms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f5838e626370a93294c7a3639f193aaf7ae7b522142cc7d6d03981b44b3b373a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nootropic Agents” (D018697).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018697). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## noradrenergic
<a id="noradrenergic"></a>

Noradrenergic refers to neurons or brain activity that use noradrenaline as a signaling chemical. In the brain, noradrenergic systems are described as broadly modulating cognitive functions such as attention, vigilance, learning, memory, decision-making, and executive functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b016856e32fd7de7131140a5af04cf67ecbdf37ea654fe4d8445da3a3b84d612

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Xue; Liang Xiaoli; Yuan Xinyu; Dai Ninan; Qian Kun; Li Ke; Zhang Yi; Wang Haiying. Research progress on the role of the locus coeruleus in cognitive function. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830622; article XML SHA-256 748b68285abb2354f22bba9bd7db67624e4c28fbff61ae2c49fc19bb24700d7c. “Research progress on the role of the locus coeruleus in cognitive function” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830622).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830622). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## norepinephrine
<a id="norepinephrine"></a>

Norepinephrine is a chemical in the body and brain that serves as a widely distributed neurotransmitter in the central and autonomic nervous systems. It is released by the adrenal medulla, is the main transmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic nerves, and is a precursor of epinephrine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9461b75419dd30052e47e8ff666ec98b4391e95612bc77cfd1e7bf78efee229c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Norepinephrine” (D009638).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009638). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## norm group
<a id="norm-group"></a>

A norm group is a comparison group used as a typical reference in a study. In this source, it refers to the healthy children whose test performance was used to compare with children diagnosed with developmental coordination disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d4282b7c119d472a646797bafde867f57aad2d18722f053b073995737224dc9f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Niklasson Mats; Norlander Torsten; Niklasson Irene; Rasmussen Peder. Catching-up: Children with developmental coordination disorder compared to healthy children before and after sensorimotor therapy. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0186126; article XML SHA-256 6809d964a6d0210202cce198f9610dd899e980e7887eab18f6d075f6ecc2ce82. “Catching-up: Children with developmental coordination disorder compared to healthy children before and after sensorimotor therapy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0186126).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186126). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## normal
<a id="normal"></a>

Normal refers to something that is close to the average or falls within expected limits. It can also mean fitting an accepted standard, typical pattern, or social norm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07540f8589d6dc64f26f2e0cf39a18bf3fbdf9911422b473aed75388fef1e9d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Normal” (C14165).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## normal-pressure hydrocephalus
<a id="normal-pressure-hydrocephalus"></a>

Normal-pressure hydrocephalus is a type of compensated hydrocephalus marked by slowly worsening walking difficulty, declining intellectual function, and urinary incontinence. The spinal fluid pressure is usually in the high-normal range, and it can develop when cerebrospinal fluid absorption is disrupted, such as after subarachnoid hemorrhage or chronic meningitis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 329fd5c6cf813f1b518a76a5f53a1ff1c2aa1a0b1e4f01eef9f5d8f7c4a0c0a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hydrocephalus, Normal Pressure” (D006850).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006850). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## normal variable
<a id="normal-variable"></a>

A normal variable is a random variable whose values follow a normal distribution. In the source context, it refers to the day-to-day logarithmic change in an ant worker’s activity being treated as normally distributed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e9364c98810883afb944d2a9fda6a78bf04c26249ffdce4cba72906d89606327

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Goko Hiromichi; Yamanaka Osamu; Shiraishi Masashi; Nishimori Hiraku. Characteristics of daily foraging activity of Camponotus japonicus via time series analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293455; article XML SHA-256 0b448d1e62adff45b339f00865d81154f90a817eb2e804128993716db040cf73. “Characteristics of daily foraging activity of Camponotus japonicus via time series analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293455).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293455). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## normality
<a id="normality"></a>

Normality refers to the socially expected range of behavior against which people are judged in families, schools, and other institutions. In this context, it is not a fixed trait but a shifting standard shaped by medical and social ideas about what counts as ordinary or deviant.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 740c4b04f3385c331536bb367a11fce489f7927f152b5143afbf0de301397072

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Grimell Jan; Youcefi Lies; Frick Matilda A. Between “normality” and diagnosis: strains between the I and the Me in undiagnosed adolescents with ADHD symptoms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1771510; article XML SHA-256 05d5c05217c2265a1d50d06c9ccd4ac4d60156aac297b44d01a5a8050cdb32da. “Between “normality” and diagnosis: strains between the I and the Me in undiagnosed adolescents with ADHD symptoms” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1771510).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1771510). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## normalize
<a id="normalize"></a>

In this social-psychology context, to normalize means to make a harmful or unfair practice come to be seen as ordinary, acceptable, or necessary within a group or culture. It describes a process by which repeated beliefs and expectations can hide the seriousness of mistreatment and lead people to accept it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a1ba385e9b3270fbba7d95c0daee12f924ee8555f0bc52b61dca45a990be85b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Huancheng; Chen Yuanyuan; Wan Yu; Jiang Lu; Sun Shulin; Huang Luqi. How training culture normalizes sport bullying: suffering, obedience, and structural violence in athlete development. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885241; article XML SHA-256 1ac0acd749644dff7c25f7c7cf0e0a44a5f779803a6679d46fa5f637fc0fc25a. “How training culture normalizes sport bullying: suffering, obedience, and structural violence in athlete development” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885241).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885241). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## normative ethics
<a id="normative-ethics"></a>

Normative ethics is a coherent moral theory that sets out general standards for judging and guiding right and wrong conduct. It aims to provide broad principles for evaluating how people ought to act.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0fff96e27ff0fa7f623c0e85157a54cff6ff9b6f79936734f1c15fdd3ebd4c5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ethical Theory” (D028663).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D028663). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## normative influence
<a id="normative-influence"></a>

Normative influence is the effect of social norms on a person’s judgments or choices, especially when they look to other people for guidance. In uncertain situations, this influence can become stronger because following others may also help reduce feelings such as anxiety or frustration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4225ddaabdac2e44ba3e304d37bb8fe174320163a23c2918a5db4cc3287ad9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bergquist Magnus; Ekelund Malin. The role of emotion regulation in normative influence under uncertainty. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03033-z; article XML SHA-256 3fe6bc204acaab0729d442779e188f742cc6192010f82b5d25b249a09dee42cc. “The role of emotion regulation in normative influence under uncertainty” (10.1186/s40359-025-03033-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03033-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## normative male alexithymia
<a id="normative-male-alexithymia"></a>

Normative male alexithymia refers to emotion-processing difficulties in men that are understood as part of restrictive emotionality shaped by masculine role socialization. It describes trouble recognizing, naming, and expressing emotions in the context of gendered expectations such as strength, self-control, autonomy, and avoiding vulnerability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb993540c301e10fcd1a6aadbce9cbd7ba03d5d7934de30f014736ea06f9685d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Özel İrem. Turkish adaptation and psychometric validation of the Normative Male Alexithymia Scale–Brief Form (NMAS-BF) among male university students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1851206; article XML SHA-256 a55c573dd24bdb39d392ef8b3a8cd1f5b8fe6752ec855c5c4bfba095946786d9. “Turkish adaptation and psychometric validation of the Normative Male Alexithymia Scale–Brief Form (NMAS-BF) among male university students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1851206).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1851206). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## normative science
<a id="normative-science"></a>

A normative science is a field of inquiry concerned with ideals, standards, or rules by which human conduct is judged, rather than only with describing what people in fact do. In this usage, ethics is called normative because it studies good and right conduct in relation to an ideal that can guide judgment and practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3eda815ab14b7b3583d90c819c1d484dc536a924da02356216157537c95741c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ethics” (Ethics).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Ethics). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Norpramin
<a id="norpramin"></a>

Norpramin is desipramine hydrochloride, a tricyclic antidepressant. It acts in the central nervous system by slowing the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin, leaving more of these neurotransmitters available between nerve cells and extending their effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3ca90af3a7f34c68517abba4bac09811a8407d695e927bec07af46a81841e0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Desipramine Hydrochloride” (C28979).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Norrie disease
<a id="norrie-disease"></a>

Norrie disease is a disorder caused by mutations that disrupt Norrin signalling, producing severe defects in the retinal blood vessels. These vascular problems lead to visual impairment and can progress to blindness, with ongoing abnormal vessel changes in adulthood linked to persistent low oxygen in the retina.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c2bab004e807e23365b90e6c979ab5c6d89c77734da440ce698c8a8203381d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Beck Susanne C.; Feng Yuxi; Sothilingam Vithiyanjali; Garcia Garrido Marina; Tanimoto Naoyuki; Acar Niyazi; Shan Shenliang; Seebauer Britta; Berger Wolfgang; Hammes Hans-Peter; Seeliger Mathias W.. Long-term consequences of developmental vascular defects on retinal vessel homeostasis and function in a mouse model of Norrie disease. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0178753; article XML SHA-256 97cdca5bdf0f6b5b50150ac84c3d62ce31133ea27fdfc0fdbb72fca9a7c341ee. “Long-term consequences of developmental vascular defects on retinal vessel homeostasis and function in a mouse model of Norrie disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0178753).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178753). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Northern blot
<a id="northern-blot"></a>

Northern blot is a laboratory method used to detect specific RNA molecules in a sample. It works by separating extracted RNA on a gel, transferring it to a membrane, and using a complementary labeled DNA or RNA probe to show whether the target RNA is present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 913ac6fd1180d0a5e40cc321079b0d34d1e4b8ea3b2d29bd8756e7819774324b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Northern Blotting” (C16355).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nortriptyline
<a id="nortriptyline"></a>

Nortriptyline is a tricyclic antidepressant used for short-term treatment of different forms of depression. It works by reducing reuptake of norepinephrine in the central nervous system, increasing its level in the synaptic cleft, and it also acts on alpha-adrenergic, histaminergic, and cholinergic receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b63f162078a8c87c8977dec55c6a28249457e065c2c8465d8101ddacc1150f64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nortriptyline” (C62060).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nosology
<a id="nosology"></a>

Nosology is the way disorders are organized and classified within a diagnostic system. In psychology and psychiatry, it refers to the framework used to define and distinguish conditions, which may be revised as research identifies more accurate dimensions or subtypes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 49c254bdc65f0b8fdf52023979d6dcdfe351ab2616c58594595503cf1e75bc6b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Salehpour Farzad; Gonzalez-Lima Francisco. Historical development of ADHD from 1753 to 2026. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1938091; article XML SHA-256 29075efee5a6a2046da6f9ca03789416f38a34d4dce2d25886fa401ac738a563. “Historical development of ADHD from 1753 to 2026” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1938091).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1938091). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nosomania
<a id="nosomania"></a>

Nosomania is a historical term used as a synonym for delirious hypochondriasis. It refers to a morbid, delusion-like conviction or brooding preoccupation that one is seriously ill.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e9162ef24c4411f6ccfe2f65d7e2d0131b1d8f083db51c45b51d2377284115a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3507000-3519000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nostalgia
<a id="nostalgia"></a>

Nostalgia is a mixed emotional experience in which thinking about the past brings warm, valued memories along with a mild sense of sadness. It often centers on loved ones or meaningful events and can increase positive feelings while a person reflects on those earlier experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4edf0d6ed0310f7dbfb13e482ee4a7be54d62ff1bc25a83b40300528521177c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shuxiang Hu; Ying Liu; Qizong Yue; Huan Zhao; Maoping Zheng. Harmonizing the past: EEG-based brain network unveil modality-specific mechanisms of nostalgia. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517449; article XML SHA-256 d7ab20e47f28da80096797ec2af2b70841146a020cc4e567d2ff4f09065d1d4f. “Harmonizing the past: EEG-based brain network unveil modality-specific mechanisms of nostalgia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517449).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517449). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## not me
<a id="not-me"></a>

Not me refers to what is experienced as opposite to the ego or self: the external object or outer world. In historical philosophical use, especially in Fichte, it names what stands against the ego and so limits and helps define its activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f6e1ed57c02fdfcdc4b84b6f1c7105c2257c3bec4a06df328c3257b3cba14190

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Non-ego” (Non-ego).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Non-ego). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nothingness
<a id="nothingness"></a>

In this historical source, nothingness is presented as one possible way Nirvana was understood: a state reached when karma is suppressed and the necessity of continued existence ends. The packet supports only this narrow, historical meaning within the discussion of karma and Hindu or Buddhist thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a3b95e8990ad4d27948024c74960a734d220386ac2381eb0d4936bcc94a0037a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Karma” (Karma).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/K1defs.htm#Karma). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## noumenon
<a id="noumenon"></a>

A noumenon is an object understood by pure thought rather than by the senses. In this historical usage, especially in Kant, it refers to the thing as not given in sensory experience and so only thinkable, in contrast with a phenomenon.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5b878c1793bbecf0c3d8aa986a14f4495371c02f0de58d10fda704ef55c3b69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Noumenon” (Noumenon).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Noumenon). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nous
<a id="nous"></a>

Nous is a historical term for reason or thought understood not just as a private mental event, but as an objective principle that gives order, unity, and purpose to things. In ancient thought it also came to mean the highest kind of direct rational insight, and in some systems the supreme rational principle of the universe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 63a232d290879c19aef8166a38a73c006ea4d19ad00fe091f132807290f72926

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nous” (Nous).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nous). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## novel antipsychotic
<a id="novel-antipsychotic"></a>

A novel antipsychotic is an antipsychotic medicine in the newer, atypical group, contrasted with conventional neuroleptics. In the source, these drugs are described as offering better control of the negative and affective symptoms of schizophrenia, while their advantage for cognitive problems is uncertain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2b9d5a3cc0b7ff59a8a479f6061cdf0c0b8576ceec2b87cad35726e627d8c0c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Selva-Vera Gabriel; Balanzá-Martínez Vicent; Salazar-Fraile José; Sánchez-Moreno José; Martinez-Aran Anabel; Correa Patricia; Vieta Eduard; Tabarés-Seisdedos Rafael. The switch from conventional to atypical antipsychotic treatment should not be based exclusively on the presence of cognitive deficits. A pilot study in individuals with schizophrenia. 2010; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-10-47; article XML SHA-256 9ad441d3833933d7075d2caf150f4a531b75979810bf3bf70cd2000fbf04b318. “The switch from conventional to atypical antipsychotic treatment should not be based exclusively on the presence of cognitive deficits. A pilot study in individuals with schizophrenia” (10.1186/1471-244x-10-47).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-10-47). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## novelty seeking
<a id="novelty-seeking"></a>

Novelty seeking is a motivation to look for new or different options. In this packet, it is described as a factor that can increase preference for variety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b38f9555e119ac6d275600744fc02fe3b7ed88628317243ee8e1902566b5c1d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao Jianbin; Li Zheng. The effects of luck perception on consumer variety-seeking. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324896; article XML SHA-256 0f2827b3cef824562fbbad564a2b124995fe9717ce3de69d4738a50558204e1c. “The effects of luck perception on consumer variety-seeking” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324896).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324896). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## noxious stimulus
<a id="noxious-stimulus"></a>

A noxious stimulus is an input that is experienced as harmful or painful. In this context, stronger noxious stimulation is linked to broader brain activity and greater involvement of higher-order processes such as attention, response preparation, and cognitive control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8bf849358b161af77678c7716ba345914db95630422313d1509e1a4652238a0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kawamura Ryo; Sasaki Kei; Shimizu Shunnosuke; Kodama Naoki. Neural basis of intensity-dependent brain activity in response to mechanical stimulation and the level of pain sensitivity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1723960; article XML SHA-256 000de58c64c5d1f1f5c885b01066a4952d28a24fa3a144a1e7c623e8ee9d27ed. “Neural basis of intensity-dependent brain activity in response to mechanical stimulation and the level of pain sensitivity” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1723960).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1723960). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NPH
<a id="nph"></a>

NPH stands for normal pressure hydrocephalus. In this source, it refers to a brain condition examined through white-matter imaging patterns, including classic and complex forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46c57c709f34f6ad4b94d05141485514436cd5e93161cac0387da5400f6cad7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lock Christine; Toh Emma M. S.; Keong Nicole C.. Structural volumetric and Periodic Table DTI patterns in Complex Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus—Toward the principles of a translational taxonomy. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1188533; article XML SHA-256 daefe8741f77fa68e05b6a11f407d511de14848b8c2ec3303f9480179aa64709. “Structural volumetric and Periodic Table DTI patterns in Complex Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus—Toward the principles of a translational taxonomy” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1188533).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1188533). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NPI
<a id="npi"></a>

NPI refers to the Neuropsychiatric Inventory, a standardized rating scale used to evaluate the severity of neuropsychiatric or behavioral symptoms linked with dementia based on a caregiver’s observations. It covers 12 areas, such as delusions, anxiety, motor changes, and appetite, and rates symptoms only when they are present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6163160185209e4c007fa6b6e82e8523d3373f21797d16dd5a787623ed81176a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neuropsychiatric Inventory - 12 Item Version Questionnaire” (C100772).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NSAID
<a id="nsaid"></a>

NSAID stands for nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug. In this source, it refers to an over-the-counter medicine that is widely used, but regular or long-term use is advised against for many people with chronic kidney disease, heart failure, or hypertension because of increased risk of harm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0229e32afb338588e1a0559aeeee56c598ead33619ed0e59193c48552eb4c258

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vinson Matthew G; Tegge Allison N; Tokala Mamata R; Spivey Cara R; Tenzer Martha M; Stein Jeffrey S; Epling John W; Rockwell Michelle S. A brief, theory-driven patient education video reduces high-risk over-the-counter nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) use. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323582; article XML SHA-256 ea6758041f7d717a1f1dca4c8d11fe785bc9b98ef04e78d0694449dc4f252db4. “A brief, theory-driven patient education video reduces high-risk over-the-counter nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) use” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323582).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323582). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NSF
<a id="nsf"></a>

NSF stands for nasoseptal flap, a vascularized tissue flap taken from the septal lining of the nose and commonly used in endoscopic skull base surgery. It is attached by the posterior septal branch of the sphenopalatine artery and is used to help repair skull base defects and lower the risk of cerebrospinal fluid leakage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cbc8f0042eab98ae0566caa71729250f42dc2900254d66ee01b6d0525341da66

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jeong Chang Yeong; Cho Jin Hee; Park Yong Jin; Kim Sung Won; Park Jae-Sung; Abdullah Basurrah Mohammed; Kim Do Hyun; Kim Soo Whan. Differences in the predicted nasoseptal flap length among races: A propensity score matching analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0283140; article XML SHA-256 d977455e39b088946aeac21b501d260d3bf06affbdc538cbdbb66a75f3b1346c. “Differences in the predicted nasoseptal flap length among races: A propensity score matching analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0283140).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283140). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NSU
<a id="nsu"></a>

NSU refers to the group of depressed adolescents in the study who had not made suicide attempts, used for comparison with adolescents who had attempted suicide and with healthy controls.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 720296ffcafdabc1ae340a2c2244eacf3991952931a2e64c6b870f5dd4616ea1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Changchun; Jiang Wenhao; Huang Jie; Lin Jian; Huang Jialing; Wang Mei; Xie Jian; Yuan Yonggui. The amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation characteristics in depressed adolescents with suicide attempts: a resting-state fMRI study. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1228260; article XML SHA-256 c444181ffb5cc6d97831bf87cec99b39767e320228bbae545a2846b7f1df1ec7. “The amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation characteristics in depressed adolescents with suicide attempts: a resting-state fMRI study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1228260).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1228260). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nuclear complex
<a id="nuclear-complex"></a>

A nuclear complex here refers to the olivary nuclear complex, a group of brainstem nuclei in the hindbrain also called the olivary body. It lies in parts of the medulla oblongata and pontine tegmentum and contributes to motor control while providing major sensory input to the cerebellum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35d7dbe0aca4400d790eae62f09e9a26f817cda2da7cd8b818b8584d4c490e14

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Olivary Nucleus” (D009847).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009847). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nuclear family
<a id="nuclear-family"></a>

A nuclear family is a family unit made up of spouses and their children.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 627b3c8fcf77e5205eeb94c185709729961f368280f95a2820d8790f61c28842

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nuclear Family” (D009679).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009679). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nucleolus
<a id="nucleolus"></a>

The nucleolus is a compartment within the nucleus where newly made ribosomal RNA is produced. In this source, nucleolar transcription is described as concentrated mainly in the fibrillar zone of the nucleolus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a516819feba474746849d3e3f0bfed8f64aac7d5ef67bc3925e1eeeb8fcbbed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gholamalamdari Omid; Weber Stephanie C.. Labeling of nascent RNA in the C. elegans intestine. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341598; article XML SHA-256 f6939b046e44e59060ba0461c64954bee21e51718319a1df2f456cd385aba01a. “Labeling of nascent RNA in the C. elegans intestine” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341598).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341598). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nucleoplasm
<a id="nucleoplasm"></a>

Nucleoplasm is the part of the cell nucleus outside the nucleolus where newly made messenger RNA is transcribed. In this source, it is contrasted with the nucleolus, where ribosomal RNA transcription occurs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8d62708269255acc299bf97e7b8688fc838e33f0fd9a45db896c39dc928d94b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gholamalamdari Omid; Weber Stephanie C.. Labeling of nascent RNA in the C. elegans intestine. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341598; article XML SHA-256 f6939b046e44e59060ba0461c64954bee21e51718319a1df2f456cd385aba01a. “Labeling of nascent RNA in the C. elegans intestine” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341598).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341598). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nucleus
<a id="nucleus"></a>

In historical psychology and neurology usage, a nucleus is the structural and functional center of a cell, understood as the part that in some way governs the cell’s vital activity. The term was also used for clusters of cells in the central nervous system, especially when discussed in relation to incoming or outgoing nerve connections.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be6c423a3eb386c3dea57d5c6d1fa91bb80acf999afcc24962b5433e7d0456b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nucleus” (Nucleus).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nucleus). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nucleus basalis magnocellularis
<a id="nucleus-basalis-magnocellularis"></a>

The nucleus basalis magnocellularis is a brain region studied in relation to sustained attention. In the source packet, damage to this area in rats is associated with poorer performance on sustained-attention tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1573f7b69ed3d6ff8c89b2d5b11106330bda4163d2ce09968d0f062a45295283

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rostron Claire L; Farquhar Morag J; Latimer Mary P; Winn Philip. The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus and the nucleus basalis magnocellularis: Do both have a role in sustained attention?. 2008; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-9-16; article XML SHA-256 cc1f0ae7c22fd61f5ee26237179f354d4d7bc9e72b3a062d8f83d2c5e2a7c52c. “The pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus and the nucleus basalis magnocellularis: Do both have a role in sustained attention?” (10.1186/1471-2202-9-16).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-9-16). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nucleus of the solitary tract
<a id="nucleus-of-the-solitary-tract"></a>

The nucleus of the solitary tract is a region of gray matter in the dorsomedial medulla oblongata that is linked with the solitary tract. It receives input from many body systems, including facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerve endings, and helps coordinate autonomic control of functions such as cardiovascular, breathing, taste, gastrointestinal, and chemical-sensing aspects of homeostasis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d143ddf31c556ebda923d745fd0a20fa78bef062cad292a27709ba6a1c9383b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Solitary Nucleus” (D017552).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017552). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nuisance variable
<a id="nuisance-variable"></a>

A nuisance variable is an extraneous factor that can influence measurements even though it is not the main variable being studied. When it is related to the variable of interest, it can introduce technical bias and increase the chance of false positive findings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e923c3571daf143d047d042abcc59244d646d1478e2d6c149f78ab2c4ac1e84

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Krzystanek Marcin; Szallasi Zoltan; Eklund Aron C.. Biasogram: Visualization of Confounding Technical Bias in Gene Expression Data. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0061872; article XML SHA-256 652c44bd4349bce9d34c6e7629ae2fb2076362342da7213d2a22ab04b0a6d484. “Biasogram: Visualization of Confounding Technical Bias in Gene Expression Data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0061872).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0061872). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## null finding
<a id="null-finding"></a>

A null finding is a study result that does not provide strong support for the expected relationship or hypothesis, such as finding no association between the variables examined.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14c2586724f335830f4e3d2a4ba06896f15550eb5c0d1b9c29ad026e0c6dac0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [de Barra Mícheál; Islam M. Sirajul; Curtis Val. Disgust Sensitivity Is Not Associated with Health in a Rural Bangladeshi Sample. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0100444; article XML SHA-256 04551f55ed7d417a9d223fbe79774c039f799c738b9141b3a0fd996b4569ad5d. “Disgust Sensitivity Is Not Associated with Health in a Rural Bangladeshi Sample” (10.1371/journal.pone.0100444).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0100444). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## null hypothesis
<a id="null-hypothesis"></a>

A null hypothesis is the statement examined in significance testing, usually proposing that a value is zero or that there is no difference between groups or parameters. Studies are commonly set up to see whether this hypothesis can be rejected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9fce10d5a63fcb5c2e641c17860b7d5a78fc8bb346a1fc935e179541c24d9d48

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Null Hypothesis” (null_hypothesis.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/null_hypothesis.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## number
<a id="number"></a>

Number is how many things are in a group taken together while still recognizing the items as separate. In this historical account, groups have the same number when their members can be matched one-to-one, so number is the shared property that stays the same across all such equivalent groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6792f2f600341983178a372abbe1d078536ef70a3b9e6fc36e2dd0a328923f01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Number” (Number).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Number). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## numerical ability
<a id="numerical-ability"></a>

Numerical ability is the capacity to work with numbers, especially for calculation, in ways that support learning mathematics. It is distinct from broader mathematical ability because it also involves using number skills in everyday tasks such as counting, selling, and buying.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d21d30bdaa8d1f00b6cfb6741c3d9cd2fa7eca71842ffba3586a3c9c720c5916

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Dawei; Tan Xin; Yan Huifen; Li Wei. Improving mental arithmetic ability of primary school students with schema teaching method: An experimental study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297013; article XML SHA-256 b5480d597cf269569a1b409b592eaeba27b2df05ce21d0a55235bc220e193df1. “Improving mental arithmetic ability of primary school students with schema teaching method: An experimental study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297013).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297013). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## numerical competence
<a id="numerical-competence"></a>

Numerical competence is the ability to recognize and compare quantities based on the number of items present, rather than on other visual features. In this source, it refers to matching or distinguishing patterns by their shared number of elements and showing some generalization to new number comparisons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0df4cf2bcdc06447a4a9c5aea7c844d2a6aa25aa704d5133e82a46b22f4be312

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gross Hans J.; Pahl Mario; Si Aung; Zhu Hong; Tautz Jürgen; Zhang Shaowu. Number-Based Visual Generalisation in the Honeybee. 2009; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0004263; article XML SHA-256 a2523b80719f2e4f899e2a5bfe0d5ca48881c7ade70706f93139f42b37b78471. “Number-Based Visual Generalisation in the Honeybee” (10.1371/journal.pone.0004263).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004263). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## numerical variable
<a id="numerical-variable"></a>

A numerical variable is a variable expressed in numbers. In this source, it refers to a count that can take non-negative values, such as the number of deceased children within a family.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1ef0935e56cba40b118c6d09da6ae055a8436fecd9b87ae5418fffa73564a980

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Afroz Farzana; Akib Md Muddasir Hossain; Pal Bikash; Asha Abida Sultana. Impact of parental education on number of under five children death per mother in Bangladesh. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318787; article XML SHA-256 f542beb67781ccf85d63217942213745b406e03a8686ad11cede9547d4b164c3. “Impact of parental education on number of under five children death per mother in Bangladesh” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318787).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318787). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Nuremberg code
<a id="nuremberg-code"></a>

The Nuremberg Code is a set of ten ethical principles for research involving human participants. It was established in response to the Nuremberg trials after the Second World War.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f0c74161b25bdecc02a49715689f2a2793b2122aaa09944affefd2d075b0d2d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nuremberg Code” (C142617).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nurse practitioner
<a id="nurse-practitioner"></a>

A nurse practitioner is a health care practitioner who may serve as a primary care provider. In that role, they may be someone a person sees for common medical problems and can talk with about mental health concerns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 289272f5223d17bb904752b749bc0219c897e12cf4297b517696c5817d95f416

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Tips for Talking With a Health Care Provider About Your Mental Health. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 13e466c66c1ce891732ea22bbe016eaa77b67b36619f36703c1d3cd15b495788. “Tips for Talking With a Health Care Provider About Your Mental Health” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/tips-for-talking-with-your-health-care-provider).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/tips-for-talking-with-your-health-care-provider). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nursery school
<a id="nursery-school"></a>

A nursery school is an educational setting for young children that comes before kindergarten.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 27cd77739188d10e78471ba49e1b64b09b711c192c5808d107af6c8c736e1886

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Preschool” (C147937).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nursing home
<a id="nursing-home"></a>

A nursing home is a residential care setting for people who often have serious illness, multiple health conditions, frailty, and sometimes cognitive impairment. In this context, many residents have substantial care needs, including palliative care needs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 36011551a2d791f9c431f4c2d26c5e69400556de0be67bcdb33c8cecb8801ac5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Crowley Patrice; Saab Mohamad M; Cornally Nicola; Ronan Isabel; Tabirca Sabin; Murphy David. Identification of unmet palliative care needs of nursing home residents: A scoping review protocol. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0306980; article XML SHA-256 de35f82f8661c07f2e069efc629b8a7a6ba108c78caa339b41170a720535f1ff. “Identification of unmet palliative care needs of nursing home residents: A scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0306980).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306980). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nurturance
<a id="nurturance"></a>

Nurturance is the caring and protective support a parent or substitute parent provides to a child. It involves responding to the child’s needs in a consistent, empathic, and appropriate way as part of responsible parenting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 908287fc1ed40905b3e133c8230ff64702c37fd0ec7e202e15432d2954e8c1ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Parenting” (D016487).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016487). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Nuvigil
<a id="nuvigil"></a>

Nuvigil is a stimulant-like medication whose active ingredient is armodafinil, a form of modafinil that promotes wakefulness by affecting dopamine reuptake in the brain. Its exact way of working is not fully understood, and it lasts longer in the body than modafinil.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 246bc3944fa6dbc27710f61b96e15e9f2bc118af43bc8aea4e3e5b41b4026f28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Armodafinil” (C65241).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## NVC
<a id="nvc"></a>

NVC stands for nonverbal communication. In this learning context, it refers to the instructor’s use of nonverbal cues as a key teaching tool, which can influence students’ emotional, cognitive, and behavioral engagement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2453cec79296b40e1cbc2e9856528f17ee4f019eb75731ffd0324f8fedd1c9cf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cheng Long; Gu Yimeng. The impact of Taekwondo instructors’ nonverbal communication on student engagement in liberal arts education: evidence from Chinese universities. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1668054; article XML SHA-256 76273f2acbf50010dfc5995eb3b1392c2599e8822af247138f5f4e59c58d2d98. “The impact of Taekwondo instructors’ nonverbal communication on student engagement in liberal arts education: evidence from Chinese universities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1668054).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1668054). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nymphomania
<a id="nymphomania"></a>

Nymphomania is a historical term for a pathological, uncontrollable sexual desire in a woman. In the source, it is described as appearing as a symptom of mental disorder, especially acute mania, and is distinguished from erotomania, which centers more on obsessive ideas about love and courtship than on sexual intercourse itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 693f4ed27c094d96164b6302d31c62abe70d8e864533e4bbfc72080fbfe069f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nymphomania” (Nymphomania).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nymphomania). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## nystagmus
<a id="nystagmus"></a>

Nystagmus is an involuntary movement of the eyes. Whether it is present or absent can help in identifying some neurological or vision-related disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e1c9c6a01b58580c63fd6a4c5356c5d3fb1da048720c7dd00f574ffb86bca29

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nystagmus” (C3282).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## OA
<a id="oa"></a>

OA stands for osteoarthritis, a long-lasting degenerative condition of the joints. In this packet, it is discussed as a disease whose development may involve acetylation-related molecular changes and possible biomarker differences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4075b021648d32c7a3a0016a18ba5822d864d961fd9da6bcf4a4e93a0f9f1c08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Shuchang; Yin Jiefeng; Huang Jie; Zheng Xifan; Yao Jun. Exploration of acetylation-related biomarkers in osteoarthritis through bioinformatics analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357231; article XML SHA-256 360b476590a31a598eccb7eceb2940efcce398b8f6230a4afee6241a3ff94526. “Exploration of acetylation-related biomarkers in osteoarthritis through bioinformatics analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357231).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357231). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## obedience
<a id="obedience"></a>

Obedience is an internalized tendency to comply with authority or disciplinary control. In this context, it is described as becoming almost automatic through strict regimentation, close surveillance, and training practices that reduce questioning or resistance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 94b91cc25337185590004fb1248e37a32ccebd3959333f2c96060520dfef0a01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Huancheng; Chen Yuanyuan; Wan Yu; Jiang Lu; Sun Shulin; Huang Luqi. How training culture normalizes sport bullying: suffering, obedience, and structural violence in athlete development. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885241; article XML SHA-256 1ac0acd749644dff7c25f7c7cf0e0a44a5f779803a6679d46fa5f637fc0fc25a. “How training culture normalizes sport bullying: suffering, obedience, and structural violence in athlete development” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885241).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885241). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## obesity
<a id="obesity"></a>

Obesity is a widespread public health condition in which a person has excessive body weight or body fat, often discussed alongside overweight. It is linked to major long-term health risks and, in children and adolescents, may also affect brain development and cognitive functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 27cafa2709880cfd470a2caa5071c4ceb2f2ee57f2efbb82b8aaf18894adeb54

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Hui; Zhang Junshen; Wang Yang; Xu Guanjinghui; Zhao Junjie; Fu Xiao; Bai Guanghui; Pan Bujian. Brain structural and functional changes in childhood and adolescent obesity: a systematic review of MRI studies. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1920260; article XML SHA-256 be15744af11a73746623eabb9242c9f271e0e4e8c19eec48f8eb6c64a94645c2. “Brain structural and functional changes in childhood and adolescent obesity: a systematic review of MRI studies” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1920260).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1920260). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## object
<a id="object"></a>

An object is a material thing that can be noticed through one or more senses, especially sight or touch.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4bbf5b3e5c9e11750d67d0d3d921e1aded9e2856904cdca875c480941cdc3362

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Object” (C45281).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## object-based attention
<a id="object-based-attention"></a>

Object-based attention is attention guided by perceived objects or grouped events rather than by isolated sensory parts. In this study, when speech sounds were heard as whole word-like auditory objects, that grouping made it harder to focus on and discriminate changes in one component unless the sounds were reorganized into separate attended and ignored objects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3eca1ae6429632a37de57eda261130cf9c619fa2a339093aa8f6f0ebe167c37f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Espinoza-Varas Blas; Hilton Jeremiah; Guo Shaoxuan. Object-based attention modulates the discrimination of level increments in stop-consonant noise bursts. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0190956; article XML SHA-256 48ba6c8063bb6c45c1080a526d8b82dcc0620cb50f49762b2bcf4db7a379882a. “Object-based attention modulates the discrimination of level increments in stop-consonant noise bursts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0190956).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190956). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## object choice
<a id="object-choice"></a>

Object choice is a learning task in which a subject chooses between objects or locations to find a hidden reward, often using another individual’s cue such as pointing. In this packet, it refers to the standard task used to test whether dogs can use human communicative signals to locate the reward.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67dba87d5d6b89890c233ab69953f5da27e8a93ba2372fd510d4719f36dd0c14

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Osborne Tara; Mulcahy Nicholas John. Reassessing shelter dogs’ use of human communicative cues in the standard object-choice task. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0213166; article XML SHA-256 e115ed93d36e1d899ab2c0984cda707086008f32d3b782e39731f0cfe8b6ac9f. “Reassessing shelter dogs’ use of human communicative cues in the standard object-choice task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0213166).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213166). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## object display
<a id="object-display"></a>

Object display refers to how an object is presented in a visual scene, especially the size it occupies in an image. In research on rapid object categorization, this displayed size can be measured and examined for its effect on how quickly people detect or classify the object.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 65b1085ec65baf48418d660d8806889d6c670ef2d75d8925be080ddf57632848

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Bingjie; Kankanhalli Mohan S; Zhao Qi. Ultra-rapid object categorization in real-world scenes with top-down manipulations. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0214444; article XML SHA-256 f00bbe3758894ecc734b67b57916c6b5296d0c0af074bbb2ac6faaf2b08c067b. “Ultra-rapid object categorization in real-world scenes with top-down manipulations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0214444).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214444). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## object identity
<a id="object-identity"></a>

Object identity is the information about what the objects in a scene are, as distinct from how they are arranged in space. In scene processing, it refers to recognizing the identities of the objects that make up the scene.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e300a8998e1996c34288dbd45a7b02f6a84ec370350a166ac0ccd95a7e39300

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Kevin; Chin Matthew; Chun Marvin; Xu Yaoda. The contribution of object identity and configuration to scene representation in convolutional neural networks. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0270667; article XML SHA-256 107e5fb8c19991ac5c3684d567c15a94cb6fd896130958bcd52353d7adfcc625. “The contribution of object identity and configuration to scene representation in convolutional neural networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0270667).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270667). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## object-location memory
<a id="object-location-memory"></a>

Object-location memory is the ability to remember where objects are in an environment. It includes memory for the objects, the places, and the link between each object and its location.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 642d59584ea3dceddf766b136567070e4e34984b47b3b922ea311d2d36abe776

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shih Shui-I; Meadmore Katie L.; Liversedge Simon P.. Aging, Eye Movements, and Object-Location Memory. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0033485; article XML SHA-256 efccc6eabaada53a671566be59f483300c1214c826b9271d6047efae79ae245a. “Aging, Eye Movements, and Object-Location Memory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0033485).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0033485). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## object of consciousness
<a id="object-of-consciousness"></a>

In this historical usage, the object of consciousness is what the mind is aware of or directed toward at a given moment. In a unified act of knowing or pursuing an end, it is the same object that may be only partly specified at first and becomes more fully defined as consciousness develops.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02b19173dc109c67933b88daf481e46a2fd476b2f675687e8e8ec5a9dcb10715

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Intent (psychical)” (Intent).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Intent). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## object permanence
<a id="object-permanence"></a>

Object permanence is the understanding that an object still exists even when it cannot be seen. In cognitive development, it is described as an important part of the sensorimotor stage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ffa3d27567b68e9392ec2fd31c8e3da3bd587839922cd29b132094cb3a31470e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Forman Jemma; Rowe Jordan S; Leavens David A. Object permanence in domestic cats ( Felis catus ) using violation-of-expectancy by owner and stranger. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312225; article XML SHA-256 bd38c0615286da21af31624a2f13cea3d9d8c09e8a3b442521b6a66d1bb6e23d. “Object permanence in domestic cats ( Felis catus ) using violation-of-expectancy by owner and stranger” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312225).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312225). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## object play
<a id="object-play"></a>

Object play is play that involves handling or interacting with a movable object. In social object play, two or more individuals share or exchange the same object during play.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8537c6997919a37dc8728c48ad1fe666a56686558236e8c942c81077fd9672d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ikeda Hisako; Komaba Masayuki; Komaba Kumiko; Matsuya Ayaka; Kawakubo Akihiro; Nakahara Fumio. Social object play between captive bottlenose and Risso's dolphins. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0196658; article XML SHA-256 895298d8e1879e494f309e6771414a9b4eb1ac0d3d1eef8b04843637e8dde9ef. “Social object play between captive bottlenose and Risso's dolphins” (10.1371/journal.pone.0196658).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196658). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## object relations
<a id="object-relations"></a>

In cognition, object relations refers to perceiving how objects are positioned relative to one another rather than only relative to the body. This involves allocentric coding, such as judging the distance and orientation between objects to support spatial representation and action planning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c643106c111c205a9520db33e5fe47e5bb7fb0a318375c228ad4a9aa474e3b80

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wako Ryo; Ayabe-Kanamura Saho. Characteristics of Haptic Peripersonal Spatial Representation of Object Relations. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0160095; article XML SHA-256 524e7d3d57b7b10dc573f4af8675592253a9a804293a73eccfc86a6da1f3c045. “Characteristics of Haptic Peripersonal Spatial Representation of Object Relations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0160095).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0160095). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## object relations theory
<a id="object-relations-theory"></a>

Object relations theory is a psychological framework that views personality disturbance along a continuum, from psychotic to borderline to neurotic levels of organization. In this view, borderline personality organization involves less integrated views of self and others and causes rigid, immature relationship patterns and problems in self and interpersonal functioning, while reality testing remains intact unlike in psychotic organization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17d57e9d87382aba89d6c2dd32b118541cab5ea3df593ba8177de2119f775ec1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nazari Amin; Huprich Steven K.; Hemmati Azad; Rezaei Farzin. The Construct Validity of the ICD-11 Severity of Personality Dysfunction Under Scrutiny of Object-Relations Theory. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.648427; article XML SHA-256 8163dc1a08c8895aa53758f862721de2e79cc1c97254e2373a91d512466a71ca. “The Construct Validity of the ICD-11 Severity of Personality Dysfunction Under Scrutiny of Object-Relations Theory” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.648427).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.648427). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## objectification
<a id="objectification"></a>

Objectification, in this packet’s context, means valuing a person mainly for physical appearance or sexual function rather than as a whole person. It involves treating someone as a body, or as body parts, existing primarily for another person’s sexual pleasure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5d37ef650f75c4386a3b94e88a8510b7a103b464d1e8424eca8e0bfea2bdf4d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Novakova Pavla; Chvojka Edita; Ševčíková Anna; Blinka Lukas; Wright Paul; Kane Steven. Men’s internet sex addiction predicts sexual objectification of women even after taking pornography consumption frequency into account. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517317; article XML SHA-256 2b5a345e61c418bcdd396fa23c75ca3279beeb795703f4ba7371b78b05b24d46. “Men’s internet sex addiction predicts sexual objectification of women even after taking pornography consumption frequency into account” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517317).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517317). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## objective anxiety
<a id="objective-anxiety"></a>

Objective anxiety is anxiety assessed with an observable or biological indicator rather than by a person’s self-report. In this source, it refers to using salivary alpha-amylase levels as an objective marker of anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a019fd5c6f6edf9538baa637cc6c94c778061cf9f0b06a87c04d9343bc5cb40b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tanaka Moegi; Tanaka Tsunehiko; Takamatsu Misako; Shibue Chieko; Imao Yuriko; Ando Takako; Baba Hiroshi; Kamiya Yoshinori. Effects of the Kampo medicine Yokukansan for perioperative anxiety and postoperative pain in women undergoing breast surgery: A randomized, controlled trial. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0260524; article XML SHA-256 a957f2fc5e75e1141a764466264c8fc47f35822bd2a7496955759a51522ae823. “Effects of the Kampo medicine Yokukansan for perioperative anxiety and postoperative pain in women undergoing breast surgery: A randomized, controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0260524).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260524). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## objectivism
<a id="objectivism"></a>

Objectivism is a historical term for the view that some of our ideas have objective validity, so the mind can reach real truth. The same term was also used for views that stress objective reality while downplaying the mental or spiritual, and in ethics for treating morality as aiming at an objective state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca2288b4caca89e9a6b4ada846def18fcd0d92c6414e4cf1bb4c74066293d8b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Objectivism” (Objectivism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Objectivism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oblique rotation
<a id="oblique-rotation"></a>

Oblique rotation is a factor-analysis rotation method used after extracting factors to help examine a measure’s underlying structure. In the source packet, the promax form of oblique rotation was used to assess construct validity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50195c64035ef7e65d5aaad3e4720c332a682f743936be2752cef616927383cf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yu-Chi; Wang Hsiu-Hung; Ho Chung-Han. Validity and reliability of the Mandarin version of Patient Dignity Inventory (PDI-MV) in cancer patients. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0203111; article XML SHA-256 71106437dd887e18e6e5f03d870418a888035e58a05721721a51a004c214a775. “Validity and reliability of the Mandarin version of Patient Dignity Inventory (PDI-MV) in cancer patients” (10.1371/journal.pone.0203111).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203111). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## obnubilation
<a id="obnubilation"></a>

Obnubilation is a clouding of the mind, especially used for the mental state just before fainting or death. The term was also applied to giddiness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62abe35c507606d7958139845952c40f93c3942345642a7c140484078b0c6d95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-819000-831000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## obscurantism
<a id="obscurantism"></a>

Obscurantism is resistance to intellectual progress or enlightenment, usually based on ignorance or fear that new knowledge will threaten established beliefs or institutions. It also refers to the outlook of people who take this opposing stance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b464bf508a92955bb117e4feb71ae233759e8ebbf59bf141d9d5a3d882e0332d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Obscurantism” (Obscurantism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Obscurantism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## observation
<a id="observation"></a>

Observation is attentive experience, especially a deliberately focused act of attention that often requires effort. It depends on having an object with enough stability and independence to affect the observer, and it is treated as a basic part of reasoning as well as of both observational and experimental inquiry.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 63886dee68c40e6eed72dc51056677336a453963c86df2a166f00d630f2384a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Observation” (Observation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Observation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## observational learning
<a id="observational-learning"></a>

Observational learning is learning to reproduce an action by watching another person perform it. In this source, it is described as a largely strategic process in which the observer uses visible cues and known task constraints to infer how the movement should be coordinated, even when only limited motion information is available.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: acb93ec7a6e86abbab1c51b4ab7c8606d3fe2fbdfb60cd3d1e5657856974a855

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fazeli Davoud; Jabbari Fatemeh; Ghohestani Leila; Taghizadeh Hossein. Manipulation of information type and task constraints during observational learning improve coordination but not accuracy and control parameters. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317270; article XML SHA-256 c4e519a061b0b55ebd2c595010b8a28d46edcc48b3baf106cc0fa6f711413e67. “Manipulation of information type and task constraints during observational learning improve coordination but not accuracy and control parameters” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317270).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317270). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## observational study
<a id="observational-study"></a>

An observational study is research that looks at measured characteristics or outcomes to see whether they are related. In this packet, it refers to an exploratory design used to gather preliminary evidence about possible associations among variables.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8884e33d60649b4ac4908721ece35aa9ed88f9e78133b7803ef634d0be2ec91e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Almuklass Awad M.; Al Mutlaq Omar M.; Alharbi Muhannad; Alojaymi Ibrahim; AlSharif Abdullah; Alhazmi Qusai. The nerve conduction variables in relation to academic performance among male medical students at King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences: an exploratory observational study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1855183; article XML SHA-256 d547d7a641a4555ba4f1c3fb7c92a268f501db22f9bec49431e3f4093b2a8cf9. “The nerve conduction variables in relation to academic performance among male medical students at King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences: an exploratory observational study” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1855183).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1855183). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## observed-score equating
<a id="observed-score-equating"></a>

Observed-score equating is a method for making scores from different versions of the same test directly comparable by statistically linking the forms through shared anchor items. In this study, it was one of the score-equating approaches used to support interchangeable use of two reading-comprehension test forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8cd55bfc6fb319b36089d3c74d20666f180622134c8ce99d83fee52f051636a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lúcio Patrícia Silva; Lourenço Fausto Coutinho; Cogo-Moreira Hugo; Bandalos Deborah; de Carvalho Carolina Alves Ferreira; Kida Adriana de Souza Batista; de Ávila Clara Regina Brandão. Reading Comprehension Tests for Children: Test Equating and Specific Age-Interval Reports. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.662192; article XML SHA-256 ba271b020614db56ad5488f0a1b8ee0361f2a5e63851781769eaa96be833be78. “Reading Comprehension Tests for Children: Test Equating and Specific Age-Interval Reports” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.662192).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.662192). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## observer drift
<a id="observer-drift"></a>

Observer drift is a change over time in how observers apply a rating or observation method, which can reduce consistency in their scores. It may happen after a long break and can make retraining or recalibration necessary.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c01cbde7757a5b3bbd69c579517ae252621af9d0367c5173b6b4d6f680237615

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stubsjøen Solveig Marie; Moe Randi Oppermann; Johannessen Cicilie; Larsen Maiken; Madsen Henriette; Muri Karianne. Can shelter dog observers score behavioural expressions consistently over time?. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s13028-022-00654-x; article XML SHA-256 ffde89513b60eb16c57d64f6cdaa14e59b32e1ee66a35dd519f183474a76924c. “Can shelter dog observers score behavioural expressions consistently over time?” (10.1186/s13028-022-00654-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13028-022-00654-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## obsession
<a id="obsession"></a>

Historically, obsession referred either to a person’s symptoms being attributed to an evil spirit pressing from outside without inhabiting the body, or to the persistent, irresistible presence of an idea or emotion. In the second sense, it is equivalent to an imperative idea.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ba23f8d3056d4c4c81b631461101d270de6c5ecf21b4bd9376419c2e7103241

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Obsession” (Obsession).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Obsession). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## obsessive behavior
<a id="obsessive-behavior"></a>

Obsessive behavior refers to a persistent, unwanted idea or urge. It may be considered within normal limits if it does not significantly disrupt thinking or emotional adjustment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9d91c052a4cb26e5df39cff092308aeda264af8930c8b771df9ed20bdd9ae37b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Obsessive Behavior” (D009770).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009770). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
<a id="obsessive-compulsive-disorder"></a>

Obsessive-compulsive disorder is an anxiety disorder marked by recurring, persistent obsessions or compulsions. Obsessions are intrusive ideas, thoughts, or images experienced as senseless or repugnant, while compulsions are repeated, seemingly purposeful behaviors that the person generally recognizes as senseless and not pleasurable, even though they may bring relief from tension.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: da39580b360e470a3871d5c64252c777b4c6304236fc1d4d5a879c9375cbd41b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder” (D009771).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009771). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
<a id="obsessive-compulsive-personality-disorder"></a>

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is a mental or behavioral disorder marked by a lasting pattern of rigidity, extreme orderliness, and perfectionism that gets in the way of being efficient. It can affect many areas of life, including work, leisure, finances, and questions of morality or ethics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b566c05b31f18c779fcbe096da3c707802b21a0317e53edce23da022faf5c570

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder” (C92638).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## obstructive hydrocephalus
<a id="obstructive-hydrocephalus"></a>

Obstructive hydrocephalus is a build-up of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain’s ventricles caused by a blockage somewhere in the ventricular system. The blockage stops the fluid from flowing normally into the subarachnoid space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 85399d486b0f0cdee588822f4fed3d90f2157952016592dfdfc7a10e0fa5c427

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Non-Communicating Hydrocephalus” (C116347).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## obstructive sleep apnea
<a id="obstructive-sleep-apnea"></a>

Obstructive sleep apnea is a sleep-related breathing disorder in which a person repeatedly stops breathing during sleep even though breathing effort continues, because the upper airway becomes blocked. These repeated pauses can lower oxygen or raise carbon dioxide levels, trigger brief awakenings, and lead to poor sleep and daytime sleepiness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 68ed217445377c56cd722026557d6bdd38f52d6a17d952c8b6e0834a3c6e26a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep Apnea, Obstructive” (D020181).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020181). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## obturator
<a id="obturator"></a>

In this source, obturator refers to an oblique radiographic view used to assess the acetabulum, including whether posterior column screws extend through its posterior cortical surface.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 961b82401a8f42c00311462a6975a359d4808352bb58192a6d238905d5456fbe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Hongtao; Xu Li; An Longxin; Li Xiaojing; Zhang Linjing; Liu Jun; Zhai Kaili; Sun Xuecheng; Feng Naibo. Utilization of the posterior iliac line for visualizing posterior column screws in obturator oblique view. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347522; article XML SHA-256 bac9b58db898e11f058765a780b18563231af7269f29b431aaf77fc4bc8e5d7b. “Utilization of the posterior iliac line for visualizing posterior column screws in obturator oblique view” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347522).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347522). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## OCB
<a id="ocb"></a>

In this packet, OCB refers to a form of proactive employee behavior. It is described especially in the context of organizational change, where change-related fairness and employees’ motivational states help explain greater change-oriented OCB.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5576ab33ff6da51a62ddc21d1e36623f8222c7a198598994083c531237bfbe14

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ling Bin; Yao Qu; Liu Yutong; Chen Dusheng. Fairness matters for change: A multilevel study on organizational change fairness, proactive motivation, and change-oriented OCB. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312886; article XML SHA-256 e37db9bb65ac4e347f40e453987ab91d1aa4299b5bb6fd07c75e0f024f7b9ea7. “Fairness matters for change: A multilevel study on organizational change fairness, proactive motivation, and change-oriented OCB” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312886).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312886). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## occasion setting
<a id="occasion-setting"></a>

Occasion setting is a form of Pavlovian learning in which one stimulus signals whether another stimulus will lead to a particular outcome. In other words, it helps an organism use the surrounding situation to resolve when a cue does or does not predict what will happen next.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 836641b54bc82a8d53c7546ba3db555d81b49f6d5eb80fe441f801c5a467ba97

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zbozinek Tomislav D; Perez Omar D; Wise Toby; Fanselow Michael; Mobbs Dean. Ambiguity drives higher-order Pavlovian learning. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010410; article XML SHA-256 6f4d20a94b081597a1dbb24e042940378d55e85b761105a61ef1f6113b0759b3. “Ambiguity drives higher-order Pavlovian learning” (10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010410).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010410). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## occasional cause
<a id="occasional-cause"></a>

An occasional cause is, in occasionalism, an event in mind or matter that does not directly produce a change in the other but serves as the occasion for God to bring about the corresponding change. Thus each side is treated as only the cue for the other, not its true efficient cause.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7497b3fa2dbbf047a8fd92326d0881498c8d923e384deecaad135f9642dfeda

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Occasionalism” (Occasionalism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Occasionalism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## occasionalism
<a id="occasionalism"></a>

Occasionalism is the historical doctrine that mind and matter do not directly cause changes in each other; instead, when one changes, God produces the corresponding change in the other. In this view, each side is only the occasion for divine action rather than a true efficient cause of the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b91bf3cfe9f64f1f328e991c87baf69d4fb1d4bebe9a1f793fb28feab38d243

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Occasionalism” (Occasionalism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Occasionalism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## occipital cortex
<a id="occipital-cortex"></a>

The occipital cortex is a part of the brain discussed as a possible neural substrate, meaning a brain area whose function and connectivity may be linked to schizotypal traits. In the source, variation in the NOTCH4 gene is described as affecting how this brain region functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00a65137c23ed8732d27a68cd2275549d367e12c62cf8aac1414a8cf460c9c3d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xie Xiaohui; Zu Meidan; Zhang Long; Bai Tongjian; Wei Ling; Huang Wanling; Ji Gong-Jun; Qiu Bensheng; Hu Panpan; Tian Yanghua; Wang Kai. A common variant of the NOTCH4 gene modulates functional connectivity of the occipital cortex and its relationship with schizotypal traits. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12888-020-02773-z; article XML SHA-256 b1e24ebedeee2a25ed247386d1ee6555cfb9dea95e11538d9acdd63da552d355. “A common variant of the NOTCH4 gene modulates functional connectivity of the occipital cortex and its relationship with schizotypal traits” (10.1186/s12888-020-02773-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02773-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## occipital lobe
<a id="occipital-lobe"></a>

The occipital lobe is the back part of the cerebral hemispheres that processes visual sensory information. It lies behind the parieto-occipital sulcus and extends to the preoccipital notch.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a087349a0165b469030608cf830ce9d60b969b496c906ef3c479d84f68b02f86

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Occipital Lobe” (D009778).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009778). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## occlusion
<a id="occlusion"></a>

In cognition research, temporal occlusion is a way of dividing a recorded or simulated decision situation into parts so it can be paused at important moments. This lets researchers study how people make predictions, judgments, and action choices as events unfold.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0bebc8e70c1a315f9d38506184021c796acd079ff505c170bb64dfd1db987e0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [McGuigan Brian; Andersson Linus; Holmström Stefan; Johansson Annika; Lundkvist Erik. Developing and preliminary testing of temporal occlusion decision scenarios in dynamic contexts: a three-step method. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893159; article XML SHA-256 86a53f1050031c12ca849dbce3fde32f434e368e24e3e19518449c5f9f1b75d1. “Developing and preliminary testing of temporal occlusion decision scenarios in dynamic contexts: a three-step method” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893159).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893159). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## occult
<a id="occult"></a>

In this historical source, occult means what is hidden or secret, especially the belief that special knowledge of nature and power over it can be gained through mysterious or magical methods learned through secret traditions. It also refers to bodies of belief such as occultism, which the source places outside modern science.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 680f33f57bc991e7dcbd47c28156067b98ae5055918a9444c7f11fb69eee6066

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Occult” (Occult).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Occult). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## occupation
<a id="occupation"></a>

In this mental-health context, occupation means a person’s type of work or job. It is used to group people by their work and to examine how job-related risks may be linked with psychological distress, depression, or anxiety symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8e31b04ba4836ed077e5be7188dae58eca90cf95c6141daafc428f7a6d985004

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Casjens Swaantje; Hovanec Jan; Glaser Nadine; Massag Janka; Pfrommer Laura; Opel Nils; Karch André; Muellmann Saskia; Moor Irene; Gekle Michael; Girndt Matthias; Hettmer Simone; Höll Jessica I; Heuser Michael; Frese Thomas; Mikolajczyk Rafael; Behrens Thomas. Occupational risk factors for depression and anxiety symptoms: Insights from a large cohort study during and after the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346871; article XML SHA-256 58f5ce49fde3543bed7fc05293d03813ee73e1b8974043af805eed61bd779ded. “Occupational risk factors for depression and anxiety symptoms: Insights from a large cohort study during and after the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346871).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346871). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## occupational rehabilitation
<a id="occupational-rehabilitation"></a>

Occupational rehabilitation is a multidisciplinary program intended to improve health and work-related functioning, such as work ability, in people on sick leave. In this packet, it refers to rehabilitation programs used for people with musculoskeletal pain or common mental disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b8c1c0f948be92b3491fbdbf0be61691dc4d8e016250eb446510f4e0324d988

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lyby Peter Solvoll; Johansen Thomas; Aslaksen Per M.. Comparison of Two Multidisciplinary Occupational Rehabilitation Programs Based on Multimodal Cognitive Behavior Therapy on Self-Rated Health and Work Ability. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.669770; article XML SHA-256 01bc1bc9687ab744ff1b9decdfd5d0e807311f7225fad3cfa46a168b731527c6. “Comparison of Two Multidisciplinary Occupational Rehabilitation Programs Based on Multimodal Cognitive Behavior Therapy on Self-Rated Health and Work Ability” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.669770).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.669770). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## occupational segregation
<a id="occupational-segregation"></a>

Occupational segregation is the pattern in which one group is concentrated in different jobs or industry sectors than another group. In this context, it refers to LGBTQ* people working in different occupations and sectors than cisgender heterosexual people, possibly in part because they steer away from areas where they expect discrimination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53930b08199b04114aa6ce4985ce181f9def47f82deffd5ba1458ef0d0b090f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zindel Zaza; de Vries Lisa. Career sacrifice for an LGBTQ*-friendly work environment? a choice experiment to investigate the job preferences of LGBTQ* people. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296419; article XML SHA-256 1e341b2a0e7eaedaa997757fd22c685076e235fc1f444305d69275574385587a. “Career sacrifice for an LGBTQ*-friendly work environment? a choice experiment to investigate the job preferences of LGBTQ* people” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296419).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296419). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## occupational stress
<a id="occupational-stress"></a>

Occupational stress is harmful psychological and behavioral strain that arises from job-related pressures and demands. It can be linked to employers or clients, the physical work environment, workplace violence, or workplace bullying.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1cdb64d7efab4a7247feb2ee321a8cd9a44d7ba73e5f1ccf4c0b17badad4c694

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Occupational Stress” (D000073397).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000073397). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## occupational therapy
<a id="occupational-therapy"></a>

Occupational therapy is a rehabilitation approach that uses purposeful, personalized activities to improve limb function, support daily living skills, and help a person regain as much independence as possible. In the stroke context described here, it is used to support return to family, social, and work roles and may also improve perceptual and cognitive abilities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0bf91d6240b76c12f37cc16c5c245ca697f80027084bfd04365782a1faad57ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Ling; Chu Fengming; Liu Xuan; Chen Jie; Zhang Ming; Zhang Yuming. Effects of occupational therapy synchronized with dual transcranial direct current stimulation on upper limb function and electroencephalography power in subacute stroke patients: A randomized, double-blind, controlled study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320142; article XML SHA-256 1cf82e7bc1f66a68508f4dbbfece9963699127ba63d57183df5f17f999347ecb. “Effects of occupational therapy synchronized with dual transcranial direct current stimulation on upper limb function and electroencephalography power in subacute stroke patients: A randomized, double-blind, controlled study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320142).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320142). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## OCD
<a id="ocd"></a>

OCD is a mental disorder in which a person has persistent, recurring irrational thoughts called obsessions that cause marked anxiety. The person then engages in repetitive, excessive behaviors, called compulsions, in an attempt to reduce that anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d47d100f4b7ac50bafc3bc36218fd869fddba8c4a1ddbb1af727e2fe3f7bd6e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Obsessive Compulsive Disorder” (C88411).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oceanic feeling
<a id="oceanic-feeling"></a>

Oceanic feeling is a state in which a person experiences a loss or softening of the usual boundary between self and world, often felt as limitless unity, openness, or connection with the universe. In psychology, it has been described variously as a spiritual or metaphysical experience, a return to an early infantile sense of unity, or a boundary-dissolving shift in perception that can appear in creative processes; it may feel uplifting or unsettling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7bdafc48026e70830f06a8f25a7b54e722506b4184588e9e6c7153dd70b45707

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Straßnig Sarah; Herzl Tobias; Latifi Afrodita; Fuchshuber Jürgen; Jimenez Paul; Unterrainer Human-Friedrich. Oceanic feelings and their relationship to spirituality and personality organization. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1558537; article XML SHA-256 de80503b00aca6509f6ef7628a1a5c9e8c5d4c826a7dc71200c1c8398ac404c6. “Oceanic feelings and their relationship to spirituality and personality organization” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1558537).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1558537). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## octave
<a id="octave"></a>

In this historical psychology source, an octave is a musical interval with a vibration ratio of 1:2. It is classed as a perfect consonance, meaning it contributes to a highly unified overall sound impression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e6846956eae403f35b1d9524a2e18a6651f30e0d059cc79728766a1431b88ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Consonance” (Consonance).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Consonance). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ocular
<a id="ocular"></a>

In this context, ocular refers to sight or vision: the ability to perceive objects through the eyes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5547bd2b7e2405d4922a479d3b47c2293fcc75bfad1ab301019c9eba9f4e40ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sight” (C38533).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ocular accommodation
<a id="ocular-accommodation"></a>

Ocular accommodation is the eye’s adjustment that brings objects at different distances into sharp focus on the retina. It happens through changes in the shape of the crystalline lens and can refer to the ability, mechanism, or process involved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2a3cd523e536ff3b4aecbc308b186e4d0da361a1e04cf02020a381fc8e555a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Accommodation, Ocular” (D000065).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000065). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ocular dominance
<a id="ocular-dominance"></a>

Ocular dominance is the tendency for one eye to be used preferentially and function more strongly than the other, especially for sighting or certain motor tasks. It does not simply mean one eye has better visual sharpness or that one eye is impaired, and it can be influenced by visual experience and growth-related nerve factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a8a82cc624c26b2a7d4acf318817ab8ffa7831aefb752087781fb56593758f16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dominance, Ocular” (D023882).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D023882). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oculocerebrorenal syndrome
<a id="oculocerebrorenal-syndrome"></a>

Oculocerebrorenal syndrome is an X-linked recessive disorder that affects several body systems, especially the eyes, nervous system, and kidneys. It is marked by congenital cataracts, intellectual impairment, kidney tubular problems such as Fanconi syndrome or renal tubular acidosis, and sometimes scoliosis, and is linked to a deficiency that disrupts phosphatidylinositol metabolism and inositol signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e31e6f5ce5721b08ac0640542438f004593744d04833f42e0054b193eda5dda5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oculocerebrorenal Syndrome” (D009800).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009800). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oculomotor changes
<a id="oculomotor-changes"></a>

Oculomotor changes are changes in eye-movement behavior during tracking, such as shifts in smooth pursuit, saccade timing, or tracking accuracy. In this source, these changes varied with the target’s motion, the visual context, and whether people were only watching the target or also trying to intercept it by hand.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc00098611e2429b922c62bb4027b6421430d7e4b01f3271a19aaf169c05abfd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Delle Monache Sergio; Nastasi Pietro; Paolocci Gianluca; Scalici Francesco; Ingrosso Riccardo; Lacquaniti Francesco; Indovina Iole; Bosco Gianfranco. Task demands and visual context naturalness modulate gravitational expectation during ocular tracking of temporarily occluded ballistic trajectories. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328432; article XML SHA-256 2928159df07eadb32056905b5ea3f8ce085198a1746e0bb8edf0d36c6d36da5e. “Task demands and visual context naturalness modulate gravitational expectation during ocular tracking of temporarily occluded ballistic trajectories” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328432).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328432). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oculomotor nerve
<a id="oculomotor-nerve"></a>

The oculomotor nerve is the third cranial nerve. It carries movement signals to muscles that lift the eyelid and move the eye, and it also carries parasympathetic signals that help control pupil constriction and focusing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb9f49f5031b14ca4a7c169b344e6722bb9160a2a4007d6ebe82a858dba263f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oculomotor Nerve” (D009802).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009802). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oculomotor nucleus
<a id="oculomotor-nucleus"></a>

The oculomotor nucleus is a group of nerve cells in the upper midbrain associated with cranial nerve III. It contains motor neurons that control most of the muscles that move the eye, except those served by the superior oblique and lateral rectus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 51d071d354aa957aa0adf0839b5a7215072f17cec9fbc5c3fe363cb0d1b35f46

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Oculomotor Nucleus” (C12897).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oculomotor palsy
<a id="oculomotor-palsy"></a>

Oculomotor palsy is a disorder of the third cranial nerve or its brain nucleus that causes weakness or paralysis of muscles controlling eye movement and eyelid lifting, and may also reduce the nerve supply that constricts the pupil. In a complete palsy, the eyelid droops, the eye rests turned outward and downward, and the pupil is greatly enlarged.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e467354df6a21612edc4d27afe439008f03d0f3dc64b2ae1f4f6370c19632118

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oculomotor Nerve Diseases” (D015840).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015840). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## odds ratio
<a id="odds-ratio"></a>

An odds ratio is a measure that compares one set of odds with another. In research, it is often used to compare the odds of exposure in cases versus noncases, or the odds of disease in exposed versus unexposed groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f1043ad9b752158c3b916f8b4bfbc2bb1da69d7c86f8a3909690518cc143c84

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Odds Ratio” (D016017).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016017). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## odor
<a id="odor"></a>

In this psychology context, odor refers to a smell stimulus that can evoke incidental emotion, such as pleasant or unpleasant affect. The packet supports that such odor-elicited affect can influence how people evaluate moral situations, with effects that vary by age and type of judgment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac399cc30bdff8869e80b0135efb477417783101e46317c21e6644e3d368584e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Weiwei; Zhang Yuning; Luo Ziqing; Cao Qingqing; Zeng Xihua. Scents of right and wrong: how odor-induced affect shapes moral judgment in adults and preschoolers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834581; article XML SHA-256 5d6b82e4ef6bafcc0d4c1d50b08f85a14e99b979b36005e959efd26d7c7d1b00. “Scents of right and wrong: how odor-induced affect shapes moral judgment in adults and preschoolers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834581).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834581). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## odor prism
<a id="odor-prism"></a>

Odor prism is Hans Henning’s early model for classifying smells. It describes odors as fitting within a three-dimensional “smell prism” built from six basic odor categories or dimensions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d356bd165e0c96b53956838f940711da58113d48a6ffb055ef6fcb56b8206aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Koyama Sachiko; Heinbockel Thomas. Chemical Constituents of Essential Oils Used in Olfactory Training: Focus on COVID-19 Induced Olfactory Dysfunction. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fphar.2022.835886; article XML SHA-256 eb5ad9b394f0b7d8f753e955164042279ca108b1ad5d4d651988435bfb03a35c. “Chemical Constituents of Essential Oils Used in Olfactory Training: Focus on COVID-19 Induced Olfactory Dysfunction” (10.3389/fphar.2022.835886).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.835886). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## odorant
<a id="odorant"></a>

An odorant is a substance detected by smell because it binds to odorant receptors on neurons in the olfactory epithelium. These receptor neurons then relay the signal to the olfactory bulb in the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7b04719e590778e5d9c24fb5c73ea385409a4c7a3e9cf7a612000d33347ffb18

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Olfactory Receptor Neurons” (D018034).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018034). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Oedipus complex
<a id="oedipus-complex"></a>

The Oedipus complex is a psychoanalytic idea describing a child’s emotional attachment to the opposite-sex parent together with jealous or hostile feelings toward the same-sex parent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 743a36985f12f03df6ec27094603bc1f1000388429bed0f3a6dfb995f03c1091

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oedipus Complex” (D009813).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009813). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## off cells
<a id="off-cells"></a>

Off cells are brainstem neurons involved in REM sleep control that reduce or stop their activity during REM sleep, in contrast to REM-on cells that become active. In the pons, the best identified REM off cells include serotonin-containing neurons in the dorsal raphe and norepinephrine-containing neurons in the locus coeruleus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b37b86fc0502ae0fa184a744f191cf233e0ce2abbfa436e10bfd03759383aa94

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stettner Georg M.; Lei Yanlin; Benincasa Herr Kate; Kubin Leszek. Evidence That Adrenergic Ventrolateral Medullary Cells Are Activated whereas Precerebellar Lateral Reticular Nucleus Neurons Are Suppressed during REM Sleep. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0062410; article XML SHA-256 b09b9ed4e15acc4c87c9e5eb9d8090c977d5ee21683a2c403fd2f18a06c9a06e. “Evidence That Adrenergic Ventrolateral Medullary Cells Are Activated whereas Precerebellar Lateral Reticular Nucleus Neurons Are Suppressed during REM Sleep” (10.1371/journal.pone.0062410).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062410). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## off-label
<a id="off-label"></a>

In psychiatry, off-label refers to prescribing a treatment for a use that is not among its approved therapeutic indications. It is described as a common practice when approved options are limited, but one that raises ethical and legal concerns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9e082960b48d95fcee41eeafda67310d821f66e140450b51bd3adab089a938e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [dos Santos Humberto Müller Martins; Botelho-Souza Luan Felipo; Nunes Rui; Duarte Ivone. Thematic mapping of off-label prescription in psychiatry and its implications for bioethics, human rights, and clinical practice: a scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1705340; article XML SHA-256 25ea51742063767f7b3d8cd0188ad77cf8f790c6465b6b1fe29b93731c2d53c9. “Thematic mapping of off-label prescription in psychiatry and its implications for bioethics, human rights, and clinical practice: a scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1705340).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1705340). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Ohm’s law
<a id="ohms-law"></a>

Ohm’s law states that the electromotive force in a conductor is equal to the current strength multiplied by the resistance, expressed as E = CR. In this historical entry, it is presented as the basic relation linking voltage, current, and resistance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8936bf9c305f648f7694f9a7d5f5ecb0d5990c4ff5c85978bfecb027230df343

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4147500-4159500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olanzapine
<a id="olanzapine"></a>

Olanzapine is an antipsychotic medication that acts on several brain receptor systems, including serotonin, dopamine, muscarinic, histamine H1, and alpha-1 adrenergic receptors. It is used to treat schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder, and it may also help reduce chemotherapy-related nausea and vomiting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38963489541b59965436664c0256f4ecb51386efd24aaf6a5eb832b46bc91132

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Olanzapine” (D000077152).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077152). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## old-old
<a id="old-old"></a>

Old-old refers to the older segment of the elderly population, typically people aged 80 years and above. This subgroup is used to distinguish them from younger older adults because their health profiles, disability levels, and care needs can differ.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 60e1240d40d359f13d8b47c41621593853aa8c9b7025ba982e9a969217fce22a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ansah John P.; Malhotra Rahul; Lew Nicola; Chiu Chi-Tsun; Chan Angelique; Bayer Steffen; Matchar David B.. Projection of Young-Old and Old-Old with Functional Disability: Does Accounting for the Changing Educational Composition of the Elderly Population Make a Difference?. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0126471; article XML SHA-256 9c1d7b73bfa55b09b978f9683e03afc332fad1dc740e524ef5f2091ee240ac9c. “Projection of Young-Old and Old-Old with Functional Disability: Does Accounting for the Changing Educational Composition of the Elderly Population Make a Difference?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0126471).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0126471). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oldest old
<a id="oldest-old"></a>

“Oldest old” refers to the oldest segment of the older adult population. In this source, it is described as a rapidly growing age group in developed countries whose needs and care preferences have received relatively little policy and research attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b07c1a39c6ee7d98e94b5d598b0b7d25cf1aa5df1d01c775667bcb85dd12019

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Morgan Tessa; Bharmal Aamena; Duschinsky Robbie; Barclay Stephen. Experiences of oldest-old caregivers whose partner is approaching end-of-life: A mixed-method systematic review and narrative synthesis. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0232401; article XML SHA-256 d56b1a59c32e59e162822b450bd340b7e1a4f359a50d361f67b7933ba2f0799e. “Experiences of oldest-old caregivers whose partner is approaching end-of-life: A mixed-method systematic review and narrative synthesis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0232401).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232401). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfaction
<a id="olfaction"></a>

Olfaction is the sense of smell, or the ability to detect odors in the environment. It involves the functioning of olfactory receptor neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d87d9f07fd93301060ef200db0dbb7d9d8594f504600f22c8dab693bb6c11dff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Smell” (D012903).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012903). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactometer
<a id="olfactometer"></a>

An olfactometer is a device used to deliver odors at carefully controlled concentrations. In this study, an air dilution olfactometer let researchers present the same odor levels across different temperature and humidity conditions so detection performance could be compared fairly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c0d2006dbaa56ebf733c7b48fd4ab4ee5b2f482e74cdea19dcc2d5ef88488d27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fernandez Lauren S.; Kane Sarah A.; DeChant Mallory T.; Prada-Tiedemann Paola A.; Hall Nathaniel J.. Environmental effects on explosive detection threshold of domestic dogs. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0306817; article XML SHA-256 7c1d93adc385a38420ccdb350c9c6e5a3a1d064db06f64405c5390c6daf188ac. “Environmental effects on explosive detection threshold of domestic dogs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0306817).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306817). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactory area
<a id="olfactory-area"></a>

A cholinergic bundle of nerve fibers located behind the anterior perforated substance. It links the paraterminal gyrus in the septal area with the hippocampus and the lateral olfactory area.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3e765827f4050ccab638591b6fd36c2656f36b177133e9e0376e55a8a60584e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Diagonal Band of Broca” (D020667).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020667). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactory bulb
<a id="olfactory-bulb"></a>

The olfactory bulb is an egg-shaped structure on the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone where the olfactory nerve ends. It contains nerve cells, including mitral cells, and is a site where smell-related nerve signals connect in olfactory glomeruli; the term also includes the accessory olfactory bulb that receives input from the vomeronasal organ.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d4fd073c2ede563a8cf210c32637f3df7bd90f8d7b2011708e61abee6a26b4ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Olfactory Bulb” (D009830).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009830). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactory cilium
<a id="olfactory-cilium"></a>

An olfactory cilium is a cilium on an olfactory sensory neuron that contains type 3 adenylyl cyclase, a key part of the cAMP signaling pathway used in odor detection. The packet also indicates that maintaining the density and ultrastructure of these cilia is important for normal maturation of olfactory sensory neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a65cf453f6fea6b88d1a79ac7aa5e04afd5c8dc6c1893ff8e87cc6725dff649e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Zhe; Yang Dong; Zhang Mengdi; Zhu Ning; Zhou Yanfen; Storm Daniel R.; Wang Zhenshan. Deletion of Type 3 Adenylyl Cyclase Perturbs the Postnatal Maturation of Olfactory Sensory Neurons and Olfactory Cilium Ultrastructure in Mice. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fncel.2017.00001; article XML SHA-256 b18fc805168fbaae99e1c3d523b20e2d764fe82222c92fef73aaee96aa9b1b19. “Deletion of Type 3 Adenylyl Cyclase Perturbs the Postnatal Maturation of Olfactory Sensory Neurons and Olfactory Cilium Ultrastructure in Mice” (10.3389/fncel.2017.00001).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2017.00001). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactory cortex
<a id="olfactory-cortex"></a>

The olfactory cortex is a set of brain regions in the basal forebrain and the medial temporal lobe that receive nerve input from the olfactory bulb.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae2528178b13f4836df74a86bae3d93701d6a48b81c351c730f0e603459b00ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Olfactory Cortex” (D066194).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066194). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactory dysfunction
<a id="olfactory-dysfunction"></a>

Olfactory dysfunction is a problem with the sense of smell. In this packet, it is described as occurring after traumatic injury to the olfactory nerve and can include complete loss of smell.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d448294f3e52850c26481d447ec3d7a978767132156696469f317b068017ca7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Olfactory Nerve Injuries” (D061219).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D061219). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactory epithelium
<a id="olfactory-epithelium"></a>

The olfactory epithelium is the smell-related tissue in the nose. In psychiatry research, it is assessed as a possible marker of olfactory changes, disease-related biological differences, and changes in the central nervous system during treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6e364664677558ef4fee90a6687214b2853b1f03eb421d67094bac5de855965d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Davalos-Guzman Alan Patrick; Vegas-Rodriguez Francisco Javier; Ramirez-Rodriguez Gerardo Bernabe; Flores-Ramos Monica; Romero-Luevano Perla Vanessa; Gonzalez-Olvera Jorge Julio; Saracco-Alvarez Ricardo Arturo. Human olfactory neural progenitor cells reveal differences in IL-6, IL-8, thrombospondin-1, and MCP-1 in major depression disorder and borderline personality disorder. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1283406; article XML SHA-256 fcf16121245a55a0972d16d5e85718ee9f313169c4cefd4e9d647695af64766a. “Human olfactory neural progenitor cells reveal differences in IL-6, IL-8, thrombospondin-1, and MCP-1 in major depression disorder and borderline personality disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1283406).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1283406). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactory hallucination
<a id="olfactory-hallucination"></a>

An olfactory hallucination is smelling something when no actual odor is present in the environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e553984f41966205ecb327fcf5f181e0a9948907f3e6e9eddeba832eff98ccc0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Olfactory Hallucination” (C118175).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactory mucosa
<a id="olfactory-mucosa"></a>

The olfactory mucosa is the part of the nasal lining at the top of each nasal cavity that contains the sensory nerve endings used for smell. Its specialized olfactory epithelium includes receptor neurons, brush cells, stem cells, and related olfactory glands.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e77d82c27f2ec449898cc723a6eb0540c70c098c6e75ced6224e49183722eaa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Olfactory Mucosa” (D009831).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009831). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactory nerve
<a id="olfactory-nerve"></a>

The olfactory nerve is the first cranial nerve and carries the sense of smell. It is made up of the axons of olfactory receptor neurons that run from the olfactory epithelium in the nose to the olfactory bulb.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b37cb76329b546da21c04387ea3decc6ead8b9d85f369dbaef5a399d3a65662

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Olfactory Nerve” (D009832).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009832). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactory receptor
<a id="olfactory-receptor"></a>

An olfactory receptor is a protein on the cilia of smell receptor neurons that binds specific odor molecules and starts a response in the neuron. Many different olfactory receptors exist, and they appear to come from multiple gene families or subfamilies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c2edb9f7a0b4ee1ca42b2600adead05bb4cbce060d9dbf271325bf2d667ed84e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Receptors, Odorant” (D018035).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018035). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactory sense organ
<a id="olfactory-sense-organ"></a>

An olfactory sense organ is a specialized structure used to detect chemical cues. In the supplied source, this refers to the vomeronasal organ in snakes, an auxiliary smell-related organ that helps detect prey-produced chemicals important for prey recognition and predatory behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b444c39849d512cbde33c3c8692281a372362559751ab7848004eb6cabf79518

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Smargiassi Maïté; Daghfous Gheylen; Leroy Baptiste; Legreneur Pierre; Toubeau Gerard; Bels Vincent; Wattiez Ruddy. Chemical Basis of Prey Recognition in Thamnophiine Snakes: The Unexpected New Roles of Parvalbumins. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0039560; article XML SHA-256 408276a21144b63375ac5458e6cc5b0ee8d2d5bed19253c76bdd907e4aa9315b. “Chemical Basis of Prey Recognition in Thamnophiine Snakes: The Unexpected New Roles of Parvalbumins” (10.1371/journal.pone.0039560).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039560). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactory sulcus
<a id="olfactory-sulcus"></a>

The olfactory sulcus is a narrow groove on the front underside of each frontal lobe. It separates the gyrus rectus from the medial orbital gyrus and contains the olfactory bulb and olfactory tract.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e60933a9276955bdf3abe734d128f2bcdda881e95bdfd0c87dd610e44c1c6efd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Olfactory Sulcus” (C33206).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactory system
<a id="olfactory-system"></a>

The olfactory system is the set of sensory neurons and brain areas involved in smelling and in transmitting odor information. It can be affected by harmful agents and inflammatory signals, which may disrupt communication within this system and contribute to impaired smell function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8e0c99caa7fc4c57e8d9816828325f4842b880a18ce0ffac86edbc2b93db785

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiménez Adriana; Sánchez-Hernández Josué Denichi; Maya-López Viani; Estudillo Enrique; González-Orozco Juan Carlos; Manjarrez-Marmolejo Joaquín; Herrera-Mundo Nieves; Guzmán-Ruiz Mara A.; Guevara-Guzmán Rosalinda. Interleukin-1β depresses neuronal activity in the rat olfactory bulb even during odor stimulation. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332592; article XML SHA-256 711d4806c8b7524d37483ee4d3ad7b5b2a032087426847507fe3a374adc0089e. “Interleukin-1β depresses neuronal activity in the rat olfactory bulb even during odor stimulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332592).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332592). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olfactory tract
<a id="olfactory-tract"></a>

The olfactory tract is a bundle of nerve fibers from the olfactory bulb that runs along the underside of each frontal lobe. It carries signals to the primary olfactory cortex at the base of the cerebral hemisphere.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d072ff6f1ad9781ca03feb0fda4ce179a7ade7dcc94d3fd19a89a96d8b4cc810

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Olfactory Tract” (C33207).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oligarchy
<a id="oligarchy"></a>

Oligarchy is government by a small number of people, usually with an unfavorable implication. In the historical contrast given here, it is set against aristocracy, which was treated as rule by the “best.”

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a9fe2c091fff7e89cc2ece5b0487eb6891e796485daa95a3dacf7b3927b8964

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aristocracy” (Aristocracy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Aristocracy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oligodendrocyte
<a id="oligodendrocyte"></a>

An oligodendrocyte is a type of glial cell that forms the myelin sheath around axons. It also matures during brain development and can take part in remyelination in adulthood; problems in these processes have been linked to cognitive and behavioral dysfunction and to disorders such as schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 439c58eca45e17fe396518edda9403f1f3931b1b4d2f931437612beb64e0fce5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gouvêa-Junqueira Danielle; Falvella Ana Caroline Brambilla; Antunes André Saraiva Leão Marcelo; Seabra Gabriela; Brandão-Teles Caroline; Martins-de-Souza Daniel; Crunfli Fernanda. Novel Treatment Strategies Targeting Myelin and Oligodendrocyte Dysfunction in Schizophrenia. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00379; article XML SHA-256 5a2542c9615b5399bc20152082a75e3fb6e325103c3a5d63c679b5b20d4e85eb. “Novel Treatment Strategies Targeting Myelin and Oligodendrocyte Dysfunction in Schizophrenia” (10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00379).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00379). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oligodendroglioma
<a id="oligodendroglioma"></a>

Oligodendroglioma is a relatively slow-growing glioma that arises from oligodendrocytes. It tends to occur in the cerebral hemispheres, thalamus, or lateral ventricle and can range from more well-differentiated to highly anaplastic forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9fad1669fea381dbb73d21d786a62f08c1391eee0f835254736adc1411724df3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oligodendroglioma” (D009837).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009837). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olivary nucleus
<a id="olivary-nucleus"></a>

The olivary nucleus is a group of nerve cell clusters in the brainstem, in the hindbrain, also called the olivary body. It is part of the medulla oblongata and pontine tegmentum, helps with motor control, and provides major sensory input to the cerebellum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6ddadb0cecf8e87d726225e803bedfbf12de4456fa63c853d3e2cbbe093949a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Olivary Nucleus” (D009847).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009847). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## olivopontocerebellar atrophy
<a id="olivopontocerebellar-atrophy"></a>

Olivopontocerebellar atrophy is a group of neurodegenerative disorders, including both sporadic and inherited forms, that affect the cerebellum, pons, and inferior olives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 88332d91baa7779e34eb49a5c138037aea755a1ee5994ac9be59a20d1ed27ade

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Olivopontocerebellar Atrophy” (C84947).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## omega squared
<a id="omega-squared"></a>

Omega squared is an effect size in the r family that serves as a bias-corrected version of eta squared. It estimates the proportion of variance explained by group membership or an effect, adjusted because sample-based estimates tend to overstate the true population effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d1bb0b569ccd4045894db1d9e3208d0b0977f50e65b5a5c4ec1d83962502de7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## omnipotence
<a id="omnipotence"></a>

In this historical source, omnipotence means the divine power to bring about everything that is genuinely possible to divine thought. It does not include making contradictions or impossibilities real, nor does it mean every conceivable possibility must be carried out.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef2d027eab718fb0f43958ae860a8e9e48de630e4bd44ac5120eb02f70596064

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Omnipotence” (Omnipotence).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Omnipotence). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## on-center/off-surround
<a id="on-center-off-surround"></a>

In this learning model, on-center/off-surround describes a recurrent network pattern in which the strongest or most predictive sequence representation is driven into activity while competing, less predictive representations are suppressed. This supports chunking by helping the system select the item groupings that best fit the sequence currently held in working memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8c3a1c3c4a8d5c7cec36b0628382b7b6993b51b78429eb4e8bdc8700a8b53aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kazerounian Sohrob; Grossberg Stephen. Real-time learning of predictive recognition categories that chunk sequences of items stored in working memory. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01053; article XML SHA-256 d820e6e4a969bbbbac560d11e6a6e1f11c934435aace132be936b37e6e212be7. “Real-time learning of predictive recognition categories that chunk sequences of items stored in working memory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01053).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01053). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## on-the-job training
<a id="on-the-job-training"></a>

On-the-job training is training provided to staff within the workplace or organization where they work. It can also include orientation for new personnel.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 463d0628681048547f183f78e49c806b4b042f6e8eece4fbe8ee28b7e6173ca3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Inservice Training” (D007318).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007318). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## onanism
<a id="onanism"></a>

Onanism is a historical term for masturbation, meaning sexual self-stimulation. In this source it is mentioned as a form of excessive or unrestrained sexual behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abf5fe05e0fd416cbf2430cc422ee77dff04d09368c52a579a5511591addb753

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1249500-1261500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ondansetron
<a id="ondansetron"></a>

Ondansetron is a drug that blocks serotonin type 3 receptors. It is used to reduce nausea and vomiting from chemotherapy and has also been reported to have anxiety-reducing and neuroleptic effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 407b5d4533f97ddbbf0f348cb52d81c84a9417bd3a0f36bae8269f76af35282a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ondansetron” (D017294).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017294). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## one-group pretest–posttest design
<a id="one-group-pretestposttest-design"></a>

A one-group pretest–posttest design is a quasi-experimental study approach in which a single group is assessed before an intervention and then assessed again afterward to examine change over time. In the packet, this design was used to compare students’ performance and questionnaire responses before and after a 16-week instructional program.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e14b887ac50b9b326055df1849a5c8cdbc7b04be0c061ad8eec9d5722bf15c6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Hui; Zhu Jiasheng. The effectiveness of corpus-based high-frequency word acquisition strategies in improving English writing skills. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771284; article XML SHA-256 b8354e066281262602011512b3ff802a955b6ceae2814fb0e0de40a2a92cd8f9. “The effectiveness of corpus-based high-frequency word acquisition strategies in improving English writing skills” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771284).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771284). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## one-parameter model
<a id="one-parameter-model"></a>

In this context, a one-parameter model is a functional connectivity prediction model that uses only anatomical distance as its single input. It assumes that greater distance reduces the likelihood or strength of connectivity, but the source says this alone does not capture several important network features of normal human brain functional networks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 475f031a98ef3b62adfc55876a97a2f6baa14157d27a38f6dafd7c2e4dfaf75a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cheng Chen; Chen Junjie; Cao Xiaohua; Guo Hao. Comparison of Local Information Indices Applied in Resting State Functional Brain Network Connectivity Prediction. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2016.00585; article XML SHA-256 c89f534b5bffe5284015bded53113a8d6c8805df0e03cb5cef70fa3d2b403e7d. “Comparison of Local Information Indices Applied in Resting State Functional Brain Network Connectivity Prediction” (10.3389/fnins.2016.00585).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00585). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## one-sided message
<a id="one-sided-message"></a>

A one-sided message presents only one position or line of argument. In this context, because it does not include and answer opposing points, it may prompt resistant listeners to generate their own counter-arguments and become less accepting of the message.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 37a44208755b2385b31f274d76febb1920c740c6e8a7223ea1884c9ff69ffea6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kasting Monica L; Cox Anthony D; Cox Dena; Fife Kenneth H; Katz Barry P; Zimet Gregory D. The effects of HIV testing advocacy messages on test acceptance: a randomized clinical trial. 2014; DOI 10.1186/s12916-014-0204-4; article XML SHA-256 cb0487dabe2e916cf1639a7dd0e40f86bba7c09a813219f75c00e2ca150fe182. “The effects of HIV testing advocacy messages on test acceptance: a randomized clinical trial” (10.1186/s12916-014-0204-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-014-0204-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## one-tailed test
<a id="one-tailed-test"></a>

A one-tailed test is a significance test that looks at the probability of a result as extreme as the observed one in only one specified direction, such as values greater than a hypothesized value. It is used when the question concerns change or difference in a single direction rather than either direction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 94d637d4632a1f62c750099c4eb1920e2565f19adc5f8ee40be2f5c62fffd413

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “One Tailed” (one_tailed.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/one_tailed.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oneiro-
<a id="oneiro"></a>

Oneiro- is a combining form referring to dreams. In this source it appears in terms such as oneirology, the study of dreams, and oneiromancy, the interpretation of dreams.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08ad6d916679056a3b5c58ae369e95c67ac940734e3e69b3fb92574b79a2f6a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1144500-1156500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oneiromancy
<a id="oneiromancy"></a>

Oneiromancy is the interpretation of dreams, especially as distinguished from oneirology, which is the broader study of dreams. In this historical source, it is presented as the better term for the interpretive side of dream study.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 055419a4e1d6c465232abd59564c7dddb6f836a44121db77a068972adb5870e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Oneirology” (Oneirology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Oneirology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## online social network
<a id="online-social-network"></a>

An online social network is a social networking site used on the internet, such as Facebook or WeChat. In this source, it refers to platforms whose use can vary in intensity and may become excessive for some people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e988f653c5ffac7f768915ae57fb4d485c3df148954d0daaf9c0d75b08b8cb4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Qiufeng; Li Yanzhen; Zhu Ziwei; Fu En; Bu Xiangyu; Peng Shan; Xiang Yanhui. What links to psychological needs satisfaction and excessive WeChat use? The mediating role of anxiety, depression and WeChat use intensity. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s40359-021-00604-8; article XML SHA-256 dd3abc5cea4fe5bfc375844598d3347b74fccff36a9a1513b66025bb3d292fa3. “What links to psychological needs satisfaction and excessive WeChat use? The mediating role of anxiety, depression and WeChat use intensity” (10.1186/s40359-021-00604-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00604-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ontogeny
<a id="ontogeny"></a>

Ontogeny is the development of an individual organism or person, as distinguished from the evolutionary development of a species, or phylogeny. In this historical usage, it includes both development and growth, and was often discussed in relation to whether individual development reflects parts of a species’ evolutionary history.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8adc1af53ad98001c894fa082c7a57859fe8cbdb0e78d213f63a0ff5d33dcaae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ontogeny” (Ontogeny).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Ontogeny). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ontology
<a id="ontology"></a>

Ontology is the branch of philosophy concerned with reality or being in its most basic and ultimate sense. In historical usage, it shifted from meaning a general theory of being to, in more critical thought, the study of reality as it can be known, in contrast with the study of knowing itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a563537db5284864a7e89f73e43f35069da69318361d5b16cb9a7bf22cfb4f24

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ontology” (Ontology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Ontology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## opaque
<a id="opaque"></a>

Opaque refers to information in a visual representation that is not directly accessible to an information-processing system and can usually be interpreted only by a human viewer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 987722bf448c78f1261cd5522386c32a8aeb1acfe8577ca0cdca6d0381342063

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Clarkson Melissa D.; Perry Noah C.; Detwiler Landon T.. The Graphic Descriptor Ontology: An ontology for semantic annotation of graphics and its application to graphic libraries of anatomical standards. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347931; article XML SHA-256 a378ac5c2995356f5cb82da44665ad42f2701014cde411d6cf0a195e4f88b8fd. “The Graphic Descriptor Ontology: An ontology for semantic annotation of graphics and its application to graphic libraries of anatomical standards” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347931).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347931). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## open-field chamber
<a id="open-field-chamber"></a>

An open-field chamber is a test enclosure used in animal behavior research to observe how much an animal explores. In this study, it was used to compare exploratory behavior in mice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 270cc381d7b7ad07ab6122daa14de892e82ba90b6faa10d385657425f166206d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Burns Monika; Amaya Aldo; Bodi Caroline; Ge Zhongming; Bakthavatchalu Vasudevan; Ennis Kathleen; Wang Timothy C; Georgieff Michael; Fox James G. Helicobacter pylori infection and low dietary iron alter behavior, induce iron deficiency anemia, and modulate hippocampal gene expression in female C57BL/6 mice. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0173108; article XML SHA-256 5b39e0fd905684ee9d5bd88390bc6a444dfd188d9a0d0d91f4597f38bcd85caa. “Helicobacter pylori infection and low dietary iron alter behavior, induce iron deficiency anemia, and modulate hippocampal gene expression in female C57BL/6 mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0173108).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0173108). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## open-field test
<a id="open-field-test"></a>

The open-field test is an animal maze procedure in which an animal is placed in an open chamber and its movement patterns are observed to evaluate anxiety and exploratory behavior. When objects are added to the open field, the task can also be used to study exploration and memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c37b612599d99b59e27f96935411b678dde2f5f8ac4d2d14347d17f45f90658

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Open Field Test” (D000082563).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000082563). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## open question
<a id="open-question"></a>

In this historical source, an open question is an issue that remains unsettled and not yet definitively answered. Here it refers to whether and how measurement properly applies within psychology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f51f5c5f55e0501ab9d23826e5a4bc6d3366df4e318241f5b9eecdb5fadf2bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Measurement” (Measurement).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Measurement). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## open skill
<a id="open-skill"></a>

An open skill is a motor or sport skill performed in a changing, unpredictable environment, so the person must keep adjusting actions to external events. In psychology and development contexts, it is contrasted with closed skills, which are carried out in more stable, self-paced settings with more fixed movement patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 25aaa5f1f09143cfe5ac040b3915f3474cce7cdb10c9c326a75ea02ccf878e78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Huiyan; Wei Wei; Zhang Weiwei. Open-skill vs. closed-skill sports and executive function in children and adolescents: a mini review of mechanisms and moderating factors. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873432; article XML SHA-256 66fca3691746339745324eeacd390906cb44c413c0c9a0cfaed61d08b343acc2. “Open-skill vs. closed-skill sports and executive function in children and adolescents: a mini review of mechanisms and moderating factors” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873432).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873432). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## open system
<a id="open-system"></a>

An open system is something that remains able to exchange materials or chemical influences with its surrounding environment rather than being sealed off from it. In the source, this means the amber-embedded fossil still underwent environmental chemical change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f08bd9c79110b53f63e5440ba8b32a0d4e48d34f7d5a6d1e4335f5601f372d59

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barthel H. Jonas; Fougerouse Denis; Geisler Thorsten; Rust Jes. Fluoridation of a lizard bone embedded in Dominican amber suggests open-system behavior. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0228843; article XML SHA-256 9aef05aadf81567b0fc716d4df214f4c8d5a1672b313aeaa7cf2955907a4273d. “Fluoridation of a lizard bone embedded in Dominican amber suggests open-system behavior” (10.1371/journal.pone.0228843).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228843). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## open ward
<a id="open-ward"></a>

An open ward is a psychiatric hospital ward that is managed with open doors rather than as a locked unit, including for some involuntarily committed patients where legally permitted. In this context, it refers to a least-restrictive approach to inpatient care that relies on ward organization, staff presence, and other measures instead of routine locking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e83bf3f144066917dd0fa37d8c6054555da69fac9350d65e750cd9ac06882816

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schreiber Lisa K; Metzger Florian G; Duncker Tobias A; Fallgatter Andreas J; Steinert Tilman. Open doors by fair means: Study protocol for a 3-year prospective controlled study with a quasi-experimental design towards (or to implement) an open Ward policy in acute care units. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s12888-019-2126-3; article XML SHA-256 28e85270785e74df4730bc42138973db45be159dfca6896a55a3ba5b744b175e. “Open doors by fair means: Study protocol for a 3-year prospective controlled study with a quasi-experimental design towards (or to implement) an open Ward policy in acute care units” (10.1186/s12888-019-2126-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2126-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## openmindedness
<a id="openmindedness"></a>

Openmindedness is an individual tendency to be receptive to new information when evaluating evidence and making decisions. In this research context, it is treated as one of the factors linked to how adults engage with scientific information in everyday life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d506ffc233c55e3dfa768063cbe721754f3c1f048adb716893e139ef5d05ad3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dawson Caitlin; Julku Hanna; Pihlajamäki Milla; Kaakinen Johanna K.; Schooler Jonathan W.; Simola Jaana. Evidence-based scientific thinking and decision-making in everyday life. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s41235-024-00578-2; article XML SHA-256 6b6008ced90c58c2d0a494d41ad61a7ab8aa29da4bbcc2e5152fa6b5504c356b. “Evidence-based scientific thinking and decision-making in everyday life” (10.1186/s41235-024-00578-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-024-00578-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## operant
<a id="operant"></a>

Operant refers to behavior considered within operant-control models, where actions are analyzed as part of an adaptive, control-based behavioral system. In this context, operant behavior can be represented with probabilistic mathematical models.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: afefa9f78b0933c6ee4ad36b98edee4bc9e1fd6d1b14f25bb97ac5628289d13f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Monica S.; Ramesh Kumar D.. Functional equation modeling of adaptive operant-control systems via Matkowski fixed point theory. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339678; article XML SHA-256 2f4de28dedba425d3846d25010c8c356d8a8a37160bb8828c1566dea05a2a150. “Functional equation modeling of adaptive operant-control systems via Matkowski fixed point theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339678).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339678). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## operant behavior
<a id="operant-behavior"></a>

Operant behavior is behavior measured in an operant task, such as bar pressing while an animal self-administers a natural or drug reward. In this context, features of that responding, including how long a bar press lasts, can be used to detect psychological reactions to frustrating changes in reward conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e6b64474cfda65326d839563794a37915009770e74477ffa990b06575a806d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mármol Contreras Yorkiris; Vasquez Tileena E S; Shah Poonam; Payne Kelsey; Di Re Jessica; Laezza Fernanda; Green Thomas A. Bar press durations as a reliable and robust measure of frustration-related operant behavior: Sensitivity to incentive downshift and dose-response paradigms. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296090; article XML SHA-256 4df6cbdfcd08843b8a2ccf071bd6da32f6ea2255b7b06e4ac876bbdc72c6b7fb. “Bar press durations as a reliable and robust measure of frustration-related operant behavior: Sensitivity to incentive downshift and dose-response paradigms” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296090).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296090). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## operant chamber
<a id="operant-chamber"></a>

An operant chamber is a laboratory enclosure used to study instrumental behavior by arranging a response, such as pressing a lever, to produce a reward when a set requirement is met. In the supplied study, rats received rewarding brain stimulation in the chamber after enough cumulative lever-press time had been completed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ff5c2a5e11daa89ba63661fbd965d0c1cc1d6d3fab24a2e3bd9b71ab7519948c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Solomon Rebecca Brana; Conover Kent; Shizgal Peter. Valuation of opportunity costs by rats working for rewarding electrical brain stimulation. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0182120; article XML SHA-256 e30384646f83fa8be1298b3d3d8535a44e973e9a343d7dbfb944623006f2787e. “Valuation of opportunity costs by rats working for rewarding electrical brain stimulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0182120).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182120). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## operant conditioning
<a id="operant-conditioning"></a>

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which a person's or animal's responses help produce reinforcement. When the desired response is made from among possible behaviors, it is reinforced right away, which strengthens that response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6b96789ab0612acfd79053f35b875a2f5673a6470e172a19cf545aa44fcebc1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Conditioning, Operant” (D003216).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003216). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## operant response
<a id="operant-response"></a>

An operant response is a behavior that is brought under operant conditioning, meaning it becomes linked to its consequences so that making the response can lead to reward. In the source example, rats’ vocalizations were treated as operant responses when the animals learned to produce them to obtain food.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9aa055be26574fa6212a02bd56c79971e8a8a18c120f3a7e56335f274c080b6c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wardak Agnieszka D.; Olszyński Krzysztof H.; Polowy Rafał; Matysiak Jan; Filipkowski Robert K.. Rats that learn to vocalize for food reward emit longer and louder appetitive calls and fewer short aversive calls. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297174; article XML SHA-256 023d705e46d38d2679307ec2d6f78292ba29597d51648c7f9abcaec1ad8dbb62. “Rats that learn to vocalize for food reward emit longer and louder appetitive calls and fewer short aversive calls” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297174).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297174). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## operation span
<a id="operation-span"></a>

Operation span is a task used to measure working memory capacity. In this context, it was used to examine how differences in working memory capacity relate to performance on language processing tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 742559f8d72549760df9916f09b9d9f378caf925a7ee4eaf2c7d7fbfb658ce0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Huixia; Rossi Sonja; Chen Baoguo. Effects of Working Memory Capacity and Tasks in Processing L2 Complex Sentence: Evidence from Chinese-English Bilinguals. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00595; article XML SHA-256 02ed4848a1db260640700a7072f0b7569fb504f10e3b6158f6ed568f1da8e91a. “Effects of Working Memory Capacity and Tasks in Processing L2 Complex Sentence: Evidence from Chinese-English Bilinguals” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00595).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00595). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## operational research
<a id="operational-research"></a>

Operational research is a set of scientific and mathematical methods used to improve decision-making in complex organizations and systems. It aims to find the best workable solution when goals conflict by using models that can be applied to real-world problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06ca0b730077f28b240eb113e34ec9b7631e7f8176c1d1b9680b4a1c89576f65

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Operations Research” (D009874).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009874). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## operations research
<a id="operations-research"></a>

Operations research is the use of scientific and especially mathematical methods to improve decision-making in complicated organizations or systems. It focuses on finding the best workable answer when goals compete, using models to guide solutions to real-world problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c85e83e0c312a5bfe9fd49d1f600a82b6410ac93571c00267697b5ca9f4d056

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Operations Research” (D009874).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009874). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ophthalmia
<a id="ophthalmia"></a>

Ophthalmia is a general historical term for inflammation of the conjunctiva, the membrane of the eye. It was used broadly for different kinds of this eye inflammation, including forms linked with other diseases or differing in character.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9d1b22116e76d91ea174a8bf8faa4b7203d80b963c85603888735874bfecd993

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ophthalmia” (Ophthalmia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Ophthalmia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ophthalmic nerve
<a id="ophthalmic-nerve"></a>

The ophthalmic nerve is the sensory branch of the fifth cranial nerve. It carries sensory information from the upper face, including the eye, conjunctiva, upper eyelid, upper nose, nasal lining, and scalp.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 227914d64f62b2893eb1f278307f08d71876fe9cb14ce0027a772e7112c1a0f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ophthalmic Nerve” (D009882).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009882). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ophthalmometer
<a id="ophthalmometer"></a>

An ophthalmometer is an instrument used to accurately measure the degree of astigmatism in the eye.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2ec02c2feae5ae1f9fe73b18f47412119fc3da2dd3ec423fcdc67e9521913ea3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Astigmatism” (Astigmatism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Astigmatism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ophthalmoplegia
<a id="ophthalmoplegia"></a>

Ophthalmoplegia is paralysis of one or more muscles that move the eye. It results from problems in the eye muscles themselves or in the tissues, tendons, nerve supply, or neuromuscular junctions that support their movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 367fc898e0cad52204c3b761d5103fb096287dd00122aed3c6fb02b1354cc5d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ophthalmoplegia” (D009886).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009886). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ophthalmoscope
<a id="ophthalmoscope"></a>

An ophthalmoscope is a lighted device used to look clearly at the structures inside the eye at different depths so abnormalities can be detected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 483c2ecd6fdf664c4102de58527aa7ad0765c5a196485d8384be45209f12387e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ophthalmoscope” (C17622).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## opiate
<a id="opiate"></a>

An opiate is a natural or synthetic substance related to morphine from the poppy plant. It acts on specific receptors in the brain and body, affecting the central nervous system and smooth muscle, and includes substances such as opium, morphine, codeine, and heroin.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82bb4f7bd5d39ceedf95e3349df3376ca74cbe12c33321b55a9a9898a60f5f23

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Opiate” (C1657).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## opinion
<a id="opinion"></a>

Opinion is a private, individual belief, understood as belonging to the person who holds it rather than as knowledge. In historical usage, it was often contrasted with knowledge and could imply uncertainty or a lack of objective support, as in the idea of a "mere opinion."

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f7e8de14e44dba309ddd4d82bfe7a491228d75cd00c8ba7a8cafe583ee8c9fb1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Opinion” (Opinion).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Opinion). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## opioid
<a id="opioid"></a>

An opioid is a synthetic drug that is similar to opiates and can reduce pain. It acts by binding to opiate receptors and producing opiate-like effects on neurons and other cells, including changes in pain and other neurobehavioral activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1395948ae508341e533c108011d7fc0087e25938dec56bb2d11b811564bc528f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Opioid” (C1506).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## opioid agonist
<a id="opioid-agonist"></a>

An opioid agonist is a substance that activates opioid receptors. In this packet, it refers to an agent that acts on mu and kappa opioid receptors in the colon and may help reduce visceral pain and spasms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7198f30d76a9b3507d8a248ea98f449eb602075a2e1a8e1fb9826f61b3f44460

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Trimebutine 3-Thiocarbamoylbenzenesulfonate” (C111045).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## opioid analgesic
<a id="opioid-analgesic"></a>

An opioid analgesic is an opioid medication prescribed and distributed in pill form, such as oxycodone or hydrocodone. In the source, increased prescribing of these medications is linked to the broader opioid misuse crisis at the population level.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f28223860fa3291c58e71e1031db00054c1f09a370b701e6fd9894c71e94fbc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mullachery Pricila H; Bilal Usama. Urban scaling of opioid analgesic sales in the United States. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0258526; article XML SHA-256 58317942a64bac05282cd9faf138f6eaeeddaf906208a1d5b2ab58676dc53daf. “Urban scaling of opioid analgesic sales in the United States” (10.1371/journal.pone.0258526).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258526). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## opioid antagonist
<a id="opioid-antagonist"></a>

An opioid antagonist is a substance that counteracts opioid effects by competing at opioid receptors, such as the mu receptor. In the packet, naloxone is an opioid antagonist used for rapid reversal of opioid overdose.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd879126ada72ec0c6b159191187f80d94d18a952d6367c780c77c0d838cd288

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moss Ronald B.; Pryor Meghan McCabe; Baillie Rebecca; Kudrycki Katherine; Friedrich Christina; Reed Mike; Carlo Dennis J.. Higher naloxone dosing in a quantitative systems pharmacology model that predicts naloxone-fentanyl competition at the opioid mu receptor level. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0234683; article XML SHA-256 4af6b542358674c69935673773fc76863ab9556b886b5eb1ae2027642307a82a. “Higher naloxone dosing in a quantitative systems pharmacology model that predicts naloxone-fentanyl competition at the opioid mu receptor level” (10.1371/journal.pone.0234683).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0234683). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## opioid dependence
<a id="opioid-dependence"></a>

In this source, opioid dependence is discussed as a state in which early abstinence can be accompanied by broad problems in higher-order thinking. These cognitive difficulties are suggested to be linked to withdrawal-related disruption in the prefrontal cortex and may be partly temporary.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a603723e109afceeef8a68d3b2931236cf775628d6ffdb6d089ccafa0b803ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rapeli Pekka; Kivisaari Reetta; Autti Taina; Kähkönen Seppo; Puuskari Varpu; Jokela Olga; Kalska Hely. Cognitive function during early abstinence from opioid dependence: a comparison to age, gender, and verbal intelligence matched controls. 2006; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-6-9; article XML SHA-256 f942258d8cae6ac36198a3abc389da9c33d8d1784d1fe74498297346f7fa1784. “Cognitive function during early abstinence from opioid dependence: a comparison to age, gender, and verbal intelligence matched controls” (10.1186/1471-244x-6-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-6-9). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Opioid-Induced Constipation
<a id="opioid-induced-constipation"></a>

Opioid-induced constipation is constipation that occurs in association with opioid use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 508519980d9897dd26f1ff4d05ba48956bc3051403e7290c272b39763bdab724

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Opioid-Induced Constipation” (D000079689).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000079689). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## opioid receptor
<a id="opioid-receptor"></a>

An opioid receptor is a protein on a cell’s surface that attaches to opioids and starts internal cell changes that affect how the cell behaves. In mammals, natural substances that act on these receptors include enkephalins, endorphins, and dynorphins, and the main receptor classes are mu, delta, and kappa.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d40e428eb1809bc37b2bbb5c31a1c014a6cbf527def6b70df9885a84bc41416f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Receptors, Opioid” (D011957).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011957). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## opioid withdrawal
<a id="opioid-withdrawal"></a>

Opioid withdrawal is a symptom state associated with chronic opioid use. In this packet, it is described as a condition that may be partly mediated by NMDA receptors and may also involve opioid-receptor-related mechanisms, although these mechanisms are not fully understood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d99f9b964d7823b5697c97e18c1b676c1935f81fe3b42d96592111230a5d0c39

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shen Mary R.; Campbell Dylan E.; Kopczynski Anika; Maddams Samuel; Rosenblum Naomi; Nigam Kabir; Suzuki Joji. Ketamine in treating opioid use disorder and opioid withdrawal: a scoping review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1552084; article XML SHA-256 609e41a22e571d38cd45e52888cd925b32fcc90266adf1768fe7200ea4d7c7da. “Ketamine in treating opioid use disorder and opioid withdrawal: a scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1552084).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1552084). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## opportunism
<a id="opportunism"></a>

Opportunism, in this historical philosophical sense, means adjusting even broad moral principles to the demands of particular circumstances. It refers to a practical, flexible way of acting that avoids rigidly forcing abstract rules into every case.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96df7374bfeb43598d20050f6f2237ec376f620a264bd0b87eda242e1e59de77

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2772000-2784000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Oppositional Defiant Disorder
<a id="oppositional-defiant-disorder"></a>

Oppositional defiant disorder is a childhood disorder involving a repeated, persistent pattern of disobedient behavior, generally negative or agitated mood, and a quarrelsome or vengeful stance toward authority figures. Unlike conduct disorder, it typically does not include aggression, destruction, theft, or deceit, though it can occur alongside conduct disorder or attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b6e9747c29e13baf0087c59da6dafe05202c49790c66184ecdf696762c93ee50

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Oppositional Defiant Disorder” (D000096865).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000096865). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## opsin
<a id="opsin"></a>

Opsin is a light-sensitive protein used in cone cells of the eye. In this packet, opsin refers to the L- or M-cone protein whose normal function depends on correct folding and transport to the cone outer segment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e8c0036ac22dd922df3f1a1394f954bb6ce1c12c0943bacced3ee06a741a4b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cahill Marion E.; Chmelik Kathryn; Brothers Brooke A.; Ashcraft Madyson E.; Guan Tongju; Puja Artjola; Xiang Yinxiao; Shaw Lee M.; Du Jianhai; Deng Wen-Tao. Gene therapy rescues cone function in an all-cone retina mouse model with the most common cone opsin C203R missense mutation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332684; article XML SHA-256 cf332c85f9380b2eafdf1e123c2402326cd8e7f36559517ed113c80151e2f71a. “Gene therapy rescues cone function in an all-cone retina mouse model with the most common cone opsin C203R missense mutation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332684).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332684). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## opt-
<a id="opt"></a>

Opt- refers to an optimal cue-combination account of perception, where the brain blends multiple sensory signals by giving more weight to the ones that are more reliable. In the packet, it describes a haptic size-judgment model in which touch and finger-position cues are integrated in this weighted way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5348e2b1cd777f64ff272db5b3459ed926bc5e8de6668eee1e07ad75e6274dd5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Allen Keon S; Goldreich Daniel. Humans optimally integrate cutaneous and proprioceptive cues in haptic size perception. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1653390; article XML SHA-256 fc692e01ac1a035d8eba142b748026768d3babfe208eb6a750321ec45cd79f4e. “Humans optimally integrate cutaneous and proprioceptive cues in haptic size perception” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1653390).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1653390). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optic aphasia
<a id="optic-aphasia"></a>

Optic aphasia is a disturbance in which a person cannot name an object when seeing it, even though they may still describe its use. The difficulty is linked specifically to visual presentation, while names connected with hearing or movement may remain relatively intact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d78b14283c54255565cfa3793b6dab44958b1055554060754f144512f02a5e62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3265500-3277500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optic ataxia
<a id="optic-ataxia"></a>

Optic ataxia is a neurological problem, often seen as part of Balint’s syndrome, in which damage to the posterior parietal cortex disrupts visually guided reaching and grasping. It causes difficulty accurately reaching for objects, especially those seen in the visual field opposite the side of the brain injury.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f35355287f1c6fdc3d04794836d6f9f09f03398a80480f360aefcf4312eb45ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Khan Aarlenne Z.; Pisella Laure; Delporte Ludovic; Rode Gilles; Rossetti Yves. Testing for optic ataxia in a blind field. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00399; article XML SHA-256 b01fb14a25d34339043ce0c9951f5236825e40704d88fbed4862e4ffaa7d10d8. “Testing for optic ataxia in a blind field” (10.3389/fnhum.2013.00399).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00399). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optic atrophy
<a id="optic-atrophy"></a>

Optic atrophy is wasting of the optic disc that can be present from birth or develop later. It reflects a loss of the nerve fibers that begin in the retina and form the optic disc, optic nerve, optic chiasm, and optic tracts, and it can occur with problems such as glaucoma, ischemia, inflammation, raised intracranial pressure, toxins, compression of the optic nerve, or inherited conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1fe86f094a6caf26fae9f83a29f349f0ddb9892dd2721d6aba694e2e147d1100

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Optic Atrophy” (D009896).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009896). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optic chiasm
<a id="optic-chiasm"></a>

The optic chiasm is the X-shaped place where the two optic nerves meet. There, fibers from the inner half of each retina cross to the opposite side while fibers from the outer half stay on the same side, so each side of the brain receives visual information from the opposite visual field of both eyes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cac774205c9a44dbffec62833d809ac873c93793781d083d37ad85aaebe4a00e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Optic Chiasm” (D009897).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009897). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optic disk
<a id="optic-disk"></a>

The optic disk is the visible part of the optic nerve at the back of the eye, as seen during an eye examination of the fundus. It is the point where the axons of retinal ganglion cells come together and enter the optic nerve.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93fee209d6af47cabd9b7db4d0af8a4ce7e91b2f705a367e188c70f5ef30aa71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Optic Disk” (D009898).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009898). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optic flow
<a id="optic-flow"></a>

Optic flow is the ongoing pattern of visual information a person experiences as they move through space over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f7592518f9691372a56e87d880637f13716974815e787d3a2991859eda61aa2e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Optic Flow” (D057849).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D057849). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optic nerve
<a id="optic-nerve"></a>

The optic nerve is the second cranial nerve that carries visual signals from the retina to the brain. It is made up of retinal ganglion cell fibers that pass through the optic chiasm and optic tracts, and it is considered part of the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8fd73c018b07ceded5012fa286b386fb834893ec4ecaceeeabae1dab0b2608f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Optic Nerve” (D009900).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009900). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optic neuritis
<a id="optic-neuritis"></a>

Optic neuritis is inflammation of the optic nerve. It can be linked with conditions such as autoimmune disease, infections, or granulomatous disease, and often causes pain behind the eye that worsens with eye movement along with reduced color, contrast, or overall vision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a5da382979fb65e7e3eeb3103d46135464998d696f0c349cf5ba72077cc322e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Optic Neuritis” (D009902).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009902). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optic radiations
<a id="optic-radiations"></a>

Optic radiations are the post-geniculate white matter pathways in the visual system. They are part of the brain’s visual pathways and can show degeneration in conditions such as primary open-angle glaucoma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c4837afb94cc3f5b778917f4e6ba48f096fab45a52a8c46e1a8cd9aa32cae29

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Haykal Shereif; Jansonius Nomdo M.; Cornelissen Frans W.. Progression of Visual Pathway Degeneration in Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma: A Longitudinal Study. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2021.630898; article XML SHA-256 069bbf52a27f24a9378dde68b73952f947c03f891cec3008fab14ac3f6375de6. “Progression of Visual Pathway Degeneration in Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma: A Longitudinal Study” (10.3389/fnhum.2021.630898).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.630898). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optic tectum
<a id="optic-tectum"></a>

The optic tectum refers to the front pair of the quadrigeminal bodies, also known as the superior colliculi. It helps coordinate general orienting responses to visual input, such as turning the whole body or reaching toward what is seen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b36543b750f52e5a4c1d5ef7fab71a924c8305a1b9d74673ed1c119d57ad11d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Superior Colliculi” (D013477).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013477). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optic tract
<a id="optic-tract"></a>

The optic tract is a bundle of nerve fibers that continues from the optic chiasm and carries visual information onward, mainly to the lateral geniculate bodies. It is part of the visual pathway transmitting signals that began in the retina and traveled through the optic nerves.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dba7d293d37787c8c8d593f17207b7ec6975b7436ff925227d9b51802917c986

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Optic Tract” (D065866).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065866). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optical axis
<a id="optical-axis"></a>

In historical psychology and physiology, the optical axis is the straight line imagined as passing through the centers of curvature of the cornea and lens and extending back to the rear wall of the eye. It is also referred to as the sagittal axis of the eye.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8a95603940942e1793dd0387c7165bbdd226de2c98ad9c3574dfa4c87bc2a567

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Optical Axis” (Optical).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Optical). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optical defect
<a id="optical-defect"></a>

In this historical passage, an optical defect means an apparent problem in vision thought to underlie a visual disturbance. It refers here to seeing numerous dark dots or spots against a white surface, interpreted by the writer as a form of scattered blind areas in the visual field.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2bf3924e1dbf8a061411c80af9d9f4df38fc0ac88d63e5d3203d372fd2eb999e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1344000-1356000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optical illusion
<a id="optical-illusion"></a>

An optical illusion is a visual experience in which what a person sees does not match the actual image or visual reality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 65ea46b959cae073dfc288959b80696dc6568b111817e5f29bd1fcb4718fff92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Optical Illusion” (C34865).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optics
<a id="optics"></a>

Optics is the area of physics concerned with how light behaves, what properties it has, and how it interacts with matter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a12b105752a66fe072e48503c0e8888a9542d9656745d2ea833fd5ebd96d5c37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Optics” (C16940).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optimal foraging theory
<a id="optimal-foraging-theory"></a>

Optimal foraging theory is the idea that an organism’s food or host choices tend to match what gives it the greatest fitness benefit. In the source packet, it is used to mean that preference should favor the option that leads to better survival, reproduction, or energy-related outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 068d120e7bb7ebe759324b00a334a0217e27d8bde30169dad615bc6462baf4c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Trejo-Meléndez Víctor; Contreras-Garduño Jorge. To live free or being a parasite: The optimal foraging behavior may favor the evolution of entomopathogenic nematodes. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298400; article XML SHA-256 02311af3ffb898253ea95bb91e3956a21e03971589a3ea3c40607115de9be8b1. “To live free or being a parasite: The optimal foraging behavior may favor the evolution of entomopathogenic nematodes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298400).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298400). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optimal functioning
<a id="optimal-functioning"></a>

In the individual zone of optimal functioning model, optimal functioning means performing best when a person’s psychological state falls within that person’s own effective range. This range can differ across people and may involve levels of cognitive anxiety, bodily anxiety, and self-confidence that are linked with stronger performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f69ebe28de2dd2f0fdb9385e7f6fcbaa7dcd48f644862cde0f789c8c4c1f51c3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yao Zijin; Li Yue. Preliminary Assessment of Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning Model Applied to Music Performance Anxiety in College Piano Majors. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.764147; article XML SHA-256 a635209260f3c2784aa3cbcfb47f75766b4cc473c084525b23eda37f32484f30. “Preliminary Assessment of Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning Model Applied to Music Performance Anxiety in College Piano Majors” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.764147).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.764147). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Optimism
<a id="optimism"></a>

Optimism is a mental attitude in which a person tends to view life events as generally positive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1bc516c2df7249ac85d9bcc4a92b9251c9362fc7e69ad305f3a80edcf7979a9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Optimism” (D000067656).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067656). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optimize
<a id="optimize"></a>

In this social-policy context, optimize means to adjust rules or conditions so a system achieves the best attainable balance of goals, such as scale, diversity, and innovation. It implies using calibrated differences rather than one uniform approach when that better improves overall ecosystem functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8697f6274219160b40abb0a87750e6e00f7ba00d0aabfa0d3abd058faa76b934

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Bingyang; Yi Yongxi. Can tiered open-source mandates optimize innovation? A differential game study osn platform vs. independent project dynamics in foundation software ecosystems. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340713; article XML SHA-256 b48f85dfab46642739d3a263da446805aa309a29929288955de262f342caa662. “Can tiered open-source mandates optimize innovation? A differential game study osn platform vs. independent project dynamics in foundation software ecosystems” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340713).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340713). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## optometry
<a id="optometry"></a>

Optometry is the professional practice of primary eye and vision care. It includes measuring how the eyes focus and correcting vision problems with lenses or glasses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2dba432b5c29da9495b6c55cd67d7edc698ce5df185e5ceeb018ddb8c3ee287b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Optometry” (D009907).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009907). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ora serrata
<a id="ora-serrata"></a>

The ora serrata is an anatomical landmark in the eye described in relation to the vitreous base and the scleral insertion of the lateral rectus muscle. In this context, it is used as a positional reference for locating retinal breaks and planning scleral buckling placement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bfa4e87ceef58a5ad7ddde8af5ca88502dd933bdf178ace2ada8f131d5d97aa9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Imai Hisanori; Kishi Maya; Sotani Yasuyuki; Yamada Hiroko; Matsumiya Wataru; Miki Akiko; Kusuhara Sentaro; Nakamura Makoto. Usefulness of a standardized scleral buckling technique for primary rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323881; article XML SHA-256 c22e273d639e8fb3b9db6ecec83e83dba02ad063c797a723a6dcae465bffe3c8. “Usefulness of a standardized scleral buckling technique for primary rhegmatogenous retinal detachment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323881).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323881). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oral behavior
<a id="oral-behavior"></a>

Oral behavior is behavior carried out with the mouth and jaws. In this source, chewing is described as a rhythmic oral behavior in which jaw movements are continually adjusted to match the properties of food.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3c59518f2cf6ae5586374cac81b7291276eed5faf1d32f0d628749549af89ed5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Montuelle Stéphane J.; Olson Rachel A.; Curtis Hannah; Beery Sophia; Williams Susan H.. Effects of food properties on chewing in pigs: Flexibility and stereotypy of jaw movements in a mammalian omnivore. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0228619; article XML SHA-256 657101f83dd993938c791c23614f9ffdb5ca61e84fcda3194ab0377ae93ee760. “Effects of food properties on chewing in pigs: Flexibility and stereotypy of jaw movements in a mammalian omnivore” (10.1371/journal.pone.0228619).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228619). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oral history
<a id="oral-history"></a>

Oral history is the passing on of a group’s remembered past by spoken accounts rather than writing, serving as a form of collective memory and cultural heritage. In this source, it is closely related to oral genealogies, which can preserve recent ancestry accurately but may also change over time through inference, social or political relationships, and mythical elements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f079ecf7b85e90c930e83cb35826fdd5d530cf2ece66daef28a37d2a2461a5c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sanchez-Faddeev Hernando; Pijpe Jeroen; van Bodegom David; van der Hulle Tom; van der Gaag Kristiaan J.; Eriksson Ulrika K.; Spear Thomas; Westendorp Rudi G. J.; de Knijff Peter. Ancestral Stories of Ghanaian Bimoba Reflect Millennia-Old Genetic Lineages. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0065690; article XML SHA-256 639ee403cbb7075f54ea300fb3a90b8b7ff95b4dbcb42554560506bff21cc9cf. “Ancestral Stories of Ghanaian Bimoba Reflect Millennia-Old Genetic Lineages” (10.1371/journal.pone.0065690).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065690). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oral method
<a id="oral-method"></a>

In this historical usage, the oral method is an approach to educating deaf people that teaches speech by having them imitate the visible movements of the lips and voice in speaking, while also training them to understand others by watching lip movements. When used together with the manual alphabet, it was called the combined method.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5699ff16c870a65ed282413b7a3416da75025688e54c2667595399df98c7d7b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Deafness and the Deaf” (Deafness and the Deaf).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Deafness and the Deaf). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oral phase
<a id="oral-phase"></a>

Oral phase is the earliest stage in infant psychosexual development, beginning at birth and continuing through about the first year of life or longer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18d1e783238f97056b8d021638c04bad9fc7fa9c717e9ef10cc72c82a20f67d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oral Stage” (D009913).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009913). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oral stage
<a id="oral-stage"></a>

The oral stage is the first stage in infant psychosexual development. It begins at birth and continues through about the first year of life or longer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd4fbdd712534c5e1a68f12caedab450712e48a74939c4a5e2271ab2e5e4735f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oral Stage” (D009913).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009913). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## orbitofrontal cortex
<a id="orbitofrontal-cortex"></a>

The orbitofrontal cortex is a major brain area in the reward network. It helps judge the value of outcomes and adjust behavior, and problems in this region are linked to altered reward processing and difficulty inhibiting strong habitual responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 864078b50c6c34e46128de4aa7ade4c7eb4708810bf53a4e5825ba88600496b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ahn Jaeun; Lee DeokJong; Lee Jung Eun; Jung Young-Chul. Orbitofrontal cortex functional connectivity changes in patients with binge eating disorder and bulimia nervosa. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0279577; article XML SHA-256 f76edb9e6bcf95c8f8935d0464f1decde998dd53e65329b8348242c17221fb33. “Orbitofrontal cortex functional connectivity changes in patients with binge eating disorder and bulimia nervosa” (10.1371/journal.pone.0279577).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279577). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## order
<a id="order"></a>

In this context, order means that a health care provider requests a genetic test for someone, such as a person thought to have a high risk for a rare genetic disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3765954cfb27e7ce721ce3dd79a9340ffad9a9507825951a5014c04c2a5eb14f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Looking at My Genes: What Can They Tell Me About My Mental Health?. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 e0a8e68cb501d46c5f874a27c2d5a30a84750d1a2237f7aef870195d127e7c4e. “Looking at My Genes: What Can They Tell Me About My Mental Health?” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/looking-at-my-genes).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/looking-at-my-genes). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## orderliness
<a id="orderliness"></a>

Orderliness is a facet-level personality scale within the Conscientiousness domain of the LPI-v3 personality inventory. In this assessment context, it represents one of the specific components used to measure conscientiousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e0c472786de2d60848590517fd660958ad4fcfe97c546374b9d61c3c9f55d0c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Volgemute Katrina; Perepjolkina Viktorija; Ulme Gundega; Abele Agita; Ansons Kristers; Licis Renars; Lavins Rodrigo; Klonova Alina. Psychometric properties and standardization of the shortened latvian personality inventory (LPI-v3s) in athlete sample: Implications for evidence-based assessment. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352794; article XML SHA-256 58e2c7a79901cfdf19a7b1a6d4e796312e7afcea0635a1557bbb45ec37a02f43. “Psychometric properties and standardization of the shortened latvian personality inventory (LPI-v3s) in athlete sample: Implications for evidence-based assessment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352794).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352794). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## orexin
<a id="orexin"></a>

Orexin is a human protein made from the HCRT gene. It takes part in neuropeptide signaling and is involved in feeding behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 394c3a49d2154bed63bb8482d18b7da0e382af4132035b12d58604ed388c8afc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Orexin” (C106421).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organ of Corti
<a id="organ-of-corti"></a>

The organ of Corti is a spiral structure in the cochlea made up of auditory hair cells and supporting cells. It sits on the basilar membrane beneath the tectorial membrane and changes sound vibrations into neural signals sent to the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f4a769b50cf394bc4605b0984dadfa72a153bde4bbd38eaf40e97512711a8fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Organ of Corti” (D009925).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009925). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organic
<a id="organic"></a>

Organic refers first to what belongs to living things rather than the inanimate. More broadly, it means a whole whose different parts are internally connected and work together to sustain or serve the whole, in contrast to something merely mechanical or externally put together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9c1c63c2dbe73767a813a98a90b277ce375cff879321a2c5095187c2434480b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Organic” (Organic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O2defs.htm#Organic). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organic paralysis
<a id="organic-paralysis"></a>

In this historical source, organic paralysis means paralysis due to a bodily lesion, especially damage to nerves or nerve plexuses, rather than hysterical paralysis. It is described as tending to show sensory loss in irregular areas that follow the known distribution of the affected nerves instead of ending in a neat circular boundary.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5153d2a13ea0e5883d51cb10eeddae4f7c858052fef3599be14b4b6c08382a82

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3654000-3666000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organic selection
<a id="organic-selection"></a>

Organic selection is a historical biological idea that evolution can take a directed course when natural selection is aided by the protective or screening effects of individuals’ own accommodations, even if the underlying variations are not themselves determinate. In this view, adjustment by organisms helps preserve certain lines of variation, making evolutionary change appear directed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 85de42abc87deb0b41c6a78af0c9c9ced771e878c1a3562a4836a8d00b64e0bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Determinate (in biology)” (Determinate (in biology)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Determinate (in biology)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organic sensation
<a id="organic-sensation"></a>

Organic sensation is a bodily feeling caused by a change in the condition of an internal organ or bodily system rather than by an external physical stimulus. In this historical usage, it includes sensations such as muscular feelings, hunger, thirst, nausea, sexual feeling, dizziness, and possibly some breathing or circulation-related feelings like tingling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a3f9536ec6e1e5f7b7e163895a220347058eddb34d2bffcbfc9a563e8b37282e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Organic Sensation” (Organic Sensation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O2defs.htm#Organic Sensation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organicism
<a id="organicism"></a>

Organicism is a way of understanding development that treats the organism as the central unit of explanation and emphasizes its ongoing, mutual relation with the environment. In this view, development is understood through organism–environment interdependence rather than by looking at the organism or surroundings separately.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 556805c6d77717e5a2b92046821efabd4dbf6d2d39d5349dc3bdfa78990d4616

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Read Catherine; Szokolszky Agnes. Developmental Ecological Psychology meets organicist biology: the example of the ecological self. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569356; article XML SHA-256 6ca4c7f92bd96f49b6eeb0f4e851d084fd5d31be2e964dc8d756f6f7a0e8c383. “Developmental Ecological Psychology meets organicist biology: the example of the ecological self” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569356).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569356). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organism
<a id="organism"></a>

An organism is a living being, or more broadly a whole whose parts are connected and ordered by an internal principle arising from the whole itself rather than by an outside arrangement. In historical and philosophical use, it can mean any system understood as an internally organized unity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8411856701b3ba7f505f6d12edaf080f0f40d2ba38aab5556a43ae9dc91467c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Organism” (Organism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O2defs.htm#Organism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organismic valuing process
<a id="organismic-valuing-process"></a>

The organismic valuing process is a humanistic psychology idea that views personal growth as a holistic, ongoing process. It treats well-being as something that develops by integrating different aspects of a person’s experience over the lifespan.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f46692da9a85302cf569e2eb5c3ff487f9db3d971ecb6d742cdda616657c377b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maurer Mia M.; Daukantaitė Daiva. Revisiting the Organismic Valuing Process Theory of Personal Growth: A Theoretical Review of Rogers and Its Connection to Positive Psychology. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01706; article XML SHA-256 2b5816fdb7b9c175ec1535a605366f07b1bec71f7b17edd634e5e187b41ad8ac. “Revisiting the Organismic Valuing Process Theory of Personal Growth: A Theoretical Review of Rogers and Its Connection to Positive Psychology” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01706).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01706). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organization
<a id="organization"></a>

Organization is a more or less systematic arrangement of separate parts into a whole that serves some function. In psychological use, as in mental organization, it refers to the ordered patterning of mental life and suggests a looser, more externally dependent unity than an organism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e98f8a20b209626abf6eefb8c5ebd4bf25f6f3c6b33605cd34440a29f41c8e65

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Organization” (Organization).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O2defs.htm#Organization). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organizational approach
<a id="organizational-approach"></a>

In this context, an organizational approach means understanding workers’ psychological health and safety by focusing on the organization itself, especially its policies, practices, and procedures. It takes a multilevel view of workplace conditions rather than explaining stress only through more limited traditional models.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a68efb796dcbea33907d7e1da24d9d2e1d84b7534c9bbe4811881e84b8c1e873

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fattori Alice; Comotti Anna; Bordini Lorenzo; Dollard Maureen F.; Bonzini Matteo. Psychosocial safety climate (PSC) at middle management level in the healthcare sector: A contribution to the Italian validation of psychosocial safety climate-4. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1046286; article XML SHA-256 cbaa83e55786d63c2c54b7e87f0af7770594468f3e8782ff047fb380ee4819c3. “Psychosocial safety climate (PSC) at middle management level in the healthcare sector: A contribution to the Italian validation of psychosocial safety climate-4” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1046286).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1046286). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organizational climate
<a id="organizational-climate"></a>

Organizational climate is the overall workplace environment created by an organization’s internal conditions together with features of its sector or service setting. In psychology and assessment, it refers to a set of organizational factors that can be examined and measured.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e555baf874e484da47c202e273b2c3d47630f087ef03b9ba2fe4a42240ac242

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bustamante-Ubilla Miguel A; Carvache-Franco Mauricio; Carvache-Franco Orly; del Carmen Lapo María; Carvache-Franco Wilmer. Psychometric validation of the organizational climate construct in high-complexity hospitals in Chile and Ecuador. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813699; article XML SHA-256 0c3538221cf322a4c2a1eeac54616001cd798aac48b97897c928946fefcfcd61. “Psychometric validation of the organizational climate construct in high-complexity hospitals in Chile and Ecuador” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813699).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813699). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organizational commitment
<a id="organizational-commitment"></a>

Organizational commitment is a person’s sense of attachment to and willingness to remain with an organization. In this packet, it refers to athletes feeling committed to their sport organization and being more likely to stay in it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 55158b228f8540750838831f16ac30c3e749524a9498415aaf0b84fbd2616dce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hang Su; He Dongjin; Yaru Kong. Impact of coach ethical leadership on athlete satisfaction and organizational commitment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1856554; article XML SHA-256 88bcb4c1e2f52871e351d43329681f4af8de9eaa845db5a0556f0cd0953321ce. “Impact of coach ethical leadership on athlete satisfaction and organizational commitment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1856554).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1856554). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organizational culture
<a id="organizational-culture"></a>

Organizational culture is the set of shared values, beliefs, and behavior patterns that shape how people in an institution interact and what is expected of them. In workplace settings, it can influence commitment, morale, psychological safety, and whether people feel aligned with the organization or want to leave it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2fae9ad01e8fc14eb3e497d779fd2507c56aea37883cfc59190be00193e8c1c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Che Yusoff Erny Yusnida; Selamat Mohd Nasir; Mohd Rusyda Helma. Job satisfaction as a moderator between organizational culture and turnover intention among Malaysian police officers. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331458; article XML SHA-256 3e1bb00b46f6daaa74557efb06cc96396949de027fc184b85e773ddd0a205d08. “Job satisfaction as a moderator between organizational culture and turnover intention among Malaysian police officers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331458).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331458). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organizational efficiency
<a id="organizational-efficiency"></a>

Organizational efficiency refers to how well an organization functions in carrying out its work and maintaining its standards. In this packet, it is linked to public hospitals’ ability to support high-quality patient care and avoid staff behaviors that undermine services.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a275e6c599cf35030729cda8a799bb279eaa1e40ec686e8647d6e18f1d0d9ca7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ahmad Muhammad Bilal; Rizvi Fizza; Shakeel Nausheen; Niazi Amna. If you digress, shall we not neglect? Investigating the moderating role of individual cultural values while predicting job neglect among doctors as footprint of psychological contract violation. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03948-7; article XML SHA-256 5face2b004bc9192d0724cc02e5b7c1bc3c6f506d828527482107fd861c7c1a3. “If you digress, shall we not neglect? Investigating the moderating role of individual cultural values while predicting job neglect among doctors as footprint of psychological contract violation” (10.1186/s40359-025-03948-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03948-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organizational hypothesis
<a id="organizational-hypothesis"></a>

The organizational hypothesis is the idea that gonadal hormones acting during early critical periods of development, such as the neonatal stage and puberty, permanently shape later behavior. In this source, it refers specifically to the proposal that these early hormones organize later context fear learning in sex-specific ways, rather than hormones acting only in adulthood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66e8143a28f1c98b9bc859a0b726109943ff19b6596248c37d747320b340e4af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Colón Lorianna; Peru Eduardo; Zuloaga Damian G; Poulos Andrew M. Contributions of gonadal hormones in the sex-specific organization of context fear learning. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0282293; article XML SHA-256 6725751b009d93d29901e9ff2bd5e9a16a80155527d16cc4a9fe2cca4c5c5b1f. “Contributions of gonadal hormones in the sex-specific organization of context fear learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0282293).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282293). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organizational identification
<a id="organizational-identification"></a>

Organizational identification is the process in which a person aligns their own values and goals with those of the organization they work for and comes to see themselves as an integral part of it. When this identification is strong, people tend to experience the organization’s success as connected to their own.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: feb2b83ba3f49190f22c84e6e2cc85d1a75b60afc20be955718769a054a4382f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Öz Hamza; Meriç Erdal. The predictive power of organizational identification on teachers' organizational citizenship behaviors. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1818062; article XML SHA-256 b7fa2dfe3185675d3d3774c6053a6a36aaaf59893eb2f7a53fb85082f25e42f7. “The predictive power of organizational identification on teachers' organizational citizenship behaviors” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1818062).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1818062). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organizational justice
<a id="organizational-justice"></a>

Organizational justice is the degree of fairness employees perceive in how they are treated within an organization. Lower organizational justice means feeling less fairly treated at work and is linked in this source to greater ambivalence toward the organization and higher work-related stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a73d71bb0550898a088c7cb8ee13a563202feef4471b71cd3df70c19d383bb4b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ciampa Valeria. Ambivalent identification mediates the relationship between organizational justice and stress. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1260768; article XML SHA-256 48146952428b933939c3ba976ca6e5c0fae345c4579e8a77ae32ed5382e02932. “Ambivalent identification mediates the relationship between organizational justice and stress” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1260768).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1260768). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## organizational politics
<a id="organizational-politics"></a>

Organizational politics refers to the political dynamics within an organization as experienced or perceived by its members. In this context, it is viewed as a potentially harmful aspect of organizational life because higher perceived organizational politics is associated with lower organizational performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5501fccfc9aea55cd6eb72d10f2bdd62f09489fb15a8a2be5765f9c4687884bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aung Chan Nyein; Zhang Xinwen. Perceived organizational politics and organizational performance in governmental organizations: the moderating role of leadership styles. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838756; article XML SHA-256 936a15515061f37a4f8c4aa777c1e088209b345ccde5a60e8d3292af8a90e37d. “Perceived organizational politics and organizational performance in governmental organizations: the moderating role of leadership styles” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838756).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838756). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## orgasm
<a id="orgasm"></a>

Orgasm is the peak or climax of sexual excitement, occurring in humans or other animals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cc35122a0b3330edab3af0e611bb84a5490ce645040aad684f07e067cfb0ae8f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Orgasm” (D009948).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009948). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## orientation
<a id="orientation"></a>

Orientation is a person’s awareness of who they are and of their relation to time, place, and other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14a00036e2737868083b71f52a682defe14168bc2c6e27ae604286272ddf5ff2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Orientation” (D009949).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009949). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## orienting response
<a id="orienting-response"></a>

An orienting response is an automatic attention-and-body reaction to a significant event, reflected here by autonomic changes such as pupil dilation. In this context, it is described as a response triggered by an error that can influence how behavior is adjusted on the next trial.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ced7aede62142ee7c2f261ae7812a14f88e20706727f84f33cd0b5b6ded65fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Murphy Peter R; van Moort Marianne L; Nieuwenhuis Sander. The Pupillary Orienting Response Predicts Adaptive Behavioral Adjustment after Errors. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0151763; article XML SHA-256 3b99e943646616f38af6f258dd4ab6ca3ba72a002aba926e3db994b914594481. “The Pupillary Orienting Response Predicts Adaptive Behavioral Adjustment after Errors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0151763).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151763). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## original sin
<a id="original-sin"></a>

Original sin is the doctrine that human nature has an inborn tendency toward evil, attributed to the fall of man, which leads individuals toward actual wrongdoing. In this historical source, it is presented as a theological idea closely linked with total depravity and especially associated with Calvinism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48e8007f2fba88965c7f5faec31f56b7718164a471b17a43630c27de6e7dfb63

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Original Sin” (Original Sin).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O2defs.htm#Original Sin). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## orphenadrine
<a id="orphenadrine"></a>

Orphenadrine is a drug with muscle-relaxing effects that acts as a muscarinic antagonist. It appears to block muscarinic acetylcholine and NMDA receptors in the central nervous system, which may reduce nerve signaling from the spinal cord to muscles; it also has blocking effects at histamine H1 receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 303287be527694dbc629250257359855a832ac5bb71a5116b736937671af72ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Orphenadrine” (C61868).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## orthogenesis
<a id="orthogenesis"></a>

Orthogenesis is the historical idea that evolution proceeds along fixed, predetermined lines because of an internal life principle, rather than being chiefly shaped by environmental selection. In this view, natural selection is only secondary to a built-in direction of organic change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4fe159f84844569b213ee7a8c06dd25e31abdf0464dc82f4343294c46332e47

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Orthogenesis” (Orthogenesis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O2defs.htm#Orthogenesis). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## orthokinesis
<a id="orthokinesis"></a>

Orthokinesis is a type of movement response in which the speed or rate of movement changes with the intensity of stimulation, without directed steering toward or away from the stimulus. Any turning that occurs is random rather than oriented.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 670b6718134586471a60ddfe5434409aa698a92a84a0a0e72abc3bb4b1fff2cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Kinesis” (D007698).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007698). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Orthomolecular Therapy
<a id="orthomolecular-therapy"></a>

Orthomolecular therapy is an approach that uses very large amounts of vitamins or other natural substances already found in the body, often with the aim of treating mental disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c0f3c0e3a50f2c74a40e2138f1cea440b56fce3a638dc09cda33d228df4496c3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Orthomolecular Therapy” (D009974).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009974). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## orthopsychiatry
<a id="orthopsychiatry"></a>

Orthopsychiatry is the study and treatment of problems in human behavior using ideas from behavioral, medical, and social sciences, with a strong focus on promoting mental health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e7585a9eb87fd0255708c948b0e8e449d02bc1467f7c9f572466d5c4aa1c048

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Orthopsychiatry” (D009986).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009986). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## orthoptics
<a id="orthoptics"></a>

Orthoptics is the study and treatment of problems with binocular vision that arise from eye muscle problems or unhelpful visual habits. It uses eye exercises to help align the eyes so they work together more effectively.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 908a662574aa86d062d0c637049a69b28c76f771cac2dae0b02e9d5b46656a64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Orthoptics” (D009988).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009988). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Orthorexia Nervosa
<a id="orthorexia-nervosa"></a>

Orthorexia nervosa is an eating disorder involving a pathological obsession with eating in a healthy way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 669467dd14c79c52df318ac2ba42ead616eabd4af02d72c2be0a665db4f66815

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Orthorexia Nervosa” (D000088102).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000088102). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## orthostatic hypotension
<a id="orthostatic-hypotension"></a>

Orthostatic hypotension is a finding in which blood pressure drops noticeably after a person stands up from lying down. It commonly causes dizziness, blurred vision, or fainting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71bea60325f394727642b23a35493b04f5eb83e17fb8305c7aeafcd2289fd278

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hypotension, Orthostatic” (D007024).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007024). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## orthotics
<a id="orthotics"></a>

Orthotics are custom-made medical devices used to protect, correct, and support the body in people with conditions that affect movement or physical development. They are typically adjusted over time as a person’s body or recovery changes, because poor fit can cause pain, skin problems, or reduced mobility.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cd6f440192f73ae58131551efc180711c41de2012d8c5fac914a5ed641d79f6a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Spurway Charlotte; Dickinson Alex; Gates Lucy; Metcalf Cheryl; Kheng Sisary; Harte Carson; Sam Bunthoeun; Simpson Sam; Channon Amos. Examining the changing demand for orthotic service provision from routinely collected digital patient data: A national retrospective descriptive study across three clinics in Cambodia. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338461; article XML SHA-256 a47066a2ae7d05135d7a4eb1ae23990762b76f359beac83f576559392912cb32. “Examining the changing demand for orthotic service provision from routinely collected digital patient data: A national retrospective descriptive study across three clinics in Cambodia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338461).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338461). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oscillatory interference model
<a id="oscillatory-interference-model"></a>

An oscillatory interference model is a biological model of grid cell firing that explains the hexagonal spatial firing pattern as arising from interference among multiple oscillators. In this model, noise can cause drift in the position signal over time, with greater stability when more oscillators are involved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: edbe18b59bed634476506924fa68f3d83b5cb761388610230f1db6a6ddb80ac0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zilli Eric A.; Yoshida Motoharu; Tahvildari Babak; Giocomo Lisa M.; Hasselmo Michael E.. Evaluation of the Oscillatory Interference Model of Grid Cell Firing through Analysis and Measured Period Variance of Some Biological Oscillators. 2009; DOI 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000573; article XML SHA-256 96eca918f23074b1da2f17582a3ab3402d061dea8385f06e8a52b42a49c794ea. “Evaluation of the Oscillatory Interference Model of Grid Cell Firing through Analysis and Measured Period Variance of Some Biological Oscillators” (10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000573).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000573). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## OSHA
<a id="osha"></a>

OSHA stands for the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. In this source, it refers to the body whose accepted quantitative fit test was used to evaluate how well masks fit.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 65824daaa96eab951b2302c433c1fa29116f1c6e69a51306945658ebe7f2c302

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Strickling Maddison; Zarif Nasheed; Nguyen Hoang; Moradi Khalaj Samira; MacIntyre C Raina; Packard Robert; Selvaduray Guna; Wang Yun. A comparison of fit, heat stress, oxygen saturation and comfort between a novel reusable mask and disposable N95 respirator. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321538; article XML SHA-256 b55619b0e289414eea7cfb56791550ccbb26d473afca7be986be98b46ac2a22f. “A comparison of fit, heat stress, oxygen saturation and comfort between a novel reusable mask and disposable N95 respirator” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321538).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321538). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## osseous labyrinth
<a id="osseous-labyrinth"></a>

The osseous labyrinth is the bony part of the inner ear in the petrous portion of the temporal bone. It is a set of connected bone cavities that contains the membranous labyrinth and includes the vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd3b7df6b7d0860006b192a67843fa54bd7b8e756c336bd0ab09667657db030c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Osseous Labyrinth” (C33227).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## osteoporosis
<a id="osteoporosis"></a>

Osteoporosis is a chronic disease. In this mental health context, it is listed as one of the chronic conditions that people with depression may be at higher risk of developing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34746f3bec7800b501ded919869bae0d100d474db39551d8e104c241ce7531eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Understanding the Link Between Chronic Disease and Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 489ee450e1ae3e7b61ce4423b19d029bd53242764081f23b069db116ed965170. “Understanding the Link Between Chronic Disease and Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/chronic-illness-mental-health).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/chronic-illness-mental-health). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ostracism
<a id="ostracism"></a>

Ostracism is an extreme form of rejection in which a person is left out and ignored while others are present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1716f08c3238c869da8f8072e5c3d67cbc1cc612de6cb55f25902ca880babbbf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ostracism” (D000091488).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000091488). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ot-
<a id="ot"></a>

OT is an abbreviation for oxytocin, a neurotransmission system discussed in psychotherapy research as being linked with parts of the therapeutic alliance such as attachment, empathy, trust, cooperation, social synchrony, and support. In this context, it is described as a possible mechanism that may help strengthen these relationship factors and relate to symptoms of depression, stress, and fear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3dcfa4e585f0ff9d10fc1d1a620c559b1ceb6706b35090402d082dda3c40623

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eckert Marcus; Schandro Eva. How factors of the therapeutic alliance interact with oxytocin neurotransmission in psychotherapy. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1659841; article XML SHA-256 82a6e2010b516196aeafb1c8fb882dd6fc00beab0fe86531b0fc1f92ec534479. “How factors of the therapeutic alliance interact with oxytocin neurotransmission in psychotherapy” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1659841).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1659841). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## other-directed
<a id="other-directed"></a>

Other-directed describes emotions or reactions aimed at another person rather than at oneself. In this packet, it refers to feelings toward the gossiper, such as liking or anger, that can shape intentions to affiliate or retaliate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9e5241d0cb0fa9b42d11b7621a3deebb3266e56c39662f365854635eba36d5ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Martinescu Elena; Janssen Onne; Nijstad Bernard A.. Self-Evaluative and Other-Directed Emotional and Behavioral Responses to Gossip About the Self. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02603; article XML SHA-256 60d6e6a0b6f409455b2f96582595fef5cf2335fe2a040024b7a531b2a22fdd91. “Self-Evaluative and Other-Directed Emotional and Behavioral Responses to Gossip About the Self” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02603).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02603). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## otic
<a id="otic"></a>

Otic refers to a substance or preparation meant to be applied to the outer ear or placed into the ear canal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03ce49901aa75ba15a54b35b5cd89df9554b63deda1609699d16b99e6b86fcc9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Otic Dosage Form” (C69040).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## otitis media
<a id="otitis-media"></a>

Otitis media is inflammation in the middle ear, including the small ear bones and the Eustachian tube.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 225568f2484f7d3eceb5d82065f02d165f7c790026824d92ced6b289563d62c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Otitis Media” (D010033).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010033). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## otoacoustic emissions
<a id="otoacoustic-emissions"></a>

Otoacoustic emissions are a noninvasive test used to assess cochlear function before neural processing. In this method, sounds presented in the ear canal produce responses from the cochlea that serve as an objective sign of normally working outer hair cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e79570cf89b02d698489d239773ada3dd02d3a717da3b5748feec53d553484e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Distortion Product Otoacoustic Emissions” (C184951).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## otology
<a id="otology"></a>

Otology is the branch of science concerned with the ear, including its structure, functions, and disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa69b4ac010807eaf03c3e422b99f9f31dbace9c90f8d203cc9c80b6827c0eb7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Otology” (Otology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O2defs.htm#Otology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## otoneurology
<a id="otoneurology"></a>

Otoneurology is a subspecialty of otolaryngology focused on the parts of the nervous system that are related to the ear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e4ca922e396932322c8c05ed021a20bdb3480d3340b1d0c7ac9c50ef7e62d23

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurotology” (D063165).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063165). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ototoxic
<a id="ototoxic"></a>

Ototoxic refers to something that has a damaging effect on the inner ear. In this source, ototoxic exposure is linked to changes in vestibular structures and the cochlea, affecting balance-related and hearing-related parts of the ear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 15bc6a5f67c596487b7e404b399f7913dbd55df7ce102caf2b20058bef375f0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Trico Jessica; Watabe Isabelle; Parameshwarappa Vinay; Lapotre Agnes; Godaert Louis; Tonetto Alain; Chabbert Christian; Zwergal Andreas; Tighilet Brahim. Central and peripheral plasticity after chemical unilateral labyrinthectomy: Glial responses, calyces dynamics, and behavioral consequences. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355839; article XML SHA-256 420099f22891250bcdfe1d5842aeed1a859dc5692a33d6c83647c3621ddf9d3c. “Central and peripheral plasticity after chemical unilateral labyrinthectomy: Glial responses, calyces dynamics, and behavioral consequences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355839).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355839). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ought self
<a id="ought-self"></a>

Ought self is the version of oneself a person feels they should be. In self-discrepancy theory, a gap between the actual self and the ought self is one form of self-discrepancy that can motivate behavior aimed at reducing that gap.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 261b7f6543c17bdcda7f977d98dd533c101349bf244ed3c7d0c139b400d91fd0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Chuan; Cao Rui; Huang Jiao; Wei Ying. The Effect of Self-Discrepancy on Online Behavior: A Literature Review. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.883736; article XML SHA-256 b4883b0fca048b4ecb4bd919f1b1639b2f71d27349eca59ebffcb4074cbb515d. “The Effect of Self-Discrepancy on Online Behavior: A Literature Review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.883736).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.883736). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## outcome
<a id="outcome"></a>

In mental health care, outcome refers to the result or progress of care as checked through follow-up assessment. Outcome measurement means routinely assessing these results as part of measurement-based care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf9ada644e9b8fe6e0be4ac71269cd351c36bf467942a43f755326a4749905f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [El Alaoui Samir; Jayaram-Lindström Nitya; Bohman Benjamin. Guideline adherence in depression outcome measurement: a retrospective cohort study from Swedish psychiatric outpatient care. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1667897; article XML SHA-256 02a5d5baa79aec90baaa270883e37fc2483f883deb2f5d85df69f56307350099. “Guideline adherence in depression outcome measurement: a retrospective cohort study from Swedish psychiatric outpatient care” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1667897).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1667897). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## outcome dependence
<a id="outcome-dependence"></a>

Outcome dependence is the degree to which a person relies on a powerful authority for desired social or material results because that authority controls valued resources. In social psychology, it reflects how much someone depends on the system represented by that authority.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6348b141e0a4b80fd96a77ec86e7e63d09a5c9eb75bfe3eb65aa6ea601c79fc2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Shuwei; Zhou Jie. Social Justice and Public Cooperation Intention: Mediating Role of Political Trust and Moderating Effect of Outcome Dependence. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01381; article XML SHA-256 4d2569a0de9bd88a1bf17e4e7cfeb7254661acbd3bced844b3d774154ae0045f. “Social Justice and Public Cooperation Intention: Mediating Role of Political Trust and Moderating Effect of Outcome Dependence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01381).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01381). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## outcome expectancies
<a id="outcome-expectancies"></a>

Outcome expectancies are the consequences a person believes or anticipates will result from their own behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7b3bf40bd294d00fc5233856333695ef8da16f74c9f82b2a45eb042aa27e5c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Outcome Expectations” (D000099056).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000099056). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## outcome measures
<a id="outcome-measures"></a>

Outcome measures are tools used to assess results such as a person’s health and well-being, especially change after a new intervention. In this packet, they include patient-completed standardised measures of health status and separate measures of the person’s experience of the care received.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 965721e67ea40b58520eaf721ab6ba379d40aedb6e76943d1791ca0766059b5f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Roos Eirik; Molden Thomas Hugaas; Lindberg Martin Schevik; Westerlund Heidi; Johansen Karl Johan; Havnen Audun. Therapists’ and patients’ experiences with electronic patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) and patient-reported experience measures (PREMs) before and during treatment in community mental health services: a qualitative study in Norway. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07541-5; article XML SHA-256 28401783fd129dbe2267e7ce5bd1ad03e0491097995f8ac69a787762f1047e8b. “Therapists’ and patients’ experiences with electronic patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) and patient-reported experience measures (PREMs) before and during treatment in community mental health services: a qualitative study in Norway” (10.1186/s12888-025-07541-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07541-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## outer hair cells
<a id="outer-hair-cells"></a>

Outer hair cells are sensory cells in the organ of Corti of the inner ear. In mammals, they are usually found in three or four rows on the outer side of the inner auditory hair cells, and their size and stereocilia length vary along the cochlea in ways that support responses to different sound frequencies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4985e2da1a2ae1e81e51e1627467625a10284ffdfd7f170c9afc01d1b2aaa7ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hair Cells, Auditory, Outer” (D018072).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018072). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## outer plexiform layer
<a id="outer-plexiform-layer"></a>

The outer plexiform layer is a layer of the retina involved in its normal laminated organization. In this source, it is described as a recognizable retinal layer that can be lost when the outer and inner nuclear layers become severely disorganized.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 609a49a8c91c2f04a09a8af012c1cd3e4ec6c9b568ef1a0933842425ae0e0e87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dahl Tiffanie M; Reed Michelle; Gerstner Cecilia D; Ying Guoxin; Baehr Wolfgang. Effect of conditional deletion of cytoplasmic dynein heavy chain DYNC1H1 on postnatal photoreceptors. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248354; article XML SHA-256 25a6793bc488ab0e71b0ac588c3d398fd61aa253fea0ace930ccf69b88d8d59f. “Effect of conditional deletion of cytoplasmic dynein heavy chain DYNC1H1 on postnatal photoreceptors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248354).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248354). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## outgroup
<a id="outgroup"></a>

An outgroup is a group that a person sees as outside their own group identity, such as the opposing political party. In this context, the term is used when studying feelings like animosity or intolerance directed toward that other group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ed0fb4326c7a26707b636bfa9bb46a95d6077e69df384ba1f4991e9907a051a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schul Yaacov; Ganzach Yoav; Pazy Asya. On the within-person effects of political attitudes on outgroup animosity: Evidence for Democratic-Republican asymmetry. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352103; article XML SHA-256 4bce33ab02021247575b180d9b554f829ce76cc96098dd32e42a14185387345a. “On the within-person effects of political attitudes on outgroup animosity: Evidence for Democratic-Republican asymmetry” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352103).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352103). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## outlier
<a id="outlier"></a>

An outlier is a data point that is unusual or rare compared with the rest of the observations and lies far from the center of a distribution. Because there is no single agreed rule for identifying one, outliers should be interpreted cautiously and their impact on statistical results should be checked.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8de1673071b01b03f2977a71cf073b58d50375d7cea6b01de065a88ee26b1423

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Outlier” (outlier.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/outlier.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## output
<a id="output"></a>

In this context, output means the observable or measurable result of performance, such as the acoustic sound produced in singing. The source contrasts output with the broader learning process, emphasizing that singing involves bodily, expressive, and developmental learning that cannot be understood only through measurable results.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3f1731a5caf03d1ee8fcaaa37fbb3f76e824657c8d3ed2976b23b0b8ca5d0810

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Youhe. Beyond output metrics: reframing AI-assisted vocal pedagogy through human learning and educational value. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1844841; article XML SHA-256 49e6112ac89a275b834e1743ca86742b695aac5c1e2533a5b38895aa5da26b7d. “Beyond output metrics: reframing AI-assisted vocal pedagogy through human learning and educational value” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1844841).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1844841). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## output interference
<a id="output-interference"></a>

Output interference is the idea that remembering some items can disrupt the recall of other items as a person continues through a recall sequence. In this context, it is used to explain why memory performance may worsen after the first item is retrieved, because later recall becomes more vulnerable to interference from earlier output.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 77a25db8f1077b2c83d623d8778891f964c3ed514913fef3bd408fc7130ca2a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Talmi Deborah; Caplan Jeremy B.; Richards Brian; Moscovitch Morris. Long-Term Recency in Anterograde Amnesia. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0124084; article XML SHA-256 0e2970141a43af88631f6c40e9126b91ba563cb4d0d3fdaf2ff663f59132a8b3. “Long-Term Recency in Anterograde Amnesia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0124084).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0124084). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oval window
<a id="oval-window"></a>

The oval window is an opening in the outer wall of the inner ear’s vestibule, a bony space within the labyrinth. It is filled by the base of the stapes from the middle ear and lies near the cochlea and semicircular canals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7202e106ee0a88121519400cb94dc8eab5c69ab1beb696f3cd5e0c5e848d946e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vestibule, Labyrinth” (D014722).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014722). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## over-the-counter
<a id="over-the-counter"></a>

Over-the-counter refers to a category of medications mentioned as distinct from prescription medications. In this context, it means nonprescription medicines a person may be taking and should discuss with a health care provider.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f421c1dff9f8cced685dcbce149d82a5e936ea2f9a03bf6153763b4c54eaec9f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Seasonal Affective Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d89120086a5f01bf70f21f43fbf64f1a5b58f4c35f5185f5dac0c769f3d6317c. “Seasonal Affective Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## overactivity
<a id="overactivity"></a>

Overactivity, in this mental health context, means heightened autonomic bodily activity that can accompany anxiety. It refers to physical signs such as butterflies in the stomach, indigestion, palpitations, hyperventilation, sweating, flushing, tremor, headache, or frequent urination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0624ae3ad435baf0bd837ffd9e74df9eac321f170eb3c5ff5458bbbd568a35e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “HAMD-21 - Anxiety Somatic” (C102097).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## overcompensation
<a id="overcompensation"></a>

Overcompensation is a coping style in schema theory in which a person responds as though the opposite of an underlying schema were true. It is a state-based reaction, involving thoughts, feelings, and behavior aimed at disproving the schema in the moment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0019617f532a44f79f925772953c7406238872a0ab2f8bf79b6c5b8344750af2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gazzellini Simone; Pellegrini Valerio; Napoli Eleonora; Ventre Vanessa; Lettori Donatella; Castelli Enrico; Basile Barbara; Giacomantonio Mauro. Validation of the schema coping inventory for dysfunctional coping strategies. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1441794; article XML SHA-256 f30e51625d931c1ec3611655a7f83331b0a0ad2297739823c58e6111564423ca. “Validation of the schema coping inventory for dysfunctional coping strategies” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1441794).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1441794). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## overcontrolled
<a id="overcontrolled"></a>

Overcontrolled refers to a personality style marked by unusually high self-control, often described as constricted and associated with traits like introversion and restraint. In eating-disorder research, this style has most often been linked with anorexia nervosa and restricting forms of eating disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39af6a93a3fc22dac2e3f301c9d7cc4218c1d205b7a0b476dff13fa91d569b47

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Isaksson Martina; Ghaderi Ata; Wolf-Arehult Martina; Ramklint Mia. Overcontrolled, undercontrolled, and resilient personality styles among patients with eating disorders. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s40337-021-00400-0; article XML SHA-256 ae7a27b528d2fccf82ea5185f313ce8569ba535fd650d9d261e37ed24b334b51. “Overcontrolled, undercontrolled, and resilient personality styles among patients with eating disorders” (10.1186/s40337-021-00400-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-021-00400-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## overcrowding
<a id="overcrowding"></a>

Overcrowding is a living situation in which more people occupy a space than it can reasonably hold, in ways linked to harmful physical or mental health effects. It can be described using measures such as the number of people per room, the total number of people in a home, or how many people share a given amount of floor space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 59c8a6fb3da4b734ff7be1f0f68a0ce76cb0ed5330083d109a17e9b26a8a0609

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Household Crowding” (C173632).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## overdetermination
<a id="overdetermination"></a>

Overdetermination is a situation in which an effect is already fully accounted for by one set of causes, so adding another supposed cause would make that added cause redundant. In this packet, it refers to the worry that if a whole is completely determined by its parts, then any causal influence from the whole back to the parts would duplicate causation rather than add anything new.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0459f79fcbaa753455c3edfd06df9dd999c852bc779f7c3590358b0edae26708

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ohmura Yoshiyuki; Kuniyoshi Yasuo. Whole-to-parts causation mechanism. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1654139; article XML SHA-256 9f5050a3b8a4319afd2544e53644ccc645e52039af698af3fee05de61b838c1a. “Whole-to-parts causation mechanism” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1654139).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1654139). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## overdose
<a id="overdose"></a>

An overdose is exposure to or taking in too much of a substance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cadb9bf93c1c4b7430629cf5f83f4e94eea97ca0e42d02cbeae22ac3cb65badc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Overdose” (C50873).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## overgeneralization
<a id="overgeneralization"></a>

Overgeneralization is drawing conclusions that are broader than the available evidence can support. In this context, it means applying findings too widely when the evidence is limited, inconsistent, or not representative across groups or settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5bdfec441e5a4f9f02bd7dba9b442aff7c9edf484cd22fb5932a7036bcf1ff15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shen Miao; Wang Sihang; Wang Guanjie; Zhou Jiejin; Li Pei. Training characteristics of professional development activities in elite football players: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826135; article XML SHA-256 ee06cb4bf127b228ac3a6a41e3c3f547419effa0ddae679e48bcf9df80dad817. “Training characteristics of professional development activities in elite football players: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826135).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826135). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## overheating
<a id="overheating"></a>

In this packet, overheating means a type of orbital TIG weld defect identified from images during automated classification. The packet does not provide a broader psychological or counselling meaning for the term.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ccda66d7bd93a17d79e524c29ef8877cde95c680389f999f6b22994c144e3ac6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Quang Huy Vu; Minh Thuan Vu; Van Huong Hoang; The Uyen Tran Minh; Nguyen Van-Thuc; Son Minh Pham. TIG welding defect detection using ResNet and Random Forest. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353276; article XML SHA-256 15ddf1541340dd682d7982bd6d9ed64821e46ab07ef104cb146d74391f207129. “TIG welding defect detection using ResNet and Random Forest” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353276).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353276). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Overlearning
<a id="overlearning"></a>

Overlearning is a type of learning in which practice continues after a person can already perform an act to the required level of excellence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6bcad113036b0b3fc1b2303f363c4d81933337006d97e884ae103062cae46ff5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Overlearning” (D010056).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010056). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oversampling
<a id="oversampling"></a>

Oversampling is a way of handling imbalanced data by increasing representation of the underrepresented class. In this source, it means generating additional minority-class examples within a graph-based framework while trying to preserve important structural relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1451ec586fae6c8af5d8eecfd2167846e567c304f5145fdaf258588978ac9de1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wei Sizheng; Lee Suan. Internet fraud transaction detection based on temporal-aware heterogeneous graph oversampling and attention fusion network. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337208; article XML SHA-256 55948484b321df5a4d63e14e69cd4f661752090bbc84bea1a61dc0807a1c6614. “Internet fraud transaction detection based on temporal-aware heterogeneous graph oversampling and attention fusion network” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337208).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337208). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## overshoot
<a id="overshoot"></a>

Overshoot is a tendency for a voluntary limb movement to go past its intended target. In this source, it is described as a feature of incoordination seen in cerebellar disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c02536da9c24cc839aba1ef4a69e01aac68dc95fd65722a2c85bae6e8be0a176

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebellar Ataxia” (D002524).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002524). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## overt response
<a id="overt-response"></a>

An overt response is an observable action or spoken output a person makes during a task, such as saying a word aloud. In this context, it contrasts with earlier mental processing that can be measured before the visible or audible response occurs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 99473add97ab050e67de4d40df30a7f81291a64949663829c53e59464e037c91

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Timmer Kalinka; Schiller Niels O.. Neural correlates reveal sub-lexical orthography and phonology during reading aloud: a review. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00884; article XML SHA-256 e8047a9fa8d1e00466b6a21045b7481186c27f509562a78a821813a377ced465. “Neural correlates reveal sub-lexical orthography and phonology during reading aloud: a review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00884).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00884). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## overtone
<a id="overtone"></a>

An overtone is one of the higher partial tones present in a compound tone, with a pitch above the fundamental tone. It is relevant to the quality or timbre of a sound.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c1a5d64c2d35e942415d76ec5e86baab0140393bfe789f9e95e52c28ace678a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Overtone” (Overtone).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O2defs.htm#Overtone). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## overtraining syndrome
<a id="overtraining-syndrome"></a>

Overtraining syndrome is a state caused by too much training and other life stress that leads to a short-term drop in performance, sometimes along with physical and psychological signs of poor adaptation. Recovery of performance can take weeks to months.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0bb1fc90c475ab6634096b85d25448fab01899e0ec112283face593b7e005148

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Overtraining Syndrome” (D000095027).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000095027). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oviparity
<a id="oviparity"></a>

Oviparity is reproduction by laying eggs. In the source, it is described as the ancestral egg-laying condition in early synapsids.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d4ea9406294968e14c0bba87b8dbe429f254cbe28e343673b00237de3a629e1e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Benoit Julien; Fernandez Vincent; Botha Jennifer. The first non-mammalian synapsid embryo from the Triassic of South Africa. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345016; article XML SHA-256 1635e2b657a95b4285a24f89c5ecbefcc71bace829bfa3304ed5f67f2bfa0329. “The first non-mammalian synapsid embryo from the Triassic of South Africa” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345016).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345016). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ovulation
<a id="ovulation"></a>

Ovulation is the time of peak fertility, marked by hormonal changes. In the source context, it is discussed as a biological state that can be linked to changes in women’s mating-related behavior and interest in conspicuous luxury goods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18cb68908392e595bb84550842be4175c8f8481bdf5b8270336f6f21aa006f20

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Aekyoung; Durante Kristina M.; Laran Juliano; Nikiforidis Lambrianos; Griskevicius Vladas. Fertility increases women’s desire for conspicuous luxury. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354126; article XML SHA-256 9eff35fd2d7e6055619752d45a20e4a56a051ed9986aaa000fe786c9581e7045. “Fertility increases women’s desire for conspicuous luxury” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354126).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354126). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ovulatory cycle
<a id="ovulatory-cycle"></a>

The ovulatory cycle is the recurring menstrual cycle that includes a fertile phase around ovulation. In the source, it is described as a cycle during which some features, such as facial skin redness, can vary across days, with redness rising before ovulation and staying relatively high through the luteal phase.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed2590bccebc838bc0995ad9de82035cf0fb910773c142c06eded74ec375a26e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Burriss Robert P.; Troscianko Jolyon; Lovell P. George; Fulford Anthony J. C.; Stevens Martin; Quigley Rachael; Payne Jenny; Saxton Tamsin K.; Rowland Hannah M.. Changes in Women’s Facial Skin Color over the Ovulatory Cycle are Not Detectable by the Human Visual System. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0130093; article XML SHA-256 46173fc80b64189df1dcec4f3e4a38dd6017dedfb3731a2286fd1363854eaaea. “Changes in Women’s Facial Skin Color over the Ovulatory Cycle are Not Detectable by the Human Visual System” (10.1371/journal.pone.0130093).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130093). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ovum
<a id="ovum"></a>

Ovum is the female reproductive element or egg. In historical usage, the term could refer to the immature ovarian cell, the mature egg, the fertilized egg after union with sperm, or even early stages of the developing embryo.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f4631788494b5448418f7fd2e084c9f763315a06cef353985737c0c1fb46eb2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ovum” (Ovum).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O2defs.htm#Ovum). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oxazepam
<a id="oxazepam"></a>

Oxazepam is a benzodiazepine medication used to help treat anxiety, alcohol withdrawal, and insomnia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6154a35df5b51184d5e92d1de62e403355355a4e7688515bfbc36629bf1fbc3c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oxazepam” (D010076).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010076). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oxycodone
<a id="oxycodone"></a>

Oxycodone is a semi-synthetic opioid with pain-relieving effects. It acts in the central nervous system by binding mu opioid receptors and reducing the release of signals involved in pain and neuronal activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16a4ae6181b1650259981edeb9b80981fe9968e8306713a4fe221d3cbd26f862

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Oxycodone” (C29309).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oxytocic
<a id="oxytocic"></a>

Oxytocic refers to a drug that causes the uterine muscle layer to contract. These drugs are used in childbirth and related obstetric situations, including starting labor, controlling bleeding after delivery or abortion, assessing fetal status in high-risk pregnancies, and sometimes helping induce abortion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca3cb8b165c5c074942b16b2072e9fa1d7890562b5635524a9a899085c3bc992

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oxytocics” (D010120).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010120). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## oxytocin
<a id="oxytocin"></a>

Oxytocin is a hormone made of nine amino acids and released from the posterior pituitary. It acts on smooth muscle, including helping trigger uterine contractions and milk release.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07202f6622d5157cdbbb6acfbfc03cf084245972f3fc24a90d94f0aa47cb189c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oxytocin” (D010121).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010121). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## P-cell
<a id="p-cell"></a>

A P-cell is a pressure-sensitive mechanosensory neuron. In the supplied source, it refers specifically to this type of neuron in the leech Hirudo verbana that can be stimulated to produce action potentials.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 57c065ce6b0a3a0438f7608ff3f714005eaf68ee29f8d41c3202942748f2420d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ferguson Alexandra C; Miller Damon A; Jellies John; Ellinger Michael; Koelling Melinda E; Linn Cindy L. In vivo efficacy of current stimuli computed by optimal tracking of neuron membrane voltage. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345922; article XML SHA-256 c8e88b552f5f5fcdc2002a8ee0e9bd244231df41280722f5a266ad65d779fdd6. “In vivo efficacy of current stimuli computed by optimal tracking of neuron membrane voltage” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345922).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345922). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## P-technique factor analysis
<a id="p-technique-factor-analysis"></a>

P-technique factor analysis is a form of factor analysis used on repeated measurements from one person over time to identify the latent factors that organize that individual’s pattern of covariation among variables. Unlike population-level R-technique analysis, it focuses on within-person structure and can reveal person-specific patterns or “signatures” that may differ from between-person results.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 28ad84de577b6bc3a9b62a70e54af04bcdb4892a8718a670c825c090ea5cbea4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Strohacker Kelley; Keegan Richard; Beaumont Cory T.; Zakrajsek Rebecca A.. Applying P-Technique Factor Analysis to Explore Person-Specific Models of Readiness-to-Exercise. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fspor.2021.685813; article XML SHA-256 3f0cb6281c7b8b1234bb14650c50e865b8820f45ad8215411e59458ed5b12f06. “Applying P-Technique Factor Analysis to Explore Person-Specific Models of Readiness-to-Exercise” (10.3389/fspor.2021.685813).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2021.685813). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## P1 component
<a id="p1-component"></a>

The P1 component is a feature of the cortical auditory evoked potential used as a marker of auditory cortical maturation. In children with auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder who receive cochlear implants, its presence and timing can indicate how well auditory development is progressing and are linked with later auditory and language outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cfe524c8429494f0a9ca10951c86315199c017fd3fd63c96072578978183491c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Sang-Yeon; Han Jin Hee; Song Hoo-Kang; Kim Namju Justin; Yi Nayoung; Kyong Jeong-Sug; Choi Byung Yoon. Central auditory maturation and behavioral outcomes after cochlear implantation in prelingual auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder related to OTOF variants (DFNB9): Lessons from pilot study. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0252717; article XML SHA-256 ca3b6306420e4b433ce083a096612ddc8b5ba4d55b091d403108e58b1632e9b3. “Central auditory maturation and behavioral outcomes after cochlear implantation in prelingual auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder related to OTOF variants (DFNB9): Lessons from pilot study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0252717).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252717). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## P2 component
<a id="p2-component"></a>

The P2 component is a positive event-related brain potential measured in ERP recordings. In this source, it is used as an index of how difficult lexical access is during language production, with a larger P2 linked to harder word retrieval in picture naming.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c67a2cfad1ad0eb83fe3a4f3dc8fd970f18784087e3ab9217d9edd38018a714c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Redmann Alexandra; FitzPatrick Ian; Hellwig Frauke; Indefrey Peter. The use of conceptual components in language production: an ERP study. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00363; article XML SHA-256 9bd6d28105b5b702d4dae8969d2fd2a52c996299beca758a5b3e7e99e5b094d0. “The use of conceptual components in language production: an ERP study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00363).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00363). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## P300
<a id="p300"></a>

P300 is a positive brain-response signal seen on EEG about 300 milliseconds after a person notices an expected target that appears rarely and unpredictably. In psychology and brain-computer interface work, it is treated as one type of event-related potential linked to detecting meaningful target stimuli.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d88ee39ea9fed45e9fa74765a41f60d20ae22de3ff1d6f240cb343d88a69b3d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tou Si Long Jenny; Warschausky Seth A.; Karlsson Petra; Huggins Jane E.. Individualized electrode subset improves the calibration accuracy of an EEG P300-design brain-computer interface for people with severe cerebral palsy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1720969; article XML SHA-256 c74f723a51191db59252355c64966288b0d5e0ffc853a96e4ddd84df8e3f9e17. “Individualized electrode subset improves the calibration accuracy of an EEG P300-design brain-computer interface for people with severe cerebral palsy” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1720969).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1720969). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## p53
<a id="p53"></a>

p53 is a cellular protein whose levels can be lowered when MDM2 tags it for degradation, leading to loss of p53 function. In the source material, increasing p53 restored its function and helped promote cell growth arrest.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d90efb22ba95f74ed77e5966e23baed241818cfb86ab4be47e0f40b01b83b40b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ning Xuerao; Nguyễn Thảo Thi Thanh; Morinaga Takao; Tada Yuji; Shimada Hideaki; Hiroshima Kenzo; Yamaguchi Naoto; Tagawa Masatoshi. Strategic selection of MDM2 inhibitors enhances the efficacy of FAK inhibition in mesothelioma based on TP53 genotype. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343551; article XML SHA-256 aeda4712f2315f7ce47cf5cccaa3f44e4c109c41eec420f1fd53ca6049c258ed. “Strategic selection of MDM2 inhibitors enhances the efficacy of FAK inhibition in mesothelioma based on TP53 genotype” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343551).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343551). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PA
<a id="pa"></a>

PA stands for physical activity. In this review, it refers to bodily activity examined in relation to mental health and linked with benefits such as better sleep, cognitive functioning, quality of life, and emotional and social functioning, while participation can be shaped by social, environmental, and cultural factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c79c71a598a9e147cb76985a54d952ebbda53230bf8c5425a61bd518ae15025f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alharthy Amani. The impact of physical activity on mental health across diverse populations in Saudi Arabia: a narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1795785; article XML SHA-256 d935f672dcc6ca92de173a039f1770b9a37f1248e52d5101062dd87f2e516935. “The impact of physical activity on mental health across diverse populations in Saudi Arabia: a narrative review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1795785).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1795785). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test
<a id="paced-auditory-serial-addition-test"></a>

The Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT) is a cognitive test used to evaluate cognitive functioning in research, including studies of people with multiple sclerosis. In this context, it is one of several measures used to assess cognitive outcomes alongside other memory and processing tests.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6c80a77a9b7424616b1acbb801bd08e9f0868fb0fd03037c5280795f0c1ea16f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Golabi Behnam; Razmaray Hadis; Seyedi-Sahebari Sepideh; Bandehagh Heliya; Hakimzadeh Zahra; Khosroshahi Ailin; Moghaddamziabari Seyedehyasmin; Aghaei Negar; Sanaie Sarvin; Talebi Mahnaz; Naseri Amirreza. Sleep and cognitive outcomes in multiple sclerosis; a systematic review. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-06103-5; article XML SHA-256 40ad529e9c4b68d3e080dcadb9791f517c833f56f3807a128b9c7dbdae3bf26b. “Sleep and cognitive outcomes in multiple sclerosis; a systematic review” (10.1186/s12888-024-06103-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-06103-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Pacinian corpuscle
<a id="pacinian-corpuscle"></a>

A Pacinian corpuscle is a touch receptor in the tissue under the skin, including both hairy and smooth skin. It contains a sensory nerve ending wrapped in many layered coverings and responds especially to rapid, high-frequency stimulation such as vibration over a relatively large area.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 74eacdf55271d8943e3815799d8fa91fdc75084b3bdbaeeea976ffe7f9f86f13

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pacinian Corpuscles” (D010141).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010141). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pain
<a id="pain"></a>

Pain is an unpleasant sensation caused by harmful stimuli that are detected by nerve endings of nociceptive neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e28f276ddeea3af31e57723070f4f3388463bc910abf72c9622541701cec2f68

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pain” (D010146).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010146). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pain drawing
<a id="pain-drawing"></a>

A pain drawing is a simple tool used during history-taking in which a patient shows or marks their pain to help communication with a clinician. In mental health-related assessment of back pain, it has been studied as a possible screening aid for signs of anxiety, depression, and reduced quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eabf9b361fdf15da565f556c107baaaf0abbe039b8512ab06e7975c362371ef9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Weßollek Katharina; Kowark Ana; Czaplik Michael; Rossaint Rolf; Kowark Pascal. Pain drawing as a screening tool for anxiety, depression and reduced health-related quality of life in back pain patients: A cohort study. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0258329; article XML SHA-256 526edd6c3410514cf515fc9d4b1d03f61ec1d3aad0929c8036b5ba732d34b69e. “Pain drawing as a screening tool for anxiety, depression and reduced health-related quality of life in back pain patients: A cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0258329).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258329). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pain pathway
<a id="pain-pathway"></a>

A pain pathway is the system by which pain is controlled through two linked processes: signals that carry or amplify pain upward and signals that reduce or inhibit pain from above. In the source, this idea is used to describe pain regulation in mammals and similar pain modulation mechanisms observed in flies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5f69729078af80bcb546acecac98a0741c1e7e71f5639ce9052cee9dac49b16d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jang Wijeong; Oh Myungsok; Cho Eun-Hee; Baek Minwoo; Kim Changsoo. Drosophila pain sensitization and modulation unveiled by a novel pain model and analgesic drugs. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281874; article XML SHA-256 4231b27038058396a677487ffd25e22ee68d083926712e4be01bf07b901eb8b5. “Drosophila pain sensitization and modulation unveiled by a novel pain model and analgesic drugs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281874).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281874). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pain perception
<a id="pain-perception"></a>

Pain perception is the brain’s process of recognizing and making sense of pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abccd3e55f0ea5303dfd18a1defb88ec251fa9b6fed8a1222bd597a3b18fc2b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pain Perception” (D058748).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058748). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pain scale
<a id="pain-scale"></a>

A pain scale is a standardized tool for rating how severe pain feels. In this version, a person such as a child who cannot rely on numbers alone chooses from six facial expressions that match pain levels from 0 for no pain to 10 for very much pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e05020e8769972a668a8cf66e4ce2555ebe6d98483e6521d6564cd2a7610e0a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Faces Pain Scale Revised Questionnaire” (C100766).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pain sense
<a id="pain-sense"></a>

Pain sense is the capacity to feel pain as a sensory experience. In this historical source, it is discussed in terms of how pain thresholds, differences in pain, and the greatest bearable pain can be measured by applying increasing pressure to the skin with an algometer or algesimeter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3512aeae46df21c93abfb115375817ce0ac8fc25b7cafd014cee0926023a371c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Laboratory (of psychology) and Apparatus” (Laboratory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Laboratory). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Pain Threshold
<a id="pain-threshold"></a>

Pain threshold is the minimum level of stimulation at which a person begins to feel pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f23c4f0002cf62b171e4f2219ead62a1f38e62a244cee7ab849ab1564e7f79fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Pain Threshold” (D017288).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017288). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pair bond
<a id="pair-bond"></a>

A pair bond is a social relationship between a male and female animal that forms for reproduction and can also involve caring for their young together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71b6bbf042b073e3e91a40f2619f31b95657194585ab79e84f31f80b08e55be1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pair Bond” (D010152).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010152). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paired sample
<a id="paired-sample"></a>

A paired sample is a set of linked observations in which the same people are measured more than once, such as across two time points in a longitudinal study. This kind of sample lets researchers test whether scores changed within the same participants over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1ca729215b131940e76360dd11a4d894c2a88847ac63185062a53888793547a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Qiuyu; Huang Tinglan; Huang Lehui; Wu Xueshi. The impact of university students’ computational thinking on AI literacy: A longitudinal study based on SEM-PLS. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350124; article XML SHA-256 ce1b040ccefbf638e6b1563c6c996db5367bf36fea7169f189199e2490327e1f. “The impact of university students’ computational thinking on AI literacy: A longitudinal study based on SEM-PLS” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350124).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350124). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paired-samples t test
<a id="paired-samples-t-test"></a>

A paired-samples t test is a statistical test for two related measurements, such as scores from the same people under two conditions. It tests whether the difference scores between the paired measurements differ significantly from zero, making it mathematically equivalent to a one-sample t test on those differences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d855eca4a68efde56628f19b805760b0435f17cb4c8932019f1af181077369e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pairing hypothesis
<a id="pairing-hypothesis"></a>

The pairing hypothesis is the idea that, in some temperate early-spring-breeding amphibians, mating pairs form most reliably through a two-stage process: some pairings begin before winter at or near breeding sites, and others occur again after emergence in spring. In the source, this is presented as the “surefire pairing hypothesis,” linking autumn female-first arrival, group hibernation, and spring male-first arrival to more secure pair formation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 457ae62c6e26f410f589f89396f68297f9a6db5e1db74d18cf93eae4abfe1740

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Miwa Tokio. Autumn protogyny and spring protandry: Mechanisms and adaptive significance in a Japanese headwater frog, Rana sakuraii. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320076; article XML SHA-256 a5c42efd02e6843a1013710caaf6ae8597a0cb50e800b5e4d8d25ee49f80ed88. “Autumn protogyny and spring protandry: Mechanisms and adaptive significance in a Japanese headwater frog, Rana sakuraii” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320076).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320076). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paleo-
<a id="paleo"></a>

Paleo- is a prefix used to refer to ancient or long-past conditions or features. In this source, it appears in paleo-groundwater levels, meaning reconstructed groundwater conditions from earlier historical periods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 15fe082bb8ea540403481b94ee8d79762e203931b258f575b775970fa9e7081a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiang Chenyao; Lee Harry F; Jia Xin; Kong Xinggong. Changes in paleo-groundwater levels revealed by water wells and their relationship with climate variations in imperial Southern China. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0292662; article XML SHA-256 8d8f583202c4a4ad04ced9d900684d1ac06fe706eec3a121be6dabd9e3894128. “Changes in paleo-groundwater levels revealed by water wells and their relationship with climate variations in imperial Southern China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0292662).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292662). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paleostriatum
<a id="paleostriatum"></a>

Paleostriatum refers to the globus pallidus, a gray-matter part of the lentiform nucleus within the corpus striatum. It lies in each cerebral hemisphere in front of and to the side of the thalamus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 10d29b3cc100a3232ff3a3cdf75a97988258b5d69b475a79be1ab21ab531445d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Corpus Striatum” (D003342).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003342). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## palliative care
<a id="palliative-care"></a>

Palliative care is active, whole-person support for people with advanced, progressive illness that also centers the needs of their families. It focuses on relief of pain and other symptoms, clear communication and support around care choices, and emotional, social, spiritual, rehabilitation, end-of-life, and bereavement needs to help achieve the best possible quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7a2b86a7788ad0c1cb6a5058255d560fc769873d50dd91b275a1fea8e7248ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Palliative Therapy” (C15292).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## palmar reflex
<a id="palmar-reflex"></a>

The palmar reflex is a hand reflex in which the fingers close when the palm-side of the hand is struck or stimulated. In this source it is linked with spinal segments from the seventh cervical to the first thoracic levels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb85a1be27a0a3e55fc27e09e89b41584e58aaa55fcbf8ff1f42aae12275c500

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-945000-957000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## palmistry
<a id="palmistry"></a>

Palmistry is described here as a form of occult lore: a practice tied to the belief that hidden knowledge about nature can be gained through mysterious or magical methods and secret teachings. In this historical source, it is placed outside the realm of modern science.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc6af37c192113eefb0ff70bff6ed2de44928b551286fd6b51e8f7ddf931f8d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Occult” (Occult).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Occult). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## palsy
<a id="palsy"></a>

Palsy is a general term for severe or complete loss of muscle strength caused by disease affecting the motor system anywhere from the brain’s cortex to the muscle itself. It can also sometimes mean loss of sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07932da6bd5ce52d3f9dbd675ff12d7b35b899818c11932bf82acc15b858c619

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paralysis” (D010243).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010243). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Pamelor
<a id="pamelor"></a>

Pamelor is nortriptyline hydrochloride, a tricyclic antidepressant used for brief treatment of several kinds of depression. It increases norepinephrine activity in the central nervous system by preventing its reuptake, and it also acts on alpha-adrenergic, histamine, and cholinergic receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 139198a5609eea7c4555befea798f6a6594d358c31f0ecd356109935d59f4326

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nortriptyline Hydrochloride” (C704).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PAN
<a id="pan"></a>

PAN refers to pansexuality: sexual, romantic, or emotional attraction to people regardless of sex or gender identity, including people who are agender, non-binary, or gender fluid.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 19c2a5d60cd17b20d243a37d3c548ac61d4881da2d7b364e7f72a9328bc676ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pansexuality” (C180327).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PANAS
<a id="panas"></a>

PANAS stands for Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, a widely used measure of positive and negative emotional states. It is used to assess feelings such as enthusiasm and enjoyment alongside emotions like anxiety, tension, frustration, and fatigue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e580c5878b46ff0e7775e41375b9fee83794bf85d405eb5cc718749d7070a114

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bouallagui Najha; Goumni Chiraz; Hsan Said Ben; Hammami Raouf; Khalifa Riadh; Amar Imen Ben. The associations between affective states and motivation in Tunisian cross country trained runners. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877487; article XML SHA-256 f25d741e0e0f41be36bdda2de4d5e74815cbaf5d0ea4412536d005a72e0f73c0. “The associations between affective states and motivation in Tunisian cross country trained runners” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877487).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877487). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## panel data
<a id="panel-data"></a>

Panel data are information collected from the same study across multiple time points or waves, allowing researchers to examine how things change over time. In this example, the data came from the 2016, 2018, and 2020 waves of the same family study.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fa552697e07ba390d5144200dc2ff39e4cc3576dba26efd624116a476f693571

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yu Zeliang; Li Heyu; Guo Pei; He Lin. Does Internet use alleviate household financial vulnerability? An empirical analysis based on panel data from China Family Panel Studies (CFPS). 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343501; article XML SHA-256 864c71c76c29695d1e2da084111b054eb9f6cb3ba870d01eb7e5f52a85dd20f9. “Does Internet use alleviate household financial vulnerability? An empirical analysis based on panel data from China Family Panel Studies (CFPS)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343501).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343501). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## panel study
<a id="panel-study"></a>

A panel study is a longitudinal research design that gathers data from the same participants at multiple points in time. This lets researchers compare how attitudes or other characteristics change within a population across different periods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3c7ab2dc183126d701d2f155540c1a184647605402613beafca9dd8461b3773

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kempthorne JohnMark; Yogeeswaran Kumar; Sibley Chris G; Bulbulia Joseph A. The anatomy of prejudice during pandemic lockdowns: Evidence from a national panel study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0303845; article XML SHA-256 6ac1863435404740970914c4e75acd40db1e1fc6cedcfe98c1baf5fbef7fa5d2. “The anatomy of prejudice during pandemic lockdowns: Evidence from a national panel study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0303845).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303845). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## panentheism
<a id="panentheism"></a>

Panentheism is a philosophical system associated with Karl Christian Friedrich Krause and summarized as the view that all is in God.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 52aea954ebdd4f09020518b435b1421f9d5a6673bfc83763a5a41e6e00fa40c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Krause, Karl Christian Friedrich” (Krause).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/K1defs.htm#Krause). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Panic
<a id="panic"></a>

Panic is a severe acute state of intense anxiety and irrational fear. It is marked by disruption in personality functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b7c4eca6d017e69f145d087167d61bddbfc32c35f30a062d4749a6c6da050ae2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Panic” (D010200).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010200). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## panic disorder
<a id="panic-disorder"></a>

Panic disorder is an anxiety disorder marked by unexpected panic attacks that usually last minutes and only rarely hours. These attacks involve sudden intense fear or terror, often with a sense of impending doom, along with physical and mental symptoms such as breathing difficulty, dizziness, racing heart, sweating, nausea, chest discomfort, feelings of unreality, and fears of dying or losing control; agoraphobia may also develop.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 793d00dc9bb7ba66a2d4c36d2ecc9e879703560c1ffe281ae3777600e59dc5a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Panic Disorder” (D016584).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016584). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pantomime
<a id="pantomime"></a>

In this historical psychology source, pantomime means expressive imitative action, such as acting out fighting, that gives outward motor form to an idea. Used socially, such gestures can help influence another person’s train of thought, though any single pantomimic sign is often broad or ambiguous unless clarified by situation or combined with other signs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ca8d6e1fb4b5f0bf04a01a722aee59dd1a9690fdbef735ca1d1564fb32b0464

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Language Function” (Language Function).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Language Function). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## papaverine
<a id="papaverine"></a>

Papaverine is an alkaloid derived from opium that differs from other opium alkaloids in its structure and effects. It acts directly to relax smooth muscle and widen blood vessels, including in the brain, though its exact mechanism is not fully understood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7b0324e78a138aafe27e6d63326bf306edfd95897cb74b3d36a4edf02578ecef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Papaverine” (D010208).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010208). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## papilledema
<a id="papilledema"></a>

Papilledema is swelling of the optic disc, usually linked to increased pressure inside the skull. It can involve blurred disc edges, enlarged blind spot, small retinal hemorrhages, and swollen retinal veins, and if it persists it may lead to optic nerve damage and vision loss.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 33622f6087f58b322f6bd17ccd9be96264019c79131396a0d3ace7f84eeb680e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Papilledema” (D010211).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010211). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PAQ
<a id="paq"></a>

PAQ stands for Perceived Ageism Questionnaire, an assessment tool that measures people’s subjective experiences of ageism. It covers both negative and positive perceived ageism across stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2bc6d462f563008dcb27f3ce68544b7bf8cc14fa3bf360a9120b48f6d98c357a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pedroso-Chaparro María del Sequeros; de la Vega Castelo Ariadna; Vara-García Carlos; Brenlla Elena; Miguel Isabel. Adaptation and psychometric properties of the Spanish Perceived Ageism Questionnaire (PAQ). 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823220; article XML SHA-256 a94167fc7f0cdbab8932ccaadc1387137b7cbd9d023ff21a67c150b7e8907ce3. “Adaptation and psychometric properties of the Spanish Perceived Ageism Questionnaire (PAQ)” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823220).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823220). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paracetamol
<a id="paracetamol"></a>

Paracetamol, also called acetaminophen, is a chemical substance used to reduce pain and fever. Its exact way of working is not fully known, but it may raise the pain threshold and lower fever by affecting signaling pathways and prostaglandin activity in the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b297ccebe7706a2d2de4c4311bd61c85a73de4f1e02cd5d8382fd011a248768

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Acetaminophen” (C198).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paracrine
<a id="paracrine"></a>

Paracrine refers to a local signaling effect in which a substance released by one cell acts on nearby cells. In the packet, histamine released by gastric neuroendocrine cells stimulates neighboring parietal cells to release hydrochloric acid.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 518c78f76769502e81c7abfab38ad63975f750a6da0e64f52e67250afbace3dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Enterochromaffin-like Cells” (D019861).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019861). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paradigm shift
<a id="paradigm-shift"></a>

A paradigm shift is a fundamental change in the basic framework used to understand and guide a field. In this context, it describes the move in mental health law from a biomedical model toward a human rights-based approach that changes assumptions about coercion, decision-making, and participation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e643df25335d0579014707b19074f1c8c09ba972c29fb9d6a4abed50e86fab3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xue Qian; Chen Bo. Paradigm shifts in mental health legislation: a comparative analysis of WHO guidelines (2006 & 2023) and implications for future policies. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804522; article XML SHA-256 9576e1eb19a07d86963f8131537d35ec61046899bd7c20ad290e1bc3cec31cf4. “Paradigm shifts in mental health legislation: a comparative analysis of WHO guidelines (2006 & 2023) and implications for future policies” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804522).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804522). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paradox
<a id="paradox"></a>

A paradox is an apparently conflicting situation or line of thought in which two claims both seem to hold, yet they pull against each other. In the passage, the paradox is that science is said to know what is universal, while true being is said to be individual.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 347d52d60f794b9bb39a38b45675dee1cfcd3d1deaee2a59d844fa87d6beecc2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Individual” (Individual).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Individual). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paradoxical sleep
<a id="paradoxical-sleep"></a>

Paradoxical sleep is a stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements and a fast, low-voltage brain-wave pattern. It is usually linked with dreaming.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f598071ff959167e03243afef750b74f705e68bcaf493aca2bb78e833ea8502

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep, REM” (D012895).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012895). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paradoxical thinking
<a id="paradoxical-thinking"></a>

Paradoxical thinking is the ability to recognize, accept, and actively work with opposing demands or requirements. In leadership or team settings, it means approaching conflicting goals, such as maintaining high performance while also encouraging innovation, in an inclusive and tolerant way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8ba5294d3ea4894510294809363ca435d2b1940df973f3a35db9f788866129a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Yijun; He Xu; Lu Lei; Gao Xiaoxiao. In a team forgiveness climate, the influence of paradoxical thinking of leaders on the team voice behavior: Mediated by team cooperation. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0265018; article XML SHA-256 3e836f15e6ce7d13ccb49d392640f5e3d9f7cf5fabea5556e9f96e9f15abfcc9. “In a team forgiveness climate, the influence of paradoxical thinking of leaders on the team voice behavior: Mediated by team cooperation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0265018).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265018). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paragigantocellular nucleus
<a id="paragigantocellular-nucleus"></a>

The paragigantocellular nucleus, specifically its lateral part, is a group of neurons in the ventrolateral medulla. In the supplied source, it is described as helping regulate blood pressure and as participating in paradoxical (REM) sleep by interacting with sleep-related brainstem areas and inhibiting some wake-related and motor neurons during this state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c789254592b22838a93b759a9277574e6ad17eee5e71429600c3239af187e40e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sirieix Chrystelle; Gervasoni Damien; Luppi Pierre-Hervé; Léger Lucienne. Role of the Lateral Paragigantocellular Nucleus in the Network of Paradoxical (REM) Sleep: An Electrophysiological and Anatomical Study in the Rat. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0028724; article XML SHA-256 d4d8679bfc5b7275cc80c0081b13627debc27660db1f149645110b2b0ee65a57. “Role of the Lateral Paragigantocellular Nucleus in the Network of Paradoxical (REM) Sleep: An Electrophysiological and Anatomical Study in the Rat” (10.1371/journal.pone.0028724).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0028724). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paragraphia
<a id="paragraphia"></a>

Paragraphia is disordered writing marked by mistakes such as substituting one word for another or leaving off part of a word. In this historical source, it is described as a sign of cerebral disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a3c5ce6120129a800158c4235cfb76fd79a1caed80bd7cfd82470313755a473

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-913500-925500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parahippocampal gyrus
<a id="parahippocampal-gyrus"></a>

The parahippocampal gyrus is a ridge on the underside of each half of the brain. It is situated between the hippocampal sulcus and the collateral sulcus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe1b41190edcaed4bf9dd4a3d57a0024b7e7fe8b6f907794529d7fbf5f325d74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Parahippocampal Gyrus” (D020534).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020534). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paralalia
<a id="paralalia"></a>

Paralalia is a speech defect in which the sound produced is different from the one the speaker intended. In this historical usage, it is treated as a form of faulty articulation, usually classed with peripheral speech problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b673c1622a71215b54b1b7341bb5903c35d01f85f3ce80a0080f3f53e1a33017

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Alalia and Dyslalia” (Alalia and Dyslalia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Alalia and Dyslalia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paralanguage
<a id="paralanguage"></a>

Paralanguage refers to nonverbal information carried in the voice, such as vocal emotional cues, rather than the words themselves. In this context, it means recognizing or using affective qualities of speech as part of communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa85094b47c10f96fcf143da6fab0e4e6bc45801648179a1e3608d316c594e25

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gallo Alec; Sabes Jennifer Henderson; Demopoulos Carly. Auditory processing and communication in autism: exploring verbal abilities and vocal affective cues. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1754358; article XML SHA-256 19231b4644d84a5b214f65839b5c8de090de9836a8e768a788e8e103ec584016. “Auditory processing and communication in autism: exploring verbal abilities and vocal affective cues” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1754358).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1754358). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paralexia
<a id="paralexia"></a>

Paralexia is a disorder of reading, especially of silent or internal reading, described as a frequent symptom in word-deafness. In this historical usage, it reflects impaired understanding of words during reading because visual word signs do not properly call up their usual auditory word memories.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e92ed4a4145daa1908ec9986d848d061d021f4ff5688f0b82bece7639e4b0244

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3265500-3277500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parallel distributed processing
<a id="parallel-distributed-processing"></a>

Parallel distributed processing is an approach to cognition that explains mental activity as patterns of activation spread across large groups of neurons rather than isolated units. In this view, knowledge and processing are distributed across populations, which helps explain many cognitive abilities as well as the way performance can remain partly preserved when input is noisy or the system is damaged.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb2fbadcc110ed20632b13458998210977ed5ca32f50008b4d76aecc5c6190cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nadeau Stephen E.. Neural Population Dynamics and Cognitive Function. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00050; article XML SHA-256 4e8dcda47a9b4cf23729c6ff08507f96e5473ece4102111d6a7fdf844eb86f32. “Neural Population Dynamics and Cognitive Function” (10.3389/fnhum.2020.00050).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00050). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parallel form
<a id="parallel-form"></a>

A parallel form is a version of an assessment completed by someone who knows the person well, such as a partner, family member, or friend, to provide information about that individual.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3f7703bea7bebad6408b022a6ed8250367025c2c8329ab4dde2a3e4ba27d3d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment Adult Behavior Checklist” (C165715).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parallel-forms reliability
<a id="parallel-forms-reliability"></a>

Parallel-forms reliability is the extent to which different versions of the same assessment produce similar results. In this packet, it is reflected by there being no significant difference between parallel forms, indicating consistency across versions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad2a4547430bbb2afc29888207ef5f21df68f8e81ef004d1b26f57f45e1c5f9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fatima Abeeha; Ashraf Anum; Khan Muhammad Azzam. Adaptation of the Quick Aphasia Battery into Urdu and establishment of its psychometric properties. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356908; article XML SHA-256 b14664558fde007f972b84b4db83041f6d4956f5e96544b49194d37bc50c5e05. “Adaptation of the Quick Aphasia Battery into Urdu and establishment of its psychometric properties” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356908).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356908). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parallel search
<a id="parallel-search"></a>

Parallel search is a way of processing information in which many neural units operate at the same time rather than one after another. In this packet, it refers to the brain’s columnar organization as evidence for a massively parallel search mechanism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7108c44c636e12c3e6876dbec6414ebe0e03d1220ed93385eace8054772282f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Roy Asim. The Theory of Localist Representation and of a Purely Abstract Cognitive System: The Evidence from Cortical Columns, Category Cells, and Multisensory Neurons. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00186; article XML SHA-256 d783192de03b57b83585db466ed588da1a41e2cae05a47935334371f6912115b. “The Theory of Localist Representation and of a Purely Abstract Cognitive System: The Evidence from Cortical Columns, Category Cells, and Multisensory Neurons” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00186).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00186). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parallelism
<a id="parallelism"></a>

In historical psychology, parallelism is the view that mental and bodily events run alongside each other as two aspects of one underlying reality. It holds that mind and body are not reduced to each other and do not causally act on one another, but occur in corresponding sequence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 356270a0cfe3d1fc51ef0fb60e1e9f6fda21da0851adb27a570bb7e9032c9463

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Double Aspect Theory” (Double Aspect Theory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Double Aspect Theory). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paralysis
<a id="paralysis"></a>

Paralysis is a broad term for marked or total inability to produce normal muscle force because of disease affecting the motor pathway, from the brain’s outer layer down to the muscle itself. The word is sometimes also used for loss of sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40459ee511964d9db961b5cfadad67c6b057ece9cbe8a473a0282b062af75e55

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paralysis” (D010243).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010243). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paralytic dementia
<a id="paralytic-dementia"></a>

Paralytic dementia is a historical term for the dementia, or end stage, of general paralysis. It refers to an acquired weakening of mental powers occurring as part of that condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c3925eda07b68c21333bbd228bf5a15e2573d77e6cb9580ad03518e23b6aa61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dementia” (Dementia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Dementia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paramedic
<a id="paramedic"></a>

A paramedic is a trained and certified emergency care professional who can provide basic and intermediate life support and use certain invasive medical procedures under medical supervision, as allowed by state law. This role may include responding to psychiatric crises as well as other medical and disaster emergencies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c972f2689ee4e7dd5cbfa96d01873c5dc27058d46567bd51fb508201d78fb645

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Paramedic” (C53420).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parameter
<a id="parameter"></a>

A parameter is a numerical value that describes a whole population, such as the population mean. It differs from a statistic, which is calculated from a sample and used to estimate the population value.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9ede5a76fcb725e8c245c5e230a6a34863c2c6c825ae62cb87bc4c1447c61f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Parameter” (parameter.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/parameter.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paramimia
<a id="paramimia"></a>

Paramimia is the inappropriate or incorrect use of gestures or other pantomimic forms of expression, especially in the context of aphasic disturbance. It refers to errors in nonverbal expressive signs rather than a complete loss of the ability to gesture.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bbb18670a6516a90217927202bc9e5ef263bf516382ff557aec4492383474262

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Amimia” (Amimia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Amimia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paramnesia
<a id="paramnesia"></a>

Paramnesia is a memory defect in which recollection is distorted or illusory, producing a false memory rather than a simple failure to remember. It includes mistaken recall such as false familiarity, wrong placement in time or order, or imagined additions to real events.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 87f78f1d259ad130fe8cd3f14cd638dc8eab24e819f6ec8b82d9b1c0994a8a91

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Memory (defects of)” (Memory (defects of)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Memory (defects of)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paranoia
<a id="paranoia"></a>

Paranoia refers to a long-lasting mental disorder marked by gradually developing fixed delusions, often involving persecution or jealousy, that do not change with reassurance. Clear, organized thinking is otherwise preserved, and the person’s emotions and behavior tend to fit the delusional beliefs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4fb5f653a7301db92fa4eddb687caf7bdbf5201d703a49b4689aceeec1efc055

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paranoid Disorders” (D010259).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010259). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paranoid
<a id="paranoid"></a>

Paranoid describes a state of thinking marked by unfounded or exaggerated fears that other people mean to cause harm. It can vary in severity, from milder experiences in the general population to more impairing forms that disrupt social functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bb998da8d0fddee0cfa4f207421bfb6d63ba095a41f24e328ed80b4165967ce0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rek Stephanie; Reinhard Matthias A; Freeman Daniel; Falkai Peter; Padberg Frank. A psychometric evaluation of the German Revised-Green et al. Paranoid Thoughts Scale (R-GPTS) in clinical and non-clinical groups. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07538-0; article XML SHA-256 7c875c0814a2d59919c50ed307971f9b11b573d4cc0c8bb1a6ccf34fc588420a. “A psychometric evaluation of the German Revised-Green et al. Paranoid Thoughts Scale (R-GPTS) in clinical and non-clinical groups” (10.1186/s12888-025-07538-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07538-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Paranoid Disorders
<a id="paranoid-disorders"></a>

Paranoid disorders are long-lasting mental health conditions marked by the gradual formation of fixed, persistent delusions, such as beliefs of being persecuted or a partner being unfaithful. Despite these false beliefs, the person’s thinking can otherwise remain clear and organized, and their emotions and behavior tend to fit the delusional beliefs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1856599ceafe848b50fe00663204378a5f9ddfb0ea5f5ad6755b523be7ed71e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Paranoid Disorders” (D010259).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010259). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paranoid personality disorder
<a id="paranoid-personality-disorder"></a>

Paranoid personality disorder is a personality disorder marked by an unwarranted belief that other people are hostile or harmful. It commonly shows up as suspiciousness, mistrust, hypersensitivity, and a tendency to avoid accepting blame that is deserved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69f64bde3f98a672f77827e97d8350377527e51c5e40ff6f477b5cdd848c3453

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paranoid Personality Disorder” (D010260).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010260). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paranoid schizophrenia
<a id="paranoid-schizophrenia"></a>

Paranoid schizophrenia is a long-lasting form of schizophrenia mainly marked by delusions of persecution or exaggerated importance, often occurring with hallucinations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0537ecd69818ed0b49d5df3583924dfcec03a6e08489e3b99e96bfe80de47938

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Schizophrenia, Paranoid” (D012563).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012563). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paranormal
<a id="paranormal"></a>

Paranormal refers to behavior or events, such as telepathy, precognition, and clairvoyance, that are considered not explainable by current natural laws. In psychology, these topics are addressed within parapsychology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b961330bd8f32a7bc6b5425287cfda18c09d89081574fabc91c5495081186bab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Parapsychology” (D010268).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010268). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paraphasia
<a id="paraphasia"></a>

Paraphasia is a speaking error in which a person says one word in place of the intended word. The substituted word may be related in meaning or unrelated, and this can be a sign of a neurological disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3a5351ae2919e6e1e0247dd4776908eb75e9d5b14253fafd39ce6cc33d2e6344

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Verbal Paraphasia” (C220224).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paraphrase
<a id="paraphrase"></a>

A paraphrase is a sentence that keeps the same meaning as another sentence while using different wording or structure. In learning-related language tasks, paraphrasing involves expressing the same content in varied ways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 345909dcf64cee78e51c04b0078367623523e746c11514e55a06739c9fed27fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yuan Ling; Yu Hai Ping; Ren Junlin; Sun Ping. Research of text paraphrase generation based on self-contrastive learning. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327613; article XML SHA-256 24de2a65a56e6e086d369b963b1b3c6334a6cf00bebfeb5d7df9d61775f99514. “Research of text paraphrase generation based on self-contrastive learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327613).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327613). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paraphrasia
<a id="paraphrasia"></a>

Paraphrasia is incoherent speech. In historical psychological usage, it referred to disordered expression in speaking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f678761ae76edee6d70dc490a96ba2bf20ec6b73601ef3cf6e5288a2bfd84bc8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-945000-957000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paraphrenia
<a id="paraphrenia"></a>

Paraphrenia is a long-lasting psychotic disorder marked mainly by strong delusions while thinking and overall personality remain relatively preserved. It is linked with paranoia and paranoid dementia, with less personality decline than schizophrenia and not matching the full picture of delusional disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: febebce4fdccfd9c9389cb3f4710ee6cc7f8f1f0b8b58731f26d1d2d4cffe3fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Paraphrenia” (C35721).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paraplegia
<a id="paraplegia"></a>

Paraplegia is a severe or complete loss of movement in both legs and the lower part of the trunk. It is most commonly linked to disorders of the spinal cord, though some brain, peripheral nerve, neuromuscular, or muscle diseases can also lead to weakness affecting both legs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dccede3b144049e22cf2b042a372dc08e8ab0160b56c52192aab8a9f0c4b96a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paraplegia” (D010264).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010264). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parapsychology
<a id="parapsychology"></a>

Parapsychology is a branch of psychology concerned with alleged paranormal experiences or events, such as telepathy, precognition, and clairvoyance. It focuses on phenomena that are not explained by current natural laws.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3c3764ceb890cdfc30c3f2f64a7d4b2b376b883aa5e941c9ab57306c5e7f3eab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Parapsychology” (D010268).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010268). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parasite
<a id="parasite"></a>

A parasite is an organism that lives in a parasitic relationship with a host and can affect the host’s survival or other outcomes. In the source, parasites are described as widespread in nature, with how common they are and how much impact they have changing with environmental conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 234115303882a53f3e152b1b82ca5866d70537c2103e2902fddb29c39aca3819

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Abbott Madeleine H; Harley Christopher DG; Martell Harmony A; Janusson Carly; Lemay Matthew A; Gehman Alyssa-Lois M. Parasites of the hermit crab Pagurus hirsutiusculus ; distribution, prevalence, and thermal ecology. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335145; article XML SHA-256 2ed1a5bebb53abdf0ce912c87c7e2658eb2353b18eb36396242f7b55e0ad6d53. “Parasites of the hermit crab Pagurus hirsutiusculus ; distribution, prevalence, and thermal ecology” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335145).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335145). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parasympathetic nervous system
<a id="parasympathetic-nervous-system"></a>

The parasympathetic nervous system is the craniosacral part of the autonomic nervous system, with nerve cell bodies in the brainstem and sacral spinal cord that connect through ganglia near their target organs. It generally helps conserve energy and return the body to balance, often in ways that oppose the sympathetic nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 953cf56a4661118f080b597890d4f80d6f2a1de03fdc2a78d5aed5fae7e8ca77

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Parasympathetic Nervous System” (D010275).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010275). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parent management training
<a id="parent-management-training"></a>

Parent management training (PMT) is a parent-focused training approach used in the treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder. It aims to help parents manage ADHD symptoms and oppositional behavior problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: afab0d60fd6a02cceeaa0ae86ea18552df48491406d309e0f9dc8bf7a260f2e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Döpfner Manfred; Wähnke Laura; Klemp Marie-Theres; Mühlenmeister Judith; Schürmann Stephanie; Hellmich Martin; Plück Julia. Efficacy of web-assisted self-help for parents of children with ADHD (WASH) – a three-arm randomized trial under field/routine care conditions in Germany. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12888-020-2481-0; article XML SHA-256 be882d5b11fb4b59ec983e64c364b7064097301bf47a20de9b2876f9abb08afd. “Efficacy of web-assisted self-help for parents of children with ADHD (WASH) – a three-arm randomized trial under field/routine care conditions in Germany” (10.1186/s12888-020-2481-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-2481-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parental behavior
<a id="parental-behavior"></a>

Parental behavior is how parents act toward and care for their child, especially during childhood. It is an early environmental influence that can affect the child’s development and later patterns of behavior, including social and attachment-related functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c92772286173dcea8d195da139a6ae9708631889918b0a385f7ade2a3636368

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Geißert Laura; Hennig Juergen. Parental behavior, adult attachment, and DNA methylation of the MT2 oxytocin receptor gene region – The moderating role of neuroticism. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341072; article XML SHA-256 17660ae146cf8ea9ad19f7dd60cd82b660473d8e452d463f23263f8dfffcb075. “Parental behavior, adult attachment, and DNA methylation of the MT2 oxytocin receptor gene region – The moderating role of neuroticism” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341072).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341072). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parental investment theory
<a id="parental-investment-theory"></a>

Parental investment theory is a social theory used to explain gender differences in behavior by proposing different sensitivities to risk and betrayal. In the context of trust, it predicts that women will tend to trust less because social risk matters more to them, whereas men will tend to trust more to pursue resources and signal willingness to accept potential loss.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9bd5732c81043aec925a6df39dbfa03da3c3fa7e8a8343229c79f2c172fc9f59

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Yan; Hall Alisha S. M.; Siehl Sebastian; Grafman Jordan; Krueger Frank. Neural Signatures of Gender Differences in Interpersonal Trust. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00225; article XML SHA-256 d1579a1fbfa3851ad8b1c34efe6b086a4ba9ab55ccce8d522a96a23fa653b59d. “Neural Signatures of Gender Differences in Interpersonal Trust” (10.3389/fnhum.2020.00225).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00225). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parental separation
<a id="parental-separation"></a>

Parental separation is a situation in which a child is apart from a parent. In this packet, it refers specifically to early-life separation caused by a parent leaving for rural labor migration, described as a common form of early-life social adversity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e2e52c0cd41a2de9a506a9925cfb1ca87c83b6ee62961fe1b2ca6eb52046f2f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cui Boyan; Lan Luqing; Xie Changjuan; Liu Siying; Ling Bingbing; Li Huiru; Li Hao; Mo Yin. Altered dynamic functional connectivity in adults with rural left-behind experience: a resting-state fMRI study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1900163; article XML SHA-256 2236b7037f05c0413cd86608b4c2a807dd33a41f992ac6bc64a3317759ba1c29. “Altered dynamic functional connectivity in adults with rural left-behind experience: a resting-state fMRI study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1900163).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1900163). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parenting
<a id="parenting"></a>

Parenting is carrying out the parental role by caring for, nurturing, and protecting a child, whether by a biological or substitute parent. It also includes supporting the child through appropriate authority and steady, empathic responses to the child’s needs, with emphasis on the parent’s responsibility and model of behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb38d1f8bff1ee616c7314a402270edafb689ab2f7ac5269e4db770c54f89685

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Parenting” (D016487).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016487). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Parenting Stress Index
<a id="parenting-stress-index"></a>

The Parenting Stress Index is a questionnaire used to assess parenting stress, meaning the tension a parent feels in response to the demands of raising a child. It can provide overall stress scores and subdomain scores that reflect different sources of stress in the parent-child relationship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e448f37530cceea3d14ab2bc9fd0524b0e0c0d37d0af5364d3744740854db37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marie Amélie; Clabaut Laëtitia; Corbeil Marjolaine; Vanlerberghe Clémence; Vincent-Delorme Catherine; Le Driant Barbara. Parenting stress and needs for social support in mothers and fathers of deaf or hard of hearing children. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1229420; article XML SHA-256 a57a39d56bc0dc548a5869985a610d3b3db94988442322c398f25cc8ae8c04c1. “Parenting stress and needs for social support in mothers and fathers of deaf or hard of hearing children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1229420).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1229420). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parenting style
<a id="parenting-style"></a>

Parenting style refers to the relatively stable ways parents behave while raising a child. It is an important part of children’s socialization and of the parent–child relationship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3633e7002129d864879a3aa4e4d2fb1894e9e823993c7921433fd8e5b8017382

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Peng Shun; Xu Lei; Chen Jiwen; Cai Shuangshuang. Do mothers treat children who are similar to them better? The relation between maternal–adolescent neuroticism congruence and a punitive parenting style. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.934783; article XML SHA-256 61a478b5791d9c4c3570660d2ee37d1328852c348df85412baa761e3749d6ccc. “Do mothers treat children who are similar to them better? The relation between maternal–adolescent neuroticism congruence and a punitive parenting style” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.934783).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.934783). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parenting training
<a id="parenting-training"></a>

Parenting training is an intervention for parents that teaches parenting skills, often using cognitive-behavioral techniques. In the source packet, it is described as a way to help parents cope with and reduce parental stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9320f70f18f668152cc1de113b05efe131be269e13d7e05cef070d075feec41

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Potharst Eva S.; Boekhorst Myrthe G. B. M.; Cuijlits Ivon; van Broekhoven Kiki E. M.; Jacobs Anne; Spek Viola; Nyklíček Ivan; Bögels Susan M.; Pop Victor J. M.. A Randomized Control Trial Evaluating an Online Mindful Parenting Training for Mothers With Elevated Parental Stress. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01550; article XML SHA-256 82f84065e8cdde87f2846c4d7118e1c3f040e35c158c21282167497ef283701f. “A Randomized Control Trial Evaluating an Online Mindful Parenting Training for Mothers With Elevated Parental Stress” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01550).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01550). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paresis
<a id="paresis"></a>

Paresis means a mild to moderate loss of muscle strength or movement. The term is sometimes also used more loosely for paralysis, and in older writing it may specifically refer to neurosyphilis-related general paresis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11bf126e33376a57dfd4d6e481d521bd3b6843b6a8d0e3f0134ce7f1d2ec5d10

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paresis” (D010291).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010291). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paresthesia
<a id="paresthesia"></a>

Paresthesia is an abnormal skin sensation, such as tingling, warmth, cold, or pressure, that happens without any actual physical stimulus. It is experienced subjectively by the person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4c4a19e080c79ecf72e8ba51f7a80d95ac5d1d95ba915476c770119bf9ccde9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paresthesia” (D010292).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010292). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parietal cortex
<a id="parietal-cortex"></a>

In this packet, the parietal cortex—specifically the posterior parietal cortex—is a brain region linked to how people process overall patterns versus fine details. Evidence described here indicates that the right posterior parietal cortex is more engaged in global processing, while the left side is more involved in local processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 080b217f64155fe75e3a3cac908469264d88302445f33a95465dfdec3c33f5a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sayadi Hanieh; Qarehdaghi Hasan; Pouretemad Hamidreza; Amani Rad Jamal. Investigating the effects of continuous theta-burst stimulation over the posterior parietal cortex on holistic processing of composite faces: evidence from cognitive modeling. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343776; article XML SHA-256 2d521008314a4782d5895cad94f6494ca65f245f203b15a50bfc86a23ba53dd4. “Investigating the effects of continuous theta-burst stimulation over the posterior parietal cortex on holistic processing of composite faces: evidence from cognitive modeling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343776).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343776). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parietal lobe
<a id="parietal-lobe"></a>

The parietal lobe is the upper middle region of a cerebral hemisphere. It lies behind the central sulcus, in front of the occipital lobe, and above the temporal lobes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f55fc59b7c4ba98f8add30b4061b02515bfd0ad3403bb46089dd176f20c679f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Parietal Lobe” (D010296).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010296). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parieto-occipital sulcus
<a id="parieto-occipital-sulcus"></a>

The parieto-occipital sulcus is a long, deep groove in the cerebral cortex with internal and external parts. It marks the boundary between the parietal lobe and the cuneus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e3c1bec5feb157f659505b40408926ae435a46c74e868c8bd01786c12b2424b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Parieto-Occipital Fissure” (C33275).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Paris Medical School
<a id="paris-medical-school"></a>

Paris Medical School refers to the Université de Paris medical school in Paris, France, formed from the recent merger of the Paris Nord and Paris Centre sites. In the source, it is described as one of the largest medical schools in France and as the setting for a large-scale objective structured clinical examination for fourth-year medical students.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c435c805b39cd8778388bff7cc11b659e89128514bee3f999e74ffd4c007b51e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Matet Alexandre; Fournel Ludovic; Gaillard François; Amar Laurence; Arlet Jean-Benoit; Baron Stéphanie; Bats Anne-Sophie; Buffel du Vaure Celine; Charlier Caroline; De Lastours Victoire; Faye Albert; Jablon Eve; Kadlub Natacha; Leguen Julien; Lebeaux David; Malmartel Alexandre; Mirault Tristan; Planquette Benjamin; Régent Alexis; Thebault Jean-Laurent; Dinh Alexy Tran; Nuzzo Alexandre; Turc Guillaume; Friedlander Gérard; Ruszniewski Philippe; Badoual Cécile; Ranque Brigitte; Oualha Mehdi; Courbebaisse Marie. Impact of integrating objective structured clinical examination into academic student assessment: Large-scale experience in a French medical school. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0245439; article XML SHA-256 2c1ce13047d5b7f8e17a3dfba46eef2c7df66b915ec8c7ae12baec7e55fe8096. “Impact of integrating objective structured clinical examination into academic student assessment: Large-scale experience in a French medical school” (10.1371/journal.pone.0245439).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245439). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parkinsonian
<a id="parkinsonian"></a>

Parkinsonian describes something related to Parkinson’s disease or to a pattern of neurodegeneration associated with it. In this packet, it refers to neurodegenerative changes linked with dopaminergic neuron loss and alpha-synuclein pathology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3370ebd800f44bec95a0bd468bf2f3e40b614a9d771e88940d2b4aae54b5023f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ichie Kelechi; Asomugha Azuoma; Okafor Izuchukwu. Age-related susceptibility to paraquat-induced neurotoxicity in male wistar rats: effects on neurobehaviour, substantia nigra cytoarchitecture, and alpha-synuclein levels. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12868-026-01019-0; article XML SHA-256 76ed236f7a6346c29d82d01987e86a960f72ce0c0c2b552d7028ee5cdc3124bd. “Age-related susceptibility to paraquat-induced neurotoxicity in male wistar rats: effects on neurobehaviour, substantia nigra cytoarchitecture, and alpha-synuclein levels” (10.1186/s12868-026-01019-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-026-01019-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parkinsonism
<a id="parkinsonism"></a>

Parkinsonism is a group of disorders marked by impaired motor control, typically including slowness of movement, muscle stiffness, tremor, and problems with balance and posture. It includes primary, secondary, and inherited forms and is linked to dysfunction in dopamine-related movement pathways in the basal ganglia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d4600ed96a5097b14a5f2b32f6226e46d6d220550e67e8e6be3180eabed91d79

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Parkinsonian Disorders” (D020734).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020734). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Parkinson’s disease
<a id="parkinsons-disease"></a>

Parkinson’s disease is a progressive degenerative neurological disorder marked by resting tremor, rigidity, slowed voluntary movement, stooped posture, a reduced facial expression, and a tendency to fall backward. It is associated with loss of pigment-containing neurons in the substantia nigra and other brainstem nuclei, with Lewy bodies commonly found in the substantia nigra and locus coeruleus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a080e1c0fc94bdb58be05d16513d93c4f37ffc612b9e34d42a1878d8e27344b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Parkinson Disease” (D010300).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010300). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Parlodel
<a id="parlodel"></a>

Parlodel is bromocriptine mesylate, a drug form of a semisynthetic ergot compound that acts mainly by stimulating dopamine D2 receptors in the central nervous system and pituitary gland. Its effects include reducing certain abnormal movement-related signaling and lowering prolactin release, which can suppress lactation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 888c10e0f234d16e2d3da1df7a9a5be6f6dc6b4bd96e5321536ae981d151d916

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Bromocriptine Mesylate” (C317).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parole
<a id="parole"></a>

In this historical psychology source, parole refers to internal speech: the mental revival of speech, with or without actual speaking. It covers experiences like silently having words in mind, musing, or mentally hearing tunes, and includes the role these inner revivals play in speaking or singing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f7a33ef58f087225dad70c4c889c58d83b0b7bdfb3c5ad8d288220e1aff080b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Internal Speech (and Song)” (Internals).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Internals). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## parosmia
<a id="parosmia"></a>

Parosmia is a qualitative problem with smell in which an odor is present but the person experiences it in a distorted way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1be85de9f1dc7df92f38b8f64961df915fca7e286cd4064403a065c15fd7c4a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Thaploo Divesh; Joshi Akshita; Yilmaz Eren; Yildirim Duzgun; Altundag Aytug; Hummel Thomas. Functional connectivity patterns in parosmia. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12993-023-00225-8; article XML SHA-256 c7df899619b8dc966c5725b5a58c642cfad821562b40f29a5cbf79819ac8f41e. “Functional connectivity patterns in parosmia” (10.1186/s12993-023-00225-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-023-00225-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paroxetine
<a id="paroxetine"></a>

Paroxetine is a drug that blocks the reuptake of serotonin. It is used to treat depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 807d8ddd44e3784ec9d83d402a8a08b9624bd63dc2def6b9c00a5c6c44864637

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paroxetine” (D017374).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017374). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paroxysmal sleep
<a id="paroxysmal-sleep"></a>

Paroxysmal sleep is a condition marked by repeated episodes of excessive daytime sleepiness and brief lapses into sleep or consciousness, sometimes with automatic behavior and later memory gaps. It is often accompanied by cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and vivid experiences as sleep begins.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5446dfc1ea94f13b92f6df1c110b031d18ab6d9bad91a7ca4ab6822d6a537579

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Narcolepsy” (D009290).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009290). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## part-object
<a id="part-object"></a>

In object relations psychoanalysis, a part-object is a simplified mental representation of another person organized around a limited, emotionally charged aspect, such as being experienced as wholly good or wholly bad. The packet describes these part-objects as early-formed prior models that can shape perception and relationships, sometimes overriding more realistic awareness of the whole person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08f5226bf7ba888432723f1e88b4eec1b4c4d6abaebed417391207b374439eec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Connolly Patrick. The Gravity of Objects: How Affectively Organized Generative Models Influence Perception and Social Behavior. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02599; article XML SHA-256 b5b83d4e437dbb9459175d5ddb51e2ff9fc887020b7f361eb7acab618269fb1d. “The Gravity of Objects: How Affectively Organized Generative Models Influence Perception and Social Behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02599).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02599). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## partial
<a id="partial"></a>

In this research context, partial refers to a relationship between two variables that is examined while accounting for the influence of the other variables in the analysis. It is used to clarify the unique association between those variables.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e4cb0288e4ce2049d82f73d76969e84763a23435ddcebb3931947066d29b19a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nordahl Henrik; Anyan Frederick; Hjemdal Odin; Wells Adrian. Partial and directional relationships between negative metacognitive beliefs and the big five personality traits. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897206; article XML SHA-256 54b9156befbeb3cdc250ad43ec8581edd82ca9227d9af08842787b1c2879f745. “Partial and directional relationships between negative metacognitive beliefs and the big five personality traits” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897206).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897206). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## partial decussation
<a id="partial-decussation"></a>

Partial decussation is a partial crossing of nerve fibres from one side to the other. In this source, the term is used for the optic chiasma, where the optic nerves cross beneath the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c50e320b0f04651f4f73b08c9fa62f54f34f014a5d0e5dcb68e1df20504ef95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: B3defs.htm” (d9eb8eee52e9327abc9b).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B3defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## partial insanity
<a id="partial-insanity"></a>

Partial insanity is a historical term for a supposedly limited form of mental disorder affecting only part of the mind, rather than a more general disturbance. In older psychiatry it was grouped under monomania, but that label later fell out of favor because such cases were seen as belonging to different clinical conditions, especially paranoid and other psychotic disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 446a92e362143ff03066c9bcb02564467761941efd367dd84c84e6cd074867c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Monomania” (Monomania).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M4defs.htm#Monomania). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## partial reinforcement
<a id="partial-reinforcement"></a>

Partial reinforcement is a learning schedule in which a behavior is rewarded only some of the time rather than after every correct response. Compared with continuous reinforcement, behavior learned this way often persists longer when rewards stop.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d665d3aa3670869b51ef57586519ab35f7e1aa382996dadd256f1c973b4f99c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Segers Elien; Beckers Tom; Geurts Hilde; Claes Laurence; Danckaerts Marina; van der Oord Saskia. Working Memory and Reinforcement Schedule Jointly Determine Reinforcement Learning in Children: Potential Implications for Behavioral Parent Training. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00394; article XML SHA-256 102f5118f0f718f149815feb9d106482fb5133f0dcebbd845a0a8d32fb5ff02a. “Working Memory and Reinforcement Schedule Jointly Determine Reinforcement Learning in Children: Potential Implications for Behavioral Parent Training” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00394).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00394). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## partial replication
<a id="partial-replication"></a>

Partial replication is a repeat of an earlier study that tests the same general question or finding but reproduces only some parts of the original design, often with adaptations. It checks whether the earlier result still appears when key elements are retained while others are changed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c66ebf5e28f0e9d6d70ff76db88b186e6fa418d7762f2ecda32334d6c07b6817

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Telga Maïka; de Lemus Soledad; Cañadas Elena; Rodríguez-Bailón Rosa; Lupiáñez Juan. Category-Based Learning About Deviant Outgroup Members Hinders Performance in Trust Decision Making. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01008; article XML SHA-256 c632ab8ab14af65e83a66daa7d61e89523368d8b7b540dfb7ef8e5278a8bb582. “Category-Based Learning About Deviant Outgroup Members Hinders Performance in Trust Decision Making” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01008).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01008). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## partial seizure
<a id="partial-seizure"></a>

A partial seizure is a brief disturbance caused by abnormal electrical activity in one localized area of the brain. It can affect movement, bodily sensations, autonomic functions, or mental experiences such as changes in speech, thought, mood, déjà vu, or hallucination, and it usually happens without a major change in awareness or alertness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f7646281c7342002c37b8dc16101e0d0280154b9ac66e5a4b2fc65f30537597a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Partial Seizure” (C50689).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## participant
<a id="participant"></a>

In clinical research, a participant is a person who is included in a study or trial. Researchers use guidelines to select suitable participants, protect their safety, and help ensure the study data are accurate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1061424a976c7469a12cb3727623b9172f7bb55731ab4f3701631bc13b79ca0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 ff7a7468286526ac17a328be4c934d7799aad584950f0a10e9047534a7dd859b. “Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## participant observation
<a id="participant-observation"></a>

Participant observation is a research method used in ethnographic work in which the researcher observes people’s activities by being present within their real-life settings and events. In this packet, it involves closely watching practices and interactions across rehearsals, teaching, festivals, and performances to build a detailed understanding of lived behavior in context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8211243c395d467857e0ae3220d916d33150e70112bce8dd4e372c56271f1050

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kong FanLe; Zheng Zhong; Xu Chang; Zhang YueRu. Macao Guangdong music through the lens of ethnography of musical performance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1856681; article XML SHA-256 3990ef8acbab8df48343834d859dc6af1c06b77444c0c28361843da6849bf478. “Macao Guangdong music through the lens of ethnography of musical performance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1856681).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1856681). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## participants’ rights
<a id="participants-rights"></a>

Participants’ rights are the protections and entitlements of people who take part in research, especially their ethical safeguarding in studies that may involve risk. In this packet, protecting these rights is tied to meaningful, ongoing community engagement based on respect, justice, and partnership throughout the research process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 41490efa50cea214f50afbeae742160caaa442e37efe1f19cfd72c1e84eed2c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nazziwa Winfred; Neema Stella; Elliott Alison M; Kaboko Samson B; Mwaka Erisa. “… Infections are not confined in labs… ”: Community engagement for Controlled Human Infection Studies: Opinions of researchers, bioethicists and research regulators in Uganda. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353964; article XML SHA-256 c9f8d9c2ff86ce76b5ed4786c7f3c9a7247f371dc0c2c56edce1a592c8fd8228. ““… Infections are not confined in labs… ”: Community engagement for Controlled Human Infection Studies: Opinions of researchers, bioethicists and research regulators in Uganda” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353964).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353964). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## participation
<a id="participation"></a>

In a clinical research trial, participation means taking part in the study after being informed about what it involves and how your data will be used. It is voluntary, continues only with your ongoing consent, and can be ended by the participant at any time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 72bcf238d6a2f4b02acf001665247670b79ecb9ce4d0180414fd023454775dfc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 ff7a7468286526ac17a328be4c934d7799aad584950f0a10e9047534a7dd859b. “Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## participative leadership
<a id="participative-leadership"></a>

Participative leadership is a leadership approach that involves stakeholders or followers in organizational processes and the leader–follower dynamic. In this study context, it is described as positively linked with followers’ psychological safety and radical creativity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40c822ac665a35acbd2ab19afb663bae25186bf5bca8fd264a88cb5a4c17b4da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Song Guo; Nabi Md. Nurun; Gazi Md. Abu Issa; Amin Mohammad Bin; Senathirajah Abdul Rahman Bin S.; Rahaman Md. Atikur; Min Zhang. Participative leadership effects on followers’ radical creativity: the role of psychological safety and collaborative relationship. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-02950-3; article XML SHA-256 d39a1e98abdaee9475138d1eaa1da51096209fdb8917acaf7d06147e47a7760e. “Participative leadership effects on followers’ radical creativity: the role of psychological safety and collaborative relationship” (10.1186/s40359-025-02950-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02950-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## participative management
<a id="participative-management"></a>

Participative management is a management approach in which members of an organization are encouraged to take part in its management and decision-making. In the source material, it is treated as one dimension of high-performance human resource practices and is linked indirectly to lower turnover intention through stronger organizational commitment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3753acc14e90c69d24cb827c05937a109b1398c09650e4c205f1d42258652bf7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Jun; Wang Lingjie; Xu Xiaoli; Liu Junyan; Peng Lei. A study on the turnover intention of teachers in Chinese regional universities: A predictive power analysis based on five management dimensions of high-performance human resource practices. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324487; article XML SHA-256 180768371a15c9740699c043f5810325b93650a6c52c33c2e26c461d76a18b97. “A study on the turnover intention of teachers in Chinese regional universities: A predictive power analysis based on five management dimensions of high-performance human resource practices” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324487).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324487). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## participatory action research
<a id="participatory-action-research"></a>

Participatory action research is a research approach used to develop and carry out actions or interventions with close attention to the real-world context in which they will be used. It is often combined with both qualitative and quantitative methods to improve understanding of contextual factors and support more realistic efforts to influence behaviour.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 03e32054de567a9e881f3c26c3c5432becbcb3479937ec7d3300b21941c9025f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sendall Marguerite C; McCosker Laura K; Brodie Alison; Hill Melissa; Crane Phil. Participatory action research, mixed methods, and research teams: learning from philosophically juxtaposed methodologies for optimal research outcomes. 2018; DOI 10.1186/s12874-018-0636-1; article XML SHA-256 3658e87760f955e74fe5697c8ba5c5b3b66e34773e1d33d7d37087486774fae7. “Participatory action research, mixed methods, and research teams: learning from philosophically juxtaposed methodologies for optimal research outcomes” (10.1186/s12874-018-0636-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-018-0636-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## participatory research
<a id="participatory-research"></a>

Participatory research is an approach to research that involves the public in the research process rather than leaving decisions entirely to researchers or institutions. It can be used mainly to improve research outcomes, or more transformatively to support social change through a fairer sharing of decision-making power between researchers and the public.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ac4cd0fcd092546d03d74f444054585853d50abbf9cc3145db32c30310c83fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jacques-Aviñó Constanza; Roel Elena; Medina-Perucha Laura; McGhie Jasmine; Pons-Vigués Mariona; Pujol-Ribera Enriqueta; Turiel Irene; Berenguera Anna. Are we leaving someone behind? A critical discourse analysis on the understanding of public participation among people with experiences of participatory research. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0273727; article XML SHA-256 3775edafffef09ade6bc7ffac2b2296a0f34d99793feec584968e281c113cdb4. “Are we leaving someone behind? A critical discourse analysis on the understanding of public participation among people with experiences of participatory research” (10.1371/journal.pone.0273727).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273727). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PAS
<a id="pas"></a>

PAS stands for Premorbid Adjustment Scale, a retrospective 26-item questionnaire used to rate how well a person met developmental and social milestones from childhood to adulthood before schizophrenia began. It assesses areas such as sociability, relationships, school functioning, and socio-sexual development, with higher scores reflecting poorer adjustment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 350b37d42ec5b4a7480da82a9d546b29b7c3a679c6e7a7a45456a69c491cbc99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Premorbid Adjustment Scale” (C131525).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PASAT
<a id="pasat"></a>

PASAT is a standardized cognitive test used to measure how quickly and flexibly a person processes spoken information, along with mental calculation, sustained attention, and divided attention. In it, single digits are presented one at a time and the person adds each new digit to the one that came just before, with the score based on the number answered correctly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 207311833735832c618f9ef7044df02849d63515a8944d9fa5feddacb05ccf4c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Paced Auditory Serial Addition Functional Test” (C115792).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## passion
<a id="passion"></a>

In this context, passion means a person’s internalized motivation toward an activity. It is described in two forms: harmonious passion, which reflects more autonomous motivation and flexible self-regulation, and obsessive passion, which involves internal pressure and a more rigid pattern of persistence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5dc1b7a44d33fec8070138f3d0c3d27ef040afd131263d64a712f10ee9d30c0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cui Pengyu; Jiang Ketong; Yoon Inae. Associations of harmonious and obsessive passion with attitudes toward playing through pain and injury among Chinese collegiate pickleball athletes: the mediating role of pain catastrophizing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871449; article XML SHA-256 e37ed13c9bf1df91f87e143fcad3cab26fbcd05884f05a8715bfa2f83b5b6192. “Associations of harmonious and obsessive passion with attitudes toward playing through pain and injury among Chinese collegiate pickleball athletes: the mediating role of pain catastrophizing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871449).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871449). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## passive
<a id="passive"></a>

In this social psychology context, passive refers to using social media by taking in content rather than contributing to it. Examples given are scrolling or browsing instead of posting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ebdfe9c3fe95a30013661e147d868b9354ee0a3d58aeef6c351ed1e18cc350c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Deshan; Wang Qiongwei; Yan Yaguang. Remote work frequency and loneliness among United Kingdom employees: the moderating role of active and passive social media use. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1930871; article XML SHA-256 3bbbd7bd88b9d3ce6f374d585b0ba65e664073c77450b4099805acb6de5f6deb. “Remote work frequency and loneliness among United Kingdom employees: the moderating role of active and passive social media use” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1930871).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1930871). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## passive-aggressive personality disorder
<a id="passive-aggressive-personality-disorder"></a>

Passive-aggressive personality disorder is a personality disorder in which a person pushes back against expected social or work responsibilities in indirect rather than open ways. Frustration with authority or with what others want may show up through covert noncooperation, such as delaying, obstructing, being stubborn, seeming forgetful, or working inefficiently on purpose.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 265d0b63632851e8029f6414883dc66291348c3c802c8a1cd3fac8cf0011a0ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder” (D010324).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010324). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## passive attention
<a id="passive-attention"></a>

Passive attention is a mental state in which a person simply looks at and notices a target stimulus without doing an added mental task such as counting or imagery. In this source, it is contrasted with more effortful forms of attention and is associated with weaker event-related brain responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05395768b6c3c8eb54129b97d5cbd7a4e4ab2f787d7ba3bba205b27e650f7c59

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Min-Ho; Williamson John; Kee Young-Jin; Fazli Siamac; Lee Seong-Whan. Robust detection of event-related potentials in a user-voluntary short-term imagery task. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0226236; article XML SHA-256 bb341b00c980ac071c8873871e0797b13ad8927b904c593e21b8ea1c033024d2. “Robust detection of event-related potentials in a user-voluntary short-term imagery task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0226236).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226236). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## passive coping
<a id="passive-coping"></a>

Passive coping is a way of dealing with a risk by trying to ease internal distress, such as anxiety or fear, rather than acting directly on the risk itself. It is contrasted with active coping, which is aimed at reducing or controlling the threat.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e26dc9f3be8e4b52aa1085ba27588d669a81c59b2bf73d76a93822a2d2363281

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lemée Colin; Fleury-Bahi Ghozlane; Navarro Oscar. Impact of Place Identity, Self-Efficacy and Anxiety State on the Relationship Between Coastal Flooding Risk Perception and the Willingness to Cope. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00499; article XML SHA-256 8fa3165ba139b2e50acd1a62ef7c25a3861a19fa28d5cda397ce7c2a64270b2c. “Impact of Place Identity, Self-Efficacy and Anxiety State on the Relationship Between Coastal Flooding Risk Perception and the Willingness to Cope” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00499).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00499). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## passive-dependent personality
<a id="passive-dependent-personality"></a>

Passive-dependent personality refers to a personality disorder marked by a strong, ongoing need to be cared for, with submissive or clingy behavior and fear of separation. It typically begins by early adulthood and appears across many areas of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 158d8d55e963a283a4a55789ca15a5a6cc20574446911a4cf5726c78644f1584

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dependent Personality Disorder” (D003859).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003859). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## passive euthanasia
<a id="passive-euthanasia"></a>

Passive euthanasia is allowing a person to die from natural causes out of mercy by not starting or by stopping treatment that would prolong life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 677796a2ec314cacdfd52493cd3b9050986f65a6d8f1a3e1c512cf423080baca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Euthanasia, Passive” (D005066).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005066). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## passive listening
<a id="passive-listening"></a>

Passive listening is a type of music-based intervention in which a person listens to music rather than actively making it. In the cited anxiety research, it is one of several formats used in structured music programs across different settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d356b6f54c1bd597beaa6414a4277afa56586798fc77d6152650e4322b72a89

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Yingjie; Yeoh Joanne Pei Sze; Soh Kim Geok; Liu Xutao. Effect of music on anxiety among adolescents: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1822041; article XML SHA-256 5990e49a287198c27c5c1c312a7ffe6423d5c50af1ee065cdeaf0067649fc03b. “Effect of music on anxiety among adolescents: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1822041).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1822041). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## passive rehearsal
<a id="passive-rehearsal"></a>

Passive rehearsal is a learning strategy in which a person repeats information while first taking it in, such as by rote memorization. In cognitive psychology, it is contrasted with active retrieval strategies that involve mentally working with or recalling the information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6450305af3aedad89d64b12a0b02e82819a3c0b8f3ba38ed942884695d5a7f00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sheldon Signy; Fan Carina; Uner Idil; Young Meredith. Learning strategy impacts medical diagnostic reasoning in early learners. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s41235-023-00472-3; article XML SHA-256 f83e4e9c11afb92731feb4896e843558b654eb44b2861a01e444770ce8509f5b. “Learning strategy impacts medical diagnostic reasoning in early learners” (10.1186/s41235-023-00472-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-023-00472-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## passive touch
<a id="passive-touch"></a>

Passive touch is the experience of being touched by another person, especially when their contact is directed toward one’s body in an intentional way. In the source context, it refers to receiving another person’s tactile stimulation rather than actively touching them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf27625fcc7bde52917573298236dad7e50cfed3363d9d90306e5b3c9ec785d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kojima Hiroki; Froese Tom; Oka Mizuki; Iizuka Hiroyuki; Ikegami Takashi. A Sensorimotor Signature of the Transition to Conscious Social Perception: Co-regulation of Active and Passive Touch. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01778; article XML SHA-256 1adcbd6af4df0203c89ca62a6b4ea573028e6e8f2df85843108908bc7f107ea2. “A Sensorimotor Signature of the Transition to Conscious Social Perception: Co-regulation of Active and Passive Touch” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01778).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01778). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## passive transport
<a id="passive-transport"></a>

Passive transport means traveling to places such as work or other destinations by motorized private vehicles rather than by active modes like walking or cycling. In this source, it includes travel by car, moped, or motorcycle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 581834467431b121264738e6cc908e4d9d77239e5abdf5a83ea59fded07c7867

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Simons Dorien; De Bourdeaudhuij Ilse; Clarys Peter; De Cocker Katrien; de Geus Bas; Vandelanotte Corneel; Van Cauwenberg Jelle; Deforche Benedicte. Psychosocial and environmental correlates of active and passive transport behaviors in college educated and non-college educated working young adults. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0174263; article XML SHA-256 b1d8beb2814bbd3a983d34e0e3a4d80bc1f030159443e169ed63dd82dbe416c6. “Psychosocial and environmental correlates of active and passive transport behaviors in college educated and non-college educated working young adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0174263).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174263). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## passive voice
<a id="passive-voice"></a>

In this historical source, passive voice is the grammatical form of a verb that presents passivity or the undergoing of an action rather than acting. It is described as the counterpart of an active verb and is linked with Aristotle’s category of passion or passivity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bb4a7765a7e2e3935fd0a170143952d9ee3e1c284dfaf27e1fdc762049bedb4e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Category” (Category).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Category). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## passivity
<a id="passivity"></a>

In this historical usage, passivity of consciousness refers to a basic, non-intellectual sense of conscious unity or selfhood that arises from sensation. It names an elementary felt togetherness of experience rather than something formed by reflective thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b48303c3b5c9b04b2727cdfcb191ce3fe2a93abee6e073d5086b263f9f021a78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Consentience” (Consentience).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Consentience). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PAT
<a id="pat"></a>

PAT refers to psychedelic-assisted therapy, a complex clinical approach that combines neurochemical effects with structured therapeutic care. Its assessment is described as multidimensional, covering preparation before sessions, the acute experience, the therapy process, later integration, outcomes, and safety rather than focusing only on symptom change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c496c2076676b4e790909c4798a4966bae8de4fd2f6707c1e10bb7f3c4ac957d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mele Maria Laura; Federici Stefano. Methodological fragmentation and integration priorities in psychedelic-assisted therapy assessment: a scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1880744; article XML SHA-256 355af379cee836c217dce3fe33d17b4fa8f566f2d4e3e0d1d2994d0b4158d1df. “Methodological fragmentation and integration priorities in psychedelic-assisted therapy assessment: a scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1880744).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1880744). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Patau syndrome
<a id="patau-syndrome"></a>

Patau syndrome is a chromosome disorder caused by having all or part of an extra chromosome 13. It is linked with multiple congenital abnormalities, including heart defects, facial and digit malformations, low muscle tone, seizures, and severe intellectual disability related to malformations of the nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f28dc1bd0fce64847321cc937fa28cb641316109b197dcec8f82d21428953868

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Trisomy 13 Syndrome” (D000073839).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000073839). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## patch-clamp technique
<a id="patch-clamp-technique"></a>

The patch-clamp technique is an electrophysiological method used to record electrical ion currents across a cell membrane. In the whole-cell form described here, it was used to measure calcium-related signals from human atrial muscle cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4e6edf116a3c81c92cf2d049f872bab732c8161e98e2b738abc0bbd3af40b3d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marimon Xavier; Cerrolaza Miguel; Tarifa Carmen; Hove-Madsen Leif. A novel methodology to characterize beat-to-beat alternations in whole-cell calcium currents. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339890; article XML SHA-256 1029e34f8ace885b9a2340b00ff5c7d24fda9fb733fe3b1bf6c5cc56b74d0ef0. “A novel methodology to characterize beat-to-beat alternations in whole-cell calcium currents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339890).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339890). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## patellar reflex
<a id="patellar-reflex"></a>

The patellar reflex, or knee-jerk, is a tendon reflex in which the knee suddenly straightens because the quadriceps muscle contracts, usually after the patellar tendon is tapped while the lower leg hangs freely. In historical psychological and neurological use, it was valued as a convenient sign of the state of the reflex mechanism and was also studied for changes linked with attention and fatigue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cbe6c1b59c43ac06a35fed1a6f15df68621215be876ff397318ca1bbc11257b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Knee-jerk or Patellar Reflex” (Knee-jerk).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/K1defs.htm#Knee-jerk). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paternal behavior
<a id="paternal-behavior"></a>

Paternal behavior refers to the patterns of behavior associated with or typical of a father. It describes how a father characteristically acts in that role.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22d659461e17662cd9614f8bf412b975706810e0d1d071822afbcd6da7688792

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paternal Behavior” (D010332).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010332). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## paternalism
<a id="paternalism"></a>

Paternalism is limiting another person’s freedom or ability to decide for themselves because it is believed this will help them or protect them from harm. More broadly, it means not allowing someone to make choices on their own behalf.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0146b4afd1994b94722dde46d9ad4006640ff167747e528fd51a0778af3ce14c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paternalism” (D026706).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D026706). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## path analysis
<a id="path-analysis"></a>

Path analysis is a research method used within a structural equation model to examine how variables are connected through different pathways. It helps study the associations among multiple factors at the same time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d200d3ab2eeefa567cdad78c20eaae4f9652444ff1009c2eb57e3d9adb92df6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xia Zheyuan; Tang Leran; Yao Ting; Hu Qiao; Wang Xiao; Wang Xiang. Influencing factors and path analysis of posttraumatic growth in patients with autoimmune diseases. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830401; article XML SHA-256 ec652aac84d04f45637e49dafca62ec7ebb747b5d3b2ca8e2df1c3fd82d0544e. “Influencing factors and path analysis of posttraumatic growth in patients with autoimmune diseases” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830401).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830401). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## path coefficient
<a id="path-coefficient"></a>

A path coefficient is a numerical value in a structural equation model that shows the direction and strength of the relationship from one variable to another. In this packet, standardized path coefficients are used to indicate how strongly one factor predicts another, either directly or as part of a mediated pathway.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a07e0723a3fb015c1f96713bde1935faa658de53e6e93da3a803e1b6a3d643ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Pengyuan; Lyu Bei; Yang Qing; Wan Qiang. Psychological pathways between leadership behavior and work-family balance: the mediating roles of employee satisfaction and perceived support. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1626218; article XML SHA-256 2922205b0569d94aec8a66be95f1daa4e07e3c91a2b78a871f8384f1d34a3f67. “Psychological pathways between leadership behavior and work-family balance: the mediating roles of employee satisfaction and perceived support” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1626218).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1626218). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## path diagram
<a id="path-diagram"></a>

A path diagram is a visual model used in path analysis to show how different factors are related to one another. In this context, it maps the connections among variables and how they may influence outcomes through other perceptions or factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 41677bab12590dcef3cf65ed5a38bd4f18b4bc139c8c8b43145f9b4e7354c72f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Miyoshi Tomomi; Watanabe Masaki. Impact of genomic literacy components on genetic testing decision-making in the general Japanese population in the 20s and 30s. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0283432; article XML SHA-256 20ab15a24043e2669a6ad3eaf566cb67db3d87a0d1699fd051eae256ce238c0d. “Impact of genomic literacy components on genetic testing decision-making in the general Japanese population in the 20s and 30s” (10.1371/journal.pone.0283432).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283432). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pathogenesis
<a id="pathogenesis"></a>

Pathogenesis is the process by which a disorder or its complications arise and develop through underlying biological mechanisms. In this context, it refers to how HPA-axis dysregulation contributes to post-stroke emotional, cognitive, and systemic complications.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d1bbd66cfda8e7f6b462e585d62e995ac3cf18fb88b7cb39d59df3301a7eb3e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gong Han; Liu Dan; Wang Xiang-Zheng; Rao Jia-Sheng; Du Xiao-Xia. Central neuroendocrine dysregulation in ischaemic stroke sequelae: pathophysiological mechanisms—a narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1836343; article XML SHA-256 e82d7feec47e61b327debef2a9a82caff1cc9f4772511dec36e0e7db8eb7e327. “Central neuroendocrine dysregulation in ischaemic stroke sequelae: pathophysiological mechanisms—a narrative review” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1836343).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1836343). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pathological gambling
<a id="pathological-gambling"></a>

Pathological gambling is a behavioral disorder marked by intense preoccupation with gambling and the excitement of taking bigger risks. The person cannot reduce or stop gambling even when it leads to serious harm such as lying, stealing, or major losses in relationships, work, or education.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50661adc379923a2694503ae4cd38f44ed20081637e1ffa4c9bb1f07305ea50c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pathological Gambling” (C94335).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pathological grief
<a id="pathological-grief"></a>

Pathological grief is a psychiatric disorder in which a person has intense, long-lasting yearning for someone or becomes preoccupied with the loss and its circumstances, causing major problems in social or work functioning. It can also involve disrupted sense of identity, disbelief, avoidance of reminders, trouble moving forward, emotional pain or numbness, feeling that life lacks meaning, and loneliness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f78b4427455b651ec806c8dd61b790f2c879cd64f53d17c8876a502162efcdd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Prolonged Grief Disorder” (C176886).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pathology
<a id="pathology"></a>

Pathology refers to the bodily or nervous-system changes that are part of a disease process and may help explain symptoms. In this context, neurological pathology means physical changes such as demyelinating lesions, axonal damage, or brain atrophy, although these changes alone may not account for all experiences or difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ed91a9a305d33d4dcb00d6e77d284c83a2d4e63a13cd82931b7f004cab5a0342

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tarantino Samuela; Proietti Checchi Martina; Papetti Laura; Monte Gabriele; Ferilli Michela Ada Noris; Valeriani Massimiliano. Bodily experiences in multiple sclerosis: functional neurological symptoms, body image dissatisfaction, and disordered eating behaviors. A narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1890987; article XML SHA-256 75d07ab9ff6ccd1b561e01086dbbfd0cbd121b893914ec48bf73fe62b8ab3e55. “Bodily experiences in multiple sclerosis: functional neurological symptoms, body image dissatisfaction, and disordered eating behaviors. A narrative review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1890987).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1890987). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pathway
<a id="pathway"></a>

In this psychology context, a pathway is the route by which one factor affects another. A behavioral pathway refers specifically to the observable actions people take, such as activity, healthcare use, or social participation, through which their views about aging influence well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ebedb4fa828dac5ddc5e6762a2b5069dba2b7712093637619e65b0b4c6d265ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Song Siyao; Jia Kaiyang; Hou Bowen. Subjective aging and psychological well-being in older adults: a narrative review and multilevel framework integrating perceptual, behavioral, and sociocultural pathways. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911901; article XML SHA-256 987ead95492bd80e4f0019f0012e58cdf2bb5b7b7ff9437f01dc96b92fb5bab9. “Subjective aging and psychological well-being in older adults: a narrative review and multilevel framework integrating perceptual, behavioral, and sociocultural pathways” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911901).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911901). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## patient
<a id="patient"></a>

A patient is a person who receives medical care, attention, or treatment, or who is enrolled with a healthcare professional or institution so care can be provided when needed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5725eb1a3397311fe911c75c281ce19c93465a51fccfd4b48d147e3f8b0873c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Patient” (C16960).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## patient violence
<a id="patient-violence"></a>

Patient violence refers to violent incidents carried out by patients, discussed here as an outcome measured by how often such incidents occur in psychiatric forensic ward settings. Reported rates can be influenced by contextual factors such as staff features, treatment programs, assessment practices, and administrative organization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 909afbd1a0dcd3011da94e4fcbefc7b4da3bdc845b18523b55de038d7e4b534b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Urheim Ragnar; Palmstierna Tom; Rypdal Knut; Gjestad Rolf; Senneseth Mette; Mykletun Arnstein. Violence rate dropped during a shift to individualized patient-oriented care in a high security forensic psychiatric ward. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12888-020-02524-0; article XML SHA-256 e83911eaac13fa14e8c89131f642f18b0c21ea7b90bcebfbd557f53a95c5ac1c. “Violence rate dropped during a shift to individualized patient-oriented care in a high security forensic psychiatric ward” (10.1186/s12888-020-02524-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02524-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## patriarchy
<a id="patriarchy"></a>

Patriarchy is a systemic social force that can shape people’s experiences and their access to resources, especially for marginalized groups. In this context, it is identified as an important structural factor that individual-focused models may overlook.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11077e73dfe66b38c11d4e1829fcf2e003fcbbe9a4e673e5c27254c12742a2fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shwartz-Asher Daphna; Tziner Aharon. Mapping the multifaceted resilience construct: a facet-based approach. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1674912; article XML SHA-256 db996b130cfe9bb93357f139f7f0afcf9dabbf4c6decbcd598b4b68ce50e76a1. “Mapping the multifaceted resilience construct: a facet-based approach” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1674912).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1674912). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pattern
<a id="pattern"></a>

A pattern is an arrangement of objects, facts, behaviors, or other things that forms a meaningful structure. The meaning may be scientific, mathematical, geometric, statistical, or another kind of recognizable organization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dbd13d86844add04519d2bafde333a53cd34205ee4b37b8183ae36f1c503f3ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pattern” (C25336).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pattern analysis
<a id="pattern-analysis"></a>

Pattern analysis is the process of identifying patterns in data and drawing out useful information from them. In machine learning, it is commonly used to support prediction and forecasting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 128009e0b989133938da655f72308370719879e2110bf34698fd1fa8c4061e61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pattern Analysis, Machine” (D000098414).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000098414). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pattern recognition
<a id="pattern-recognition"></a>

Pattern recognition is the computer-based identification of visual or sound patterns. It involves converting those patterns into digital signals and matching them with patterns stored in memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a131c2ae033f3e8baf44b9e9d270b62e2fe775e61823cc627e8eb728bfaf1f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pattern Recognition” (C16961).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pattern theory
<a id="pattern-theory"></a>

Pattern theory, in this context, is the view that the self is best understood as a flexible, variable pattern rather than a fixed substance or something defined by one stable set of essential features. It describes self-consciousness as arising from the integration of embodied affective processes with intentional awareness, while remaining grounded in the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc83fcc54b3dfeebbf5c5cdfdd16c6b310473be9d593043fbd427aa473106754

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Newen Albert. The Embodied Self, the Pattern Theory of Self, and the Predictive Mind. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02270; article XML SHA-256 d2b2a7d01530d3d2d679cc31d248a4e88192a7b72b20277b66a60af98b6075ab. “The Embodied Self, the Pattern Theory of Self, and the Predictive Mind” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02270).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02270). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pattern vision
<a id="pattern-vision"></a>

Pattern vision is the aspect of seeing that allows the visual system to detect contours or edges and combine them into coherent shapes and objects. It relies on organizing visual input using cues such as proximity, collinearity, and closure so that separate parts of a scene are perceived as meaningful patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7b9dbde0a67156051e994f849e229b0d021fcc9126ecfd7bdd330ef2c141774

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Taylor Gemma; Hipp Daniel; Moser Alecia; Dickerson Kelly; Gerhardstein Peter. The development of contour processing: evidence from physiology and psychophysics. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00719; article XML SHA-256 7fe5d5525c8410f6bdc3a1594de20ca171f3e34f9ebe05a2e625c694fc940816. “The development of contour processing: evidence from physiology and psychophysics” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00719).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00719). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## patterning
<a id="patterning"></a>

Patterning refers to developmental processes that set up the spatial layout of tissues by organizing direction, position, and relationships among cells. In the source framework, it is distinguished from later coordination processes that help cells and networks carry out those organized plans over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 15f410915b4b93d753bccf4cfe7e8f9c0f3d8b1639d40cbd136159b4760b8542

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gargus John Jay. From spatial patterning to coordinated execution: a cross-system framework for autism spectrum disorder. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883356; article XML SHA-256 57ed71667fa1f68840e79808ebe84b0634473277c0d6cc53ba3246c6f5a18462. “From spatial patterning to coordinated execution: a cross-system framework for autism spectrum disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883356).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883356). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pause
<a id="pause"></a>

In this context, a pause is a brief break in an ongoing clinical or training activity used to help manage cognitive load. It is understood as a short interruption that allows reflection, relaxation, or both.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce62f7866945d8cd4b8bacd4961da1f63f6094de0e373632bbb2873d229b91f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Joy. Y.; Solish Danielle; Symonds Nicola; Pierce Michael; Braund Heather; Chaplin Timothy; van Merrienboër Jeroen J. G.; Szulewski Adam. Learners’ perceptions of the medical pause: cognitive load and team performance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1740427; article XML SHA-256 fb15ded5d5313bf03572323cb01e3425bfd03759778359c8d0ba82d9d3370ad0. “Learners’ perceptions of the medical pause: cognitive load and team performance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1740427).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1740427). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Pavlovian conditioning
<a id="pavlovian-conditioning"></a>

Pavlovian conditioning is a form of classical conditioning in which different stimuli are presented close together in time, so a response becomes linked to a stimulus even though the response has no rewarding or punishing consequence. The term comes from Pavlov’s experiments in which dogs learned to salivate to a tone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 953beb397c4b02d22518d729431e5f952b1b60fbc3914d5a1f4bff67817e8625

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pavlovian Conditioning” (C41215).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pavor
<a id="pavor"></a>

Pavor refers to a state of terror or alarm, especially in the historical expression pavor nocturnus, meaning night-terrors in children. In this condition, a child suddenly wakes in fright during sleep, behaves as if seeing imaginary dangers, and usually has no memory of the episode the next day.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6e2523d2fe82700e8e575f25e3f90030b372fdb70ec46696ae6fbe6364f8528

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2068500-2080500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Paxil
<a id="paxil"></a>

Paxil is the hydrochloride salt form of paroxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor with antidepressant and anxiety-reducing effects. It works by blocking the presynaptic reuptake of serotonin, increasing serotonin activity in the synapse and helping relieve symptoms of depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dff20f6059c0be4a42c0159f073a8e6d1d9d9929e97001863fcd66809543f891

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Paroxetine Hydrochloride” (C1837).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pay equity
<a id="pay-equity"></a>

Pay equity is the idea that fairness in pay reflects social behavior and attitudes about gender. In this source, it is described as closely connected with gender attitudes, cultural values, and efforts to reduce discriminatory beliefs and prejudice in employment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2cfbb278ebffc164dc180b6c16d2ec2dacb215a43049370f8496ac59e1305f24

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cui Yuanjun. Understanding the pay equity from the idea of universal equality in traditional Chinese philosophy. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.998553; article XML SHA-256 1a5131d3d740ddf07d61161c5b590d31c8e636a384ef8055329d9ae7969872ce. “Understanding the pay equity from the idea of universal equality in traditional Chinese philosophy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.998553).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.998553). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## payoff matrix
<a id="payoff-matrix"></a>

A payoff matrix is a 2-by-2 table used in a game to determine the score each player receives from the combination of both players’ choices. In the Prisoner’s Dilemma described here, it specifies the outcomes for cooperation or betrayal by each player.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e919694f651387ceb9df405039f9dd701a53a4945ded1f09f5e5c4a1486d6809

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tayama Masaya; Tateno Masaru; Park Tae Woo; Ukai Wataru; Hashimoto Eri; Saito Toshikazu. The Study of Cognitive Characteristics in Asperger’s Disorder by Using a Modified Prisoner’s Dilemma Game with a Variable Payoff Matrix. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0048794; article XML SHA-256 a333a4c2cdff6595e08b9a184aa99054257aa5cd320fe37444aa32fb97bbf2b1. “The Study of Cognitive Characteristics in Asperger’s Disorder by Using a Modified Prisoner’s Dilemma Game with a Variable Payoff Matrix” (10.1371/journal.pone.0048794).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048794). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PBA
<a id="pba"></a>

PBA here refers to PBA-0405, an engineered immune-targeting substance designed to link natural killer cells to ROR1-positive tumor cells. By binding both the CD16 receptor on natural killer cells and the ROR1 marker on certain cancer cells, it is intended to stimulate immune cell killing of those tumor cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86eca95ed25e3df8abd0319b20cb8c9ba6179afc63436a34129f07580ef16f5b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “CD16-based ROR1-targeted NK Cell Engager PBA-0405” (C206691).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PCA
<a id="pca"></a>

PCA refers to the posterior cerebral artery, a blood vessel that arises where the basilar artery splits and then divides into three branches.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 221885157b8b3424be534233c0c8a4d3690d4b5f9fda51b62aec07f17b8b4818

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Posterior Cerebral Artery” (C12831).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PCC
<a id="pcc"></a>

PCC stands for problematic caffeine consumption. In this context, it means a pattern of caffeine use, often discussed alongside adolescent gaming, that is linked with negative consequences and may be reinforced by social, marketing, and neurocognitive influences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0dac0027b85568aa29d12a4766dba6bca8a658367de67ca0d1615695a3978c83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Park Jennifer J.; Zhao Yihong; Potenza Marc N.. Gaming disorder and problematic caffeine consumption in adolescents: a narrative review and public health framework. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1690304; article XML SHA-256 4d8ef8d9934a65a91c1525863945ffecd27609f289616a842e47dd924dd10adf. “Gaming disorder and problematic caffeine consumption in adolescents: a narrative review and public health framework” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1690304).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1690304). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PChE
<a id="pche"></a>

PChE stands for plasmatic cholinesterase, a blood-based biomarker used to monitor pesticide intoxication. In this context, it refers to a laboratory measure that may be checked when evaluating pesticide exposure, although normal PChE levels may still occur despite long-term exposure effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 951bad1d4659aacae2abb304a69bcdf780b140d4ab29a43533c46b1d37ce06f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Coelho Talita Regina; Pereira Hugo M.; Bittencourt Guimarães Ana Tereza. Physical function as a marker to assess the effects of occupational long-term pesticide exposure. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300980; article XML SHA-256 8261759ae17efd41207c5b24c557f6c3710dfb66717f93411dc8831f338e74e4. “Physical function as a marker to assess the effects of occupational long-term pesticide exposure” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300980).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300980). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PCP
<a id="pcp"></a>

PCP, or phencyclidine, is a drug originally developed as an anesthetic but later stopped because it can cause severe mental and physical effects. As a substance of abuse, it has been linked with delirium, confusion, hallucinations, violence, memory problems, schizophrenia-like symptoms, and serious medical complications such as seizures, coma, breathing depression, and heart problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fd161beea24db18dbef8121e755be1793c991c05f9609b8b716592aeccc323e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Phencyclidine” (C738).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## PCR
<a id="pcr"></a>

In this context, PCR refers to a test used to confirm that a person had SARS-CoV-2 infection. A positive PCR test is the reference point used to time later follow-up and brain-related assessments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a83ef88d21c7645cfc3128d01b2d6ac67f63b915ea28493e0ffd335ca0d825b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hosp Jonas A.; Schröter Nils; Reisert Marco; Frase Sibylle; Kellner Elias; Mast Hansjörg; Weiller Cornelius; Urbach Horst; Rau Alexander. Fatigue in Post-COVID-Condition is accompanied by hypoperfusion of right-occipital areas. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335038; article XML SHA-256 e7ca8b1b7492fb0546740e456de43d7ace942be7b951c3cbbce4e1011539b236. “Fatigue in Post-COVID-Condition is accompanied by hypoperfusion of right-occipital areas” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335038).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335038). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PD
<a id="pd"></a>

PD stands for Parkinson disease, a biological condition in which walking can be affected, including slower gait, shorter stride length, and greater variability. In the source, people with PD are described as sometimes improving gait with rhythmic auditory cueing, and these effects are examined in relation to dopaminergic medication status.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c0cf904eb44db05e0353a6b13d959e77e6c3422b321831226b14cb70a55550d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baudendistel Sidney T.; Tueth Lauren E.; Duncan Ryan P.; Haussler Allison M.; Birov Liza; Earhart Gammon M.. Effects of anti-parkinsonian medication on gait during internal and external rhythmic auditory cueing in PD. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1808526; article XML SHA-256 0f3f38d8f3aa0605cf26f236c1721a0b29891364358803b69d850e16e710fbbd. “Effects of anti-parkinsonian medication on gait during internal and external rhythmic auditory cueing in PD” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1808526).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1808526). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PDAT
<a id="pdat"></a>

PDAT stands for Predictors of Dropout from Addiction Treatment, a scale created to assess factors linked to leaving addiction treatment early. It focuses on four areas: motivation to recover and engage in treatment, craving, awareness of the addiction problem, and dysphoria such as inner restlessness or low mood that may come before withdrawal from treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c68eb14ba53db9affa7140e49216f4aedb58a99cdb437686a0abbb2f529fa673

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sirvent-Ruiz Carlos Miguel; Miranda María; Moral-Jiménez María de la Villa. Prediction of therapeutic dropout in patients with addictions: Development and validation of the Predictors of Dropout from Addiction Treatment (PDAT) scale. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326853; article XML SHA-256 dac705378560107a7ec3379e4ff2c676e7d2bf8d786cd910d3457f84e266c9b1. “Prediction of therapeutic dropout in patients with addictions: Development and validation of the Predictors of Dropout from Addiction Treatment (PDAT) scale” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326853).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326853). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PDM
<a id="pdm"></a>

PDM refers to the prediabetes group in this diabetes research study. It labels mice with elevated blood glucose short of the diabetes group, used to examine changes such as diabetic peripheral neuropathy at an earlier stage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 888768828fc96334a6c03668c79cb91057db234e763bc43a6212c03d47aae288

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Ke; Fu Wenjun; Liu Yuanyuan; Xue Jing; Yang Xiaoli; Wang Leiwen; Xu Jin; Ma Junbai; Su Rong; Yang Xia; Sun Yuning; Wang Hao. Dietary fiber inulin mitigates peripheral neuropathy in different stages of diabetes via modulating gut microbiota and metabolites in db/db mice. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336962; article XML SHA-256 da9c42b106bb30ede9788ce7644f458dd983060f33f3465140240b8e7c835c92. “Dietary fiber inulin mitigates peripheral neuropathy in different stages of diabetes via modulating gut microbiota and metabolites in db/db mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336962).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336962). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
<a id="peabody-picture-vocabulary-test"></a>

The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test is a language test. It is used to assess language behavior and abilities within areas such as vocabulary, comprehension, grammar, and the functional use of language.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 37814e33c50fd496e2ca622d6a7d7110438251603cae7822cc612ff54c110ad5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Language Tests” (D007807).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007807). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient
<a id="pearson-product-moment-correlation-coefficient"></a>

The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient is a statistical measure used to examine how strongly two variables are related and whether the relationship is positive or negative. In this source, it is used to assess links between fitness test results and performance measures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ed27f8abd59f96c98310981253e1f97c46c90c3871daa38f01814f5476cd02fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Fei; Zhang Wei; Huang Kongyun; Jiang Yujie; Zhou Changjing. Examining the correlation between referee physical fitness, in-game performance metrics, and team dynamics in the Chinese super league. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318643; article XML SHA-256 0d969b6d8d9bbf5b5c756adc9c69e25e7494c67dffee8d2d503e27dfdcfa5b89. “Examining the correlation between referee physical fitness, in-game performance metrics, and team dynamics in the Chinese super league” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318643).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318643). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Pearson’s r
<a id="pearsons-r"></a>

Pearson’s r is a statistic that shows how strong the linear relationship is between two variables. It can range from -1 for a perfect negative relationship to +1 for a perfect positive relationship, while 0 indicates no linear relationship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34c7453a3ab981bca29d9323471bb1a7e4096153c5bff7e8d484ff87bd40672a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Pearson's r” (pearson_r.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/pearson_r.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ped-
<a id="ped"></a>

PED stands for performance-enhancing drug, meaning a substance used to improve athletic or fitness performance. In this psychology-related context, PED use includes drugs such as anabolic–androgenic steroids and is linked with emotional, cognitive, and social difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08ed143ffab17218c51a6299c7e88a21b762617eef96847a53ef2493b764488e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Çınaroğlu Metin; Yılmazer Eda. Psychological correlates of performance-enhancing drug use: Emotional, cognitive, and social functioning in long-term and short-term users. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1710046; article XML SHA-256 d18c68492fbbee66d77d05dc955f81b5e50f6ea6be5bda28622fd6ec22eaa89b. “Psychological correlates of performance-enhancing drug use: Emotional, cognitive, and social functioning in long-term and short-term users” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1710046).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1710046). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pedagogy
<a id="pedagogy"></a>

Pedagogy is the way teaching is carried out. In this packet, it refers to instructional approaches such as lecture-based, practice-based, or blended teaching that are used to shape students’ learning and adaptation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b00d5187139d9631fba879f5bc39967ec3ac0cadff3bc72063cf8c15353b96f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Hong; Li Wen; Qian Jiaying; Dai Qunsen; Wang Chen; Zhou Chao. The saturation effect of blended pedagogy on international students’ acculturation in Confucian classrooms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803766; article XML SHA-256 e7fe9522e2e37495499a4095ffdc7e576edb4c96d2e2eee58f3ca32f9064d27f. “The saturation effect of blended pedagogy on international students’ acculturation in Confucian classrooms” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803766).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803766). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pedestrian movement
<a id="pedestrian-movement"></a>

Pedestrian movement is the way people walking on foot move through spaces, including the paths they take, how fast they move, and how their behavior changes in crowds. In this source, it is described as being shaped by both biomechanical and psychological factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 25682e9a268d35f85a970a5bcfed344ec662751c5bac6f3693efbacac0d6230a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Narang Sahil; Best Andrew; Curtis Sean; Manocha Dinesh. Generating Pedestrian Trajectories Consistent with the Fundamental Diagram Based on Physiological and Psychological Factors. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0117856; article XML SHA-256 509113381bdbff45c64f24479928e39505fc378526773291f186b56ce0d49b44. “Generating Pedestrian Trajectories Consistent with the Fundamental Diagram Based on Physiological and Psychological Factors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0117856).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117856). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pediatric psychology
<a id="pediatric-psychology"></a>

Pediatric psychology is a branch of psychology concerned with studying children’s behavior, including both typical and atypical patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75920b4d7a87a5f7fc5f97c49bd48b7f8c4d6d54339d0cd33861306dd91739ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychology, Child” (D002666).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002666). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pedophilia
<a id="pedophilia"></a>

Pedophilia is a sexual disorder in a person age 16 or older marked by repeated, intense sexual fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving sexual activity with a prepubescent child, usually age 13 or younger.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 002e784c2bdc16c2b05c78b57dacd374cc2400d8cda6ac0b0c17e9371125006c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pedophilia” (D010378).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010378). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peer
<a id="peer"></a>

A peer is a person who is on an equal footing with another person in one or more ways, such as age, education, religion, sex, or social class.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c7c8bedcdc154a3478cac4111b48de4615030c7e2b4ec49772ac94d72105760

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Peer” (C120458).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peer group
<a id="peer-group"></a>

A peer group is a social group made up of individuals of the same species who are about the same age and usually have a similar social position or status.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e28053a032ec6b47b3230f8a5a3fa855a55d2e86d4e5ea37f542f069111e85ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Peer Group” (D010379).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010379). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peer pressure
<a id="peer-pressure"></a>

Peer pressure is the influence of a group a person feels comfortable with that can lead them to set aside personal habits, moral restraints, or individual preferences in favor of the group’s attitudes or behaviors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da9420e8e981502485067d2cd57081117e5f3130dc0b80c8abc93ab092922c7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Peer Pressure” (C38452).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peer rating
<a id="peer-rating"></a>

Peer rating is an assessment in which people are evaluated by other members of their group or team rather than only by themselves. In this source, it refers to team members rating one another’s typical team role behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a1f0e1752059e8b0e7285ee95f6c9d3b38f5b8a3f6d740c41f6aebfa53bd5477

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Buseyne Siem; Vrijdags Amelie; Said-Metwaly Sameh; Danquigny Thierry; Heutte Jean; Depaepe Fien; Raes Annelies. Peering into the team role kaleidoscope: the interplay of personal characteristics and verbal interactions in collaborative problem solving. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1345892; article XML SHA-256 23e2f2a6b100fdc3bad6b84b09060352dd23fa301686f4db504818778d4433da. “Peering into the team role kaleidoscope: the interplay of personal characteristics and verbal interactions in collaborative problem solving” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1345892).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1345892). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Peer Review
<a id="peer-review"></a>

Peer review is a formal process in which professionals assess the work or performance of other professionals against the standards of their field. It is commonly used to judge manuscripts for publication, grant applications, and the quality of health care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d668df7e15380ff8933a11d9bbd7762b86390b731064775806de5ea7b6ca5d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Peer Review” (D010380).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010380). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peer tutoring
<a id="peer-tutoring"></a>

Peer tutoring is a flexible teaching method in which students are paired so that one student acts as the tutor and another as the tutee. Typically, a higher-achieving student helps a lower-achieving student with academic material, and this approach has been studied for academic, social, and psychological effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 668e9b6405ab8f9a1ba32edbbd1fc3aac747c391f61ea214b2a76d5d820888d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moliner Lidon; Alegre Francisco. Effects of peer tutoring on middle school students’ mathematics self-concepts. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0231410; article XML SHA-256 46a0b629d390e224c370a0672436c26f5561f133cea4dc357b2a7a12fc482a47. “Effects of peer tutoring on middle school students’ mathematics self-concepts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0231410).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231410). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease
<a id="pelizaeusmerzbacher-disease"></a>

Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease is a rare disorder in which myelin does not form normally and the condition gradually worsens over time. It has classic, congenital, transitional, and adult forms, with symptoms that can include abnormal eye movements, tremor, poor coordination, and muscle stiffness; earlier-onset forms are generally more severe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f73793e49c14d79a1cdb4eb6509f98c8d9b741ba05fa1ee950590e2c3e43bf66

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pelizaeus-Merzbacher Disease” (D020371).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020371). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pemoline
<a id="pemoline"></a>

Pemoline is a central nervous system stimulant in the oxazolidine class. Its exact way of working is not known, though it may act through dopamine-related mechanisms, and it was withdrawn from the U.S. market because of its association with life-threatening liver failure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46ef22ec574b90378775227fff52ba52b6bf94e56353af003e0e8d5d2febd534

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pemoline” (C47655).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pentobarbital
<a id="pentobarbital"></a>

Pentobarbital is a short-acting barbiturate used mainly to cause sedation or help with sleep, rather than to reduce anxiety. Its sleep-promoting effect may diminish after about two weeks of continued use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e50f62d0ed72ede2805560a5c22cc65ff9bddc25247af50533d067267b95d73c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pentobarbital” (D010424).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010424). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Pentothal
<a id="pentothal"></a>

Pentothal is thiopental sodium, a very short-acting barbiturate with anesthetic effects. It works by increasing GABA-A–related inhibition in the brain, which lowers neuronal activity and can produce anesthesia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: faf6504478e1d9dd524f898eb0c277a53cda908f6830276d01a09691c4ccd553

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Thiopental Sodium” (C66599).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peptide
<a id="peptide"></a>

In this context, a peptide is a biological molecule that can bind certain cell receptors and be designed for use as a research tool or therapy. The source also contrasts peptides with larger proteins by noting that peptides often have less elaborate three-dimensional structure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43581e698fa15b01727a68da89ecb32409a9250997bd7d0fd611caf4c1122935

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Junker Hannes; Schoeder Clara T. Assessment of generative de novo peptide design methods for G protein-coupled receptors. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355549; article XML SHA-256 d993d9b05b40e69ed00fa2ff7060107cebc8ea965e20051abe2fa62bd910bb7e. “Assessment of generative de novo peptide design methods for G protein-coupled receptors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355549).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355549). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## per-comparison error rate
<a id="per-comparison-error-rate"></a>

Per-comparison error rate is the chance of a Type I error for any single significance test when several tests are being run. It refers to the error rate for each individual comparison, not for the whole set of tests taken together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c49439097a5c4d9c554e7973ee1c382fee18552ffdaba324eee2bf7e4be10a71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Per-Comparison Error Rate” (per-comparison.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/per-comparison.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceive
<a id="perceive"></a>

In this context, perceive means how other people see or interpret a person. It refers to others’ impressions, which may differ from what someone with social anxiety expects or fears.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2f671bcd1190be1d411e5b0d9827a402d13c8ace0ba83096530f4f51c017a58

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Social Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 219dd350478d5e198b1c80914abdd6f76c94cbf69e7a886e0cd14337d4a29db9. “Social Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/social-anxiety-disorder-more-than-just-shyness).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/social-anxiety-disorder-more-than-just-shyness). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceived behavioral control
<a id="perceived-behavioral-control"></a>

Perceived behavioral control is a person’s sense of how much control they have over carrying out a behavior. In the theory of planned behavior, it is one of the main factors shaping intentions and, along with those intentions, helps explain actual behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ab1196f5d91569962dff7349ad211e91f8382134710f7c6c5b51efa6ca7b7962

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Theory of Planned Behavior” (D000092963).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000092963). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceived competence
<a id="perceived-competence"></a>

Perceived competence is a person’s sense of how capable they are at a task. In learning, it can shape how they respond to negative feedback, with higher perceived competence linked to more adaptive coping, especially when the task is also interesting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8f276ca1733eb3685153a262091114107166ea459522474f66c8c7180a6e01f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shin Dajung Daine; Kim Sung-il; Lee Myung-Jin; Jiang Yi; Bong Mimi. Role of Perceived Competence and Task Interest in Learning From Negative Feedback. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.830462; article XML SHA-256 9a14cd41e65e4906508bb4249a0db1151c91f111d9247923fc25a028064920d5. “Role of Perceived Competence and Task Interest in Learning From Negative Feedback” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.830462).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.830462). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Perceived Fraudulence Scale
<a id="perceived-fraudulence-scale"></a>

The Perceived Fraudulence Scale is a self-report assessment used in research to measure the impostor phenomenon, meaning feelings of being an intellectual or professional fraud despite evidence of success. It is one of several scales developed to assess trait impostorism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ae6e7451eedc8ec0f8854d8a8af5bbf702245d5eab8262c439a4551ca897200

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mak Karina K. L.; Kleitman Sabina; Abbott Maree J.. Impostor Phenomenon Measurement Scales: A Systematic Review. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00671; article XML SHA-256 0c2defad9c2fa49e1c8428cc329d1a36a71c873b7185446186f6cf9df6f10516. “Impostor Phenomenon Measurement Scales: A Systematic Review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00671).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00671). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceived reality
<a id="perceived-reality"></a>

Perceived reality is a person’s experienced version of what is real, shaped by the information sources they use and how they interpret that information. In this study context, this subjective reality appeared more strongly related to depression than some objective or directly measurable conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fc1cb9df0aa6305175ffd04250940e6011d738c4b0aab73d7b065ea2c97a7586

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tesarova Sarka; Pekacek Ondrej; Porrovecchio Alessandro. Predictors of depression: lifestyle choices during the pandemic. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1194270; article XML SHA-256 d23091e9dad047950887c4014ad7e685cf5306425abbfbc40f38dedcc9f549bf. “Predictors of depression: lifestyle choices during the pandemic” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1194270).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1194270). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceived risk
<a id="perceived-risk"></a>

Perceived risk is a person’s sense of the possible costs or negative consequences of an action. In this study, it refers to how risky students believe it is to seek feedback, with higher self-efficacy linked to seeing less risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cada08231671b144d5b0b34fb527dddb969908a2311ba1509a2322503a994ded

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xie Han; Cheng Li. The effect of self-efficacy on feedback seeking among undergraduate students: the role of perceived risk cost and student-LMX. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847026; article XML SHA-256 d1f1dd48fa0a3d86bb50f4cfa9ab542a899337b01d120525aef524590a5a777b. “The effect of self-efficacy on feedback seeking among undergraduate students: the role of perceived risk cost and student-LMX” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847026).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847026). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceived self-efficacy
<a id="perceived-self-efficacy"></a>

Perceived self-efficacy is a person’s belief in their ability to handle difficult or unfamiliar tasks and achieve the outcome they want. In psychology and counselling, it is seen as influencing whether people start and keep using coping efforts in challenging situations, and stronger self-efficacy is linked with resilience and better mental well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b9a4ce390496c718588a6a6e2925b1b0aaebbca8fb13deb96b178fb24823b417

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kratzer André; Luttenberger Katharina; Karg-Hefner Nina; Weiss Maren; Dorscht Lisa. Bouldering psychotherapy is effective in enhancing perceived self-efficacy in people with depression: results from a multicenter randomized controlled trial. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s40359-021-00627-1; article XML SHA-256 addd2a406f7f045adee02242cf4af9c814c4bd16cd451635164bdf0f5d9bca28. “Bouldering psychotherapy is effective in enhancing perceived self-efficacy in people with depression: results from a multicenter randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s40359-021-00627-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00627-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceived simultaneity
<a id="perceived-simultaneity"></a>

Perceived simultaneity is the experience of events as happening at the same time. In this context, it is treated not as a single instant but as a brief time window that lets the mind combine different sensory signals into one coherent percept.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 811c95ba27b060353330f6d731304b062c9a2545e7655a46d72edb0349c94e3d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sugano Yoshimori. Audiomotor Temporal Recalibration Modulates Decision Criterion of Self-Agency but Not Perceptual Sensitivity. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.580441; article XML SHA-256 5d67cde069462c6e6997693c37c2d61973b84d8f01480f66fff323732c93ff4e. “Audiomotor Temporal Recalibration Modulates Decision Criterion of Self-Agency but Not Perceptual Sensitivity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.580441).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.580441). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceived susceptibility
<a id="perceived-susceptibility"></a>

Perceived susceptibility is a person’s belief about how likely they are to be affected by a threat, such as becoming infected by a virus. In protection motivation theory, greater perceived susceptibility can be linked with stronger use of protective behaviors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99b31254739c6865cccdcdc8ec7b12f702c17f1239b1bb9e09aa949e7be50ff0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lam Chun Nok; Kumar Nikhilesh; Herzig Shirin Emma; Unger Jennifer B; Sood Neeraj. Associations between COVID-19 infection, symptom severity, perceived susceptibility, and long-term adherence to protective behaviors: The Los Angeles pandemic surveillance cohort study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326097; article XML SHA-256 19cc25291513130cb788b06fb7c0d1019b3947903d79b6731137b3d0c5f83789. “Associations between COVID-19 infection, symptom severity, perceived susceptibility, and long-term adherence to protective behaviors: The Los Angeles pandemic surveillance cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326097).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326097). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perception
<a id="perception"></a>

Perception is the mental process of recognizing and making sense of sensory input, including identifying what stimuli are and what they mean.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31bad1ba5c3daba0b795f36b3a9b453ee1d0c4658a2a21811fcd826fbc2f42e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Perception” (D010465).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010465). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual aftereffect
<a id="perceptual-aftereffect"></a>

A perceptual aftereffect is a shift in how something is perceived after prolonged exposure to similar stimuli. In the example of body size, repeatedly viewing thin bodies can make narrower bodies seem more normal, while viewing wide or fat bodies shifts perception in the opposite direction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3373edd13abf1d0d87104de76303422a277e8147139896cdeb2d250342fa47f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stephen Ian D.; Bickersteth Chloe; Mond Jonathan; Stevenson Richard J.; Brooks Kevin R.. No Effect of Featural Attention on Body Size Aftereffects. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01223; article XML SHA-256 a8b3711e6042f71d50de39f526c77a4efd662cce3dac51d41e71af96acd1b537. “No Effect of Featural Attention on Body Size Aftereffects” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01223).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01223). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual anchoring
<a id="perceptual-anchoring"></a>

Perceptual anchoring is the ability to use repeated presentations of the same or similar stimuli to improve perceptual performance. In this source, it refers to benefiting from stimulus repetition rather than having difficulty filtering out external visual noise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f319dec5a34a77e3bfd8b0371241734c1b2b0ce93b1f4ce13975a731b082295

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Beattie Rachel L.; Lu Zhong-Lin; Manis Franklin R.. Dyslexic Adults Can Learn from Repeated Stimulus Presentation but Have Difficulties in Excluding External Noise. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0027893; article XML SHA-256 e2550e5bb5d3b8b766fcdee645da8d32582420496f66b8a163663443eb5545db. “Dyslexic Adults Can Learn from Repeated Stimulus Presentation but Have Difficulties in Excluding External Noise” (10.1371/journal.pone.0027893).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0027893). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Perceptual Closure
<a id="perceptual-closure"></a>

Perceptual closure is the tendency to experience an incomplete pattern or object as if it were whole or finished. It includes the Gestalt principle of closure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 56ee0a2e446217f8444af6f099e2feab36811548ffd052bf7a550916d2819563

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Perceptual Closure” (D010466).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010466). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual constancy
<a id="perceptual-constancy"></a>

Perceptual constancy is the ability to perceive something as the same despite changes in the sensory signal. In the source packet, it refers to listeners maintaining stable speech perception even though the speech sound varies because of coarticulation and differences between speakers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1750cbc418ea9720b1089f1f434c6daa4eb61ee371090ad19b9686df3eff196b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Viswanathan Navin; Rinzler Ana; Kelty-Stephen Damian G. Compensation for coarticulation despite a midway speaker change: Reassessing effects and implications. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0291992; article XML SHA-256 276e667184295df8c41cf875be40a7ebe91608a531a83d053e0263a54c314593. “Compensation for coarticulation despite a midway speaker change: Reassessing effects and implications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0291992).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291992). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual cues
<a id="perceptual-cues"></a>

Perceptual cues are selected features of a situation or environment that are taken in through perception and can trigger emotional reactions. In virtual reality, they are the aspects of the simulated setting used to make the experience feel real enough to evoke responses such as fear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea0edba749816f1269874872c5fe3b38c094e2247ea7bc5af08e3db9f9eeec2d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Diemer Julia; Alpers Georg W.; Peperkorn Henrik M.; Shiban Youssef; Mühlberger Andreas. The impact of perception and presence on emotional reactions: a review of research in virtual reality. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00026; article XML SHA-256 8cd1749fa555982cc90457228a4b83fabfbfaed3d91f027308a9df04731875a1. “The impact of perception and presence on emotional reactions: a review of research in virtual reality” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00026).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00026). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Perceptual Defense
<a id="perceptual-defense"></a>

Perceptual defense is a selective form of perception in which a person protects themselves from becoming aware of something unpleasant or threatening. Because of this, threatening words may be misheard or violent actions may be perceived less accurately.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 735479c3f1dfa7c85520a5bf252c3c9957897335faf1e96a7e091702424c175a

Wording review pending: The eight-word explanatory clause is ordinary rewritable prose, not a fixed diagnostic or instrument name.

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Perceptual Defense” (D010467).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010467). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual development
<a id="perceptual-development"></a>

Perceptual development is the process by which perception becomes organized and refined over early development. In this packet, it refers to how infants and toddlers learn to detect, separate, and mentally group speech sounds such as lexical tones, including cases where similar sounds may first be heard as distinct but later treated as confusable in known words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e9d857a02f3a440cab9d2ea705c43961a8d63f4c999e76e892316342d23d94ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shi Rushen; Gao Jun; Achim André; Li Aijun. Perception and Representation of Lexical Tones in Native Mandarin-Learning Infants and Toddlers. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01117; article XML SHA-256 98495a402b7a72f1fff88d1e6cd27d37d6065213bdda67bf57a6a55aaf9a12c0. “Perception and Representation of Lexical Tones in Native Mandarin-Learning Infants and Toddlers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01117).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01117). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual distortion
<a id="perceptual-distortion"></a>

Perceptual distortion is a mismatch between how a stimulus is usually perceived and how a particular person perceives it in the same situation. In plain language, it means perceiving something differently from the common or expected way under given conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fa63de69e59eb55687380559ce53c81a5f9e4af1e8a94524fd0cf56b60ca000

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Perceptual Distortion” (D010469).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010469). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual field
<a id="perceptual-field"></a>

A perceptual field is the experienced external or distal world as it is set apart from the self by a cognitive system. In this source, it is described as developing together with a bodily sense of self through the coupling of action and proprioception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f05134c39b9a795311bd7331e3d8409ac4ae821060716e2d83318d57dc5097fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gapenne Olivier. The co-constitution of the self and the world: action and proprioceptive coupling. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00594; article XML SHA-256 e9fb3933b329469e49c08d655ac8dd7b00e3a68bf597a7163c7767793a722679. “The co-constitution of the self and the world: action and proprioceptive coupling” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00594).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00594). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual learning
<a id="perceptual-learning"></a>

Perceptual learning is the improvement of perceptual judgments through practice or training. The improvement is often tied to the specific task or stimulus features being practiced, suggesting that learning can occur at relatively early stages of perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ece7433f8a0a5ec45c343ea2e10612c227b8616c2a3e5d0902e71fc7ca1c9db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Grandison Alexandra; Sowden Paul T.; Drivonikou Vicky G.; Notman Leslie A.; Alexander Iona; Davies Ian R. L.. Chromatic Perceptual Learning but No Category Effects without Linguistic Input. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00731; article XML SHA-256 a97bf12d3807cf89a13d0d91082d5f21b82577c284cc30c73011ee1d36e14a29. “Chromatic Perceptual Learning but No Category Effects without Linguistic Input” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00731).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00731). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Perceptual Masking
<a id="perceptual-masking"></a>

Perceptual masking is when one perceptual stimulus interferes with another, making the second stimulus less effective or harder to perceive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea41295fa853c814481d214736e23d5b3f72d60b6710053aea6b66165880a439

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Perceptual Masking” (D010470).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010470). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual measure
<a id="perceptual-measure"></a>

A perceptual measure is a way of judging image quality by how human observers actually perceive a change, rather than only by numerical calculations. In this source, it refers to an objective performance-based measure based on detection thresholds, such as how much noise remains visible to a person after image processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96082ad5fb541bec381de6ab38449ae9c68cf480179ed99f399f259246677985

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baker Daniel H; Summers Robert J; Baldwin Alex S; Meese Tim S. A psychophysical performance-based approach to the quality assessment of image processing algorithms. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0267056; article XML SHA-256 506a5f162c9f2778815d291e815feed178ad45394badf093260e8fc6baf31f00. “A psychophysical performance-based approach to the quality assessment of image processing algorithms” (10.1371/journal.pone.0267056).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267056). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual neglect
<a id="perceptual-neglect"></a>

Perceptual neglect here refers to a reduced tendency to perceive the overall, whole shape of a visual pattern, especially when it is shown in peripheral vision, while more local elements are more readily seen. In the source packet, this pattern is described as peripheral global perceptual neglect, with central vision not showing the same reduction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7da51048f139fc66ab2d0cb954af4b107a49b9a99d7d7e6900fa063a8f7051c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Crewther Daniel P.; Crewther David P.. Peripheral global neglect in high vs. low autistic tendency. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00284; article XML SHA-256 d45dd0cde6bb17fc7890184b840dcb10dc7f3cf4d4881034f1b50fe55bcea6b9. “Peripheral global neglect in high vs. low autistic tendency” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00284).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00284). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual organization
<a id="perceptual-organization"></a>

Perceptual organization is the mental process of detecting and assembling visual elements into a meaningful whole, such as picking out a shape or contour from a surrounding background or noise. In this context, it is studied as the ability to extract forms from visual scenes using both fragmented and continuous closed-contour stimuli.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 949e8db58fa1676191ea0522ad6571bc3508d372b237beb91065e6f181c9b69a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Panton Kirsten R.; Badcock David R.; Badcock Johanna C.. A Metaanalysis of Perceptual Organization in Schizophrenia, Schizotypy, and Other High-Risk Groups Based on Variants of the Embedded Figures Task. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00237; article XML SHA-256 3c6be01184c18a4a4e54066af4eca55e63e5160f29c6fb03cdea04081d8e61b7. “A Metaanalysis of Perceptual Organization in Schizophrenia, Schizotypy, and Other High-Risk Groups Based on Variants of the Embedded Figures Task” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00237).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00237). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual rivalry
<a id="perceptual-rivalry"></a>

Perceptual rivalry is a visual phenomenon in which the same input to both eyes leads awareness to alternate between different, mutually exclusive interpretations of what is being seen. It is studied with ambiguous images, such as the Necker cube, whose appearance switches between possible organizations even though the stimulus itself does not change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6df7c58204572c5e0ff8382d49c7fd21ad36502d48baef501875f94d50599865

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Klink P. Christiaan; van Ee Raymond; van Wezel Richard J. A.. General Validity of Levelt's Propositions Reveals Common Computational Mechanisms for Visual Rivalry. 2008; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0003473; article XML SHA-256 a40b91d415c4fa1be32f9be23cf78d19812f0cbb3ae4cfa6dd653a2eafb00210. “General Validity of Levelt's Propositions Reveals Common Computational Mechanisms for Visual Rivalry” (10.1371/journal.pone.0003473).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0003473). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual segregation
<a id="perceptual-segregation"></a>

Perceptual segregation is the process of separating overlapping sensory information into distinct sources, such as telling one talker’s audiovisual speech stream apart from another in a noisy social setting. In the supplied source, it is described as relying especially on audiovisual timing and on matching identity-related cues across face, voice, and language.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11538a6c4d2a4f0b2d8dfb6fde4d4c27cd4e9ed901b44eeba5d4a1104ee65b40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lewkowicz David J; McClellan Julia. The multisensory cocktail party problem in adults: The effects of the configural talking-face template and of facial, vocal, and linguistic identity cues on its solution. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354673; article XML SHA-256 c1e13e59699afc2e6416a736421d379d9e25bab2a175b7eb30b11d434afd78f0. “The multisensory cocktail party problem in adults: The effects of the configural talking-face template and of facial, vocal, and linguistic identity cues on its solution” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354673).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354673). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual style
<a id="perceptual-style"></a>

Perceptual style is a person’s characteristic way of taking in and processing environmental information. In this source, it is described mainly as a difference between focusing more on local details or on the overall global pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7a30ac4319495c4e7f811b6e0f7f7a7db6dcbadcaab2088374eaf4197bc6677

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Solé Puig Maria; Puigcerver Laura; Aznar-Casanova J. Antonio; Supèr Hans. Difference in Visual Processing Assessed by Eye Vergence Movements. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0072041; article XML SHA-256 eb699ad12358b969c5f4e0f7a2ea5220c8105def669ebdb05ca8728675f8a970. “Difference in Visual Processing Assessed by Eye Vergence Movements” (10.1371/journal.pone.0072041).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072041). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual synthesis
<a id="perceptual-synthesis"></a>

Perceptual synthesis is the combining of separate or partial contents into one unified perception experienced at the same time. In this historical usage, it refers to a close fusion within a single presentation rather than a looser linking of relatively independent presentations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b77a6394c64552c1bd2a1aa61537bb9dbdad0cf6382e92e80f148121c1367b47

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Complication” (Complication).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C3defs.htm#Complication). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual test
<a id="perceptual-test"></a>

A perceptual test is a task used to assess how a person interprets sensory information. In this source, it refers specifically to a standard auditory missing-fundamental task used to identify whether a listener is more tuned to the fundamental frequency or to the lower harmonic components of a complex sound.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b870b11456658af86c7352aa198cea68beac5b1a7941d3612cbdbea7d784de74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Postma-Nilsenová Marie; Postma Eric. Auditory perception bias in speech imitation. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00826; article XML SHA-256 d92033ae1c7031d8688fb8f2a199cc5eaaae409596f5fe19c18ea2218304c414. “Auditory perception bias in speech imitation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00826).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00826). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual training
<a id="perceptual-training"></a>

Perceptual training is a method used to change perceptual sensitivity by having people judge whether stimuli occur at the same time or not, while receiving feedback on their performance. In this context, it has been used to shift perceived simultaneity toward an optimum and narrow the temporal binding window.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5c42d3d14e7894d254d840ca90ac100fbf06aa05c036f8b0b4f1408fd5ed24d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Venskus Agnese; Gooding Peter L. T.; Hughes Gethin. Perceptual training modifies temporal sensitivity and a sense of agency. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1136365; article XML SHA-256 f20a05105878e985a57db15b7abdc7156e6ee5be2422a7aa92fd2bc82ae24f17. “Perceptual training modifies temporal sensitivity and a sense of agency” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1136365).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1136365). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptualization
<a id="perceptualization"></a>

Perceptualization is the shaping of information into a perceptible form, especially in art or visualization, so it can influence how people understand and feel about it. In this source, it refers to more than simply converting facts into images, because its effect depends on how factual and invented elements are combined.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ece23c17fe1c1dce1ee425318d0e471d0bf6ceac1153937e65ccc37f9e05db0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Buening Rebecca; Maeda Takuya; Liew Kongmeng; Aramaki Eiji. Between Fact and Fabrication: How Visual Art Might Nurture Environmental Consciousness. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.925843; article XML SHA-256 a3b64d572619583676ee8c6152f839f2fc5a8cf884cda2a36940522bf6788211. “Between Fact and Fabrication: How Visual Art Might Nurture Environmental Consciousness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.925843).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.925843). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perceptual–motor learning
<a id="perceptualmotor-learning"></a>

Perceptual–motor learning is the process of gaining new motor skills through repeated practice. It includes learning ordered action sequences and adjusting movements to deal with changes or disturbances in the body or environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4cb5cc692fedd60e2f53a3c79b8e19c75fd269242905c1b02e23436cbfc2bf4e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Martin Elodie; Seiwert Sarah; Fautrelle Lilian; Tisseyre Joseph; Gasq David; Lemay Martin; Amarantini David; Tallet Jessica. From lab to real life: Is there a link between lab-based and ecological assessment of Procedural Perceptual-Motor Learning tasks?. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319715; article XML SHA-256 85c437ebf6a81a3e19975e301fa0e31d7ddbd1f8242c59936aaf615fe7e111ae. “From lab to real life: Is there a link between lab-based and ecological assessment of Procedural Perceptual-Motor Learning tasks?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319715).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319715). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perfect correlation
<a id="perfect-correlation"></a>

In this historical symbolic-logic usage, perfect correlation means a complete duality between addition and multiplication. One operation can be replaced by the other if 0 and 1 are also exchanged and the relation of inclusion is reversed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ddfbfdd938ed453b2ae7ab03926c3a3ffd5b1cbd5e30c9e125b62043f5e0f66

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3643500-3655500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perfectionism
<a id="perfectionism"></a>

Perfectionism is a personality trait marked by striving to be flawless and setting unrealistically high standards for performance. It also involves harsh self-judgment and worry about how others will judge one’s performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1ad40f590635837476fd3fee52de6fb6a9f16a9f6ef49a776457c0d2e46d50d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Perfectionism” (D000072639).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000072639). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perforant path
<a id="perforant-path"></a>

The perforant path is a bundle of nerve fibers that begins in the lateral entorhinal cortex, passes through the hippocampal subiculum, and continues into the hippocampus. There it connects with fibers leading to the dentate gyrus, where the pathway ends; it is also called the perforating fasciculus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00a4b14f1be8ff29fc98978d391a4286153d9cf1398c5ab356c38f9896f9051e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Perforant Pathway” (D019580).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019580). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## performance
<a id="performance"></a>

In this source, performance refers to piano playing as an activity that includes not only producing sound but also visible body movements. These movements can be linked to musical structure and expression in the performer and can influence how audiences judge expressivity, emotion, and quality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0638c495d96cc45e4686b910d7d42ea6dadbc8adc29b28d13a0d847c8cd26099

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sun Yue; Wang Yilin. Ancillary body movements in piano performance: a critical narrative review of structural coupling, audience cues, and cognitive-scaffolding claims. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838025; article XML SHA-256 06ec660b8db0758ed327e47304ad7a99233caf38304eeca7d34aefdb02371be7. “Ancillary body movements in piano performance: a critical narrative review of structural coupling, audience cues, and cognitive-scaffolding claims” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838025).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838025). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## performance anxiety
<a id="performance-anxiety"></a>

Performance anxiety is anxiety connected to carrying out a task or performing an activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9806433aa8be2e9d17a98d5689fbe13dfc06fcd177bbad5546faa2f7f8f467f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Performance Anxiety” (D060805).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D060805). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## performance appraisal
<a id="performance-appraisal"></a>

Performance appraisal is the evaluation of an employee’s work performance using stated rules or indicators. In this packet, it refers especially to algorithm-based evaluation, where how clearly the system explains its basis can shape whether workers experience it as understandable guidance or as a loss of professional autonomy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 32e322bfb308240988c19b5020b02270e8fe84579ed2a5a36922b65b4a434cdb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Qing; Li Shuang; Wang Kai; Chang Xin; Cao Shengya; Zhang Guihua. Algorithmic performance appraisal intensity in hospitals: implications for professional autonomy and innovative work behavior. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1886547; article XML SHA-256 37e55b365db8a49c1e55abcdec5ba6350c03f9eadc81007a3ce54927d6945b95. “Algorithmic performance appraisal intensity in hospitals: implications for professional autonomy and innovative work behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1886547).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1886547). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## performance assessment
<a id="performance-assessment"></a>

Performance assessment is a way of judging how well an organization or system is doing by using selected standards or outcomes. In this source, it refers to appraisal systems that rate government performance using economic results, environmental results, or a combination of both, which can shape later behavior and its social effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1f270e3f05b8ecdf53b82afd235c2edb8a77201970faf0fe1f9e8c40416f6c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Shanhong; Lv Yanqin; Fan Tianzheng; Zhang Ziye; Feng Gao; Jing Chen. Multidimensional performance assessment, government competition and ecological welfare performance. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0289837; article XML SHA-256 46eb81e4344a2f06b8ae8ce352e7afa947dff63215779bd534e98b80fd65394a. “Multidimensional performance assessment, government competition and ecological welfare performance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0289837).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289837). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## performance enhancing drug
<a id="performance-enhancing-drug"></a>

A performance-enhancing drug is a substance used to improve performance, with anabolic-androgenic steroids being a common example. In the psychology-related context of this source, such use is described as extending beyond competitive sport into general fitness settings and as being linked with emotional, cognitive, and social difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd7e3d6c665b7c5ffb42facba93ba28c2b2cdd5c40918742af4786bf67048585

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Çınaroğlu Metin; Yılmazer Eda. Psychological correlates of performance-enhancing drug use: Emotional, cognitive, and social functioning in long-term and short-term users. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1710046; article XML SHA-256 d18c68492fbbee66d77d05dc955f81b5e50f6ea6be5bda28622fd6ec22eaa89b. “Psychological correlates of performance-enhancing drug use: Emotional, cognitive, and social functioning in long-term and short-term users” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1710046).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1710046). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## performance management
<a id="performance-management"></a>

Performance management is an administrative process used to evaluate work performance. In this packet, it is contrasted with the psychological effects that evaluation can also have as a work condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 004bc1cf1b3e7881e1a90efe157483192c3d99fbb3a21d06d9d4e67dc2dfe052

Sources:
- Drafting source: [He Yuda; Su Jinghan. Teacher evaluation as a psychological work condition: professional feelings and occupational wellbeing among teachers in Chinese private higher education. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877720; article XML SHA-256 9ae2ed89846c5859047d5571dc62549dc9ef4add97bda6d2fefa0551b4e04368. “Teacher evaluation as a psychological work condition: professional feelings and occupational wellbeing among teachers in Chinese private higher education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877720).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1877720). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## performance routine
<a id="performance-routine"></a>

A performance routine is a planned set of mental and physical preparation actions used before carrying out a skill. In sport, it is used systematically to help manage arousal, direct attention to relevant cues, and support focused execution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bc652779bcc16553e8b0939426351ef360c0cd00ecf3e6cf6175a238ca87b67e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wergin V. Vanessa; Beckmann Jürgen; Gröpel Peter; Mesagno Christopher. Investigating cumulative effects of pre-performance routine interventions in beach volleyball serving. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0228012; article XML SHA-256 9c8db77de44ad61a0933f8e08ac199ce67e1a0a04e80d629f80bfbb815399424. “Investigating cumulative effects of pre-performance routine interventions in beach volleyball serving” (10.1371/journal.pone.0228012).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228012). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## performance test
<a id="performance-test"></a>

In this source, a performance test is a rotating-rod task, usually used with rodents, that measures how long the subject can stay on the rod. It is used to assess balance, coordination, and the effects of neurological conditions or drugs in animal research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db39b5606ca924ed01337c5eaaf1713912e3b3d1b897e3b186ebce781691f44c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Rotarod Performance Test” (D045442).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D045442). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## periamygdaloid cortex
<a id="periamygdaloid-cortex"></a>

The periamygdaloid cortex is a brain surface area on the parahippocampal gyrus that lies over the cortical amygdaloid nucleus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cda5a815c60bc61acdfd6a949121fb612417fbbcc6b0118295d8eb2e57c898a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Periamygdaloid Cortex” (D066277).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066277). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## periaqueductal gray
<a id="periaqueductal-gray"></a>

The periaqueductal gray is a region of central gray matter that surrounds the cerebral aqueduct in the midbrain. It is thought to be involved in pain and in several responses such as rage, feeding, bladder tone, and the lordosis reflex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f285d831790d2352ca1e8957c449a6ec425f4bdb25b2f40109ec87972e8947a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Periaqueductal Gray” (D010487).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010487). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perikaryon
<a id="perikaryon"></a>

Perikaryon is the cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus in a neuron's cell body. It is the main body portion of the nerve cell, distinct from the dendrites and axon.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 838c217d8ca3a4ad7e1dc6dd0df1f58e8055f33dbb6be1a32faf5c984d393f5f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neuron” (C12623).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perimenopause
<a id="perimenopause"></a>

Perimenopause is a stage in a woman’s life linked with physical and hormonal changes. In mental health, it is noted because these changes can trigger a depressive episode in some women.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34617aca1f6240333cd07d604a9cfccc9b87763a82d6f3ca2d4e98286f0f5531

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression in Women: 4 Things to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d7e3878cd110511a1cab8edfc2803470cfecef390d776a8858330f68a78c0fab. “Depression in Women: 4 Things to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression-in-women).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression-in-women). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perimeter
<a id="perimeter"></a>

In this cognition context, perimeter means the outer edge or boundary of an object that the fingers contact when judging its size by touch.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac4421ef9bfc75316563bee598f6ad04a1268e62d41964005824d15d1799008c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Allen Keon S; Goldreich Daniel. Humans optimally integrate cutaneous and proprioceptive cues in haptic size perception. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1653390; article XML SHA-256 fc692e01ac1a035d8eba142b748026768d3babfe208eb6a750321ec45cd79f4e. “Humans optimally integrate cutaneous and proprioceptive cues in haptic size perception” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1653390).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1653390). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## period
<a id="period"></a>

A period is a span or phase of time during which particular changes or patterns are likely to occur. In this context, adolescence is described as a period when physical-activity habits may either become established or weaken.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b466176c5ea6f0fdd676f9b15005f4d470abd3595ff7dd5a40bdb841ad49c371

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huo Xiaoliang; Hui Ming. Growth mindset and adolescent exercise persistence: a moderated serial mediation model through self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1860747; article XML SHA-256 ddba837176e90b07ffaa3fc1733a8a5bb6eece34adc61293a332a329b1ae15c6. “Growth mindset and adolescent exercise persistence: a moderated serial mediation model through self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1860747).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1860747). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## period effect
<a id="period-effect"></a>

A period effect is a change seen across calendar time in how common an outcome is among people with the same duration of a condition, so that those diagnosed more recently differ from those diagnosed earlier. It refers to differences linked to the time period itself rather than simply to how long the illness has been present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b304b09a84cc870d73d55ff791803cc2fe57e1dbc0b6be522b3bf664a0b68277

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kiire Christine A.; Horak Kayla; Lee Kristine E.; Klein Barbara E. K.; Klein Ronald. The period effect in the prevalence of proliferative diabetic retinopathy, gross proteinuria, and peripheral neuropathy in type 1 diabetes: A longitudinal cohort study. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0174979; article XML SHA-256 7b19c6c6970831a7b5cabc761cc34cad8d75295f9f4e64d016b81604763da50c. “The period effect in the prevalence of proliferative diabetic retinopathy, gross proteinuria, and peripheral neuropathy in type 1 diabetes: A longitudinal cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0174979).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174979). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## periodicity
<a id="periodicity"></a>

Periodicity is the tendency for something to happen again at regular intervals. In biological systems, this can refer to recurring hormonal, cellular, or neural activity that follows yearly, seasonal, monthly, daily, or even more frequent cycles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5ab3d33637ab10ea80408d606906d894cc62b05740ab09415207abfbf03e5eed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Periodicity” (D010507).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010507). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## periodicity pitch
<a id="periodicity-pitch"></a>

Periodicity pitch is pitch perception based on the repeating time pattern of incoming sound signals, represented through neural spike timing along the auditory pathway. In the source, it is explained as being learned in stages, with auditory neurons becoming tuned to temporal input patterns that support pitch discrimination and estimation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c491ab22a84735cc0dcb0d696f109499d2bd3b01f266feab63f7a8578b2b86ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Feldhoff Frank; Toepfer Hannes; Harczos Tamas; Klefenz Frank. Periodicity Pitch Perception Part III: Sensibility and Pachinko Volatility. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2022.736642; article XML SHA-256 374c6d38f6611dc07e913bcf92b965e072d3f51a78c2a716286b7320883b136a. “Periodicity Pitch Perception Part III: Sensibility and Pachinko Volatility” (10.3389/fnins.2022.736642).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.736642). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peripheral
<a id="peripheral"></a>

In this context, peripheral means located in the sensory organs outside the central nervous system rather than in brainstem or other central structures. The article uses it to describe changes in the vestibular organs themselves, including effects on the side of injury and temporary adaptation on the opposite side.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 491cdac09867915cdbe64b03c6e419b793ad06fb26d357db4917930eaeaa9586

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Trico Jessica; Watabe Isabelle; Parameshwarappa Vinay; Lapotre Agnes; Godaert Louis; Tonetto Alain; Chabbert Christian; Zwergal Andreas; Tighilet Brahim. Central and peripheral plasticity after chemical unilateral labyrinthectomy: Glial responses, calyces dynamics, and behavioral consequences. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355839; article XML SHA-256 420099f22891250bcdfe1d5842aeed1a859dc5692a33d6c83647c3621ddf9d3c. “Central and peripheral plasticity after chemical unilateral labyrinthectomy: Glial responses, calyces dynamics, and behavioral consequences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355839).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355839). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peripheral auditory system
<a id="peripheral-auditory-system"></a>

The peripheral auditory system is the outer hearing apparatus made up of structures outside the central auditory pathways that help receive and conduct sound. In the dolphin source described here, it includes specialised bony, fatty, vascular, and neural tissues such as the external ear canal, acoustic fat bodies, sinuses, and related nerves and blood vessels that support underwater hearing and protective or sensory functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3ad02f63e40ec74305b73a5ab90e31551d969de1391471ea987bfea7ca3ad239

Sources:
- Drafting source: [De Vreese Steffen; Graïc Jean-Marie; Mazzariol Sandro; Huggenberger Stefan; Fogli Marco; Luzzati Federico; Corona Cristiano; Favole Alessandra; Cerdà-Domènech Marc; Frigola Jaime; André Michel. Peripheral anatomy of the dolphin ear and associated nervous structures: Insights from macroscopic dissection, DICE-µCT, histology, and confocal microscopy. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350484; article XML SHA-256 78e6e840845e6883febe53dfb51ddb630152db9d988a261d99b9711a093e242b. “Peripheral anatomy of the dolphin ear and associated nervous structures: Insights from macroscopic dissection, DICE-µCT, histology, and confocal microscopy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350484).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350484). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peripheral cue
<a id="peripheral-cue"></a>

A peripheral cue is a feature of a message that influences how people respond without relying mainly on the message’s core informational content. In this source, emotional reactions are treated as peripheral cues that can shape behaviors such as liking, commenting, and forwarding social media posts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a726538713a67f766cb8534b52a02b196ede0351cf79e78ea99275917525a91a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Na; Zhang Yaming; Koura Yaya Hamadou. Dual paths of information behavioral choice influenced by information and emotion: The moderating effect of user credibility. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353608; article XML SHA-256 9255b03f1f7799fc7b304f867c4afe03d775b915ec82dc3cc4e54f7d06878bfe. “Dual paths of information behavioral choice influenced by information and emotion: The moderating effect of user credibility” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353608).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353608). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peripheral dyslexia
<a id="peripheral-dyslexia"></a>

Peripheral dyslexia is a reading disorder in which the difficulty lies mainly in early visual-perceptual, attentional, working-memory, or task-related motor-planning processes involved in recognizing written words, rather than in language-based word meaning or sound conversion. It is a form of acquired dyslexia seen after brain damage and can include patterns such as neglect dyslexia or crowding dyslexia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 560ea4ccfbec916bf14777f88dd343a5af57155fa72401eca73bdf9a6a26502a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Veronelli Laura; Daini Roberta; Primativo Silvia; Toneatto Carlo; Ghielmi Lucia; Pino Silvia; Gilardone Giulia; Martelli Marialuisa; Arduino Lisa S. The spacing words and pseudowords reading test: normative data to measure peripheral acquired dyslexia in the Italian adult population. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911950; article XML SHA-256 05285a07bdfbc5a555edb6e6d8e032198d3caeb93579e6eaaaa8ad19344f3b94. “The spacing words and pseudowords reading test: normative data to measure peripheral acquired dyslexia in the Italian adult population” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911950).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911950). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peripheral nervous system
<a id="peripheral-nervous-system"></a>

The peripheral nervous system is the part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord. It includes somatic and autonomic divisions; the autonomic division includes enteric, parasympathetic, and sympathetic parts, and the somatic division includes the cranial and spinal nerves, their ganglia, and peripheral sensory receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7320cb329be5c873b8c2fcfdcc6f365ac381e04f1694bffcc5614666f2db251d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Peripheral Nervous System” (D017933).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017933). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peripheral neuropathy
<a id="peripheral-neuropathy"></a>

Peripheral neuropathy is a disorder of the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord that can cause pain, tingling, numbness, and muscle weakness. It can develop after physical injury or from causes such as toxic substances, viral illness, diabetes, kidney failure, cancer, or certain drugs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa5e09953ecd20ab9aaccbd814c9e1f5965d3fd8ff88fdd5122a28c747c6a400

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Peripheral Neuropathy” (C119734).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peripheral vision
<a id="peripheral-vision"></a>

Peripheral vision is the part of what can be seen to the sides and around the center when a person looks straight ahead. It refers to the total visible area outside the direct line of sight.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e84eb95d3afb267d0224522fa43ab98b53c37d835dcc1c6d3060ce6716788d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Visual Fields” (D014794).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014794). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perirhinal cortex
<a id="perirhinal-cortex"></a>

The perirhinal cortex is a region of the temporal lobe involved in forming and retrieving memories. It lies near the parahippocampal cortex and the entorhinal cortex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc12da5f0fcf80f6d64f3fa726d6aee77e3e9265fa87cd3c505cdd4ccb8d24a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Perirhinal Cortex” (D000071039).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000071039). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peritraumatic dissociation
<a id="peritraumatic-dissociation"></a>

Peritraumatic dissociation is a psychological reaction during or around a traumatic event in which a person may experience disruptions in awareness, memory, or sense of identity. It has been linked with poorer outcomes such as post-traumatic stress disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b0e4ce7ebf92cfce2ad96a8726edddc5e56a8f88020b35b1fce868bfab1e676

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yacoub Hamzeh; Sabbah Suheir S.; Yacoub Zaid; Yacoub Rita; Sabbah Khalil; Yasin Diana; Ghannam Yousef B.. Unpacking resilience: exploring the link between dissociative responses and psychological resilience in war-affected Palestinians. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1678100; article XML SHA-256 f2c18c0f070c39a8920efdcf30389eaddb7222e765e9256cb789c07a49354f57. “Unpacking resilience: exploring the link between dissociative responses and psychological resilience in war-affected Palestinians” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1678100).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1678100). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Perky effect
<a id="perky-effect"></a>

The Perky effect is the finding that forming a visual image in the same place as a real visual target can make that target harder to detect. It describes an interaction in which imagery lowers visual sensitivity to the target, suggesting interference between imagined and perceived visual information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad96f3b8b1b4efacbfbbb0bd39eb659bbce50faf022b799061cb7ef014d5213f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reeves Adam; Craver-Lemley Catherine. Unmasking the Perky Effect: Spatial Extent of Image Interference on Visual Acuity. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00296; article XML SHA-256 7300f3214ab214b4da5da8751c049a1446a8c8b2cb9f166c41b9691a7e726095. “Unmasking the Perky Effect: Spatial Extent of Image Interference on Visual Acuity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00296).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00296). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## permissive parenting
<a id="permissive-parenting"></a>

Permissive parenting is a parenting style within the family environment that is linked to young children’s social–emotional development. In the source, different levels of permissive parenting are associated with either helping or hindering preschool children’s social–emotional competence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 191a23f0dcb03a3b236837bedd40cda3b20ad870e57546f06baaac6f5ecb31d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wen Yanru; Zhu Cheng; Wei Yiping; Chen Tianqing; Li Tao; Wu Xiaopeng. How key family factors influence preschool children’s social–emotional competence: threshold effects of parental parenting styles and parent–child interaction quality. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815141; article XML SHA-256 5c1277da85348fb4cbc47e967283abdde12f68a92bff5be3b6c07e42d49f39c5. “How key family factors influence preschool children’s social–emotional competence: threshold effects of parental parenting styles and parent–child interaction quality” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815141).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815141). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## permissiveness
<a id="permissiveness"></a>

Permissiveness is an attitude of allowing another person freedom to express themselves and act as they choose, without necessarily agreeing with or approving of what they do.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b3667ef2f14a02a76c5db6c2692f9559c7ed8cdb948d9f46b9106385dbcde94

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Permissiveness” (D010541).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010541). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peroneal muscular atrophy
<a id="peroneal-muscular-atrophy"></a>

Peroneal muscular atrophy is an inherited disorder of the peripheral nerves that affects both movement and sensation, most often passed down in an autosomal dominant pattern. It causes gradually worsening wasting of the lower leg muscles and reduced reflexes, sometimes later involving the arms, and usually begins in early to mid-adulthood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 294316727e9a51a58f166473b9405c0c72e406e758bb2bc5c186bec61d69987c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease” (D002607).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002607). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perphenazine
<a id="perphenazine"></a>

Perphenazine is a phenothiazine drug that acts mainly by blocking dopamine receptors, giving it antipsychotic and anti-nausea effects. In mental health use, it can reduce psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a17887f4eaa8788b1ff1ad71e64f580e8dfe25341d24cae6fc20d4a722e5089

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Perphenazine” (C29355).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perseverance
<a id="perseverance"></a>

Perseverance is the ability to keep working toward a goal despite setbacks or failure. It involves staying committed, maintaining effort, and changing strategies as needed when obstacles arise, and is described here as a behavioral expression of resilience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9531e99baf277ab8ee25f6bcbda8a3d90160fa1cd6c83fa1a226f4a347479c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Hui; Peng Anqi; Patterson Meagan M.. Building adolescents’ resilience: teachers’ support, perceived cooperative and competitive climates, and mindset. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1897482; article XML SHA-256 ae0378048fc29747190b3dc4d9f7040fb8a7a6671ca4e3ad406fbd5ff743a8e3. “Building adolescents’ resilience: teachers’ support, perceived cooperative and competitive climates, and mindset” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1897482).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1897482). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perseveration
<a id="perseveration"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, perseveration refers to an experience that has just occurred remaining, in a special way, still present and held for examination rather than being reconstructed by later reflection. It contrasts with indirect recollection, in which the experience must be reproduced in memory for inspection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 961ec1bdc0b4849433c1606316b1c46b9b5c77ad6b9d2432b6cdad1efb7c4db0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Titchener, The Schema of Introspection, 1912. 1912 American Journal of Psychology 23, 485–508. “Titchener, The Schema of Introspection, 1912” (3df3e717981e5484759c).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/introspection.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/introspection.htm). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perseverative error
<a id="perseverative-error"></a>

A perseverative error is a repeated mistake in which a person keeps responding according to an old rule even after the situation has changed and feedback indicates a new rule is needed. In the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, this means continuing to sort by a previous feature such as color or shape instead of shifting to the new sorting rule.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2825c8291ee44be45e8df3104d5b2d82771bd98fe205cd1a6e4456a0bb475828

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lung For-Wey; Chen Po-Fei; Shu Bih-Ching. Performance of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in five-year-old children in Taiwan: Relationship to intelligence and cognitive development. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0202099; article XML SHA-256 529c05a2af9044431bf0cac77116be63a07e090040af5c5d008e32c2e8019918. “Performance of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in five-year-old children in Taiwan: Relationship to intelligence and cognitive development” (10.1371/journal.pone.0202099).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202099). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## persistent complex bereavement disorder
<a id="persistent-complex-bereavement-disorder"></a>

Persistent complex bereavement disorder is a severe, disabling grief reaction that continues without easing for at least 12 months after the death of a significant other. It centers on ongoing yearning or missing the person who died and being preoccupied with the circumstances of the death.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a2802570a6d7439a89146778e0081fe01c3afe613911d01bc050f7da8a6e774

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Prolonged Grief Disorder” (D000090382).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000090382). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Person-Centered Psychotherapy
<a id="person-centered-psychotherapy"></a>

Person-centered psychotherapy is a nondirective form of therapy developed by Carl Rogers. It aims to help clients become more genuine, self-aware, and self-accepting, based on the view that people naturally move toward growth when the right supportive conditions are present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 33c88c6abb48e3b5441f3844d487f75fcf77edb946e8a11ab0767aff1eae788f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Person-Centered Psychotherapy” (D009629).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009629). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## persona
<a id="persona"></a>

In this context, a persona is the characteristic interaction style or role a virtual agent presents to users. Examples in the packet include chatbot personas such as a Listener, Guide, or Motivator, which can shape how users feel about and accept the interaction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 89d8aeca784b2e26c53fef1677a62136f71a0b3ec64bf1e872db08154f079a5d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Qi; Lu Shizhu; Yan Yuqi; Liu Lin; Peng Xiaojie. When chatbots are perceived as “understanding”: a study on how virtual agent persona styles and affective interaction promote mental health acceptance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1863595; article XML SHA-256 66546d60b056b09643ab7443ee34f52dcce56517cd5dd4b00b5db3f838827843. “When chatbots are perceived as “understanding”: a study on how virtual agent persona styles and affective interaction promote mental health acceptance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1863595).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1863595). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personal construct therapy
<a id="personal-construct-therapy"></a>

Personal construct therapy is a psychological approach that focuses on how a person makes sense of themselves and their experiences. Rather than teaching about depression or directing specific changes in thoughts or behaviour, it explores whether the person’s thoughts and actions fit with their sense of identity and looks at the meanings they give to these experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a82020bd858e87b05a6ef74bd14ae1d1e297038f91151ab08456965c1d07efa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Montesano Adrián; Medina Joan C.; Paz Clara; García-Mieres Helena; Niño-Robles Noelia; García-Grau Eugeni; Crespillo Josep Cañete; García-Gutiérrez Alejandro; Alabèrnia-Segura Miquel; Feixas Guillem. Does virtual reality increase the efficacy of psychotherapy for young adults with mild-to-moderate depression? A study protocol for a multicenter randomized clinical trial. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s13063-021-05809-1; article XML SHA-256 1d4ad69d2e87610d08821ce85101b8ff37bd0b15813621b8db561382b2b25404. “Does virtual reality increase the efficacy of psychotherapy for young adults with mild-to-moderate depression? A study protocol for a multicenter randomized clinical trial” (10.1186/s13063-021-05809-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-021-05809-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personal involvement
<a id="personal-involvement"></a>

Personal involvement is the degree to which an event is personally relevant to someone. In this source, it is described in terms of how close the person is to the event in space and time and how strongly they empathically engage with it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 10516418a0b3892924047d05b8d6404964a3674c2add9b6ef593e2558e767fd6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ma Xiaoyue; Wan Jing. Exploring the role of digital media dependency on the relationship between personal involvement and flashbulb memory during the pandemic: Empirical evidence from Mainland China. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.985287; article XML SHA-256 f7b1a8f3866dd76f76d9896fe6866e857586f1e5d2809a03f9dceb8b7169e2d5. “Exploring the role of digital media dependency on the relationship between personal involvement and flashbulb memory during the pandemic: Empirical evidence from Mainland China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.985287).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.985287). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personal projects
<a id="personal-projects"></a>

Personal projects are personally meaningful goals or activities that a person invests in, such as sports or creative pursuits. In this context, they are described as a self-enhancing way of coping that supports the person without directly confronting a threatening situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c06f115a6fbfcaab8adeaebd259da075fe60a3c9163ca4b672cb66defc15a5f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reiss Stefan; Franchina Vittoria; Jutzi Chiara; Willardt Robin; Jonas Eva. From anxiety to action—Experience of threat, emotional states, reactance, and action preferences in the early days of COVID-19 self-isolation in Germany and Austria. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243193; article XML SHA-256 ba35746f097020aa4e0793780088da4dfe75ea09921b45fc4078d2546cb35628. “From anxiety to action—Experience of threat, emotional states, reactance, and action preferences in the early days of COVID-19 self-isolation in Germany and Austria” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243193).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243193). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personal protective equipment
<a id="personal-protective-equipment"></a>

Personal protective equipment is special clothing or gear used to protect a worker from occupational health risks when other hazard-control measures are not enough or cannot be used. It includes items such as helmets, masks, gloves, eye protection, boots, ear plugs, high-visibility clothing, and safety harnesses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 983ce8f8558510c3cd83db09d55888ba29cd184149210de7741baccdc700f564

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Debela Sisay Abebe; Tefera Yonatal Mesfin; Endeshaw Mulualem; Daba Chala; Debela Endashaw Abebe; Luke Amana Ogeto; Atomsa Teferi; Seyoum Solomon; Gebrehiwot Mesfin. Personal protective equipment utilization and its association with educational status among industry workers in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis protocol. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299957; article XML SHA-256 b250fe7cda386910b715da61f17622224b5d06262deb3d7c4e36959f87591e85. “Personal protective equipment utilization and its association with educational status among industry workers in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299957).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299957). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personal space
<a id="personal-space"></a>

Personal space is the unseen area around a person's body that they try to keep between themselves and other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 804559df19a45e86228422f1d9cb24fdb12198fa475e5b3569f29ba1261ca74f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Personal Space” (D010550).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010550). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personal unconscious
<a id="personal-unconscious"></a>

In Jungian theory, the personal unconscious is the part of the unconscious made up of a person’s own repressed or forgotten experiences, thoughts, and feelings. It is distinguished from the collective unconscious, which is described as inherited and universal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a895158b41bd149064e3ebf43cb8d10bf2664c16ffb1303938dc0cc00a75272

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Jungian Theory” (D007602).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007602). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personality
<a id="personality"></a>

Personality is the overall pattern of behavioral, temperamental, emotional, and mental qualities that make a person distinctive as an individual.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 492f88a84a8287b5b1762bfda7fa40f109c67537abced905a196e19af668cf03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Personality” (C38002).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personality assessment
<a id="personality-assessment"></a>

Personality assessment is the process of identifying and evaluating personality characteristics using interviews, observation, tests, or rating scales. It also includes the measurement of personality traits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2fb4aac1212cc226e8462440abb8b48b3b43920714c1cf2bb9f9e938f8cdc6e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Personality Assessment” (D010552).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010552). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personality change
<a id="personality-change"></a>

Personality change is a noticeable shift in how a person behaves and thinks. It can occur in connection with conditions such as depression, drug or alcohol abuse, brain injury, brain tumors, or Alzheimer’s disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc0e5e4324268557ccf9a783114e36028b0990be52df42d0c3c6c08eda62836a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Personality Change” (C78548).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personality correlates
<a id="personality-correlates"></a>

Personality correlates are personality-related traits or characteristics that show an association with another behaviour or condition. In this source, the term refers to personality factors linked with hypersexual behaviour.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 94653da1cbea298a7d15fe7e051f0b634c506facd97a3967e85d3e962464aec1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jepsen Dennis; Brzank Petra J.. Hypersexual behaviour among young adults in Germany: characteristics and personality correlates. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-04370-8; article XML SHA-256 0497ddd3852d12fa852e6157e774813e39d04ed1238a68f408429f2f06b46af2. “Hypersexual behaviour among young adults in Germany: characteristics and personality correlates” (10.1186/s12888-022-04370-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-04370-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personality development
<a id="personality-development"></a>

Personality development is the growth of a person’s usual behavior patterns during childhood and adolescence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 55ba18db57644abaa3ee1ab200c52740a212c258574e3ba1093c487232b5cae1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Personality Development” (D010553).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010553). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personality disorder
<a id="personality-disorder"></a>

Personality disorder is a broad group of psychiatric conditions in which a person shows long-lasting, rigid patterns of behavior that differ strongly from what their culture expects. These patterns tend to persist over time and can disrupt relationships and work.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5526ac8215af7fe7c4c0de4c9c9730ba2d91b2fee53ae12011d3f4304927b8a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Personality Disorder” (C34922).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Personality Disorders
<a id="personality-disorders"></a>

Personality disorders are major departures from usual patterns of behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 813c4a3f2c2b2dae71855452ae3639b8ad2a820f9dd263407407b0d37e8630ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Personality Disorders” (D010554).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010554). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personality dysfunction
<a id="personality-dysfunction"></a>

Personality dysfunction refers to problems in personality functioning that are linked with higher levels of psychological symptoms. In this source, such difficulties are described as potentially worsening health outcomes by getting in the way of helpful health behaviors and sticking with treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 683f72ac6bf3514ec18409871822d8be6ec2fc47371901c3eec1d1c59a2b20fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cruciani Gianluca; Liotti Marianna; Tanzilli Annalisa; Lo Buglio Gabriele; Guarino Davide; Carone Nicola; Casali Matteo; Galli Federica; Lingiardi Vittorio. Psychopathological symptoms, personality, and epistemic stances in individuals with myocardial infarction: an empirical investigation. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1587747; article XML SHA-256 349ff0ee926fc7445108ef41221174c9baeda31657373f0f3ed942110433a34a. “Psychopathological symptoms, personality, and epistemic stances in individuals with myocardial infarction: an empirical investigation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1587747).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1587747). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Personality Inventory
<a id="personality-inventory"></a>

A personality inventory is a checklist, usually completed by a person about themselves, that contains many statements about personal characteristics for the person to mark or endorse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e18ead581cff52a96ce42794aed51bee04b7c49b345dc27adeeba6a9335d2e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Personality Inventory” (D010555).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010555). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personality processes
<a id="personality-processes"></a>

Personality processes are the dynamic ways personality is expressed and develops over time through ongoing interactions between a person and changing situations. In this context, they involve how situations shift, how people help maintain or alter those situations, and how these changes relate to later adjustment and behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f78cdbacea646d398ab75f50649c2cdf38609724cb2ad1c8586e44a679238817

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rauthmann John F.; Sherman Ryne A.. Situation Change: Stability and Change of Situation Variables between and within Persons. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01938; article XML SHA-256 5bf96d65d68619fb3288ceb2b9222a122109b0caf3850eaca8ddc8b879ffea9b. “Situation Change: Stability and Change of Situation Variables between and within Persons” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01938).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01938). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personality psychology
<a id="personality-psychology"></a>

Personality psychology is the area of psychology that conceptualizes normal personality and its development, including how self-function is organized. In the supplied source, it is described as viewing the self in two linked aspects: identity and social interdependence versus autonomy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2cfaa43a14b3c9f4661dbf1934af731faf5c9e25e1bb8bf07b558d77223b0425

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Howard Richard C.. “Self” and “other”: A conceptual bridge linking normal with pathological personality. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1023236; article XML SHA-256 2c76019e0307013e8433d89c210f6b2d2fd185bb8d11c6909e0ec5e1cb6a4775. ““Self” and “other”: A conceptual bridge linking normal with pathological personality” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1023236).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1023236). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Personality Tests
<a id="personality-tests"></a>

Personality tests are standardized, objective tests used to help evaluate personality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: dc8572231dc05362e2f39b2aa56793d6a51e1d185062dc57116c03b38edf6c01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Personality Tests” (D010556).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010556). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personality trait
<a id="personality-trait"></a>

A personality trait is a characteristic pattern in how a person behaves. It refers to a behavioral quality that a particular person has.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b5672a267069dc5181824f45c501af4f3c78fa2cc04400f5dde3def184ff5ee7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Personality Trait” (C17713).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personalized instruction
<a id="personalized-instruction"></a>

Personalized instruction is an approach to teaching that adjusts the learner’s pathway based on individual characteristics and ongoing learning states rather than giving everyone the same fixed sequence. In this study context, it used adaptive technology to tailor task difficulty, feedback, and instructional actions to support engagement, self-regulation, motivation, and performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 60ffb8c3e234ce2c5a1476b336c201dde00bd011c2fd20f0bd089914f2f6bee8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Peiyao Li. Reinforcement learning personalized instruction for psychological engagement self-regulated learning motivation and performance in professional English education. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900245; article XML SHA-256 b995ab3ac78dba66a7f02a021bcaafd97a60726959fec1a93cc9172e4f89b152. “Reinforcement learning personalized instruction for psychological engagement self-regulated learning motivation and performance in professional English education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900245).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900245). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## person–environment interaction
<a id="personenvironment-interaction"></a>

Person–environment interaction is the reciprocal relationship between people and their surrounding social environments, understood through complex models that can operate at different levels of social systems. In this context, it can also be considered at broader levels such as community or nation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f7362db0f3f19306cf7c8ad0b32a97d2c4bfb757f51da4d75a36b77fc8f6c6e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kolesovs Aleksandrs. Sense of country: General and specific factors covary with social identification and predict emigration plans. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.992028; article XML SHA-256 86e8e39fcf17fe3505dad313b82ab646bde6e16921439dd687c78c1bed846567. “Sense of country: General and specific factors covary with social identification and predict emigration plans” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.992028).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.992028). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## personnel selection
<a id="personnel-selection"></a>

Personnel selection is the process of evaluating people for jobs, often through methods such as cognitive testing and behavioral observation in assessment settings. The packet supports only this general meaning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 689986870c811a95ce588969c028169f714b2aa31db3db8f76917246647afc20

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zinn Frank; Mittelstädt Justin Maximilian. Effects of face masks on fairness in on-site personnel selection during a pandemic. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1168311; article XML SHA-256 9cac6b5ddc76486d39e1215a9a3496632580ae8b265d7163742a82571d310efb. “Effects of face masks on fairness in on-site personnel selection during a pandemic” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1168311).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1168311). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perspective taking
<a id="perspective-taking"></a>

Perspective taking is the mental process of understanding another person’s viewpoint or mindset from one’s own position. In psychology, it is often treated as the cognitive side of empathy, distinct from the emotional side but closely related to it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d10804ee81630c94e87fdba8b450d9cd4a650d78daa5e56eefffcdc3749036a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ooshima Yasuhiro; Mitamura Takashi. Effects of perspective-taking training based on relational frame theory for cognitive empathy and emotional empathy: Differences in perspective-taking according to various theoretical approaches. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323120; article XML SHA-256 67ddbc6c0469b4888d9bf23905b8f0e4c4a13711c1e4b0f4e9df872e4109b097. “Effects of perspective-taking training based on relational frame theory for cognitive empathy and emotional empathy: Differences in perspective-taking according to various theoretical approaches” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323120).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323120). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## perspective theory
<a id="perspective-theory"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, perspective theory is a type of explanation for geometrical-optical illusions. In Baldwin’s summary, it is grouped with theories that treat such illusions as variants of broader accounts of how visual perception produces mistaken appearances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3538085deea4468d3a89625cf45b1b9fa0af1662ee92b4a56339caededcf25ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Optical Illusions” (Optical Illusions).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Optical Illusions). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## persuasive communication
<a id="persuasive-communication"></a>

Persuasive communication is communication intended to shape attitudes, and its impact can vary depending on how well the message’s emotional or thinking-focused content matches the recipient’s usual orientation. In this research context, attitudes were more influenced by the emotional tone of a message when it matched a person’s stronger affective orientation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ce6e28aa4bc36a3575d0910984c56a01453c18767b03b3d25acbff9eeda8c27d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Giammusso Isabella; Aquino Antonio; Alparone Francesca Romana; Mirisola Alberto. The matching effect in persuasive communication about lockdown. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.987114; article XML SHA-256 00ff523f298a587f132f459919ac495d579ad598af8300e3a52e92d6b5a10509. “The matching effect in persuasive communication about lockdown” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.987114).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.987114). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pertussis
<a id="pertussis"></a>

Pertussis is a highly contagious respiratory illness marked by a long-lasting coughing illness with repeated coughing fits. It can lead to serious complications, especially in infants and young children, and it remains a concern when vaccination is incomplete or immunity has declined.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6d766e55c827019a579acb938a7bb7ac94f0516889f184ef90f51752448bfac0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Basa Mihail; Visekruna Jelena; Grba Tijana; Paripovic Aleksandra; Marsenic Marija; Petrovic Vladimir; Sovtic Aleksandar. Clinical features, disease severity, and outcomes of pertussis in hospitalized children: A retrospective study from Serbia. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352498; article XML SHA-256 6bf107071249a10e23f0eeb41816398f96a1f9a1ee5b3868675201d4a177f2d4. “Clinical features, disease severity, and outcomes of pertussis in hospitalized children: A retrospective study from Serbia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352498).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352498). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pervasive developmental disorder
<a id="pervasive-developmental-disorder"></a>

Pervasive developmental disorder is a group of developmental conditions marked by difficulties with communication and social interaction. These problems are greater than would be expected for the person’s developmental level or mental age, and the disorders may occur along with general medical or genetic conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e522bf90a46904f5fccdd01034d45aa728b28e71e56d5289a3b89919a71ae604

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pervasive Developmental Disorder” (C97179).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pessimism
<a id="pessimism"></a>

Pessimism is a mental outlook in which a person tends to see life events as mostly negative.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67684993224e25133d3fab6dc6d4af5a407d09d3788535b01f37753bf22f79bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pessimism” (D000067657).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067657). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pet therapy
<a id="pet-therapy"></a>

Pet therapy is a form of therapy that involves dogs or other pets to support physical and mental health in people with some acute or long-term illnesses. It is also being studied as a way to ease distress in people with cancer who are receiving treatment for pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 24cfd69658bc3f72c76dd3c289393e2cb13b606c1dbd6998f7a3a8cf4eca9cfa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Animal-Assisted Therapy” (C64868).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pethidine
<a id="pethidine"></a>

Pethidine is a narcotic pain-relieving drug used for moderate to severe pain, including pain after surgery and during labor. With prolonged use, it can cause morphine-type dependence, and its withdrawal symptoms tend to begin sooner than morphine’s and last for a shorter time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fcfad9db2d916062d5ae5ffb884ed1f2d1d6d9150b9597ca1f82d9632ef8825

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Meperidine” (D008614).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008614). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## petit mal seizure
<a id="petit-mal-seizure"></a>

A petit mal seizure is a generalized seizure marked by a brief lapse in consciousness, sometimes along with motor or automatic movements or autonomic changes. It is also called an absence seizure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2da21920f0804f53fc48d3351bf77f88d286f56acda31b2a69ec6c1697697e46

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Absence Seizure” (C50436).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## peyote
<a id="peyote"></a>

Peyote is the flowering head of Lophophora williamsii, a Mexican cactus, and is the source of the hallucinogenic alkaloid mescaline. It has been used in Indigenous religious rites and in experimental psychotomimetic contexts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef4ce693104b316416d6f460f6c07a48b263c1f2fb582ea293cbe95e967dceb6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mescaline” (D008635).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008635). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PFS
<a id="pfs"></a>

PFS refers to posterior fossa syndrome, also called cerebellar mutism syndrome, a postoperative condition that can occur after removal of a posterior fossa brain tumour, mainly in children. It involves delayed reduced speech or mutism with emotional instability, often alongside motor, cognitive, behavioural, and other neurological changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b27a1c63a3fd977dc561fbb009abad3b2ee554b68b5ddf96ceb597ee2437710d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Burns James; Pool Jonathan; Twyford Karen; Baron Annette; Thomas Melanie; Sánchez Anna Menén; Fallon Eleanor; Bower Janeen. A study protocol for international consensus guidelines on music therapy for paediatric posterior fossa syndrome. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358571; article XML SHA-256 d6b3936dffc6a8d1427f6d060a6aa0e5bcb4454b69e91225895fc39e54dbf85f. “A study protocol for international consensus guidelines on music therapy for paediatric posterior fossa syndrome” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358571).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358571). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PG
<a id="pg"></a>

PG stands for prostaglandins, a group of lipid signaling molecules. In this psychology-related context, they are discussed because of their links to neuroinflammation and oxidative stress and their possible role in mood and anxiety disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d5292e3687d8d9fd397284426d6ebdd8ff75cb69dcad63f4fe4bd15282656d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhen Yan; Gan Yuhao; Liu Xigao; Li Jun; Wei Shihao; Li Zelin; Hu Jin; Nie Chengtao; Wu Fan; Liu Yiyi; Li Zezhi; Luo Zhengyi. Peripheral S-(PGJ 2 )-glutathione as a diagnostic biomarker for depression-anxiety comorbidity: development and validation. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08276-7; article XML SHA-256 ed92952a33d9bdeed3437988cd15f7653f3af721a682e971ace594fe2f55ac28. “Peripheral S-(PGJ 2 )-glutathione as a diagnostic biomarker for depression-anxiety comorbidity: development and validation” (10.1186/s12888-026-08276-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08276-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PGR
<a id="pgr"></a>

PGR, or Post-Gaming Return, is a post-game regulatory state in which attention and motivation shift away from gameplay and back to non-gaming activities and goals. It marks temporary disengagement from gaming as an active way of pursuing a goal, rather than directly measuring mood, well-being, problematic gaming, or whether the goal was fully achieved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80c892332c0fa35e3c5f562a28db22fba8d23691d1482f447cddf4afab4b9736

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Strojny Agnieszka; Strojny Paweł. Post-gaming return to reality: a key factor in predicting the positive and negative outcomes of escapism. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1735108; article XML SHA-256 36a24e389ff8607271a235e58521e69b22f623eea39250692ae8198c6ec4f340. “Post-gaming return to reality: a key factor in predicting the positive and negative outcomes of escapism” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1735108).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1735108). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phacomatosis
<a id="phacomatosis"></a>

Phacomatosis refers to a group of disorders involving developmental abnormalities of ectoderm-derived tissues along with tumor growths affecting the skin, nervous system, and other organs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc095bdcfb296e84bf6da3bac23049f29f9a9a652482e40c108799467e73ffc2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurocutaneous Syndromes” (D020752).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020752). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phagocytosis
<a id="phagocytosis"></a>

Phagocytosis is a receptor-mediated process in which phagocytic cells move toward pathogens, recognize and bind them, take them inside, and then mature the internal compartment so the target can be destroyed. In the source packet, it is described as an important part of innate immune clearance and as unfolding through an ordered series of stages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6c3a02c6a5974cbd5a7ce1ce40dd9b927f83ad1a234a9f2b8da0415dcd1b2c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Haider Mohammed; Dambuza Ivy M.; Asamaphan Patawee; Stappers Mark; Reid Delyth; Yamasaki Sho; Brown Gordon D.; Gow Neil A. R.; Erwig Lars P.. The pattern recognition receptors dectin-2, mincle, and FcRγ impact the dynamics of phagocytosis of Candida , Saccharomyces , Malassezia , and Mucor species. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0220867; article XML SHA-256 af2c58e3bb2a6e63f2693f8446ced2daa4de467cee6e039c475eef9d1bfa5c82. “The pattern recognition receptors dectin-2, mincle, and FcRγ impact the dynamics of phagocytosis of Candida , Saccharomyces , Malassezia , and Mucor species” (10.1371/journal.pone.0220867).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220867). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phakomatosis
<a id="phakomatosis"></a>

Phakomatosis is a group of inherited syndromes marked by lesions affecting the nervous system, skin, and retina. Examples in this group include neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis, von Hippel-Lindau syndrome, and Sturge-Weber syndrome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e73d2394d7a47e38a725e7a1e758161dfae4afa4e92d3481380eda521004204

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Phakomatosis” (C84348).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phallic
<a id="phallic"></a>

Phallic means relating to or symbolically representing a penis. In this context, it describes a gesture thought to have originated as a penis-like symbol.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48ff9c63a7939f8b17727918494cda29fab26c0fbe7561df7b75dfd2016e76d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bergen Benjamin K. Do gestures retain mental associations with their iconic origins, even after they become emblematic? An analysis of the middle-finger gesture among American English speakers. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0215633; article XML SHA-256 98d63bb37860fcd886a9ca4f7ff9ea147e89f0a903d4f35da86b224710e95816. “Do gestures retain mental associations with their iconic origins, even after they become emblematic? An analysis of the middle-finger gesture among American English speakers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0215633).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0215633). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phallic symbol
<a id="phallic-symbol"></a>

A phallic symbol is a symbol or gesture understood as representing a penis. In this context, it refers to an iconic form that may underlie a gesture’s original meaning even if the gesture later becomes a conventional sign with a different social use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1378c14daa7f2f0a34da034730436273f0cd00d14c383b5af4dab84bfa05b9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bergen Benjamin K. Do gestures retain mental associations with their iconic origins, even after they become emblematic? An analysis of the middle-finger gesture among American English speakers. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0215633; article XML SHA-256 98d63bb37860fcd886a9ca4f7ff9ea147e89f0a903d4f35da86b224710e95816. “Do gestures retain mental associations with their iconic origins, even after they become emblematic? An analysis of the middle-finger gesture among American English speakers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0215633).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0215633). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phantasm
<a id="phantasm"></a>

In this historical usage, a phantasm is a mental object or content the mind can think about. The packet supports it as a term treated alongside “idea” for what is apprehended in thought, including represented objects apart from what is currently sensed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18ed30f9e59f14522f546a7a0c866c7ecfa2800d440ac11bccaecb9545c9fc88

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Idea” (Idea).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Idea). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phantasmagoria
<a id="phantasmagoria"></a>

Phantasmagoria is an old term for the supposed summoning or bringing back of the spirits of the dead. In clinical use, some patients used it to mean seeing ghosts or dead spirits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5fae497370911c154c1732f12bf3eea299aa2e21c591edf7a0fee015b1ad660c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-1218000-1230000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phantom limb
<a id="phantom-limb"></a>

Phantom limb is the experience of feeling sensations, including pain or nonpainful feelings, in a limb after all or part of it has been lost. Many people with an amputated arm or leg continue to feel as if the missing limb is still there.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3688409cfc1d711d8bc6f1ff7181d2b598f7ed1ffb77de00f3035c54948e03a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Phantom Limb” (D010591).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010591). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pharmacological antagonism
<a id="pharmacological-antagonism"></a>

Pharmacological antagonism is the blocking of a receptor's action by using a drug that opposes that receptor. In this packet, it refers specifically to using a 5-HT2B serotonin receptor antagonist to inhibit that receptor's effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98a216c0d1f3494084b4a965a6749a960e271e54430bb55784c7d9351055fdbf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Joll J. Ethan; Clark Cynthia R.; Peters Christine S.; Raddatz Michael A.; Bersi Matthew R.; Merryman W. David. Genetic ablation of serotonin receptor 2B improves aortic valve hemodynamics of Notch1 heterozygous mice in a high-cholesterol diet model. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0238407; article XML SHA-256 6ad2635d1aaa9cc3cffc1680056443286d50e4ac4e25b134015c08532dd09106. “Genetic ablation of serotonin receptor 2B improves aortic valve hemodynamics of Notch1 heterozygous mice in a high-cholesterol diet model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0238407).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238407). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phase
<a id="phase"></a>

A phase is a period or stage in development. In this context, it refers to adolescence as a critical time when brain changes are taking place.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 94d9c8b4e89a69170fdb1b56896a5d5ebf2219ccd7e00873733dfa7fa477e1ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. The Teen Brain: 7 Things to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 15080e014a0d81e65219277b30fc356e20f42fc8d6b72609d7993e145431347f. “The Teen Brain: 7 Things to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/the-teen-brain-7-things-to-know).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/the-teen-brain-7-things-to-know). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phase locking
<a id="phase-locking"></a>

Phase locking is the degree to which the phases of neural oscillations stay consistently aligned over time. In plain terms, it describes how regularly the timing of rhythmic brain activity matches up, which can support more effective information flow between neural networks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 436d593d316f041b2472f640532b8ce653104da5b120936da83c56893bf0b702

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lowet Eric; Roberts Mark J; Bonizzi Pietro; Karel Joël; De Weerd Peter. Quantifying Neural Oscillatory Synchronization: A Comparison between Spectral Coherence and Phase-Locking Value Approaches. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0146443; article XML SHA-256 3f136b90d3468fb74a8e7959ce55023a34edc201a18a15fa7ac5467794ceca9e. “Quantifying Neural Oscillatory Synchronization: A Comparison between Spectral Coherence and Phase-Locking Value Approaches” (10.1371/journal.pone.0146443).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146443). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phase spectrum
<a id="phase-spectrum"></a>

In this context, phase spectrum means the part of an image’s Fourier description that sets the sinusoidal pattern details making up edges, textures, and the arrangement of small object clusters. The packet indicates it has a major influence on how visually uncomfortable trypophobic images feel.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 74f1ef9329c748a94db62c0a054cf87adae979e94b363506eafb0d90e8d9d3c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pipitone R. Nathan; DiMattina Christopher. Object Clusters or Spectral Energy? Assessing the Relative Contributions of Image Phase and Amplitude Spectra to Trypophobia. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01847; article XML SHA-256 853e14632e8f85de343580c26dfe03084e0fbce1d5034436928af4044bc60e50. “Object Clusters or Spectral Energy? Assessing the Relative Contributions of Image Phase and Amplitude Spectra to Trypophobia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01847).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01847). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phencyclidine
<a id="phencyclidine"></a>

Phencyclidine is a hallucinogenic drug, also known as PCP or Angel Dust, that was once used as an anesthetic in veterinary medicine and briefly in humans. It is related to ketamine in structure and effects and can cause a dissociative state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f7cc9fa439858aa663fa9de9660a6abf774d512724338a3cf3881a16ec0550b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Phencyclidine” (D010622).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010622). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Phencyclidine Abuse
<a id="phencyclidine-abuse"></a>

Phencyclidine abuse is the harmful misuse of phencyclidine that is linked with psychological symptoms and problems in social or work functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a5b268cfbd8717bbf190392eb64f3cbcf66c7a792864dd871990122d52d5564d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Phencyclidine Abuse” (D010623).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010623). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## phenobarbital
<a id="phenobarbital"></a>

Phenobarbital is a barbituric acid derivative that broadly depresses central nervous system activity. It works by strengthening GABA-A receptor effects, altering chloride flow through those channels, and reducing glutamate-related depolarization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 856e0c0fe19383da4fc6eaee82bd5d2658670ae9e1f74f417bc62e0763f2d8aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Phenobarbital” (D010634).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010634). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phenomenal field
<a id="phenomenal-field"></a>

The phenomenal field is the full set of contents that can be distinguished within conscious experience. In this source, it refers especially to the contents of early visual experience as they appear together as one unified whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5fa00d01ac0be6f23ad5f8890c77c364388c3d53d49e31fd88f583cae3097487

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Forti Bruno. The hidden structure of consciousness. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1344033; article XML SHA-256 25181dbd94930bf7eccef9f904ebdfa29419225e941102068e3d8f28ade839c9. “The hidden structure of consciousness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1344033).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1344033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phenomenal self
<a id="phenomenal-self"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, the phenomenal self is the empirical self: the aspects of oneself that can be experienced and judged, such as one’s body, social standing, abilities, character, and related forms of self-regard. James contrasts these experienced contents of self with the “pure ego,” the supposed principle that carries on the judging or sense of personal identity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e732015d102e449c2dfa73667bde6785eca937a797552f39f86787f3dd9ff3c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phenomenal space
<a id="phenomenal-space"></a>

Phenomenal space is the seemingly objective, observer-independent spatial framework in conscious experience within which events and objects are experienced as located. In the source packet, it refers to the spatial aspect of the world as it appears in awareness, extending around the person as part of conscious perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 874710a9887783242c445f610f217931522b83f12953d2c707d5a1ee0ef514dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Behrendt Ralf-Peter. Conscious Experience and Episodic Memory: Hippocampus at the Crossroads. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00304; article XML SHA-256 6400237a3338eedaab6285837aa14e7d951c689e3fd33bb919d9a319a5a1646d. “Conscious Experience and Episodic Memory: Hippocampus at the Crossroads” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00304).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00304). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phenomenological analysis
<a id="phenomenological-analysis"></a>

Phenomenological analysis is a qualitative approach that examines each participant’s account in depth, with an idiographic focus on individual experience. In the supplied source, it is described as an intensive form of analysis that can go beyond surface description to identify underlying ideas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38ff1e0fc91e697007cf109bf79d7f22be4ca17b51c23b30745055f52f705732

Sources:
- Drafting source: [BMC: Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies. Version of record 2018-11-21; DOI 10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7. “Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency” (05ea0554db4e6d0f11b4).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phenothiazine
<a id="phenothiazine"></a>

Phenothiazine is a class of drugs with antiemetic, antipsychotic, antihistaminic, and anticholinergic effects. They act in part by blocking dopamine D2 receptors in the brain’s chemoreceptor trigger zone and also oppose activity at alpha-adrenergic, serotonergic, histaminic, and muscarinic receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ad64eef916fd78ff477e1a365994943948390ce4f37d2fdde6769adbb8d2287

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Phenothiazine” (C740).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phentermine
<a id="phentermine"></a>

Phentermine is a stimulant drug that suppresses appetite and reduces the feeling of hunger. It works by increasing the release of norepinephrine in the hypothalamus and also promotes release of epinephrine outside the brain, which is linked to breakdown of stored fat.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd211689f61e3c8f1404e3d44e1fff06959e266bdccf46852917c67760bb80e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Phentermine” (C61890).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phentolamine
<a id="phentolamine"></a>

Phentolamine is a medication that blocks alpha-adrenergic receptors broadly. It is used for conditions involving very high blood pressure and hypertensive crises, as well as pheochromocytoma, blood vessel spasm such as in Raynaud disease and frostbite, clonidine withdrawal syndrome, impotence, and peripheral vascular disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0f6539df1b94ac7e1ca7fb7b5223d9f1adf62c86397e359f6b4d7cbc31952234

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Phentolamine” (D010646).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010646). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phenylketonuria
<a id="phenylketonuria"></a>

Phenylketonuria is a recessive genetic disorder in which the body cannot properly metabolize and use the amino acid phenylalanine. It can lead to intellectual disability, developmental delay, and behavioral, movement, and seizure problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7ea4a207c433ccab4119e7d1bee1ba387fc1582de1c33e1f90cd66d539465dd8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Phenylketonuria” (C81315).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phenytoin
<a id="phenytoin"></a>

Phenytoin is a hydantoin-derived antiepileptic medication used to reduce seizures without causing sedation. It appears to work by helping stabilize nerve activity in the motor cortex so seizure activity is less likely to spread, and it may also relax muscles by lowering muscle spindle sensitivity to stretch.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8eda7bb0de0f7edb7b72bb89d6f46730905cdb0d96a589d14b7987e7b0ecd57d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Phenytoin” (C741).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pheochromocytoma
<a id="pheochromocytoma"></a>

Pheochromocytoma is a usually benign tumor of chromaffin tissue in the adrenal medulla or related sympathetic paraganglia. It can cause excess epinephrine and norepinephrine release, leading especially to persistent or intermittent high blood pressure, with attacks that may include headache, sweating, palpitations, tremor, apprehension, flushing or pallor, nausea, vomiting, chest or abdominal pain, and tingling in the limbs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e92ffe5fef6fd23695658e9ef76cfb94c64e74df3b63d0f737149ae8f91c67e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pheochromocytoma” (D010673).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010673). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pheromone
<a id="pheromone"></a>

A pheromone is a chemical released by an organism into the environment that triggers a behavioral or bodily response in other members of the same species. These signals may be detected through smell or through direct contact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b006d2a27aa8d372bdd47aa2f40853ec95fb488619f1b42cafa996afc7cd31e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pheromones” (D010675).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010675). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## philosophy
<a id="philosophy"></a>

Philosophy is the discipline that uses reason to examine basic questions about existence, knowledge, and ethics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d04e630db0b9a6bb9d322221fe14b9f326c9e43c5e81d377422490d9486664a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Philosophy” (C39794).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Phineas Gage
<a id="phineas-gage"></a>

Phineas Gage was a railroad worker whose injury from a projectile tamping iron became historically important in brain science. His case provided early evidence that specific brain structures are linked to specific functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 199cc0c9c17b224fd9fc2c61a158770ffeb19fe053ec52217b7164e3532b593c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kelley Daniel J.; Farhoud Mohammed; Meyerand M. Elizabeth; Nelson David L.; Ramirez Lincoln F.; Dempsey Robert J.; Wolf Alan J.; Alexander Andrew L.; Davidson Richard J.. Creating Physical 3D Stereolithograph Models of Brain and Skull. 2007; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0001119; article XML SHA-256 57f8d2bb12ea7426ac96e6d580f8a8b84478631fcb36abb68ccaf3dd93131c02. “Creating Physical 3D Stereolithograph Models of Brain and Skull” (10.1371/journal.pone.0001119).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001119). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## -phobia
<a id="phobia"></a>

A phobia is an anxiety disorder involving a very strong, irrational fear of a particular object, activity, or situation. The person tends to avoid what is feared and, in adults, usually recognizes that the fear is excessive or unreasonable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d19b897e03e8fbc304f6a30698da960a58e4d575be54b3491499022fd9f665b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Phobia” (C35420).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phonation
<a id="phonation"></a>

Phonation is the way voice is produced, as heard in voice quality patterns and measured in acoustic features of speech. In this source, it includes non-modal forms such as creaky voice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b70c365c07a54ab926bfe50841185e7de2e89a4b25061760763795fc3a2ad6d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rosa Sara Gomes; Baglioni Sabrina Bravo; Passetti Renata Regina; Constantini Ana Carolina. Acoustic and auditory relation of creak/creaky settings in telephone call and direct recording samples: An approach in the light of forensic phonetics. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346033; article XML SHA-256 f5fe3242e51fabadc781c33cd0e5fe55286d164777f2a5e1cd971e2370c14b28. “Acoustic and auditory relation of creak/creaky settings in telephone call and direct recording samples: An approach in the light of forensic phonetics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346033).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phone
<a id="phone"></a>

In mental health care, a phone is a way for patients and providers to communicate remotely by voice call as part of virtual care. It is one of several tools used in telehealth or telemedicine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8043504b6c6fdbe7dc15314640837c689791ac670c7f2b6dbe49e612fa28ee36

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Getting Mental Health Support Virtually. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 9d3fbfd17fa7d62d856857afc0c7c21567a08f3145bed4e0db6e3bfa2187db30. “Getting Mental Health Support Virtually” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/what-is-telemental-health).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/what-is-telemental-health). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phonemic awareness
<a id="phonemic-awareness"></a>

Phonemic awareness is the ability to notice and work with the individual speech sounds in spoken words. In the source, it is described as an early skill that develops alongside basic letter knowledge before reading and can shape how finely children process sound differences in speech.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba36b36374900dd391abf39093bc2e928c48d4cd82d230e2314fcae27df4ecc8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bauch Anne; Friedrich Claudia K.; Schild Ulrike. Phonemic Training Modulates Early Speech Processing in Pre-reading Children. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.643147; article XML SHA-256 a8e430c0360a0c30fbf0344968929a3944a0f92a2e006e8064641e1c727677e0. “Phonemic Training Modulates Early Speech Processing in Pre-reading Children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.643147).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.643147). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phonetics
<a id="phonetics"></a>

Phonetics is the description and measurement of speech sounds, including how they are heard, transcribed, and examined with instrumental methods. In this context, it is used to study subtle features of speech production that may be missed by listening-based judgments alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb7852c9c594a925c91dcffa8358e1ed45d5b64eb480f15d11d8300f56f2d82e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Namasivayam Aravind K.; Kent Raymond; Preston Jonathan L.; Maassen Ben A. M.; Hagedorn Christina; Nip Ignatius S. B.; McAllister Anita; Wang Jun; Hustad Katherine; Ménard Lucie; Bahar Nilgoun; Moore Jennifer Golabek; Petrosov Julia; van Lieshout Pascal. Reevaluating the classification of pediatric speech sound disorders: a ground truthing perspective. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1700505; article XML SHA-256 7619266e743367ebda86ea6e886ff67ef52ba6fe509343e808d21b380ac9deca. “Reevaluating the classification of pediatric speech sound disorders: a ground truthing perspective” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1700505).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1700505). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phonism
<a id="phonism"></a>

Phonism is a synaesthetic experience in which a sound is mentally realized along with a visual or other kind of perception. In this usage, it names the associated sound that accompanies another sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2acd42a6da6f870e5b36e45bd3752efa28457ac8892e7bf4e80ae89ce858f0d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3706500-3718500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phonogram
<a id="phonogram"></a>

A phonogram is a written sign that stands for a thing or idea by using its spoken name rather than showing the meaning through its shape. In some cases, such as imitative words, it may represent the sound itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 184a44314f94ad54e5b6206d03d5e2e3099ff8c4ae5ac4b975e364250efd47b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ideogram” (Ideogram).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Ideogram). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phonological disorder
<a id="phonological-disorder"></a>

Phonological disorder is a condition in which ongoing problems producing speech sounds interfere with spoken communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2239e47633644aac516b43b69e7b01c658cb14dc2345ba4e7a8673eb395aef23

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Speech Sound Disorder” (D066229).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066229). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phonological dyslexia
<a id="phonological-dyslexia"></a>

Phonological dyslexia is described here as a recognized subtype of dyslexia. In this framework, it can be understood as especially low performance on one reading-related component within a broader, continuous assessment of reading rather than as a completely separate category.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3481b107d508eb702d79c2ac6aaf28fe8b6534e0d8e13c1cc813129a3c0b06eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cilibrasi Luca; Tsimpli Ianthi. Categorical and Dimensional Diagnoses of Dyslexia: Are They Compatible?. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02171; article XML SHA-256 ce5b20224f9d9f1d275e25407f30abdee9f11e6227feb12e5374c7dd1ad4870c. “Categorical and Dimensional Diagnoses of Dyslexia: Are They Compatible?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02171).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02171). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phonological loop
<a id="phonological-loop"></a>

The phonological loop is a part of verbal working memory that briefly holds sound-based or word-based information. Its function includes keeping this memory trace active through rehearsal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 89c43d8f22c5ac3530628088bf7158fad389a4c3877a27da8a4fe897704302c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bruns Gunnar. Re-analyzing and confirming a differential use of redintegration in students with mild and borderline intellectual disabilities. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1278458; article XML SHA-256 64b10de6d9d12dce62792fb8cc5ba857aec052e38b569472016fa9d9993bd84d. “Re-analyzing and confirming a differential use of redintegration in students with mild and borderline intellectual disabilities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1278458).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1278458). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phonological recoding
<a id="phonological-recoding"></a>

Phonological recoding is the automatic, usually unconscious conversion of a written word’s spelling into its sound-based form in the mind. It supports identifying words during silent reading and is considered an important part of skilled reading.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46fb9d93caa7f981329089e5358bf64c8304f86bc71b3ca2991b0fb923d8808d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Blythe Hazel I; Dickins Jonathan H; Kennedy Colin R; Liversedge Simon P. The role of phonology in lexical access in teenagers with a history of dyslexia. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0229934; article XML SHA-256 038661ad1bbd831a6bcaade8807a862a3209c1a35aebf9fab3d9f1b13e097ece. “The role of phonology in lexical access in teenagers with a history of dyslexia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0229934).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229934). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phonology
<a id="phonology"></a>

Phonology is the sound structure of a language. It includes phonemes, the smallest sound units that can distinguish meaning, and prosodic features such as intonation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d55a148e74e2d3f24fea8b50dcf00430b2fa2d626773caa6c46eb1aab2215e95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Doghadze Irine; Gagoshidze Tamar. Structural language profiles in children with autism spectrum disorder and developmental language disorder: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920573; article XML SHA-256 324ed562851935f75562629f906cb1362dfb9a539645fec4f4f37d111610a389. “Structural language profiles in children with autism spectrum disorder and developmental language disorder: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920573).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920573). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phoria
<a id="phoria"></a>

Phoria is a latent eye misalignment seen when the two eyes are no longer fused into single binocular vision. It describes the eyes’ relative position under that condition and is described by direction, such as outward, inward, or vertical deviation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71b02fc635f8ad7d7127115bd36ee2892ed80a0acd739a0fd4f3b0e684af3632

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Skiadopoulos Denise; Bandstra Alaina; Kattouf Valerie; van de Pol Corina; Labhishetty Vivek; Singh Sumeer. Inter-examiner repeatability of measuring phorias using three different methods: Neurolens measurement device, the von Graefe method, and prism cover test. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337126; article XML SHA-256 816b89e238adcd3fc345d617d9cd2c337c710c15d4ca95346286c887eacdfe6d. “Inter-examiner repeatability of measuring phorias using three different methods: Neurolens measurement device, the von Graefe method, and prism cover test” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337126).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337126). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phosphoinositide
<a id="phosphoinositide"></a>

A phosphoinositide is a phosphatidic acid derivative in which phosphoric acid is ester-linked to myo-inositol. When fully broken down, it yields glycerol, phosphoric acid, myo-inositol, and two fatty acids.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 982dc2aa089894e36dc8950a5f135bba9fc1d9e800546db19c150678221d6246

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Phosphatidylinositols” (D010716).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010716). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phosphorylation
<a id="phosphorylation"></a>

Phosphorylation is a common chemical change made to proteins after they are produced, in which kinases add phosphate groups and phosphatases remove them. This process helps control how proteins function, where they are located, how stable they are, and how they interact, so it is important in many cell activities and can contribute to disease when disrupted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c39507f30a7b60e283dae307fbf77b6fd13b6068d0842de90b5e58303e7b15a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hidaka Takuya; Motoya Ryotaro; Jintian Gao; Kim Sooyeon; Taniguchi Yuichi. Single-cell profiling of kinase substrate phosphorylation by single-molecule imaging. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350695; article XML SHA-256 6ff7196bebdfddd28ca4061cf82fe30a266608646d18b34bf14c1ff079df48f2. “Single-cell profiling of kinase substrate phosphorylation by single-molecule imaging” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350695).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350695). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## photic driving
<a id="photic-driving"></a>

Photic driving is the effect in which repetitive light flashes make brain rhythms follow the stimulation. It can involve synchronization of the rhythm to the flash rate and increased rhythm amplitude when the flash frequency matches the brain’s own natural frequency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddc73a17940246ca4077b7435c538253550dd2100a51e4138b7d77911e3b09ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Naskovska Kristina; Lau Stephan; Korobkov Alexey A.; Haueisen Jens; Haardt Martin. Coupled CP Decomposition of Simultaneous MEG-EEG Signals for Differentiating Oscillators During Photic Driving. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2020.00261; article XML SHA-256 bcad90476ed21c4e60a86646f44693efde4ea7eaa5a30f4688f8a11bbbe9359d. “Coupled CP Decomposition of Simultaneous MEG-EEG Signals for Differentiating Oscillators During Photic Driving” (10.3389/fnins.2020.00261).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2020.00261). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## photism
<a id="photism"></a>

Photism is a colour sensation that is regularly experienced along with a sound, such as a musical note, voice, or word. In this historical usage, the colour may seem located where the sound is heard and usually changes or ends as the sound changes or stops.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59eef79c1285e79c037d2ee9815f4250b536f1347042fe6182c82fd9c36f5c73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-2299500-2311500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## photocoagulation
<a id="photocoagulation"></a>

Photocoagulation is the use of an intense beam of light, including a laser, to coagulate tissue. In the eye, it is used to treat problems such as retinal detachment or holes, aneurysms, hemorrhages, and both benign and malignant tumors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bb6a6748af63b24eb3a6ee88c43984028d0dbbfbd32df4686ea86a1fb732d1f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Light Coagulation” (D008028).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008028). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## photographic memory
<a id="photographic-memory"></a>

Photographic memory refers to a visual mental image that can be remembered with very high detail, as if the person is seeing the image again on an internal mental screen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59c9a522e9bf4c502a2f0454087b2c479c22a092ad2cbf18f7743a7cc4574b75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Eidetic Imagery” (D004538).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004538). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## photon
<a id="photon"></a>

In this source, photon refers to XRT, one of the two main irradiation options used in radiotherapy for children with brain tumors. It is described as a treatment approach compared with proton therapy for effectiveness and harm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 687fa053278095e6a5199374c4e143ea9fe450ec69ab1ac36677f149c1bb8c13

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kiss-Miki Renáta; Obeidat Mahmoud; Máté Vanda; Teutsch Brigitta; Agócs Gergely; Kiss-Dala Szilvia; Hegyi Péter; Kovács Janka; Párniczky Andrea; Tuboly Eszter; Garami Miklós. Proton or photon? Comparison of survival and toxicity of two radiotherapy modalities among pediatric brain cancer patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318194; article XML SHA-256 42a1ee3f794bf6af4730915b84d596bf65019f1bc0c8dfd0a2899b1559f9af43. “Proton or photon? Comparison of survival and toxicity of two radiotherapy modalities among pediatric brain cancer patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318194).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318194). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## photoperiodism
<a id="photoperiodism"></a>

Photoperiodism is the way changes in day length act as a seasonal signal that helps regulate physiology and behavior. In the source packet, it refers to light information shaping biological timing through photoreceptors and clock-related processes so organisms synchronize with seasonal rhythms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c8b1a68b01c81328e5eddeed27f3ddfec6477afde55d8ffe1409e4f46cea2c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eilertsen Mariann; Dolan David W P; Karlsen Rita; Nilsen Tom Ole; Davies Wayne I L; Helvik Jon Vidar. Developmental transition of visual and nonvisual photoreception and circadian clock during smoltification in the eye and brain of Atlantic salmon. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349748; article XML SHA-256 a1480268be4976aab9c559c5fd2ed2f8feda1702d14a43551899b680848df408. “Developmental transition of visual and nonvisual photoreception and circadian clock during smoltification in the eye and brain of Atlantic salmon” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349748).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349748). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## photophobia
<a id="photophobia"></a>

Photophobia is an abnormal sensitivity to light. It can appear with eye and neurological disorders, and may also occur alongside depression and other mental disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 834d4c247d5e5cad056165f5eec6a23dbe02b6a5dd685d2105f2f8576ca34066

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Photophobia” (D020795).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020795). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## photopic
<a id="photopic"></a>

Photopic refers to vision under bright light or daylight conditions. It is the eye’s cone-based visual function, using the three types of retinal cone photoreceptors that support color vision across the visible spectrum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54d097721f172816076c3b804c26074136087ac8d083bbe681890cd0cbbf66e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Color Vision” (D055253).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055253). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## photopic vision
<a id="photopic-vision"></a>

Photopic vision is the eye’s vision system for bright light or daylight. It depends on the three kinds of cone cells in the retina, which are sensitive to different parts of the visible color range.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d29a6aa4188e1342c88981e95db2323c0623f708dcc556b09a81399f5f14d61e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Color Vision” (D055253).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055253). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## photopigment
<a id="photopigment"></a>

A photopigment is a light-sensitive visual substance in the rods and cones of the eye that helps detect light for image formation. In this packet, photopigments are described as being formed by opsins and differing in the wavelengths of light they absorb most strongly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 29938cab9a53a8ee0cad1ccca1cc832d7dc8ad2ef74cf8c57e8bdef8e21cc8dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eilertsen Mariann; Dolan David W P; Karlsen Rita; Nilsen Tom Ole; Davies Wayne I L; Helvik Jon Vidar. Developmental transition of visual and nonvisual photoreception and circadian clock during smoltification in the eye and brain of Atlantic salmon. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349748; article XML SHA-256 a1480268be4976aab9c559c5fd2ed2f8feda1702d14a43551899b680848df408. “Developmental transition of visual and nonvisual photoreception and circadian clock during smoltification in the eye and brain of Atlantic salmon” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349748).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349748). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## photopsia
<a id="photopsia"></a>

Photopsia is the experience of seeing sudden or brief flashes of light.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 180980e535defdb99d9d84392733b118b756fce527c23473d32d942974139711

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Flasher” (C50568).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## photoreceptor
<a id="photoreceptor"></a>

A photoreceptor is a sensory nerve cell in the retina that changes light into nerve signals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 95a4a7f6cae71cf414d1b50039d76603806abe8ea138f428ccbdacb9752332a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Photoreceptor” (C12634).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## photosensitivity
<a id="photosensitivity"></a>

Photosensitivity is sensitivity to light, reflected in how an organism’s behavior changes under different wavelengths of visible light. In the packet, it refers to behavioral responsiveness to light, which depends largely on the retina’s light-absorbing proteins.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76e3b439cddf1aa19956531d2d2e691b1d37cfc7fa11bb77554d06ca901fa03b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mizoguchi Kiyono; Sato Mayu; Saito Rina; Koshikuni Mayu; Sakakibara Mana; Manabe Ran; Harada Yumi; Uchikawa Tamaki; Ansai Satoshi; Kamei Yasuhiro; Naruse Kiyoshi; Fukamachi Shoji. Behavioral photosensitivity of multi-color-blind medaka: enhanced response under ultraviolet light in the absence of short-wavelength-sensitive opsins. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12868-023-00835-y; article XML SHA-256 a98a3d2602002fbc0efd455bdd771d8da89eee937198494e649d368013fac272. “Behavioral photosensitivity of multi-color-blind medaka: enhanced response under ultraviolet light in the absence of short-wavelength-sensitive opsins” (10.1186/s12868-023-00835-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-023-00835-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phototaxis
<a id="phototaxis"></a>

Phototaxis is a behavioral response in which an organism moves or turns either toward light or away from it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c3be477dc046970c8ebd803aab87b611cb0a2dcce59d524cf1d245cc29fbf57d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Phototaxis” (D000071444).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000071444). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phototropism
<a id="phototropism"></a>

Phototropism is the way an organism’s growth changes direction in response to light. In plants, shoots commonly grow toward the light.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c96538cc7b21ae90f3facb10e82a95bf3c48e44ff5ebf39a1326785b0515a986

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Phototropism” (D018524).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018524). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PHR
<a id="phr"></a>

PHR refers to the platelet-to-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio, a biomarker discussed as reflecting thrombosis-related cardiovascular risk. In this source, it is also described as relevant to mental health because changes in platelet activity and HDL-C may be linked with anxiety symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a48fba84770ea761f2c437b649970133a3f1f4b7399bc61d283e5f2eb82357f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiahui Liu; Yifan Zhou; Yi Lan; Weihao Zhang; Dian Yuan; Sun Jian. The effects of physical activity and platelet-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio on the risk of anxiety disorders: A cross-sectional study based on NHANES 2015–2023. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335122; article XML SHA-256 baaec9675784c402d910730371c8c167abd998302ce33405639f057aae5b23ee. “The effects of physical activity and platelet-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio on the risk of anxiety disorders: A cross-sectional study based on NHANES 2015–2023” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335122).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335122). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phrenic nerve
<a id="phrenic-nerve"></a>

The phrenic nerve is the main nerve that controls the diaphragm, the muscle used in breathing. Its fibers arise from the cervical spinal cord, mainly the C4 level, and pass through the cervical plexus to reach the diaphragm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0f7454cdb6c9b991891f527a2f89894cc0fd3b29f5ee527616968dd68decc83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Phrenic Nerve” (D010791).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010791). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phreno-
<a id="phreno"></a>

In historical psychological and medical terminology, phreno- is a combining form referring to the mind, understanding, or intellect. It appears in older terms for mental states, mental disorder, and theories about the mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53bffd0554191970712873d6291388df60d335ec07d1f5e8320216a3df6e43de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-1228500-1240500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phrenology
<a id="phrenology"></a>

Phrenology is the belief that a person’s mental abilities and character traits can be inferred from the shape of the skull. It is especially associated with the theory of Gall.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ea7289fcdae1dba1d2710b38ea40b54e31da1e1dae7f25855ac460159575a5c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Phrenology” (D010792).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010792). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phylogeny
<a id="phylogeny"></a>

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and pattern of relationships among organisms or groups, showing how lineages branch and diverge over time. In research, it is worked out by comparing shared characteristics to infer clades and classification.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5c809bdf1cff198b226cff4b5ce8537b90e4a64c4ed93ae41cd71f21f0299157

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ferrante Christophe; Cavin Lionel. A deep dive into the coelacanth phylogeny. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320214; article XML SHA-256 28277a98b675f05d3064dd7611d6be289907eba6a5b93c52a69a2b7c656c845b. “A deep dive into the coelacanth phylogeny” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320214).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320214). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physical abuse
<a id="physical-abuse"></a>

Physical abuse is violence directed at a person through physical contact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 78a8111378bd4acea78c7250058090f186dc65ae80a1ff16105fa7153f0b9050

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Physical Abuse” (D000066550).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000066550). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physical activity
<a id="physical-activity"></a>

In this context, physical activity means structured exercise or movement-based activity used as a non-drug intervention to help improve executive function in children with ADHD. It can take different forms, such as aerobic, ball-sport, open, closed, leisure-fitness, or multi-component activities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 57aed0d4b4ef3adcf9027e5df2d21a9a5176679c1a11225f1cb8d6274cce6878

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Changzhou; Fan Mingyuan; Yu Chuanwen; Wan Shuli. Effects of different physical activity modalities on executive function in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1824121; article XML SHA-256 a3bb568d328701bf5f6f6454250d0a634eeed532e45dfff2c5e9e90250a90554. “Effects of different physical activity modalities on executive function in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1824121).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1824121). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physical dependence
<a id="physical-dependence"></a>

Physical dependence is a bodily adaptation to the presence of an opioid. It is shown when stopping the opioid, or giving an opioid-blocking drug, brings on acute withdrawal signs and symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1f58933ee7f0d6fa3f8bc027993c23401a84d81cf2d3ba03e81802e0b0b0864

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Physical Dependence” (C21129).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physical examination
<a id="physical-examination"></a>

A physical examination is a systematic check of the body and how it is functioning, using methods such as looking, feeling, tapping, and listening. Its purpose is to identify whether physical signs of disease or other abnormalities are present as part of a health assessment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a97bdabc62e3769f4ef3eb598a77d20843abb4e7f047e287a369f15ee3a159e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Physical Examination” (C20989).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physical modality
<a id="physical-modality"></a>

Physical modality refers to a real-world, hands-on form of a task or material, as opposed to a screen-based or virtual form. In this context, it means doing the puzzle with physical objects in the physical world.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 656cfa5b5fd5fd94278acdd36d068df341d3a9f53a393006c99fb5e9d859241d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tarasuik Joanne; Demaria Ana; Kaufman Jordy. Transfer of Problem Solving Skills from Touchscreen to 3D Model by 3- to 6-Year-Olds. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01586; article XML SHA-256 4499cf04df30d7219e172e0120733a5bab3286c4e22837f0daf47537f13a1b6d. “Transfer of Problem Solving Skills from Touchscreen to 3D Model by 3- to 6-Year-Olds” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01586).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01586). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physical therapy
<a id="physical-therapy"></a>

Physical therapy is a component of multidisciplinary care used to help optimize physical capacity. In Parkinson’s disease, it involves interventions that can reduce motor difficulties and improve balance, walking, and functional mobility.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a108a6b00fc3a39e927db512e2fd5cfae20dfbba9d02040988645f4f9254b67

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Norouzi-Ghazbi Somayeh; Mirbaha Shaghayegh; Li Zoe; Andrysek Jan; Goldstein Roger; Hitzig Sander L. Gamification-based tele-rehabilitation for physical therapy in patients with Parkinson’s disease: A scoping review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326705; article XML SHA-256 0a4bbd0f3af3921f80deb129571ab70e313018e7ae90c1d98064ec0c0cb4f812. “Gamification-based tele-rehabilitation for physical therapy in patients with Parkinson’s disease: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326705).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326705). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physicalism
<a id="physicalism"></a>

Physicalism is the view that consciousness can be reduced to physical processes or properties. In this framework, conscious states are understood as arising from physical conditions in a system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c67671d0eb426371816b443f80b24b47505fc1aec56b9f70cdd85bd7fc0830d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Keppler Joachim. Toward a true understanding of consciousness: the explanatory power behind the non-physicalist paradigm. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1815678; article XML SHA-256 28bd7fc954e3e608e7ab70a21a9f611ac1bb094589734970289dc5a8f72516a6. “Toward a true understanding of consciousness: the explanatory power behind the non-physicalist paradigm” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1815678).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1815678). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physician assistant
<a id="physician-assistant"></a>

A physician assistant is a health care professional who may act as a person’s primary care provider. Someone in this role can be one of the clinicians a person turns to for everyday medical concerns and to raise mental health questions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4100ef8fe84c574bbcc9df7e0aa527aaaa0983997547886e17e80e6c5f424b5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Tips for Talking With a Health Care Provider About Your Mental Health. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 13e466c66c1ce891732ea22bbe016eaa77b67b36619f36703c1d3cd15b495788. “Tips for Talking With a Health Care Provider About Your Mental Health” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/tips-for-talking-with-your-health-care-provider).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/tips-for-talking-with-your-health-care-provider). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physician-assisted suicide
<a id="physician-assisted-suicide"></a>

Physician-assisted suicide is an end-of-life practice in which a physician is involved in a person’s suicide. In the source, it is treated as legally distinct from a patient’s refusal of nutrition and fluids that may hasten death, and as a subject of possible legal penalties or legalization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b728baef90073108c2f5b63818a714dc44af30d43a356917ae312fdeb8ffc4b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hsu Nina Ming-Hsin; Chen Ying-Yeh; Chang Shu-Sen; Chi Ying-Chen; Wu Kevin Chien-Chang. The impact of suicide beliefs on support for suicide prevention and physician-assisted suicide. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07112-8; article XML SHA-256 e608e85d62d7c68cbfe07319d5db3407d7dd73a0500642385bd6398cae77b349. “The impact of suicide beliefs on support for suicide prevention and physician-assisted suicide” (10.1186/s12888-025-07112-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07112-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physiological age
<a id="physiological-age"></a>

Physiological age is an estimate of a person’s bodily aging derived from health-related data. In this source, it is quantified through residual life estimation and used as an indicator of overall health status.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b6d60351e2bccadcb2d9d9fff60eff46b010e83503e74abb0ca93f48d3b45fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Kai; Chen Po-Chung; Huang YiYang; Tzou Shiow-Jyu; Wu Sheng-Tang; Chu Ta-Wei; Wang Chung-Che; Jang Jyh-Shing Roger. Prediction of biological age using machine learning. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330184; article XML SHA-256 f5f6d0d95a4d6a94b22898c646cd34a27f9e77b3ccc9b84a084548d6d2c14698. “Prediction of biological age using machine learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330184).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330184). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physiological arousal
<a id="physiological-arousal"></a>

Physiological arousal is the body’s moment-to-moment level of activation, which can rise or fall during activities such as classroom learning. In this source, it is treated as a changing bodily state indexed through electrodermal measures like skin conductance and skin conductance response frequency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f93132aeeaf6da0ff0709d6090b35ee9e2d1fe4f04e96d7e3a8127667b71a7c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xue Xiangying; Liu Xiangcong; Dong Yuqi; Chen Xingye; Pei Yuanqing. Temporal dynamics of students’ physiological arousal in personalized learning contexts: a quasi-experimental study based on electrodermal activity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872311; article XML SHA-256 a147bab9acea6bf9bfe9d4cb2ed30bdbd80146d7d98d32771415c96d2b7fa7d3. “Temporal dynamics of students’ physiological arousal in personalized learning contexts: a quasi-experimental study based on electrodermal activity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872311).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872311). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physiological assessment
<a id="physiological-assessment"></a>

Physiological assessment is the evaluation of a person’s bodily responses, such as reactions that occur when they are exposed to emotionally meaningful stimuli. In this context, it is used alongside verbal assessment to help understand responses to emotions like fear, sadness, and disgust.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 96e356139cae145f135053edef0b1dee738245ff244e43b95f82adfc2119aaff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reynaud Emmanuelle; El Khoury-Malhame Myriam; Rossier Jérôme; Blin Olivier; Khalfa Stéphanie. Neuroticism Modifies Psychophysiological Responses to Fearful Films. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0032413; article XML SHA-256 925adb0f1d247abffd554f2fd4cef4bae8a4bafa99d17eb6905faa608dbb10f8. “Neuroticism Modifies Psychophysiological Responses to Fearful Films” (10.1371/journal.pone.0032413).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0032413). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physiological correlate
<a id="physiological-correlate"></a>

A physiological correlate is a bodily or brain activity pattern that consistently accompanies another process or change, such as anatomical circuit refinement. In this context, it means a functional sign in neural activity that parallels a structural developmental change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 68265ff331958a9fdb88dcbc13ac043dbce4d8ae7030dca7a8ae57cd2927d7de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [de Almeida Julián; Jourdan Iván; Murer Mario Gustavo; Belforte Juan E.. Refinement of Neuronal Synchronization with Gamma Oscillations in the Medial Prefrontal Cortex after Adolescence. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0062978; article XML SHA-256 b962c7252b2f1c5224ea3b988ef055934cf5ea24ad3fa02150d2fb18ba299160. “Refinement of Neuronal Synchronization with Gamma Oscillations in the Medial Prefrontal Cortex after Adolescence” (10.1371/journal.pone.0062978).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062978). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physiological cycle
<a id="physiological-cycle"></a>

In this historical usage, the physiological cycle refers to the chain of bodily and hereditary causes that shape individuals through physical inheritance. It is described as interacting with psychological and social life, for example when mate choice affects heredity or when inherited bodily traits alter a person's social advantages or disadvantages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d43853cb07b9f6ee9fffe86a2a828aced13409e5f7680e4a7a631b8d626cda5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3097500-3109500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physiological psychology
<a id="physiological-psychology"></a>

Physiological psychology is the study of how bodily processes underlie behavior in humans and other animals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90a991e813bdb5d3951702a94992c7485ae5ae703e3d4754f8c78a1151f208fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychophysiology” (D011603).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011603). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physiotherapy
<a id="physiotherapy"></a>

Physiotherapy is a regulated health profession focused on improving movement and functional ability within health care systems. Its professional preparation emphasizes independent practice and the delivery of safe, ethical, patient-centered care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cebb70cf85c138266411105f2d17f3ee21a34eec27d942a9ea155e85304b7a17

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kowalski Katie L.; Tawiah Andrews; Miller Erin; Goodman Maren; Alcock Greg; Gillis Heather. Assessment approaches and methods in physiotherapy education: A scoping review protocol. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335229; article XML SHA-256 48b32323425868ef3299691239d11791be3ca3e31142c7014f36659dee826705. “Assessment approaches and methods in physiotherapy education: A scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335229).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335229). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## physostigmine
<a id="physostigmine"></a>

Physostigmine is a cholinesterase inhibitor that is quickly absorbed through membranes and can be applied to the eye. It also enters the brain and is used when effects on the central nervous system are needed, such as in severe anticholinergic toxicity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5327d64e4a9f889838f74631aaae0e527f0f247a748935926a525d73961926de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Physostigmine” (D010830).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010830). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## phytoestrogen
<a id="phytoestrogen"></a>

A phytoestrogen is a plant-derived compound that can mimic some effects of estrogen by binding to estrogen receptors inside cells and on cell membranes. In the packet, genistein from soybean is described as an isoflavone phytoestrogen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9aa74f74d99c4f1367d7212812f414ea6502501f2dde058ff1bf3b300a13ce0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mohd Khairudin Nurin Yasmin; Mohd Azraai Awla; Siran Rosfaiizah; Azme Nasibah. Therapeutic mechanisms of genistein in ischemic stroke: A systematic review of in vivo and in vitro studies. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338590; article XML SHA-256 1d3f111a16588bf3a14e34e2dd745afbc5242a96fe8cf67f234fd48eb8ca5d88. “Therapeutic mechanisms of genistein in ischemic stroke: A systematic review of in vivo and in vitro studies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338590).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338590). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PI
<a id="pi"></a>

PI refers to phosphatidylinositol, one of the phospholipid classes measured in blood in a study of adolescents with internet addiction. In that context, it was examined as part of lipid metabolism to explore possible biological markers of problematic internet use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54a1200d9076139cd9577240c2676652406a12c077ba6b4a99e8656b92629dc1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kawahara Tomoki; Tani Yukako; Nawa Nobutoshi; Morioka Shin; Kajiho Hiroaki; Sasaki Junko; Sasaki Takehiko; Fujiwara Takeo. Circulating phospholipid species and internet addiction severity in Japanese adolescents: a pilot lipidomics study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1751247; article XML SHA-256 3ef47eaba328caf31dddb6b4f390fef7c8b4b6fc07ec8ff34785ffd8397328fd. “Circulating phospholipid species and internet addiction severity in Japanese adolescents: a pilot lipidomics study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1751247).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1751247). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pia-arachnoid
<a id="pia-arachnoid"></a>

This historical term appears to refer to the pia and arachnoid considered together as a meningeal covering of the brain. In the passage, it is described as showing changes such as slight opacity or adhesion to the dura and diseased cortex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 63a23071c8be9f2a481341bf76b5d9207b0738ce5f443584780bc2313f3b82eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3087000-3099000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pia mater
<a id="pia-mater"></a>

Pia mater is the delicate, blood-vessel-rich innermost membrane covering the brain and spinal cord. It lies beneath the arachnoid and dura mater as one of the three meninges.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 499310f4de2cb279ee013c551c882ef2001bc59974c82bb5a7722411352b84d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pia Mater” (D010841).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010841). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Piagetian theory
<a id="piagetian-theory"></a>

Piagetian theory is a developmental framework that describes children’s understanding as gradually being built from their early actions and interactions with people and objects. In the moral domain, it includes an action-based level of development that comes before heteronomous and autonomous moral reasoning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 60b877a98f12d833d0240e6dcf30fd0ba1bbae4b00ec9a6a5dc6fe79d1c3d0e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hammond Stuart I.. Children’s early helping in action: Piagetian developmental theory and early prosocial behavior. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00759; article XML SHA-256 6bbdfb522557dbe2a73daf5a5339b6db7616de2a9c41c7fc8a75eaf47c949853. “Children’s early helping in action: Piagetian developmental theory and early prosocial behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00759).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00759). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pica
<a id="pica"></a>

Pica is a condition in which a person persistently eats substances that have no nutritional value for at least one month.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb2b3dfdcdc3a89fa9c94cd83e941502085072f5c79c23e8bd6f3abaf2389f41

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pica” (D010842).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010842). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Pick Disease of the Brain
<a id="pick-disease-of-the-brain"></a>

Pick disease of the brain is a rare form of dementia that is sometimes familial. It is marked by aphasia, apraxia, confusion, anomia, memory loss, and personality deterioration, with circumscribed atrophy at the frontal and temporal poles and greatest neuronal loss in the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and amygdala; some ballooned cortical neurons contain Pick bodies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ee5dba2d7a02ff89ebc2b42f8ff6179b9675133b0ec35f701672583c553078a9

Wording review pending: Anatomical names are fixed, but this 12-word run also copies the transition into the next explanatory clause; restructure that prose.

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Pick Disease of the Brain” (D020774).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020774). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Pick’s disease
<a id="picks-disease"></a>

Pick’s disease is a rare brain disorder in which ongoing nerve cell degeneration causes dementia. It involves damage in the frontotemporal parts of the brain and buildup of tau protein within characteristic Pick bodies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e6dfd3d3b33f6f213327e0c5d15ba4220950c3f134db3d1c6e9181f7efd67867

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pick's Disease” (C85008).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Pickwickian syndrome
<a id="pickwickian-syndrome"></a>

Pickwickian syndrome is a breathing disorder seen in people with severe obesity, especially when excess fat around the abdomen and diaphragm interferes with ventilation. It involves chronically reduced breathing with low oxygen, high carbon dioxide, and marked sleepiness, and is often linked with obstructive sleep apnea but can also occur on its own.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47e097e70138e5e6046947af0f2c68bdf66080e91caf1ad6a22957da4855f103

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Obesity Hypoventilation Syndrome” (D010845).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010845). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## picrotoxin
<a id="picrotoxin"></a>

Picrotoxin is a mixture of picrotoxinin and picrotin that blocks GABA-A receptor activity and can trigger convulsions. It has mainly been used as a research substance, but it has also been used as a central nervous system stimulant and as an antidote for poisoning by central nervous system depressants, especially barbiturates.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b5cf1eb8f6bbf1a278c04c300876fcaa77a3779c527556a05005a84bd43fce4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Picrotoxin” (D010852).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010852). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pie chart
<a id="pie-chart"></a>

A pie chart is a circular graph used to show how often different categories occur relative to the whole. Each category is shown as a wedge, with larger wedges representing higher relative frequencies; it is most useful when there are only a few categories.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05b527e416ea197440c233f32688514de99b37c400a3e2f28c9de89c469dd8bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Pie Chart” (pie_chart.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/pie_chart.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pigment epithelium
<a id="pigment-epithelium"></a>

Pigment epithelium is tissue made of one or more layers of epithelial cells resting on a basement membrane. These cells contain pigment granules, such as melanin, and are found in structures like the retinal or iris pigment layer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b13d771b67e616e60792979fb90bd1814ce27e566482eea087d009eb555d9510

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pigment Epithelium” (C13177).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pigment regeneration
<a id="pigment-regeneration"></a>

Pigment regeneration is the renewal of visual pigment in the retina. In this source, it is described as a retinal process influenced by the composition of the interphotoreceptor matrix and related exchanges between photoreceptors and the retinal pigment epithelium.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a92ef06dac01017c14a46a6a7d48e5e676776f6f886d5a57bde84f1d5841707f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Al-Shami Khayry; Shatnawi Jafar; Qasagsah Khaled; Almurabi Salman; Shatnawi Ghayda’; Darawsheh Tasnim; Karaja Shahed. Understanding the role of electrostatic force, van der Waals force, and osmotic pressure in retinal function and barrier integrity. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40942-025-00643-y; article XML SHA-256 832b2b1f2d7ee235ef2acb2357efb181669060c7edcf9bf6d2968188975ace2a. “Understanding the role of electrostatic force, van der Waals force, and osmotic pressure in retinal function and barrier integrity” (10.1186/s40942-025-00643-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40942-025-00643-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pilocarpine
<a id="pilocarpine"></a>

Pilocarpine is a salivary stimulant used to treat intractable xerostomia, meaning ongoing dry mouth with reduced salivary gland function. In the source, it is described as commonly prescribed for this problem, though higher doses may cause more side effects and lower doses may be less effective.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d592683a4558259d5b83a30940b812034fda649148d0d517f2f7c653f3cb2277

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Su Il; Lee Young Chan; Kim Ji Won; Kim Bo-Hyung; Lee Junhee; Eun Young-Gyu. Efficacy of combined administration of Baekhogainsam-Tang and low-dose pilocarpine on frequent intractable xerostomia: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307557; article XML SHA-256 942ab665d6d347f83787eb327e3044719f2e71fdf2b57e7a05213ffcfcfe45e8. “Efficacy of combined administration of Baekhogainsam-Tang and low-dose pilocarpine on frequent intractable xerostomia: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307557).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307557). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## piloerection
<a id="piloerection"></a>

Piloerection is the physical raising of body hairs, commonly noticed as goosebumps. In the supplied psychology research context, it is described as a bodily response that can continue with repeated exposure to the same stimuli and may not closely track a person’s reported emotional experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34f6c941b5740877c876a45c62ca6123d38d7b27e9baab2086d8a9e65cc26b6c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [McPhetres Jonathon; Gao Hui H.; Kemp Nicole; Khati Bhakti. Piloerection persists throughout repeated exposure to emotional stimuli. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0309347; article XML SHA-256 41602b8ebe2c155364681a48b0c9726b071d3e488cf206edd243d069b8ff780a. “Piloerection persists throughout repeated exposure to emotional stimuli” (10.1371/journal.pone.0309347).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309347). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pilot selection
<a id="pilot-selection"></a>

Pilot selection is the screening process used to evaluate candidates for pilot training or participation. In this context, it includes checking indicators such as blood pressure, which can be temporarily raised by anxiety or tension during testing and may affect whether a candidate can continue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0637bdab6a64ee34c37f5b9e4fe712e24126d685931ad3fa61491d38d0125e58

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dou Xue-ting; Ji Ming-jing; Sun Zhong-yang; Sun Hong-liang; Wang Yuan; Zou Hai-bin; Wang Si-yang; Gong Lin. The impact of psychological factors on hypertension and its psychological intervention in pilot selection candidates. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1634423; article XML SHA-256 95325bc00b3ed59729d27deb5bbf0360ca86bc5f4fa1609ee73b82d79ddfd947. “The impact of psychological factors on hypertension and its psychological intervention in pilot selection candidates” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1634423).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1634423). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pilot study
<a id="pilot-study"></a>

A pilot study is a preliminary investigation of a research question that provides early findings rather than firm conclusions. In this context, it refers to an initial study examining possible links between reported sensory features and measured touch-related performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01d33b62b29cf6092e392458a93c54187ac0eff23ab4ca6879b0a21e3b33d420

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chounan Yukie; Suzuki Kyoko. Active-touch texture/material matching and caregiver-reported sensory reactivity in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: a pilot study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1826858; article XML SHA-256 f8db189e2bcc813ce57091138b8f9fd575cd0b8efc1e6696a010a0544858ec99. “Active-touch texture/material matching and caregiver-reported sensory reactivity in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: a pilot study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1826858).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1826858). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pimozide
<a id="pimozide"></a>

Pimozide is a medication with antipsychotic effects that has also been used to reduce vocal and motor tics in Tourette syndrome. Its exact action is not fully known, but it is thought to work by blocking dopamine receptors after the synapse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b892dd03cc7443ef65862dd5538c10a9061cf284ed372979275f7342bae6016d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pimozide” (D010868).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010868). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pincer grip
<a id="pincer-grip"></a>

In this psychology context, pincer grip refers to a precision movement in which a person grips or releases an object using the thumb and index finger. It was used to study approach and avoidance behavior by treating gripping as approach and slipping as avoidance in response to positive or negative cues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fef20f2c0ab59a0a2c82850d1f538fae2564c851cbe883b7e020be6ec80054e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nilsson Sofie Johanna; Meder David; Madsen Kristoffer Hougaard; Toni Ivan; Siebner Hartwig Roman. Get to grips with motivation: Slipping and gripping movements are biased by approach-avoidance context. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.989495; article XML SHA-256 3389f19b663e552a9c5f10c7eec1855ecf8bb7ac82eb939a0c106f69d4db5e7f. “Get to grips with motivation: Slipping and gripping movements are biased by approach-avoidance context” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.989495).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.989495). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pineal gland
<a id="pineal-gland"></a>

The pineal gland is a light-sensitive neuroendocrine structure attached to the roof of the brain’s third ventricle. It produces melatonin as well as other biogenic amines and neuropeptides.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 051f166d4558442bcc49af17baa4dab53204f3ab68ddfa02dbc0003b130052ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pineal Gland” (D010870).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010870). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## piriform area
<a id="piriform-area"></a>

The piriform area is a part of the olfactory cortex located in the front half of the uncus and the anterior parahippocampal gyrus. It receives major incoming smell signals directly from the olfactory bulb.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 32eca2f7f4ad0933448a0e14f21f7b3ea1d4722092cec174aea1c53b5fa08dca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Piriform Cortex” (D066195).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066195). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pitch
<a id="pitch"></a>

Pitch is the heard quality of how high or low a sound seems, arising from the sound’s fundamental frequency (F0). In speech, pitch is a key perceptual cue for recognizing patterns such as lexical tones that help distinguish meaning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d963502b5e9f226671e2ef9fface63380ddbeeaa596c27266749d9f039c6f465

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gu Yishun; An Fuhai; Ge Shengnan; Guo Qiang; Yin Minmin. A comparative study of pitch recognition in children with cochlear implants and normal hearing peers across Mandarin tones. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783243; article XML SHA-256 48d646e2404c24dc93174241a31111cc66ef038ef89b85573b9f51109cfd82b3. “A comparative study of pitch recognition in children with cochlear implants and normal hearing peers across Mandarin tones” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783243).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783243). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pitch discrimination
<a id="pitch-discrimination"></a>

Pitch discrimination is the ability to tell differences in the frequency of sounds, experienced as differences in pitch.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 599816b24c0038a4dd7a809fd613bfba22eae0a163f72771693e5a0c701664b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pitch Discrimination” (D010897).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010897). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Pitch Perception
<a id="pitch-perception"></a>

Pitch perception is a dimension of auditory sensation that varies with the cycles per second of a sound stimulus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6b93472301e964f653706c286d48abda690f1c2770b80ea8f7d2993c1a997eb4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Pitch Perception” (D010898).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010898). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pituitary adenoma
<a id="pituitary-adenoma"></a>

A pituitary adenoma is a well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumor that develops from hormone-producing cells in the front part of the pituitary gland. It may produce hormones or be nonfunctioning, and it only rarely spreads to other parts of the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50ca289c0e028c9a05c0942ac5fa52aefa5e9c0f702202eeea54406c937e4295

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pituitary Neuroendocrine Tumor” (C3329).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pituitary gland
<a id="pituitary-gland"></a>

The pituitary gland is a small single gland located in the sella turcica. It is linked to the hypothalamus by a short stalk called the infundibulum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2ab1d21680e6eaec2a3031f95c5367c723d2b1d216602ce751a0e91d370b91d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pituitary Gland” (D010902).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010902). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pivotal variable
<a id="pivotal-variable"></a>

In this mental health context, a pivotal variable is a key factor that strongly influences whether a person’s distress shifts from a lower to a higher state. In the source, coping self-efficacy is described as pivotal because changes in it were linked to when this non-linear change in distress occurred after wildfires.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 356acdf96d788dd0ac1de8faafa2691c9f0f283da23a756c168be6b268e23aa5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Benight Charles C.; Shoji Kotaro; Harwell Aaron; Felix Erika. Non-linear Dynamic Shifts in Distress After Wildfires: Further Tests of the Self-Regulation Shift Theory. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.551962; article XML SHA-256 ee01b398cd190953c75084c98e7c5713cb2dcb33c7731c00fc60411789427d66. “Non-linear Dynamic Shifts in Distress After Wildfires: Further Tests of the Self-Regulation Shift Theory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.551962).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.551962). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PK
<a id="pk"></a>

PK refers to pharmacokinetics, the way a drug behaves in the body over time after it is given, including how its concentration changes. In the packet, PK is used as part of PK–PD modeling to link dosing and drug concentration with the resulting therapeutic effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4ef02cdde3848882b920da48935f1f7c792b211c92791c38be9e5f246841bbe5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dodek Martin; Vitková Zuzana; Vitko Anton; Miklovičová Eva. Optimal design of dose and drug pharmacokinetic characteristics to achieve the desired pharmacodynamic profile in repeated drug dosing. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354029; article XML SHA-256 3867f34b83d3c3f9d4590da1e17dc9d2dc4446d76571b4bb18a4d1734b2cf3bd. “Optimal design of dose and drug pharmacokinetic characteristics to achieve the desired pharmacodynamic profile in repeated drug dosing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354029).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354029). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PKU
<a id="pku"></a>

PKU, or phenylketonuria, is an inherited recessive condition in which the body cannot process the amino acid phenylalanine normally. This can contribute to intellectual impairment, delayed development, and behavioral, movement, and seizure problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7040755d710c337c2afcfbb8f4f7877923df249ae398635ff10f78ca255d7d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Phenylketonuria” (C81315).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## place attachment
<a id="place-attachment"></a>

Place attachment is the emotional bond a person feels with a place, such as a hometown or a city where they have lived. In this context, it can differ between a person’s place of origin and destination and may change over time with migration and return.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce75f29ddef5dcd542c454d81f2c21575a2f5d2069c4065ceccdcd840a31d1b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [He Lei; Mao Yingming; Kinoshita Takeshi. Place attachment among rural migrants and returnees: case of Shuangfeng County, China. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1279679; article XML SHA-256 477f3a04a59d4b6c4dfa0848df4f7f29b3603ea4795f20c434ac7ce5165be2f0. “Place attachment among rural migrants and returnees: case of Shuangfeng County, China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1279679).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1279679). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## placebo
<a id="placebo"></a>

A placebo is an inactive treatment used in clinical trials that looks like the real medication but has no medical effect. It helps researchers separate the drug’s actual effects from psychological influences, since people may still report improvement or side effects after taking it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3104d0ad52d2e1782fe94a5402ff58adac4cdc9bc5a3a1ef20e9e09ce402b87c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Placebo” (placebo.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/placebo.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## placebo control group
<a id="placebo-control-group"></a>

A placebo control group is a comparison group in a study that does activities intended to seem like the real training or intervention but that are not the specific skill training being tested. In this source, it involved non-task-specific balance exercises used to compare against fall-resisting skills training.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ec7648736acdbbc70591b066b49b64d7a33c99d59e8b8cad9e7d65912900121a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van der Hulst Elisabeth G.; Meijer Kenneth; Meyns Pieter; McCrum Christopher. Design considerations for technology-assisted fall-resisting skills training trials in older adults: A pilot and feasibility study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345798; article XML SHA-256 c82ae34753506505e37f5e457ddf72c75743be0bf45367854e8b684bef17bec5. “Design considerations for technology-assisted fall-resisting skills training trials in older adults: A pilot and feasibility study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345798).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345798). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## placebo controlled trial
<a id="placebo-controlled-trial"></a>

A placebo-controlled trial is a study in which participants are randomly assigned to receive either the active treatment or a placebo, and outcomes are compared between the groups. In the example described, the study is also double-blind, meaning neither participants nor researchers know who receives the real treatment during the trial.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 58ad9fcf47db96196dbddcb1f62caea5ebbebb9273ef05afda1ba2ad6ec05682

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stockbridge Melissa D; Fridriksson Julius; Sen Souvik; Bonilha Leonardo; Hillis Argye E. Protocol for Escitalopram and Language Intervention for Subacute Aphasia (ELISA): A randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0261474; article XML SHA-256 0d26779e59be1e6103adb9661cd901dd0f969fdd8ec907f64aa27a09276d1780. “Protocol for Escitalopram and Language Intervention for Subacute Aphasia (ELISA): A randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0261474).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261474). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## placenta
<a id="placenta"></a>

The placenta is a temporary organ that develops during pregnancy around the fetus. It supplies nutrients and oxygen, helps exchange gases and wastes between fetus and mother, and also helps protect the fetus from the mother’s immune response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d0457cdb128e165d50c959026d2412472e28db88da6866f549a03b076055d35

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Placenta” (C13272).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PLAN
<a id="plan"></a>

In this context, a plan is the treatment approach chosen for a person, such as psychotherapy, medication, or both. It is based on the person’s needs, preferences, and medical situation, usually with guidance from a mental health or health care professional, and may need adjustment to find what works best.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a8abfa1656ddfc33105b1688834d22191d355a8d48229fad2ac7541c1b6aca13

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 77e8e3f9797bdd3e545d836e3c7a022d849dbcb9046d75b9663fada09c613399. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## planned comparison
<a id="planned-comparison"></a>

A planned comparison is a comparison decided on before an experiment is carried out, or at least before the data are looked at. It is also called an a priori comparison.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de21a29a953d9cf387268f6dae97a9e636020fead3ef28eb2c43afae6b3786f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Planned Comparison” (planned_comparison.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/planned_comparison.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## plastic surgery
<a id="plastic-surgery"></a>

In this source, plastic surgery refers to surgical work on the face in which detailed knowledge of blood vessels is important for planning tissue flap transplantation and related procedures. It is presented as a clinical area that uses anatomical information to guide facial surgical design.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9280e202546415c522c513df1a0a039c85def7a7bec175a1492bb86795adcf8c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Son Ji–Young; Han Seung–Ho. Topographical analysis of arterial perforators in the face: A cadaveric study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349023; article XML SHA-256 3522e34b322ca18ecdece37f9f767002c9d92e2a2db3ffc65e75bd7be36f88e5. “Topographical analysis of arterial perforators in the face: A cadaveric study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349023).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349023). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## plasticity
<a id="plasticity"></a>

Plasticity is the capacity of the nervous system to change its functional properties over time, giving behavior the flexibility to adapt to new tasks and environments. In learning, it refers to gradual shifts in neural activity or tuning that support adaptation while coexisting with enough stability to preserve learned behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e40fbc95f86c366ee7f66398ed047a8987e9bdc6a932dee1c9b89901e2bab6e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Hung-Yun; Stealey Hannah M; Zhao Yi; Barnett Cole R; Contreras-Hernandez Enrique; Santacruz Samantha R. Long-term neuron tracking reveals balance of stability and plasticity in functional properties. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321830; article XML SHA-256 a4b571a7f9073d7b40b185561d548dda97afe9b5b069de2d1179a100f05116f4. “Long-term neuron tracking reveals balance of stability and plasticity in functional properties” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321830).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321830). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## platykurtic
<a id="platykurtic"></a>

Platykurtic describes a distribution whose tails are shorter than those of a normal distribution. It is a term used in research methods and statistics to describe the shape of a distribution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84f6517b0fdd155d68aec021917efff90eaeed7c878b26b7270eafcbb7b9890c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Platykurtic” (platykurtic.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/platykurtic.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## play
<a id="play"></a>

Play is an important part of children’s development that supports cognitive, social, and emotional growth. In this context, it also refers to interactions between children and caregivers that can influence their relationship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 04381dbbf0bb359d2e531accc8aa79731ff72018d2c2a609c89b7ee834a149f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Abramov Rita; Stern Amitai; Feniger-Schaal Rinat; Elefant Cochavit; Goldner Limor; Rabinowitch Tal-Chen. ‘Just Play’ (JP) - creative arts therapies-based dyadic intervention for children with intellectual disability and their mothers: Study protocol for a mixed-methods randomized controlled trial. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349576; article XML SHA-256 2f6f810785b388866eab7c9e2780e98ffc78549bb66ae3054d659e818a273089. “‘Just Play’ (JP) - creative arts therapies-based dyadic intervention for children with intellectual disability and their mothers: Study protocol for a mixed-methods randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349576).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349576). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## play therapy
<a id="play-therapy"></a>

Play therapy is a therapeutic approach that uses play as the main way for a patient and therapist to communicate and express thoughts or feelings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 83dec0ddf88181dc4e12c41cb36c53ca4dfc7fb672bdc6c8bd77a74c394aaf88

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Play Therapy” (D010989).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010989). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## playground design
<a id="playground-design"></a>

Playground design is the way a play space is arranged, including its spatial layout, visibility, and placement of activity areas, which influences how children move, play, and share space. In school settings, design can increase or reduce unequal use of central areas by different age and gender groups by shaping what kinds of play are possible in different parts of the environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e4d8d33dc81f651dc95b49de0c04682485fa7c7ea0f7831edf625a184d4c9064

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sak-Acur Mine; Sailer Kerstin. The role of visibility as a predictor of children’s location choices in outdoor school grounds across age and gender. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1832795; article XML SHA-256 28237b29cd0439b092737ef756690ceb806b9b518ee7b68d4c42560b6a82cdef. “The role of visibility as a predictor of children’s location choices in outdoor school grounds across age and gender” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1832795).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1832795). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pleasantness
<a id="pleasantness"></a>

Pleasantness is the degree to which something is experienced as positive or agreeable. In this context, it refers to how pleasant a visual image seems and whether that positive quality can shift how a sound is rated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2c97f0f9891d1570f30f17a5c5efb3cb82b420a609e7741e64d36e83cc7531f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Heller Laurie M.; Oszczapinska Urszula; Smith Jessica M.; Julien Megan M.. Reassigning sources of misophonic trigger sounds to change their unpleasantness: Testing alternative mechanisms with a new set of movies, paintings, and words. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321594; article XML SHA-256 ff1ac97675e62e8ea940293d59dd528fcd94a43b2dfda6755ed3f4f63b899eb9. “Reassigning sources of misophonic trigger sounds to change their unpleasantness: Testing alternative mechanisms with a new set of movies, paintings, and words” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321594).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321594). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pleasure
<a id="pleasure"></a>

Pleasure is a rewarding positive experience that can motivate behavior. In this source, it is described as arising through interacting cognitive, psychological, bodily, and social processes, such as enjoyment from how events are processed, immersive engagement, movement or synchronization, and social connection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be2d8ee4419f1f02f44a581e2a58c118e366a59240937f4a1b1c16e60b775d5d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Duman Deniz; Saarikallio Suvi. Four sources of pleasure associated with the experience of groove. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881467; article XML SHA-256 a275e72f2828cf63929514b8389b5c5284172705fc8fddfc4827fe3004fbd21e. “Four sources of pleasure associated with the experience of groove” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881467).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881467). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## -plegia
<a id="plegia"></a>

-plegia is a suffix for severe or total paralysis, usually involving loss of muscle power because of disease affecting the motor pathways from the brain to the muscle. In some uses, it can also indicate loss of sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 85b247f9dce04cc45155f1918cd9f4bb7f9a022e4e3aff8d27429363b7c1c4f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paralysis” (D010243).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010243). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## plexus
<a id="plexus"></a>

In this packet, plexus refers specifically to the choroid plexus, a brain structure examined for how it changes with aging. It is described as helping regulate brain homeostasis as well as cognitive and motor function, and aging appears to alter its molecular activity more than its overall structure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4774a4eda584956ddefb8935777ffee70bc79b476c7a95502704f6d2451db8dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Amiot Florent; Etchebest Antxon; Andriambelo Bijou; St-Germain Joannie; Avino Mariano; Plourde Mélanie; Laurent Benoit; Pifferi Fabien. Age-related molecular and functional remodeling of the choroid plexus in the gray mouse lemur. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357233; article XML SHA-256 5004c1b393703d31c5c90e1af410532ecf424d7e8da9bed6a84a04b6d8c3cfbb. “Age-related molecular and functional remodeling of the choroid plexus in the gray mouse lemur” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357233).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357233). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pluralism
<a id="pluralism"></a>

In this context, pluralism means the coexistence of multiple psychotherapy approaches that describe similar clinical processes using different, non-matching languages or models. It can be clinically useful because it preserves meaningful distinctions across schools, but it also makes comparison and shared representation harder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c2b0bdc93ceab2a83e89939acaa5b94a43ff0beca9423400e31c06445343b14

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Niederlohmann Eik. PAD-S/CSA as a candidate shared representation layer for computational psychotherapy: minimal architecture and a staged validation roadmap. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817747; article XML SHA-256 55c44404147d5663506ab5e1160f466e725a3eb17658d7b5570ce3227327a032. “PAD-S/CSA as a candidate shared representation layer for computational psychotherapy: minimal architecture and a staged validation roadmap” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817747).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817747). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pluralistic ignorance
<a id="pluralistic-ignorance"></a>

Pluralistic ignorance is the mistaken belief that your own attitude differs from what most other people believe. Because of this misperception, people may follow what they think others think or do, even when it does not match their own view.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 372ce3836f03caf9b2546db5fe25c4e4388b8f868ca9db290e40b38fd2f04e33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Van Grootel Sanne; Van Laar Colette; Meeussen Loes; Schmader Toni; Sczesny Sabine. Uncovering Pluralistic Ignorance to Change Men’s Communal Self-descriptions, Attitudes, and Behavioral Intentions. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01344; article XML SHA-256 b10bdac6c755e4a7563a35154013d02213d6c7ced769b9ef72bd33266260846a. “Uncovering Pluralistic Ignorance to Change Men’s Communal Self-descriptions, Attitudes, and Behavioral Intentions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01344).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01344). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## plus maze
<a id="plus-maze"></a>

A plus maze, specifically the elevated plus maze, is a behavioral test used in animal research to assess anxiety-like behavior. In the source packet, it is one of the measures used to evaluate emotional changes during heroin withdrawal in mice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 177932d706ec6fa26ec1742aaa7cd6cbb04c092b8f203da2ea558047a86b0af6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xiang Yang; Yan Xiaowei; Li Rongrong; Li Chunlu; Yin Dan; Luo Cancan; Xiong Yingqi; Hong Yan; Li Yixin; Xia Baijuan. Exendin-4 enhances GLP-1 signaling and reduces anxiety-like behaviors in male heroin withdrawal mice. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343995; article XML SHA-256 af551e73ce481922680c0e46d8329a191bef48c74fa79e5134464c81d977a117. “Exendin-4 enhances GLP-1 signaling and reduces anxiety-like behaviors in male heroin withdrawal mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343995).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343995). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PMS
<a id="pms"></a>

PMS, or premenstrual syndrome, is a condition linked to the menstrual cycle in which hormonal changes interact with the brain’s stress and emotion-regulation systems. In the luteal phase, this interaction may increase stress sensitivity and is associated with affective, physical, and sleep-related symptoms, along with altered activity in emotion-related brain systems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bf7874c5fe47e1a5f9ca7bbfd93a85b18f948d12a4c87237b6a089e7dfba24ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Walsen Sofía; Chaves Covadonga; Baquedano Constanza. Contemplative-based interventions for premenstrual syndrome: a systematic review of psychobiological outcomes. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1912206; article XML SHA-256 baf8ef182822044d012c97da612c2fd8632ce9c3c06313edef1d711416bdeee7. “Contemplative-based interventions for premenstrual syndrome: a systematic review of psychobiological outcomes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1912206).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1912206). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PMT
<a id="pmt"></a>

PMT usually refers to Protection Motivation Theory, a psychology framework for understanding willingness to take protective action. In this packet, it describes how perceived severity, perceived vulnerability, response efficacy, self-efficacy, and response cost may shape a person’s motivation to get vaccinated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17a60cd4374a4966cd3ee06f11df1d1e4ca40bc49589b0f65525fc67085617ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gong Zhuliu; Guo Yi. The influence of descriptive norms and media trust on male HPV vaccination willingness: an extended protection motivation theory approach. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1640345; article XML SHA-256 cbb44f5ebdfaf2a6894440e356930d18794a784ca30f3b1d9d10ada302a653b0. “The influence of descriptive norms and media trust on male HPV vaccination willingness: an extended protection motivation theory approach” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1640345).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1640345). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PNC
<a id="pnc"></a>

PNC stands for prenatal care, meaning the care received during pregnancy. In this context, it refers to how prenatal care is used or attended while studying health-related behaviors in pregnancy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e14ee3787cd87f12671566a1aa4008cde3b7a224d429d720d93de93f6158e58f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shenoy Rathika Damodara; Weitzman Michael; Acuña Juan M. Tobacco product cessation and prenatal care utilization: A Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System phase 8 study of conventional cigarette, e-cigarette, and dual-use associated behaviors. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343423; article XML SHA-256 d08506e0aea5a6d310f3d794f27624f0846e9418aff98ec2a22d3e1c0399ad17. “Tobacco product cessation and prenatal care utilization: A Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System phase 8 study of conventional cigarette, e-cigarette, and dual-use associated behaviors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343423).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343423). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pneumoencephalography
<a id="pneumoencephalography"></a>

Pneumoencephalography is an imaging procedure that shows the brain’s ventricular spaces on X-ray by introducing air or another gas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cfbea0ae875305a5a77e15a8461d69652b6ec4ae3bbf74316748c767a984d512

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pneumoencephalography” (D011011).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011011). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pneumogastric nerve
<a id="pneumogastric-nerve"></a>

The pneumogastric nerve is the vagus nerve, the tenth cranial nerve. It is a mixed nerve that carries sensory signals from parts of the ear, throat, chest, and abdomen, and also sends motor and parasympathetic signals to structures in the throat, chest, and abdomen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71769d5ad0d054351aacf1a08832216c95068aa23ffac1b40451e656a6ca791c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vagus Nerve” (D014630).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014630). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pneumograph
<a id="pneumograph"></a>

A pneumograph is an instrument used to record the movements of the chest during breathing. In the form described here, a flexible rubber bottle is fastened to the chest so that breathing compresses it, and the resulting pressure is registered for study of physiological changes related to mental states.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e7cce8a9de86d853aec4e5af245b513d7da01f6e06ad607be1ffe1aa85d932f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Laboratory (of psychology) and Apparatus” (Laboratory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Laboratory). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PNS
<a id="pns"></a>

PNS, or peripheral nerve stimulation, is a minimally invasive electroanalgesia procedure used to help relieve pain, especially neuropathic pain. It works by applying stimulation near a damaged nerve, typically closer to the body than the lesion site.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de0ad88974acb1a945d0fb9fb7103951b4379441d6b3a614da82a97d9cbfa006

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Peripheral Nerve Stimulation” (C21025).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## POC
<a id="poc"></a>

POC stands for point-of-care. In this packet, it refers to PCR testing done at the place where care is provided so results are available quickly for diagnosing respiratory viral infections.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2a7244f3f9a92705d2ecc4ada6e2689c5d794d5f9fd4938228b5f332530492ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tolle Hannah; Wachinger Jonas; Castro María del Mar; Morales Ivonne; Denkinger Claudia M. Implementation of Point-of-Care PCR-testing for the diagnosis of respiratory infections in vulnerable patient populations. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307621; article XML SHA-256 e64edef02061db34664d65d26c6dc02ef93891d5bd2784d2f235d407db28f6d5. “Implementation of Point-of-Care PCR-testing for the diagnosis of respiratory infections in vulnerable patient populations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307621).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307621). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## POE
<a id="poe"></a>

POE stands for positive emotion. In this learning model, it refers to the learner’s positive emotional state, which is treated as the central internal response linking an external factor to digital textbook usage outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a935fad22a9ca52031ef8e4a4c389f9236ba6b890fe7959611572600e302ae0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mi Ning; Fan Cunying. Task–technology fit and digital textbook usage outcomes: The mediating role of positive emotion within an S–O–R framework. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344382; article XML SHA-256 307d3453283800396823dd72072cb0f599eb4001fe88b5723f32a726b281731d. “Task–technology fit and digital textbook usage outcomes: The mediating role of positive emotion within an S–O–R framework” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344382).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344382). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## point estimate
<a id="point-estimate"></a>

A point estimate is an estimate of a population parameter expressed as one single value rather than as a range, such as a confidence interval.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6895056b6ce2301350c0cdcb35201be5400fca405594c9201095e620baa6d246

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Point Estimate” (point_estimate.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/point_estimate.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## point of subjective equality
<a id="point-of-subjective-equality"></a>

The point of subjective equality is the comparison value at which a person judges two stimuli as equal, even if they may differ objectively. In this study, it was estimated from each person’s psychometric function in a two-choice discrimination task to show how perceived duration could shift from the actual duration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4db5f5900e797916b2498084bee2b74671ec04f34b4c02814a6af10205f9acb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Geiser Eveline; Gabrieli John D. E.. Influence of Rhythmic Grouping on Duration Perception: A Novel Auditory Illusion. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0054273; article XML SHA-256 b04210b6f0c1b76bb63efa0faf6d05a9e6a0f2fe9f25d9d9beb71f1fd91c14ae. “Influence of Rhythmic Grouping on Duration Perception: A Novel Auditory Illusion” (10.1371/journal.pone.0054273).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0054273). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## point scale
<a id="point-scale"></a>

A point scale is a rating method that assigns responses to ordered numerical categories, such as a 5-point scale used to score satisfaction. In this context, it means expressing a judgment or experience as one of a small set of ranked points so results can be compared or analyzed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4af3b3b9781c39e3879c1bcd9d8b63d62c3ff4e438a7714376df1b8791a3124d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Takahashi Hiroki. What do part-time employees in Japanese chain restaurants talk about when dissatisfied? Applying Structural Topic Modeling to employee reviews. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313450; article XML SHA-256 de15235429fbdb3706dd4cdf7de9640e07e3de1fe5e696a9ad8bc4104eeb4587. “What do part-time employees in Japanese chain restaurants talk about when dissatisfied? Applying Structural Topic Modeling to employee reviews” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313450).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313450). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pointing
<a id="pointing"></a>

In this cognitive-testing context, pointing refers to a command task in which a person is asked to gesture toward the ceiling and then toward the floor. It is used as part of the ADAS-Cog commands assessment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66940bfd67b5cecdab6bf624c4b726817a6584cccdc355fe3945fd232eed03d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “CDISC ADAS-Cog - Commands: Ceiling” (C100211).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Poisson distribution
<a id="poisson-distribution"></a>

A Poisson distribution is a statistical distribution used to represent how rare events occur, or how separate counts are distributed across continuous time or space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c80c90751b862d0a086735b89f329b357d06f30477ba5e8a7c33a3138b6879eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Poisson Distribution” (D016012).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016012). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polarization
<a id="polarization"></a>

Polarization is the separation of people into more ideologically distinct groups, so that individuals and communities become more aligned with one side and less exposed to opposing views. In the packet, it is described as extending beyond individuals to larger social and geographic patterns, such as areas becoming dominated by supporters of one political party.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 744e3dad5ff9ed3d8279e22ca3d632a3db165f6ce5ce5c7541a4552a533d966a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liang Zhengyi; Cho Jaeho. Political polarization on the move: Analyzing geographical mobility between counties in the U.S.. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339333; article XML SHA-256 02b6ad6feb662de3e96d154fdf65560989cbb4fc1b0958a785a0fd0c457388aa. “Political polarization on the move: Analyzing geographical mobility between counties in the U.S.” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339333).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339333). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## policy analysis
<a id="policy-analysis"></a>

Policy analysis is a structured way of examining how a policy works by looking not only at its stated aims or text, but also at the surrounding context, the steps through which it is carried out, and the people involved. It is used to clarify how policy intentions relate to what actually happens in practice, especially in complex settings where priorities and implementation change over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9f226d181d70c33ab8551af36277e8c0a6fbb7ff6320ab46f4e645e0a0dfcf52

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alshehri Ahmed Abdullah; Abduljawad Asaad Abdulrahman. Applying an extended Health Policy Analysis framework to digitally mediated health system reform: Evidence from Saudi Arabia’s Health Sector Transformation Program. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350168; article XML SHA-256 ac19f7bcc1d1e587d47580a86e4111f599e4b7bf2b2b364591a22a8180060c33. “Applying an extended Health Policy Analysis framework to digitally mediated health system reform: Evidence from Saudi Arabia’s Health Sector Transformation Program” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350168).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350168). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polio
<a id="polio"></a>

Polio is an acute viral infection in humans, especially children, caused by poliovirus. It often causes no symptoms or stays limited to the throat and digestive tract, but in some cases it affects the nervous system, especially the spinal cord, leading to rapidly developing paralysis and loss of motor neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a3b2fbbd87859d444b945bb35a1e14d3cb0219977daa8491baff120711737a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Poliomyelitis” (D011051).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011051). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## poliomyelitis
<a id="poliomyelitis"></a>

Poliomyelitis is an acute viral infection in humans, especially children, caused by human poliovirus. It often stays in the digestive tract and throat area and may cause no symptoms, but when the central nervous system is involved, especially the spinal cord, it can damage motor neurons and lead to quickly worsening paralysis with muscle twitching and reduced reflexes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de99ed49fd9e08a150cd649ce7e4cee23d94068f17d948fef251a619c8bdd222

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Poliomyelitis” (D011051).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011051). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## politeness
<a id="politeness"></a>

Politeness is the use of socially expected courteous language in interactions, especially in human communities where people may feel socially evaluated. In this context, it functions as a help-seeking strategy for managing impressions during requests or questions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f55a394118326dc85d009a1273af489084471f35bf9c0e21fb6c44b68a0d70a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qi Li; Zhao Lanlan. Social friction vs. cognitive efficiency: A comparative analysis of help-seeking behaviors in human communities and generative AI. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348441; article XML SHA-256 76d232cea96db55f7f197406f97ba71e00656aaff6045bc9927bf63aec2b3f08. “Social friction vs. cognitive efficiency: A comparative analysis of help-seeking behaviors in human communities and generative AI” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348441).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348441). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## political correctness
<a id="political-correctness"></a>

Political correctness is described here as a form of extreme left-leaning political attitude. In this study, it was linked with greater agreeableness, black-and-white thinking, social media use, and seeing one’s parenting as overprotective.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 58ef34f4511ac6bff6523848301ac6f177147102524f25694f67fc4c91ce582e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moss Jordan T.; O’Connor Peter J.. Political correctness and the alt-right: The development of extreme political attitudes. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0239259; article XML SHA-256 8bb2d112d548d774aeb2b5a56a329b85a858eb8b1cb63a2197a1fbadf21e5065. “Political correctness and the alt-right: The development of extreme political attitudes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0239259).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239259). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## political science
<a id="political-science"></a>

Political science is the social science that examines how groups are governed. It is part of the broader study of human aspects of the world.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96d5894daea57d4d9d96a5202d39aed3eba5be9de74ffd341fcc30ce987a32df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Social Sciences” (C17141).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pollution
<a id="pollution"></a>

In this packet, pollution refers to plastic waste in and around freshwater environments that people recognize as harmful to inland fisheries and to the well-being and livelihoods of those who depend on these waters. In a cognition context, it is described through stakeholders’ awareness, understanding, concerns, and beliefs about its sources, impacts, and possible solutions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 440a79d94a8dbb54030475844c6671d1379af758d1439d2c376fb3bab2e6b33b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Murungweni Florence M.; Mokata Manamela S.; Mofu Lubabalo; Lebepe Jeffrey; Motitsoe Samuel N.; Mutshekwa Thendo. Perceptions of plastic pollution among inland fishery stakeholders in a subtropical reservoir. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353457; article XML SHA-256 0e2942dd3ddcfbd8d1e96040740cf3283b7021efd2b28f0471d4ad5d09cd0dd3. “Perceptions of plastic pollution among inland fishery stakeholders in a subtropical reservoir” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353457).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353457). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polyandry
<a id="polyandry"></a>

In this historical source, polyandry is described as a form of marriage that McLennan regarded as the earliest type, later prohibited as societies moved toward monogamous marriage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11629d8cb864fddedbebb68357a7dcbdfae739710f7107d5127c4e559598c3df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Marriage” (Marriage).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M1defs.htm#Marriage). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polydrug abuse
<a id="polydrug-abuse"></a>

Polydrug abuse means abusing more than one drug or substance. In this source, it refers to this problem among opioid-dependent people receiving opioid maintenance treatment, where improved testing may be needed to detect its full extent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a6fc9a0fd405685c730c2354aedbff436c67b61604f2dcb68d77c0d5ecf1675

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Heikman Pertti Kalevi; Muhonen Leea Hellevi; Ojanperä Ilkka Antero. Polydrug abuse among opioid maintenance treatment patients is related to inadequate dose of maintenance treatment medicine. 2017; DOI 10.1186/s12888-017-1415-y; article XML SHA-256 4e5a77adb765e4c6fb6fdd6d798865ff2dae118490cc59cb382e0f6dfbd0c90c. “Polydrug abuse among opioid maintenance treatment patients is related to inadequate dose of maintenance treatment medicine” (10.1186/s12888-017-1415-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1415-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polygamy
<a id="polygamy"></a>

Polygamy is presented here as a form of marriage that societies later prohibited as they moved toward monogamous marriage. In this historical account, it is one of several practices excluded by developing marriage rules.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 79f9a02c80d91590acb81de8eaae15fe9bfd8ba16beec1242617109c7223bc08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Marriage” (Marriage).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M1defs.htm#Marriage). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polygenic inheritance
<a id="polygenic-inheritance"></a>

Polygenic inheritance is a pattern in which a condition is influenced by the combined effects of many genetic changes rather than a single gene. In this packet, schizophrenia is described as mainly following this kind of inheritance, with contributions from common genetic variants and some copy number changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c5c8e846009354d128cb9aa0ded5cfc49f0a1c8baca2b15e84662017ebbc5f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ghafouri-Fard Soudeh; Eghtedarian Reyhane; Taheri Mohammad; Beatrix Brühl Annette; Sadeghi-Bahmani Dena; Brand Serge. A Review on the Expression Pattern of Non-coding RNAs in Patients With Schizophrenia: With a Special Focus on Peripheral Blood as a Source of Expression Analysis. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.640463; article XML SHA-256 63df6f949e2740a701f98a892636a4cf920a7dc94127c95f202bc5d7c16ab89f. “A Review on the Expression Pattern of Non-coding RNAs in Patients With Schizophrenia: With a Special Focus on Peripheral Blood as a Source of Expression Analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.640463).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.640463). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polygenic trait
<a id="polygenic-trait"></a>

A polygenic trait is a characteristic that is strongly influenced by genetic background through many genetic contributions rather than a single factor. The packet also indicates that such traits can be shaped by environmental and behavioral influences, as illustrated by body mass index.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 263308d692d5f21b24b80636f179f22f2c1c346ca9fca128c29cdda221c4257b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Borisevich Dmitrii; Schnurr Theresia M.; Engelbrechtsen Line; Rakitko Alexander; Ängquist Lars; Ilinsky Valery; Aadahl Mette; Grarup Niels; Pedersen Oluf; Sørensen Thorkild I. A.; Hansen Torben. Non-linear interaction between physical activity and polygenic risk score of body mass index in Danish and Russian populations. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0258748; article XML SHA-256 395637359e11cffef44c87c3d40ec3dc8d7ba3d3538aea668b0384ad9e338d0b. “Non-linear interaction between physical activity and polygenic risk score of body mass index in Danish and Russian populations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0258748).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258748). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polygraph
<a id="polygraph"></a>

Polygraph refers to lie detection by trying to determine deception from signs of emotional disturbance shown through changes in bodily processes, usually with a polygraph device.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1b998ac8b9153329b31dd70d7122cccc44866d3e47a4bce067b24cb9536291e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lie Detection” (D008014).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008014). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polymicrogyria
<a id="polymicrogyria"></a>

Polymicrogyria is a group of brain cortex malformations in which the surface has too many unusually small, partly joined folds, with shallow grooves and disordered cortical layering. It is viewed as arising from disrupted later stages of neuron development after migration and is linked with epilepsy and learning problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e66fd406a406d7846a5da11e545cbde177a85b348e6a9c15535f6140f23a59c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Polymicrogyria” (D065706).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065706). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polymodal
<a id="polymodal"></a>

Polymodal describes a sensory receptor or nerve fiber that responds to more than one type of stimulus. In this source, it refers to nociceptors that are sensitive to both heat and mechanical stimulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 587089526cadabca19caeb2d3f758f6391fafc4d5521d08ecaf3661f2c56203a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Soares Sabrina; Schmelz Martin; Carr Richard; Sohns Kyra; Rukwied Roman. Assessing NaV1.7 during tonic firing in pig C-nociceptors. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335081; article XML SHA-256 7c80dc4ea310577fe6401f43555ac3adeca10c5fa2e6f4e6b03803996f3ffc98. “Assessing NaV1.7 during tonic firing in pig C-nociceptors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335081).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335081). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polynomial regression
<a id="polynomial-regression"></a>

Polynomial regression is a type of multiple regression that predicts an outcome using different powers of the same predictor variable rather than adding different predictor variables. For example, it may use X, X squared, and X cubed together to estimate Y.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f611ca3d40661965d644f48f1020b38c1748e9322f39cdeffbb9f8c9c46f07d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Polynomial Regression” (polynomial_regression.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/polynomial_regression.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polyopia
<a id="polyopia"></a>

Polyopia is the seeing of several images of a single object. In this source, monocular polyopia is described as arising from irregular astigmatism, as in the multiple images some people see in the horns of a crescent moon.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8a52d7e5c1a695d15ccb9d2b9302f86085b69862ba27f386bc356ff2684785f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Astigmatism” (Astigmatism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Astigmatism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polypharmacy
<a id="polypharmacy"></a>

Polypharmacy is the use of multiple medications as part of care, often in people with complex or hard-to-treat psychiatric disorders. In psychiatry, it may be important for management but can also increase the risk of harmful drug interactions, problems taking medicines as prescribed, and poorer health outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 48442f2d2bbef6dbc238da2aed90febdc1ba16f02102c2037a935f06409b3852

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Khalil Amal I; Almuhalbidi Alhanouf A; Almutairi Reema T; Almutairi Shahad S; Alansari Hatun H; Almarri Atheer S; Alzahrani Shaima K; Alzahrani Joud S. Psychiatric nurses versus psychiatrists and pharmacists 'knowledge on polypharmacy practices in psychiatry: An interprofessional mixed-methods exploration. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327104; article XML SHA-256 6ba751d32317f60e0a0dff25321e03317531b2139d9463860e69d9b2cc72dce7. “Psychiatric nurses versus psychiatrists and pharmacists 'knowledge on polypharmacy practices in psychiatry: An interprofessional mixed-methods exploration” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327104).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327104). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polyphasic sleep
<a id="polyphasic-sleep"></a>

Polyphasic sleep is a sleep pattern in which sleep occurs in multiple bouts across the 24-hour day rather than being concentrated in one long period. In the source packet, newborn lambs showed this pattern, sleeping during both daytime and nighttime.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 32bbc598adc8876f52296768ad0eadc192e5367c7c2fc22d35c31486322aa471

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Beniaich Younes; Farsi Hicham; Larbaoui Manal; Ouardirhi Hiba; Sbai Nouha; Piro Mohammed; Achaâban Mohamed Rachid; Pévet Paul; Challet Etienne; Satté Amal; El Allali Khalid. Day-night variations in sleep and locomotor activity in lambs during the first 72 hours after birth and following the onset of rumination. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348614; article XML SHA-256 c3525ef0cc6372bee19dc8ffcc0d8e0a1c3bcf432b5e56636146c6bbbe0a3a85. “Day-night variations in sleep and locomotor activity in lambs during the first 72 hours after birth and following the onset of rumination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348614).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348614). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polysomnography
<a id="polysomnography"></a>

Polysomnography is a sleep study that continuously records several body functions at the same time during sleep to examine normal and disturbed sleep. It typically tracks brain activity to identify sleep stages along with measures such as breathing, eye movements, and blood oxygen levels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b25043e2764fba5902a820629315d21af17db9b0ddc9385a2836eeaf173b4dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Polysomnography” (D017286).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017286). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## polysubstance dependence
<a id="polysubstance-dependence"></a>

Polysubstance dependence refers to a history of dependence involving more than one type or class of drug, rather than dependence on a single substance alone. In this source, it is used to distinguish people with multiple-substance dependence from those with only heroin dependence, only amphetamine dependence, or no substance dependence history.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cc5b5fdd87d324deeb79113c377a6016746a349c3d648fa707b022ceeaf3b419

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wilson Michael J.; Vassileva Jasmin. Decision-Making Under Risk, but Not Under Ambiguity, Predicts Pathological Gambling in Discrete Types of Abstinent Substance Users. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00239; article XML SHA-256 f2bf01783120d37f7606e31a1ad111f5eafecd650fb81c334f8f9e4ce904cfc7. “Decision-Making Under Risk, but Not Under Ambiguity, Predicts Pathological Gambling in Discrete Types of Abstinent Substance Users” (10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00239).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00239). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## POMC
<a id="pomc"></a>

POMC refers here to pro-opiomelanocortin-expressing neurons, a type of hypothalamic neuron described as anorexigenic, meaning it helps suppress eating. In the medial basal hypothalamus, these neurons are involved in regulating energy balance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f99a8d01a8759715d1140c77f603d7aa3fd84f62602c55b36db93acc0e2a78d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jörgensen Sara K. M.; Surridge-Smith May; Jones Kimberley; Maletínská Lenka; Allen Nicholas D.; Petrik David. Anti-obesity compounds, Semaglutide and LiPR, and PrRP do not change the proportion of human and mouse POMC+ neurons. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329268; article XML SHA-256 6aa3817c2feb150a83e563ec97010b2c93e92c8358db9244c9677e5e589b286e. “Anti-obesity compounds, Semaglutide and LiPR, and PrRP do not change the proportion of human and mouse POMC+ neurons” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329268).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329268). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## POMS
<a id="poms"></a>

POMS is a widely used multidimensional self-report questionnaire for measuring mood states, especially their temporary and changing nature. It is used in settings such as psychotherapy, medicine, and sport psychology, and has been applied and validated across multiple languages and cultures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf5256271ab6e3db666787d235868be77532f7a99c226461a2a8c266b92959ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schmalbach Ileana; Schmalbach Bjarne; Aghababa Alireza; Brand Ralf; Chang Yu-Kai; Çiftçi Muhammet Cihat; Elsangedy Hassan; Fernández Gavira Jesús; Huang Zhijian; Kristjánsdóttir Hafrún; Mallia Luca; Nosrat Sanaz; Pesce Caterina; Rafnsson Daði; Medina Rebollo Daniel; Timme Sinika; Brähler Elmar; Petrowski Katja. Cross-cultural validation of the profile of mood scale: evaluation of the psychometric properties of short screening versions. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1498717; article XML SHA-256 797d50beabdb4dbe75155afe1902c9c6f399c4aab45bf8468935026efebad3c2. “Cross-cultural validation of the profile of mood scale: evaluation of the psychometric properties of short screening versions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1498717).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1498717). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pons
<a id="pons"></a>

The pons is the front part of the hindbrain, located between the medulla and the midbrain and lying in front of the cerebellum. It has dorsal and ventral parts and helps relay nerve signals between the cerebellum and the cerebrum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f801694a05153e2d8c9db83a46cceb061d8811ca52d2aaa1bb51248a0279fb7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pons” (D011149).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011149). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pontine nucleus
<a id="pontine-nucleus"></a>

A pontine nucleus is a nerve-cell cluster in the pons. In this packet, it is described as part of the raphe nuclei and as lying directly in front of the nucleus raphe obscurus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2bbc0d1e5591b647ef875827b594a38ec9c73000e69912d6228b14dd7dd6352c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nucleus Raphe Magnus” (D065846).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065846). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Ponzo illusion
<a id="ponzo-illusion"></a>

The Ponzo illusion is a visual illusion used to study how ambiguous retinal input is interpreted through visual context and higher-level knowledge or beliefs. It affects perceived size or magnitude and is described here as being especially influenced by top-down control from higher brain areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5adc7c5860784523d01341a0cdf5930a3449791446df34208499d549635af29e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Matsuyoshi Daisuke; Isato Ayako; Yamada Makiko. Overlapping yet dissociable contributions of superiority illusion features to Ponzo illusion strength and metacognitive performance. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s40359-024-01625-9; article XML SHA-256 1d4f7bf229b90193c0c889dfb31292b46aec9a4b8152c236998ba304222063a5. “Overlapping yet dissociable contributions of superiority illusion features to Ponzo illusion strength and metacognitive performance” (10.1186/s40359-024-01625-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01625-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pooled estimate
<a id="pooled-estimate"></a>

A pooled estimate is a single overall result created by combining effect-size findings from multiple studies in a systematic review or meta-analysis. In this packet, it refers to the combined odds ratio calculated across the included studies using a random-effects model.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1956faf729f62a7f40b2f8ff0131941153e37d7f7d39a19d3080a6dd2468b19b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ahadinezhad Bahman; Maleki Aisa; Akhondi Amirali; Kazemi Mohammadjavad; Yousefy Sama; Rezaei Fatemeh; Khosravizadeh Omid. Are behavioral economics interventions effective in increasing colorectal cancer screening uptake: A systematic review of evidence and meta-analysis?. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290424; article XML SHA-256 d2342fc1f92c2c6f89995f6c859b1233a47571f494e86767872a1ecfd58728a9. “Are behavioral economics interventions effective in increasing colorectal cancer screening uptake: A systematic review of evidence and meta-analysis?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290424).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290424). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## population
<a id="population"></a>

In research methods, a population is the entire set of observations a researcher wants to study. It is broader than a sample, which includes only some members of that full set.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5279d34402ddc7642dc201726bc861245ecfb4756699c338fbb5c94d9fd1daa4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Population” (population.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/population.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## population density
<a id="population-density"></a>

Population density is how many individuals are present within a given space, which influences how often they encounter and interact with one another. In social systems, changes in density can alter the stability of cooperation and cheating by changing interaction frequency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b19d34f0f2c23bde545a331c798b88afb3fd0a4489e8ff24d793e725c533d8e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zorrilla González Rodrigo; Travisano Michael. Population density constrains coexistence of cooperative and cheating Kluyveromyces lactis through frequency-dependent physical interactions. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359779; article XML SHA-256 fcb4bed283dc515537a5d65c81260c5148d2778df8339f280d1133633fbfe4d7. “Population density constrains coexistence of cooperative and cheating Kluyveromyces lactis through frequency-dependent physical interactions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359779).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359779). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## population distribution
<a id="population-distribution"></a>

Population distribution is the way characteristics or behavior patterns are spread across a group of people. In this source, it refers to how different driving styles are represented within the driver population in highway weaving areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2ad0783c5f4761cb35d0c0b0c225cd406c758b677cc524bbc41f97ed49c582b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yuan Zhibing; Huang Zhenghua; Su Xin; Fu Peng. Driving style diversity in highway weaving areas: A drone-based analysis of population distribution patterns and operational parameter relationships. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336040; article XML SHA-256 2e50a89d3f4d5055b5e45e39d8afad36183fcbb208ee769ba6086368d2800654. “Driving style diversity in highway weaving areas: A drone-based analysis of population distribution patterns and operational parameter relationships” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336040).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336040). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## population psychology
<a id="population-psychology"></a>

Population psychology is the area of psychology that examines how individual behavior is connected to processes affecting populations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42b6f75764ada2da313cb718a13b2a45b9c300d2631da998c1380ceaa6f8921d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Population Psychology” (C18950).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## POR
<a id="por"></a>

POR here means patient-oriented research: an approach to research that includes patients as partners and brings their perspectives into the study process. In this forensic mental health context, it is described as an emerging practice supported in principle but complicated by organizational barriers, power imbalances, and concerns about tokenism and knowledge credibility.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae81cc1dbdc04fbbfcbb25242e108a3e2f0602fca5d7d19672f8c42649ffcd52

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Canning Christopher; Procknow Greg. Optimism, ambivalence, and opportunities: staff perspectives signaling a critical turn in patient-oriented research in forensic mental health care settings. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1810931; article XML SHA-256 3e847ceba36a5199593fbb0eab99957a13111717ef601c0eb3da886c906102ca. “Optimism, ambivalence, and opportunities: staff perspectives signaling a critical turn in patient-oriented research in forensic mental health care settings” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1810931).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1810931). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## porencephaly
<a id="porencephaly"></a>

Porencephaly is a cortical brain malformation in which a cleft or cyst lined by white matter is present, often linked with ischemic or hemorrhagic injury. It can be associated with delayed growth and development, low muscle tone, seizures, one-sided spastic weakness, and abnormal head size or hydrocephalus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c992f42d1217e486cc46a121987c57d88c4ff8182a8b30b728b04d67655d2bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Porencephaly” (D065708).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065708). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pornography
<a id="pornography"></a>

In this research context, pornography refers to sexually explicit content that people may view, with studied forms including explicit, BDSM, violent, and fetishistic material. In psychology, it is examined as a common influence on attitudes, sexual behavior, and sexual socialization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6b79fa3a377e3e4f61bb2a07ee2853c1dc13cb368ecca2f8a6ea0f0804917aff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Velikova Mariela; Terol-Cantero M. Carmen; Martín-Aragón Maite; Vázquez-Rodríguez Carolina. Attitudes toward pornography and gender differences among Spanish young adults. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1719257; article XML SHA-256 bc1f50bdb57a4319f9c165d6829556280882b78618974c1d1013a4c2d7966489. “Attitudes toward pornography and gender differences among Spanish young adults” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1719257).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1719257). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## porphyria
<a id="porphyria"></a>

Porphyria is a group of metabolic disorders caused by problems in the body’s heme-making pathway in the liver, bone marrow, or both. These conditions may be inherited or acquired and can involve neurological symptoms in acute forms or skin lesions in cutaneous forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 29b44f18cf4a6b7f2b4d7abdfeaa7fca8820074170b39c7c39e54f99f01fd73c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Porphyrias” (D011164).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011164). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## portal-systemic encephalopathy
<a id="portal-systemic-encephalopathy"></a>

Portal-systemic encephalopathy is a syndrome of brain dysfunction linked to liver failure, including cases involving portal-systemic shunting. It can cause drowsiness and confusion that may worsen to coma, along with abnormal reflexes and other neurological signs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66c4db44486026b8283e3ef29f13e8c75402cc1528f164b0efb7feb2104313fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hepatic Encephalopathy” (D006501).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006501). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## positive addiction
<a id="positive-addiction"></a>

Positive addiction is an addiction-like state that is experienced as beneficial or adaptive rather than mainly harmful. In this source, intense romantic love is described as a natural example because it can involve craving, dependence, and reward-system activation while also serving pair-bonding and reproduction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 928396ba20cf25bd7cc344f9d86924c8c1f05c3d6c2e0d50feb1989005d32239

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fisher Helen E.; Xu Xiaomeng; Aron Arthur; Brown Lucy L.. Intense, Passionate, Romantic Love: A Natural Addiction? How the Fields That Investigate Romance and Substance Abuse Can Inform Each Other. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00687; article XML SHA-256 4ab04a36fda68a0658965360b1c3475d9fe68dec8f491e39c350c5f38fc49486. “Intense, Passionate, Romantic Love: A Natural Addiction? How the Fields That Investigate Romance and Substance Abuse Can Inform Each Other” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00687).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00687). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## positive affect
<a id="positive-affect"></a>

Positive affect is the extent to which a person feels pleasant emotional states such as joy, happiness, interest, or alertness. It can shift with the situation and time, though some research also treats it as a more stable personal tendency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cac7e1a6129ff9de405b254707622e7a27333718d2663afff93e780be6550450

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Oropesa-Ruiz Nieves-Fátima; Gómez Noelia Navarro; Pérez-García María-Araceli; Martínez-Vicente José Manuel. The role of positive affect in the relationship between neuroticism, self-esteem, and emotional clarity in adolescents. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1717007; article XML SHA-256 769c36b111f5d6521f04434a0b21f2081202666ee1b010d964f292c982e05ca0. “The role of positive affect in the relationship between neuroticism, self-esteem, and emotional clarity in adolescents” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1717007).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1717007). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## positive correlation
<a id="positive-correlation"></a>

A positive correlation is a relationship in which higher levels of one factor are linked with higher levels of another. In this context, it means that greater maternal involvement in childcare was associated with greater maternal sensitivity and related measures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1d6142158a42067abfe2588e539392278f7923329f5fe95bcac1120396bdb42f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rigo Paola; Giannotti Michele; Filippi Bianca; Simonelli Alessandra; Gemignani Micol; Perzolli Silvia; Venuti Paola; de Falco Simona. An exploratory fMRI study on the association of parental involvement in childcare with brain responses to infant vocalisations and dyadic interaction quality in same-sex mother families. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03439-9; article XML SHA-256 ca0cc58c7f06459899c03fa7fd31b6b595ad135e69399fcd85aa6ee86fdc33c4. “An exploratory fMRI study on the association of parental involvement in childcare with brain responses to infant vocalisations and dyadic interaction quality in same-sex mother families” (10.1186/s40359-025-03439-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03439-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## positive feedback
<a id="positive-feedback"></a>

Positive feedback is feedback with a favorable or rewarding value. In this study context, it refers to feedback that produced stronger reward-related brain responses than negative feedback, especially in measures linked to reward processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 58841042b5ccd9ba43be5cf54aebcbfc7bea4a43d57955b68691ae692c9ae2a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qi Congcong; Zhu Jinming; Chen Lele; Tong Lingyao; Jia Shiwei. Perceptual load modulates the delta oscillation and the contribution of delta oscillation to reward positivity during feedback valence encoding. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1658756; article XML SHA-256 87a3b1de813e412b9ccb8e20b790b13e5585f8b63a756e2d7fa2fc28f28973a6. “Perceptual load modulates the delta oscillation and the contribution of delta oscillation to reward positivity during feedback valence encoding” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1658756).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1658756). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## positive hallucination
<a id="positive-hallucination"></a>

In this historical source, a positive hallucination is the ordinary kind of hallucination: perceiving an object, voice, or scene as present when it is not actually there. It is contrasted with negative hallucination, in which something real is not perceived.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b86ee6886f25433a9aadd724514bf15176d72f797b66cd85c82b4953fed92c8f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hallucination” (Hallucination).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Hallucination). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## positive psychology
<a id="positive-psychology"></a>

Positive psychology is the scientific study of the personal and social strengths that help people and communities do well and flourish. It focuses on how people can build meaning, fulfillment, and positive experiences in areas such as relationships, work, and enjoyment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7fde09e83162a445c63f2790223856ba28a7051aaed0b81670f29deb4566da2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychology, Positive” (D000080032).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000080032). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## positive skew
<a id="positive-skew"></a>

Positive skew describes a distribution in which the right side stretches farther than the left, creating a longer tail on the right. It is also called being skewed to the right.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9eabe981965cce4b5aa9fd87f59e14d3e6544fb9be867d38aaa608723fa1b3c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Skew” (skew.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/skew.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## positive transfer
<a id="positive-transfer"></a>

Positive transfer is a learning effect in which practice on one task or movement setup improves performance on another related task. In the source example, changing the roles of the limbs during training helped later performance with the usual equipment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: af1687a1061604e2eef71d14c92f52f93233183512d115591009302d9a9512fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brocken Johanna E. A.; van der Kamp John; Lenior Matthieu; Savelsbergh Geert J. P.. Using Modified Equipment in Field Hockey Leads to Positive Transfer of Learning Effect. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.653004; article XML SHA-256 4259f27c290d91362daf71a47bf67005210f7adbdc2a4e19d854baf47ac1bc8d. “Using Modified Equipment in Field Hockey Leads to Positive Transfer of Learning Effect” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.653004).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.653004). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## positive–negative asymmetry
<a id="positivenegative-asymmetry"></a>

Positive–negative asymmetry is a pattern in comparison judgments in which negative changes or features influence perceived similarity more strongly than positive ones. In the source context, adding negative qualities to a candidate altered judgments of similarity to an ideal candidate more than changing positive qualities did.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a479fdec53fcc086705673ce34a0ee58f17e9e254d5ee492ee596e0a14be25da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Falkowski Andrzej; Jabłońska Magdalena. Positive–Negative Asymmetry in the Evaluations of Political Candidates. The Role of Features of Similarity and Affect in Voter Behavior. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00213; article XML SHA-256 4ddfa7c218af13e89ae40da9f102977ad9f6d0b4ad52a049856d0e24db347a6c. “Positive–Negative Asymmetry in the Evaluations of Political Candidates. The Role of Features of Similarity and Affect in Voter Behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00213).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00213). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## positivity effect
<a id="positivity-effect"></a>

Positivity effect is the age-related tendency for cognitive processing to give relatively greater weight to positive than negative information. Compared with younger adults, older adults are more likely to pay attention to and remember positive material over negative material.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50bc34dfbe155dd327237f0bc71b9b7e40d473a4cc87f49246e67ab6157f1966

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reed Andrew E.; Carstensen Laura L.. The Theory Behind the Age-Related Positivity Effect. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00339; article XML SHA-256 7081382474e7c1a7d406605ea15f95d23b390e0ac3c10c07d4a129e91c66e36f. “The Theory Behind the Age-Related Positivity Effect” (10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00339).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00339). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## positron emission tomography
<a id="positron-emission-tomography"></a>

Positron emission tomography is a medical imaging method that uses short-lived radioactive tracers to show and measure cell metabolism in the body. It has been used to study soft tissues, including the brain, heart and blood vessels, and cancer-related tissue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f78e6c74e0f4a9ab8af3aa80ac4d1a5c2f74208536d86fe684a27100b5bbe028

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Positron-Emission Tomography” (D049268).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D049268). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## possession trance
<a id="possession-trance"></a>

Possession trance is a dissociative disorder in which spirit possession is understood as a form of distress. In some cultural settings, it is a common way of expressing suffering linked to traumatic experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9ea44e7cc1d0ffc4001fb28845975855b00ad269c841503a81a5bde7c47d142

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Duijl Marjolein; Kleijn Wim; de Jong Joop. Unravelling the spirits’ message: a study of help-seeking steps and explanatory models among patients suffering from spirit possession in Uganda. 2014; DOI 10.1186/1752-4458-8-24; article XML SHA-256 b8f6e3673e8af437d86a2b7c42661b21d10cb99828612df1f8c53fc931cdf4f5. “Unravelling the spirits’ message: a study of help-seeking steps and explanatory models among patients suffering from spirit possession in Uganda” (10.1186/1752-4458-8-24).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-8-24). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## post hoc comparison
<a id="post-hoc-comparison"></a>

A post hoc comparison is a comparison among group means that is chosen after the data have been examined rather than planned in advance. It is a type of unplanned comparison, and it uses different statistical tests than planned comparisons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 987232ba2d659e43da50f84fdf55bd1458b353adeb4cff714b93f981afbefc69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Unplanned Comparison” (unplanned.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/unplanned.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## postcentral gyrus
<a id="postcentral-gyrus"></a>

The postcentral gyrus is a large fold of the parietal lobe of the brain that lies between the central and postcentral sulci. It corresponds to the brain’s primary somatic sensory cortex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1832958fdc48258aaf64c06e13ee0c542799d2580704e17fa536f10f70cc84ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Postcentral Gyrus” (C33346).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## posterior cerebral artery
<a id="posterior-cerebral-artery"></a>

The posterior cerebral artery is a blood vessel that forms when the basilar artery divides. Its branches supply parts of the occipital and parietal lobes, the inferior temporal gyrus, the brainstem, and the choroid plexus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e1ef985de7a057d8442aca862d30c2fd5e119b41f7faf6dbd1dfdc323e80af1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Posterior Cerebral Artery” (D020769).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020769). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## posterior cingulate cortex
<a id="posterior-cingulate-cortex"></a>

The posterior cingulate cortex is the back part of the cingulate cortex, in the medial area of the inferior parietal lobule. It is thought to help link emotional processes with cognitive functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2ef22b56a48bab08c04a4dbe03006326c2a0f4acbbedf18c8e29a312d9857ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Posterior Cingulate Cortex” (C154778).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## posterior communicating artery
<a id="posterior-communicating-artery"></a>

A posterior communicating artery is a blood vessel on each side at the base of the brain. It is part of the Circle of Willis, linking front brain arteries with the posterior cerebral artery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53fe680a562d20e5312537dfff9c8655f3836a75012476fe2f27b02f8328eb59

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Posterior Communicating Artery” (C33357).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## posterior cranial fossa
<a id="posterior-cranial-fossa"></a>

The posterior cranial fossa is the lower back compartment of the skull, located below the tentorium. It is formed by parts of the sphenoid, temporal, and parietal bones and contains the cerebellum and brain stem.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b9341a6b5d003105e615f92a475a173fd7c13b238a11430779834ee335911b9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Posterior Cranial Fossa” (C33361).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## posterior pituitary
<a id="posterior-pituitary"></a>

The posterior pituitary, or neurohypophysis, is the back part of the pituitary gland where certain peptide hormones made by neurons in the hypothalamus are stored in nerve endings. When stimulated, it releases these hormones into the blood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e0dc6e6016627b8280bfc9a9b8cde8f81898608f787df689e600374321bc670

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pituitary Hormones, Posterior” (D010909).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010909). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## posterior probability
<a id="posterior-probability"></a>

Posterior probability is the probability of an event after new information has been gathered. It starts with an initial estimate, called a prior probability, and updates that estimate in light of the new data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d6c298ef96169703b78355d41e45732c2ef36dbaf51eeef65ea3831842fc52a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Posterior Probability” (posterior_probability.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/posterior_probability.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## posterior root
<a id="posterior-root"></a>

The posterior root is the back part of a spinal nerve that comes from the dorsal side of the spinal cord and carries sensory signals upward toward the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5f9b4c3efeb4374e074d195b192f80fc77c0e7dacbd5c76f17c844096a595770

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Spinal Dorsal Nerve” (C33590).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## postherpetic neuralgia
<a id="postherpetic-neuralgia"></a>

Postherpetic neuralgia is ongoing nerve pain that can remain after shingles-related rashes and blisters have healed, often affecting the facial skin. It results from activation of latent varicella-zoster virus and may follow herpes zoster involving the ear or eye.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3a04799c6097d805dd5d632e5066fe5b5a4f1c0d501fff41150f2e811be1e28d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuralgia, Postherpetic” (D051474).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D051474). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## postictal
<a id="postictal"></a>

Postictal refers to the recovery period after a seizure. In this context, it means a timed state after the seizure in which brain activity, blood-flow and metabolic changes, and early clinical reorientation become organized and recoupled rather than simply stopping the seizure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46e3fd8b89c361853192e404a823e68d99b8d04cdfff8875de38e010ed4390cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rybczynski Bernard; Maslyk Maciej; Maj Bartosz Wojciech; Pruc Michal; Niewiadomska Iwona; Szarpak Lukasz. The postictal systems window hypothesis of electroconvulsive therapy in major depression. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1889207; article XML SHA-256 c83f09fcd80433943e849f3bc8927fd81c95e996cb0eb149ebcfa3aafc9a3b4e. “The postictal systems window hypothesis of electroconvulsive therapy in major depression” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1889207).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1889207). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## postmodernism
<a id="postmodernism"></a>

Postmodernism is a late-20th-century philosophical and cultural approach that examines how ideas often treated as natural or universal are shaped by social and cultural influences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5514bce0a8c3281c197e595d4ab11a6b85a9d01a335614d6888a712ff23b7e81

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Postmodernism” (D033302).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D033302). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## postmortem examination
<a id="postmortem-examination"></a>

A postmortem examination is an inspection of a body after death to identify the main diseases, injuries, or other conditions present and help determine likely causes of death. In this source, it refers to necropsy findings used to describe common fatal conditions in sheep and goats.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 653f9e6ffea7fbc4178b9b6844d7cc7f532c1c98c7b2a9ae178395e98c15ddd5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lear Andrea; Sheley Wesley; Shanks Jessy; Whitlock Brian; Okafor Chika. Effect of age, sex, and county on postmortem findings in goats and sheep in Tennessee (USA), 2017–2021. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315680; article XML SHA-256 abffd9faee86c9d365d8cfda11f32ba9a964aab99e2cdfd5201636c0152eba40. “Effect of age, sex, and county on postmortem findings in goats and sheep in Tennessee (USA), 2017–2021” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315680).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315680). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## postpartum blues
<a id="postpartum-blues"></a>

Postpartum blues refers to mood symptoms that can occur in new mothers after birth and overlap with those seen in postpartum depression. In the source, it is distinguished from postpartum depression by being less severe and shorter in duration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e7110ddce2e9a90d5ac02ac56fb98c7e0ac90d9894d515fa71edbc810cab10b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Edinoff Amber N.; Odisho Amira S.; Lewis Kendall; Kaskas Amir; Hunt Grace; Cornett Elyse M.; Kaye Alan D.; Kaye Adam; Morgan John; Barrilleaux P. Scott; Lewis David; Viswanath Omar; Urits Ivan. Brexanolone, a GABA A Modulator, in the Treatment of Postpartum Depression in Adults: A Comprehensive Review. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.699740; article XML SHA-256 3a28090719cd49da1331df8649c4ab3ac604d62e069464be368be13c0e56e350. “Brexanolone, a GABA A Modulator, in the Treatment of Postpartum Depression in Adults: A Comprehensive Review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.699740).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.699740). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## postpartum depression
<a id="postpartum-depression"></a>

Postpartum depression is depression that occurs in women after childbirth, usually within the first four weeks. Its severity can vary from a mild, short-lived low mood to more serious depressive disorders, including psychotic forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b301718b16311357faa022410f2ac930261f1b5735f9010470724f08c3e8826a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Depression, Postpartum” (D019052).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019052). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## postpartum period
<a id="postpartum-period"></a>

The postpartum period is a stage in a woman’s life associated with physical and hormonal changes. In some people, these changes can contribute to a depressive episode.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 19e714671e71e1c71a5d630066b26867bd5aa2e23eae3ec3d5c1a6281eae4891

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 5e865d35b1103be91b52db38911aadcdf861e23a0de4e1b3e1eeb01399b987b8. “Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## postpartum psychosis
<a id="postpartum-psychosis"></a>

Postpartum psychosis is a severe mental illness that can develop after childbirth. It may involve delusions, hallucinations, mania, paranoia, and confusion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61801e0c45ab9796444c60b1a4f78a864f2f9082425aae30a77803df067e7f1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Perinatal Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 da7c7019e90c70c4e547cffa57eb80d317ecfea814e3e8f0f83cec7e04211841. “Perinatal Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/perinatal-depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/perinatal-depression). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## posttest counseling
<a id="posttest-counseling"></a>

Posttest counseling is counseling provided after a test result is given, in this source referring to HIV-related care. It may involve the partner and is described as something that can be integrated with discussion and provision of dual contraception in ART clinic services.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9994791702f5a53891e9a3ffa840499ab41125590c4dc9cd6534acf13a1987f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ayele Alemu Degu; Kassa Bekalu Getnet; Beyene Fentahun Yenealem; Sewyew Dagne Addisu; Mihretie Gedefaye Nibret. Dual contraceptive utilization and determinant factors among HIV positive women in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis, 2020. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s40834-021-00161-w; article XML SHA-256 af7dab1b2ace88a8532821bf111322a85f7c3409fdf4f0197c11f46c081f5f24. “Dual contraceptive utilization and determinant factors among HIV positive women in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis, 2020” (10.1186/s40834-021-00161-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40834-021-00161-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## posttest-only control-group design
<a id="posttest-only-control-group-design"></a>

A posttest-only control-group design is a study design in which separate groups are compared only after an intervention or condition, without measuring them beforehand. In the source packet, it is described as a static group comparison used to compare outcomes across groups after different subtitle conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9b6c9e3fd46583eb2f05f8aac44a889e0b7cf37177f6ea91d860497608ad5443

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Malakul Sivakorn; Park Innwoo. The effects of using an auto-subtitle system in educational videos to facilitate learning for secondary school students: learning comprehension, cognitive load, and satisfaction. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s40561-023-00224-2; article XML SHA-256 f0f07e98745a31a3b933a14573a3ed0d794f17bb16e807ff283cfbecaff5851c. “The effects of using an auto-subtitle system in educational videos to facilitate learning for secondary school students: learning comprehension, cognitive load, and satisfaction” (10.1186/s40561-023-00224-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-023-00224-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## posttraumatic stress disorder
<a id="posttraumatic-stress-disorder"></a>

Posttraumatic stress disorder is a serious mental health disorder that can develop after intense psychological stress from catastrophic events or natural disasters. It commonly involves re-experiencing the trauma, increased alertness, and avoidance or emotional numbness, and it is often seen in people exposed to high-risk traumatic events.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53ae9598b708e73b12da8a59116d6618200f25305beac3284c7d0b20bb2a4c70

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Ling; Zou Jiao; Cai Linghu; Qian Cheng; Jiang Hui; Li Chaojun; Gao Junwei; Chen Xiangyu; Liu Minghua. Peripheral blood levels of C-reactive protein in posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1839701; article XML SHA-256 8fa1b671328c6ef9c8b2b9c0c781e1363c96bd1a5f0b1ad466b33dbfbbf97a9a. “Peripheral blood levels of C-reactive protein in posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1839701).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1839701). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## postulate
<a id="postulate"></a>

In this historical logic usage, a postulate is a kind of assumption: a proposition treated as true for the sake of carrying an argument forward.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce452f29074757af6a438ee540519bc48f39ebdbf1b0282047891e6af0aee1ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Assumption” (Assumption).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Assumption). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## postural set
<a id="postural-set"></a>

Postural set is the idea that the central nervous system adjusts posture control from one trial to the next after repeated balance disturbances, leading to better postural responses and stability. The term can also include the influence of longer-term balance experience on how a person adapts to new balance challenges.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a28cdeca6f48f462dcff555a7105d89428f34ee2322000e4a0f246ff5629c620

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Duncan Carolyn A.; Ingram Tony G. J.; Mansfield Avril; Byrne Jeannette M.; McIlroy William E.. Population Differences in Postural Response Strategy Associated with Exposure to a Novel Continuous Perturbation Stimuli: Would Dancers Have Better Balance on a Boat?. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0165735; article XML SHA-256 564eba58d4a7a4778fba4924c47d904c238fcdeb8abff6625ba63c2cf89cd167. “Population Differences in Postural Response Strategy Associated with Exposure to a Novel Continuous Perturbation Stimuli: Would Dancers Have Better Balance on a Boat?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0165735).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165735). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## posture
<a id="posture"></a>

Posture is the way the body is aligned in relation to gravity and the surrounding environment, as well as how its different parts are positioned relative to one another. In psychology-related contexts, it is also understood as a dynamic aspect of behavior that helps people interact with their surroundings and communicate intentions or attitudes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70b72320e6880aed52a5c61ba9c67551f39da096c0d9dd72d74db0f6d37f27d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Andi; Zhang Xiao; Hagins Marshall; Liederbach Marijeanne; Hodges Paul W.. Professional dancers’ beliefs and conceptualisations of their posture and movement: A qualitative research study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339568; article XML SHA-256 34cb30c0ec42c674b0a7fa18f1fe8c2f2b542a78f10fb11b7cbcd34115bca2b0. “Professional dancers’ beliefs and conceptualisations of their posture and movement: A qualitative research study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339568).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339568). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## posturing
<a id="posturing"></a>

Posturing is an abnormal positioning of the limbs linked to brainstem injury. In this form, reflexes are overly strong, causing rigid extension of the limbs, often with increased reflex responses and backward arching of the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36e777c5a8baa2540bfd698d879a8baf6e933bd20225aad95f0c2fe86959fb7e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Decerebrate State” (D003655).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003655). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## postvention
<a id="postvention"></a>

Postvention is organized support for people and communities who have been exposed to or bereaved by suicide. It is understood as an important part of suicide prevention because it helps people respond to the effects of a suicide.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c2b4aa35861406f35edac5c44c11909955e0324c29dc557e10355810ce9921e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiménez-Molina Álvaro; Barrera Thiare; Costa-Cordella Stefanella; Rojas Graciela; Martínez Vania; del Río Paulina; Silva Marta; Núñez Daniel. Establishing core domains in suicide postvention: a Delphi study in Chile. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1840763; article XML SHA-256 52ac0ca8c38e888ae55c0f685596c92c2d1e9f35e3d3131feab45d3546fd398d. “Establishing core domains in suicide postvention: a Delphi study in Chile” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1840763).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1840763). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## potential
<a id="potential"></a>

In this mental health context, potential means possible or capable of happening, such as danger that may arise. It refers to something that is not certain but could occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea236cc128f3f1cdfb80326c9c5b470f437a8455c5eed64eb35416842a1144d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 26e67ff4f086c205fb75853bb73fb562d4a3adcbc6d53b78fdbc83f945b4f1ba. “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## potentiation
<a id="potentiation"></a>

Potentiation is the strengthening or boosting of a feature, ability, or effect. In this source, it refers to human self-domestication increasing or enhancing cognitive, behavioral, and language-related properties, especially the functional side of language use such as pragmatics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef2be9e094d4399932adb90f9e5d4e33373993e6aa2d64eb93e76627916cab98

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Benítez-Burraco Antonio. How (and why) languages became more complex as we evolved more prosocial: the human self-domestication view. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1499994; article XML SHA-256 a7b7a5f166ee9a6eb2ef0188b902bf27c53b4987a1d33171f4b40c13b1b26f9e. “How (and why) languages became more complex as we evolved more prosocial: the human self-domestication view” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1499994).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1499994). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## power
<a id="power"></a>

In significance testing, power is the chance that a test will reject the null hypothesis when that null hypothesis is actually false.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2687309813600e25bc6b5d557537d972f15c0b4cab563609582acb4b7ca63464

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Power” (power.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/power.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## power analysis
<a id="power-analysis"></a>

Power analysis is a research-planning method used to estimate one missing part of a statistical test when the others are known or estimated, such as sample size, expected effect size, significance level, or statistical power. In practice, an a priori power analysis is used to estimate how many participants a study is likely to need to have a desired chance of finding a statistically significant effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddf2f201e9e39cb22726bb57c8a6c42732ebaa54df953fad8e87f409daa1561c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## power base
<a id="power-base"></a>

A power base is the main source from which a person’s influence in a relationship or process comes. In this consulting context, it refers to whether influence mainly comes from factors such as knowledge or identity, with knowledge described as the most dominant source affecting the consulting relationship and its outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f42cb3c02f4a90154987c3be28a1801d217d8bf4ef36eeb3c66fdaa6690473f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lachmi Rotem; Ben-Hador Batia; Brender-Ilan Yael. The impact of consultants’ power dynamics on clients’ self-efficacy and managerial stress. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1515277; article XML SHA-256 0315234a662c8278dd946b74be3771aba65b592886d91a589c2fa67adc4e78f6. “The impact of consultants’ power dynamics on clients’ self-efficacy and managerial stress” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1515277).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1515277). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## power distance
<a id="power-distance"></a>

Power distance is a cultural value or personal orientation about how acceptable unequal power and authority relationships are. Higher power distance involves seeing authority figures as more formal, distant, and superior in status, while lower power distance involves greater comfort with egalitarian, approachable relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c84ca47d645b74d37d3f38fe6f269e8a8cd89c01d4120f6bf3866cd11b31b9e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Feng Xiaohua; Zada Shagufta; Alotaibi Hammad S; Zada Muhammad; Ali Kishwar; Khan Jawad. Supervisor psychological closeness and employees’ taking charge at work: a moderated mediated model based on trust in supervisor and employee power distance orientation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1731160; article XML SHA-256 07f6438e44b1fddf6039ecff560801e43578a657728c2f7aae99633bbc30500f. “Supervisor psychological closeness and employees’ taking charge at work: a moderated mediated model based on trust in supervisor and employee power distance orientation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1731160).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1731160). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## power transformation
<a id="power-transformation"></a>

In this packet, power transformation refers to a statistical way of modifying a probability distribution so it can better represent the pattern of cognitive test scores. Here, an alpha power transformation was used to create a model that fit students’ right-skewed mathematics achievement scores better than several comparison distributions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1fc43983421f99e33963da52ac0b9ac1363d48d0473922f5ba889cbec7e5ddfb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dugasa Shibiru Jabessa; Arero Butte Gotu. Modelling students’ cognitive achievement skills using the alpha power transformed Lindley probability distribution. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328942; article XML SHA-256 f33e24f9212ecacee2659ca80d5fd695feeaa46686da4d0ceb3eca5638654f89. “Modelling students’ cognitive achievement skills using the alpha power transformed Lindley probability distribution” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328942).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328942). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## powerlessness
<a id="powerlessness"></a>

Powerlessness is a state of helplessness or inability to act voluntarily. In the source, it refers especially to episodes in which a person cannot use the muscles by will, even though the limbs may still be moved by someone else.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e1ea87431c8ce53dae7f1ea39351127c061017ffe24c81d848d4a0ca4e29ea6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Catalepsy” (Catalepsy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Catalepsy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PPO
<a id="ppo"></a>

PPO stands for proximal policy optimization, a training step used after auto-labeling and supervised fine-tuning in the model-training sequence described in the source. In this context, it is part of how a system is optimized to improve its policy or behavior during learning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e64ee9e64833a517479e037c19dfbce839001cfa24f60505db85d65a428753f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [An Feng; Tao Wenyin. Contrastive representation learning for self-supervised deception detection in edge LLMs. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354894; article XML SHA-256 c8b122f11dba320ceef0983de3c654e7ee315b4ce22d9cdaf68555def7802c49. “Contrastive representation learning for self-supervised deception detection in edge LLMs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354894).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354894). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PR
<a id="pr"></a>

PR refers to a DICOM Presentation State, a separate digital record that stores instructions for how a specific image should be shown. It can include display settings such as labels, contrast and brightness windowing, zoom, panning, rotation, and other visual presentation details defined by the DICOM standard.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa32b885f7c00f70111e98071707e34db5f8b416fbcc6cad47fa968b3d89575f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “DICOM Presentation State” (C190587).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## practical significance
<a id="practical-significance"></a>

Practical significance is the real-world importance or consequences of a finding, such as what the results mean for daily life. It differs from statistical significance, which addresses how likely the observed pattern would be if there were no effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93316d7c74dd9e3b83e7f10d821e3c43409f7b7807b981db081616477d937e85

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## practice effect
<a id="practice-effect"></a>

Practice effect is improvement in test performance when the same measure is given more than once because the person has prior experience with that test. It is important to consider when interpreting repeated assessment results in research or clinical settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45422470964e7a6eea81740ab580641a31c79ad5438d833a85ee46838cee1fe6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Shu-Chun; Chiu En-Chi. Reliability of the Test of Visual Perceptual Skills-4th Edition for people with schizophrenia. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318148; article XML SHA-256 f82835ea53f034aecce347f2e2d60b0c861396a6b58bcc5a67caa4c950c06901. “Reliability of the Test of Visual Perceptual Skills-4th Edition for people with schizophrenia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318148).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318148). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Prader–Willi syndrome
<a id="praderwilli-syndrome"></a>

Prader–Willi syndrome is a genetic disorder involving chromosome 15, usually caused by loss of part of the father’s chromosome 15 or by inheriting both chromosome 15 copies from the mother, which leads to silencing of needed genes. It is associated with intellectual disability, low muscle tone, excessive eating and obesity, short stature, underdeveloped sex organs, eye misalignment, and excessive sleepiness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2d94eb49d32142a291fd34dae1160537b252bd95056801c24dd02125642a519

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Prader-Willi Syndrome” (D011218).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011218). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pragmatic language
<a id="pragmatic-language"></a>

Pragmatic language is the ability to use language appropriately in social situations. It includes socially based communication skills such as conversational use of language, exchanging information, and nonverbal communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a40c644250868d52e07594babfe2fcc6c9fde43346d000bd705487096f8fc92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Socher Michaela; Lyxell Björn; Ellis Rachel; Gärskog Malin; Hedström Ingrid; Wass Malin. Pragmatic Language Skills: A Comparison of Children With Cochlear Implants and Children Without Hearing Loss. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02243; article XML SHA-256 7cdb233ddf703cff9bc15129e48c3450cb4f4e4a48c42d67cf408c6e88b4b6b1. “Pragmatic Language Skills: A Comparison of Children With Cochlear Implants and Children Without Hearing Loss” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02243).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02243). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pragmatism
<a id="pragmatism"></a>

In this historical logical sense, pragmatism is the principle of approaching logical questions by their purpose: finding the general conditions of truth. It guides inquiry toward ways of analyzing propositions that help solve that problem and away from distinctions that do not.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc38e06be553017e7c2baeaf187c687ccec885dc89b1f2e3805770480400e8b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Negation” (Negation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N2defs.htm#Negation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## praxis
<a id="praxis"></a>

Praxis is a person’s functional ability to carry out everyday actions in daily living. In assessment, it refers to a domain of daily functioning that can be measured and may show deficits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c2c68ca96a1fb5230eecdbb555ac431bd72e53c703c87067114171644ef69b90

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sánchez-Bermejo Laura; Milla-Ortega Pedro Jesús; Pérez-Mármol José Manuel. Praxis function in the ADL Observation Scale: Spanish cross-cultural adaptation and psychometric properties. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341856; article XML SHA-256 039455699b9833f7e06dea4daeef5fa0c83dfa90f6a657ca01cde82be15e25a5. “Praxis function in the ADL Observation Scale: Spanish cross-cultural adaptation and psychometric properties” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341856).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341856). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prayer
<a id="prayer"></a>

Prayer is presented here as a mind-body medicine practice within spirituality and religion. In this context, it refers to a non-behavioral spiritual activity considered in relation to biological functioning or clinical conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8eeb8b9e04b5b6cb1cc6e70b98342380b9efe49bf7540db8df78e316e5b776f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Religion and Spirituality” (C15713).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## precedence effect
<a id="precedence-effect"></a>

In cognition, the precedence effect here refers to global precedence: the usual tendency to process the overall, whole pattern in a visual scene before its smaller local parts. It describes a bias toward global information during global-local visual processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e7e82f24cf820f09ac04c0390a37adf8baf963ba61149592545a132b9cc484a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sayadi Hanieh; Qarehdaghi Hasan; Pouretemad Hamidreza; Amani Rad Jamal. Investigating the effects of continuous theta-burst stimulation over the posterior parietal cortex on holistic processing of composite faces: evidence from cognitive modeling. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343776; article XML SHA-256 2d521008314a4782d5895cad94f6494ca65f245f203b15a50bfc86a23ba53dd4. “Investigating the effects of continuous theta-burst stimulation over the posterior parietal cortex on holistic processing of composite faces: evidence from cognitive modeling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343776).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343776). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## precentral gyrus
<a id="precentral-gyrus"></a>

The precentral gyrus is a fold on the outer surface of each cerebral hemisphere, lying just in front of the postcentral gyrus and running alongside the central sulcus. It corresponds largely to the brain’s primary motor cortex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7ce59bae142b122be4c61759d3c027596be4187882c7dfed7c18a57ac31fd7c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Precentral Gyrus” (C33393).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## precision
<a id="precision"></a>

Precision is how closely a statistic is expected to reflect the population value it is meant to estimate. A more precise statistic shows less variation across samples and is commonly described in relation to its standard error.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 481498e9f5ea5865c4520a13afe83ccafdff76f8a9393f3cb5a980d322debdce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Precision” (precision.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/precision.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## precision grip
<a id="precision-grip"></a>

Precision grip is a way of holding or manipulating an object using the thumb and index finger. In this grip, the coordination and direction of the fingertip forces are important features and can reflect neuromuscular function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f327110b730c536eeea21e8deeed7de65e90ff02b1f8325171efed7a5c32bd40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Wenjing; Wei Na; Li Zong-Ming; Li Ke. Effects of muscle fatigue on directional coordination of fingertip forces during precision grip. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0208740; article XML SHA-256 a71c7ede1109521d2112708ac3c09fcdac7ddf7af52e24ab10491a02e90f1bff. “Effects of muscle fatigue on directional coordination of fingertip forces during precision grip” (10.1371/journal.pone.0208740).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208740). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## precocious puberty
<a id="precocious-puberty"></a>

Precocious puberty is early puberty in children. In the psychology literature here, it is described as being linked with higher rates of emotional, behavioral, and other psychological problems than are seen in healthy children.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae6590d1c9f19723dba5314825b0f2c164800431b3ccf7f3d24d028ecdd0acc8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Di; Zhang Wenjing; Zhu Yaxin; Liu Peining; Tao Bo; Fu Yuchuan; Chen Yu; Zhou Lu; Liu Lu; Gao Xin; Liu Xiaozheng; Rubin Leah H.; Sweeney John A.; Yan Zhihan. Initiation of the Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Gonadal Axis in Young Girls Undergoing Central Precocious Puberty Exerts Remodeling Effects on the Prefrontal Cortex. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00332; article XML SHA-256 ed929ab7246681dcd3b30a838179f3aa2f2220570c37dbd15b953b3c3d2234d5. “Initiation of the Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Gonadal Axis in Young Girls Undergoing Central Precocious Puberty Exerts Remodeling Effects on the Prefrontal Cortex” (10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00332).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00332). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## precompetition anxiety
<a id="precompetition-anxiety"></a>

Precompetition anxiety is the form of competitive state anxiety that occurs before a sports competition. It refers to a temporary anxiety state linked to upcoming performance and is commonly understood in terms of bodily symptoms, worried thoughts, and changes in self-confidence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3be5ee023ed97e68bfa6bf799a9b3140a9ee59e85911575366c51a1fcf42a6a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liang Dongmei; Chen Shuqing; Zhang Wenting; Xu Kai; Li Yuting; Li Donghao; Cheng Huiying; Xiao Junwei; Wan Liyi; Liu Chengyi. Investigation of a Progressive Relaxation Training Intervention on Precompetition Anxiety and Sports Performance Among Collegiate Student Athletes. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.617541; article XML SHA-256 d7b68b0552e44ab751f8c2663710c0186ae7d98fb5ad53b73ba06f7fc10c25c4. “Investigation of a Progressive Relaxation Training Intervention on Precompetition Anxiety and Sports Performance Among Collegiate Student Athletes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.617541).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.617541). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## precuneus
<a id="precuneus"></a>

The precuneus is a region on the inner surface of the posterior parietal lobe of the brain. It is associated with higher-level cognitive functions including episodic memory, visuospatial processing, self-reflection, and aspects of consciousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc335e13018e4e5052139862bd8f2da140009a8e39632c80441c557fa51a4a3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Precuneus” (C112399).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## precursor
<a id="precursor"></a>

A precursor is something that comes before and gives rise to a later form or process. In this packet, the term refers to oligodendrocyte precursor cells, which are immature cells that differentiate into oligodendrocytes involved in myelination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5398419a431d757b5cf2fa7aa4f9eeaa03e844fbbf3e08efe8d227840a4a517f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [De Herdt Dille; Lefevere Evy; Brouwers Véronique; Hartvig Line; Geeraerts Emiel; Hsiao Cheng-Chih; Chen J. Q. Alida; Pinto Rui; Duvey Guillaume; Burbidge Stephen; Harmeier Anja; Knuesel Irene. Selective GPR17 antagonism enhances structural and functional recovery in animal models of demyelination. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354525; article XML SHA-256 020a90f06de5ec237b488ab825746395775e54c6139cf43a77aa8453855e630b. “Selective GPR17 antagonism enhances structural and functional recovery in animal models of demyelination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354525).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354525). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## predation
<a id="predation"></a>

Predation is an instinctive behavior in which an animal gets food by killing and eating members of another species.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c319417826bb95914099616e81e2b9c53d0095144b1c2fa63620640406e90317

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Predatory Behavior” (D011235).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011235). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## predestination
<a id="predestination"></a>

Predestination, in this historical theological sense, is the doctrine that some people are foreordained to eternal life and others to eternal damnation. In the source, it appears as the rigid Calvinistic view opposed by Arminianism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 15cba6b08e4dfd3d5d732f6c0dfd8ae3c4178dbf264b9a971e8f63413cdcef97

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Arminianism” (Arminianism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Arminianism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## predictive efficiency
<a id="predictive-efficiency"></a>

Predictive efficiency is how well a prediction model can correctly distinguish between people who will and will not have a particular outcome. In this context, it refers to the model’s overall effectiveness as shown by performance measures such as discrimination, sensitivity, and specificity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59f12823029947aa9ebd29ef8a8b15d9b6d59991d57b808bdf2d79a2e2df4518

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu An-Hao; Xu Bin; Li Xiu-Wen; Yu Yue-Wen; Guan Hui-Xin; Sun Xiao-Lu; Lin Yan-Zhen; Zhang Li-Li; Zhuo Xian-Di; Li Jia; Chen Wen-Qun; Hu Wen-Feng; Ye Ming-Zhu; Huang Xiu-Min; Chen Xun. Development and validation of a risk assessment model for predicting the failure of early medical abortions: A clinical prediction model study based on a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315025; article XML SHA-256 c2ab46d59d520c8ebeaac2b222651af125da103f19b852b4c4c274590d08c770. “Development and validation of a risk assessment model for predicting the failure of early medical abortions: A clinical prediction model study based on a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315025).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315025). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## predictive research
<a id="predictive-research"></a>

Predictive research is research that examines how well different ways of measuring something can forecast an outcome. In this context, it refers to comparing approaches such as latent trait scores and ordinal sum scores for their predictive performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7b4e0945a5c8921899601705894a5d9c12545af02166a79e15b51449d14a0578

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hentati Isacsson Nils; Johansson Magnus; Kaldo Viktor. Latent trait or sum score: addressing measurement challenges in the prediction of self-rated symptom outcomes in psychological treatment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1654996; article XML SHA-256 cfc870147a061e9549f72f4205e236c4059ad1ad8c0f5c07d9b73e898ee86bb9. “Latent trait or sum score: addressing measurement challenges in the prediction of self-rated symptom outcomes in psychological treatment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1654996).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1654996). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## predictive testing
<a id="predictive-testing"></a>

Predictive testing is genetic testing used in cancer risk assessment to help identify whether family members may have an inherited predisposition to cancer. It is used so that prevention, screening, surveillance, or management can be planned more appropriately.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97f2aa4c55aba10ecfa5f1204cb8ee4ff56b1eba51e01b3fce9a16d941428dc4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ow Samuel Guan Wei; Ong Pei Yi; Lee Soo-Chin. Discoveries beyond BRCA1/2 : Multigene testing in an Asian multi-ethnic cohort suspected of hereditary breast cancer syndrome in the real world. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0213746; article XML SHA-256 9a811dac92dce6c45f46ebe0d70caaf9ff6442f3e502d39792819247ad405457. “Discoveries beyond BRCA1/2 : Multigene testing in an Asian multi-ethnic cohort suspected of hereditary breast cancer syndrome in the real world” (10.1371/journal.pone.0213746).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213746). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## predictive validity
<a id="predictive-validity"></a>

Predictive validity is the extent to which a measure taken earlier can accurately forecast a later outcome. In this context, it refers to how well early or mid-year literacy assessments predict students’ end-of-year word reading fluency and help identify those at risk for reading difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b99fb9d430b481782815dbc186c7020297015f224e22c98faee752ae96ee8abf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alqahtani Saeed Saad. Predictive validity of early and mid-year literacy assessments for end-of-year word reading fluency. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327242; article XML SHA-256 c924d0c437c7d4e2f7264590bd435f7d051d3cdca96710cd5046430f85783dcf. “Predictive validity of early and mid-year literacy assessments for end-of-year word reading fluency” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327242).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327242). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## predictor variable
<a id="predictor-variable"></a>

A predictor variable is a variable used to estimate or predict a criterion variable in linear regression. There may be one predictor variable in simple regression or two or more in multiple regression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1391eb790906a5c74a128721dd4576c5dff1b26511a6ad46ff348bddaaf9f24f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Linear Regression” (linear_regression.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/linear_regression.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## predisposing cause
<a id="predisposing-cause"></a>

In this historical source, a predisposing cause is an earlier influence that makes a condition more likely, especially an inherited or family-related weakness that sets the stage for later problems. It is described as distinct from an inducing cause, which brings the condition into evident form.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7aac3695362302724d16a64cd50e81ab77a705cdda9d232f39a4fdb40fa883c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Idiocy” (Idiocy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Idiocy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preeclampsia
<a id="preeclampsia"></a>

Preeclampsia is a pregnancy-related condition that begins after 20 weeks of gestation in someone whose blood pressure had previously been normal, marked by new high blood pressure. It can occur with protein in the urine or with problems such as low platelets, impaired liver or kidney function, fluid in the lungs, or new visual or brain-related symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5d1a7fd271ba75ba5315b4c242fe7ebd0772ad679dba63b43357f79833c7c6fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Preeclampsia” (C85021).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preening
<a id="preening"></a>

Preening is an animal’s grooming of its body surface. It includes cleaning and caring for feathers or hair, such as using the bill on feathers or the tongue on hair.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2cf8f2ac310e044ec01c9a83195a52afc96b009a8dcdf5fcf24b2b32d4b255c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Grooming” (D006120).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006120). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preference
<a id="preference"></a>

Preference is a person’s tendency to choose a particular level of exercise intensity. In this context, it describes which intensity feels more desirable or appealing to the individual.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa302b03c66d23922ddd8b13d53a8dbfaf0cba3b979aef39125742ec1cc1d404

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rodrigues Filipe; Duarte-Mendes Pedro; Soares Rita; Teixeira Diogo S. A hedonic perspective on exercise intentions: cross-sectional associations with intensity preference, tolerance, and passion. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1891893; article XML SHA-256 3cd5ce573e5630dddcbf9de0a9cc907cbaff5bcff1cdd2017d6906804aa7e0d7. “A hedonic perspective on exercise intentions: cross-sectional associations with intensity preference, tolerance, and passion” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1891893).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1891893). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preference for consistency
<a id="preference-for-consistency"></a>

Preference for consistency is a person’s desire to be, and appear, consistent across their words, beliefs, attitudes, and actions. In decision making, it is linked to a tendency to stick with earlier judgments or choices instead of rethinking them when new but similar situations arise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9fa2b825a7aa1449141396648abcf9413f11a591102dc053f39611032b216600

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alós-Ferrer Carlos; Hügelschäfer Sabine; Li Jiahui. Inertia and Decision Making. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00169; article XML SHA-256 b1cbbd22e06a0b4545b2f07abdff8d93b363ccf2d178836a7cd1567e8cc5ec1d. “Inertia and Decision Making” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00169).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00169). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preference test
<a id="preference-test"></a>

A preference test is a procedure used to see which of two options an individual attends to more or chooses when both are presented, as an indicator of relative preference or discrimination. In the source example, preference was inferred from longer looking at one of two simultaneously shown stimuli.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 863eb2c106f132878321228fd88ec911940b1e715ca86321f43e30e26b9926ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Amichaud Océane; Lemarchand Julie; Cornilleau Fabien; Jardat Plotine; Ferreira Vitor H B; Calandreau Ludovic; Lansade Léa. Cows visually discriminate and cross-modally recognise familiar and unfamiliar human faces in videos. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329529; article XML SHA-256 0d1ce1cfcbfcba19d01e08b0dab9f770dd648bb7301dd95d915bfed42c728cdb. “Cows visually discriminate and cross-modally recognise familiar and unfamiliar human faces in videos” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329529).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329529). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preformism
<a id="preformism"></a>

Preformism is a theory of development holding that the adult organism is already represented in the germ, so development is mainly the unfolding, sorting, and growth of what is already there rather than the creation of genuinely new parts. In its older form, it claimed the adult parts existed in miniature; in its newer form, it says the germ contains definite material elements or regions corresponding to later body parts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a130e657590ce80246dbbdc91d27237cff9bf742e7687632683d70463e6c16dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1879500-1891500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prefrontal cortex
<a id="prefrontal-cortex"></a>

The prefrontal cortex is the frontmost part of the frontal lobe of the brain. It is connected with the mediodorsal thalamus and also receives input from many other brain regions, including areas involved in sensory processing and the limbic system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9d2e06572f8c9cdce4abad5f03efff5f0015d5f2fc190ed6807a302a13647dc8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Prefrontal Cortex” (D017397).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017397). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prejudice
<a id="prejudice"></a>

Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a social group. It can be understood either as negativity directed at a group in itself or as a more negative attitude toward one group compared with another group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d115558a0fd96166c170148b36e72fde9ba0e32ea28ce9b6c0001c57c7f820db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Thompson Jordan L.; Cassario Abigail L.; Vallabha Shree; Gnall Samantha A.; Rice Sada; Solanki Prachi; Carrillo Alejandro; Brandt Mark J.; Wetherell Geoffrey A.. Registered report: Stress testing predictive models of ideological prejudice. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334152; article XML SHA-256 c373fb30dcc6bcfec8aacf30588f3cc6fad8cbecd7df854a096c9334ee78a5b4. “Registered report: Stress testing predictive models of ideological prejudice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334152).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334152). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prelingually deafened
<a id="prelingually-deafened"></a>

Prelingually deafened describes children or adolescents who became deaf before developing spoken language. In this context, it refers to people whose later speech and language outcomes may vary even when they have cochlear implants and similar hearing experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5164aa212ea4e9f18c4d680949a5150b4ac1ffd852a85a6e384b818db6b2a865

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ortmann Magdalene; Knief Arne; Deuster Dirk; Brinkheetker Stephanie; Zwitserlood Pienie; Zehnhoff-Dinnesen Antoinette am; Dobel Christian. Neural Correlates of Speech Processing in Prelingually Deafened Children and Adolescents with Cochlear Implants. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0067696; article XML SHA-256 cf4249f3e44c1a9d7141760977f15148b5bdc62b84c60f0f9855752d89ff6283. “Neural Correlates of Speech Processing in Prelingually Deafened Children and Adolescents with Cochlear Implants” (10.1371/journal.pone.0067696).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0067696). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Premature Ejaculation
<a id="premature-ejaculation"></a>

Premature ejaculation is the release of semen and seminal fluid during preparation for sexual intercourse, before penetration, or shortly after penetration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 366597258fd3c59c73bf0aca1540dbc496eb603917867b4ab2ff7059b46e68a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Premature Ejaculation” (D061686).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D061686). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
<a id="premenstrual-dysphoric-disorder"></a>

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder is a condition marked by severe depression, irritability, and tension before menstruation, often with other physical or emotional symptoms. These symptoms are more intense and disabling than in premenstrual syndrome and usually end when, or soon after, menstruation begins.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b5c8882842acb695fdc60220e443abf2cc5ba623bbed26711efc2e660423f6eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder” (D065446).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065446). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## premenstrual syndrome
<a id="premenstrual-syndrome"></a>

Premenstrual syndrome is a pattern of distressing physical, psychological, or behavioral changes that happens during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Symptoms can vary widely, including pain, water retention, anxiety, cravings, and depression, and they usually lessen clearly within 2 or 3 days after menstruation begins.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06547f282a31bd7c32efade3f9ff86ae44f97b76b97ab2c67e16e72fa35382bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Premenstrual Syndrome” (D011293).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011293). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## premorbid abilities
<a id="premorbid-abilities"></a>

Premorbid abilities are a person’s cognitive abilities as they were before the onset of neurological or cognitive impairment. In neuropsychological assessment, they are estimated indirectly from test scores on functions that tend to stay relatively preserved, often using so-called hold tests such as word-reading tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7edcabe62a9f4d987a63006b0f097cae2e248495186f5e5f38d5a118db7932a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van der Linde Ian; Bright Peter. A genetic algorithm to find optimal reading test word subsets for estimating full-scale IQ. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0205754; article XML SHA-256 a3d9412d1660d22076267f12ee48d53832c0a845c2d7d8cc69de6555fe97055f. “A genetic algorithm to find optimal reading test word subsets for estimating full-scale IQ” (10.1371/journal.pone.0205754).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205754). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prenatal
<a id="prenatal"></a>

Prenatal means occurring during pregnancy, before childbirth. In mental health use, it can describe depression that happens during pregnancy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee929add0006feca0e3c4e4d45163dd1f92262f47a4f3af6c426365c5e0c6e4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Perinatal Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 da7c7019e90c70c4e547cffa57eb80d317ecfea814e3e8f0f83cec7e04211841. “Perinatal Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/perinatal-depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/perinatal-depression). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prenatal diagnosis
<a id="prenatal-diagnosis"></a>

Prenatal diagnosis is the process of determining a fetus’s genetic status during pregnancy. In this source, it refers specifically to non-invasive testing that analyzes cell-free DNA in maternal blood to infer whether the fetus has inherited a single-gene disorder, as an alternative to conventional prenatal diagnosis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac924c7b30607308d749d48e6a754cd92f5e1b9d8e69bd263fdc3358acf0c301

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pacault Mathilde; Verebi Camille; Champion Magali; Orhant Lucie; Perrier Alexandre; Girodon Emmanuelle; Leturcq France; Vidaud Dominique; Férec Claude; Bienvenu Thierry; Daveau Romain; Nectoux Juliette. Non-invasive prenatal diagnosis of single gene disorders with enhanced relative haplotype dosage analysis for diagnostic implementation. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0280976; article XML SHA-256 2744d2b5c2106d84b3fbef5e079836d512635a5fdc698c6da85697e38b276f17. “Non-invasive prenatal diagnosis of single gene disorders with enhanced relative haplotype dosage analysis for diagnostic implementation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0280976).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280976). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prenatal influence
<a id="prenatal-influence"></a>

Prenatal influence is an effect on offspring development that arises before birth, during fetal life. In this source, it refers to the possibility that differences between offspring are shaped not only by maternal care after birth but also by conditions in the womb, such as differences in fetal hormone exposure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 528e19d7e2c28073ecac55dbe3a7510fafadf1facca1dd63785808696ba69eec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cameron Nicole; Del Corpo Adina; Diorio Josie; McAllister Kelli; Sharma Shakti; Meaney Michael J.. Maternal Programming of Sexual Behavior and Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Function in the Female Rat. 2008; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0002210; article XML SHA-256 124c8ad943389a4bc699bbee3f19dc74866a4dcab32453c7f90b59b08f65dbe9. “Maternal Programming of Sexual Behavior and Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Function in the Female Rat” (10.1371/journal.pone.0002210).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002210). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prenatal period
<a id="prenatal-period"></a>

The prenatal period is the time before birth, during gestation, when a fetus can already have some learning-related experiences. In the context of language development, this period includes late pregnancy when hearing becomes functional and exposure to the mother’s speech can shape newborns’ later speech perception and language preferences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f42aa59af74ce46695cc84a5ca8dae9d5311b4bd6065182ae3c2a894e1dfe704

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gorina-Careta Natàlia; Arenillas-Alcón Sonia; Puertollano Marta; Mondéjar-Segovia Alejandro; Ijjou-Kadiri Siham; Costa-Faidella Jordi; Gómez-Roig María Dolores; Escera Carles. Exposure to bilingual or monolingual maternal speech during pregnancy affects the neurophysiological encoding of speech sounds in neonates differently. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1379660; article XML SHA-256 4b4cfc7b7b6eb81898917cf9aca1c3195c28412c285f4efc6dcec7963aa16dcc. “Exposure to bilingual or monolingual maternal speech during pregnancy affects the neurophysiological encoding of speech sounds in neonates differently” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1379660).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1379660). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preoccupation
<a id="preoccupation"></a>

Preoccupation is a persistent, excessive mental focus on a particular concern that takes up substantial time and effort. In this packet, it refers to an obsessive focus on eating in the “right” or “healthy” way, with rigid beliefs and distress when self-imposed rules are broken.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a9be502991f5abcd11148d413818d5773f12e51a4c4566895c781bd4fc6b5a7d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wachten Hanna; Strahler Jana. Multidimensional body image and self-esteem: a latent profile analysis differentiating orthorexia nervosa and exercise addiction from disordered eating. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08219-2; article XML SHA-256 35c28414f4bb8a9a576d0ba5b9b6f960abdeb95399242ee79470e1e9c3d2514f. “Multidimensional body image and self-esteem: a latent profile analysis differentiating orthorexia nervosa and exercise addiction from disordered eating” (10.1186/s12888-026-08219-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08219-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preoptic area
<a id="preoptic-area"></a>

The preoptic area is a part of the hypothalamus located between the anterior commissure and the optic chiasm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f048592dc7c9c1e78047a00322abde60677044d9dfbd1ecb8d6e1cc90163c8d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Preoptic Area” (D011301).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011301). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preparation
<a id="preparation"></a>

In cognition, preparation can refer to a readiness state in which expecting a stimulus sharpens attention and speeds simple responses, as shown in the preparation effect. This benefit appears strongest when timing or occurrence is highly certain, remains stable over time, and depends on the demands of the response task.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c0602e75f62faf078396c3f22d5b2899c8e50901b4c99727a78cffbc7f299687

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sahar Tomer; Makovski Tal. On the rigidity of the preparation effect. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1787472; article XML SHA-256 850aa239dc1410413d8cbda0bb8225ec14bb0ba937065ed81a1d92804675b0d1. “On the rigidity of the preparation effect” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1787472).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1787472). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preparedness
<a id="preparedness"></a>

Preparedness is the readiness and ability of individuals, households, and communities to respond effectively to a pandemic. It includes practical elements such as having essential supplies, resources, and backup plans, and people’s sense of being prepared can affect stress and other mental health outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: deb8ac2119a96bc70a0465113761f2db90e362a980af67be78701629bac95a9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vo Thi Kim Ngan; Skokauskas Norbert; Cheslack-Postava Keely; Hoven Christina W.. The relationship between safety measures, preparedness, and mental health outcomes in New York City during the COVID-19 pandemic. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1547178; article XML SHA-256 d605098773a222c8501ba3a2f08e5634a3f90de022fc6ed6cb6a2b13219c0106. “The relationship between safety measures, preparedness, and mental health outcomes in New York City during the COVID-19 pandemic” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1547178).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1547178). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pre–post design
<a id="prepost-design"></a>

A pre–post design is a study approach that measures the same group before an intervention and again afterward to examine change over time. In this packet, it refers to a single-group version without a separate comparison group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 60c5b0ce504ab354f9cc01d5bdcf2bb625fad0a9200c76d9af8f9959ae1a9c8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sinha Tanmay. Improving cognition and perception towards failure: a conceptual replication study. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1650136; article XML SHA-256 a4dee17291d81a60ab033881bf12fa90b89b91656e0f9178e653ce0458748c5c. “Improving cognition and perception towards failure: a conceptual replication study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1650136).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1650136). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prepotent response
<a id="prepotent-response"></a>

A prepotent response is the dominant response tendency that is most readily selected in a given situation. In tasks that test inhibition, it is the usual response that must be suppressed in order to make an alternative, non-dominant response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8d86f34ecbcd5a46163f7478cf7b380cf49a19bf54af8b503ca9e5821c01df0d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Angeli Alessia; Valori Irene; Farroni Teresa; Marfia Gustavo. Reaching to inhibit a prepotent response: A wearable 3-axis accelerometer kinematic analysis. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0254514; article XML SHA-256 3b6b92bdc3c915b010913d963e14d7a312c982f063b7805fe8cc68c752c0e248. “Reaching to inhibit a prepotent response: A wearable 3-axis accelerometer kinematic analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0254514).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254514). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prepulse inhibition
<a id="prepulse-inhibition"></a>

Prepulse inhibition is a neurophysiological effect in which a startle response becomes smaller when a weaker stimulus happens shortly before the startling one. It is used as a way to measure sensorimotor gating.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59462e84f30c3cf53656f26f275298773f2e03599d2ed815ff3537cdb089c671

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Prepulse Inhibition” (D065808).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065808). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prepyriform area
<a id="prepyriform-area"></a>

The prepyriform area is a region of the olfactory cortex located in the front part of the parahippocampal gyrus, including the front half of the uncus. It receives major direct input from the olfactory bulb.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 513994ddf2d48999cf139dda574722f3c2dddf2344741b3dd0bd1e4a7229a6b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Piriform Cortex” (D066195).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066195). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## presbycusis
<a id="presbycusis"></a>

Presbycusis is age-related hearing loss that usually affects both ears and develops gradually. It is linked to progressive changes in the cochlea and central hearing pathways, often starting with difficulty hearing high-pitched sounds before affecting middle and lower frequencies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f605b78d4b245a197c9efc90bf4953f4d9f78440274989c5541f9ee56ae4d919

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Presbycusis” (D011304).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011304). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## presbyopia
<a id="presbyopia"></a>

Presbyopia is an age-related problem in the eye’s focusing system in which the lens becomes less able to bring near objects into clear focus. It commonly causes increasing difficulty with close-up tasks such as reading, and the need for near-vision help can also be influenced by factors like viewing distance and depth of focus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cedbdefb34aee036d6828a36b18c6355ef40f69447c351a2deace05d4e744944

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ayaki Masahiko; Hanyuda Akiko; Negishi Kazuno. Sex differences in the severity of presbyopia with dry eye: A cross-sectional retrospective study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334117; article XML SHA-256 f2ad53e315e4f03d4f184d6d9d6400d909270b4ad46865b7c2e59d180ffd95fb. “Sex differences in the severity of presbyopia with dry eye: A cross-sectional retrospective study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334117).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334117). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preschool program
<a id="preschool-program"></a>

A preschool program is an early childhood educational program that can use targeted curriculum activities to improve program quality and strengthen young children’s academic and social-emotional readiness for school. Its success may be limited when childcare settings have unstable funding or weak organizational support.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c610aeaf06d4329f6fd2a6ff3c7c7d1a5fd9c7a9b45425209cc1dcf72f45ebf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hunter Leah J.; Bayly Benjamin L.; Bierman Karen L.; Welsh Janet A.; Gest Julia M.. Predicting school readiness program implementation in community-based childcare centers. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1023505; article XML SHA-256 bc8c58c12daba4d9409bab53267cff9e138db6e18fd71ee18abffecf5c514787. “Predicting school readiness program implementation in community-based childcare centers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1023505).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1023505). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Prescription Drug Overuse
<a id="prescription-drug-overuse"></a>

Prescription drug overuse is taking a prescribed medication in a greater amount than was directed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 021bcf98540949e3221ef2dfb28fdf373589d3cc26c3ec396e8aa47024ad37bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Prescription Drug Overuse” (D000067490).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067490). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## presentation
<a id="presentation"></a>

In this psychology context, presentation refers to how a person deliberately shapes what they share so others will see them in a desired way. It is a form of impression management used to communicate identity and gain social recognition, though it can also create emotional strain when the hoped-for image feels hard to maintain or open to negative judgment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ffac42e27449f00a093a87976d975a04704509ebfae7cc458456d5ce33874d37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zheng Weijun; Wang Xianle; Chen Xia; Weng Wei. The “Perfect Trip” on social media: strategic self-presentation in travel sharing, posting anxiety, and retrospective trip satisfaction with social comparison orientation as a moderator. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805325; article XML SHA-256 f8463a61bebfd2a1c577e65627aab6cb26774f2b73e197b80f3f3a1685399d0b. “The “Perfect Trip” on social media: strategic self-presentation in travel sharing, posting anxiety, and retrospective trip satisfaction with social comparison orientation as a moderator” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805325).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805325). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## presenteeism
<a id="presenteeism"></a>

Presenteeism means going to work even when you have physical or mental health problems. It is common and is linked to reduced productivity and lower well-being, especially when it happens repeatedly over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c19410b22394381d88439de7a7f0914e003081dce0765814c411609f9b10ed1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Noguchi Taiga; Doki Shotaro; Hirokawa Masakazu; Nishimura Soma; Hotta Katsuya; Iwata Yuya; Kouda Naoko; Matsumoto Shota; Suzuki Kenji. Estimating presenteeism from repeated smartphone-based multimodal behavioral responses. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354342; article XML SHA-256 bace57e2ba222052ef14e5da68517406a5d143045b1c1003564986ecb0b36cd3. “Estimating presenteeism from repeated smartphone-based multimodal behavioral responses” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354342).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354342). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pressor effect
<a id="pressor-effect"></a>

Pressor effect is the raising of arterial blood pressure, as described here for the increase in mean arterial pressure produced by angiotensin II. In this source, the effect is discussed in relation to central nervous system control involving L-type calcium channels and nitric oxide.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8f9b0155eec8a36f2c730bfc47d3bb7bdba33a4b8b16761d4a43c75c3d4afd7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Saad Wilson A; Guarda Ismael FMS; Camargo Luiz AA; Santos Talmir AFB. Nitric oxide and L-type calcium channel influences the changes in arterial blood pressure and heart rate induced by central angiotesin II. 2008; DOI 10.1186/1744-9081-4-22; article XML SHA-256 bd122a88bcaa19737d15a193fef51d0348f1be13b4444fc0951165279c67a6f1. “Nitric oxide and L-type calcium channel influences the changes in arterial blood pressure and heart rate induced by central angiotesin II” (10.1186/1744-9081-4-22).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-4-22). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pressure sense
<a id="pressure-sense"></a>

Pressure sense is the sensory capacity for feeling pressure, marked by fairly precise localization on the body. In this historical source, it is contrasted with senses that distinguish different qualities, because pressure varies mainly in intensity within a given end organ rather than in distinct kinds of sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 680b6165632789a427656f0549be0bacc2c300edfea31d21aa8c43683a39de24

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4336500-4348500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pressure spot
<a id="pressure-spot"></a>

A pressure spot is an area of the skin that shows special sensitivity when weight is applied and supported against it. It is treated as a source of pressure sensation, especially in relation to the feeling of pressure or weight.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb40033f5f4c522e8dcdcae01b0ed9b763aea1fc45523d946b17c96cae9cd375

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1921500-1933500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pressure ulcer
<a id="pressure-ulcer"></a>

A pressure ulcer is damage to the skin and the tissue underneath it that occurs next to a bony area of the body. In the source material, it is discussed as a condition that can be tracked and assessed from images to monitor healing and wound size.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c75637d90e124e68bf87f5cd0603feb2649b05ce435632723e56bda839f4bbf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chang Che Wei; Christian Mesakh; Chang Dun Hao; Lai Feipei; Liu Tom J; Chen Yo Shen; Chen Wei Jen. Deep learning approach based on superpixel segmentation assisted labeling for automatic pressure ulcer diagnosis. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0264139; article XML SHA-256 76d5c10394f5c90c8477cb4b026bda7c53454a94e735142ec99d64790cc3da1e. “Deep learning approach based on superpixel segmentation assisted labeling for automatic pressure ulcer diagnosis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0264139).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264139). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pretend play
<a id="pretend-play"></a>

Pretend play is a characteristic form of play in early childhood that shows a child’s developing ability to use symbols or imagination. It is linked with understanding social cues, language growth, and understanding emotions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9220615bfe445df7c0766a5f21d5908a6e7a3196cc792ab8355e4896c3beb7fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Smith-Nielsen Johanne; Stuart Anne Christine; Wendelboe Katrine Isabella; Egmose Ida; Roos Camilla Overbye; Væver Mette Skovgaard. The significance of parental mentalizing for four-year-old children’s solitary pretend play. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297671; article XML SHA-256 f08a62d3c92a88dea11a4c8660c1bdbf0f2366419281182f4ca7db1a52130c9d. “The significance of parental mentalizing for four-year-old children’s solitary pretend play” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297671).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297671). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preternatural
<a id="preternatural"></a>

Preternatural describes an appearance or phenomenon regarded as beyond the usual course of things, in the sense of something unusual or marvellous.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e68226b4ac89efc7a0f4b0159360b468ff3fb1ccb04743c91ea851e5db42cddd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Apparition” (Apparition).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Apparition). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pretest–posttest design
<a id="pretestposttest-design"></a>

A pretest–posttest design is a study setup in which participants are measured before and after an intervention or training. In the source context, it includes a training group and a control group so changes over time can be compared between groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 59676380a73cf74d0b6202f80fd1b3cf2fc8ebcabaf0de1700d5e5d1a795b9bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Danielsson Henrik; Zottarel Valentina; Palmqvist Lisa; Lanfranchi Silvia. The effectiveness of working memory training with individuals with intellectual disabilities – a meta-analytic review. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01230; article XML SHA-256 f7828d6dca2cb66856444901def35813cb41a34cd8c3d93848291f7a052846e5. “The effectiveness of working memory training with individuals with intellectual disabilities – a meta-analytic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01230).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01230). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prevalence
<a id="prevalence"></a>

Prevalence refers to how common a condition is in a particular group or population, such as comparing anxiety or PTSD across groups. In this context, it is used to summarize differences in how often these mental health problems occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 550361cf4d83f3fd2da840263e5735720469bb16522ca1e4b5a4136fbc980aa5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Masinza Basil M.; Abubakar Amina; Mukubuyi Joy S.; Mwangala Patrick N.. Gender differences in the prevalence of anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder and associated factors among adults in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817602; article XML SHA-256 cef0040fbfc66c2264abc445e370c45b59b3d8352d0b941453a74ee27b1c93a4. “Gender differences in the prevalence of anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder and associated factors among adults in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817602).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817602). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prevention
<a id="prevention"></a>

Prevention refers to actions such as therapeutic, nutritional, environmental, social, or behavioral measures used in groups or individuals to lower the chance of disease, change its course, or stop it from progressing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 608c9af024ea64f221130f11e16c96ecbb4ddeed2a79e61c225da993e9091c90

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Preventive Intervention” (C15843).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prevention research
<a id="prevention-research"></a>

Prevention research is the study of finding, evaluating, and putting into practice interventions for groups of people to stop substance use from starting, such as tobacco or alcohol use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8003ff12a4594846b03ca1a69b0993ef5ab78b505e74b1049938284abbae2a00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Prevention Research” (C15711).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preventive care
<a id="preventive-care"></a>

Preventive care is care aimed at reducing health-risk behaviours before they lead to chronic disease or worse outcomes. In mental health settings, it refers to support such as lifestyle or behaviour-change counselling to improve risks like diet, exercise, or smoking, with potential benefits for both physical and mental health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a704c20e48d88e601f571ac505e3612a13f88d99ec056f9bdadfc0a3b777ffa5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bartlem Kate; Bowman Jenny; Ross Kate; Freund Megan; Wye Paula; McElwaine Kathleen; Gillham Karen; Doherty Emma; Wolfenden Luke; Wiggers John. Mental health clinician attitudes to the provision of preventive care for chronic disease risk behaviours and association with care provision. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12888-016-0763-3; article XML SHA-256 545c6b910ff9cc6a254f356b5018f71510bf3c7e3dfc3430c4f103c54362cd15. “Mental health clinician attitudes to the provision of preventive care for chronic disease risk behaviours and association with care provision” (10.1186/s12888-016-0763-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0763-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preventive counseling
<a id="preventive-counseling"></a>

Preventive counseling is guidance or education given to help people reduce future health risks and support healthier behavior changes. In this packet, it refers to brief prevention-focused patient education delivered during a primary care visit.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6cb8f45c72d5f78f57eb443f391e5daefa5adb27b99c1693b4ff854ff771c82

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Arroyo Dylan Luke; Keyes Daniel; Abdulshafi Ghadah W; Jafri Ali; Hasan Hemica; Steinberger David; Dabajeh Batoul; Nassar Alice; Karn Anukul; Nkrumah Rachel; Dhanoa Preanka; Shedden Kerby. Brief interactive lifestyle preventive medicine video education in the primary care clinic: Protocol for a randomized clinical trial. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322244; article XML SHA-256 584c400811d809d2b86c9405c2d71b6864cfab3a0b016b12c4abeb8625961007. “Brief interactive lifestyle preventive medicine video education in the primary care clinic: Protocol for a randomized clinical trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322244).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322244). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preventive stress management
<a id="preventive-stress-management"></a>

Preventive stress management is an approach or program intended to help people manage stress before it leads to greater difficulties. In this source, it refers to a stress-management program for older adults built around shogi-assisted cognitive behavioral therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7369f06d76078e394bb2125fa5fd527f0ef019f08c9ae7a807e05c7ff3bd9086

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Furukawa Hirokazu; Noda Shota; Kitashima Chiho; Omine Manami; Fukumoto Takumi; Ono Hitomi; Ohara Aya; Nakao Mutsuhiro. A pilot randomized controlled trial of the shogi-assisted cognitive behavioral therapy (S-CBT) preventive stress management program. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s13030-021-00229-8; article XML SHA-256 f26fd012d5f51959a485113bfe15dd45cbefd91d4f2e6d528389690c71c74fa0. “A pilot randomized controlled trial of the shogi-assisted cognitive behavioral therapy (S-CBT) preventive stress management program” (10.1186/s13030-021-00229-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13030-021-00229-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## preverbal
<a id="preverbal"></a>

Preverbal refers to infants who are not yet using spoken language. In this context, it describes very young infants whose social responses are studied before they can talk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 78fecc1f4741cf8c43f06220eb284fba61579779bab7c135cc12877008ea2b1b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hamlin J. K.. The case for social evaluation in preverbal infants: gazing toward one’s goal drives infants’ preferences for Helpers over Hinderers in the hill paradigm. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01563; article XML SHA-256 27c225dae6be7ff1f955c408d43e998e74c545d8298a5885e4e331d3ca28b903. “The case for social evaluation in preverbal infants: gazing toward one’s goal drives infants’ preferences for Helpers over Hinderers in the hill paradigm” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01563).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01563). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prevocational training
<a id="prevocational-training"></a>

Prevocational training is a psychiatric rehabilitation programme for people with chronic mental illness who live in the community. It is aimed at supporting later employment, and its effects can be looked at through longer-term work outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 660b2bd2008a059cd23d3186af8b3f0d344309f2afb5f85bfc3fa88eda10729b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gournellis Rossetos J; Triantafillou Eugenia S; Madianos Michael G; Tsinia Niki N; Ploumpidis Dimitris N; Tomaras Vlassis D. Diachronic trends of employment outcome of prevocational training in psychiatric rehabilitation. 2010; DOI 10.1186/1744-859x-9-2; article XML SHA-256 9e8173701728b147ebe8bd57ad76a7c591500f5b73efaba4dcde156e542ffd28. “Diachronic trends of employment outcome of prevocational training in psychiatric rehabilitation” (10.1186/1744-859x-9-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-859x-9-2). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## priapism
<a id="priapism"></a>

Priapism is a prolonged, painful erection lasting for hours that is not related to sexual activity. It can occur in connection with conditions such as sickle cell anemia, advanced cancer, spinal injury, or some medications.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a7e10e80f355e0d8f5191bd46126dc08e3f9700d0ecc8768208cd1d0489e5908

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Priapism” (D011317).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011317). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pride
<a id="pride"></a>

Pride is a positive self-conscious emotion in which a person views their own actions or achievements favorably. It tends to arise when people connect a positive outcome to themselves or a specific event, and it can encourage continued effort and action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f01ecec347d34373860eea851b6114074f7f6fdc408dc3ccc254b89ae3a78960

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Greving Hannah; Bruckermann Till; Schumann Anke; Stillfried Milena; Börner Konstantin; Hagen Robert; Kimmig Sophia E.; Brandt Miriam; Kimmerle Joachim. The influence of psychological ownership on pride in a Citizen Science project on wildlife ecology. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345321; article XML SHA-256 a4294cc57ba190cc3329ed472e34099f44f5e574444c9af55636b1a0be0bdb1b. “The influence of psychological ownership on pride in a Citizen Science project on wildlife ecology” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345321).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345321). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primacy effect
<a id="primacy-effect"></a>

In auditory perception, the primacy effect is the tendency for the earliest parts of a sound to have more influence on judged loudness than later parts. This influence decreases over time, so the beginning of a time-varying sound is weighted more heavily than its later portions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f39cfc6e1cd5e939011f146c7ca8f5b02cdb2323fcf47fbbb40b3d82ec4f9f22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fischenich Alexander; Hots Jan; Verhey Jesko; Guldan Julia; Oberfeld Daniel. Temporal loudness weights: Primacy effects, loudness dominance and their interaction. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0261001; article XML SHA-256 c01f7a9ab591f8e1f0bc2236b0df35f7f6582c6b78ac907dae741dfda88b8197. “Temporal loudness weights: Primacy effects, loudness dominance and their interaction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0261001).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261001). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary anxiety
<a id="primary-anxiety"></a>

Primary anxiety refers to anxiety that is the main disorder a person has, rather than anxiety symptoms occurring alongside another condition such as a mood disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61cda4ff1c6fbe51020754ab67d2ef15445f17b99fdda32365864d9d017edc5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Yi-Chih; Chen Chih-Ken; Wang Liang-Jen. Quetiapine fumarate augmentation for patients with a primary anxiety disorder or a mood disorder: a pilot study. 2012; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-12-162; article XML SHA-256 bb5cc7b87f513666f3cc5cde59b848e9b89d7b50423b6f63e8e2cf37b8405ec2. “Quetiapine fumarate augmentation for patients with a primary anxiety disorder or a mood disorder: a pilot study” (10.1186/1471-244x-12-162).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-12-162). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary attention
<a id="primary-attention"></a>

Primary attention is a historical term for the supposed form of attention, or an organic counterpart of it, in very simple organisms that are thought too undeveloped to have a life of mental presentations. The source indicates that if attention is used in this sense, it should be qualified as 'primary.'

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8ef192d553d2901de8fcd5676e4b3bc5b2f914b21a9d2396080fb05c4c6414c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Attention” (Attention).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Attention). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary auditory cortex
<a id="primary-auditory-cortex"></a>

The primary auditory cortex is a hearing-related brain area in which neurons are arranged in an ordered map of sound-processing properties. In the cat, it contains distinct modules of narrowly tuned and broadly tuned neurons that differ in how they respond to the spectral and temporal features of sounds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 12b02e2eb0efc9d06e2e6cb63e39829345e1ce2f72379d222f32ad4e97dcc465

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Atencio Craig A.; Schreiner Christoph E.. Spectrotemporal Processing in Spectral Tuning Modules of Cat Primary Auditory Cortex. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0031537; article XML SHA-256 7de2b174e33664a26dee09d5f688f5875f27d55542bb787c17b9ef1edc1f8ca8. “Spectrotemporal Processing in Spectral Tuning Modules of Cat Primary Auditory Cortex” (10.1371/journal.pone.0031537).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0031537). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary care
<a id="primary-care"></a>

Primary care is basic health care for common medical problems. A primary care provider is the health professional a person may see first, such as a doctor, physician assistant, or nurse practitioner, and may also be someone with whom mental health concerns are discussed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f3ab694675278090e41e2e5ed0cf78b59260ed5b80f828998e735ed181a8b4e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Tips for Talking With a Health Care Provider About Your Mental Health. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 13e466c66c1ce891732ea22bbe016eaa77b67b36619f36703c1d3cd15b495788. “Tips for Talking With a Health Care Provider About Your Mental Health” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/tips-for-talking-with-your-health-care-provider).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/tips-for-talking-with-your-health-care-provider). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary care provider
<a id="primary-care-provider"></a>

A primary care provider is a clinician in a primary care setting who may identify patients at risk, refer them for mental health treatment, and be part of integrated care approaches such as collaborative care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 00e19a1318e63df259706ffd1935905c12d0547a12db46c1fdbd71a7ec56344d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wolk Courtney Benjamin; Duresso Biiftu; Weiss Samantha E; Khazanov Gabriela Kattan; Candon Molly; Oslin David W; Patel Esha; Press Matthew J; Buttenheim Alison; Anderson Eleanor; Pieri Matteo; Jager-Hyman Shari. Evaluating the acceptability, feasibility, and appropriateness of treatment engagement strategies for primary care patients at risk for suicide: a pilot study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897475; article XML SHA-256 4502f99f41b1008bec19a28464225f611037aa4a3da675d7137db8cf69469b45. “Evaluating the acceptability, feasibility, and appropriateness of treatment engagement strategies for primary care patients at risk for suicide: a pilot study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897475).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897475). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary caregiver
<a id="primary-caregiver"></a>

A primary caregiver is the person mainly understood as the infant’s first and earliest caregiver in early upbringing. In the psychoanalytic discussion described here, this role has usually been assumed to be the mother or another woman, in contrast to a secondary caregiver who is seen as entering later.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3650cb5c9b07e07a0dbcc07d40f02167878c97be628021b30836c8688c43bfb4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Karlsson Gunnar. The early interaction of the primary caregiver and the infant with respect to sex, gender and ego-identity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777617; article XML SHA-256 6a24b3fd2d41ad4a6cf7940f487a68972d012f31e95cbbf32fb16329c814b137. “The early interaction of the primary caregiver and the infant with respect to sex, gender and ego-identity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777617).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777617). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary consciousness
<a id="primary-consciousness"></a>

In this historical usage, primary consciousness means the immediate awareness of original, self-evident, and necessary first principles, whether theoretical or practical. It refers to a direct apprehension rather than knowledge reached through discursive or representative thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8906b46af6a254e6655edb88c787b252f55d247b6f49f6f3117f29f234c6b0c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Intuition (in philosophy)” (Intuitionp).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Intuitionp). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary coping
<a id="primary-coping"></a>

Primary coping is a way of dealing with stress by trying to change the situation or environment rather than adjusting oneself to fit it. In the source, it is contrasted with secondary coping, which involves fitting into the environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f2c2c14a14bbb76ead92d67da04b2b41841facfadc436429f956d1172b19f6b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [English Alexander S; Geeraert Nicolas. Crossing the rice-wheat border: Not all intra-cultural adaptation is equal. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0236326; article XML SHA-256 e3757308e7fd0705122535acc98852a507db51aa60374cc7113fdc102b7d8dfe. “Crossing the rice-wheat border: Not all intra-cultural adaptation is equal” (10.1371/journal.pone.0236326).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236326). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary emotion
<a id="primary-emotion"></a>

A primary emotion is a basic emotional system used to describe broad affective tendencies such as SADNESS, FEAR, SEEKING, and PLAY. In this usage, these core emotions are treated as meaningful predictors of how people may experience states like depression, fear, or social joy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: eb2e3dbf25fe187dee9b3103269c20887f9376092539135ed3e4e0aa0b56cfa5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sanwald Simon; Widenhorn-Müller Katharina; GenEmo Research Group; Montag Christian; Kiefer Markus. Primary emotions as predictors for fear of COVID-19 in former inpatients with Major Depressive Disorder and healthy control participants. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-021-03677-2; article XML SHA-256 59aa52d41278e0d708ab78440b1f39cb2158be8e02fb27bd2a5bc6a39b87bc02. “Primary emotions as predictors for fear of COVID-19 in former inpatients with Major Depressive Disorder and healthy control participants” (10.1186/s12888-021-03677-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03677-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary factor
<a id="primary-factor"></a>

In this historical usage, a primary factor is the earliest underlying change thought to start mental disorder: a disturbance in the normal relation between nutrition and function of brain tissue. It was described as preceding clearer illness states such as mania or melancholia and as showing itself first in vague early symptoms like restlessness, irritability, and physical decline.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1fdd8214b64e11af3bc395e9992505dc27a77cf5f4c50450fe85fbeffef84108

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-997500-1009500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary gustatory cortex
<a id="primary-gustatory-cortex"></a>

The primary gustatory cortex is a pyramidal-shaped area of cortex deep beneath the lateral fissure in primates, within the insular region. It is the main cortical area for taste and also takes part in sensorimotor, somatosensory, and socioemotional functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 91df984df17956d0d8fdf19f831ba508ec086411946a95f2d85f0e08e1235a1a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Insular Cortex” (D000087623).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000087623). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary insomnia
<a id="primary-insomnia"></a>

Primary insomnia is a sleep disorder in which a person has trouble falling asleep or staying asleep. The sleep problem is not explained by another sleep disorder and is not due to a mental disorder, substance use, or a general medical condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e991680a728a7694545277249d8874d9fca4cd740b31bb0262fd6c0658730395

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Primary Insomnia” (C34949).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary mood disorder
<a id="primary-mood-disorder"></a>

A primary mood disorder is a mood disorder considered a separate condition in its own right, rather than one occurring in the context of epilepsy. In the source, it is contrasted with mood disorders seen in people with epilepsy, although treatment is described as the same.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8470f838c1f8d5c933a1d53e3b7211b294c82ce9883e3d661acf56bc01d1435f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kanner Andres M; Shankar Rohit; Margraf Nils G; Schmitz Bettina; Ben-Menachem Elinor; Sander Josemir W. Mood disorders in adults with epilepsy: a review of unrecognized facts and common misconceptions. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12991-024-00493-2; article XML SHA-256 3f34431392900094f1476c1eb1478e6795a6a0bf0431a7bb8d18fc65c302dc08. “Mood disorders in adults with epilepsy: a review of unrecognized facts and common misconceptions” (10.1186/s12991-024-00493-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12991-024-00493-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## primary motor cortex
<a id="primary-motor-cortex"></a>

The primary motor cortex is a region of the brain in the upper part of the precentral gyrus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae50d3af0899b4c1cdb524a3a364c2db3d7883c67fe2e4c77673a7f25b1fa771

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Primary Motor Cortex” (C97339).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary personality
<a id="primary-personality"></a>

In this historical usage, the primary personality is the person's ordinary, waking self. It is described as being unaware of what occurs in trance or in a split-off secondary self, and it may later make up explanations for actions or experiences it does not recognize as its own.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 255b4c431dd2cc73172b303a75391e8c65d783c94083f3780b0a03dd98bcf311

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary position
<a id="primary-position"></a>

In this historical optics usage, primary position is the reference position of the plane of regard from which the eye’s upward or downward displacement is measured. It serves as the baseline for describing the direction of the line of regard.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c04d0e4759f33339ed50be4008300596d966ad2f61c0a246234f1ff26607d00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Angles of Displacement” (Angles of Displacement).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Angles of Displacement). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary prevention
<a id="primary-prevention"></a>

Primary prevention refers to actions taken to stop disease or mental disorders before they begin in people or groups who may be at risk. It includes health promotion, protective public health measures, and efforts to monitor or control environmental hazards.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ee939996dcdd08870b8dd7e7a9155467ae75df6e3d625ee2ae56b8b70d4629ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Primary Prevention” (D011322).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011322). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary reward
<a id="primary-reward"></a>

A primary reward is a reward tied more closely to basic bodily or physiological pleasure than to more cognitively mediated forms of reward. In this source, it is used to describe pleasure that is more immediate and sensory in nature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ccef4936305018c57e37ac6e85b8eda47e8cdb95ca4993ec8f0f03d92fec3244

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Ping; Huang Hanhua; Luo Qiuling; Mo Lei. The Difference between Aesthetic Appreciation of Artistic and Popular Music: Evidence from an fMRI Study. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0165377; article XML SHA-256 3e6a832fe09a594ea87a90c305a817b419265e499064e977ebad9cad6fc57cf5. “The Difference between Aesthetic Appreciation of Artistic and Popular Music: Evidence from an fMRI Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0165377).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165377). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary somatosensory area
<a id="primary-somatosensory-area"></a>

The primary somatosensory area is a brain region involved in handling touch-related information. In the source, activity measured around this area changed before expected tactile stimulation, linking it to prediction and processing of touch events.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1a0d76fc00957455a0bba1ac1022b395db8a6153877f3842b1966e15c27c7612

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kimura Tsukasa; Katayama Jun'ichi. Visual stimuli in the peripersonal space facilitate the spatial prediction of tactile events—A comparison between approach and nearness effects. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1203100; article XML SHA-256 c4c0f2ef43bc1aeca7cc77224f2b20d49440aceb65e35bdf3fd30cc699054b46. “Visual stimuli in the peripersonal space facilitate the spatial prediction of tactile events—A comparison between approach and nearness effects” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1203100).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1203100). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary task
<a id="primary-task"></a>

In this source, primary task means the main or central job to be carried out. For an eye care professional, it refers to determining a patient’s refraction, meaning the optical correction needed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 013a631eff5cacdde3cec3a51b1c4c15a25a5fbbccf27d6e9c66dd76a61e3173

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gantz Liat; Schrader Shlomo; Ruben Ruthie; Zivotofsky Ari Z.. Can the Red-Green Duochrome Test Be Used Prior to Correcting the Refractive Cylinder Component?. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0118874; article XML SHA-256 ccb0aa4be1526e46ee8c5f693cfeec13c6eb20f90e1414840007429c4c1ce9eb. “Can the Red-Green Duochrome Test Be Used Prior to Correcting the Refractive Cylinder Component?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0118874).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118874). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary taste cortex
<a id="primary-taste-cortex"></a>

The primary taste cortex is the brain area that processes taste information and helps distinguish among different tastes. In this packet, it is linked to the insular cortex and described as potentially having an organized mapping of taste qualities across its surface.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 94b87d18b3d3c7cf6784de3f5ab80ec9a2ab804eec38e7ff361be99286629c59

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Prinster Anna; Cantone Elena; Verlezza Viviana; Magliulo Mario; Sarnelli Giovanni; Iengo Maurizio; Cuomo Rosario; Di Salle Francesco; Esposito Fabrizio. Cortical representation of different taste modalities on the gustatory cortex: A pilot study. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0190164; article XML SHA-256 a3627e5fb3823ac55549f81917e6918a3561731f6b7dbc56f0e5b1cb23e68ecf. “Cortical representation of different taste modalities on the gustatory cortex: A pilot study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0190164).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190164). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary visual cortex
<a id="primary-visual-cortex"></a>

The primary visual cortex is the part of the human visual cortex located in portions of the occipital lobe and calcarine sulcus that connects directly with the lateral geniculate nucleus. It is the cortical area where visual input first arrives for processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb6651be333d06361b1714e0985b654add61e956fd8abc08f072a80d8b3a37ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Primary Visual Cortex” (D000087642).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000087642). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primary visual system
<a id="primary-visual-system"></a>

The primary visual system is the part of vision responsible for ordinary seeing functions such as forming images and detecting motion. In this source, it is contrasted with the circadian visual system because its development shows experience-dependent plasticity and is more affected by monocular light deprivation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83d9fc70b392cec6ca1e5fae8cfb535df3c006112872f1563d28bd8cc0417a39

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kampf-Lassin August; Wei Jenny; Galang Jerome; Prendergast Brian J.. Experience-Independent Development of the Hamster Circadian Visual System. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0016048; article XML SHA-256 377871eff47feb1aa65d0d91deeb5a6060944e5d79ee420e51c4b050f8f9d0ca. “Experience-Independent Development of the Hamster Circadian Visual System” (10.1371/journal.pone.0016048).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0016048). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primidone
<a id="primidone"></a>

Primidone is a barbiturate-related medication that affects GABA signaling and is used to help control epilepsy. Part of it is converted in the body to phenobarbital, which contributes to some of its effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fdccb32cb3097cdd336cb90e3a99a0903449edde0371a9acc9a752778217a67a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Primidone” (D011324).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011324). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## priming
<a id="priming"></a>

Priming is an effect in which earlier exposure to related meaning, such as a shared morpheme or word element, changes how quickly or accurately a later item is processed. In language tasks it often helps access meaning, but under some conditions it can instead interfere and produce inhibition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0508e8cab3d88389cea036f91b751594601fe177b5f9fdc60c9ae4dfb3e0314

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lei Qianqian; Wang Jianqin; Yang Xingang. Inhibitory reversal of morpheme-mediated semantic priming in L2 Chinese: embodiment conflicts in conventional action metaphor processing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778678; article XML SHA-256 0a8bbd10b3a5ed433482745771506c3511411136ef2c0e3dfde322a9c2e50ba8. “Inhibitory reversal of morpheme-mediated semantic priming in L2 Chinese: embodiment conflicts in conventional action metaphor processing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778678).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778678). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primitive
<a id="primitive"></a>

In this context, primitive refers to early reflex patterns that are normally inhibited as the brain’s inhibitory systems mature. If these reflexes persist or reappear later in life, they may be associated with differences in sensorimotor integration and broader neurodevelopmental or neurological functioning, although this remains a theoretical research framework rather than a standard clinical measure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31c7b2410ce64664fd733f0e43e00f4be13904037ae1c79eb94b75567e455ddd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stephens-Sarlós Erzsébet; Szabo Attila. Primitive reflexes as candidate quantitative readouts of hierarchical inhibitory control across the lifespan. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1860053; article XML SHA-256 f70d7dcfe72f0b3fa0fe76b77d1a026c46ecd33bb041ef744d4d418fe6f85332. “Primitive reflexes as candidate quantitative readouts of hierarchical inhibitory control across the lifespan” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1860053).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1860053). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## primitive reflex
<a id="primitive-reflex"></a>

A primitive reflex is an early, automatic movement pattern that is usually reduced or inhibited as the nervous system matures during normal development. If these reflexes persist longer than expected or reappear later in life, they may be associated with differences in inhibitory control and sensorimotor integration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: affb52214b13401e070ff37ed111cb5acacad97174888e6e5957d0e38e7496a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stephens-Sarlós Erzsébet; Szabo Attila. Primitive reflexes as candidate quantitative readouts of hierarchical inhibitory control across the lifespan. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1860053; article XML SHA-256 f70d7dcfe72f0b3fa0fe76b77d1a026c46ecd33bb041ef744d4d418fe6f85332. “Primitive reflexes as candidate quantitative readouts of hierarchical inhibitory control across the lifespan” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1860053).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1860053). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## principal-axis factor analysis
<a id="principal-axis-factor-analysis"></a>

Principal-axis factor analysis is a research method used to examine the factor structure, or factorial validity, of a measure. In this context, it was used to test whether questionnaire items fit the expected underlying factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1cd39eff11aa3992b1f63c36c51eabdafcb714eb49b20536fc43c73f7a970bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Atari Mohammad; Afhami Reza; Swami Viren. Psychometric assessments of Persian translations of three measures of conspiracist beliefs. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0215202; article XML SHA-256 ad887044fb02b6773597265d78d1ed9121a6b5d338262430df838c7097434763. “Psychometric assessments of Persian translations of three measures of conspiracist beliefs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0215202).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0215202). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## principle
<a id="principle"></a>

A learning principle stating that when two items are experienced together, they become linked so that one later tends to bring back or evoke the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd53807fa5744e88c320a86dbd5314405c09898358bbfb9a369d2e3d6a3da3c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Association Learning” (D001245).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001245). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## principle of beneficence
<a id="principle-of-beneficence"></a>

The principle of beneficence is an ethical idea that emphasizes being kind and acting in ways that are beneficial. In ethics, it means seeking outcomes that create more overall benefit than harm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: af19a0a16718149c2b90ccc871df7c459cde6eb75ce93911b30778864703309a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Beneficence” (D026686).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D026686). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## principle of common fate
<a id="principle-of-common-fate"></a>

The principle of common fate is a Gestalt grouping idea in vision: elements that move in the same way are perceived as belonging together, such as forming one contour or texture region. It describes how shared motion can shape how visual form is organized.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d9ed9e498264ab1664403621ddcd4baa7b07ba02c6dc1b07adeeaa3ba87b4d16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mather George; Pavan Andrea; Bellacosa Marotti Rosilari; Campana Gianluca; Casco Clara. Interactions between motion and form processing in the human visual system. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fncom.2013.00065; article XML SHA-256 b581c7befe361bd5753658e613eef4732176977ed2e6313e2677b1d80a9fcc74. “Interactions between motion and form processing in the human visual system” (10.3389/fncom.2013.00065).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fncom.2013.00065). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## principle of constancy
<a id="principle-of-constancy"></a>

In historical psychology, the principle of constancy refers to the mind’s ability to think of the same thing across different moments and to recognize that it is doing so. It describes a psychological sense of sameness in meaning, whether or not the outside world itself is truly unchanged.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 680e1cb4ef8591d9510c91a9a5f773e5a31ede94a49d5ceaae1b9988b1b3221c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## principle of continuity
<a id="principle-of-continuity"></a>

The principle of continuity is the idea that nature does not proceed by sudden jumps, but through continuous and orderly natural processes. In historical psychological and philosophical usage, it refers to the uniformity of how natural operations unfold, and it took on added significance with evolutionary thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abc48c0eb36961a059149809bbe6b49a3ad9c217c7ec8abb4adbf98d71b7a944

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Natura non facit saltum” (Natura non facit saltum).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N1defs.htm#Natura non facit saltum). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## principle of double effect
<a id="principle-of-double-effect"></a>

An ethics principle used to judge whether an act aimed at a beneficial goal can still be morally allowed when the person foresees it will also cause harm. It permits such an act only when the act itself is not inherently wrong, the harm is not the aim, the benefit does not come from the harm, and the expected benefit is substantial enough to justify the harmful side effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e4657d8751e440b732cb4239ffd4af546396a41ec04efe6f7486f7f1c3e886d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Double Effect Principle” (D034723).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D034723). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## principle of economy
<a id="principle-of-economy"></a>

In this historical aesthetic sense, the principle of economy is the view that something is beautiful or artistically effective when it contains only what is essential and leaves out anything unnecessary. It also came to be linked with the idea that what avoids wasted effort or energy can appear more graceful or pleasing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86d526fa51c61b363f9528debaf1bb33c6fcdb9bbc75b085299baf8d6fae9285

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Economy (in aesthetics)” (Economy (in aesthetics)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Economy (in aesthetics)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## principle of least effort
<a id="principle-of-least-effort"></a>

The principle of least effort is the idea that communication tends to be organized to reduce unnecessary cognitive work while still getting the message across. In the packet’s example, when one cue such as word order already makes relationships clear, adding extra structural marking would be inefficient, but extra cues are used when they help prevent ambiguity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d583a30c023628c808c27cf4daaff72054499ae0b6de4879903909133dc748a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Koplenig Alexander; Meyer Peter; Wolfer Sascha; Müller-Spitzer Carolin. The statistical trade-off between word order and word structure – Large-scale evidence for the principle of least effort. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0173614; article XML SHA-256 52138c2255cf787f7e95b2ac74eae4565aaec31f6132294ec3d457526c22e637. “The statistical trade-off between word order and word structure – Large-scale evidence for the principle of least effort” (10.1371/journal.pone.0173614).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0173614). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## principle of nonmaleficence
<a id="principle-of-nonmaleficence"></a>

The principle of nonmaleficence is an ethical principle in biomedical ethics that requires avoiding harm. In the health care context described here, it means there is an obligation to ensure patient safety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53d36e7f2bfdee169897dc8862f84ac1b53590b3ac1577511397d402c628c3c4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Raus Kasper; Mortier Eric; Eeckloo Kristof. The patient perspective in health care networks. 2018; DOI 10.1186/s12910-018-0298-x; article XML SHA-256 396b2e1a77a5f9bd9626665af42e592cea38948d3aa4930353dc66bdd0f159a5. “The patient perspective in health care networks” (10.1186/s12910-018-0298-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-018-0298-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## principle of parsimony
<a id="principle-of-parsimony"></a>

In this historical logical-psychological usage, the principle of parsimony is the idea that a sentence needs only one term to carry its reference to reality or objectivity. Stating that reference again in the predicate or other elements is treated as unnecessary repetition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48af526790dbe172c4615e66cb2baa5121b0eaa54ff71b4a83398fadfae417b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2079000-2091000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## principle of similarity
<a id="principle-of-similarity"></a>

In this historical source, the principle of similarity means giving the same punishment for the same offence on the assumption that offenders are alike. The passage argues that, because offenders differ greatly in their bodily, mental, and social conditions, this principle is unfair and does not work well in practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5fd64eb1f0cd058f63e818b49a3bbb8131c791853fadeb8276197a77f123b2a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2257500-2269500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prion
<a id="prion"></a>

A prion is a transmissible abnormal form of a normal host protein produced by a structural change in that protein. When it builds up in the central nervous system, it can cause fatal neurodegenerative disease classified as a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c003fa7080a3617ea3af633425989057f22ce13fa0b0de1bfa97c6297f63c26

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Takeoka Chisho; Yada Tetsushi; Yamazaki Toshimasa; Kuroiwa Yoshiyuki; Hirai Toshiaki; Fujino Kimihiro; Mizusawa Hidehiro; Takao Masaki; Terao Yasuo; Yamada Masahito. Classification of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease based on resting state scalp-recorded electroencephalogram-derived indices. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355367; article XML SHA-256 3ec18067115fde2b1040301c6a3c266386c05405851939bc0b506e9aaf56dd1d. “Classification of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease based on resting state scalp-recorded electroencephalogram-derived indices” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355367).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355367). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prion disease
<a id="prion-disease"></a>

Prion disease is a group of degenerative disorders of the nervous system in humans and animals linked to abnormal prions. They may arise through genetic, infectious, or sporadic causes and in humans commonly involve dementia, problems with coordination, and a fatal course.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e2743f36c7a3f15f60f7b0ac3923350d1816c6e0a315cd9ed5129122a28a28c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Prion Diseases” (D017096).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017096). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prior distribution
<a id="prior-distribution"></a>

A prior distribution is the brain’s learned expectation about how likely different task outcomes are before current sensory information is taken into account. In Bayesian estimation, this expectation is combined with incoming sensory signals to reduce the impact of sensory noise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6fd591ab7f95d7101d175517bea75ab944daf572daa0e8f413e99bceb8e48aa4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nagai Yasuhito; Suzuki Mayu; Miyazaki Makoto; Kitazawa Shigeru. Acquisition of Multiple Prior Distributions in Tactile Temporal Order Judgment. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00276; article XML SHA-256 9ee452764ce83b7b4a4cc1ed30b91507fb1bdb46fea67c196dd38013903932f7. “Acquisition of Multiple Prior Distributions in Tactile Temporal Order Judgment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00276).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00276). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prior entry
<a id="prior-entry"></a>

Prior entry is the idea that attention makes an attended stimulus reach perceptual processing, including awareness, sooner than an unattended stimulus. It has been used to explain why two nearly simultaneous events may be experienced in the wrong temporal order.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b717e427f8c5030c9812f143fe7b1ff2ac6663e98b05fb1d24b3162d1b530380

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Weiß Katharina; Hilkenmeier Frederic; Scharlau Ingrid. Attention and the Speed of Information Processing: Posterior Entry for Unattended Stimuli Instead of Prior Entry for Attended Stimuli. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0054257; article XML SHA-256 20806f5e555b90d1633945d750808515614e70bedc43614000d66247861407da. “Attention and the Speed of Information Processing: Posterior Entry for Unattended Stimuli Instead of Prior Entry for Attended Stimuli” (10.1371/journal.pone.0054257).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0054257). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prior probability
<a id="prior-probability"></a>

Prior probability is the estimated chance that an event is true before any new data are collected. It serves as the starting probability and can be revised after new information becomes available.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d183bef5cf90c9b8786f5b60a359b6dcd20c318da7d7190fb84ad3286f361861

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Prior Probability” (prior_probability.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/prior_probability.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prisoner’s dilemma
<a id="prisoners-dilemma"></a>

Prisoner’s dilemma is a game model widely used to represent competition among self-interested individuals. In this context, it is used to study how choices such as cooperation or defection develop over time in a population.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1dddf4e2fb7302cd0793eeaa94cda08c89a23cfd2249197b8159e1c5d64aee57

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shi Zhenyu; Wei Wei; Feng Xiangnan; Li Xing; Zheng Zhiming. Dynamic aspiration based on Win-Stay-Lose-Learn rule in spatial prisoner’s dilemma game. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0244814; article XML SHA-256 bbdec92929870549db69860b74a138f786f3ac3062ca9200c3eb9aba81f4f054. “Dynamic aspiration based on Win-Stay-Lose-Learn rule in spatial prisoner’s dilemma game” (10.1371/journal.pone.0244814).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244814). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## privacy
<a id="privacy"></a>

Privacy is the protection of a person’s personal information from being shared, sold, given away, or transferred to others except when legally required.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 103027c45f775f604fdf885defb8de030f25622803e5fa98e92f2919a12f9b6b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Website Policies. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 1a399709d182fd35c8604c702a33cbd97e54058d3de6946a8ad9da2f3b14157b. “Website Policies” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/reprinting-and-reusing-nimh-publications).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/reprinting-and-reusing-nimh-publications). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## private self
<a id="private-self"></a>

In this historical usage, the private self is the individual, personal self as one thinks of oneself in one’s own separate experience. It is contrasted with a higher or more general ethical self, so the private self is only one part of the full idea of personality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4378d87bc7f49390e7b077a68c8185ae58419e81f1a91b9fa77604d06cfb6eec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2614500-2626500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## private self-consciousness
<a id="private-self-consciousness"></a>

Private self-consciousness is a self-reflection trait involving attention to and examination of one’s own thoughts. In this study context, it refers to inward-focused reflection on mental life rather than on appearance or other people’s views.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01e921919e713481e81467e7f6c6d783bb02b27f85e0912f4cd3733fa8967ec2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Raoul Lisa; Grosbras Marie-Hélène. Psychometric network analysis reveals how sensory processing relates to self-reflection traits in adolescence. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335259; article XML SHA-256 41a981e93a687356d8c2d9f9bcd39e5fe97cfb99203bb19ebc649c5ad1be37dc. “Psychometric network analysis reveals how sensory processing relates to self-reflection traits in adolescence” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335259).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335259). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## private speech
<a id="private-speech"></a>

Private speech is a kind of speech described as emerging from social speech and, in turn, contributing to the development of inner speech. In this account, it sits between outward social communication and fully internal speech.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44272fdd6ba8a0cf33d795d90979a5377962af4143cd190f3281c0d48601f875

Sources:
- Drafting source: [O’Connor Sean. The Natural Selection of Private and Inner Speech. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00163; article XML SHA-256 5b5f0bccf240f34da0de1ba0807c7c0eb963edef7af74098fe3910a5e37dc515. “The Natural Selection of Private and Inner Speech” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00163).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00163). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## privation
<a id="privation"></a>

In this historical logical usage, privation is the absence or loss of a habit or capacity that would normally be present. Baldwin illustrates it as an opposition between a state such as sight and its lack, such as blindness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 88b28a9e8a206c2d294ddfd9280f84ffc39bf31b6f9d7171730a110d35fc1dc0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Opposition (in logic)” (Opposition (in logic)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Opposition (in logic)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## privilege
<a id="privilege"></a>

In this context, privilege means something granted at others’ discretion rather than recognized as a right. The source uses it to contrast optional accommodations with rights-based supports for autistic adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38aad6266bb2434b4a1d9b63bdacf9a8a7becfd2eec8ef470d9049a5a8defc7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ruttenberg David. Multimodal evidence and technology−enabled accommodations for autistic adults: an evidential framework for autism research and practice. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1852731; article XML SHA-256 9fa6f4faf63b205c943765683c3639bec2b5036220166057c5ab49e40651021e. “Multimodal evidence and technology−enabled accommodations for autistic adults: an evidential framework for autism research and practice” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1852731).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1852731). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## privileged access
<a id="privileged-access"></a>

In this context, privileged access means that certain social signals, especially interactive gestures, enter and influence a person’s perceptual and motor systems more readily than other gestures. This stronger access appears as an automatic tendency to prepare a response, even when the gesture is not relevant to the task at hand.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 069e2cc47b47d6c7b4d091fa6988a2f007cccc7273a4208234b5bea210c96bfa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Curioni Arianna; Knoblich Gunther Klaus; Sebanz Natalie; Sacheli Lucia Maria. The engaging nature of interactive gestures. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0232128; article XML SHA-256 e592278bf141db3775ddcc0c3d3627aba87baa15497a5ca6ddb1271fb89acab7. “The engaging nature of interactive gestures” (10.1371/journal.pone.0232128).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232128). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pro-choice
<a id="pro-choice"></a>

Pro-choice refers to supporting the legal right to have an abortion. In this source, it describes a more favorable attitude toward abortion rights and the right to an abortion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6323a7372dde9f640bfffeb66efaf42e987575d2e811332de435465c58d47b2d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rainey Carlisle; Jackson Robert A. Does support for the legal right to an abortion differ across generations in the United States?. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341223; article XML SHA-256 8ea6430020162c932140d528096ee2cf6ee095b3ff4d355f34d9c8a1ec5ebc35. “Does support for the legal right to an abortion differ across generations in the United States?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341223).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341223). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proactive coping
<a id="proactive-coping"></a>

Proactive coping is a future-focused, self-initiated form of problem-focused coping in which a person takes action in advance to prevent stress or handle likely future stressors more successfully. It involves trying to strengthen one’s ability to manage situations and, when possible, change the environment before problems fully develop.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c84ccfa8928e1ce0f86cbd1f20245598d9aca77d2fade0753d93b5026083f12

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ślebarska Katarzyna; Soucek Roman. Change of organizational newcomers’ unmet expectations: Does proactive coping matter?. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243234; article XML SHA-256 a05df86f20983126b93665f93763000b16e74e6d3d71ba0f11c847b8d665c099. “Change of organizational newcomers’ unmet expectations: Does proactive coping matter?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243234).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243234). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## probability
<a id="probability"></a>

Probability is the study of random or chance events, or the numerical likelihood described by how often such events occur relative to all opportunities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fc8519a5549e59df39cb20df9039beb149df1ac6187f1716d2da1004c066b2e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Probability” (D011336).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011336). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## probability density function
<a id="probability-density-function"></a>

A probability density function is a mathematical rule for a continuous random variable that lets you find the probability of getting values within an interval, since a single exact value has zero probability. Its values are never negative, and over the full distribution the total probability adds up to 1.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5ef9ea3140bd4dc851bfffec005e6483b028761acb2170bfce75a256d241c2b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Probability Density” (probability_density.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/probability_density.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## probability distribution
<a id="probability-distribution"></a>

A probability distribution shows how likely each possible outcome is for a discrete random variable. Together, the probabilities for all possible outcomes add up to 1.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0c52632195c80ab29b13052f92a24c66274040f0d6d78064a5977de17f06746

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Probability Distribution” (probability_distribution.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/probability_distribution.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## probability learning
<a id="probability-learning"></a>

Probability learning is the use of probability-based mathematical models to predict how people learn to perform tasks from their pattern of responses. It can also mean the observed frequency with which different responses occur in a study.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7b1b4720cfb8167d0be7124e1d7d743ac73303842ff90df44f4bdad1776aeb16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Probability Learning” (D011337).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011337). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## probability level
<a id="probability-level"></a>

Probability level is the preset p-value used in statistical analysis to decide whether a study result is unlikely to be due to chance. In this study, the probability level was set at less than 0.05.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3ca84a834d173e6578dec98bcf31448a4e6319bf3fe2412a7ac10a08c2e6f243

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Grajek Mateusz; Olszewski Łukasz; Krupa-Kotara Karolina; Białek-Dratwa Agnieszka; Sas-Nowosielski Krzysztof. Selected Behaviors and Addiction Risk Among Users of Urban Multimedia Games. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.862891; article XML SHA-256 e44dbaa2ab83a8c51f2e2dc2fb0a8d8aa219b9b879fe6dbfa398ed4678be045e. “Selected Behaviors and Addiction Risk Among Users of Urban Multimedia Games” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.862891).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.862891). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## probability sampling
<a id="probability-sampling"></a>

Probability sampling is a sampling approach commonly used in quantitative research, contrasted with purposive sampling in qualitative work. Rather than choosing participants because they are especially informative about a topic, it relies on selection by probability-based methods such as random sampling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 069e7242c5eeb3c76e0b94d0c68766adf1f4756ed85ddfadab03517d50ea5581

Sources:
- Drafting source: [BMC: Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies. Version of record 2018-11-21; DOI 10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7. “Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency” (05ea0554db4e6d0f11b4).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## probability theory
<a id="probability-theory"></a>

Probability theory is a framework used as a standard of rational decision making for judging how likely events are. In this context, classical probability theory is used to evaluate human judgments, including cases where people’s decisions depart from its predictions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ee5c01222be592bcb7cf1461c852ff7ebb8ae564966ee5e2791da5dcb0fd5ba4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wojciechowski Bartosz W.; Pothos Emmanuel M.. Is There a Conjunction Fallacy in Legal Probabilistic Decision Making?. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00391; article XML SHA-256 f806d7555d06bbd5e442c6f8014e5b92ecfdcc5c5215f353a1eb8a2c3d76cc88. “Is There a Conjunction Fallacy in Legal Probabilistic Decision Making?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00391).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00391). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## probability value
<a id="probability-value"></a>

A probability value, or p value, is the chance of getting a result at least as different from what the null hypothesis specifies as the result actually observed, assuming the null hypothesis is true. Smaller p values indicate stronger evidence against the null hypothesis, and they may be calculated for one-tailed or two-tailed tests.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c944c4623fc1d5c128f7fdc7e288c245b052c4b6536e95b98e639beced142ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Probability Value” (probability_value.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/probability_value.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proband
<a id="proband"></a>

A proband is the family member affected by a genetic disorder whose seeking medical care first brings the family to professional attention for study.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 445d3afec939f57451ab3a6cc1b48f9c30ea8ef51b4d3ea5fcac52da1a50c1ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Proband” (C64435).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## probing
<a id="probing"></a>

Probing is the act of closely examining or investigating something to uncover its limits, weaknesses, or underlying features. In this context, it means exploring existing practices in depth to see where they may fall short.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ecf6bc682cb2fda3a2d1eac1c4b3e81a5804b49a29f7d2abb2411f894494b00c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stander Ederick; Rothmann Ian; du Plessis Carla; Mnxuma Sibusiso; Roothman Jordan; Watson Joe; Popov Vesselin. Reframing talent development in the intelligence age: reasoning from first principles. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1848779; article XML SHA-256 a986cb8f48179f4ad61f139c3c09c654b9920e0cbc2dddd0fc897aa6127ded30. “Reframing talent development in the intelligence age: reasoning from first principles” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1848779).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1848779). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## problem behavior
<a id="problem-behavior"></a>

Problem behavior refers to maladaptive behavior in adolescents that interferes with social adjustment. It tends to become more common during adolescence and can affect functioning at home, school, and in the community, with examples including aggression, rule-breaking, and social withdrawal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4db84825369f3f6c72ea06b50b7b4e76f78de54f1aeff3e71bd20149c611f683

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Ying. Relationship between parenting stress profiles, work-family conflict, and adolescent problem behavior: Variable-centered and person-centered approaches. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340958; article XML SHA-256 453d35f9ba29886f9e5e538a0c1248e430e5c38615a6d6172708018a1d213131. “Relationship between parenting stress profiles, work-family conflict, and adolescent problem behavior: Variable-centered and person-centered approaches” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340958).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340958). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## problem solving
<a id="problem-solving"></a>

Problem solving is a learning process in which a person faces more than one possible option and chooses among them to reach a specific goal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b160170b18db0e95a8168afda3e2113a0444636085f7fe481e34f4bb805fe344

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Problem Solving” (D011340).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011340). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## problem-solving skills training
<a id="problem-solving-skills-training"></a>

Problem-solving skills training is a cognitive-behavioral approach that is adjusted to a person’s needs to strengthen problem-solving abilities and reduce stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9507f7ecee9872a858d58c576df1dee017d407604a6019084389658c48ec5f6e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Problem-Solving Skills Training” (C153258).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## problem-solving therapy
<a id="problem-solving-therapy"></a>

Problem-solving therapy is a counselling approach designed to reduce mental health difficulties by strengthening a person’s ability to deal with problems. It encourages a more hopeful, confident attitude toward problems and teaches a step-by-step method of identifying a problem, generating options, choosing a promising solution, trying it out, and reviewing the result.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 857c916feb3fc5fec65cbae89370fbbd293be52c55c51ae1c88aae3b822cb303

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Krause Karolin R; Courtney Darren B; Chan Benjamin W C; Bonato Sarah; Aitken Madison; Relihan Jacqueline; Prebeg Matthew; Darnay Karleigh; Hawke Lisa D; Watson Priya; Szatmari Peter. Problem-solving training as an active ingredient of treatment for youth depression: a scoping review and exploratory meta-analysis. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12888-021-03260-9; article XML SHA-256 c958b6a89e253f33defe9d0cca2aa449490ef3b0284b27adf6ec8d3dbae0d657. “Problem-solving training as an active ingredient of treatment for youth depression: a scoping review and exploratory meta-analysis” (10.1186/s12888-021-03260-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03260-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## procaine
<a id="procaine"></a>

Procaine is a benzoic acid derivative that acts as a local anesthetic and also has antiarrhythmic effects. It works by blocking voltage-gated sodium channels, which slows nerve impulse conduction and leads to loss of sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2acc43775fa9db5cdafc891e97bc6ecee9717cbb1b625425a643559d05ddd9fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Procaine” (C61906).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## procedural justice
<a id="procedural-justice"></a>

Procedural justice is the perceived fairness of the processes an organization uses to make decisions, such as performance appraisal or pay allocation. In this context, fair and transparent procedures are linked to lower feelings of deprivation and more knowledge sharing within teams.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 940d3bcaa445754ff3f45d642e0e94123c8440e36362c7036814d95cb601b05d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wan Jin; Qin Mingyue; Zhou Wenjun; Zhou Haiming; Li Pingping. Procedural justice, relative deprivation, and intra-team knowledge sharing: The moderating role of group identification. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.994020; article XML SHA-256 b92c0426adbe0b412ae3b8de0ba137ef52fad3d2f9ee54914e9008585f6abd06. “Procedural justice, relative deprivation, and intra-team knowledge sharing: The moderating role of group identification” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.994020).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.994020). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## procedural learning
<a id="procedural-learning"></a>

Procedural learning is the process of acquiring skills for carrying out actions smoothly and with little effort, including everyday perceptual-motor sequences. In this source, it is described as improving with repeated practice and being influenced by sensory conditions such as regular rhythmic and matching audio-visual stimulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98e012b11e9be0bffd2fdd7e9b65bd0bf109acdba539e8d270e2e47fbdc4ee7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lagarrigue Yannick; Cappe Céline; Tallet Jessica. Regular rhythmic and audio-visual stimulations enhance procedural learning of a perceptual-motor sequence in healthy adults: A pilot study. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0259081; article XML SHA-256 1b984900ae86ec16fefc247400c8cbed6075a8d1418836d807e8864614ef2736. “Regular rhythmic and audio-visual stimulations enhance procedural learning of a perceptual-motor sequence in healthy adults: A pilot study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0259081).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259081). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## process-dissociation procedure
<a id="process-dissociation-procedure"></a>

The process-dissociation procedure is a method used to separate the influence of different mental processes that contribute to performance on a task. In this context, it is used to distinguish short-term memory for the items themselves from memory for the order in which they were presented.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e1a6767504674d5f6678059b8448eeb20e7681f89ddbf61401876c16b249fd7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Xiaoli; Xuan Yifu; Jarrold Christopher. Using a Process Dissociation Approach to Assess Verbal Short-Term Memory for Item and Order Information in a Sample of Individuals with a Self-Reported Diagnosis of Dyslexia. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00208; article XML SHA-256 a428a764f6a738b17e1465de2a89116be07afe46b3d07609010e1d77e47dfc16. “Using a Process Dissociation Approach to Assess Verbal Short-Term Memory for Item and Order Information in a Sample of Individuals with a Self-Reported Diagnosis of Dyslexia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00208).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00208). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## process evaluation
<a id="process-evaluation"></a>

Process evaluation is the systematic study of how an intervention is put into practice, including how it is delivered, received, and experienced. It is used alongside outcome evaluation to explain why a program succeeds or fails in real-world settings and to clarify the processes behind its results.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99fcb0de7289333475d98baa721bf20d8c0e2f339798d208a414715bb5c0d5ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mere Rainer; Sisask Merike; Värnik Peeter; Van Audenhove Chantal. From participation to systematization: A scoping review of theoretical frameworks guiding process evaluations in community mental health interventions. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354732; article XML SHA-256 41c6a855c2367ef91fa8d347233b9dae842c38047b45eb0d04bbd4ae7d164eda. “From participation to systematization: A scoping review of theoretical frameworks guiding process evaluations in community mental health interventions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354732).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354732). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## process model of emotion regulation
<a id="process-model-of-emotion-regulation"></a>

The process model of emotion regulation is a framework for understanding how people manage emotions using different strategies. In this packet, it is described through reappraisal, which changes one’s psychological state in a situation, and expressive suppression, which modifies emotional expression after an emotion has already begun.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b64d2287fb54541392d3301be5d32f91fcae96cab01560956a19643b29cfc6ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao Mengyuan; Kuan Garry; Zhou Ke; Musa Rabiu Muazu; Majeed Anwar P P Abdul; Kueh Yee Cheng. Psychometric properties and gender invariance of the 8-item emotion regulation questionnaire (ERQ-8) among Chinese university students. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296035; article XML SHA-256 7ac0f76fcc483177e213549cd5a70359592f50a5d4e52c088521b2ccf5769366. “Psychometric properties and gender invariance of the 8-item emotion regulation questionnaire (ERQ-8) among Chinese university students” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296035).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296035). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## process research
<a id="process-research"></a>

In counselling, process research studies what happens during therapy and how those in-therapy changes relate to the results of an intervention. It focuses on identifying meaningful change processes within therapeutic interactions and finding ways to measure these complex, layered processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3fc0de9bc742c219250c0c9ee22b04d56fa4be3c5f82141efd2644728837958

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Smink Wouter A. C.; Fox Jean-Paul; Tjong Kim Sang Erik; Sools Anneke M.; Westerhof Gerben J.; Veldkamp Bernard P.. Understanding Therapeutic Change Process Research Through Multilevel Modeling and Text Mining. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01186; article XML SHA-256 d0a2ddfac29a1ea6a02d10c3f13663ed8c29ca1ccebe1597335a724f89580044. “Understanding Therapeutic Change Process Research Through Multilevel Modeling and Text Mining” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01186).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01186). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## processing-efficiency theory
<a id="processing-efficiency-theory"></a>

Processing-efficiency theory is the view that anxiety can reduce the working-memory resources available for a task, which can in turn harm performance and learning. In this packet, it is used to explain how math anxiety may divert cognitive resources away from learning mathematics, especially when working-memory capacity is low.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 36711648ff7d0957b45289ff8adf4658aa306f7aa1a8448197875dc6dc925e40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Soltanlou Mojtaba; Artemenko Christina; Dresler Thomas; Fallgatter Andreas J.; Ehlis Ann-Christine; Nuerk Hans-Christoph. Math Anxiety in Combination With Low Visuospatial Memory Impairs Math Learning in Children. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00089; article XML SHA-256 935a4fbf95bf347bb587fc915b6a062a56d0fb48aed659730765b4df52904bb4. “Math Anxiety in Combination With Low Visuospatial Memory Impairs Math Learning in Children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00089).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00089). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Processing Speed Index
<a id="processing-speed-index"></a>

Processing Speed Index is one of the index scores on the Wechsler Intelligence Scales. In the supplied study, it was the lowest average Wechsler index among gifted children, although it still remained above typical normative scores.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b1b8cc5775861531e1d49397797a056c944ff73b3d6c5b89de4e3fe86be65e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lesecq Laurent; Querne Laurent; Gornes Julie; Buffo Laura; Corbel Louise; Le Moing Anne Gaelle; Berquin Patrick; Bourdin Béatrice. Do gifted children without specific learning disabilities read more efficiently than typically developing children?. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1436710; article XML SHA-256 2220b7c6d78d27da1bb6ff3512ad1955dfed586547af61e583e1a63d78ea4998. “Do gifted children without specific learning disabilities read more efficiently than typically developing children?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1436710).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1436710). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## processor
<a id="processor"></a>

A processor is the part of a computer that controls the other parts. In general, it includes components for control, logic and arithmetic, memory, and temporary buffering.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a873d3364ab847585f5521381443162891b69b3c69fa9cd817e7824103e99df0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Central Processing Unit of Computer Device” (C50332).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prochlorperazine
<a id="prochlorperazine"></a>

Prochlorperazine is a synthetic phenothiazine-related drug with antiemetic, antipsychotic, antihistaminic, and anticholinergic effects. It works in part by blocking dopamine D2 receptors in a brain area involved in triggering vomiting and may help prevent chemotherapy-related nausea and vomiting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a042754fc4cc648df2acd0f28befa7265319e0b0577d66226c62be3f623cfe8f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Prochlorperazine” (C774).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Procrustes analysis
<a id="procrustes-analysis"></a>

Procrustes analysis, in this packet, refers to an orthogonal fitting method used within dictionary learning to update grouped dictionary elements so they better match training data and reduce reconstruction error. It is presented as part of an alternating, iterative approach for improving sparse representations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe191d593f0ea2cd9230166b9d9f074ac32770da7d92d5d8d0b96e7723fcf68c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Grossi Giuliano; Lanzarotti Raffaella; Lin Jianyi. Orthogonal Procrustes Analysis for Dictionary Learning in Sparse Linear Representation. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0169663; article XML SHA-256 88c711b56b2849d90940e53cb2efd0aaa342998873ddce5f41bf6957234ef829. “Orthogonal Procrustes Analysis for Dictionary Learning in Sparse Linear Representation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0169663).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169663). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## procyclidine
<a id="procyclidine"></a>

Procyclidine is a medicine that blocks muscarinic receptors and can enter the brain. It is used to help with drug-related movement side effects and with parkinsonism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11483bbf7e8e526261035916319e36b912f9a741f3956231ae71de52d4976061

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Procyclidine” (D011352).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011352). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prodigy
<a id="prodigy"></a>

In this historical source, prodigy is an early term for a miracle. It refers to a wondrous event understood as unusually beyond the recognized powers of nature and human beings, and therefore taken as a sign of supernatural agency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5351433deb4b6c3611f4e841960d1763787ecf29d0e6cd9ac681476f4b39c3bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Miracle” (Miracle).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Miracle). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## productive thinking
<a id="productive-thinking"></a>

Productive thinking is a cognitive process that brings together creative and critical thinking to produce solutions that are new, effective, and suited to the situation. It involves skills used to examine a problem, generate different possibilities, and turn ideas into practical outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a48326edb23d2403112ad674139972d1101f2a1fa7a7a4291ac208da9fb31e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [AlMuhaysh Hissah Fahad. An exploratory pilot study of artificial intelligence-based instructional program for developing productive thinking skills among female King Faisal University students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1812540; article XML SHA-256 847898ab6d6f2375148c7143296a8a4345128a5581b2a14b41b094ea9ff2aff9. “An exploratory pilot study of artificial intelligence-based instructional program for developing productive thinking skills among female King Faisal University students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1812540).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1812540). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## productivity
<a id="productivity"></a>

Productivity is a context-dependent, multidimensional idea about how much and how well work is done. It can refer to amount of output, efficiency in completing tasks, or quality of work, and its meaning may differ across jobs and settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abb90b17de9a2a3aae82d28fe5f70e04b60fd576fdad3683b14a9bea51a468a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ruberto Matteo A.; Alesci Ludovica; Maione Salvatore; Rotondi Valentina. Parenthood and care in academia: Publication counts, self-assessed productivity, and gendered differences. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355683; article XML SHA-256 57477837fd3bc7270ebfc23a69fc2e63e31d9384f7e869d48d5d9662b62fa724. “Parenthood and care in academia: Publication counts, self-assessed productivity, and gendered differences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355683).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355683). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## profession
<a id="profession"></a>

In this context, profession refers to the process of choosing a type of occupation or line of work.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f36387572d86cd65ad16f6dace63a1132e53e065c31ff394c860b056ed89680

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Career Choice” (D002321).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002321). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## professional ethics
<a id="professional-ethics"></a>

Professional ethics are the standards of right conduct that guide a professional’s responsibilities, including duties and rights, relationships with clients or patients and their families, and interactions with colleagues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1fccb71c2daa716a3c205a6b7dfc15d620444a6297b9d2f4f40d57139a7bf2eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ethics, Professional” (D004995).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004995). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## professional licensing
<a id="professional-licensing"></a>

Professional licensing is the formal process of assessing whether someone meets the knowledge standards required for entry into a profession, often through a licensing examination. Passing such an exam shows performance on codified knowledge but does not by itself demonstrate full clinical judgment or readiness for independent practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 04e2445b9c2b89f2fc5a44dcc9666edc5c664cd34e2752daf70a33ddf5854b12

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhan Xinju; Yu Weihua; Cai Jianshu; Chen Jionghuang. From knowledge to judgment: A three-year longitudinal analysis of artificial intelligence large language model performance on the Chinese national nurse licensing examination. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353059; article XML SHA-256 50ed4e6e9e8a230ae67e7c5ff90b7ff0834bcc2ccb5e597f628d5317bb067c28. “From knowledge to judgment: A three-year longitudinal analysis of artificial intelligence large language model performance on the Chinese national nurse licensing examination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353059).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353059). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## professional standards
<a id="professional-standards"></a>

Professional standards are the expectations that graduates or practitioners should meet to show they are competent and ready to deliver high-quality, patient-centered care. In educational settings, assessment is used to check whether these standards and the required range of practice abilities have been achieved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dec101ebc8890c6d4e2ff3d0830e1654715e4cf74a8c727a7517cd21ca75b140

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kowalski Katie L.; Tawiah Andrews; Miller Erin; Goodman Maren; Alcock Greg; Gillis Heather. Assessment approaches and methods in physiotherapy education: A scoping review protocol. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335229; article XML SHA-256 48b32323425868ef3299691239d11791be3ca3e31142c7014f36659dee826705. “Assessment approaches and methods in physiotherapy education: A scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335229).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335229). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## profile
<a id="profile"></a>

In this mental health research context, a profile is a subgroup or pattern identified within a larger group based on shared characteristics or levels of an ability. Here, profiles refer to distinct groupings of psychiatric nurses according to their humanistic practice ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf5a53442707baeb6a631e978b75dcecf27360abd38c7f2891c2f4776316ae13

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Yi; Sun Minzhi; Chen Guowei. Profiles of humanistic practice ability in psychiatric nurses: a latent profile analysis and associated factors. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1898793; article XML SHA-256 d3f355b60fcbfde63a0edcd6fd93daec857e22ff3477fdfa0235cde2c602d7bc. “Profiles of humanistic practice ability in psychiatric nurses: a latent profile analysis and associated factors” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1898793).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1898793). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## profile analysis
<a id="profile-analysis"></a>

Profile analysis is an approach used to sort people in a population into subgroups, or profiles, based on patterns across measured characteristics such as behavior and psychosocial features. It is used to better understand differences within a group so care or support can be more closely matched to each profile’s needs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3a684ae8044eb683958044799583ef5685f395ad016095963759ed799c7559f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kuipers Ellen A. M.; Timmerman Josien G.; van Det Marc J.; Vermeer Marloes; Vollenbroek - Hutten Miriam M. R.. Identifying subgroups of individuals undergoing metabolic bariatric surgery based on behavioral and psychosocial factors: A latent profile analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352252; article XML SHA-256 d731cbf940211dedfcd3adc610cefed91af09ca11cdcd82895a59b0e73ff575f. “Identifying subgroups of individuals undergoing metabolic bariatric surgery based on behavioral and psychosocial factors: A latent profile analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352252).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352252). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## profiling
<a id="profiling"></a>

Profiling, in this biological context, means measuring patterns of metabolites to detect changes in cellular activity and to help identify biomarkers linked to disease processes. It compares metabolite patterns across samples, often using analytical methods such as mass spectrometry or NMR together with statistical analysis to find meaningful group differences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: edf61feca61cd350be44465abe13f36f244e820bd8f467d4a79ede8697ca1b58

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kakhki Nima Rezvani; Hegedűs Zita; Tóvári József; Mirzahosseini Arash; Noszál Béla; Kraszni Márta. Metabolic profiling of human melanoma cell lines with high and low metastatic capacity by 1 H-NMR spectroscopy. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352639; article XML SHA-256 1c07446955898c09f4c8349f67f237cd313d93786a35c68d0b4efb5361d2e195. “Metabolic profiling of human melanoma cell lines with high and low metastatic capacity by 1 H-NMR spectroscopy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352639).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352639). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## progesterone
<a id="progesterone"></a>

Progesterone is the main progestational steroid hormone, produced chiefly by the corpus luteum and placenta. It acts on the uterus, mammary glands, and brain, and is important for embryo implantation, maintaining pregnancy, mammary tissue development for milk production, and as a building block for other steroid hormones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb9505f96bf6cfbb0c321ec8ca191fcd37647ee8dc85beef56fff1a9b04962cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Progesterone” (D011374).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011374). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## progestogen
<a id="progestogen"></a>

In this study context, progestogen refers to the hormone component used in some oral contraceptive formulations, including pills that contain progestogen without the other compared hormone formulations. Progestogen-only contraceptives were linked here with lower olfactory performance than some other contraceptive regimens.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 228d245664e6496dc9133926fa9d270dcac4fc04ff1ae43c2484c6fab66691e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gonçalves Patrícia Maria Rodrigues; de Azevedo Bruna Cestari; Fomin Denilson; Galeazzo Raul Galliano; Veiga César Antônio; Rezende Natália Queiroz; Siba Isadora Pozzetti; Pascarelli Raphaela Goncalves Barros; Dieamant Gustavo; Podgaec Sérgio; Pinheiro Camila Hernandes. Olfactory perception and wellbeing across hormonal contraceptive users and menstrual cycle phases. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1646597; article XML SHA-256 d4f1b9339a134c496430931e8bd95423458cdfb27049fbd07f7a98a62942c536. “Olfactory perception and wellbeing across hormonal contraceptive users and menstrual cycle phases” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1646597).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1646597). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prognosis
<a id="prognosis"></a>

Prognosis is a prediction about how a disease or condition is likely to develop in the future, such as whether it will worsen or lead to later decline. In this context, it means using current information to estimate future progression over a set time period.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4123af47f9c6a4227239712acf8fbf32db89be3a14d4450fedd2f8e0a282e381

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rajamohan Haresh Rengaraj; Xu Yanqi; Zhu Weicheng; Kijowski Richard; Cho Kyunghyun; Geras Krzysztof J.; Razavian Narges; Deniz Cem M.. Robust disease prognosis via diagnostic knowledge preservation: A sequential learning approach. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344600; article XML SHA-256 bb594c338eceacd7ed232a685de9b0a44f3a9288d889037c5f5f4d5259a2668c. “Robust disease prognosis via diagnostic knowledge preservation: A sequential learning approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344600).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344600). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## program evaluation
<a id="program-evaluation"></a>

Program evaluation is the assessment of a program to examine its results or how it is working. In this context, it refers to reviewing the outcomes of a health and wellness curriculum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4fb3f8b798444ead8828835d3d0685e961c6479b13a9fc497210236bd6d85556

Sources:
- Drafting source: [McCurdy Bethany H; Bradley Travis; Matlow Ryan; Rettger John P; Espil Flint M; Weems Carl F; Carrion Victor G. Program evaluation of a school-based mental health and wellness curriculum featuring yoga and mindfulness. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0301028; article XML SHA-256 c96708241fa7627710c89eb2d60141075aff70f096859e77999ddc6a7e6da81a. “Program evaluation of a school-based mental health and wellness curriculum featuring yoga and mindfulness” (10.1371/journal.pone.0301028).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301028). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## program integrity
<a id="program-integrity"></a>

Program integrity is the degree to which a program is delivered the way it was originally designed or planned. Checking it helps determine whether outcomes reflect the program itself or problems in how it was carried out.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 062cf8dde9070eb29cb13fd9a5a153205978316f4683c39aa9b837998e201762

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Loon Amanda W. G.; Creemers Hanneke E.; Vogelaar Simone; Saab Nadira; Miers Anne C.; Westenberg P. Michiel; Asscher Jessica J.. The effectiveness of school-based skills-training programs promoting mental health in adolescents: a study protocol for a randomized controlled study. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s12889-019-6999-3; article XML SHA-256 442d8102490d6ed8e98e132db63f4270e0c016853990f0a578fdd9c8c054663a. “The effectiveness of school-based skills-training programs promoting mental health in adolescents: a study protocol for a randomized controlled study” (10.1186/s12889-019-6999-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-6999-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## program outcome
<a id="program-outcome"></a>

Program outcome is the result or change seen after taking part in a program, assessed by measuring targeted variables before and after it. In this context, outcomes were used to judge the program’s preliminary effects, such as improvement in autonomy, competence, and self-care agency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1b6c07786eb993cca9a85bfc16f349348c04627c590ba45b21036773c61cfb09

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jeong Hye Won; Song Chi Eun; An Minjeong. Feasibility and preliminary effects of a theory-based self-management program for kidney transplant recipients: A pilot study. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248947; article XML SHA-256 4c39eb58ca10b6cfbef4ef7e298ea7ef2b7bb675f6d544ab0513fcfb8ade1fc9. “Feasibility and preliminary effects of a theory-based self-management program for kidney transplant recipients: A pilot study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248947).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248947). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## programming
<a id="programming"></a>

In this context, programming refers to neurolinguistic programming: a set of models about how communication and subjective experience affect each other. It uses ordered techniques based on those models to try to alter a person’s internal representations and the behavior patterns linked to interactions among the brain, language, and body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84c7795b2332c5aabe2fa1247a5c9152ddf247e9569600f94196b642d5300e24

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurolinguistic Programming” (D020557).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020557). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## programming language
<a id="programming-language"></a>

A programming language is a formal language used to write scripts and other computer code for tasks such as statistical analysis. In this packet, Python is the example used to encode metadata and run the analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4e82e1eafcc6b665d3dc990f7ff360c12a4dac961bf491faf3b053a44bedbbbb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Constâncio Alex Sebastião; Tsunoda Denise Fukumi; Silva Helena de Fátima Nunes; da Silveira Jocelaine Martins; Carvalho Deborah Ribeiro. Deception detection with machine learning: A systematic review and statistical analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281323; article XML SHA-256 d6818a594be8179a56ab008235edb263612e2ba4f2b26fb1a53a352a8a6f3d0a. “Deception detection with machine learning: A systematic review and statistical analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281323).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281323). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## progressive bulbar palsy
<a id="progressive-bulbar-palsy"></a>

Progressive bulbar palsy is a worsening motor neuron disorder that affects muscles controlled by cranial nerves in the lower brainstem. It commonly causes problems with chewing, swallowing, and speech, along with weakness in the face and tongue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c0d9afa51634e6fee24b482852f6f3f0d2d2f9ed55f4e1acae509f12fc629fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Progressive Bulbar Palsy” (C85026).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Progressive Matrices
<a id="progressive-matrices"></a>

Progressive Matrices, specifically Raven’s Progressive Matrices, is a reasoning task used to assess cognitive ability. Solving it involves identifying rules and managing goals, and it is widely used as an intelligence test in research, education, and professional settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e67e204233b442cfcf3c0c7dbd5d7ff518ce435d780f1b48b9e9f9a31269ec61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Song John H. H.; Loyal Sasha; Lond Benjamin. Metacognitive Awareness Scale, Domain Specific (MCAS-DS): Assessing Metacognitive Awareness During Raven’s Progressive Matrices. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.607577; article XML SHA-256 67d475a00f5199428c287ee133ccd55933e44e3851573fd6f04abefb7667d01b. “Metacognitive Awareness Scale, Domain Specific (MCAS-DS): Assessing Metacognitive Awareness During Raven’s Progressive Matrices” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.607577).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.607577). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## progressive muscle relaxation
<a id="progressive-muscle-relaxation"></a>

Progressive muscle relaxation is a relaxation skill or practice that can be taught for self-use, sometimes together with music listening. In the source, it is used as an intervention aimed at easing anxiety, depression, and stress and improving quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a926e8845f60d2e65441d77bc7813552d3baff99b00a1ebf45b2ab0a1d1adc7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nguyen Khanh Thi; Hoang Huong T X; Bui Quang V; Chan Dorothy N S; Choi Kai C; Chan Carmen W H. Effects of music intervention combined with progressive muscle relaxation on anxiety, depression, stress and quality of life among women with cancer receiving chemotherapy: A pilot randomized controlled trial. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293060; article XML SHA-256 ddee362b2b5f68197fb0ebc5b9d63070320cfd79d56cce0d6b46c89f35e13bfb. “Effects of music intervention combined with progressive muscle relaxation on anxiety, depression, stress and quality of life among women with cancer receiving chemotherapy: A pilot randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293060).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293060). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## progressive muscular atrophy
<a id="progressive-muscular-atrophy"></a>

Progressive muscular atrophy is an incurable motor neuron disease marked by ongoing degeneration of motor neurons. It overlaps in symptoms with related conditions such as ALS and PLS and leads to muscle wasting, weakness, and fasciculations, which can progressively impair walking, speaking, swallowing, and breathing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 859906592ef06e2f57849c6de65b5287fc8df31641be3c6b7377aa8dca7d5bd2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sommers-Spijkerman Marion; Rave Neele; Kruitwagen-van Reenen Esther; Visser-Meily Johanna M. A.; Kavanaugh Melinda S.; Beelen Anita. Parental and child adjustment to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: transformations, struggles and needs. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s40359-022-00780-1; article XML SHA-256 d055e160ffc6a5c6cb2bbf5f09f3a9c6935208fbc8ab4fa787d14e77bce3b728. “Parental and child adjustment to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: transformations, struggles and needs” (10.1186/s40359-022-00780-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-022-00780-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## progressive relaxation
<a id="progressive-relaxation"></a>

Progressive relaxation is a simple relaxation training method used in psychology to help improve mental state. In the source provided, it was used with student athletes and was associated with higher precompetition self-confidence and better sports performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb5ac6998aa601f42ee0b2138696b4b0e7c1ca149e46f319095d6a24f57db673

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liang Dongmei; Chen Shuqing; Zhang Wenting; Xu Kai; Li Yuting; Li Donghao; Cheng Huiying; Xiao Junwei; Wan Liyi; Liu Chengyi. Investigation of a Progressive Relaxation Training Intervention on Precompetition Anxiety and Sports Performance Among Collegiate Student Athletes. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.617541; article XML SHA-256 d7b68b0552e44ab751f8c2663710c0186ae7d98fb5ad53b73ba06f7fc10c25c4. “Investigation of a Progressive Relaxation Training Intervention on Precompetition Anxiety and Sports Performance Among Collegiate Student Athletes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.617541).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.617541). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## progressive supranuclear palsy
<a id="progressive-supranuclear-palsy"></a>

Progressive supranuclear palsy is a rare neurodegenerative disorder that causes problems with walking and balance and reduces coordination of eye movements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f5cfbc7e796d4e8489f93549afb59206d0b324eaaeabaf397d3d45cd8387187

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Progressive Supranuclear Palsy” (C85028).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## project team
<a id="project-team"></a>

A project team is a group of people who work together on a specific project. In psychology and organizational research, it can be understood as a social unit whose shared ways of reflecting and adapting, such as team reflexivity and resilience, can affect how successful the project is.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e1b7c833d494ea70ddbdd800979d36e730ddebd5b61f88605810467cf9869b1a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Han Huibin; Ma Chihao; Yang Danning; Zhao Weiwei. Transformational leadership and project success: the mediating roles of team reflexivity and project team resilience. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1504108; article XML SHA-256 56feded5ae8141fa8a2dc08720c10846c052622b7ee2bfc18a275d2a9383aae8. “Transformational leadership and project success: the mediating roles of team reflexivity and project team resilience” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1504108).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1504108). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## projection
<a id="projection"></a>

Projection is an unconscious defense mechanism in which a person disowns feelings or traits they find emotionally unacceptable in themselves and instead attributes them to other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 882d1c6b2adb2792266ea7d93dc5b36a4dfe323be9380cf9816a5cc6f9dd59a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Projection” (D011385).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011385). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## projection neuron
<a id="projection-neuron"></a>

In this source, a projection neuron is a second-order neuron in the moth antennal lobe pheromone-processing circuit that responds to odorants. Its dendrites and cell body show calcium signals, and the cell-body signal reflects spiking activity; at high odorant concentrations, postsynaptic inhibition can reduce and shorten its response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d87713a4c931d5155e95c6f1a766c1b708087b6b8dc30f830a5b566fc1be7953

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fujiwara Terufumi; Kazawa Tomoki; Haupt Stephan Shuichi; Kanzaki Ryohei. Postsynaptic Odorant Concentration Dependent Inhibition Controls Temporal Properties of Spike Responses of Projection Neurons in the Moth Antennal Lobe. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0089132; article XML SHA-256 80bac9659426a982bb4379e99e70d3657de87a19091b355b9b596bb0d4c676e8. “Postsynaptic Odorant Concentration Dependent Inhibition Controls Temporal Properties of Spike Responses of Projection Neurons in the Moth Antennal Lobe” (10.1371/journal.pone.0089132).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089132). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## projective technique
<a id="projective-technique"></a>

A projective technique is a psychological assessment approach exemplified here by the Sentence Completion Test, used in screening to gather responses in a less direct way than self-report questionnaires. In this source, it is presented as having potential when response deception or social desirability may affect self-reports, although it has traditionally been limited by manual scoring and cost.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fefe117bdbf93c75e8427497821d531325a24d9fe61cdd7e2ac181f0c151a33e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Yuchen; Lei Mengxiao; Zhang Hanyu; Zong Lu; Zhu Bin; Luo Hong. An intelligent agent for sentence completion test: creation and application in depression assessment. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1649905; article XML SHA-256 dfc99d8ca5b63cb0a627209126d7fb4a6e770cfbb7ae8f88cc8714da84e2cc74. “An intelligent agent for sentence completion test: creation and application in depression assessment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1649905).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1649905). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prolactin
<a id="prolactin"></a>

Prolactin is a hormone made by the anterior pituitary gland that is best known for its role in lactation. It also has effects in some species on reproduction, maternal behavior, fat metabolism, immune activity, and water balance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83a853b703dcef1456b8e80450f898ed6c06a8a7fdc49fe5653f624c99158142

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Prolactin” (D011388).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011388). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proliferation
<a id="proliferation"></a>

In psychology, proliferation usually refers to the spread of multiple concepts or labels in an area of research, especially when some may overlap heavily without being clearly distinct. It can also describe the related problem of a broad single label being used for several partially different phenomena.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31595dc994dc4b520c6a51cef2e3c69edcb0af1383c15fc49c8679de3e03aa8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hartman Lorne M. Beyond redundancy: rethinking construct proliferation through meaning, practice, and taxonomy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871558; article XML SHA-256 73bc3b7aae21145a81277e0f6b03eb1a0786e9c9354296362caa9eedd8551dee. “Beyond redundancy: rethinking construct proliferation through meaning, practice, and taxonomy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871558).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871558). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Prolixin
<a id="prolixin"></a>

Prolixin is fluphenazine hydrochloride, a phenothiazine drug with antipsychotic effects. It works in part by blocking dopamine D2 receptors in brain systems involved in psychosis, which can reduce hallucinations and delusions associated with schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0f4755a283e33248aed8d15fa6ea783c603a9367d4338c8b14cfcbae894bd2fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fluphenazine Hydrochloride” (C47995).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prompt
<a id="prompt"></a>

A prompt is a cue or reminder used to help memory. It can take forms such as computerized reminders, color coding, telephone calls, or mailed notices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 41493f03ba6b5c1eba67c4d68bfcd112c29a97a761794da625bed8f7ef43ce3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reminder Systems” (D017010).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017010). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prone
<a id="prone"></a>

In this context, prone means especially likely to be affected by something. For example, injury-prone sports are sports in which athletes are routinely exposed to physical risk and psychological strain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3bce631d436d2c9cdd3f0cd1b0dc2adfd063aff94ecf34838032a9a129a25c95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yu Songmao; Luo Haozhun. The influence of athletic identity, coach-athlete relationship quality, and peer climate on emotional resilience in injury-prone sports. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791069; article XML SHA-256 cdda849ea0c91cda3afe4ef6e588b5753ced1513f9b83b6cfe413bd42dcaae78. “The influence of athletic identity, coach-athlete relationship quality, and peer climate on emotional resilience in injury-prone sports” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791069).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791069). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pronoun
<a id="pronoun"></a>

In this historical logical usage, a pronoun is a name of second imposition: a term applied to a word rather than directly to an object or class of objects. It is treated as a label for a kind of word, like conjunction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1a35b915656dd5f4c893405ec4dc0c7e51f0aab0204b4d59b0e27a85bf150fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Name (in logic)” (Name (in logic)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N1defs.htm#Name (in logic)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## propaedeutic
<a id="propaedeutic"></a>

In this historical usage, propaedeutic means serving as a preliminary or preparatory discipline for later philosophical study, rather than being counted as part of philosophy itself. In the source, logic and aesthetics are described in this way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36ffe6221a517686ece063e7704313be83500d46636b8b7126ff68fbb0d992dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aesthetic and Aesthetics” (Aesthetic and Aesthetics).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Aesthetic and Aesthetics). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prophylactic surgery
<a id="prophylactic-surgery"></a>

Prophylactic surgery is surgery considered as a preventive measure for people identified as being at risk of a disease. In this context, it refers to an operation intended to lower the risk of ovarian cancer death in at-risk families.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16b21ea91d220872c2ca5b40748553d7ebd7f4a4313a1a3715d6c0731ca9a3c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Harter Philipp; Hauke Jan; Heitz Florian; Reuss Alexander; Kommoss Stefan; Marmé Frederik; Heimbach André; Prieske Katharina; Richters Lisa; Burges Alexander; Neidhardt Guido; de Gregorio Nikolaus; El-Balat Ahmed; Hilpert Felix; Meier Werner; Kimmig Rainer; Kast Karin; Sehouli Jalid; Baumann Klaus; Jackisch Christian; Park-Simon Tjoung-Won; Hanker Lars; Kröber Sandra; Pfisterer Jacobus; Gevensleben Heidrun; Schnelzer Andreas; Dietrich Dimo; Neunhöffer Tanja; Krockenberger Mathias; Brucker Sara Y; Nürnberg Peter; Thiele Holger; Altmüller Janine; Lamla Josefin; Elser Gabriele; du Bois Andreas; Hahnen Eric; Schmutzler Rita. Prevalence of deleterious germline variants in risk genes including BRCA1/2 in consecutive ovarian cancer patients (AGO-TR-1). 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0186043; article XML SHA-256 ed28d4f44dc2e1943cbfeb7f15d81710a1a7b41dd96e2f86b3de4f5aac7ba878. “Prevalence of deleterious germline variants in risk genes including BRCA1/2 in consecutive ovarian cancer patients (AGO-TR-1)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0186043).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186043). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prophylaxis
<a id="prophylaxis"></a>

Prophylaxis is prevention: actions or programs designed to reduce risk, change factors that contribute to illness, or stop a disease from progressing. It can include therapeutic, nutritional, environmental, social, or behavioral measures used at individual or broader group levels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9c8264d1ec6f0bf8a5f278db1c91d2128402a8a7b48fdd20976102df324bb7d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Preventive Intervention” (C15843).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## propinquity
<a id="propinquity"></a>

In this historical usage, propinquity means the degree of kinship or biological closeness between individuals of the same species. The passage uses it especially to describe how near or distant the parental relationship is in discussions of heredity and inbreeding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5adab1a277d2ca6b61d0f983f4343961178b74fbd661f535208b0eb953c26fd7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3381000-3393000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proportional hazards model
<a id="proportional-hazards-model"></a>

A proportional hazards model is a survival analysis method that assumes study factors affect the hazard rate by a constant multiplying effect over time. In this model, the size of each factor’s effect is assumed not to vary as time passes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1566d46bbabb4290a7c24a9bbe772e356c92b974851451edf4969ab8e072f43

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Proportional Hazards Models” (D016016).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016016). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proposition
<a id="proposition"></a>

A proposition is a stated claim or idea put forward for consideration, such as a theoretical argument that can later be examined through research or testing. In this context, it refers to the article’s central conditional claim about what must be in place for AI-assisted mental health triage to work safely.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb2e56c673ddb93a62f7acd90db3ed9cad08e7435de904a1078aa13b075ee0dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shahin Anas; Masry Bahaa. A conceptual multi-agent architecture for mental health triage in post-conflict Arabic-speaking populations: a theoretical proposition and staged validation argument. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1854701; article XML SHA-256 4b5ebe870d9f0c6ab98eef72d9a2c5043bd163fac0d26bcfa81b9f5353e8b9df. “A conceptual multi-agent architecture for mental health triage in post-conflict Arabic-speaking populations: a theoretical proposition and staged validation argument” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1854701).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1854701). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## propositional knowledge
<a id="propositional-knowledge"></a>

Propositional knowledge is knowledge represented as statements or beliefs about how events are related, such as whether a cue truly predicts an outcome. In learning tasks, it can be retrieved very quickly and automatically, but with more time people can weigh other available information and revise their judgment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e655207e694e4bcf2d9aaca94dd002f8c4ffe8bc169b072b56b87768da39fc47

Sources:
- Drafting source: [López Francisco J.; Alonso Rafael; Luque David. Rapid Top-Down Control of Behavior Due to Propositional Knowledge in Human Associative Learning. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0167115; article XML SHA-256 f802a90ddf70a618356685d45f028e2462c63ae0262cec248233263a87249feb. “Rapid Top-Down Control of Behavior Due to Propositional Knowledge in Human Associative Learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0167115).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167115). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## propoxyphene
<a id="propoxyphene"></a>

Propoxyphene is a synthetic opioid drug made as a mixture of forms and used for narcotic pain relief. Its pain-reducing effects come mainly from dextropropoxyphene acting on opioid receptors in the central nervous system, which lowers the release of several neurotransmitters and reduces nerve cell excitability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 403ce134ff160ed54a68271f77c9b0309d4ead89229798a99b705d76c0fe0607

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Propoxyphene, (+/-)-” (C61711).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## propranolol
<a id="propranolol"></a>

Propranolol is a widely used non-cardioselective beta-adrenergic blocker. In mental health contexts, it has been used for anxiety, although side effects have led to replacement by newer drugs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d062db763c71fe15f4993f9fe6401e2a15cbbb445448d37e21be430eee5965b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Propranolol” (D011433).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011433). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proprioception
<a id="proprioception"></a>

Proprioception is the body’s sense of where its parts are and how they are moving. It comes from signals from receptors in muscles, tendons, joints, and the inner ear that are sent to the central nervous system, helping support movement awareness and postural balance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40d6ebde9a032f100eb9a49e0416e2d67e91be44ada49d91dbba9e5f718cf1ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Proprioception” (D011434).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011434). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proprioceptive stimulus
<a id="proprioceptive-stimulus"></a>

A proprioceptive stimulus is an input that activates the sense of body position or movement. In the source material, it refers specifically to passive wrist movement used to evoke proprioception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b61a88855af385a4c04f0c35c3ab122a28769c00908db9427179fda8e90d2def

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ben-Shabat Ettie; Matyas Thomas A.; Pell Gaby S.; Brodtmann Amy; Carey Leeanne M.. The Right Supramarginal Gyrus Is Important for Proprioception in Healthy and Stroke-Affected Participants: A Functional MRI Study. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fneur.2015.00248; article XML SHA-256 115d272e13021bff0eb17ddaad6bc2f93543f0e992a6040dbced69578c7a3ab1. “The Right Supramarginal Gyrus Is Important for Proprioception in Healthy and Stroke-Affected Participants: A Functional MRI Study” (10.3389/fneur.2015.00248).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2015.00248). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proprioceptor
<a id="proprioceptor"></a>

A proprioceptor is a sensory nerve receptor in the body’s somatic system that responds to muscle contraction, joint movement, and changes in body position. It helps detect where the body and its parts are in space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e011d23368f29fa2e884fd17211e348867aff753ca4d98fd8a11233b763db38b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Proprioceptor” (C13823).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prosencephalon
<a id="prosencephalon"></a>

The prosencephalon is the frontmost of the three early brain vesicles in the developing embryo. It later divides to form the diencephalon and telencephalon.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1cf01bbe3a33cb0eee13a382a9c8736751b979b8e8537797c3115ed667070e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Prosencephalon” (D016548).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016548). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prosocial
<a id="prosocial"></a>

Prosocial refers to behavior associated with positive social adjustment. In this source, prosocial behavior is treated as an indicator of social adaptation and rehabilitation in delinquent juveniles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ef71fff9e3dc42cbfeebcf3611503e2ae540c30e8c44c6e83a6e90b1180abd50

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Teng Hongchang; Guo Jiaxin; Sheng Hanwen; Li Yuehua. The influence of self-concept on prosocial behavior in delinquent juveniles: a chain mediation analysis involving belief in a just world and self-control. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1775490; article XML SHA-256 123a599ba98d2157089ca375db87ba16da6c96ba743d0b0dd09b27eb667f8918. “The influence of self-concept on prosocial behavior in delinquent juveniles: a chain mediation analysis involving belief in a just world and self-control” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1775490).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1775490). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prosodic
<a id="prosodic"></a>

Prosodic refers to the formal sound-pattern side of language, such as rhyme, rhythm, and syllabic arrangement, apart from the meaning of the words. In this historical psychology usage, a person may retain these verbal patterns even when logical understanding or sense is absent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67a13ad90de98cd21ef71d4629403ff5723655e7fb4cbccae70d02b9fe43d3e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prosody
<a id="prosody"></a>

Prosody is a historical grammatical term for the features that accompany speech sounds in words, especially accent, breathing, and quantity. In this source it is presented as an older, broad use of the term rather than a specifically psychological one.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62ae3fed7707c32da71d9722bf615d4a3732eef4d297d8ff819b524f8aac47cf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2100000-2112000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ProSom
<a id="prosom"></a>

ProSom refers here to estazolam, a triazolo-benzodiazepine drug with calming, seizure-limiting, sleep-promoting, and muscle-relaxing effects. In the central nervous system, it acts at a receptor site related to GABA activity and lowers nerve-cell excitability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 817e0a6ef2e08bb342f32646292985f4f02574f9284c54d0232484609f86c848

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Estazolam” (C47520).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prosopagnosia
<a id="prosopagnosia"></a>

Prosopagnosia is a visual agnosia in which a person cannot recognize familiar faces or learn to recognize new ones. It is most often linked to brain damage in the area where the temporal and occipital lobes meet, usually on both sides but sometimes in the right occipito-temporal region alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c51bd88e058383403221f7e14a8b3c521553e9b841c6378c2db3c5c0c3ca567a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Prosopagnosia” (D020238).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020238). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prospective memory
<a id="prospective-memory"></a>

Prospective memory is the ability to make a plan to do something later, keep that intention in mind over a delay, and carry it out at the right time. It is important for everyday functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8baa3a0fa112255a06f10da4f17dc468963212bd03e32da96f444d4af2f2cb47

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vicentin Stefano; Reschini Davide Buzzi; Santacesaria Paola; Toffoli Lisa; Zago Sara; Arcara Giorgio; Cona Giorgia. Decoding the neural dynamics of everyday prospective remembering: a hidden Markov model approach. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1686657; article XML SHA-256 00091d0e91156bf799893aa4edb51e79dd9d2d0387199824382b85c7ae325b34. “Decoding the neural dynamics of everyday prospective remembering: a hidden Markov model approach” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1686657).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1686657). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prospective validity
<a id="prospective-validity"></a>

Prospective validity is the extent to which a model’s or measure’s predictive performance remains accurate when tested on future cases in real-world prospective use, rather than only in past data. It concerns whether reported prediction results will hold up over time despite temporal changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 42e63cd7ed2f8facad6106f1fa1c8e764b9ce0b2893e5729b81fd9c30e552b8d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Yuanlan; Li Yujun; Wang Jishi. Evaluating comorbidity scoring systems for flumatinib therapy in chronic myeloid leukemia: a machine learning and SHAP-based predictive analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fmed.2026.1849735; article XML SHA-256 feaa1991580876ea7581d4167b773132d1bf0ed04e0c3b7d8718b1773fc906c2. “Evaluating comorbidity scoring systems for flumatinib therapy in chronic myeloid leukemia: a machine learning and SHAP-based predictive analysis” (10.3389/fmed.2026.1849735).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2026.1849735). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prostitution
<a id="prostitution"></a>

Prostitution is the practice of having sexual relations in exchange for money or another form of benefit.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ff7f819dc5c987fb79c2746e237593dec2a77b12bf17aef9215dab681dc11ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sex Work” (D011477).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011477). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Proteus syndrome
<a id="proteus-syndrome"></a>

Proteus syndrome is a malformation disorder of uncertain cause marked by uneven, excessive growth in parts of the body, especially the hands, feet, and limbs. It can also involve skin, fatty, blood-vessel, and lymph-vessel overgrowths, along with an unusually large head and overgrowth of skull and long bones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c0bb0adfc4023abd8b5d4bf7957627cf28747e4cd24dcfe3122118402be40648

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Proteus Syndrome” (D016715).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016715). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proto-
<a id="proto"></a>

In this context, proto- marks something as an early or preliminary form of a psychological function. The article uses it in “proto-alpha mechanisms” to mean bodily self-soothing efforts that begin to organize experience when fuller psychic containment is not available.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c966f6981ead5fdc62afcd912a6f714718aa76f0ae0a2ae73ecd09bdec3ebdf1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sağlam Betul. Beyond diagnostic categories: sensory processing as a transdiagnostic mechanism in autism, ADHD, and PTSD – a neuropsychoanalytic conceptual analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871344; article XML SHA-256 708ebc0289d9fd70b7f3803995cc9f3b3f236c095ccb500e2b11512dd2705b41. “Beyond diagnostic categories: sensory processing as a transdiagnostic mechanism in autism, ADHD, and PTSD – a neuropsychoanalytic conceptual analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871344).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871344). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## prototype
<a id="prototype"></a>

A prototype is a representative pattern or summary example for a class that new items are compared against. In the source, classification is done by measuring how similar a region’s features are to class prototypes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d769c554cf916e363143cecc0bd4e4070bd49e3eb7150103521202fe50da80aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Rubing; Zhao Lianyi. A prototype-aligned multi-scale attention network for few-shot industrial surface defect detection. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359400; article XML SHA-256 4f6789304dfd63feec42f7c1d9ec22d3102104ba7b17f6317fd883afa8724086. “A prototype-aligned multi-scale attention network for few-shot industrial surface defect detection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359400).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359400). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## provider
<a id="provider"></a>

In this mental health context, a provider is the health care professional you talk with about your symptoms, stressors, and recent life changes so they can help you get better. Communication with a provider is described as private and based on open, honest discussion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61dd7b2f11f62a9e1fe6be44517b6d3a18ceeab89b8e9bba7952727718e80704

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Tips for Talking With a Health Care Provider About Your Mental Health. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 13e466c66c1ce891732ea22bbe016eaa77b67b36619f36703c1d3cd15b495788. “Tips for Talking With a Health Care Provider About Your Mental Health” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/tips-for-talking-with-your-health-care-provider).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/tips-for-talking-with-your-health-care-provider). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proximal
<a id="proximal"></a>

In this context, proximal means closely related to or near a later behavior or outcome. A proximal indicator is an early sign, such as susceptibility or intention, that is more immediate than the behavior itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b339f40827279c288df6c24e8cdd5c111a1fd2e22a70aaadbfbd4644b8ab0b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Akca Sumengen Aylin; Adekeye Olayemi T.; Cakir Gokce N.; Savaş Eyşan H.; Semerci Sahin Remziye; Mumba Mercy. Effectiveness of vaping prevention campaign messages on cognitive and behaviorally proximal outcomes among adolescents and young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1796793; article XML SHA-256 cd9989ea9d6a1237ac936fca93d7873826b32adfd024ec02766ce7ba6cb7542d. “Effectiveness of vaping prevention campaign messages on cognitive and behaviorally proximal outcomes among adolescents and young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1796793).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1796793). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proximate cause
<a id="proximate-cause"></a>

In this historical legal sense, proximate cause means the direct and effective cause that is considered relevant, rather than a distant or indirect one. The source uses it to describe the kind of cause that can ground a right of legal action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70b1145e61de462f3dd3b5b34731d1789f8cb696cd89b967d0e57142ad5aedc2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Cause (in law)” (Cause (in law)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Cause (in law)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proximate explanation
<a id="proximate-explanation"></a>

A proximate explanation is an account of a phenomenon in terms of the immediate underlying mechanisms that produce it. In this packet, it refers to identifying the exact molecular processes that promote tumor formation in order to explain Peto’s paradox.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9a577e700dc9943d2cb7bdb70e6d12ce55cd86f3786a5fec68001f14cc8c36c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maciak Sebastian. Cell size, body size and Peto’s paradox. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12862-022-02096-5; article XML SHA-256 47d87fcd45fa8a4f24bf39da2333992d2144b6a4da71a280a0ee29f1b1f77129. “Cell size, body size and Peto’s paradox” (10.1186/s12862-022-02096-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-022-02096-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proximity
<a id="proximity"></a>

In this psychology context, proximity refers to how physically close a person is to an object in space. The source indicates that smaller distance can shape social judgments, with people seen as nearer to a relevant object being viewed as more expert and sometimes more persuasive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 058d96cc487049c59bdd72414c1082396b49060f895f6d910b32b749c878a7df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Friedrich Scarlett; Linne Roman. Close is clever! Spatial proximity shapes expertise attribution. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763841; article XML SHA-256 a500e9424bb65090e10d28bf7708bbb82b9b31859daab3de594c3eed62466cae. “Close is clever! Spatial proximity shapes expertise attribution” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763841).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763841). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proximodistal
<a id="proximodistal"></a>

Proximodistal refers to a position or organizational axis running from proximal to distal parts of a structure. In this packet, it describes subdivisions of hippocampal areas such as CA1 and CA3 that differ in how they encode spatial information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 217ef956cd19c61b8393eb8ed9e276bd9acb7f50699730b980a91539ef6b71cf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lin Muxin; Hoang Thu-Huong; Manahan-Vaughan Denise. Discrete and differentiated encoding of distinct components of spatial experience occurs within the proximodistal subfields of the dorsoventral axis of the hippocampus. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnbeh.2026.1895371; article XML SHA-256 658fff524eaf152cd53f96a3959135c18afa6fa37363fffffd4c2057a694d70f. “Discrete and differentiated encoding of distinct components of spatial experience occurs within the proximodistal subfields of the dorsoventral axis of the hippocampus” (10.3389/fnbeh.2026.1895371).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2026.1895371). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## proxy variable
<a id="proxy-variable"></a>

A proxy variable is a measured variable used to represent or indicate other underlying processes. In the source, surface temperature is described this way because it reflects several environmental processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c4d9693f0fa61a11533fcfac642e5063e5b5a9dc93ec9bd3a965b42e74e48d74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [da Silva Lucas Augusto Pereira; Rocha Andre Medeiros; da Silva Claudionor Ribeiro. Surface temperature behavior in view of the conversion of tropical dry forest into anthropic uses, northern Minas Gerais–Brazil. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0270991; article XML SHA-256 ef60bb3b6ad82d13942289fc40b7bd98a98f6e153435b3dc9671a72cc5c4e920. “Surface temperature behavior in view of the conversion of tropical dry forest into anthropic uses, northern Minas Gerais–Brazil” (10.1371/journal.pone.0270991).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270991). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Prozac
<a id="prozac"></a>

Prozac refers to fluoxetine hydrochloride, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. It is a medication with antidepressant, anti-anxiety, anti-obsessional, and antibulimic effects that works by reducing serotonin reuptake and increasing serotonin activity in the synaptic space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e1cfdc8166fed1fa355ad387abdf7a709d640530162aa7aff3e82f28a89559c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fluoxetine Hydrochloride” (C2829).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PRP
<a id="prp"></a>

PRP stands for autologous platelet-rich plasma. In this packet, it refers to eye drops made from a person’s own platelet-rich plasma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 237fcb923f07def3fe6c749ebb8ad45d97e10750abae2f4a5174a9dbd374aa22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Na Kun-Hoo; Lee Bo Young; Cho Hye Jin; Hyon Joon Young. Effect of autologous platelet-rich plasma on optical quality and visual outcomes following implantation of a trifocal diffractive intraocular lens. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340880; article XML SHA-256 4be4756b1ef8621a257ce87cfe5d3614dc2c50c01c7a448f5152a7ffd6eb8c13. “Effect of autologous platelet-rich plasma on optical quality and visual outcomes following implantation of a trifocal diffractive intraocular lens” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340880).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340880). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PRS
<a id="prs"></a>

PRS stands for polygenic risk score, a measure used to estimate an individual’s risk of developing a disease. In the source, it is described as being used for individual disease risk prediction and examined for links with osteoporosis and low-trauma fractures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 325b8bf2956b25dcdb95021a171ef55ba4685926385c2f17df6526fbc9a395b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Strickler Claudio; Thorball Christian W.; Schoepf Isabella C.; Schwenke Johannes; Hasse Barbara; Ryom Lene; Thurnheer Maria C.; Fux Christoph; Kahlert Christian R.; Bernasconi Enos; Calmy Alexandra; Lamy Olivier; Günthard Huldrych F.; Ledergerber Bruno; Fellay Jacques; Tarr Philip E.; the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Association of a polygenic risk score with low trauma fractures in people with HIV – The swiss HIV cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342748; article XML SHA-256 969a4abae8ece7a76c2b93917dae2392ca26ec401b281656ed375b04c29f96fd. “Association of a polygenic risk score with low trauma fractures in people with HIV – The swiss HIV cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342748).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342748). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pruning
<a id="pruning"></a>

Pruning is the selective removal of parts of a model, such as channels or parameters, to make it smaller and more efficient while trying to preserve accuracy. In this source, adaptive pruning adjusts how much is removed based on feedback so communication and computation demands are reduced.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f75b8280783ba50f16a1696f7aa122d7f403cff71e354fe309331ca66d59ddca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Jie; Liu Renjing; Xing Jinsheng. Threshold-adaptive pruning with multi-key homomorphic encryption for communication-efficient secure federated learning. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349432; article XML SHA-256 932f2078fbe149421b12af8c6f75c95da9895d898e946d3ac7f3b770479c24bc. “Threshold-adaptive pruning with multi-key homomorphic encryption for communication-efficient secure federated learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349432).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349432). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pruritus
<a id="pruritus"></a>

Pruritus is itching, a common skin symptom that can carry a substantial psychological burden. In mental health contexts, it is recognized as having a clinically important two-way relationship with negative emotions such as anxiety and depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dea7048d5494e73be6fb0a2656ac5f97d90a82015a01d3543d5ba80acd199f8b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yu Shuman; Qu Siying; Wu Donghai; Chen Yutian; Wang Yixiang; Zhou Shuting; Sun Haiju; Li Xiaoyu. Breaking the vicious cycle: a bibliometric and visual analysis of the bidirectional relationship between pruritus and negative emotions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883590; article XML SHA-256 87d6cadcd1464ba870cfa624e6cbffbe27e00f566b3ee101daf34b3735ffeb7c. “Breaking the vicious cycle: a bibliometric and visual analysis of the bidirectional relationship between pruritus and negative emotions” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883590).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883590). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PSE
<a id="pse"></a>

PSE stands for patient safety event. In this context, it refers to a reported event used as data for analyzing unsafe conditions and diagnostic errors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b11ebf37a43c5ebe938186137928c8e296404a8fda8a52c367acdeed5022e02f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tabaie Azade; Tran Alberta K; Parau Codrin; Bennett Sonita S; Kazi Sadaf; Smith Kelly; Yosaitis John; Miller Kristen E. Applying machine learning and natural language processing to patient safety event reports: Identifying patterns of cardiovascular diagnostic errors. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345693; article XML SHA-256 807089192f56b45263124b754318c656d5d8c87f85bd8b4a410dd58030112378. “Applying machine learning and natural language processing to patient safety event reports: Identifying patterns of cardiovascular diagnostic errors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345693).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345693). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pseudobulbar affect
<a id="pseudobulbar-affect"></a>

Pseudobulbar affect is a condition involving sudden, uncontrollable episodes of laughing or crying that do not fit the situation. It can occur after certain neurological illnesses or injuries that disrupt the brain’s control of emotional expression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 460289a29068fdd6cd12da9c5936e979ef2ba2709e98730ef1cccd7ac61be547

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pseudobulbar Affect” (D000099244).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000099244). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pseudoconditioning
<a id="pseudoconditioning"></a>

Pseudoconditioning is a behavioral response that can look like a conditioned fear reaction but is generally considered not to reflect actual learning. In this context, it is used as a comparison for fear responses that resemble conditioning in behavior while differing from learned fear at a molecular level.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c76858664c854b450a8ffb02f9fa4cb3fffabcc53ad365723092cb5a5d39a969

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Navabpour Shaghayegh; Patrick Morgan B; Omar Nour A; Kincaid Shannon E; Bae Yeeun; Abraham Jennifer; McGrew Jacobi; Musaus Madeline; Ray W Keith; Helm Richard F; Jarome Timothy J. Indirectly acquired fear memories have distinct, sex-specific molecular signatures from directly acquired fear memories. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315564; article XML SHA-256 321df908cf41a120919fb5a9539e37bd4f4238689322e771599c07c7138b14f9. “Indirectly acquired fear memories have distinct, sex-specific molecular signatures from directly acquired fear memories” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315564).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315564). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pseudoephedrine
<a id="pseudoephedrine"></a>

Pseudoephedrine is a phenethylamine related to ephedrine that acts on the sympathetic nervous system. It increases norepinephrine release and has weak direct effects at alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors, leading to blood vessel narrowing and reduced nasal and sinus congestion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14aedfb290ac177c0db2b4eba5b78389aec84dc91aaaaf0e89a09aceea1cd155

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pseudoephedrine” (C61914).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pseudoneurological
<a id="pseudoneurological"></a>

Pseudoneurological describes bodily symptoms that resemble neurological problems but are understood here as somatic expressions of dissociation. In this context, they are linked to disruptions in the normal integration of consciousness, memory, or identity, often in relation to trauma or other psychological stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54a06141a92c2bb5a510c48be5c35bd38423d696a05cf154e03e24fbfa4f3ee9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bob Petr; Selesova Petra; Raboch Jiri; Kukla Lubomir. ‘Pseudoneurological’ symptoms, dissociation and stress-related psychopathology in healthy young adults. 2013; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-13-149; article XML SHA-256 debfc7827b52a756b514c583a4edff14b1e5fdcf5beea06c4fe8869f9f3f2eae. “‘Pseudoneurological’ symptoms, dissociation and stress-related psychopathology in healthy young adults” (10.1186/1471-244x-13-149).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-13-149). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PSG
<a id="psg"></a>

PSG, or polysomnography, is a sleep study that uses several tests during sleep to record body and brain activity such as brain waves, eye movements, breathing, blood pressure, heart rate, and muscle and heart electrical activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df7b89c897370a630dea3aebf490a146ee6e27634bd999ae4029bf4fc60c1eb0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Polysomnography” (C114185).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psi
<a id="psi"></a>

Psi, or the Processing Speed Index, is a composite score from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale that reflects how well a person can focus attention and rapidly scan, tell apart, and put visual information in order. It also depends on persistence and planning, and can be affected by motivation, working under time pressure, and motor coordination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8fcb4f81cd693e1828a41221f506ab81773dead7138fc43997faee6c45b992be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Processing Speed Index (WAIS-IV)” (C205229).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psilocin
<a id="psilocin"></a>

Psilocin is a psychoactive tryptamine alkaloid found in some fungi, including Psilocybe. It is the active compound formed from psilocybine in the body and acts in the central nervous system by stimulating serotonin 2A receptors, producing hallucinogenic and anxiolytic effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f24c5f47396a1fafab9b4ccf396e175aa9c018ab5eac5bfd33e69b3f7810324c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Psilocybine” (C62529).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PSST
<a id="psst"></a>

PSST, or Problem-Solving Skills Training, is a cognitive-behavioral intervention tailored to a person's needs to strengthen problem-solving abilities and reduce stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39151a7d1fe23b5bf5b3161b8e7817ee549e6f6e90e5fbd93138a31107db7505

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Problem-Solving Skills Training” (C153258).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PST
<a id="pst"></a>

PST stands for problem-solving training, a brief, low-intensity psychological intervention used across different common mental health problems. It teaches practical problem-solving attitudes and skills so people can address stressful problems more effectively and improve coping and well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3246b0c82bb1c5c6379c83efdd3ad178e86879ebde6d4a48d13790ce1d076a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Xue; Mo Phoenix K H; Lau Joseph T F; Ho Stanley S M; Mak Winnie W S. A randomized controlled trial of an Internet-based self-help skill strengthening (ISSS) intervention for secondary school teachers: a transdiagnostic intervention for common mental health problems. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08063-4; article XML SHA-256 795f43394a8523e03a5bd9a0f3086e8a12bd9693e80ee90c11e4c5af5140800f. “A randomized controlled trial of an Internet-based self-help skill strengthening (ISSS) intervention for secondary school teachers: a transdiagnostic intervention for common mental health problems” (10.1186/s12888-026-08063-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08063-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychedelic drug
<a id="psychedelic-drug"></a>

A psychedelic drug is a substance studied in psychology for its links with altered mental experience, especially a stronger sense of connection to the self, other people, and the world. Research described in the packet also associates psychedelic drug use with changes in wellbeing and cognitive functions such as creativity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 80c522a9238b100325677eed4ff76c40a94080a0fff12017f67cf023fae63b04

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rominger Christian; Subow Carolina. Feel connected to create: Self-reported psychedelic drug users exhibit higher sense of connectedness and better divergent thinking skills compared to non-users. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320755; article XML SHA-256 69463b82e3fd91f71162a80135aecab71b48853153067734dd5a715d45095dad. “Feel connected to create: Self-reported psychedelic drug users exhibit higher sense of connectedness and better divergent thinking skills compared to non-users” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320755).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320755). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychedelic therapy
<a id="psychedelic-therapy"></a>

Psychedelic therapy is a therapeutic approach that uses psychedelic substances as part of treatment for psychiatric disorders. The packet describes it as an emerging area supported by clinical trial evidence, especially for difficult-to-treat conditions such as PTSD and depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 211605307fdca0b47b2286a63cefd3083e27a5b8e4e2c6d9f1e99194e4c97502

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marseille Elliot; Stauffer Christopher S.; Agrawal Manish; Thambi Paul; Roddy Kimberly; Mithoefer Michael; Bertozzi Stefano M.; Kahn James G.. Group psychedelic therapy: empirical estimates of cost-savings and improved access. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1293243; article XML SHA-256 63a1c275fbd15995d4cf013ce8f77286abe77ba7649a0ac25ec1b82c57f77e26. “Group psychedelic therapy: empirical estimates of cost-savings and improved access” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1293243).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1293243). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychiatric disorder
<a id="psychiatric-disorder"></a>

A psychiatric disorder is a mental or behavioral condition marked by abnormal thoughts, feelings, or actions, often with physical symptoms as well. It can cause substantial distress or interfere with social or work functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e80c113a52c8b2335cf9182c717d3b13c8dbcaf7896ba4162985676d4026467

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Psychiatric Disorder” (C2893).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychiatric hospital
<a id="psychiatric-hospital"></a>

A psychiatric hospital is a hospital that focuses on caring for and treating people with severe mental disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fcfbc2aee71e9366d2c13d56a37d01f81b828da25302ee8b19992b7220873466

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Psychiatric Hospital” (C202019).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychiatric illness
<a id="psychiatric-illness"></a>

Psychiatric illness refers to mental disorders in which a person’s ability to adapt is disrupted, mainly showing up as changes in thinking, emotions, or behavior. These changes lead to distress or problems with functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14ddd301c2f5de43bffe32093434476db74f89e991d752a6cc2bd5baae71d7a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mental Disorders” (D001523).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001523). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychiatric nursing
<a id="psychiatric-nursing"></a>

Psychiatric nursing is a nursing specialty that applies psychiatric principles when caring for people with mental illness. It also refers to the nursing care given to patients who are mentally ill.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b8dd2ae8d691b1e0daabd1bfc689d9ea8b1c13dd99c95aa9f2d1d398d488ee9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychiatric Nursing” (D011568).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011568). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychiatric pharmacogenomics
<a id="psychiatric-pharmacogenomics"></a>

Psychiatric pharmacogenomics is the use of genetic information to help tailor medication choices in psychiatry. It mainly studies how gene variants affect drug handling in the body and, less consistently, treatment effects, with the strongest current evidence involving certain antidepressants and some antipsychotics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2b39d51b8051ea0400e4390c7585c4ea40c5fb5bc18f86618f8ed27b17d99ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mangalagiu Andrei Gabriel; Petrescu Bogdan Mircea; Riga Sorin; Vasiliu Octavian. Psychiatric pharmacogenomics: from genetic evidence to clinical integration – structural, educational, and ethical challenges. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fphar.2026.1775522; article XML SHA-256 51ec19d30053daa35e7fdd36aa66dc8d40d45a032af5d87cbb527f68198fdae7. “Psychiatric pharmacogenomics: from genetic evidence to clinical integration – structural, educational, and ethical challenges” (10.3389/fphar.2026.1775522).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2026.1775522). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychiatric rehabilitation
<a id="psychiatric-rehabilitation"></a>

Psychiatric rehabilitation is a specialty area focused on helping people with mental disorders recover, function in their communities, and improve their well-being when those disorders interfere with living meaningful lives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c76cf6ae1e19b91aa08fd9e62c23b11ed9592c28f028a68505bdaea8d08d6a3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychiatric Rehabilitation” (D000067250).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067250). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychiatrist
<a id="psychiatrist"></a>

A psychiatrist is a medical doctor who specializes in treating mental and emotional disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c567bfde6dc641c07c29ff70bfa46d84f8f3538f1132df4f48566ff36881fd4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Psychiatrist” (C93157).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychiatry
<a id="psychiatry"></a>

Psychiatry is the branch of medicine focused on mental disorders. It addresses their causes as well as their diagnosis, prevention, and treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 188246fada88feda382f5fd170e4017ea0d8fae1538476c8eccbe9f1bf99ccb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychiatry” (D011570).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011570). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychic
<a id="psychic"></a>

In this source, psychic refers to a proposed non-material, informational aspect of consciousness that exists in a universal non-local field and interacts with the brain. It describes mental or conscious phenomena as rooted in this psychic-informational domain rather than being produced solely by brain activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 706d13e9e7687a110cd88f33ab58b30defb422c962b70e3f4f334bc8e005db9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tallarico Andrea. The theory of psychic quanta: a quantum model for the unity of individual consciousness. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792921; article XML SHA-256 37f17ed976d39e922be25b8bd51886dd65968576f5f6263e8bef7107f1077081. “The theory of psychic quanta: a quantum model for the unity of individual consciousness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792921).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792921). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychic blindness
<a id="psychic-blindness"></a>

Psychic blindness, in this historical usage, means a loss or reduction in understanding the visual form of words. It is described as a purely sensory kind of sensory aphasia and is treated as separate in principle from problems of sensation or speech production.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 13e27917d2bacb38d26f1d9b84ac83933f1914c43ad06ef7e34a8ce33e092600

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aphasia (sensory)” (Aphasia (sensory)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Aphasia (sensory)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychic energy
<a id="psychic-energy"></a>

Psychic energy is the inner mental force tied especially to sexual instinct in a broad sense, including seeking pleasure and affectionate attachment. It can also mean the mental force of instincts more generally that drives behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa2b5561b86573f75882935520ddcc015ceb901a97961b8f5b1e3aeb806218de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Libido” (D007989).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007989). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychoacoustics
<a id="psychoacoustics"></a>

Psychoacoustics is the study of how psychological processes are related to a person’s responses to the physical features of sound. It examines the link between sound as a physical stimulus and how it is experienced or reacted to psychologically.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6902c97b7745517097b3c6eec390e99d87d810b9e7ad50a5fa4b1741cccb5be7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychoacoustics” (D011571).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011571). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychoactive drug
<a id="psychoactive-drug"></a>

A psychoactive drug is a broadly defined drug that affects psychological functioning. This group includes drugs such as antidepressants, hallucinogens, and tranquilizing drugs, including antipsychotic and anti-anxiety agents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2317e3c9845b98b4e833089ec9cec74eedb74bddbd8f4a4960d6ddb9a0c932b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychotropic Drugs” (D011619).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011619). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychoanalysis
<a id="psychoanalysis"></a>

Psychoanalysis refers to both a method developed by Sigmund Freud to explore mental processes through techniques such as free association, dream interpretation, and examining resistance and transference, and to the psychological theory Freud built from that clinical work. More broadly, the term can also mean analyzing the mind into its component parts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 27c1b54f40ac92921d8dc06b4922b0f2dbffb91341770aadb1053b7a8e329de4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychoanalysis” (D011572).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011572). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychoanalyst
<a id="psychoanalyst"></a>

A psychoanalyst is a healthcare professional who uses psychoanalysis to help people work through difficulties and create lasting change in their lives. Practitioners from several professions may serve in this role, including psychiatrists, psychologists, nurse practitioners, social workers, counselors, and marriage and family therapists.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f66e38303213f4d7536a2f9649434b5c017d8564c2414e33d79628bd7db7b48d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Psychoanalyst” (C204361).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychoanalytic Interpretation
<a id="psychoanalytic-interpretation"></a>

Psychoanalytic interpretation is the use of Freudian theory to explain psychological aspects of materials such as art, literature, and biographical writings. It applies psychoanalytic ideas to interpret the meaning of such material.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1022bf7b8ed32c3d52d466a8831e699890d7e178f64ba3b097d4c4f57f2c072f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychoanalytic Interpretation” (D011573).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011573). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychoanalytic psychotherapy
<a id="psychoanalytic-psychotherapy"></a>

Psychoanalytic psychotherapy is a major form of psychotherapy used in clinical practice, often discussed together with psychodynamic psychotherapy. It is described as having its own distinct theoretical basis and supporting empirical research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4338d02c230a3cdfd3e1931fcedd4c13977daa1f27107aebf2dea63451bc11ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lerner Rogério; Gonçalves Bárbara; Dias Caroline Martins; Gerotto Júlia Benvenutti; Rufino Tayane Aparecida Teizen; Aragão Yasmin Meireles; de Arantes Izabella Lopes. Meta-epidemiological assessment and evaluation of certainty of evidence in systematic reviews with meta-analyses of cognitive behavioral therapy and psychodynamic/psychoanalytic psychotherapy: an umbrella review protocol. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1664393; article XML SHA-256 31c556f081013180bf64ec3a936d9b23f87855826504826624fcc05544ac8b77. “Meta-epidemiological assessment and evaluation of certainty of evidence in systematic reviews with meta-analyses of cognitive behavioral therapy and psychodynamic/psychoanalytic psychotherapy: an umbrella review protocol” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1664393).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1664393). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychoanalytic theory
<a id="psychoanalytic-theory"></a>

Psychoanalytic theory is a framework created by Freud and later developed by his followers. It explains personality development and behavior, both typical and disturbed, as being strongly influenced by unconscious motives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb65af7d38733e5d06ac17776dff997264d6367a1926d24c66856eda40cc56db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychoanalytic Theory” (D011574).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011574). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychobiology
<a id="psychobiology"></a>

Psychobiology is the study of how biological processes and psychological processes relate to each other in cognitive functioning. It includes areas such as thinking, memory, intelligence, and other neurocognitive processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c7ee3b93c83b9aed4b72cfd0c43df465e66af07c325cc2540baa7f6c7271944

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Psychobiology” (C16343).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychodrama
<a id="psychodrama"></a>

Psychodrama is mainly a group psychotherapy method in which a person’s personal and emotional difficulties are explored through guided, structured dramatic enactment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 20e1bfbba6889382f75abb6923466e3d807dfa06fd38c4995815d994a819c5aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychodrama” (D011577).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011577). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychodynamic approach
<a id="psychodynamic-approach"></a>

In this context, a psychodynamic approach is a way of understanding physical symptoms by exploring how emotional processes, such as unresolved grief, trauma, and unmet needs, may contribute to or worsen them. It emphasizes a collaborative investigation of the links between emotional life and bodily distress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bec543ead25e3b454add968a5e498250427ff45469a361d4bb7334e016234ea0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maroti Daniel. Introducing a new specifier for functional somatic disorder: a psychodynamic approach to investigating emotional factors. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1481405; article XML SHA-256 920316240cec53676d0bcdabfaa1c3e1a6a7b833d33e13b1958557fa6e94e0a6. “Introducing a new specifier for functional somatic disorder: a psychodynamic approach to investigating emotional factors” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1481405).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1481405). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual
<a id="psychodynamic-diagnostic-manual"></a>

The Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual is a psychodynamic framework for understanding and assessing mental functioning, including a person’s use of unconscious defenses. Its second edition also includes an Infancy and Early Childhood section that can be used to describe the quality of the mother–infant relationship, although it was not created as a parenting manual.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69f1c47f122dfa8a3b27af450739a9a7880d86421a3272d30794d4f75f71df9d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Carone Nicola; Tracchegiani Jacopo; Lingiardi Vittorio. Maternal attachment state of mind and defensive functioning in pregnancy: predicting mother–infant relationship at 6 months through the PDM-2 Infancy and Early Childhood section. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1568620; article XML SHA-256 3f4b71c1d452179d8bcab1390d8163a00bc6e9f49d1187904cb038ca63efe8e4. “Maternal attachment state of mind and defensive functioning in pregnancy: predicting mother–infant relationship at 6 months through the PDM-2 Infancy and Early Childhood section” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1568620).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1568620). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychodynamic group psychotherapy
<a id="psychodynamic-group-psychotherapy"></a>

Psychodynamic group psychotherapy is a form of group therapy that uses psychodynamic ideas to help people examine enduring maladaptive beliefs, habits, and emotional expectations, especially those shaped by earlier experience. The group setting adds therapeutic opportunities not available in one-to-one therapy by using interactions among members and therapists to support trust, reflection on inner experience, and meaningful change over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f737d4004cefaf15d77ab76a3cd8d27a293cedba83735153976a8fba8a9cfb30

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Duquette Patrice. The power of the group: How neuroscience supports expanding the therapeutic dyad through group psychotherapy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1631855; article XML SHA-256 2a9b10ad5c8f0ad82dd69d472e129ac8cc6171dc86244cfc7c4760fa550cebe6. “The power of the group: How neuroscience supports expanding the therapeutic dyad through group psychotherapy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1631855).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1631855). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychodynamics
<a id="psychodynamics"></a>

Psychodynamics is the theory of mental processes viewed as changing and developing over time. In this historical usage, it contrasts with treating conscious states as fixed elements for analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ff54bd8a46ce389e62a57a3ebd3aac23654a357cf08998730605baf176dad7e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2163000-2175000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychogenesis
<a id="psychogenesis"></a>

Psychogenesis is the origin and development of mind, and also the study of that development. In this historical sense, it refers to mental growth as occurring under natural laws, including both the development of an individual mind and the evolution of mind across animal life and human history.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e64ddab49b1eec8fc83a3055f3267b80e5de04b2c83b4320480e66cc7d78c6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2163000-2175000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychogenic
<a id="psychogenic"></a>

Psychogenic means arising from nonorganic causes rather than from a physical disease process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddb9e1b410e62b552266d80ccebf8fa4ea36166c21c7be5807672cff0fa39e6a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aphonia” (D001044).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001044). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychogenic polydipsia
<a id="psychogenic-polydipsia"></a>

Psychogenic polydipsia is a clinical disorder in which a person drinks excessive amounts of fluid, often with frequent urination and low sodium levels in the body. It occurs in schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders, and the disturbed handling of water can sometimes lead to water intoxication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f4e451d9cefb8bd3eacb969ed45d4ea72882b956260a607f0727a0ed302fcc9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Polydipsia, Psychogenic” (D059607).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D059607). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychogenic seizure
<a id="psychogenic-seizure"></a>

A psychogenic seizure is an episode with movements, behaviors, or sensations that resemble a seizure but are caused by psychological distress rather than a neurological disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62b07c542fe670b44c3de6cd204cbc38dc34af492fd3f0e8987019cc799dae72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Psychogenic Seizure” (C116548).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological abuse
<a id="psychological-abuse"></a>

Psychological abuse is a form of nonphysical abuse involving a deliberate, repeated pattern of behavior by one person toward another. These nonphysical acts harm the other person’s emotions, behavior, and overall mental well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a952346cdffd0d563cb84a757d13a796735cf850c4e68ec928fd43e408324daf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Emotional Abuse” (D000085202).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000085202). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological aesthetics
<a id="psychological-aesthetics"></a>

In this historical usage, psychological aesthetics refers to the aspect of aesthetics concerned with the senses and feelings involved in beauty. In the source, it includes especially sight and hearing, and to a lesser extent smell, as giving relatively pure pleasures through colour, form, and clear, simple sounds.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df567944ad0670fb4383d9570ae82cecd5499243ef17b211211246e91784b90e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Beauty and The Beautiful” (Beauty and The Beautiful).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Beauty and The Beautiful). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological assessment
<a id="psychological-assessment"></a>

Psychological assessment is the process of evaluating a person's psychological well-being, usually by using interviews and observation to determine their current status.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 37206cf28597461084d9dd51cc247afaba4496d7f3c1a10f955dd63a50c241ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Psychological Assessment” (C137855).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological atomism
<a id="psychological-atomism"></a>

Psychological atomism is a historical composition view of mind that treats mental life as built from tiny mental particles or “mind-dust” spread throughout nature alongside material atoms. On this view, these mental elements can under suitable conditions make up the conscious mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddc3d7b3c10eba4c35ebe17eaf013e9e34e8384eb857b4dbafc061269dced000

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mind-dust Theory” (Mind-dust).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Mind-dust). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological autopsy
<a id="psychological-autopsy"></a>

Psychological autopsy is a method used to build an in-depth understanding of the factors that may have led to a suicide. In this context, it is used to examine the complex risks and pathways involved, especially in vulnerable groups such as adolescents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e8db070031c5f585bc79df3ed113ab149088443285dc269209372bbdaa11ac9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Soyuz Josna; Jaihind Jothikaran Teddy Andrews; Sakkir K K; Cherian Anish V; Ashok Lena; Chandrasekaran Varalakshmi; Augustin Boby; Elstin Anbu Raj S. Exploring factors contributing to adolescent suicide using psychological autopsy - A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348014; article XML SHA-256 c26dabd9bec7ea9b3db751957b6a56168de4a71ad5b00e83b8f6443c055b80c1. “Exploring factors contributing to adolescent suicide using psychological autopsy - A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348014).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348014). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological contract
<a id="psychological-contract"></a>

A psychological contract is the employee’s perceived relationship of mutual expectations and obligations between themselves and their organization. In this source, it is treated as part of the social exchange that shapes organizational commitment and may be reconstructed when work arrangements, such as co-working, change traditional organizational boundaries.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dab6a92b9aff6bdb350a84701883432ddb0cad4400fc86645007f8e159917d65

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pei Caixia. Psychological contract reconstruction in co-working modes and its impact on organizational commitment: an empirical study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1677068; article XML SHA-256 a69d993886a22d8aa795b809f81c8b3f779c27652702d6c44a39ddbcd334c835. “Psychological contract reconstruction in co-working modes and its impact on organizational commitment: an empirical study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1677068).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1677068). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological counseling
<a id="psychological-counseling"></a>

Psychological counseling is a short-term, adaptable form of support that is designed to be easy to access and to help people manage mild psychological distress and related difficulties by building coping skills and personal resources. In university settings, it is associated with better well-being and functioning and with reduced distress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c2346b869df9d3f47ca45c68679bf41201963a7767eb9622fe44d76b7522aa7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Albergo Dalila; Bertolacci Elisa; Maghnie Mohamad; Pace Cecilia Serena. Who takes care of those who care? A pilot study of psychological counseling for residents working in a paediatric hospital. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1899990; article XML SHA-256 4d060f1715d2ea0952e2776577c1ef763e499d61e21acaf2250542356178e89f. “Who takes care of those who care? A pilot study of psychological counseling for residents working in a paediatric hospital” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1899990).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1899990). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological debriefing
<a id="psychological-debriefing"></a>

Psychological debriefing is an early intervention offered soon after a traumatic event in which people discuss their reactions and receive validation and normalization of those responses, with the aim of supporting recovery and preventing post-traumatic stress problems. It was first developed for groups such as emergency service workers and later extended to individual trauma survivors, although evidence has not consistently shown that it prevents or reduces PTSD symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f6269a91baaa8ddf4ccfdfffed4f4fe8ac6e842ae43d149d74fb1066f278e060

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stileman Harry M.; Jones Christopher A.. Revisiting the debriefing debate: does psychological debriefing reduce PTSD symptomology following work-related trauma? A meta-analysis. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1248924; article XML SHA-256 3b0c099404d20968a90ab22a04d03648b9ac6fb0f2a5230f24edab60b627f6d1. “Revisiting the debriefing debate: does psychological debriefing reduce PTSD symptomology following work-related trauma? A meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1248924).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1248924). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological deficit
<a id="psychological-deficit"></a>

A psychological deficit is a supposed fixed shortcoming or impairment in a person’s psychological functioning that is treated as residing within the individual. In this source, the term is used mainly as a contrast, arguing that spiritual bypassing should not be understood in that way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 683e8b0edc6a17c6497d9ae9e1f3c3373c7661b0a127b79928f4c05f563cd5bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Patel Maitri; Kumar Navin. “It helps me cope”: a meta-ethnographic synthesis on lived experiences of spiritual bypassing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852417; article XML SHA-256 b92144ed9440489bbc3e511b6fda8cf03fe60d204c3cb0c74bbf90c804b351da. ““It helps me cope”: a meta-ethnographic synthesis on lived experiences of spiritual bypassing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852417).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852417). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological dependence
<a id="psychological-dependence"></a>

Psychological dependence is a pattern of behavior in which a person craves the mood-changing effects of a drug and becomes intensely preoccupied with getting and using it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2ad3cadecfc2a63d49f20bc9452a46972288417cd4a40b2aa7854c3de0f48a1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Psychological Dependence” (C21131).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychological Distance
<a id="psychological-distance"></a>

Psychological distance is the extent to which a person is detached from emotional involvement with other people or with situations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: dc8205171363011ffb84384df98902bcd7800e4ba7a58ac0cbe58c49979b051e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychological Distance” (D012929).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012929). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological distress
<a id="psychological-distress"></a>

Psychological distress is a negative emotional state involving emotional and sometimes physical discomfort, pain, or anguish.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb12a16263b63b4b67feebbc1502b7f7eec5da0d24495132e3f93b2c69925416

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychological Distress” (D000079225).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000079225). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological factors
<a id="psychological-factors"></a>

In this source, psychological factors are the internal and external influences linked with resisting physical activity or stopping participation in real-world exercise situations. They are described mainly as observable emotion-related influences, such as anxiety, depressed mood, and patterns of emotion regulation that contribute to discomfort during or in anticipation of exercise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7364f246d515f7753cc6478451233f7235c01557fa39dd7ea7ad9895ed9b448a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Lihong; Kong Fanjing; Liu Tianzhuo. Predictive model of psychological factors influencing university students’ intentions and behavior regarding physical exercise—based on machine learning algorithms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1737828; article XML SHA-256 6685f04f0fbfaf451591ab6fbcfe1169868621f6aa660400d3193c708cae1378. “Predictive model of psychological factors influencing university students’ intentions and behavior regarding physical exercise—based on machine learning algorithms” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1737828).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1737828). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychological First Aid
<a id="psychological-first-aid"></a>

Psychological first aid is an early psychosocial approach used during or after traumatic events such as disasters, accidents, or terrorist attacks that have harmful effects on a person or on society. It centers on identifying basic physical and mental needs in people involved in major events.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cf85412f1ed014165abf51279fc8521891bc1312b4890c9de779961a25de6769

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychological First Aid” (D000088782).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000088782). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## psychological model
<a id="psychological-model"></a>

A psychological model is a structured way of showing how psychological experiences, perceptions, or traits are related to one another. In this source, it refers to a correlational model linking adolescents’ perceived educational experiences with resilience, rumination, emotional regulation, and perceived reduction in depressive symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 86e17d20b20e6f74bb5c6963a8acdcff21bdde98479f062d53de601253ad7ef0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Da; Ye Rui; Ren Kaiwen; Gao Chengrui. Augmented reality-based fine arts education experiences and adolescents’ perceived reduction in depressive symptoms: a self-report study of associations with psychological resilience, rumination, and emotional regulation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1888424; article XML SHA-256 9c03db99e8ac227124eab0437249b1a88e56e4e340da4b95cc2d155b9ea1a688. “Augmented reality-based fine arts education experiences and adolescents’ perceived reduction in depressive symptoms: a self-report study of associations with psychological resilience, rumination, and emotional regulation” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1888424).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1888424). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological refractory period
<a id="psychological-refractory-period"></a>

The psychological refractory period is a brief delay in responding that happens when two stimuli are presented very close together in time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6700fbe9ec2117255bb7309501e1c4925f7d2f2575271fb9344079b6c6f17d4e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Refractory Period, Psychological” (D012033).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012033). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological resilience
<a id="psychological-resilience"></a>

Psychological resilience is a person’s ability to stay relatively stable and adapt in constructive ways when facing adversity or stress. Higher resilience is associated with more balanced emotional responses under stress and may support positive development and prosocial behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 102f3038123f3b7858a6557e2ea1a58c32df60c4e34928356bd044c2d58136a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jing Chen; Madihie Amalia Bt; Yuqing Ren; Chao Qin. The indirect association between psychological resilience and prosocial behavior through cognitive reappraisal in Chinese college students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1789130; article XML SHA-256 3a6e7acaf80715bff367cfa3407af10900865c363807cedf1541effd66facd4d. “The indirect association between psychological resilience and prosocial behavior through cognitive reappraisal in Chinese college students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1789130).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1789130). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychological Safety
<a id="psychological-safety"></a>

Psychological safety is an environment in which people can act and engage without fear of punishment or humiliation from other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 70a4f5860b88505a6f63c4191a950dcc92b952073976509061a9348268b305ec

Wording review pending: The ten-word defining clause follows the source wording; it can be expressed independently without changing the concept.

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychological Safety” (D000095422).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000095422). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological significance
<a id="psychological-significance"></a>

In this historical source, psychological significance means the part of a broader idea that applies specifically to mental life. Here, the biological notion of degeneration is said to have psychological significance only when it refers to mental degeneration in humans as a retrograde trend in development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 362d52a5345d0b2ca0baac08aba1e1a447c687d2f624606b6ec62ef373cec439

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Degeneration” (Degeneration).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Degeneration). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological skills training
<a id="psychological-skills-training"></a>

Psychological skills training is a structured approach used in sport psychology to help athletes prepare for the demands of performance by learning specific mental skills. It may involve both direct teaching and a collaborative process that supports athletes in learning to guide their own development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5692a63d777576ed04abfdcf1c0735703612b45bc4b2005975f7df964efb6f66

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Xiao; Rogers Morgan; Werthner Penny. Exploring a practitioner-athlete relationship and facilitated learning throughout a psychological skills training program. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1354129; article XML SHA-256 60c8e21814e26c802c285cfc0ea5d2b461ea140f141480fcc723f27371d6b664. “Exploring a practitioner-athlete relationship and facilitated learning throughout a psychological skills training program” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1354129).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1354129). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological test
<a id="psychological-test"></a>

A psychological test is a standardized measure used to assess abilities such as intelligence, aptitude, or achievement, or to evaluate personality traits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f4cf1cd9df7d84ac22e342f2c027326dfddb31e93b9228e0d02485dfbdd0af0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychological Tests” (D011581).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011581). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychological testing
<a id="psychological-testing"></a>

Psychological testing is the use of a psychological test instrument to assess a person’s psychological traits. In this context, it is used before treatment to help indicate the potential for later dissatisfaction with treatment outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed403389c5c643ac64ef460cb1c6975c26ef1383909e72d3e101af19adb8b209

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dudley James; Richards Lindsay; Mahmud Melati. The use of a psychological testing instrument as an indicator of dissatisfaction with aesthetic dental treatment – a preliminary study. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s40359-020-0391-z; article XML SHA-256 4570152565244481476ec6e51a217a4902ba5fe1399bd26cbf2f0aabf48f0d01. “The use of a psychological testing instrument as an indicator of dissatisfaction with aesthetic dental treatment – a preliminary study” (10.1186/s40359-020-0391-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-020-0391-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychologism
<a id="psychologism"></a>

In this historical source, psychologism means a philosophical method that begins with the subject, especially by examining consciousness or the process of knowing, rather than starting from objective reality. It is presented as the approach Gioberti opposed when he contrasted a psychological method with an ontological one.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce662f0fa55123ae5e2997f950a947d66e3ebfd94caed9b5d66478ca0adb523e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ontologism” (Ontologism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Ontologism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychologist
<a id="psychologist"></a>

A psychologist is a qualified mental health professional. A health care provider may refer someone to a psychologist for help in figuring out next steps for mental health concerns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cef777ca2b03a681c5f9c5dd89ba266f33fc4867ea67f4194d70e72120a480db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0b516be887dc405542437e91764765e37c105ae98c1d697b1789447654440453. “Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-what-you-need-to-know).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-what-you-need-to-know). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychology
<a id="psychology"></a>

Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and behavior in humans and other animals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ccdd565710ebc11fd6ec7924ff90457b093e28ee1f80a5cc6916ed4892405c83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychology” (D011584).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011584). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychology, Child
<a id="psychology-child"></a>

Child psychology is the branch of psychology that studies children’s behavior, including both typical and atypical patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35b0598bc391a65c570a7d4088f41afcea0785f3528640b96658e0a4645e9384

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychology, Child” (D002666).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002666). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychology, Social
<a id="psychology-social"></a>

Social psychology is the area of psychology that studies how belonging to groups influences a person's behavior, attitudes, and beliefs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42fb2ed11bac78ee72a973f4d072dfb265cc7035bd395bfa62561378ae737b7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychology, Social” (D011593).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011593). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychometric
<a id="psychometric"></a>

Psychometric refers to measuring psychological characteristics or processes using mathematical methods. It is used in the assessment of psychological variables.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18489ed911b35e9a45cd26daa07484f68f43fb5362964b61dc36d95e4afec7f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychometrics” (D011594).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011594). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychometric examination
<a id="psychometric-examination"></a>

A psychometric examination is a preliminary evaluation of a measurement tool to see how well it functions as a questionnaire or scale. It looks at features such as its factor structure, the consistency of its subscales, and whether its scores relate to other relevant constructs in expected ways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a77b23686188a06fe12a2b648c0c6fe7362796bf5ff4c12344ea71f542e83ed2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Otte Lisa; Fries Stefan. First steps toward a questionnaire of motivational awareness: preliminary development and psychometric examination. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1869033; article XML SHA-256 6b2fa7895f5660f668b1ea0b62d3a6ff2ee9bc06e108e734e8b7dd2c4b17a98f. “First steps toward a questionnaire of motivational awareness: preliminary development and psychometric examination” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1869033).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1869033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychometric scaling
<a id="psychometric-scaling"></a>

Psychometric scaling is the method used to build and score a subjective measure, including how items are selected, what response options are used, and how scores are calculated. In assessment, it is part of the methodological development of a measure and supports later evaluation of how reliably, validly, and sensitively the measure performs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: caa6b6286c3f873b72df2dd7f5a4070e18270e525c550e9afa109365a775fc2a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pollard Beth; Johnston Marie; Dixon Diane. Theoretical framework and methodological development of common subjective health outcome measures in osteoarthritis: a critical review. 2007; DOI 10.1186/1477-7525-5-14; article XML SHA-256 8c81dbc75570b78a636b6bc23d31615aa56ce2f81c945fe0571ac3e0561e78f7. “Theoretical framework and methodological development of common subjective health outcome measures in osteoarthritis: a critical review” (10.1186/1477-7525-5-14).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-5-14). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychometric test
<a id="psychometric-test"></a>

A psychometric test is a structured test designed to measure an underlying ability or trait from a person’s responses. In this context, such tests are built and evaluated using statistical methods, including norms and test quality criteria, to see how well scores fit the population being assessed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b29733defe6dcc770f4e5fbad216e0daeedd2a9c61855c4066dced39b2fc5a05

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lenhard Alexandra; Lenhard Wolfgang; Gary Sebastian. Continuous norming of psychometric tests: A simulation study of parametric and semi-parametric approaches. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0222279; article XML SHA-256 018f84ab0b54609cf0c8ee65428f311bff05c11922a07275576a43d6fd04009d. “Continuous norming of psychometric tests: A simulation study of parametric and semi-parametric approaches” (10.1371/journal.pone.0222279).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222279). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychometrics
<a id="psychometrics"></a>

Psychometrics is the measurement of psychological characteristics using mathematical methods. It refers to assessing mental or behavioral variables in a structured, quantitative way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7cdcb7b15a5c3862e731b7c37bbc806f5b1231ad812eac52f6ec81258ef900d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychometrics” (D011594).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011594). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychomotor
<a id="psychomotor"></a>

In this context, psychomotor refers to approaches that work through the body and the senses, with attention to physical and sensory experience. It is used for therapies that aim to influence these experiences to support regulation, especially in stress and trauma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3de1da7ac64d79df2f0db5143ef82bf58f2051f8d13ffc159e1bf8bfa78205f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Haeyen Suzanne. A theoretical exploration of polyvagal theory in creative arts and psychomotor therapies for emotion regulation in stress and trauma. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1382007; article XML SHA-256 dd7cd047c5850daae3d9d63c9d01b656113365d8867c817f8ff8ad0ce844aece. “A theoretical exploration of polyvagal theory in creative arts and psychomotor therapies for emotion regulation in stress and trauma” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1382007).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1382007). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychomotor agitation
<a id="psychomotor-agitation"></a>

Psychomotor agitation is a state of inner restlessness that comes with increased physical activity. It can appear with drug toxicity affecting the nervous system or with other conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7188644acf4f069c5bfc16032ffcc2f720b0d8d2b73f96429df24f1ce8116399

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychomotor Agitation” (D011595).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011595). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychomotor disorder
<a id="psychomotor-disorder"></a>

A psychomotor disorder is a condition involving abnormal movement, which may be unusually excessive or markedly slowed. When it is prolonged or severe, it can also make communication difficult.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3abbdd4f9ec04e08246328c2c56f1c7ef896d1de36b5cc4b0b34c58ec76291d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zingela Zukiswa; Stroud Louise; Cronje Johan; Fink Max; van Wyk Stephan. The psychological and subjective experience of catatonia: a qualitative study. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s40359-022-00885-7; article XML SHA-256 fef005fbd97e29f80805140340c54abf193f8f672e9900aac81ca9e2e33a0ae3. “The psychological and subjective experience of catatonia: a qualitative study” (10.1186/s40359-022-00885-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-022-00885-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychomotor Performance
<a id="psychomotor-performance"></a>

Psychomotor performance is the ability to coordinate sensory input or thinking processes with physical movement. It describes how mental and motor activity work together in action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aad600efc760d204b04b7bc82936ddbd018c242266e5e6c32a7c9c0ab79843be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychomotor Performance” (D011597).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011597). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychomotor retardation
<a id="psychomotor-retardation"></a>

Psychomotor retardation is a slowing of mental and physical activity. In psychology, it is described as a core feature of depression, although similar cognitive and movement slowing can also occur with aging.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7894425ec98a0e5bce102ff62223597c5f0a79392f628d165e9ae34d317eed5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Beheydt Lieve Lia; Schrijvers Didier; Docx Lise; Bouckaert Filip; Hulstijn Wouter; Sabbe Bernard. Psychomotor Retardation in Elderly Untreated Depressed Patients. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00196; article XML SHA-256 0884904e9b9f6fd7b7e4a0fe9fe6773833931f1e8b57d52a43adc29ab9e7d166. “Psychomotor Retardation in Elderly Untreated Depressed Patients” (10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00196).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00196). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychomotor skill
<a id="psychomotor-skill"></a>

Psychomotor skill is performance that depends on both mental processes and physical movement, such as making decisions and carrying out motor actions during a task. In this source, it is assessed through the combination of decision-making and motor skill execution, especially under challenge or pressure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76d2bf17c7706c3593f51bbb4c526d816191821dc0ad9612226201c7ef742bf1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Piggott Ben; Müller Sean; Chivers Paola; Burgin Matthew; Hoyne Gerard. Coach Rating Combined With Small-Sided Games Provides Further Insight Into Mental Toughness in Sport. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01552; article XML SHA-256 a6879c76f7926e87f3653f40708ae912044733f5be27c2437ebdf14996ec64b2. “Coach Rating Combined With Small-Sided Games Provides Further Insight Into Mental Toughness in Sport” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01552).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01552). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychoneuroimmunology
<a id="psychoneuroimmunology"></a>

Psychoneuroimmunology is the study of how the brain, behavior, and the immune system influence one another. It examines how neuropsychological, brain-based, and psychosocial factors can strengthen or weaken immune and allergic responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6da1d3a040ed7eb722271c75252082cf59c7b652ecee6f894e5f75dbc44483b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychoneuroimmunology” (D011598).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011598). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychoneurosis
<a id="psychoneurosis"></a>

In this historical source, a psychoneurosis is a mental or psychogenic nervous disorder in which the mental disturbance is basic, even when the most noticeable signs are physical symptoms. Those bodily symptoms may mask the underlying mental condition and resemble organic disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86a3a70a4aff253740b047e453c29aa51fb13be8d8e09e4bbd693ddcf3b3ddf7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hysteria” (Hysteria).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Hysteria). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychooncology
<a id="psychooncology"></a>

Psycho-oncology is a specialty focused on how cancer is connected with psychological, social, behavioral, ethical, and physical factors. It also studies how behavioral and psychosocial influences may affect cancer risk, prevention, detection, and the course of illness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f0b6e98af4f8ae2a9dad609436e6132e4b1cae00c647dd92a5c1664189eaade

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psycho-Oncology” (D000073320).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000073320). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychopathology
<a id="psychopathology"></a>

Psychopathology is the study of the major causes of mental illness and the processes involved in how it develops.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cd590cffbe18c3a41b172751fdfdd0623418c9028095eeb9da21da38530a04d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychopathology” (D011599).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011599). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychopathy
<a id="psychopathy"></a>

Psychopathy is a pattern of social difficulty that interferes with functioning in society. In this source, it is described as having two broad dimensions—interpersonal-affective and lifestyle-antisocial—which are linked to different trait patterns and differences in how emotional faces, especially negative expressions, are processed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: edcc9578c73e3a9c946d2c108afe9f5a504cdc1ee986b20448ed81a887da3b08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ferreira-Nascimento Sara; Freire Filipa; Prata Diana. Psychophysiology of facial emotion recognition in psychopathy dimensions and oxytocin’s role: A scoping review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327764; article XML SHA-256 c50eeff0140f01a6e15c535f1d2407f30b2328a8e70a19e67fde6de08b03beef. “Psychophysiology of facial emotion recognition in psychopathy dimensions and oxytocin’s role: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327764).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327764). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychopharmacological drug
<a id="psychopharmacological-drug"></a>

A psychopharmacological drug is a medication used to treat mental disorders, especially when symptoms are more severe. These drugs are generally effective and usually tolerated, but their side effects can vary by the specific drug and dose.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b7cd40368120b835491abda008dfd49230a3cdb1ca1538e921a879a6c6d00e02

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kahl Kai G.; Stapel Britta; Correll Christoph U.. Psychological and Psychopharmacological Interventions in Psychocardiology. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.831359; article XML SHA-256 6eb444fad724a12781fb5847f88f16e5f85881d9f861c1494507b476a7c55fd9. “Psychological and Psychopharmacological Interventions in Psychocardiology” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.831359).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.831359). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychopharmacology
<a id="psychopharmacology"></a>

Psychopharmacology is the study of how drugs affect mental processes and behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3211e458605b5a641bf5ce55ec4b000cd92b1c5102c4d8737f5b1c00cf1552c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychopharmacology” (D011600).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011600). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychophysical
<a id="psychophysical"></a>

Psychophysical refers to a type of sensory measurement method used to estimate both how detectable a stimulus is and how much an observer’s responses may be influenced by bias. It can be applied across different sensory systems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c449ba83f61c5e682b982b72f4a4ed4a71144b4bc0ca7cde5e16d06404ecf0d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Signal Detection, Psychological” (D017603).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017603). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychophysical function
<a id="psychophysical-function"></a>

A psychophysical function is the mathematical relation between a person’s psychological judgment of a duration and the actual clock time of that duration. In this context, it is fitted to estimation or production data to describe how subjective time maps onto physical time using parameters such as slope-like exponent, intercept, and threshold.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c26e4011b137c90d46c7b94fe785a5dcd68991de637c64fb8ed5939182eea5ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kornbrot Diana E.; Msetfi Rachel M.; Grimwood Melvyn J.. Time Perception and Depressive Realism: Judgment Type, Psychophysical Functions and Bias. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0071585; article XML SHA-256 6c8e7e4b0a61ca063a91c3883b1aae6f288fe252203e83b763e704a2411b8351. “Time Perception and Depressive Realism: Judgment Type, Psychophysical Functions and Bias” (10.1371/journal.pone.0071585).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071585). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychophysical law
<a id="psychophysical-law"></a>

In this context, psychophysical law refers to the relation between perceived time and actual elapsed time. It means that mean subjective duration changes in a lawful, typically linear way as real duration increases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6758317249760af872375b2a099eb34ab04d5b7d7b6cb9621b1fa9174372e13c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Piras Federica; Coull Jennifer T.. Implicit, Predictive Timing Draws upon the Same Scalar Representation of Time as Explicit Timing. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0018203; article XML SHA-256 00a55faf0d83cff2e563e198eb470dd78765588d88c8ae4eca0123cff236aa94. “Implicit, Predictive Timing Draws upon the Same Scalar Representation of Time as Explicit Timing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0018203).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0018203). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychophysical parallelism
<a id="psychophysical-parallelism"></a>

Psychophysical parallelism is the view that mental states or dispositions consistently correspond with bodily, especially nervous, processes. In this account, enduring possibilities of consciousness are matched by enduring possibilities of nervous activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 89354e6046fa2e9dc44f3f0df496c1c2c2a5b9a26a3e6c5082ded33b6d4d473e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Excitement” (Excitement).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Excitement). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychophysical properties
<a id="psychophysical-properties"></a>

Psychophysical properties are the measurable features of a person’s sensory experience in relation to physical stimulation. In this source, the term refers to how the tingling sensation changes over time, with repeated exposure, and with factors such as temperature and touch sensitivity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab50324a38126c917dc10fb86cba745c95dc1c9fb66d3a1e2b34a8a0ea002214

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Albin Kelly C.; Simons Christopher T.. Psychophysical Evaluation of a Sanshool Derivative (Alkylamide) and the Elucidation of Mechanisms Subserving Tingle. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0009520; article XML SHA-256 42892f01e40f44d42e7b50a0b416c92145fcaf0af713c99621ca0500df19d100. “Psychophysical Evaluation of a Sanshool Derivative (Alkylamide) and the Elucidation of Mechanisms Subserving Tingle” (10.1371/journal.pone.0009520).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0009520). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychophysical scaling
<a id="psychophysical-scaling"></a>

Psychophysical scaling is a method used to measure sensations and other conscious experiences quantitatively by relating them to stimulus intensity. The term also refers to the broader problem of creating scales that give consistent results across different investigators and laboratories.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f72eddf85381efb5dfea75d1e66833fdc1f5783a55b5d7013eaab8d7a9492342

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ward Lawrence M.; Baumann Michael; Moffat Graeme; Roberts Larry E.; Mori Shuji; Rutledge-Taylor Matthew; West Robert L.. Achieving across-laboratory replicability in psychophysical scaling. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00903; article XML SHA-256 ace3549f45b5982807d639797b45ec313cb1f08434c429ad6c2b99815a8b66e4. “Achieving across-laboratory replicability in psychophysical scaling” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00903).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00903). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychophysics
<a id="psychophysics"></a>

Psychophysics is the study of how measurable features of a stimulus, such as its intensity or frequency, relate to a person’s response to it. It examines these links to better understand the psychological processes involved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b9f59728067ca4bd90e78f48cc251afc11d04ab92c175aa4417e5e722145140

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychophysics” (D011601).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011601). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychophysiological assessment
<a id="psychophysiological-assessment"></a>

Psychophysiological assessment is the measurement of bodily responses linked to psychological functioning. In this source, it refers specifically to measuring the auditory startle reflex and how quickly it occurs after a loud sound, as a possible indicator of neural processing speed and psychiatric risk or status.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bdaf9a594e218b83ba392b64bebe0cc8c534e96f2768232a04b1d8b98b8b6292

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Parker David A; Cubells Joseph F; Imes Sid L; Ruban Gabrielle A; Henshey Brett T; Massa Nicholas M; Walker Elaine F; Duncan Erica J; Ousley Opal Y. Deep psychophysiological phenotyping of adolescents and adults with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: a multilevel approach to defining core disease processes. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-04888-5; article XML SHA-256 1c70a84ebf660d978752fcd7b6cd7113bd10fc804b2692769dc59a44b0faca98. “Deep psychophysiological phenotyping of adolescents and adults with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: a multilevel approach to defining core disease processes” (10.1186/s12888-023-04888-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04888-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychophysiological research
<a id="psychophysiological-research"></a>

Psychophysiological research studies psychological processes by examining their links with bodily functioning. In this source, it especially refers to work using heart rate variability as a noninvasive measure related to cardiac vagal tone to investigate self-regulation and other cognitive, emotional, social, and health-related phenomena.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 84ae9fde4d95c35403f53603d651b58e28deb3399122fd3e64497b2ab67cac90

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Laborde Sylvain; Mosley Emma; Thayer Julian F.. Heart Rate Variability and Cardiac Vagal Tone in Psychophysiological Research – Recommendations for Experiment Planning, Data Analysis, and Data Reporting. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00213; article XML SHA-256 8cd92e882275afa5214734f05c4fad84454eca87525739e86419a288ff977b27. “Heart Rate Variability and Cardiac Vagal Tone in Psychophysiological Research – Recommendations for Experiment Planning, Data Analysis, and Data Reporting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00213).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00213). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychophysiology
<a id="psychophysiology"></a>

Psychophysiology is the study of how bodily processes are related to behavior in humans and other animals. It focuses on the physiological basis of behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96386866da55e6dd82b42c742d943d232dbcddd56dec9679837ba16ebc29174e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychophysiology” (D011603).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011603). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychoses, Substance-Induced
<a id="psychoses-substance-induced"></a>

Substance-induced psychoses are psychotic mental disorders caused by the toxic effects of drugs, chemicals, or other harmful substances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 81b07d3a3192505f287d4b0050fa77f7d7b76e286b863a76d2dbd4fd94e20804

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychoses, Substance-Induced” (D011605).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011605). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychosexual
<a id="psychosexual"></a>

Psychosexual refers to the combined psychological and sexual aspects of a person’s experience. In this packet, it includes how symptoms affect sexual activity and intimacy, self-image and emotional burden, and the person’s communication and care needs around sexual concerns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71f7628633b63ea71e7c3361a4ae05293dcdca62acdc240f9781b1b66f727ac7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lv Haiying; Chen Haiming; Xu Haowei; He Liya; Wu Huimei; Yao Danni; Lu Chuanjian. Psychosexual burden in adult genital psoriasis: outcome measurement, construct coverage, and clinical recognition gaps. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1890558; article XML SHA-256 b042d35fcb5e88c4484681c9a4ebe41aaf8027bef4b10999ce924f159655c587. “Psychosexual burden in adult genital psoriasis: outcome measurement, construct coverage, and clinical recognition gaps” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1890558).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1890558). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychosexual development
<a id="psychosexual-development"></a>

Psychosexual development is the progression of the psychological aspects of sexuality from birth through adulthood. It is described as moving through oral, anal, latent, and genital periods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e96eec8b4e19fbcdbbcfd7d31c66df54392b1a6245496930256c649dbf8e74ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychosexual Development” (D011606).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011606). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychosexual disorders
<a id="psychosexual-disorders"></a>

Psychosexual disorders are problems involving sexual desire or the body and mind changes that are part of the sexual response cycle. These disturbances cause significant personal distress and difficulties in close relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d62a8feb5e2d58ac536126f3d5c85142c20ac0c7843177271f1f1ab32df03e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sexual Dysfunctions, Psychological” (D020018).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020018). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychosexual dysfunction
<a id="psychosexual-dysfunction"></a>

Psychosexual dysfunction is a problem involving sexual desire or the bodily changes that occur during sexual response, where the disturbance leads to significant distress and difficulties in relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a162fb180d8a803500284985f4bd00fc4fd78929284379e9a366c4eed86a1b7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sexual Dysfunctions, Psychological” (D020018).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020018). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychosis
<a id="psychosis"></a>

Psychosis is a mental disorder in which a person loses touch with reality, with changes in personality and reduced ability to function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fcecc43d33e12f59aa652ddff05c15f0cf959faac5d0831819e4150dde0c66be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Psychosis” (C78576).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychosocial
<a id="psychosocial"></a>

Psychosocial refers to the physical, psychological, cognitive, and social effects linked to disease, including how people may be stigmatized because of it. It describes how illness can affect both a person’s inner experience and their social life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1a80b843df746cb8717c4003329cd236ba13d7882728fe097a19bc75ce3021e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Psychosocial Effect” (C17873).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychosocial deprivation
<a id="psychosocial-deprivation"></a>

Psychosocial deprivation is a lack of needed physical or social stimulation in a person’s environment that supports emotional, social, and intellectual development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e9ab4316c5d92170b9437a63fa2ab94ca09483d72e360d53eaafcd9dfabe8f53

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychosocial Deprivation” (D011610).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011610). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychosocial development
<a id="psychosocial-development"></a>

Psychosocial development is the growth of social-emotional and related psychosocial abilities that help a person cope, support well-being, and encourage positive health behaviour. In adolescence, these abilities are also linked to reducing risk behaviour.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef894e7e8e01bb034afe8d8392dc38ddf64fb1e884aab7f52df433422482d623

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kerzendorfer-Breithardt Miriam. Social-emotional competencies and health-related outcomes of health promotion in upper secondary education: a scoping review of German-speaking countries. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872950; article XML SHA-256 7d65363dff3807945310187ac278b618e915d1c03b828f0ab2c9b084f1734d73. “Social-emotional competencies and health-related outcomes of health promotion in upper secondary education: a scoping review of German-speaking countries” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872950).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872950). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychosocial Intervention
<a id="psychosocial-intervention"></a>

A psychosocial intervention is a psychological or social intervention delivered by a wide range of providers, including mental health professionals, other health professionals, religious leaders, lay or peer providers, paraprofessionals, caregivers, and automated formats such as internet-, audio-, or video-delivered programs. More than one type of provider may be involved together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b6b2d7fff7268a8781953c8447ada25213896bc163027cbdd58a1e9e40caeeec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychosocial Intervention” (D000083626).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000083626). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychosocial rehabilitation
<a id="psychosocial-rehabilitation"></a>

Psychosocial rehabilitation is a set of treatment programs, techniques, or processes that help people build the psychological and social skills and attitudes needed to interact more effectively in the community.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 995399bfb4e72d34cbdec9c05892cd6fa91fe0272afa97cd7674e39ac68144cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Psychosocial Rehabilitation” (C15423).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychosocial support
<a id="psychosocial-support"></a>

Psychosocial support is help intended to improve emotional and social wellbeing, such as reducing loneliness and negative feelings and strengthening a sense of belonging. In this context, it refers to culturally acceptable school-based support that does not rely only on students openly identifying themselves as needing help.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 37da7136996034ead4a58f09ef75302a207013a9b289633fa125901e398b8e98

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yichen; Wang Lidong. Intangible cultural heritage as school-based psychosocial support for left-behind adolescents in rural China: a framework and preliminary pilot study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1899748; article XML SHA-256 41d1429b3a23e3d1544306d6d64603ccf39fb28cf752ec6521c9fd479ee26656. “Intangible cultural heritage as school-based psychosocial support for left-behind adolescents in rural China: a framework and preliminary pilot study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1899748).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1899748). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychosocial therapy
<a id="psychosocial-therapy"></a>

Psychosocial therapy is a flexible form of support that can combine methods such as group counselling, education, and lifestyle change programmes. It is tailored to a person’s changing needs as part of managing their difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4dbf372c8bddf7c6abc82ab5b86c88a919268f9569db104a2523ae11081286ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lim Grace En Hui; Tang Ansel; Chin Yip Han; Yong Jie Ning; Tan Darren; Tay Phoebe; Chan Yu Yi; Lim Denzel Ming Wei; Yeo Jun Wei; Chan Kai En; Devi Kamala; Ong Colin Eng Choon; Foo Roger S Y; Tan Huay-Cheem; Chan Mark Y; Ho Roger; Loh Poay Huan; Chew Nicholas W S. A network meta-analysis of 12,116 individuals from randomized controlled trials in the treatment of depression after acute coronary syndrome. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0278326; article XML SHA-256 c4e7c0cd673e28caa984750d04adb35c58766f9df6be33413baea432d3d32817. “A network meta-analysis of 12,116 individuals from randomized controlled trials in the treatment of depression after acute coronary syndrome” (10.1371/journal.pone.0278326).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278326). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychosomatic
<a id="psychosomatic"></a>

Psychosomatic refers to an approach in medicine and mental health that recognizes the mind and body as closely connected, though not the same, in clinical care. It describes a field positioned between bodily medicine and psychiatry that focuses on this mind-body unity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b83f9acb6c7e3eacee66d9e77e318bf11b3255dda9be849712b7e2b008b0b56b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [von Boetticher Dirk. Conceptual competence in medicine: promoting psychosomatic awareness in clinics, research and education. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1500638; article XML SHA-256 2e5bddf112c37e2be2a83b292b4ae3a9c519644992d9a0e4174d67962ff809f7. “Conceptual competence in medicine: promoting psychosomatic awareness in clinics, research and education” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1500638).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1500638). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychosomatic Medicine
<a id="psychosomatic-medicine"></a>

Psychosomatic medicine is an approach to medicine that studies how emotions relate to bodily functioning. It is based on the view that mind and body form a single, connected whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd76945ae7cc935d4b241dbf2ea544638c4c78aba0dce89db43c7579c5b65336

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychosomatic Medicine” (D011611).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011611). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychosurgery
<a id="psychosurgery"></a>

Psychosurgery is the use of brain surgery to treat long-lasting, severe psychiatric disorders that have been very resistant to other help. It involves removing or disrupting specific brain areas or pathways, especially in the prefrontal lobes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b0015c98d85d3339ac9e176cc2d08e9c3b217f7e75f9caaa86c6877c310665e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychosurgery” (D011612).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011612). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychotherapeutic process
<a id="psychotherapeutic-process"></a>

In this packet, the psychotherapeutic process means the ongoing course of a person’s engagement in psychotherapy as they work with experiences, beliefs, emotions, and habits in ways that can support meaningful change over time. In group psychotherapy, it includes added layers of engagement created through interactions with both the therapist and other group members.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b14a0236a7d245aaf2bc41007a555389474bfc1f9b06e911b54c0eeb7f839094

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Duquette Patrice. The power of the group: How neuroscience supports expanding the therapeutic dyad through group psychotherapy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1631855; article XML SHA-256 2a9b10ad5c8f0ad82dd69d472e129ac8cc6171dc86244cfc7c4760fa550cebe6. “The power of the group: How neuroscience supports expanding the therapeutic dyad through group psychotherapy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1631855).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1631855). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychotherapy
<a id="psychotherapy"></a>

The use of verbal or nonverbal communication to address mental illness or emotional difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: daf7c16a1d31b37ace3e2110b871a753e600fcc64418cddc1e97dd2a3a8d18be

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychotherapy” (D011613).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011613). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychotherapy integration
<a id="psychotherapy-integration"></a>

Psychotherapy integration is the practice of combining elements from different psychotherapy approaches within treatment as it is usually delivered. In this packet, it refers specifically to adding emotion-focused therapy components to an existing therapy approach to better reflect real-world practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe1571738879ba8732acead92c3209a91750b96502dc60213e3ff5dee2cbb8aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Babl Anna; grosse Holtforth Martin; Heer Sara; Lin Mu; Stähli Annabarbara; Holstein Dominique; Belz Martina; Egenolf Yvonne; Frischknecht Eveline; Ramseyer Fabian; Regli Daniel; Schmied Emma; Flückiger Christoph; Brodbeck Jeannette; Berger Thomas; Caspar Franz. Psychotherapy integration under scrutiny: investigating the impact of integrating emotion-focused components into a CBT-based approach: a study protocol of a randomized controlled trial. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12888-016-1136-7; article XML SHA-256 d35d0a0900e328b19a6310f54e2440bbe4a88f8a1b755bacb630937c88804f8d. “Psychotherapy integration under scrutiny: investigating the impact of integrating emotion-focused components into a CBT-based approach: a study protocol of a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-016-1136-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-1136-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Psychotherapy, Multiple
<a id="psychotherapy-multiple"></a>

Psychotherapy, multiple is psychotherapy in which more than one therapist is involved at the same time. This can occur in either individual or group therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce02a6ddcc338fc5abac2dd6c6105bb623fa9271f72debea8a5bc73b3c87f543

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Psychotherapy, Multiple” (D011616).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011616). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychotherapy research
<a id="psychotherapy-research"></a>

Psychotherapy research is the study of psychotherapy interventions and their effects on therapeutic outcomes in different client groups. It also examines how clearly and rigorously studies are conducted and reported, and seeks to understand the specific processes that produce change in therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b94b97502e806d42b69aa5d60e90e9ae7350a623800e6d0663c2a61bfeeaad6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Orkibi Hod; Feniger-Schaal Rinat. Integrative systematic review of psychodrama psychotherapy research: Trends and methodological implications. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0212575; article XML SHA-256 da4b0481dcd001cb6821aae5fbef1d8790f37cdf164a977460c65860ebe39cc0. “Integrative systematic review of psychodrama psychotherapy research: Trends and methodological implications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0212575).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212575). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychotic episode
<a id="psychotic-episode"></a>

A psychotic episode is a period when a person experiences psychosis. It often first appears in the late teens to mid-20s, but it can happen at younger or older ages and can occur as part of many disorders or illnesses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4dfb388ec4b4b2e85bf141624c7143f3a779d6e1599039321ab98677c69f2ae5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Understanding Psychosis. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 8dfe261c13780de86a75c02b329ce1d2b047733dadb8ae4c0494d4fcb34d13be. “Understanding Psychosis” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/understanding-psychosis).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/understanding-psychosis). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychoticism
<a id="psychoticism"></a>

Psychoticism is a personality trait dimension discussed in psychology. In the supplied source, higher psychoticism is associated with greater anxiety, depression, and overall psychological distress in adolescents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 74ad3b61e4cc6cddf588c0314bc057d7f31af85859b557d3daf8dc9d4abea970

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Aijun; Xue Di; Yang Huaijie; Ren Yanfang. Personality traits and psychological distress in Chinese adolescents: the mediating roles of anxiety and depression. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1748370; article XML SHA-256 7dd7c1f8a391ec08cd2c13e18a5d369b544cda14b1cc3be01937e2ad4cddba27. “Personality traits and psychological distress in Chinese adolescents: the mediating roles of anxiety and depression” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1748370).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1748370). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychotoxic
<a id="psychotoxic"></a>

Psychotoxic refers to harmful mental effects caused by a substance, especially effects such as hallucinations and delusions. In this packet, it describes psychiatric-type reactions that can appear with psychostimulant use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc9629b57d23b1701b9ad9a3f92bafd0a2717862d893a4932d25aeefc9e01a9f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dextroamphetamine-Amphetamine” (C26643).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## psychotropic drug
<a id="psychotropic-drug"></a>

A psychotropic drug is a broadly defined medicine or drug that affects psychological functioning. The group includes antidepressants, hallucinogens, and tranquilizing drugs such as antipsychotic and anti-anxiety agents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fbc87faa67cd37e18e40e61e0bdb51403846a12775b47115c7a4bd068c3570c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychotropic Drugs” (D011619).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011619). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PT
<a id="pt"></a>

PT means patient: a person who is receiving medical care or treatment, or who is registered with a healthcare professional or institution so care can be provided when needed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ce1898c04bcd3cb6d6a3f8147b6a7ab7cb20ebe12408e8c436fc5f1301f4911d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Patient” (C16960).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PTA
<a id="pta"></a>

PTA stands for perceived teacher attitude. In this context, it means how students view their teachers’ stance toward using generative AI tools, with supportive teacher attitudes linked to greater intention to adopt those tools.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e56806fefaf938a6a3b9479662da22f28b4df6298673c8b8dff81bbced482f18

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Mei; Huang Ling. Modeling foreign language majors’ adoption intention of Chinese GenAI tools: an extended TAM with perceived teacher attitude and peer influence. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850558; article XML SHA-256 8e7fbbd69ac4471a3910657972b6d180f6aa13d919e076176fb39b6855540e66. “Modeling foreign language majors’ adoption intention of Chinese GenAI tools: an extended TAM with perceived teacher attitude and peer influence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850558).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850558). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Ptolemaic theory
<a id="ptolemaic-theory"></a>

Ptolemaic theory is the view of the world system presented by Ptolemy in his Syntaxis. It holds that the earth is a globe fixed at the center of the world, while the heavens revolve daily around an axis passing through the earth’s center.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8ed705166d30e11986b430df5fbb96acf79774c04992102e1f89654380c0b5b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2247000-2259000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PTP
<a id="ptp"></a>

PTP stands for perceived task performance. In this study, it means students’ own assessment of how well they performed their learning tasks in an online learning context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 595c3c2f0993d30877f836fa459452249a6466cb5d298c76cde705c4900493fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Junfei; Huang Jinyan; Kumar Jai. Community of inquiry presences and undergraduates’ online learning outcomes: self-regulated learning as a pathway and knowledge-seeking intention as a boundary condition. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1895876; article XML SHA-256 66d2fa49c4c0d13211d137ce4b57618a3c43d190a8d4a06bff23ec80e6731278. “Community of inquiry presences and undergraduates’ online learning outcomes: self-regulated learning as a pathway and knowledge-seeking intention as a boundary condition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1895876).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1895876). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ptyalism
<a id="ptyalism"></a>

Ptyalism means an excessive secretion or flow of saliva, often noticed as drooling from the mouth. In this historical source, it is described as sometimes occurring in mental disorder, though apparent drooling may also reflect failure to swallow rather than true overproduction of saliva.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f085a6384e72edac0ccb812400300f0ec60c98b7a710a7d6979f072c517e6ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-2184000-2196000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## puberty
<a id="puberty"></a>

Puberty is a major developmental transition in early adolescence that helps shape health-related behaviors and outcomes across the life course. It is also a period when young people can build greater autonomy in their health and well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3d0526bd2f7d975ded52295dfbc52f81a9b941ef85be77f472cb98784296478e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brault Marie A.; Singh Nanki; Kakkad Nikita; Peskin Melissa; Betori Anthony; Laynor Gregory; Naiser Emily. What do youth need to know about puberty? A scoping review protocol to identify puberty education competencies. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351147; article XML SHA-256 1995aca0e05e64412c5a904a13442dd1f1d522c9aa68fee3346da3b40f27da3a. “What do youth need to know about puberty? A scoping review protocol to identify puberty education competencies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351147).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351147). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## public health approach
<a id="public-health-approach"></a>

A public health approach is a population-level way of addressing a condition by increasing awareness of it and encouraging people to seek help for its management.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: efc077bf0b2ecc29b5eb4d3f4dafab681e575b288c62255f744ac362ef3d28d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mutiso Victoria N; Ndetei David M; N Muia Esther; K Alietsi Rita; Onsinyo Lydia; Kameti Frida; Masake Monicah; Musyimi Christine; Mamah Daniel. The prevalance of binge eating disorder and associated psychiatric and substance use disorders in a student population in Kenya – towards a public health approach. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-03761-1; article XML SHA-256 aaa19a397dcecac8b23dd078d3165db4843769d42f58f092f451dee1e52b8c4d. “The prevalance of binge eating disorder and associated psychiatric and substance use disorders in a student population in Kenya – towards a public health approach” (10.1186/s12888-022-03761-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-03761-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## public health nurse
<a id="public-health-nurse"></a>

A public health nurse is a nurse who, in child health clinic visits, monitors a child’s growth and development, assesses family well-being, provides health counselling, and gives vaccinations. In this setting, the role is part of preventive health care delivered through regular scheduled check-ups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fe84825ff2b0c801bbd56a7620bc5d55319449cf73482f53c2b1f68f0acc4873

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nieminen Heta; Hakulinen Tuovi; Puumalainen Taneli; Sirén Päivi; Palmu Arto A.. Time and labour costs of preventive health care, including vaccinations, in Finnish child health clinics. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0270835; article XML SHA-256 ef3adcc1ce8d31e3a03ced2b474a8caf4e0173919a2f60b00ecfc01ce6f88d63. “Time and labour costs of preventive health care, including vaccinations, in Finnish child health clinics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0270835).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270835). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## public self-consciousness
<a id="public-self-consciousness"></a>

Public self-consciousness is an increased awareness of how one appears to other people, along with sensitivity to being evaluated by them. It involves concern about social approval, image, and possible damage to one’s reputation in settings where feedback from others is visible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 14acc8f96401e19d0cd75129099e657d5a9c23eeb68ad09783093ee3f89da4e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jeong Kwon-Hyuk; You Jiung. A study on the differences in social-face sensitivity and conspicuous consumption tendency based on sports consumers’ impulse buying tendency: focusing on Generation Z. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1764875; article XML SHA-256 f769ec73cd00a345540f1d8b99b00b522fb8a7ab67080d3ba408b72431d338e7. “A study on the differences in social-face sensitivity and conspicuous consumption tendency based on sports consumers’ impulse buying tendency: focusing on Generation Z” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1764875).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1764875). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## public-speaking anxiety
<a id="public-speaking-anxiety"></a>

Public-speaking anxiety is fear or distress linked to speaking in front of an audience. It can involve worries about one’s own reactions during a speech, how the audience will respond, or being judged negatively.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d4782d5c452279d52d631332750a4a75becc6e42c0d3968b6bb60149eaa17985

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Scheveneels Sara; Boddez Yannick; Van Daele Tom; Hermans Dirk. Virtually Unexpected: No Role for Expectancy Violation in Virtual Reality Exposure for Public Speaking Anxiety. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02849; article XML SHA-256 c5b49715cc18a041da8123b153b43db37d4b6d390c38689ff056e7d84587020a. “Virtually Unexpected: No Role for Expectancy Violation in Virtual Reality Exposure for Public Speaking Anxiety” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02849).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02849). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## publication bias
<a id="publication-bias"></a>

Publication bias is a distortion in the scientific literature in which statistically significant findings are represented more often than they should be. In this sense, the published record can give a misleading picture of the full body of research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 52866f1ebadcbe061e8b0a9873cf0a8b1586b9543c096863656110a5948f6a64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jerke Julia; Velicu Antonia; Winter Fabian; Rauhut Heiko. Publication bias in the social sciences since 1959: Application of a regression discontinuity framework. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305666; article XML SHA-256 e2192803015580fa8dd9b1ad2a402a2f6cea1190dcb95d9ac763764ca6187208. “Publication bias in the social sciences since 1959: Application of a regression discontinuity framework” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305666).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305666). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pudendal nerve
<a id="pudendal-nerve"></a>

The pudendal nerve is a nerve arising from the sacral spinal cord at S2 to S4. It supplies the perineum, external genitalia, external anal sphincter, and external urethral sphincter, and divides into the perineal nerve, inferior anal nerves, and the dorsal nerve of the penis or clitoris.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ceaa7528c86de3e6610d9d003d7edddb50781ed9075511afbbcbe7bd14c70bb0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pudendal Nerve” (D060525).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D060525). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pull model
<a id="pull-model"></a>

The pull model refers to the part of a push-pull framework that explains behavior in terms of attractive forces drawing a person toward a destination, option, or alternative. In this broader model, behavior is understood as the outcome of opposing forces of attraction and repulsion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a56e0301aa20dd17691dbd6d2e64d91e6491bab9f3351151d0d897b86e40cb2e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guan Lufei; Wei Wenbo; Fu Mengxi. Exploring factors influencing parents’ adoption intention toward children’s illustrated e-books: A push-pull model perspective. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341651; article XML SHA-256 a7fda949df01bc43d465c00a7b699f7eda51ae4896a8cb1efa24b173f270288b. “Exploring factors influencing parents’ adoption intention toward children’s illustrated e-books: A push-pull model perspective” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341651).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341651). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pulvinar
<a id="pulvinar"></a>

The pulvinar is a large group of nerve cell clusters that makes up the most rear part of the thalamus. It lies above the geniculate bodies and the upper side of the midbrain, and it is divided into lateral, medial, inferior, and oral parts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 28aa47045d280687e1242ce9b709a1ca2f626c9dd78081b254a60bc66d96f13f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pulvinar” (D020649).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020649). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## punishment
<a id="punishment"></a>

Punishment is the use of an unpleasant consequence or penalty to try to stop or change unwanted behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab2ff6f0f36837c5f775519ad185d8b387d35f180b1a786438e863c1f2ba6d49

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Punishment” (D011678).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011678). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## punitive damages
<a id="punitive-damages"></a>

Punitive damages are money awarded beyond a person’s actual loss to punish wrongful conduct and to discourage similar wrongdoing in the future. The packet describes them as going beyond ordinary compensation, especially where proving harm or valuing losses is difficult.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 46ffe3261c2e4d1e446164be75e1bf60eb13bfebecc1fe445165607e0317182b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [You Kaijie. Key determinants of “Serious Circumstances” in awarding punitive damages for intellectual property infringement: Evidence from Chinese Judicial Judgments. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340113; article XML SHA-256 d5a1f6dbc83b44f930a405c28c52b80efdf8be97b0f06c079684ab02d58e087c. “Key determinants of “Serious Circumstances” in awarding punitive damages for intellectual property infringement: Evidence from Chinese Judicial Judgments” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340113).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340113). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pupillary reflex
<a id="pupillary-reflex"></a>

In this historical source, the pupillary reflex means the pupil’s automatic change in size in response to stimulation. Normal reactions described are narrowing to light, widening with sensory stimulation, and narrowing along with accommodation and convergence for near vision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0008046a331d1e705dd26e5c39fb30ed720b2545df19223f61e232f406893ab9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2835000-2847000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pupillometry
<a id="pupillometry"></a>

Pupillometry is a non-invasive, objective method that measures changes in pupil size in real time. In psychology research, it is used as a sensitive way to study cognitive effort and aspects of lexical processing such as word recognition, word retrieval, and semantic activation, although exactly what pupil responses reflect in word processing is not yet fully settled.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7b744e3ca7c5e96129d07d2e9693cc6625a9bb3dd1bdc1dbaceb36871fc66956

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rojas Carlos; Vega-Rodríguez Yuri E.; Lagos Gabriel; Cabrera-Miguieles María Gabriela; Sandoval Yasna; Crisosto-Alarcón Jaime. Applicability and usefulness of pupillometry in the study of lexical access. A scoping review of primary research. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1372912; article XML SHA-256 5e883ef2d44e371258c96aa271f537e5901731356e60c64c7bfaf9c739d06c8b. “Applicability and usefulness of pupillometry in the study of lexical access. A scoping review of primary research” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1372912).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1372912). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Purdue Pegboard Test
<a id="purdue-pegboard-test"></a>

The Purdue Pegboard Test is a commonly used task for measuring manual dexterity, or how well a person coordinates hand movements with vision. In the supplied source, it is described as a general rather than dentistry-specific dexterity test, and it did not significantly predict students’ preclinical dental performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e3d2b73c4202357831de4849c601c58cb40c5ffcf2570e51ed138d121abcb60

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Genaro Luis Eduardo; da Costa Neves Tamíris; Pazos Júlia Margato; Dovigo Lívia Nordi; Garcia Patrícia P. N. S.. Effectiveness of manual dexterity assessment methods for preclinical training in Dentistry. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311973; article XML SHA-256 97a69e1beccf9e62665a249cce602ae1afe97132143f6c45adb92fa92439db48. “Effectiveness of manual dexterity assessment methods for preclinical training in Dentistry” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311973).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311973). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pure alexia
<a id="pure-alexia"></a>

Pure alexia is a condition in which a person loses the ability to understand written words while still being able to write. It is also called alexia without agraphia and is generally linked to brain lesions that disconnect visual processing areas from language centers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eacd18cf922bede461f44875d8be899258509918d4c7b7fb97b5d66df7026237

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alexia, Pure” (D020237).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020237). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pure consciousness
<a id="pure-consciousness"></a>

In this historical usage, pure consciousness means the bare awareness of “I” that is implied in every act of knowing. It is presented as an empty form of self-consciousness that unifies experience but, by itself, does not tell us any positive facts about the self or soul.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0dbe6343a5db448ccbd59edb070d89df464497b0eaa74edefe28bd087ec7c90c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pure-tone audiometry
<a id="pure-tone-audiometry"></a>

Pure-tone audiometry is the standard hearing test used to measure hearing loss by assessing hearing at specific sound frequencies. In this context, hearing loss may be summarized as a pure-tone average across frequencies such as 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 kHz.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb6d4face2b172376de8125250590fd76872ddcb743ff1719a14a568c5d543e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Oosterloo Berthe C; Homans Nienke C; Baatenburg de Jong Rob J; Ikram M Arfan; Nagtegaal A Paul; Goedegebure André. Assessing hearing loss in older adults with a single question and person characteristics; Comparison with pure tone audiometry in the Rotterdam Study. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0228349; article XML SHA-256 e3b308b4eaa6a114003b67a011ed45b8639fa6dbe44cf8cf53e3ecc832ea2374. “Assessing hearing loss in older adults with a single question and person characteristics; Comparison with pure tone audiometry in the Rotterdam Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0228349).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228349). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## purging
<a id="purging"></a>

Purging is the use of inappropriate behaviors to try to prevent weight gain after binge eating. In this context, it can include self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives or diuretics, excessive exercise, or fasting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abe261e86bf07934948eb0a839b337755e7de8a996b9e0c6ff56c5f1e0f4f8a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bulimia Nervosa” (D052018).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D052018). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Purkinje cell
<a id="purkinje-cell"></a>

A Purkinje cell is a large neuron in the cerebellar cortex that sends signals outward and has an important role in controlling movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ecb07591b58cb3c5d1c09bef4c83e74b1e91ba71acc23bae5d422ec6aaf4f41

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Purkinje Cell” (C12651).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## purposeful behavior
<a id="purposeful-behavior"></a>

Purposeful behavior is behavior that appears to be directed toward a goal or purpose. In the context of compulsions, it refers to repetitive acts that seem purposeful even though the person generally recognizes them as senseless, does not find them pleasurable, and may do them to relieve tension.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9dc52b451fe6b52b47affb4e6e024e12d190b4fd2575e0ce959c9cfe35f275d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder” (D009771).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009771). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## PVS
<a id="pvs"></a>

PVS refers to the Political Violence Support scale, a psychological assessment measure used to evaluate attitudes that endorse or support political violence. In the source packet, it is described as a one-dimensional scale with evidence of reliability and validity in Chilean university students.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3b51aca5b81ef14faeb02b494d6c2b9a82719b8aceece1704fc8a01d19cf6ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Troncoso-Tejada Gustavo; Gálvez-Nieto José; Norambuena-Paredes Ignacio; Casas David González. Psychometric study of the political violence support scale in a sample of Chilean university students. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04416-6; article XML SHA-256 8267328f8103e15e0d986543d4be95da438d2ffc377e1b2d7404fc7a1692eaaf. “Psychometric study of the political violence support scale in a sample of Chilean university students” (10.1186/s40359-026-04416-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04416-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## PWS
<a id="pws"></a>

PWS is a genetic condition seen in about 1 in 15,000 to 20,000 births, most often linked to changes involving chromosome 15. In psychology and development, it is associated with cognitive difficulties, especially in spatial abilities, attention, working memory, and executive functioning, which can interfere with school performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 537c81d89d3b0c204827b2b2c9cd3853d4a7552afce34fd4bf578720cf70147c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Commodari Elena; La Rosa Valentina Lucia; Foti Francesca. Attention skills, learning and academic abilities in children and adolescents with genetic disorders: a systematic review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1677418; article XML SHA-256 df853b27cba6cd02167628b7961a2100b9509391c137013f1b8af484c49f9ac3. “Attention skills, learning and academic abilities in children and adolescents with genetic disorders: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1677418).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1677418). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pycnodysostosis
<a id="pycnodysostosis"></a>

Pycnodysostosis is an inherited biological disorder caused by loss-of-function changes in the CTSK gene, which affects normal bone breakdown. It is associated with overly dense bones, short stature, underdevelopment of the pituitary gland with growth hormone deficiency, and cerebral demyelination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8904f00eaf898282283339562cc2c13e06dda79cf838e898a1019756117a72b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pycnodysostosis” (C131187).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pyramidal cell
<a id="pyramidal-cell"></a>

A pyramidal cell is a neuron found in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala. It has a pyramid-shaped cell body with apical and basal dendritic branches and contributes to complex cortical functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f56c4c77c33113106c46a1e0112d80a6d84f7651ef188b386bd4effd33faf42

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pyramidal Cell” (C12652).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pyridostigmine
<a id="pyridostigmine"></a>

Pyridostigmine is a drug that blocks acetylcholinesterase in the peripheral nervous system, which increases acetylcholine and helps nerve signals cross the neuromuscular junction. It is also used to help protect the nervous system by temporarily preventing organophosphates, including some nerve agents, from binding to this enzyme.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6e643b79ec505b22ebeabf07db36d0a96f550958fcc6eb907775b9d377ec91d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pyridostigmine Bromide” (C47697).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## pyriform area
<a id="pyriform-area"></a>

The pyriform area is a smell-processing region of the olfactory cortex located in the front portion of the parahippocampal gyrus, including the front half of the uncus. It gets much of its incoming input directly from the olfactory bulb.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba1993ff40ee734b5f2ac9fd2cab91f1f26227601dd1f64709ebfa8d9ad551f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Piriform Cortex” (D066195).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066195). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Q methodology
<a id="q-methodology"></a>

Q methodology is a research approach used to study people’s preferences by examining how they judge or sort stimuli that vary across multiple characteristics. In this application, it can be used to estimate which stimuli are preferred, which features matter most, and how these patterns differ between individuals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a72a3fa265d705d6b771b8f8fe19c7aa90b2460813addd02ef85e999ae730ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Jie; Soranzo Alessandro. Applying Q-Methodology to Investigate People’ Preferences for Multivariate Stimuli. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.556509; article XML SHA-256 8e308f9a111ebdd0e89e58f8428ba9d534942ee9114794a3fa0332a3e55adfff. “Applying Q-Methodology to Investigate People’ Preferences for Multivariate Stimuli” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.556509).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.556509). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Q sort
<a id="q-sort"></a>

Q sort is a personality assessment method in which a person or an observer sorts a standard set of descriptive statements by how well they match the person being described. The name refers to the sorting procedure used in this technique.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8dd8365dc9dd01240d9b29cc0ce3775c51a56a6c56be75a4b34bfd9dba159d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Q-Sort” (D011779).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011779). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## QALYs
<a id="qalys"></a>

QALYs are a measurement that combines how long people live with the quality of that survival into a single index. They are used to assess the outcomes of health care services or procedures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e952004faa7956711c59719d6234a24c217a526170a8d01a04769b77e32519c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Quality-Adjusted Life Years” (D019057).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019057). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## qigong
<a id="qigong"></a>

Qigong is a traditional Chinese mind-body practice that combines meditation with slow, precise movements, controlled breathing, and focused attention. It is used to support balance, flexibility, strength, and overall health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96704182d0afeaba8418c7645ce8019ba69630b0e5b841ad7ff942eeb4f5a491

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Qigong” (C93098).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## QoL-AD
<a id="qol-ad"></a>

QoL-AD is a questionnaire used to rate quality of life in the context of Alzheimer’s disease. In the source, it is used as a geriatric scale with ratings that can be provided by the older adult and by the caregiver.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18f24ef7848fb7fe21656184c2964ddb831b56eec001d92d127100942c84137e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Boucaud-Maitre Denis; Simo-Tabue Nadine; Mounsamy Ludwig; Rambhojan Christine; Letchimy Laurys; Rinaldo Leila; Dartigues Jean-François; Amieva Hélène; Dramé Moustapha; Tabué-Teguo Maturin. Malnutrition and its determinants among older adults living in foster families in Guadeloupe (French West Indies). A cross-sectional study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304998; article XML SHA-256 69cf1dbfb8f77486852d5c24fd50d10b21e70178b215903b8ecf45ef59bb7c31. “Malnutrition and its determinants among older adults living in foster families in Guadeloupe (French West Indies). A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304998).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304998). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Q–Q plot
<a id="qq-plot"></a>

A Q–Q plot is a method used to check whether a set of data follows a normal distribution. In this context, it was used to assess normality before choosing statistical tests.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97f47476a6e9df8cf6ad82b934efe86a82f7778bb71e21e9e5e379b8b85482a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Agboola Afis A.; Esan Oluwaseun T.; Afolabi Oluwasegun T.; Soyinka Taiwo A.; Oluwaranti Adedunmola O.; Adetayo Adeniji. Economic burden of the therapeutic management of mental illnesses and its effect on household purchasing power. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0202396; article XML SHA-256 1cb6eb6b8eea63176b858a46e8b945be1b83d50b17d121dd48b85f5afa7a052e. “Economic burden of the therapeutic management of mental illnesses and its effect on household purchasing power” (10.1371/journal.pone.0202396).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202396). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## QT
<a id="qt"></a>

In this source, QT refers to quality testing used in fNIRS research to evaluate the quality of near-infrared scan data. It is described as part of a data-quality assessment approach for studying brain activity during cognitive tasks and exercise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f94164997661228961c983f56a5675b8a02b65d21b249f9d25f5b22098514cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Debertshaeuser Julius; Tarassova Olga; Strahler Jana; Klinger Sara; Heiland Emerald G.; Ekblom Maria M.. Feasibility of fNIRS for assessing n-back task-related prefrontal cortex oxygenation after continuous cycling at varying intensities: an evaluation of protocol feasibility. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1856059; article XML SHA-256 7945a3a96eaca6bbd19077fa80d8c5c22fece491772c2df28849f148fc6a95bf. “Feasibility of fNIRS for assessing n-back task-related prefrontal cortex oxygenation after continuous cycling at varying intensities: an evaluation of protocol feasibility” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1856059).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1856059). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Quaalude
<a id="quaalude"></a>

Quaalude is a sedative-hypnotic drug, also known as methaqualone, that was used to treat insomnia. It was removed from the U.S. market in 1983 because of its high potential for abuse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9f61161d1c05691e8e1990e0f6295b7e04b576f36f98f0d98008421bab4c8ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Methaqualone” (C640).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quadriplegia
<a id="quadriplegia"></a>

Quadriplegia is a severe or complete loss of movement in all four limbs. It can result from disorders affecting the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, neuromuscular system, or more rarely the muscles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14c48c723408ebf40dadb246949f27025bf7ef0b12957d77fbb5cf93e155c6b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Quadriplegia” (D011782).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011782). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## qualitative data
<a id="qualitative-data"></a>

Qualitative data are the detailed, information-rich material collected in qualitative research, often from open-ended interviews, that supports deep, case-focused analysis and a richer understanding of the topic being studied. Its value depends on how much useful information each participant’s account provides.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f172a8df8cf5672286b68cd38fa4f6fb316ea1f182f4c1e5120b3cd551648367

Sources:
- Drafting source: [BMC: Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies. Version of record 2018-11-21; DOI 10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7. “Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency” (05ea0554db4e6d0f11b4).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## qualitative research
<a id="qualitative-research"></a>

Qualitative research is an approach that examines experiences and treatment effects through textual narratives rather than numerical data. It can be used on its own or alongside quantitative methods to provide a more complete understanding, such as exploring intervention impact or reasons people withdraw from or refuse treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31a53ca8a192bca17f7b78afef9ec8ca389b38097a6c1f349c97244293edde15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao Li; Zeng Jian; Hu Kaiyan; Ma Bin. Endorsement of the 32-item Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative (COREQ) and Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) by Chinese journals of nursing: A survey of editors and review of journal instructions for authors. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346938; article XML SHA-256 074027151db89ed39af8fef054b887dc42df4d567351f2869aa216194e61976b. “Endorsement of the 32-item Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative (COREQ) and Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) by Chinese journals of nursing: A survey of editors and review of journal instructions for authors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346938).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346938). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## qualitative variable
<a id="qualitative-variable"></a>

A qualitative variable is a categorical variable whose values are labels or names rather than amounts, and its categories do not have a natural order. Even if its categories are given numbers for coding, those numbers do not carry numerical meaning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e0d1dccd487d69eff56eba7cab191d22aab10824d4e681324b428bb6df75c75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Qualitative Variable” (qualitative_variable.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/qualitative_variable.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quality
<a id="quality"></a>

In this context, quality means how well a qualitative study is reported, especially how clearly, completely, and transparently its methods, findings, and ethical details are described. Higher quality reporting shows the study’s key methodological and ethical elements more fully, while lower quality reporting leaves important parts underreported.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f731edf552421bc4112c65defda6c2247464357fc97978e24a7cb6f0a5b95d1e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rojas-Miliano Cristhian; Dámaso-Román Andrea; Almeida-Huanca Guillermo; Mayo-Puchoc Nikol; Viguria-Chavez Yolanda; Sánchez-Villena Andy Rick; Taype-Rondan Alvaro; Paredes-Angeles Rubí. Reporting quality of qualitative health studies published by Peruvian authors: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351494; article XML SHA-256 172ebacacd39529684ba6aeeca2bf34867322c8854ed2b73e58bfdddaf77bd8b. “Reporting quality of qualitative health studies published by Peruvian authors: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351494).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351494). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quality adjusted life years
<a id="quality-adjusted-life-years"></a>

Quality-adjusted life years are a measurement index that combines how long people survive with the quality of that survival. It is used to evaluate the outcomes of health care procedures or services.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5f366b42b0800f201c67c099267b5eec81868e1c18aa4edb0bc8db0d28f90af4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Quality-Adjusted Life Years” (D019057).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019057). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quality of care
<a id="quality-of-care"></a>

Quality of care is the degree to which health services increase the chance of achieving the health outcomes people want. It refers to providing timely, effective care that is matched to individual needs and supports better long-term health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bd8a60aaeb6fd3703a2ecc2f3d74bad84078c04ac2764bbccdcfb6585f7ccb29

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yu Aqian; An Jingjing. Quality of care index and gender disparity ratio for stroke and its subtypes from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345938; article XML SHA-256 2841475956a56250dc82e0bc1565b47c4a1b41b96a2a489c5e555e5af7ad2d9d. “Quality of care index and gender disparity ratio for stroke and its subtypes from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345938).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345938). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quality of life
<a id="quality-of-life"></a>

Quality of life is a broad idea about improving and enriching the conditions of life. It includes features such as health and illness and the physical, social, moral, and political environments people live in.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6f09e8b24103c0a7910fd46150f91f02effcfd280ecdc50878bd6e311b30f26

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Quality of Life” (D011788).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011788). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quantal hypothesis
<a id="quantal-hypothesis"></a>

The quantal hypothesis is the idea that communication at a chemical synapse occurs in discrete units, with neurotransmitter released from individual synaptic vesicles. In this view, each vesicle carries a roughly uniform packet, or quantum, whose release produces a postsynaptic response, although the size of that response can also vary with postsynaptic receptors and presynaptic influences on vesicle content.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 81aee9e3beaa1c780da326bd9719e07c24075a2a0d27622417de7440d12335ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Takamori Shigeo. Presynaptic Molecular Determinants of Quantal Size. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fnsyn.2016.00002; article XML SHA-256 b59a2c9668ae6bd8f561b83ecaf9c6b8a4871e1a19ff5bf471daccea6f6af8bb. “Presynaptic Molecular Determinants of Quantal Size” (10.3389/fnsyn.2016.00002).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsyn.2016.00002). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quantitative
<a id="quantitative"></a>

Quantitative refers to studying experience using numerical data that can be measured and examined with statistical analyses. In this study context, it meant collecting participants’ ratings and using methods such as factor analysis and analysis of variance to identify patterns in perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 039ac279230d638508e439eccc873ecec8db34c6fc0bb5fc8f39a277e5894aa2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Zhongzhe; Li Menghan; Ba Meihui; Xu Wenlan; Kang Jian. Smart home soundscape: constructing a perceptual model with qualitative and quantitative methods. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803294; article XML SHA-256 43224f91bfc5689f65fb5afc3a1bb4f198cf434a2fb33a0b1e7ff996048c3f9a. “Smart home soundscape: constructing a perceptual model with qualitative and quantitative methods” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803294).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803294). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quantitative analysis
<a id="quantitative-analysis"></a>

Quantitative analysis is the examination of phenomena using numerical measures, such as scale scores, to identify patterns or relationships among variables. In this context, it refers to analyzing measured aspects like identity, language proficiency, and linguistic behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8532341c13bb2f1095f78d6013801812e153b095d19802f4459b27e29f3ccd0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Haiqiang Tu; Jun Guo; Yi Wang Jia. Identity construction among second-generation Chinese in Italy: a perspective on the symbolic function of language. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826033; article XML SHA-256 2ed395583eb73a8f5a9e170f03fdc6e668b8b0ae1bee269deb62c170abcd077f. “Identity construction among second-generation Chinese in Italy: a perspective on the symbolic function of language” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826033).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quantitative data
<a id="quantitative-data"></a>

Quantitative data are information collected in numerical form, such as scores from a scale. In this context, they are used for statistical analysis to compare groups or test effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b701c7fba203828813027f259f7051ad5d4b4df28432716e78dd803cb9e308c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cai Yahong; Arumugam Nalini; Chen Yukai. Effectiveness of design thinking pedagogy in SCCT-based career guidance: Students’ career decision-making self-efficacy and perceived value. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348205; article XML SHA-256 047d5e0b03633f7331382e0f392fe439b8a83bb93fc012ea9d67183d32ff6aaf. “Effectiveness of design thinking pedagogy in SCCT-based career guidance: Students’ career decision-making self-efficacy and perceived value” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348205).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348205). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quantitative evaluation
<a id="quantitative-evaluation"></a>

Quantitative evaluation is a way of assessing something by using measurable indicators and structured analysis to compare its features and effectiveness. In this source, it refers to a multi-dimensional numerical assessment of AI policies across areas such as content, timing, tools, and results.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea869e81a34f9c489d48e6776d80614474e0f0291c471a168c78880db81fc3cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Xia; Zhuang Xuan; Zhang Hongfeng; Zhang Han; Wang Yuli; Chen Juntao. Quantitative evaluation of China’s artificial intelligence policies: A PMC index-based modeling approach. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335423; article XML SHA-256 243a9917583e2805edb7aca8e6ba4dc09507fb5435af74b15dcb7eb74c19345e. “Quantitative evaluation of China’s artificial intelligence policies: A PMC index-based modeling approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335423).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335423). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quantitative psychology
<a id="quantitative-psychology"></a>

Quantitative psychology is an approach that studies psychological attributes by turning them into measurable variables, often with standardized scales and methods modeled on the natural sciences. It mainly looks for causal links between variables from a third-person perspective.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31f41bea26832d0206cfe9e50b04805c65a0e462ab765e050e526a9071ecc2c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ren Hu. Phenomenological reduction and quantitative psychology: a conflict in the study of self-consciousness. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1650407; article XML SHA-256 fab8b35bc44f2ad62c7ef11bf8e9d067deeb6b204e31f5f305fc36ae07ff4818. “Phenomenological reduction and quantitative psychology: a conflict in the study of self-consciousness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1650407).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1650407). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quantitative research
<a id="quantitative-research"></a>

Quantitative research is inquiry that studies attributes or conditions by measuring or counting them in terms of a standard unit or ratio. In this historical psychology context, it refers to making science increasingly based on numerical magnitude, as in physical science, while the extent of such measurement in psychology was treated as unsettled.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 12fc02b064c39ac8c296a65c6d9311e92a84202a03cb4643d4f1b125b73edf43

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Measurement” (Measurement).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Measurement). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quantitative trait loci
<a id="quantitative-trait-loci"></a>

Quantitative trait loci are regions of DNA where genetic differences are linked to differences in measurable traits that vary by degree. Studying these regions helps researchers examine how DNA sequence changes may relate to molecular or clinical characteristics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98b6c894ee716e046ee4b5e99f7483cb15bd4649645ac4844eb0ad1d1b613a58

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Mengze; Song Zeyuan; Gurinovich Anastasia; Schork Nicholas; Sebastiani Paola; Monti Stefano. yQTL Pipeline: A structured computational workflow for large scale quantitative trait loci discovery and downstream visualization. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298501; article XML SHA-256 77e605a2d6006994297d8f80772d0f68640afbe6b814c9c0320699dcca66de91. “yQTL Pipeline: A structured computational workflow for large scale quantitative trait loci discovery and downstream visualization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298501).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298501). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quantitative variable
<a id="quantitative-variable"></a>

A quantitative variable is a variable measured with numbers rather than categories. It uses a quantitative scale, including ordinal, interval, and ratio forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 79472ce80b580573336dfdb8faf303427e297a4c0c0e3ad40595163ec9bec4bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Quantitative Variable” (quantitative_variable.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/quantitative_variable.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quantum
<a id="quantum"></a>

In cognition, quantum refers to a way of modelling mental and brain processes with quantum-style probability and state-space concepts rather than classical ones. In this usage, it points to context-sensitive, non-commutative changes in cognitive states, where observation or judgment can alter the state being described.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7820efe2e905f500de5645b9c842291bccb7c74d3fb3132ddc87798626859b4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Emori Haruki; Khrennikov Andrei; Iriki Atsushi. Non-commutative structures of brain and cognition: quantum and contextual probability as a translational framework. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1882287; article XML SHA-256 798af8e50e8fa624d96be10f6a350c4e3c0e9ea376e32898b50b24db090acd9d. “Non-commutative structures of brain and cognition: quantum and contextual probability as a translational framework” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1882287).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1882287). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quasi-experimental control group
<a id="quasi-experimental-control-group"></a>

A quasi-experimental control group design is a research method used to evaluate a program by comparing groups that receive it with separate control groups that do not. In the source example, the comparison is followed over 2 years and uses both quantitative and qualitative data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8169339d6ce96e0075c4d29a013ef70070655cd21fcf61766f52869aeaafe50

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schellenberg Claudia; Steinebach Christoph; Krauss Annette. Empower Peers 4 Careers: Positive Peer Culture to Prepare Adolescents’ Career Choices. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.806103; article XML SHA-256 20f00b45801d96e269e7ac35152b828c98d85177105bb35148c2ffc3cfd5c50a. “Empower Peers 4 Careers: Positive Peer Culture to Prepare Adolescents’ Career Choices” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.806103).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.806103). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quasi-experimental research
<a id="quasi-experimental-research"></a>

Quasi-experimental research is a type of study design used to estimate cause-and-effect relationships when a randomized controlled trial is not available. It can support causal conclusions, but it relies on extra assumptions compared with randomized designs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc60cac6850f8d25645bd41552f73d5b9bbfd4982879c7b86ba45df1cccec623

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hinne Max; Leeftink David; van Gerven Marcel A. J.; Ambrogioni Luca. Bayesian model averaging for nonparametric discontinuity design. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0270310; article XML SHA-256 2a1199a1515e7aff91a6e1bdd28e293f4a32e29b4d5939535ad3106e85caf401. “Bayesian model averaging for nonparametric discontinuity design” (10.1371/journal.pone.0270310).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270310). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## questionnaire
<a id="questionnaire"></a>

In this mental health context, a questionnaire is a set of questions a person fills out so a clinician can assess symptoms and help decide whether they match a particular condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 121bbe63913e185575b23925ebd6131adbade3088f06fe3032aed50910480b9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Seasonal Affective Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d89120086a5f01bf70f21f43fbf64f1a5b58f4c35f5185f5dac0c769f3d6317c. “Seasonal Affective Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quetiapine
<a id="quetiapine"></a>

Quetiapine is an antipsychotic drug in the dibenzothiazepine group. It works by blocking serotonin activity and, to a lesser extent, dopamine receptors in brain pathways linked to psychotic symptoms, which can reduce experiences such as hallucinations and delusions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc9c583b5e2a5c6bc6c5386d1b33d295702dcb21293bbfbb35a6c74ad7c24c78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Quetiapine” (C61917).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## queue
<a id="queue"></a>

A queue is a waiting system in which arriving customers seek service, may have to wait if the server is unavailable, and may retry later if they do not enter service immediately. In the model described here, the queue can include batch arrivals, repeat attempts for service, and slower service during a working vacation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b1090bad8a18ee4b1ce5355c0bb1520ce6cbd2af0381b33ce7b39cb19c149ced

Sources:
- Drafting source: [S Sundarapandiyan; S Nandhini. Reliability and performance modeling of an M [ X ] / G ( a , b )/1 retrial queue with re-service and Balking behavior under working vacation policy. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354900; article XML SHA-256 862d360416095a6a4a5c5c7ecee958c47bde563161f9e7ed349a0146702fc3a5. “Reliability and performance modeling of an M [ X ] / G ( a , b )/1 retrial queue with re-service and Balking behavior under working vacation policy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354900).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354900). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## quid pro quo
<a id="quid-pro-quo"></a>

Quid pro quo refers to a transactional, exchange-based view of relationships in which one party gives something in return for something else. In this context, it contrasts with an attachment-based perspective by emphasizing simple reciprocity rather than relational security.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c6fa17bfbf687408a287f7a4579b33061c7cbd002aa9e810290ed034c89c6276

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Yuan; Wang Zhigang; Song Yang. Empowering leadership as a secure base:enhancing organizational identification via age-contingent employee resilience. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1785496; article XML SHA-256 541a606a58b367617a32fefb3ddc698569682aeb2f0e73da0a2ff322cd11ba68. “Empowering leadership as a secure base:enhancing organizational identification via age-contingent employee resilience” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1785496).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1785496). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## R-technique factor analysis
<a id="r-technique-factor-analysis"></a>

R-technique factor analysis is a factor-analytic approach used with data from many people, often from a one-time or cross-sectional assessment, to identify the common factor structure across individuals. It reflects a nomothetic, group-level pattern rather than a person-specific one.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f55aaf88d63f8a89cfc96469584148080a653027ad7b6985596d54580bd9ead3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Strohacker Kelley; Keegan Richard; Beaumont Cory T.; Zakrajsek Rebecca A.. Applying P-Technique Factor Analysis to Explore Person-Specific Models of Readiness-to-Exercise. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fspor.2021.685813; article XML SHA-256 3f0cb6281c7b8b1234bb14650c50e865b8820f45ad8215411e59458ed5b12f06. “Applying P-Technique Factor Analysis to Explore Person-Specific Models of Readiness-to-Exercise” (10.3389/fspor.2021.685813).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2021.685813). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rabies
<a id="rabies"></a>

Rabies is a life-threatening viral infection, usually spread to humans through the bite of an infected dog, that first causes general illness such as fever and headache and then affects the central nervous system. In later stages it can lead to sudden behavior changes, followed by paralysis, lethargy, and coma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 173dd5a9602efb0254920d405b4f5a880a05e3cfe5f5754fc457ce10009c9814

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Rabies” (C28182).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## race
<a id="race"></a>

Race is a way of classifying population groups by geographic ancestral origin, based mainly on physical traits viewed as distinct and inherited. It refers to a population category rather than an individual mental process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 67e44550c0cda8f18b89e2609ebcd8f4044d7fc9becc5fbe2e18378ac7a67e87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Race” (C17049).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## racial discrimination
<a id="racial-discrimination"></a>

Racial discrimination is unequal treatment or reduced access to opportunities because a person is seen as belonging to a particular group, such as by origin or ethnicity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e42452f773b52560419134752e890a734e42f073ef91342555604e1ae4c29b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Racism” (D063505).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063505). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## racial identity
<a id="racial-identity"></a>

Racial identity is a person’s sense of belonging to a racial group and the beliefs and attitudes tied to that membership. In psychology, it is especially used to describe identity development in a racialized society, including how people understand and respond to racism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7696d05e221ab842b62be9a38c670e969d5616839c967fe20fb7c8f4525291b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Macedo Davi M.; Smithers Lisa G.; Roberts Rachel M.; Haag Dandara G.; Paradies Yin; Jamieson Lisa M.. Does ethnic-racial identity modify the effects of racism on the social and emotional wellbeing of Aboriginal Australian children?. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0220744; article XML SHA-256 cf8d45734b6fe18a8512c7f2dfcbc5560d54b1bb22be5d0fb79bc1be5c1f673c. “Does ethnic-racial identity modify the effects of racism on the social and emotional wellbeing of Aboriginal Australian children?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0220744).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220744). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## racial prejudice
<a id="racial-prejudice"></a>

Racial prejudice refers to treating people differently or limiting their opportunities because they are identified with a particular racial, ethnic, or origin-related group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d29d1f1d512b660c65fd12219c35e21d82993426c4a5692edea6405badc3eeb7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Racism” (D063505).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063505). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## racial socialization
<a id="racial-socialization"></a>

Racial socialization is the set of messages people receive about race or ethnicity, such as learning about their culture, being prepared for racial bias, or being encouraged to be wary of others. In this context, it refers to how these messages may relate to coping with racism and well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8cf5c112220a19bf2541910c186714df20278d7915a131c240622bfdfd478cf2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Keum Brian TaeHyuk; Li Xu. Coping with online racism: Patterns of online social support seeking and anti-racism advocacy associated with online racism, and correlates of ethnic-racial socialization, perceived health, and alcohol use severity. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0278763; article XML SHA-256 1cdecf217477a068a170c35808d5f3f4f0b395afce677112a3466012fbb1dbcc. “Coping with online racism: Patterns of online social support seeking and anti-racism advocacy associated with online racism, and correlates of ethnic-racial socialization, perceived health, and alcohol use severity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0278763).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278763). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## racism
<a id="racism"></a>

Racism is unequal treatment or reduced access to opportunities based on belonging to a group, such as an ethnic or origin group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ac7cf6de65a49f9b48cf2cdca03a248a6950aabd0ed85e074c6b15827c814c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Racism” (D063505).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063505). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## radial maze
<a id="radial-maze"></a>

A radial maze is a simple spatial memory task used to study how an animal learns and processes information about space. In this context, it serves as a comparison task for spatial learning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8fda6b012f39cf3cd66df11d831a01c16e0d8490a63f60e5efd4ec5dd63ff991

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kumazawa-Manita Noriko; Hama Hiroshi; Miyawaki Atsushi; Iriki Atsushi. Tool Use Specific Adult Neurogenesis and Synaptogenesis in Rodent ( Octodon degus ) Hippocampus. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0058649; article XML SHA-256 f5f99e59804ef55aa078548c60544df4a62261290898208e8c9d5a5ab9c02c18. “Tool Use Specific Adult Neurogenesis and Synaptogenesis in Rodent ( Octodon degus ) Hippocampus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0058649).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0058649). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## radial nerve
<a id="radial-nerve"></a>

The radial nerve is a major nerve of the upper limb. It arises from lower neck and upper chest spinal cord fibers through the brachial plexus and provides movement to the arm’s extensor muscles as well as sensation to extensor areas of the arm and hand.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d67db2725d9a46a1196f69aac12323f5298347fe6536d2fe7aa8e6689ba4a92d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Radial Nerve” (D011826).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011826). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## radiation therapy
<a id="radiation-therapy"></a>

Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that directs planned radiation doses at a tumor while trying to limit exposure to nearby organs at risk. In this source, techniques such as intensity modulated radiation therapy and volumetric modulated arc therapy are described as ways to improve target coverage and reduce dose to normal tissues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d30012b2d526a3bf69dff0c38989f131a79612d881658f52dc9e6daf97e1fb45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meier Valeria; Czichon Felicitas; Walsh Linda; Rohrer Bley Carla. Can volumetric modulated arc radiation therapy reduce organ at risk dose in stage 4 sinonasal tumors in dogs treated with boost irradiation?. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0259112; article XML SHA-256 1f5b101516e51f0cd881811f7b5f16d866fab18e873878e12317d1cbce8ff074. “Can volumetric modulated arc radiation therapy reduce organ at risk dose in stage 4 sinonasal tumors in dogs treated with boost irradiation?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0259112).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259112). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## radicalism
<a id="radicalism"></a>

Radicalism is an extreme form of liberalism marked by a tendency to embrace new ideas or changes simply because they are new. In this historical source, it is contrasted with conservatism as part of social attitudes toward reform and change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f17028c6a4ae0d90bf3cab1d62b9c6651188f8a3d9bfbcbd28bcb9d2c3e101dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Liberalism” (Liberalism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Liberalism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## radiculopathy
<a id="radiculopathy"></a>

Radiculopathy is a disorder affecting a spinal nerve root, often due to compression from problems such as a displaced intervertebral disk, spinal injury, or other spinal disease. It can cause nerve-root-related pain, weakness, and loss of sensation in the areas served by the affected root.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 490d5891d614f0c827dea94541abc7654618f94d82eaffbe155dc93313fc53a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Radiculopathy” (D011843).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011843). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## radioactive tracer
<a id="radioactive-tracer"></a>

A radioactive tracer is a radioactive substance used to follow the movement of another substance through a biological system. In this source, it was used to measure calcium movement across an intestinal cell layer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea6a7b3091425375eb0db656367c61d4e0f230269b18533675a2416949a88bf0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rodrat Mayuree; Wongdee Kannikar; Teerapornpuntakit Jarinthorn; Thongbunchoo Jirawan; Tanramluk Duangrudee; Aeimlapa Ratchaneevan; Thammayon Nithipak; Thonapan Natchayaporn; Wattano Pathnaree; Charoenphandhu Narattaphol. Vasoactive intestinal peptide and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator contribute to the transepithelial calcium transport across intestinal epithelium-like Caco-2 monolayer. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0277096; article XML SHA-256 1e9fbbb0a907c226bb2fc2ccf7353fb8c637ee1d5fa43bfe283a22d633525157. “Vasoactive intestinal peptide and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator contribute to the transepithelial calcium transport across intestinal epithelium-like Caco-2 monolayer” (10.1371/journal.pone.0277096).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277096). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## radiography
<a id="radiography"></a>

In this packet, radiography refers specifically to dynamic digital radiography, a bedside imaging method that provides real-time views of lung movement while using relatively little radiation. It is described as a way to derive measures that may help estimate risk of breathing problems after extubation in ICU patients.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ad2379b32f767aa2053bd6d0e138563294321065405c9d5b416aaaad3321f9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Komatsu Satoshi; Nishida Kazuki; Hara Yoshitaka; Kuriyama Naohide; Nakamura Tomoyuki. Association between dynamic digital radiography findings and post-extubation respiratory deterioration: A retrospective exploratory analysis of a prospectively collected ICU cohort. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352029; article XML SHA-256 73b87e90b473210f8a145d266577bfde1e45ff1e0d54c387a243d04988e38a4a. “Association between dynamic digital radiography findings and post-extubation respiratory deterioration: A retrospective exploratory analysis of a prospectively collected ICU cohort” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352029).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352029). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## radiology
<a id="radiology"></a>

Radiology is the medical imaging field or care setting where diagnostic examinations such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are performed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f487b4d9cb12210d18fe12d8f3c4f184aa2df34974fd1dd38af0817b55d7f37a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Peng; Zhang Lei; Ren Jie; Wang Meng. Music intervention for reducing anxiety in patients undergoing CT or MRI examinations: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1864214; article XML SHA-256 5ad876b7391c008a7c807d07701d64c22b0f42ad6226ce0fa273f8e474c2b222. “Music intervention for reducing anxiety in patients undergoing CT or MRI examinations: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1864214).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1864214). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RAE
<a id="rae"></a>

RAE stands for relative age effect, a pattern in age-grouped selection systems where children born earlier in the selection period are more likely to be seen as more talented because of early physical, cognitive, or behavioural advantages. Those early advantages can be amplified over time by selection decisions, greater access to coaching and practice, and differences in confidence or dropout.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e87ddd244b0c86f97ec7dfcaca990bb0a87e461d1dfc1407765aab81b4f9235

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Grund Thomas Ulrich. Cross-national and historical variation in relative age effects in professional football. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354928; article XML SHA-256 a1e96c41ebd6dfc94f0bf4b1a079a4dac4fb2bc3444752e087fda81650815c5a. “Cross-national and historical variation in relative age effects in professional football” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354928).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354928). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Rage
<a id="rage"></a>

Rage is an extreme form of anger marked by intense fury and violence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f9f6f09c86e372b78e5a63dd4fe4ccee8528674bf4dd666b1a7aa8979c0635a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Rage” (D011889).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011889). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## railway spine
<a id="railway-spine"></a>

Railway spine is a historical name for a form of traumatic neurosis or psychical disorder said to follow an injury, often a railway accident, even when the injury was slight. In this usage it referred to functional or non-organic post-injury symptoms such as pain, insomnia, memory problems, low mood, fear, irritability, fatigue, and other hysterical or sensory-motor complaints, rather than cases with clear structural lesions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa2a4e545117812750800b9d75f0b5ac4925db2b18cdd39acce8bab28b6efa27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3370500-3382500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Rana pipiens
<a id="rana-pipiens"></a>

Rana pipiens is a frog used in biological research on optic nerve injury and regrowth. In the supplied source, it is the species in which growth factors were studied for their effects on macrophage activity and regenerating retinal ganglion cell axons after nerve crush.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f520809a9c0f2170818cd09665538a39022b50bf0e9fcefb5b05070abd3193a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Blanco Rosa E.; Vega-Meléndez Giam S.; De La Rosa-Reyes Valeria; del Cueto Clarissa; Blagburn Jonathan M.. Application of CNTF or FGF-2 increases the number of M2-like macrophages after optic nerve injury in adult Rana pipiens. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209733; article XML SHA-256 9670e4974144a880e3c3cfbc958fffe4d3f037722a5d1c1d4e82622a5136d60a. “Application of CNTF or FGF-2 increases the number of M2-like macrophages after optic nerve injury in adult Rana pipiens” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209733).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209733). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## random assignment
<a id="random-assignment"></a>

Random assignment is the process of placing participants in an experiment into different conditions by chance. Its purpose is to reduce the risk that treatment effects are mixed up with other variables in a systematic way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61d4fa982f3567b8b86a8615c12532933877702b08fc09f978ab343fd4975e15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Random Assignment” (random_assign.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/random_assign.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## random-digit dialing
<a id="random-digit-dialing"></a>

Random-digit dialing is a telephone survey method that contacts people through randomly generated phone numbers. It can be done using landlines, cell phones, or both to reach people in the general population.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5f4ccedfcd5c7e126763850a75486a91059d2f8dff48b67b55b2fc0672730f04

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Soullier Noémie; Legleye Stéphane; Richard Jean-Baptiste. Moving towards a single-frame cell phone design in random digit dialing surveys: considerations from a French general population health survey. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12874-022-01573-1; article XML SHA-256 39b64202b038e97a17cc2517d41131576cdfb09e263cce4d5087ae3bc6d8aa28. “Moving towards a single-frame cell phone design in random digit dialing surveys: considerations from a French general population health survey” (10.1186/s12874-022-01573-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-022-01573-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## random-dot stereogram
<a id="random-dot-stereogram"></a>

A random-dot stereogram is a pair of images made from randomly placed dots that is used to study depth perception. By shifting some dots between the two images, it isolates binocular depth cues so that near or far depth can be perceived from the disparity between the eyes’ views.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b1efe661735dd459fc8dc168174e5e406758f597985aa5c824e507fc22d3284

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hibbard Paul B.; Asher Jordi M.. Robust natural depth for anticorrelated random dot stereogram for edge stimuli, but minimal reversed depth for embedded circular stimuli, irrespective of eccentricity. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0274566; article XML SHA-256 7400a8763ef89cf7acbbd6decb5f42d03a2c5277e0c58b436c877a9796954c20. “Robust natural depth for anticorrelated random dot stereogram for edge stimuli, but minimal reversed depth for embedded circular stimuli, irrespective of eccentricity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0274566).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0274566). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## random factor
<a id="random-factor"></a>

A random factor is a variable in a statistical model that represents differences linked to the particular units being sampled, such as individual participants. In the source study, subject ID was treated this way so the analysis could account for person-to-person variation while testing the effect of time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad668d6cc79737356c17a95fd0772667cf8a3a90b4b3b7ff2d955cc24ab0ef9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Philipp Nicolas M; Cabarkapa Dimitrije; Eserhaut Drake A; Yu Daniel; Fry Andrew C. Repeat sprint fatigue and altered neuromuscular performance in recreationally trained basketball players. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288736; article XML SHA-256 5152d12aba892773b6494f6f4520c3502f90abb4731d287b0366664091993370. “Repeat sprint fatigue and altered neuromuscular performance in recreationally trained basketball players” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288736).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288736). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## random sampling
<a id="random-sampling"></a>

Random sampling is a research method for choosing a subset of a population so conclusions can be drawn about the whole group. In random sampling, each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee6aee48547d0967e5b4a91195489b0884e47c7e5f76fcc8690e1a4a049c8a71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Random Sampling” (random_sampling.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/random_sampling.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## random variable
<a id="random-variable"></a>

A random variable is a variable used to represent values that can vary by chance. In this context, it can be a set of p indicators treated together as a p-dimensional random variable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5174fffa1b055eaf4a3dbf618a82cfffc7506db4cc4cccde55fa1803ac4058d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Noorbaloochi Siamak; Clothier Barbara A; Murdoch Maureen. Using joint probability density to create most informative unidimensional indices: a new method using pain and psychiatric severity as examples. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12874-024-02299-y; article XML SHA-256 cd45bea074346a21052bd26a776b2b7c97d853e293128bfe19ae778807e2bce6. “Using joint probability density to create most informative unidimensional indices: a new method using pain and psychiatric severity as examples” (10.1186/s12874-024-02299-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-024-02299-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## random walk
<a id="random-walk"></a>

A random walk is a way of moving through a network step by step according to probabilistic rules, sometimes with added biases such as favoring or avoiding certain kinds of nodes. In learning applications, random walks can be used to generate sequences from a network for tasks like building embeddings and predicting links.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b3bbc2592e0806e8e1542567c51421492409478fe79a327939428a865dcfc1b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vital Adilson; Silva Filipi Nascimento; Amancio Diego Raphael. Comparing random walks in graph embedding and link prediction. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312863; article XML SHA-256 3920286136d467fa5d0ddf92d439552158e7c8e58b5ed93e1266cb38e4418e09. “Comparing random walks in graph embedding and link prediction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312863).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312863). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## randomization
<a id="randomization"></a>

Randomization is the use of chance to assign subjects in a study to control and treatment groups or to different treatment groups. It can be used in research with people, animals, or even inanimate objects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7fb4189e8a140d8a063875536ce95d32a8544f9988bdc88f6c794377b853b8af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Random Allocation” (D011897).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011897). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## randomization test
<a id="randomization-test"></a>

A randomization test is a statistical method that builds a reference distribution by calculating the study result across all possible random arrangements allowed by the design. The observed result is then compared with that distribution to estimate a p-value, without relying on standard distributional assumptions such as symmetry or normality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14d00f86300db05d8cb23d930c8d9554d6f21e5cf34a4827843e7d5e367936f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bouwmeester Samantha; Jongerling Joran. Power of a randomization test in a single case multiple baseline AB design. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0228355; article XML SHA-256 1e2abf1d3023ca7ed1ab71fb48bc37d1b87945eef9e1c6fbd1404b76649ff552. “Power of a randomization test in a single case multiple baseline AB design” (10.1371/journal.pone.0228355).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228355). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## randomized clinical trial
<a id="randomized-clinical-trial"></a>

A randomized clinical trial is a study in which participants are assigned by chance to one of two or more treatment conditions so the effects of those conditions can be compared. In this packet, veterans with PTSD were randomly placed into either an exercise program or a psychoeducation control group to compare changes in quality of life and symptom severity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 908988f14fa39538cd1956f5af55ba5184d6bb4886b70f4e1ef5dac5d3595d72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Neylan Thomas C.; Muratore Laura A.; Williams Chanda L.; Schmitz Martha; Valdez Courtney V.; Maguen Shira; O’Donovan Aoife; Kelley D. Parker; Metzler Thomas J.; Cohen Beth E.; West Anna C.; Phan Jordan D. V.; Antonetti Victor; Mayzel Olga; Hlavin Jennifer A.; Chesney Margaret A.; Mehling Wolf E.. Group integrated exercise versus recovery class for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized clinical trial. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-06638-1; article XML SHA-256 ceb6dcc60928194ca996f1e9b336521b2388c0b654c6829b96ff7862597921a8. “Group integrated exercise versus recovery class for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized clinical trial” (10.1186/s12888-025-06638-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-06638-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## randomized-response technique
<a id="randomized-response-technique"></a>

The randomized-response technique is a survey method used to gather more dependable information about sensitive topics while helping protect respondents’ privacy. It includes different model variations whose usefulness can vary depending on the situation and how privacy and efficiency are balanced.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cde5303581b21e71a0b1130ce463fd0bb98365613d59d861a5514656e0994739

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Azeem Muhammad; Shabbir Javid; Salahuddin Najma; Hussain Sundus; Ijaz Musarrat. A comparative study of randomized response techniques using separate and combined metrics of efficiency and privacy. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293628; article XML SHA-256 e7d09420093e3509603a2de73916ab23b966557ea3152d5811ffbd2ab01727fb. “A comparative study of randomized response techniques using separate and combined metrics of efficiency and privacy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293628).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293628). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## range
<a id="range"></a>

Range is a basic measure of variability in data, found by subtracting the smallest value from the largest value in a variable or distribution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a499c9b5d58acfd2a9fa5a1711696e6a569a2f3358ad1006e2382828c2c328d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Range” (range.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/range.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## range effect
<a id="range-effect"></a>

Range effect is a bias in performance caused by the set of values or conditions presented within a block of trials. It shows up as responses being pulled toward the middle of the available range, such as overestimating small distances and underestimating large ones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1bf22350e6136f73f313db39214dcb388ba27ceed60e8aea4571d7e37f45881

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nuthmann Antje; Vitu Françoise; Engbert Ralf; Kliegl Reinhold. No Evidence for a Saccadic Range Effect for Visually Guided and Memory-Guided Saccades in Simple Saccade-Targeting Tasks. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0162449; article XML SHA-256 5faba919daf97929e4b5d13486eeadd94c5017854cf759fcf6421c384e3ff3f1. “No Evidence for a Saccadic Range Effect for Visually Guided and Memory-Guided Saccades in Simple Saccade-Targeting Tasks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0162449).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162449). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## range of attention
<a id="range-of-attention"></a>

In historical psychology, range of attention is a topic in experimental research on attention that is treated as the same as span of consciousness. The packet does not provide a fuller explanation beyond that cross-reference.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76525dfbcda43481a772ccd183dcc78939122d18114d215615d561f9cb3cc961

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Attention (experiments on)” (Attention (experiments on)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Attention (experiments on)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## range of motion
<a id="range-of-motion"></a>

Range of motion is the extent of movement available at a joint, usually described by the angles the joint can reach, such as flexion and extension. Clinicians assess it to decide whether intervention is needed and to monitor rehabilitation progress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: acf486b819a201b44086d8fde23e70da5dd57caf67a57edb76e9b20e266acb3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rode David; Willi Romina; Schulz Eva; Schneller Tim; Moroder Philipp; Audigé Laurent; Bizzini Mario; Maffiuletti Nicola A; Wolf Peter; Riener Robert. Validation of markerless human pose estimation methods for clinical assessment of elbow range of motion. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353801; article XML SHA-256 605a62b0b333b732d2114fa4047a84f56d8403becee04da886e6fe3a9117bf9b. “Validation of markerless human pose estimation methods for clinical assessment of elbow range of motion” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353801).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353801). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rank order
<a id="rank-order"></a>

Rank order is the arrangement of items from higher to lower position according to a chosen weighting or scoring method. In this psychology assessment context, it refers to ordering activities by how strongly they are judged to align with a person’s selected life goal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bae4a73fa63e93e2a3c2cfe9794b13ff0154b0a69c3f20fd19d8257643759e84

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Scheier Lawrence M.; Hansen William B.; Komarc Martin. Methodological strategies for linking superordinate life goals (values) and daily activities: a cross-sectional online study of adolescents. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1685340; article XML SHA-256 8d8fe4c36053598cb444804c3d3be09bf828ec163dea879ae25eaf9d78a19128. “Methodological strategies for linking superordinate life goals (values) and daily activities: a cross-sectional online study of adolescents” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1685340).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1685340). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ranked data
<a id="ranked-data"></a>

Ranked data are observations organized by their position in an ordered list, such as from largest to smallest. In this form, the main focus is the relationship between a value and its rank, which can produce patterns such as power-law, exponential, Gaussian, or Zipf-like distributions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82c29688eb89a930c4856b5713692121567e0de8ebc5ae8c0e67c76f591e7905

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Velarde Carlos; Robledo Alberto. Dynamical analogues of rank distributions. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0211226; article XML SHA-256 b722a74ce1f9b69abeee8d9a1641193ebc33de98ff36f7df7ecb77493b047567. “Dynamical analogues of rank distributions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0211226).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211226). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ranking experiment
<a id="ranking-experiment"></a>

A ranking experiment is a research method in which participants order items or individuals from best to worst and explain the reasons for their choices. It can be done using familiar cases or unfamiliar grouped cases, sometimes followed by added background information to see whether the rankings change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec6e878f57ab4f29753e8bc3e6b32ce766badcdcd2658f889038c104761aca18

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sheriff Oumer; Alemayehu Kefyalew; Haile Aynalem. Phenotypic ranking experiments in identifying breeding objective traits of smallholder farmers in northwestern Ethiopia. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248779; article XML SHA-256 36c2efbb8137fcc8c094743f5ac9c58b785c9ae23909285d781d099c7f37b725. “Phenotypic ranking experiments in identifying breeding objective traits of smallholder farmers in northwestern Ethiopia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248779).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248779). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rapid cycling
<a id="rapid-cycling"></a>

In bipolar disorder, rapid cycling is a pattern of illness course associated with a more severe form of the disorder than euthymia, which is linked to a better prognosis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d2b0716038e2422c24f9683a8d0c6a9a955b1d93088c05f4216b5a262f0671d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Takano Chikashi; Kato Masaki; Adachi Naoto; Kubota Yukihisa; Azekawa Takaharu; Ueda Hitoshi; Edagawa Kouji; Katsumoto Eiichi; Goto Eiichiro; Hongo Seiji; Miki Kazuhira; Tsuboi Takashi; Yasui-Furukori Norio; Nakagawa Atsuo; Kikuchi Toshiaki; Watanabe Koichiro; Kinoshita Toshihiko; Yoshimura Reiji. Clinical characteristics and prescriptions associated with a 2-year course of rapid cycling and euthymia in bipolar disorder: a multicenter treatment survey for bipolar disorder in psychiatric clinics. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1183782; article XML SHA-256 ec02ecb1c654906a9e09db3892465369a0beff218e748351abe5fa78345ee872. “Clinical characteristics and prescriptions associated with a 2-year course of rapid cycling and euthymia in bipolar disorder: a multicenter treatment survey for bipolar disorder in psychiatric clinics” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1183782).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1183782). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rapid eye movement
<a id="rapid-eye-movement"></a>

Rapid eye movement is a stage of mammalian sleep marked by quick eye movements, reduced muscle tone with occasional twitches, rapid breathing, and low-amplitude, high-frequency brain activity. It makes up about one quarter of total sleep and is closely linked to emotion regulation, with disturbed REM sleep associated with conditions such as PTSD and depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80242a7b4d586ff86085edccd6a73aaa3dd3558a2aee984f74a3b8f795a369f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chang Liu-Yan; Wang Yue-Qian; Li Zhe; Zhang Yang; Huang Zhi-Li; Yang Su-Rong. Neural circuits and emotional processing in rapid eye movement sleep. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1674071; article XML SHA-256 ad97a020e095618517d8b093840dd9b78e617cc7c9745008f44db7a7a6d4661e. “Neural circuits and emotional processing in rapid eye movement sleep” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1674071).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1674071). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rapport
<a id="rapport"></a>

Rapport is a multi-dimensional, harmonious connection between a clinician and a client or family that supports cooperation and engagement. In this context, it is seen as important for successful telehealth work because it helps encourage buy-in and follow-through beyond sessions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e763f2d60b7966ec4554eaeca6dc100139678b4bc9b4339e35425d395e5990b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hao Ying; Park Hyejin; Webb Jaret. Digital bonds: patient and therapist factors influence telehealth rapport building in speech-language services. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1612803; article XML SHA-256 e5786ef56740f9e162c8b5e2d9825048942eb4dd2431a8e77086fc08e311957c. “Digital bonds: patient and therapist factors influence telehealth rapport building in speech-language services” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1612803).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1612803). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rapprochement
<a id="rapprochement"></a>

In this historical psychology passage, rapprochement means a tentative bringing together of different findings or ideas because they seem to correspond. It implies a suggestive comparison rather than a firm conclusion, especially when the things compared may not truly be equivalent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08c7ce122d0c6a8a5306484c833477abc2b915999fc7e6fbffdf1885cc52f1f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Rasch model
<a id="rasch-model"></a>

The Rasch model is a probabilistic item-response model for a latent trait that explains a person’s answer to an item from properties of both the person and the item. It converts raw scores into logit measures and places people and items on the same interval scale, supporting measurement beyond simple ordinal scoring.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2545a01c53ec0a5affb73de86db93f226b12cd4d72c74718e2d13358f514ac05

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Buntragulpoontawee Montana; Khunachiva Jeeranan; Euawongyarti Patreeya; Wongpakaran Nahathai; Wongpakaran Tinakon; Kaewma Atcharee; Ashford Stephen. Investigating psychometric properties of the arm activity measure – Thai version (ArmA-TH) sub‐scales using the Rasch model. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12874-021-01238-5; article XML SHA-256 71d2d9acd29f02786f45b9f7b5e4955c88de092daa74139bfb16680591a3feb9. “Investigating psychometric properties of the arm activity measure – Thai version (ArmA-TH) sub‐scales using the Rasch model” (10.1186/s12874-021-01238-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-021-01238-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rate coding
<a id="rate-coding"></a>

Rate coding is a way neural activity can represent information mainly through how often spikes occur, rather than through precise rhythmic timing. In the source packet, irregular and semiregular spike patterns are described as contributing primarily to this kind of coding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb15c8804e018bebc35a178e8150a215c283fa59fda98682ad03b256bae828a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kondrakhin Pavel Y.; Dubrovin Sergei V.; Kolpakov Fedor A.; Sagalajev Boriss. Regular afferent activity and structural homogeneity gate ephaptic synchronization in the dorsal column. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1896515; article XML SHA-256 c94896c68aec61700dfa044ad82a02cc18b2673ba94091370eef2561fd82a3af. “Regular afferent activity and structural homogeneity gate ephaptic synchronization in the dorsal column” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1896515).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1896515). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rate of change
<a id="rate-of-change"></a>

Rate of change is how much a behavior or characteristic increases, decreases, or stays stable over time. In developmental research, it refers to the trajectory or slope of change and can vary across individuals or groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90eed8ddea9995a55b553a042043f88d74f2ac9b5b7aedf90222f881409f9af7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao Jun; Li Shoufeng. The developmental trajectories of phubbing in Chinese adolescents: a variable-centered and person-centered perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1784683; article XML SHA-256 c1ac271cc00b52fe799c9fd0feb9b982377f2f17693ce1a4b1a091e326cb5503. “The developmental trajectories of phubbing in Chinese adolescents: a variable-centered and person-centered perspective” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1784683).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1784683). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rating scale
<a id="rating-scale"></a>

A rating scale is an assessment tool used to measure a psychological characteristic or experience. In this packet, it refers to a scale used to assess experiential avoidance and examined for reliability and validity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 731db964f2a684d24ccc0d71b4b491529edb6c7ffd26fb7bc376bdcc1c08a650

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Imany Maedeh; Mohammadkhani Shahram; Atashipour Haniyeh Sadat; PourHosseini Parastoo. Psychometric Validation of the Persian Version of the Experiential Avoidance Rating Scale (EARS) and Its Application in Assessing Psychological Inflexibility in Persian-Speaking Populations. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03364-x; article XML SHA-256 9950473802e0c0a4346295980e3f57cc7b0f7f64ccc131b88d892a3910e2bd8a. “Psychometric Validation of the Persian Version of the Experiential Avoidance Rating Scale (EARS) and Its Application in Assessing Psychological Inflexibility in Persian-Speaking Populations” (10.1186/s40359-025-03364-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03364-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ratio IQ
<a id="ratio-iq"></a>

Ratio IQ is an intelligence score worked out by comparing a child’s estimated mental age with their chronological age. In the source, it is described as a culture-specific option for assessing intellectual functioning when standardized IQ tests are not available.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1cb494b4dd2d33b97d7665620593576a33b93b19e78d7327d174a2c9f7f16e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bakare Muideen O; Ubochi Vincent N; Okoroikpa Ifeoma N; Aguocha Chinyere M; Ebigbo Peter O. Agreement between clinicians' and care givers' assessment of intelligence in Nigerian children with intellectual disability: 'ratio IQ' as a viable option in the absence of standardized 'deviance IQ' tests in sub-Saharan Africa. 2009; DOI 10.1186/1744-9081-5-39; article XML SHA-256 baf092f0db0a366ca98807ad05dddeb70998c8443315248a7810d98279ab9142. “Agreement between clinicians' and care givers' assessment of intelligence in Nigerian children with intellectual disability: 'ratio IQ' as a viable option in the absence of standardized 'deviance IQ' tests in sub-Saharan Africa” (10.1186/1744-9081-5-39).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-5-39). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ratio scale
<a id="ratio-scale"></a>

A ratio scale is a level of measurement that uses numbers with equal intervals across the whole scale and has a true zero point. Because zero represents the absence of the measured quantity, comparisons such as one value being twice another are meaningful.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86afa888d92b50707722f627bdb5fd2a1ba0a8826b76bd3b33fdf25c605849f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Ratio Scale” (ratio_scale.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/ratio_scale.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rational-economic man
<a id="rational-economic-man"></a>

Rational-economic man is the neoclassical economics idea that people make fully rational choices by weighing marginal benefits against marginal costs. In the source, this assumption is presented as too limited because actual decision-making is shaped by bounded rationality and subjective mental perceptions of costs and gains.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 337fd6bcf86618f29060e2394c8c3b40fa5eb87ad89704cf9687b8a53d8334d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Xiaowei; Yang Shiqi; Wang Yuejin; Zhang Shuyu; Luo Songmei. Understanding the paradox between tragedies of the commons and the anticommons: From a cognitive psychology perspective. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.998642; article XML SHA-256 1cb39d7b1d4215f9654d0d18f9f6c203622d3494d88c12019bb0a798c39f2f5a. “Understanding the paradox between tragedies of the commons and the anticommons: From a cognitive psychology perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.998642).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.998642). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rational emotive behavior therapy
<a id="rational-emotive-behavior-therapy"></a>

Rational emotive behavior therapy is a psychological therapy approach with a broad framework, theory, and application made up of fundamental processes. In this source, it is explained through the metaphor of the Hero’s Journey to help practitioners and clients understand how its parts fit together in practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 81a2333a02e280e542e2507ca6d5fb158aa93d06c378069bf99adef401ef0579

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Turner Martin J.. Tales of rationality: the rational emotive behavioral monomyth as a metaphorical alignment of rational emotive behavior therapy and the Hero’s Journey narrative structure. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1572636; article XML SHA-256 572663409eb42d363d0b661da44765697eaaa167b5213e96cb70a96212bbc811. “Tales of rationality: the rational emotive behavioral monomyth as a metaphorical alignment of rational emotive behavior therapy and the Hero’s Journey narrative structure” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1572636).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1572636). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rational knowledge
<a id="rational-knowledge"></a>

Rational knowledge is knowledge grounded mainly or entirely in the conclusions or revelations of reason rather than in percepts. In this historical logical sense, it may be either immediate or mediate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d046f45670887c908ce8738762b7954510ed2330b7b00d7c6824b2b41d31b7ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Knowledge (in logic)” (Knowledge (in logic)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/K1defs.htm#Knowledge (in logic)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rational learning
<a id="rational-learning"></a>

Rational learning is a pattern of learning that appears statistically sensible, such as using the amount of prior evidence to decide how broadly or narrowly to generalize a word or category. In the source, this kind of behavior does not necessarily require explicit global statistical inference, because similar outcomes may emerge from local, incremental learning processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2198d0e6b4db40390e7698ce063f2d4b7a9c44da8a8f1e7fc246da8d0f2d492

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Caplan Spencer. Word learning as category formation. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327615; article XML SHA-256 6826b15d0310dca1c98609cfffa364dec093af6be0dbff05bd96f0b2684f6216. “Word learning as category formation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327615).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327615). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rational soul
<a id="rational-soul"></a>

In this historical theological context, the rational soul is the specifically human, reasoning part of the soul, contrasted with an animal or irrational soul. In Apollinarianism, the Logos was said to take the place of the human rational soul in Christ.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7a41089b226af0650433e0207baa389c5ee3bbfd203c702ae4e8de9f5a3c9a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Apollinarianism” (Apollinarianism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Apollinarianism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rationalism
<a id="rationalism"></a>

In this historical source, rationalism is presented as the position opposed to empiricism. It refers to a view that does not treat immediate sense experience as the primary route to truth, though the packet gives no fuller characterization beyond that contrast.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93d3e1807b7fd9ba1411e1bc64cac25df64081a168d869e9c74883172154ab69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Empiricism” (Empiricism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Empiricism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rationality
<a id="rationality"></a>

Rationality is the quality of updating beliefs and judgments in a way that appropriately weighs prior expectations and new evidence. In this source, it is treated not simply as strict Bayesian correctness, but as adaptive inference shaped by limited cognitive resources, learned reliability, and uncertainty in the environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e0a3f625b716d35c324e47ecb97612c14bbfd04046f8608bad3fd9dc21f2058d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kopp Bruno. Weighting Bayesian information in human judgment under uncertainty: a hierarchical theory of cognitive biases. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861515; article XML SHA-256 03c04497f76531cf8ec4091301fac013d87cee63e2fd5b83da75da084ce9fdcf. “Weighting Bayesian information in human judgment under uncertainty: a hierarchical theory of cognitive biases” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861515).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861515). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rationalization
<a id="rationalization"></a>

Rationalization is an unconscious defense mechanism in which a person uses seemingly reasonable explanations to make feelings, behavior, or motives seem acceptable when they would otherwise feel intolerable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b0293b98b850dac4dd6aa49d28a7057eab042a1562666853cdc4af8b774466eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Rationalization” (D011908).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011908). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Raven’s Progressive Matrices
<a id="ravens-progressive-matrices"></a>

Raven’s Progressive Matrices is a nonverbal test, often given to groups in educational settings, that uses 60 multiple-choice items to assess a person’s reasoning ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ded36d1b36ddd324c354f2492db3ca50c641c1f2c2646515a1485cf1673e08d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Raven's Progressive Matrices” (C115127).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## raw data
<a id="raw-data"></a>

In this EEG context, raw data are the unprocessed electrical signals recorded by the device, expressed in microvolts as the moment-to-moment amplitude of the signal. They are used to examine features such as peaks, timing, and waveform shape before later processing can produce other measures like signal power.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2192d8bb3c2c730e23d474ba5f02315e52d778f92287cc5e44ac9e4ac683418b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sáiz-Manzanares María Consuelo; Ortega-Renuncio Raúl; Marticorena-Sánchez Raúl. Processing and analysis of portable EEG data for cognitive load assessment in neurotypical university students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1737723; article XML SHA-256 d699d36303fbe3af4937cd5121b91e85f56a76638d6ddf3ca9d5e09f59c70522. “Processing and analysis of portable EEG data for cognitive load assessment in neurotypical university students” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1737723).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1737723). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Raynaud’s disease
<a id="raynauds-disease"></a>

Raynaud’s disease is an idiopathic vascular disorder in which both sides of the body show Raynaud phenomenon, with sudden finger or toe paleness or bluish discoloration triggered by cold or stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 343139af2e14e6afca0b6f46a0a0f1b34866ae25361a85a07a67d5074f8ec2a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Raynaud Disease” (D011928).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011928). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rCBF
<a id="rcbf"></a>

rCBF means regional cerebral blood flow, or the amount of blood flow in particular areas of the brain. In this context, it is used to describe left-right differences in brain perfusion, such as a stronger right-sided pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b4cc2822c4c51b18d40b9453cb6b4cc5f252a56268c1b70bbacd2a20e17014b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Umezaki Yojiro; Motomura Haruhiko; Nagamachi Shigeki; Toyofuku Akira; Tu Trang Thi Huyen; Naito Toru. Alleviation of symptoms and paradoxical brain perfusion shift in oral cenesthopathy: A retrospective neuroimaging study. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1653444; article XML SHA-256 6dcddb8ee49ad7a878e8a33be744839ba2d72b4268d4e23e1e8afee1e6056657. “Alleviation of symptoms and paradoxical brain perfusion shift in oral cenesthopathy: A retrospective neuroimaging study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1653444).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1653444). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RCFT
<a id="rcft"></a>

RCFT is a cognitive test with two parts: copying a complex geometric figure and then drawing it again from memory after a delay. It is used to assess visuo-constructional ability, executive function, and delayed visual memory by judging how accurately and how well organized the reproduced figure is.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f54b5838b703d46ed145f3651a71b6110142205939204d39d92c4efe86635105

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Park Jin-Hyuck. Non-equivalence of sub-tasks of the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test with convolutional neural networks to discriminate mild cognitive impairment. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05622-5; article XML SHA-256 2d56a626929cfa820521ce5ac605ca23563e4347244a34b4ba43f419bdd75358. “Non-equivalence of sub-tasks of the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test with convolutional neural networks to discriminate mild cognitive impairment” (10.1186/s12888-024-05622-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05622-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RCT
<a id="rct"></a>

RCT stands for randomized controlled trial, a study design used to test how well an intervention works by comparing it with a control condition. In this mental health context, it refers to a two-arm study comparing a digital positive affect intervention with a self-monitoring placebo.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0788c1c3e1df3208361c114edafc54f5527e2fa34a2ebb496cdbc82f6a63bc80

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zainal Nur Hani; Rajendra Sarah Josephine; Van Doren Natalia; Salamanca-Sanabria Alicia; Curtiss Joshua E; Keng Shian-Ling. Digital positive affect intervention (PAI) versus self-monitoring placebo in the treatment of anxiety and depression: a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT). 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07372-4; article XML SHA-256 2fe1525b7088ea615f7b5424487e09fb56ad9911a9fa2f3d37c2780674ca6b17. “Digital positive affect intervention (PAI) versus self-monitoring placebo in the treatment of anxiety and depression: a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT)” (10.1186/s12888-025-07372-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07372-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RDD
<a id="rdd"></a>

RDD stands for regression-discontinuity design, a quasi-experimental research method used when random assignment is not practical or ethical. In clinical and health research, it is presented as a valuable alternative to randomized controlled trials.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 94776e9fcbf840e78e673da4eef3bbb7f80a48d0b5ec92425d9ebeb36653b7e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hagemeier Anna; Rosenberger Kerstin Daniela; Hellmich Martin. Extension of Regression Discontinuity Designs (RDD) to evaluate time effects – A quasi-experimental approach using the data from the new form of care “Integrated cross-sectoral psycho-oncology (nFC- isPO)”. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343414; article XML SHA-256 64d91f672c9df68635b4dfa6f81a0b67130b3017ecded40c00c3e5b94fcd1b50. “Extension of Regression Discontinuity Designs (RDD) to evaluate time effects – A quasi-experimental approach using the data from the new form of care “Integrated cross-sectoral psycho-oncology (nFC- isPO)”” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343414).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343414). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reactance theory
<a id="reactance-theory"></a>

Reactance theory says that people value freedom and choice, and when they feel these are being limited or threatened, they become motivated to restore them. This reaction, called psychological or state reactance, can involve negative thoughts and feelings such as anger toward the person or source seen as restricting freedom.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d132e180c65bcf6d75069c098a90d7c9399995bea4eddde9223b441e24531557

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Jian. Exploring college students’ resistance to mandatory use of sports apps: a psychological reactance theory perspective. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1366164; article XML SHA-256 978af4c6b2a4c7a6dda1da5a1217b02c0529efbd9c407b2a865265ee2c057bc8. “Exploring college students’ resistance to mandatory use of sports apps: a psychological reactance theory perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1366164).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1366164). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reaction
<a id="reaction"></a>

In mental health, a reaction is a normal emotional response to something happening in life, such as feeling sad during difficult times.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00a26d01949cea49a0b8e3e40b15c677bc4230f92d9b0c7a11e272352f346576

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression in Women: 4 Things to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d7e3878cd110511a1cab8edfc2803470cfecef390d776a8858330f68a78c0fab. “Depression in Women: 4 Things to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression-in-women).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression-in-women). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reaction time
<a id="reaction-time"></a>

Reaction time is the interval between when a stimulus begins and when a response can be observed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da8836a93215d210bc89a1991922653f9981c9c708f02e6d9995fd6264b921ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reaction Time” (D011930).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011930). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reactivation of memory
<a id="reactivation-of-memory"></a>

Reactivation of memory is the bringing back into activity of stored memory traces so that past experiences can be recalled again. In this source, it refers to repetition helping revive autobiographical memories, even in people with severe amnesia related to Alzheimer disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea1f8aadede9c3d5075e0ccfa1639b43bd3249a8df32d03ffba5ad1475f20420

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Platel Hervé; Eustache Marie-Loup; Coppalle Renaud; Viard Armelle; Eustache Francis; Groussard Mathilde; Desgranges Béatrice. Boosting Autobiographical Memory and the Sense of Identity of Alzheimer Patients Through Repeated Reminiscence Workshops?. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.636028; article XML SHA-256 bdd28750c69daaf1ddba1c55bb8c388be8b17d3c631c593af73e64808ad57f5f. “Boosting Autobiographical Memory and the Sense of Identity of Alzheimer Patients Through Repeated Reminiscence Workshops?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.636028).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.636028). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reactive aggression
<a id="reactive-aggression"></a>

Reactive aggression is aggressive behavior that occurs in response to interpersonal provocation. It refers to aggression arising within an interaction after being provoked, rather than aggression described without that immediate trigger.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 69ab590ec6d23f7df8fe61cdcf0d87ae09de26a5607147fe83c0ee153079e531

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Krämer Ulrike M.; Riba Jordi; Richter Sylvia; Münte Thomas F.. An fMRI Study on the Role of Serotonin in Reactive Aggression. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0027668; article XML SHA-256 a8144f72c9ec305bf9c8b2ecab1f89cbd0530e9fae06a40e29ae19e8ba1f4b8e. “An fMRI Study on the Role of Serotonin in Reactive Aggression” (10.1371/journal.pone.0027668).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0027668). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reactive attachment disorder
<a id="reactive-attachment-disorder"></a>

Reactive attachment disorder is a diagnosis describing severe, developmentally inappropriate problems in how a young child relates socially, beginning before age 5 and linked to grossly pathological caregiving. It may involve a persistent failure to start or respond to social interaction in an age-appropriate way, or unusually indiscriminate sociability with diffuse attachments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e905bc710ff8e7e392a6c422590ef69297e9e390927c9ce09727499a1e75e3c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reactive Attachment Disorder” (D019962).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019962). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reactive depression
<a id="reactive-depression"></a>

Reactive depression is a subtype of depression that begins after a significant stressor or severe life event. It describes a depressed state understood as being triggered by environmental circumstances, in contrast to depression occurring without an identifiable stress-related trigger.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf5e523e048a5d62e6dbeabca8889d7b91791b49af355e294bf99c22b989b8b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Xin-Jing; Zhao Bing-Cong; Li Jing; Shi Chuan; Song Yu-Qing; Gao Xing-Zhou; Jiang Hui-Li; Yu Qiu-Yun; Liang Xing-Chen; Feng Shi-Xing; Li Xiang; Sun Yang; Li Ya-Huan; Wang Yang-Peng; Bao Tuya; Zhang Zhang-Jin. Serum NLRP3 Inflammasome and BDNF: Potential Biomarkers Differentiating Reactive and Endogenous Depression. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.814828; article XML SHA-256 83a4489cb2fc98955442d62ac315dbeb177f6817bb88cc2f997387c5a9e3b231. “Serum NLRP3 Inflammasome and BDNF: Potential Biomarkers Differentiating Reactive and Endogenous Depression” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.814828).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.814828). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reactive inhibition
<a id="reactive-inhibition"></a>

Reactive inhibition is a reduction in response strength that develops with continued activity or practice. It does not depend on reward, and it varies with how recently the last response occurred and how many responses came before it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ea341c0fa945e43b64ebbd2ac86e29efff7ebe64499092b063a4fe9c4927f3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reactive Inhibition” (D011931).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011931). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reactivity
<a id="reactivity"></a>

In EEG, reactivity means how much brain rhythms change when conditions change. In this packet, alpha reactivity refers specifically to the drop in alpha-wave activity when a person opens their eyes, a response that can be weaker with aging and in some dementias.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a30ac8b77a707d00dae26ab7b3915a03f0119eafaef2a5134887433db17ff3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baek Kwangyeol. EEG alpha reactivity in cognitive aging and dementia: clinical implications and cholinergic mechanisms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1665301; article XML SHA-256 2df09f1d8fe6d84f8974d36ff12ea52bcfe41f8529796631e05cc85eab55301c. “EEG alpha reactivity in cognitive aging and dementia: clinical implications and cholinergic mechanisms” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1665301).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1665301). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## readiness test
<a id="readiness-test"></a>

A readiness test is an assessment used to measure how prepared a child is for school, especially in academic or cognitive areas. In this context, it refers to school readiness measures used to compare children’s performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e13343a50d3c9c4dafd0a5b8ca94a075240ffe9025804c7e3ff63a06b53df33e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tham Elaine Kwang Hsia; Xu Hai-Yan; Fu Xiuju; Goh Rick Siow Mong; Gluckman Peter D.; Chong Yap-Seng; Yap Fabian; Shek Lynette Pei-Chi; Teoh Oon Hoe; Gooley Joshua; Goh Daniel Yam-Thiam; Schneider Nora; Meaney Michael J.; Cai Shirong; Broekman Birit F. P.. Associations between sleep trajectories up to 54 months and cognitive school readiness in 4 year old preschool children. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1136448; article XML SHA-256 60056e40bd12ded58dd45058212b4e2548a7c3f914a81f6149ae0bdf8004f3ac. “Associations between sleep trajectories up to 54 months and cognitive school readiness in 4 year old preschool children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1136448).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1136448). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reading disability
<a id="reading-disability"></a>

Reading disability is a marked difficulty with reading that is not explained by low general intelligence or inadequate education. Research described in this packet also suggests that people with reading disability often show greater problems with understanding meaning when information is read than when it is heard.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 94a4087024801325b88d7596b1c11fb8e21694ae698a44bad24af9ec1920550c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Li; Vira Amit; Friedman Emma; Minas Jennifer; Bolger Donald; Bitan Tali; Booth James. Children with Reading Disability Show Brain Differences in Effective Connectivity for Visual, but Not Auditory Word Comprehension. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0013492; article XML SHA-256 ff7ffaec41cb189b0d41fea321164361bd6d2e64e116f596b31697ffbdf6e539. “Children with Reading Disability Show Brain Differences in Effective Connectivity for Visual, but Not Auditory Word Comprehension” (10.1371/journal.pone.0013492).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0013492). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reading level
<a id="reading-level"></a>

Reading level is the degree of expertise or proficiency a person has in reading within a writing system. An expert reading level is marked by reading that is easy, fast, and accurate, and it typically develops after years of schooling and practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 430fc44aec053f84ef2f1cd5bb95bdfafb8dca8e752c00c355f70d81bb9dca34

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cohen Marjolaine; Mahé G.; Laganaro Marina; Zesiger Pascal. Does the Relation between Rapid Automatized Naming and Reading Depend on Age or on Reading Level? A Behavioral and ERP Study. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00073; article XML SHA-256 9f5e6a5c429e6a96750d57cb365eb29f4c33a3451542dc2132b32cf22a180bf4. “Does the Relation between Rapid Automatized Naming and Reading Depend on Age or on Reading Level? A Behavioral and ERP Study” (10.3389/fnhum.2018.00073).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00073). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reading readiness
<a id="reading-readiness"></a>

Reading readiness is the set of early abilities linked to learning to read. It includes pre-reading skills such as phonological and alphabetic awareness, naming speed, language and metalinguistic abilities, and basic cognitive processes that can affect early reading development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 250d5e8eddd45c734bedbedf70175946b0723c42feaeb40d2d008aa269e2d823

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sellés Pilar; Ávila Vicenta; Martínez Tomás; Ysla Liz. The skills related to the early reading acquisition in Spain and Peru. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0193450; article XML SHA-256 40878f4ddb3b3822430e5e2b0f1d52374e72fe2d928ea0852ac889724ef10152. “The skills related to the early reading acquisition in Spain and Peru” (10.1371/journal.pone.0193450).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193450). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Real
<a id="real"></a>

In this context, real means what is actually true or happening in reality. The source explains that during psychosis, a person may have trouble telling what is real from what is not.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5caca2f145317c450aaa6dd224ab84ecab4261cf8bb60f3d38c3fdba38ea2c1a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Understanding Psychosis. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 8dfe261c13780de86a75c02b329ce1d2b047733dadb8ae4c0494d4fcb34d13be. “Understanding Psychosis” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/understanding-psychosis).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/understanding-psychosis). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## real self
<a id="real-self"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, the real self means the person’s felt original or proper identity—the self they recognize as truly theirs. It is contrasted with an altered or alien self-state that may be experienced as a different “me.”

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0779e63dbf1684eb37843d2c4bf01f111573c9a784dcc655698a79ab37e0ed1c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reality monitoring
<a id="reality-monitoring"></a>

Reality monitoring is the mental process of deciding whether information or an event came from an internal source, such as imagination or memory, or from the outside world. It helps people tell real experiences from imagined ones, and errors in this process can lead to misattributing the source of mental experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dbb69b5d88082efc87c8ad47d9396182a6359d6a88f8bee9f6cc8f204e4e0dde

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Martínez-Suárez Pedro C; Valdevila Figueira José Alejandro; Luna-Cambi Joselyn M; Guerrero-Granda Carlos E; Santiesteban Rocío Valdevila. Memory Monitoring Recognition Test (MMRT), a new measurement of stimular source monitoring: Software and comprehension. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321991; article XML SHA-256 2c98827fdef384a7c1e11e8d493146254d4b641d04b5eced53e5245deeb5e310. “Memory Monitoring Recognition Test (MMRT), a new measurement of stimular source monitoring: Software and comprehension” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321991).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321991). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reality orientation
<a id="reality-orientation"></a>

Reality orientation is a psychosocial technique used to stimulate awareness of time and place, typically by giving information that helps a person stay oriented. It is often used together with reminiscence approaches.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1abe9b53610a5eb9584afb2cc127d26e8a32da3eaa565f3461b3cbf03424c10

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meguro Kenichi; Ouchi Yoshitaka; Akanuma Kyoko; Meguro Mitsue; Kasai Mari. Donepezil can improve daily activities and promote rehabilitation for severe Alzheimer’s patients in long-term care health facilities. 2014; DOI 10.1186/s12883-014-0243-7; article XML SHA-256 9cb2dc0d6ffc3bb80e653a80b1e83b75ef426b3d06be833df232b28a7ebe6a94. “Donepezil can improve daily activities and promote rehabilitation for severe Alzheimer’s patients in long-term care health facilities” (10.1186/s12883-014-0243-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-014-0243-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reality testing
<a id="reality-testing"></a>

Reality testing is a person’s capacity to judge the outside world objectively and to tell it apart from inner thoughts, feelings, or fantasies. It is regarded as a basic function of the ego.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e61642df10345582bef12851bb3b11aa701e9b0e899418a35d4ec575bb57d8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reality Testing” (D011936).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011936). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reality therapy
<a id="reality-therapy"></a>

Reality therapy is a form of psychotherapy that emphasizes a person’s responsibility for their own behavior. In this approach, the therapist takes an active role in helping the person see themselves more accurately so they can meet needs for self-worth while respecting others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 65474337378624d92c5f73e01c77790fc5e04c4ce0289533eac8dc40866e915d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reality Therapy” (D011937).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011937). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reasonable accommodations
<a id="reasonable-accommodations"></a>

Reasonable accommodations are changes to standard service arrangements to address a person’s access needs, especially for people with disabilities. In this source, they are presented as part of making services inclusive and as something that can be in tension with rigid standardization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a7f63fa7570eebc1c48821c62895d0dc55f4c0c18eb9a2d3d669bc4ef1f1e3ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chaiyasuk Sitthisak; Rugchatjaroen Krish; Sirisunhirun Somboon; Dhirathiti Nopraenue Sajjarax; Amornsiriphong Somsak; Ploywan Phut. Audit data governance for disability-inclusive public services: A systematic review and integrative S–A–C framework. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350135; article XML SHA-256 0dcc1930b9672518bb474b38dface2d87cbbebfac119770ea97f21229b3745d4. “Audit data governance for disability-inclusive public services: A systematic review and integrative S–A–C framework” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350135).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350135). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reasoned action model
<a id="reasoned-action-model"></a>

The reasoned action model is a framework for explaining behavior in which a person’s attitudes toward a behavior and the subjective norms they perceive shape their intention to act, and that intention then influences the behavior itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5ac041722df2e5d153f823fb0d3075ce2390f84f45fb83863ebd6ebd1e201c61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao Shu-kuan; Cai Jia-ming. The Influence of Guanxi Between Boundary Spanners on Opportunistic Behaviors Based on the Theory of Reasoned Action Model. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.851780; article XML SHA-256 4ce8559276ccdf07dce07104459af84807f19107e45699b1f1335fc052bf7a7a. “The Influence of Guanxi Between Boundary Spanners on Opportunistic Behaviors Based on the Theory of Reasoned Action Model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.851780).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.851780). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reassociation
<a id="reassociation"></a>

Reassociation is the process of linking separated or mixed skeletal remains back to the same individual. In this context, it means using information such as spatial relationships and matching methods to sort commingled human bones into more complete skeletons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5f5637498d5855bc4442d9036f0b81834257ab33027f093799c91f207b5fc739

Sources:
- Drafting source: [De Andrés Montero Marcos; Kis Luca; Spekker Olga; Vig Viktor; Kocsmár Réka; Simon Zsófia; Simon Béla; Neményi Réka; Bertók Gábor; Tihanyi Balázs; Pálfi György. New integrative methodology for the excavation and study of mass graves and partially commingled remains. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353420; article XML SHA-256 91d0f7c8e376452c25e102d75ff7d9c93054de0bc52619b47d57dde9197a8240. “New integrative methodology for the excavation and study of mass graves and partially commingled remains” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353420).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353420). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## REBT
<a id="rebt"></a>

REBT stands for Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. In this approach, irrational beliefs are understood as maladaptive ideas about the world that can maintain psychological distress and poor mental health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d7e9166f6ce8a2731bdcd44ca34a2249de80f091e1def8e7990935b74f3f5e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Michel-Kröhler Alena; Wong Michael; Turner Martin J.. Irrational beliefs in Bahasa Malaysia and Mandarin speaking populations: the cross-cultural validation of the irrational performance beliefs inventory. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03579-y; article XML SHA-256 c6c94795e7aa03ef4e76ffa2b365eeda64795c526ca50825565747d9f8d38f2d. “Irrational beliefs in Bahasa Malaysia and Mandarin speaking populations: the cross-cultural validation of the irrational performance beliefs inventory” (10.1186/s40359-025-03579-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03579-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recall
<a id="recall"></a>

Recall is the mental process of bringing information back to mind through conscious effort.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0eb589fe4d15fdc618f26abf1305d16800f314a9466d0a97b7578d7666b4bd20

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Recollect” (C122669).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recall bias
<a id="recall-bias"></a>

Recall bias is a systematic difference between what people later remember and what they originally reported or experienced. In psychology and health research, it refers to memory distortion that can make past symptoms, quality of life, or exposures seem better, worse, or different than they were.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc5415804c2db4dbcd8f81417c502554699cbb5683b3a6a481be36762521232b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lindberg Patricia; Netter Petra; Koller Michael; Steinger Brunhilde; Klinkhammer-Schalke Monika. Breast cancer survivors` recollection of their quality of life: Identifying determinants of recall bias in a longitudinal population-based trial. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0171519; article XML SHA-256 42e810dd3844e9428317beee165f3a425c78e9d8954fc2abd7abfef476f6ca31. “Breast cancer survivors` recollection of their quality of life: Identifying determinants of recall bias in a longitudinal population-based trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0171519).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171519). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recall test
<a id="recall-test"></a>

A recall test is a question used to see whether a person can spontaneously remember specific words correctly without cues, in a delayed recall task. In this source, it refers to the Montreal Cognitive Assessment delayed recall item.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e4268917f9902f874fb5c9a0d1c1a6b66bf4867f41bf263c32143bf5804b589e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Delayed Recall With No Cue Question” (C181891).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recapitulation theory
<a id="recapitulation-theory"></a>

Recapitulation theory is the historical view that an individual organism’s development briefly repeats major stages in the evolutionary history of its species. In this account, development was explained as reflecting inherited effects of earlier evolutionary change, though the idea was later criticized.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1bcee181eacc4bac7957c7e628df802d13346300601d9845d0651dfd0979aa83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Biogenetic Law” (Biogenetic Law).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Biogenetic Law). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## receiver
<a id="receiver"></a>

A receiver is an electronic device that takes in an incoming electromagnetic signal and changes it into a sound or image that can be perceived.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e87b9168d129cf2d7cd769afe3e2f3bdb554a6a66c494d2da1b1b13631a71150

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Receiver Device” (C50133).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## receptive field
<a id="receptive-field"></a>

A receptive field is the area of the visual field in which a stimulus changes a neuron's activity. In this source, neurons differed in the size and shape of their receptive fields and in how responses within those areas varied by color and by spatial arrangement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e450ef19ae81fc1b3d9d7844a9b0b2595eb0c0c35edf9000fe924d5135575952

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mota Theo; Paffhausen Benjamin; Menzel Randolf. Chromatic processing and receptive-field structure in neurons of the anterior optic tract of the honeybee brain. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0310282; article XML SHA-256 2d6cf7498c99d7bcade0268ef63f3f0caf99993857b07bf7f34805892d5bb5b2. “Chromatic processing and receptive-field structure in neurons of the anterior optic tract of the honeybee brain” (10.1371/journal.pone.0310282).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310282). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## receptive language
<a id="receptive-language"></a>

Receptive language is the ability to understand language. In language assessment, it refers to comprehension of spoken information such as answering questions about a sentence or following spoken directions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d5c57e82a3c9c29c004f412d20b5dfe8282ed386d446d6a4e0b4d8975ba368d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nudel Ron; Christiani Camilla A. J.; Ohland Jessica; Uddin Md Jamal; Hemager Nicoline; Ellersgaard Ditte; Spang Katrine S.; Burton Birgitte K.; Greve Aja N.; Gantriis Ditte L.; Bybjerg-Grauholm Jonas; Jepsen Jens Richardt M.; Thorup Anne A. E.; Mors Ole; Werge Thomas; Nordentoft Merete. Quantitative genome-wide association analyses of receptive language in the Danish High Risk and Resilience Study. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12868-020-00581-5; article XML SHA-256 d8a3367a92c07320fb4a08b3601a3b343e0ef4e24ab9781b50b5d4ec7416d453. “Quantitative genome-wide association analyses of receptive language in the Danish High Risk and Resilience Study” (10.1186/s12868-020-00581-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-020-00581-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## receptor
<a id="receptor"></a>

A receptor is a protein on a cell’s surface or inside the cell that attaches to a specific signaling substance, such as a hormone, antigen, or neurotransmitter. This binding changes the receptor’s shape and activity, which then affects other molecules and alters cell functioning through signaling pathways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7a5561d236939536220a80b24c1b1049d389357d08dabfa8798650348b59742b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Receptor” (C18106).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recidivism
<a id="recidivism"></a>

Recidivism is the act of committing another criminal offense after a person has already been convicted of a crime. In counselling contexts related to offenders, the term is used as a technical criminology term for returning to criminal behavior after conviction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db6ae5c2a39fcb28eefd84f88751dac7abaf254805cc831167d7da189b57c7b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Texidor Maldonado Carlos Obed; Dykeman Cass. Recidivism treatment manuals: a corpus-based examination for public offender counselors. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1564018; article XML SHA-256 92e5077dbec382a0da2ed4391246c2a4e88d611526404cc603c85c60438dff07. “Recidivism treatment manuals: a corpus-based examination for public offender counselors” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1564018).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1564018). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recidivism rate
<a id="recidivism-rate"></a>

Recidivism rate is the rate at which people who have previously offended offend again. In this context, it refers to repeated sexual offending and is used as an indicator of how well prevention or rehabilitation programs are working.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e42f8233b75f2d11c2a55aed3d060b4cebdf8a6afec11fc05b6f2bb06ecd85fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jung Sue Hyun; Jin Min Jin; Lee Jang-Kyu; Kim Hee-Song; Ji Hyung-Ki; Kim Ki-Pyoung; Hyun Myoung-Ho; Hong Hyeon-Gi. Improving the quality of sexual history disclosure on sex offenders: Emphasis on a polygraph examination. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0239046; article XML SHA-256 62aab51999dbe847b3d2b9ef2ab80d29f021ba0b0a8d555aaf063c8d7ee2d5dd. “Improving the quality of sexual history disclosure on sex offenders: Emphasis on a polygraph examination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0239046).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239046). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reciprocal
<a id="reciprocal"></a>

In psychology, reciprocal describes a two-way relationship in which each factor influences the other over time. It is used for bidirectional patterns or feedback loops rather than a one-sided effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da24f8b35097e174e06311c281c13ba206c912ba9a330d74b77b73a12d8f92f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Deng Meihong; Guo Wenyi. A longitudinal inquiry into the vicious cycle of social media addiction and self-injury: the moderating role of resilience. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1796643; article XML SHA-256 b94487c37defff48dd6aee49e47520a22d511274163fb6424038550b3cde8a51. “A longitudinal inquiry into the vicious cycle of social media addiction and self-injury: the moderating role of resilience” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1796643).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1796643). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reciprocal altruism
<a id="reciprocal-altruism"></a>

Reciprocal altruism is a form of cooperation between individuals in which each can help the other over repeated interactions, even though there is also an opportunity to gain by not cooperating. It depends strongly on the partner’s past behavior, with individuals tending to cooperate more with those who have cooperated before.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06e3a2157da3aa04d4feab39a06cc02cd5c6be12793e3b80d9b35e036dbadd42

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Delmas Guillermo E; Lew Sergio E; Zanutto B Silvano. High mutual cooperation rates in rats learning reciprocal altruism: The role of payoff matrix. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0204837; article XML SHA-256 f7a739f5e1d51d72208e57145eecdca4b7f22fdaabb6f8c3678b9ad52ce4c57e. “High mutual cooperation rates in rats learning reciprocal altruism: The role of payoff matrix” (10.1371/journal.pone.0204837).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204837). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reciprocal inhibition
<a id="reciprocal-inhibition"></a>

Reciprocal inhibition is the suppression of motoneuron activity by Ia inhibitory interneurons that arise from the embryonic V1 progenitor domain. In this packet, it is described as a spinal cord inhibitory process involving motoneurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d812899d8b56ff0d76534adedb249be3e27c8d8aa1f71eb7af9cd857c78f357e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Renshaw Cells” (D066293).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066293). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reciprocity
<a id="reciprocity"></a>

In this historical Kantian context, reciprocity means interaction, and it is named as one of the three a priori principles included under the analogy of experience, alongside substantiality and causality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7508d1131f83b9af5aebe6e6888a3efacecfa60517b6ed5831496881220b75e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Analogy of Experience” (Analogy of Experience).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Analogy of Experience). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recognition
<a id="recognition"></a>

In this source, recognition means establishing that a collective experience has occurred by identifying a shared relational pattern rather than relying on any one person’s private report. It depends on the group reaching coordinated alignment in action, perception, and intention, so that the experience becomes recognizable as a collective event.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e9a9057e25e79bff18f8f9ae0537c67c6e4a621f142c40aaa7d4d48c94be913f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Langwei Isabella; Li Bin. The recognition problem in collective optimal experience: the identity of generation and recognition as a structural event. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861167; article XML SHA-256 3a1094a2862b066d23cf259d0b0228044d2d3aa30970f2cf3679d68087526352. “The recognition problem in collective optimal experience: the identity of generation and recognition as a structural event” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861167).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861167). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recognition method
<a id="recognition-method"></a>

A recognition method is a way of identifying human behavior from video data. In this source, it refers to a convolutional neural network approach that first isolates the body region and samples parts of a video so the system can focus on behavior-related information and improve classification accuracy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ded34f572b2caa68978bc937aedcac67763800e0d061ae8eca54a56f2f5ac585

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meng Yizhen; Zhang Jun. An effective behavior recognition method in the video session using convolutional neural network. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0266734; article XML SHA-256 88b7b758322f057beebdcbe0ea37433c8677e8d8d8b7f47f7ee2fe5b2227811d. “An effective behavior recognition method in the video session using convolutional neural network” (10.1371/journal.pone.0266734).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266734). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recollection
<a id="recollection"></a>

Recollection is the mental process of bringing information back to mind through deliberate effort.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8c8cf80a9b59527d6bc67d43876fb995b91d32a66001e559e8ad4ac7bb4c6e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Recollect” (C122669).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recovery
<a id="recovery"></a>

Recovery is a changing process in which lost function improves over time through biological repair, reorganization of remaining systems, and gradual improvement in behavior or performance. In the source context of post-stroke aphasia, this progression unfolds across linked stages from early neural recovery to later compensatory changes and behavioral gains.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 19568612ff02ebe19329979a6f45dcc9a054a25fe1507d5ccb3fce9e7ce008e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maraka Jude O; Abukhaled Yara; Al Qaraghuli Sally M; Al Muhairi Fatima A; Abdulsamad Haia M; Hamdan Hamdan; Seghier Mohamed L. The nonlinear trajectory of post-stroke aphasia recovery. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1791894; article XML SHA-256 5bbbb4735d82dd13a1b224556e8fc90d7db7551933f00ffe8d852d1e7668b52b. “The nonlinear trajectory of post-stroke aphasia recovery” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1791894).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1791894). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recovery of function
<a id="recovery-of-function"></a>

Recovery of function is the partial or full return of an organ or body part to its normal or proper physiological activity after disease or injury.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8cfd28c7e33cab12942356deaeac8432cf42ad9c7ab399fcab482e87dca019ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Recovery of Function” (D020127).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020127). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recreation
<a id="recreation"></a>

Recreation refers to voluntary activities people do in their leisure time, whether active or passive, for enjoyment, wellbeing, relief from everyday routine, and personal growth. In psychology and social contexts, it is also associated with rest, health maintenance, social interaction, and the development of skills such as cooperation and communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 88e1723d44c707ffbdab4feee733ecc300db5748fda4636a09cfd32a1e207e95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Özavci Ramazan. The impact of social media addiction on recreation anxiety in individuals. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1860004; article XML SHA-256 19c1277aa235aa19063a7a646433beebcd4cdf04c471173cb0d50b87e2ee1511. “The impact of social media addiction on recreation anxiety in individuals” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1860004).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1860004). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Recreational Drug Use
<a id="recreational-drug-use"></a>

Recreational drug use is the occasional or regular use of substances without a prescription and for reasons unrelated to health. The term covers both intermittent and habitual non-medical use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 63744df5443d00ad799272fc6352af65ea6a5dbee0a53b192cac3236f6f5c40e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Recreational Drug Use” (D000084783).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000084783). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## recreational therapy
<a id="recreational-therapy"></a>

Recreational therapy is a therapeutic approach that uses structured activities, such as arts and crafts, music, time with animals, sports, or drama, to support the physical and emotional needs of people with illness or disability. It also aims to build skills used in everyday living.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 10b468713b1eebacbb19b3751cfdc56cf54437cc493ce77a886788be1ea14bd4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Recreational Therapy” (C93348).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recruitment
<a id="recruitment"></a>

Recruitment is the process of attracting and enrolling people into a research study. In human research, it involves using methods such as personal contact or digital outreach to reach a target group and encourage participation, with success depending on the population and study setting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2516a8529e2ac719e5ad808003b315222f707914145af20ac91fd62601c13c74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Litke Nicola; Wensing Michel; Hermeling Lina; Bombana Manuela. Quantitative evaluation of recruitment strategies in a cluster-randomized trial: segmented regression and cost analysis from the AOK-Family + study. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12874-025-02734-8; article XML SHA-256 d9f738cc485fbc33a2cc0d35ca8e931dce97fc42535ddbfbbdd6d8645ee25fbd. “Quantitative evaluation of recruitment strategies in a cluster-randomized trial: segmented regression and cost analysis from the AOK-Family + study” (10.1186/s12874-025-02734-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-025-02734-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recurrent circuit
<a id="recurrent-circuit"></a>

A recurrent circuit is a feedback loop in a neural system in which signals from principal output neurons return to earlier parts of the same network and influence later responding. In the source context, this refers to retinal ganglion cell signals feeding back through gap-junction-linked amacrine pathways to regulate the gain of visual responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a96291f89ebb4d8bb888b0dc726cf486ad34ce5b307518582b8019f5b40b777

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vlasiuk Anastasiia; Asari Hiroki. Feedback from retinal ganglion cells to the inner retina. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0254611; article XML SHA-256 4a668005ccfb01b85bfd1a90232db251776f58cc0a34ebc37907a55e7ae6b583. “Feedback from retinal ganglion cells to the inner retina” (10.1371/journal.pone.0254611).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254611). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## recursive model
<a id="recursive-model"></a>

In this learning context, a recursive model is a formal way of representing hyperbolic reward discounting step by step over time, as in the hyperbolically discounted temporal difference model. Unlike a parallel model that adds up separately discounted rewards, it allows later rewards in a sequence to interact nonlinearly with earlier ones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dfb61dc1bf5f8966af2c9726b8d91fc3d6753379bbe03a2a30cacae74bc46f09

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zarr Noah; Alexander William H.; Brown Joshua W.. Discounting of reward sequences: a test of competing formal models of hyperbolic discounting. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00178; article XML SHA-256 cd3b6696eff5f256976fc3522677366485b3e3d8eb47fc3215a47a38430c96dd. “Discounting of reward sequences: a test of competing formal models of hyperbolic discounting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00178).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00178). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## red nucleus
<a id="red-nucleus"></a>

The red nucleus is a pinkish-yellow area in the midbrain, located in the upper part of the mesencephalic tegmentum. It receives major input from the opposite side of the cerebellum through the superior cerebellar peduncle and from the motor cortex on the same side.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 584c91c2295e9cd48d06d986181b2f0e90198f3ed8172f50eea48018d5ab1edf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Red Nucleus” (D012012).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012012). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## red sage
<a id="red-sage"></a>

Red sage refers to the dried root of Salvia miltiorrhiza, also called Danshen. In the source material, it appears as one of the plant-derived ingredients in a capsule formulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ede53943f9473f5d4ff74e0d945bcbb86cd169c08b95b00b48c4a44a25ff132

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cidan Herbal Capsule” (C118451).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## red–green blindness
<a id="redgreen-blindness"></a>

In this historical source, red–green blindness means the retinal zone outside the center of vision where sensitivity to red and green is absent, even though the innermost zone still detects color. It is described as part of the way color sensitivity changes from the center of the retina toward the periphery, before the farthest outer zone becomes completely color-blind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 735b8f49f97c3005a69c47b50cdc86e7c4cd2b374a564f7d57268d52c9092684

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Indirect Vision” (Indirectv).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Indirectv). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## redintegration
<a id="redintegration"></a>

Redintegration is the rebuilding of a memory trace in working memory by drawing on information stored in long-term memory. In verbal working memory, it refers to using existing knowledge, such as vocabulary, to help reconstruct what was being held in mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 290199e5bd9e52a9a39ff5145c19c2baf46b989695aa7022a788615c2c8124d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bruns Gunnar. Re-analyzing and confirming a differential use of redintegration in students with mild and borderline intellectual disabilities. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1278458; article XML SHA-256 64b10de6d9d12dce62792fb8cc5ba857aec052e38b569472016fa9d9993bd84d. “Re-analyzing and confirming a differential use of redintegration in students with mild and borderline intellectual disabilities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1278458).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1278458). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## redundant coding
<a id="redundant-coding"></a>

Redundant coding is a learning presentation approach in which the same information is given in more than one form at the same time, such as spoken narration together with matching on-screen text. In this context, it can support learning by reinforcing information across modalities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d50a80ef55ee792edab9dece2a7db23bd0ac4cf46eeefef389903d0be44aaa8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fenesi Barbara; Vandermorris Susan; Kim Joseph A.; Shore David I.; Heisz Jennifer J.. One size does not fit all: older adults benefit from redundant text in multimedia instruction. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01076; article XML SHA-256 908748d74ce78db6184dbb5a6c4df4b3f708a956320ae5e79d427f3c46a0636d. “One size does not fit all: older adults benefit from redundant text in multimedia instruction” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01076).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01076). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reference population
<a id="reference-population"></a>

A reference population is a comparison group used in a study to judge how outcomes in a target group differ from those in a broader or matched population. In this context, it refers to people compared with the patient group when examining survival and related factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6066cdbb17ec0c4eee3a12e3bf6dddcc4a71a5f43564a89086537db908f45bd2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Osler Merete; Prescott Eva; Wium-Andersen Ida Kim; Ibfelt Else Helene; Jørgensen Martin Balslev; Andersen Per Kragh; Jørgensen Terese Sara Høj; Wium-Andersen Marie Kim; Mårtensson Solvej. The Impact of Comorbid Depression on Educational Inequality in Survival after Acute Coronary Syndrome in a Cohort of 83 062 Patients and a Matched Reference Population. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0141598; article XML SHA-256 61a4cf1a72f8c7381f3d8d82ac17d072fdcf36697c4196203b605f130f850e72. “The Impact of Comorbid Depression on Educational Inequality in Survival after Acute Coronary Syndrome in a Cohort of 83 062 Patients and a Matched Reference Population” (10.1371/journal.pone.0141598).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141598). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## referent
<a id="referent"></a>

In this developmental context, a referent is the word or cue that identifies who information is about, such as a self-pronoun like “you” or another person’s name. Referent cues can affect how easily children process and keep problem information in mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c00f6bf3d17301fff7d65aed6bd6404a5e304488b8d72f8c3e9c2cef546971da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [March Joshua J; McLean Janet F; Ross Josephine; Kuipers Jan R; Cunningham Sheila J. Why do self-referent cues facilitate mathematical word problem-solving? Insights from eye tracking. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346703; article XML SHA-256 7e63e87dd9fc98e87a3a08128ec8d00f3265fdadecb0f82f58072d8a39b4976b. “Why do self-referent cues facilitate mathematical word problem-solving? Insights from eye tracking” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346703).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346703). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## referent power
<a id="referent-power"></a>

Referent power is a form of social influence that comes from other people’s admiration, personal liking, and identification with a leader or superior. In other words, someone has referent power when others are influenced by them because they feel drawn to or want to align themselves with that person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 771df88642abb838cb10b71825bf0dc76dfa48eb27fbf8d168e5f05e4825fd37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lachmi Rotem; Ben-Hador Batia; Brender-Ilan Yael. The impact of consultants’ power dynamics on clients’ self-efficacy and managerial stress. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1515277; article XML SHA-256 0315234a662c8278dd946b74be3771aba65b592886d91a589c2fa67adc4e78f6. “The impact of consultants’ power dynamics on clients’ self-efficacy and managerial stress” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1515277).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1515277). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## referral
<a id="referral"></a>

In this mental health context, a referral is when a health care provider directs someone to a mental health professional with the right experience to evaluate or treat a child.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dfdadd5b3a27463229c8e3316177772783fd89134518766cb643a1a7c956a98a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Children and Mental Health: Is This Just a Stage?. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 831beee5043409ab9dc62704c00da2d043348bf2cba3bb19cb65f5e0cf750158. “Children and Mental Health: Is This Just a Stage?” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/children-and-mental-health).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/children-and-mental-health). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Referred Pain
<a id="referred-pain"></a>

Referred pain is pain felt in a different body area from where it actually starts. For example, a problem in the throat may be experienced as pain in the ear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b537f90d876f1339375c6c9fd5a37c18880d10bdb8712cff21f05db4d7e4eab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Referred Pain” (D053591).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D053591). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reflected appraisals
<a id="reflected-appraisals"></a>

Reflected appraisals are a person’s views about themselves formed by taking another person’s perspective, such as considering how someone else sees their traits. In this sense, they differ from direct self-appraisals because they are indirect, third-person evaluations of the self.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 21b006a6d4813fc1ae6b0477f87b8df77c69409f43ebc5484843369c06b62108

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Forster Saskia Doreen; Drueke Barbara; Britz Sara; Gauggel Siegfried; Mainz Verena. How females think about themselves and how they assume that significant others think about them: The influence of perspective taking on self-referential processing. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0217870; article XML SHA-256 ae5c9c1c2cdfdbbad6aa5b439b0f3f6c97f6fec244c1abd197c08f10089304ad. “How females think about themselves and how they assume that significant others think about them: The influence of perspective taking on self-referential processing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0217870).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217870). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reflective
<a id="reflective"></a>

In a learning context, reflective refers to actively thinking about and examining one’s own experiences in order to learn from them. It involves self-evaluation of experiences such as training or performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1d6aa332ec4fc8058205a030f7b3af0cea10c37e090f51c19de7d82267bcba30

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Seok Ryu; Park Sung-Un; Kwak Jeong-Hyeon. Effect of feedback-enhanced reflective journaling on self-regulation and perceived performance among Taekwondo athletes. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04575-6; article XML SHA-256 c5a24771ff73eaa730e239bc01a4f319d4cc92b0d627e5d2fe1811d915c3b0e8. “Effect of feedback-enhanced reflective journaling on self-regulation and perceived performance among Taekwondo athletes” (10.1186/s40359-026-04575-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04575-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reflective consciousness
<a id="reflective-consciousness"></a>

Reflective consciousness is a form of awareness in which a person turns attention toward themself and considers themself as the object of thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5bfac1fe324b3efea5fb0db13a45b380fed1dd6b91503c6819b1b71af1d4eff2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Self” (C25200).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reflective functioning
<a id="reflective-functioning"></a>

Reflective functioning is the ability to recognize mental states, such as thoughts and feelings, and to understand behavior in oneself and others as shaped by those mental states. In this packet, it is described specifically in parenting and family-attachment contexts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f5b75275de94e1f8653e3784a839e27f844f45e03d7f6356510ab95d93d1a4c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Camoirano Andrea. Mentalizing Makes Parenting Work: A Review about Parental Reflective Functioning and Clinical Interventions to Improve It. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00014; article XML SHA-256 817188f778713b5120b95909806080baeebab349ef03b8c9113a06ec917709ec. “Mentalizing Makes Parenting Work: A Review about Parental Reflective Functioning and Clinical Interventions to Improve It” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00014).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00014). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reflex
<a id="reflex"></a>

A reflex is an automatic, involuntary movement or body function that happens when a stimulus is applied to the body’s outer areas and the signal is carried to the brain or spinal cord.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c11a42020bc440f41327b4d6473ad52470b97aabc13f67a026aa96d21787b137

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reflex” (D012018).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012018). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reflex arc
<a id="reflex-arc"></a>

A reflex arc is a feedback pathway in which stretch sensed by a muscle spindle is sent through a sensory neuron to spinal cord motor neurons, which then trigger the muscle to contract. In this example, the response opposes further stretching and helps maintain normal muscle tone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71c476ca3af22fd4ae39165f3f117b462b612fac988260e8c1219c74e17a1332

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Muscle Spindle” (C13824).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reflex epilepsy
<a id="reflex-epilepsy"></a>

Reflex epilepsy is epilepsy in which seizures are brought on by a specific outside trigger or by an internal mental process. A common example is photosensitive epilepsy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2c0e39be80130c3670f31197d1657092a2a023d1f550598660c54dc7accb4d05

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Reflex Epilepsy” (C85041).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reflex integration
<a id="reflex-integration"></a>

Reflex integration refers to the developmental process or therapeutic focus of helping primitive early-life reflexes become inhibited as the central nervous system matures, so more controlled posture and purposeful movement can emerge. In this context, it is linked to methods such as Vojta and Dynamic Neuromuscular Stabilization that aim to facilitate neuromuscular and postural control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82d4602f3a16afa26e0fbd7f3d6d00292fa232efcfddb82186d29d8b45923b5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Križalkovičová Zuzana; Szabó Péter; Kumli Kata; Štefanovský Miloš; Makai Alexandra; Szentpéteri József. Neurodevelopmental benefits of judo training in preschool children: a multinational, mixed methods follow-up study. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1457515; article XML SHA-256 9de78e077394b7595955fc029347cbc3666d6a67827b8b8caf75a46808ee2e05. “Neurodevelopmental benefits of judo training in preschool children: a multinational, mixed methods follow-up study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1457515).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1457515). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reflex sympathetic dystrophy
<a id="reflex-sympathetic-dystrophy"></a>

Reflex sympathetic dystrophy is a syndrome in which an arm or leg develops severe burning pain along with changes in sweating, blood flow, and bone and skin nutrition, without a clearly identified specific nerve injury. It often follows trauma, and the affected area may become red and unusually sensitive to touch.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce0e1188bd1ae2a36220898948ae0ffdb673d7a8af5925231f5041ef12f2f701

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy” (D012019).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012019). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reflexivity
<a id="reflexivity"></a>

In a team setting, reflexivity is the deliberate process of members thinking about and discussing their goals, strategies, and way of working, then changing these when needed. It is a form of collaborative self-examination meant to improve how the group functions and the results it achieves.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d86fb2462d995024b15dbd444a1818c34d6c08aadb7b501f4da2de4a05e0163

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Han Huibin; Ma Chihao; Yang Danning; Zhao Weiwei. Transformational leadership and project success: the mediating roles of team reflexivity and project team resilience. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1504108; article XML SHA-256 56feded5ae8141fa8a2dc08720c10846c052622b7ee2bfc18a275d2a9383aae8. “Transformational leadership and project success: the mediating roles of team reflexivity and project team resilience” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1504108).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1504108). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reflexology
<a id="reflexology"></a>

Reflexology is a therapeutic practice that involves applying pressure to specific areas of the ears, hands, and feet. It is used to reduce stress and to promote healing in body parts thought to be linked to those areas through energy channels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96ff74156c9a27e117226a9c0e1d831cfe05a58511f0d95be028aa27baa2df84

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Reflexology” (C162743).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## refraction
<a id="refraction"></a>

Refraction, in this packet, refers to an eye-care service used in addressing refractive errors that affect vision. It is described as something that can be delivered remotely through a tele-refraction model to improve access to visual health services.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a22e95474527e6ae538bf76c00acc814b7a8637c25d7170e193c7986f0e6e520

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Muma Shadrack; Naidoo Jyoti; Mashige Khathutshelo Percy; Simon Magakwe Tshubelela Sello. Evaluation of a tele-refraction model to address the lack of human resources in Kenya. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352780; article XML SHA-256 56c0d7940ff0b4a75ce91fc0d35a069fccb06cce393f89c4aafd9cb62ba99847. “Evaluation of a tele-refraction model to address the lack of human resources in Kenya” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352780).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352780). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## refractive index
<a id="refractive-index"></a>

Refractive index is an optical property describing how hemoglobin behaves with light. In this packet, it is treated as a value that changes with wavelength, concentration, and whether hemoglobin is oxygenated or deoxygenated, which matters for optical diagnostic methods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 526fef177f1b1d483bdc6288e9db0ad5de244456060ad237196421ce76491988

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alkhanani Mustfa Faisal. Predictive modeling of hemoglobin refractive index using Gaussian process regression with interpretability through partial dependence plots. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324827; article XML SHA-256 7054f68e814dfb6dc774b7e064e90cab9fbd74c84e1b6cc4fb0d30696267bd3b. “Predictive modeling of hemoglobin refractive index using Gaussian process regression with interpretability through partial dependence plots” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324827).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324827). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reframing
<a id="reframing"></a>

Reframing is the act of changing the way something is understood by placing it in a different conceptual framework. In this source, it means recasting learning and education from a linear transfer of content to a dynamic, relational process within complex adaptive systems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 748764a2f4b2a02ef12ab940812e8f08898bc1ec3c626f141f9ca8873f727b6a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Firaux Tommaso; Damiani Paola; Cavaglià Marco. EMI-EDU: reframing learning and education through energy, mass and information. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1761644; article XML SHA-256 142432ddfec326562c70b97569226f5aa35e15e3319a83906887ca7711594a21. “EMI-EDU: reframing learning and education through energy, mass and information” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1761644).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1761644). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## refutation
<a id="refutation"></a>

Refutation is the public correction of a rumor or false claim by providing counter-information, often from an official or authoritative source. In social-media health discussions, it is used to try to shift attitudes and reduce the spread of negative emotional reactions, although its effects can vary with the topic, audience, and network conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 52473964fae3b7e54483bb3c3daba578ee2eaf825f2f8b649d5ec48095531034

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhi Huawei; Qiao Yan. Exploring the contagion routes of digital emotion on health topics: A multidimensional configuration analysis pre-post rumor refutation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352675; article XML SHA-256 fbc3ff73385a97015c79888621c72654a6e01855f4408bf5b9bcb36a7006ad43. “Exploring the contagion routes of digital emotion on health topics: A multidimensional configuration analysis pre-post rumor refutation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352675).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352675). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## REG
<a id="reg"></a>

REG here refers to lithostathine-1-alpha, a human protein produced from the REG1A gene. It may help regulate the growth of nerve cells and pancreatic cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 088cdd75d4f69f3cced519718f4dabf3fd105b80d7443fbc3fb2383a52a791b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lithostathine-1-Alpha” (C131324).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## regeneration of nerves
<a id="regeneration-of-nerves"></a>

A procedure intended to help nerves regrow or to restore nerve function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7732466e1aa3d37a0a41ef35c4219b51673fed398f02555e8753154999717758

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neurotization Procedure” (C185713).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## regional cerebral blood flow
<a id="regional-cerebral-blood-flow"></a>

Regional cerebral blood flow is the amount or pattern of blood flow in specific areas of the brain. It is used to assess brain circulation, especially in ischemic cerebrovascular disease, and can help clarify the type of dementia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0aac0289402d1f7c6c4233297b76693911a0452a50e4aa96fd0757fd44dfa060

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kaga Tetsuro; Kato Hiroki; Imai Toyohiro; Ando Tomohiro; Noda Yoshifumi; Miura Takayuki; Enomoto Yukiko; Hyodo Fuminori; Iwama Toru; Matsuo Masayuki. Non-invasive regional cerebral blood flow quantification in the 123I-IMP autoradiography using artificial neural network. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281958; article XML SHA-256 8d150ca2ecf3e986779c77422d431ea92693d44674e3968adb4de27321af97a3. “Non-invasive regional cerebral blood flow quantification in the 123I-IMP autoradiography using artificial neural network” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281958).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281958). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## register
<a id="register"></a>

In this context, a register is an organised data record or database, such as a prescription register, that researchers use to study patterns across large populations. Register-based work uses these routinely collected records to examine differences such as regional variation in diagnosis- or treatment-related practices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fd2e9b8f34e6ffc47ff35c5faeed6823c911c66dafa9ad1f79a57c37f7b50608

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Anker Espen; Bendiksen Bothild; Wergeland Gro Janne; Thomsen Per Hove. County-level variation and trajectories in ADHD medication dispensing among Norwegian children and adolescents, 2005-2022: a nationwide prescription register study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1861616; article XML SHA-256 19a5e404b5ddf6dc47e9d541874a05b0efea73d1e8516927d0dc0e98bf374d8f. “County-level variation and trajectories in ADHD medication dispensing among Norwegian children and adolescents, 2005-2022: a nationwide prescription register study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1861616).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1861616). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## registered nurse
<a id="registered-nurse"></a>

A registered nurse is a nurse who completed an accredited nursing program, passed a state licensing exam, and is licensed by a state authority to practice. Educational preparation may come through hospital diploma, associate degree, baccalaureate, or combined programs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75d7fa6d508e62ddd3d2fbf5192023f50a4ea5c5b95a8269fcd7cd46b4ce06bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Registered Nurse” (C20824).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## regression
<a id="regression"></a>

Regression is a statistical term for prediction. In this usage, the regression of one variable on another means using one variable to predict the other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 420ddc154501b5079c81011f6be4c94ed971ff2a31090df8c2f0fbbbeca928ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Regression” (regression.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/regression.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## regression analysis
<a id="regression-analysis"></a>

Regression analysis is a group of statistical methods used to find the mathematical relationship between an outcome and one or more predictor variables. Different forms are used depending on the kind of outcome being studied, such as continuous or qualitative outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc387fb829e298c2b07d0cb7d7b3d7f0f09e0086f7d75d80add46eab70f55543

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Regression Analysis” (D012044).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012044). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## regression artifact
<a id="regression-artifact"></a>

A regression artifact is a misleading statistical effect that can appear when researchers test whether a continuous personal characteristic predicts improvement from pretest to posttest while also adjusting for the pretest score. If that characteristic is related to the pretest and the pretest contains random measurement error, regression to the mean can create a biased result that looks like a real predictor of learning or change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 381edfa9c1e0c4b82fd07dae8570cb6e4b388711b8f1c5020cee777a7ce1629f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eriksson Kimmo; Häggström Olle. Lord’s Paradox in a Continuous Setting and a Regression Artifact in Numerical Cognition Research. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0095949; article XML SHA-256 95f0d4df6ca7f62304780c4d4913d7955933d516c80790889a140ad64c83f008. “Lord’s Paradox in a Continuous Setting and a Regression Artifact in Numerical Cognition Research” (10.1371/journal.pone.0095949).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0095949). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## regression coefficient
<a id="regression-coefficient"></a>

A regression coefficient is the value that shows the slope of a regression line in simple regression. In multiple regression, it refers to the partial slope for one predictor while the others are taken into account.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71cb2fd5e7d117cc949715a8341e79ae4d076bfa3612aff75df62e7bd2203ab9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Regression Coefficient” (regression_coefficient.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/regression_coefficient.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## regression-discontinuity design
<a id="regression-discontinuity-design"></a>

Regression-discontinuity design is a quasi-experimental research method used when random assignment is not practical or ethical, and it is presented as a useful alternative to a randomized controlled trial. In the health and psychology-related context of the packet, it is an established design that may also be adapted to analyze repeated measurements over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 579118cc2c1568686d02209837b8569c9bb0a600af8c1e6173c562d681d01bc0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hagemeier Anna; Rosenberger Kerstin Daniela; Hellmich Martin. Extension of Regression Discontinuity Designs (RDD) to evaluate time effects – A quasi-experimental approach using the data from the new form of care “Integrated cross-sectoral psycho-oncology (nFC- isPO)”. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343414; article XML SHA-256 64d91f672c9df68635b4dfa6f81a0b67130b3017ecded40c00c3e5b94fcd1b50. “Extension of Regression Discontinuity Designs (RDD) to evaluate time effects – A quasi-experimental approach using the data from the new form of care “Integrated cross-sectoral psycho-oncology (nFC- isPO)”” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343414).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343414). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## regression line
<a id="regression-line"></a>

In linear regression, a regression line is the line that best fits the data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a89b8bd1e52a36955a18519c640f31198ad707d533bc8e720ac7cc817fe18d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Regression Line” (regression_line.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/regression_line.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## regression tree
<a id="regression-tree"></a>

A regression tree is a statistical model used to find which variables are related to an outcome across different participant segments. It does this by splitting the sample into groups using partitioning variables and then examining the associations within those groups; in a mixed-effects form, it can also account for fixed predictors and random differences such as district or survey round.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 49273197c32cbc37346206e9039ca22547584f2991a173ac2267aef2972a8256

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dadi Teshome Kabeta; Tamiru Dessalegn; Wondafrash Beyene; Gebremariam Mekdes Kebede. Modeling determinants of women’s decision-making autonomy on agriculture and household matters in rural Ethiopia: a mixed effects beta regression tree analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355932; article XML SHA-256 a93385b432abe5e8c7c2d5f9fccd3de07701c22b70bbe037e3267a9731837413. “Modeling determinants of women’s decision-making autonomy on agriculture and household matters in rural Ethiopia: a mixed effects beta regression tree analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355932).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355932). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## regret
<a id="regret"></a>

Regret is a usually painful feeling that arises when someone realizes that a different choice would have produced a better outcome. It involves looking back on a decision and wishing another option had been taken.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bfdf5bd9f2875afec29080db1f8d1faeb393f3371dc50ba210a72e19b4149a06

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Feeney Aidan; McNair Simon; Andelic Nicole. Debt-related regret and well-being in people resolving problem debts. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03045-9; article XML SHA-256 722a2cc985f2bc24ba06a165f6d26c2820fd828d454bf5bd324ebf65bd56b8b9. “Debt-related regret and well-being in people resolving problem debts” (10.1186/s40359-025-03045-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03045-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## regret theory
<a id="regret-theory"></a>

Regret theory is a decision-making approach that considers not only the expected benefit of a choice but also the regret a person may expect to feel if another option would have been better. It is used to account for how anticipated regret can shape choices, including comparisons with similar past cases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 121ceb07a21b653b0b357ca91a638108582b653c62520d235550e1129eb7f95a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Feng; Du Xuewan; Huang Xin; Fei Xiaoxia. Study on the methodology of emergency decision-making for water transfer project contingencies: A case-based reasoning and regret theory approach. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300272; article XML SHA-256 88a2f3b38dee0320f3a87b3a353db85abe106e3789735883f828a4bc3cc54c05. “Study on the methodology of emergency decision-making for water transfer project contingencies: A case-based reasoning and regret theory approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300272).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300272). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## regulatory behavior
<a id="regulatory-behavior"></a>

Regulatory behavior refers to an infant’s characteristic way of managing emotion and interaction during the still-face setting. In this research context, it is described in patterns such as mainly positive social engagement, persistent distress that is hard to soothe, or reliance on self-comforting actions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d4daa42b6f732d985fa49273167f229122a064c305f26707a2f20530fdcb2f73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fuertes Marina; da Costa Ribeiro Camila; Barbosa Miguel; Gonçalves Joana; Teodoro Ana Teresa; Almeida Rita; Beeghly Marjorie; Lopes dos Santos Pedro; Lamônica Dionísia Aparecida Cusin. Patterns of regulatory behavior in the still-face paradigm at 3 months: A comparison of Brazilian and Portuguese infants. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0252562; article XML SHA-256 42634e83790bd25ab5402c67ed393ea67c1218ee5258b039236747e589568ce8. “Patterns of regulatory behavior in the still-face paradigm at 3 months: A comparison of Brazilian and Portuguese infants” (10.1371/journal.pone.0252562).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252562). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rehabilitation
<a id="rehabilitation"></a>

Rehabilitation is a set of interventions designed to improve abilities that have been affected and to build compensatory, adaptive ways of functioning. In the neuropsychological context, it targets cognitive, emotional, and social difficulties while strengthening preserved skills to improve everyday functioning and quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d4f9f5f0c1378b33abb5c232fdb975823ead36685b67167b64150dff597b719

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ferreira Sónia; Virgolino Ana; Pombo Samuel; Bacelar-Nicolau Leonor; Vásquez-Justo Enrique; Ribeiro Cristina. Neuropsychological rehabilitation in executive deficits resulting from alcohol use disorder: systematic review of literature. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805577; article XML SHA-256 fca1330719ba06852b454d8a2f15fb30dc814e326c8695c09c358ed4c2629cc6. “Neuropsychological rehabilitation in executive deficits resulting from alcohol use disorder: systematic review of literature” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805577).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805577). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rehabilitation center
<a id="rehabilitation-center"></a>

A rehabilitation center is a healthcare facility that helps improve, maintain, or restore abilities such as physical strength, thinking, and movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 07473f3b4b7b76732db7c40f31110d61b4627cbac6945a77d620c2bf78bca907

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Rehabilitation Center” (C53535).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rehearsal
<a id="rehearsal"></a>

Rehearsal, in this learning context, means mentally repeating the steps of a task by picturing them in the mind after seeing them. It is used as a supplement to hands-on practice to help learners move toward skilled performance, especially in learning how to carry out procedures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09a8724ca32d155fc192c57babc48784725e6ce2ff6336a0f6262222f97f15dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schriek Simon A.; Berthold Kirsten; Hefter Markus H.. Learning from video tutorials: mental focusing and rehearsal are just as effective as written focusing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768486; article XML SHA-256 7bd33b23880988f8634642e4724b000d11729c1385e43bb33803260b946096ec. “Learning from video tutorials: mental focusing and rehearsal are just as effective as written focusing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768486).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768486). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rehospitalization
<a id="rehospitalization"></a>

Rehospitalization means being admitted to the hospital again after a previous hospital stay. In this source, it refers specifically to a new hospital admission for COVID-19 reinfection occurring at least 90 days after the first hospitalization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 70a87106ce7961fc92930a3eed723f45898c03a3f62091a751da3fbec8e1615b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Neves Ranna Kíssia Alves das; Bastos Leonardo Soares; Maciel Villela Daniel Antunes; Saraceni Valeria; de Oliveira Cruz Débora Medeiros; Carvalho Luiz Max; Pacheco Antonio Guilherme. Rehospitalization due to COVID-19 reinfection in Rio de Janeiro, 2020–2022: Associations with vaccination status, sociodemographic and clinical factors. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332281; article XML SHA-256 c480b4e0986c940293aea05b6b3db3001a821d6fbd8c0bc987ff41dd24a65b83. “Rehospitalization due to COVID-19 reinfection in Rio de Janeiro, 2020–2022: Associations with vaccination status, sociodemographic and clinical factors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332281).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332281). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reiki
<a id="reiki"></a>

Reiki is a non-invasive complementary modality used in community and hospital settings, with reported benefits for lowering stress and pain. In mental health contexts, it is discussed as a supportive approach that may improve psychological as well as physical well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e123cdd0fabb893f16f669b961d58851d2f7dc1dfccfe47518b76a45e428b67

Sources:
- Drafting source: [McCutcheon Heather; Habiya Sana Kausar. Investigating perceived stress and pain reduction following brief Reiki sessions in high-stress communities: an exploratory study. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1625414; article XML SHA-256 362a4c3a9318eab566dba12dcb13a0e3c3b53eb9ca291457f7c61d62d70e5ab8. “Investigating perceived stress and pain reduction following brief Reiki sessions in high-stress communities: an exploratory study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1625414).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1625414). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reinforce
<a id="reinforce"></a>

In psychology, to reinforce means to strengthen a response by using an object or situation that satisfies a motive or provides pleasure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 57c9c91b4f10bc50831f20d2d5fe81edbd0a3890f44903d05411a9b48c960e15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reward” (D012201).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012201). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reinforcement delay
<a id="reinforcement-delay"></a>

Reinforcement delay is a schedule condition in which the reinforcing event is not immediate but occurs after a set wait, such as 300 or 600 seconds instead of 0 seconds. In the supplied study, these delays were associated with longer gaps between visits and changes in response rate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd4cd49ebf715eb09316f5e488c63d216fd87c7fd4969e40ce177e88cbe57473

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Craig David Philip Arthur; Grice James W.; Varnon Chris A.; Gibson B.; Sokolowski Michel B. C.; Abramson Charles I.. Social Reinforcement Delays in Free-Flying Honey Bees ( Apis mellifera L.). 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0046729; article XML SHA-256 1941c84f1dec9420f46f29768b075d27a72793b4965ebf3cc239702be39ffaaf. “Social Reinforcement Delays in Free-Flying Honey Bees ( Apis mellifera L.)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0046729).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0046729). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Reinforcement, Psychology
<a id="reinforcement-psychology"></a>

In psychology, reinforcement is the process by which a conditioned response becomes stronger.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1b9919abf7ac112519d7fca18ed9cbc98130281148ecaf96d2cacf348a9e806

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Reinforcement, Psychology” (D012054).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012054). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reinforcement schedule
<a id="reinforcement-schedule"></a>

A reinforcement schedule is the planned timing of when a person or animal receives reinforcement or reward in a psychological experiment. It may provide reinforcement every time a response occurs or only on some occasions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b68b826eaebdbc10616cb8a376d9640dbf2ad91055c9d6e644ae7d0e81c61b74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reinforcement Schedule” (D012055).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012055). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reinforcement therapy
<a id="reinforcement-therapy"></a>

Reinforcement therapy, in this source, refers to Circadian Reinforcement Therapy: a proposed intervention that creates a structured daily routine by regularly timing cues such as light exposure, exercise, meals, and social contact to help stabilize the sleep–wake cycle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca20c77ab00be5eb2b9eee4fa4ce823b3695c31e64d901e7e2408912a1a93fdf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dunker Svendsen Signe; Aggestrup Anne Sofie; Nørregaard Lasse Benn; Løventoft Philip; Præstegaard Anne; Danilenko Konstantin V.; Frost Mads; Knorr Ulla; Hageman Ida; Vedel Kessing Lars; Martiny Klaus. Circadian reinforcement therapy in combination with electronic self-monitoring to facilitate a safe post-discharge period of patients with depression by stabilizing sleep: protocol of a randomized controlled trial. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s12888-019-2101-z; article XML SHA-256 7e7dda5d7dcaf81270a25be267e2423dc17590623d507a8bbf23119c44e403bb. “Circadian reinforcement therapy in combination with electronic self-monitoring to facilitate a safe post-discharge period of patients with depression by stabilizing sleep: protocol of a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-019-2101-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2101-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Reinforcement, Verbal
<a id="reinforcement-verbal"></a>

Verbal reinforcement is the use of words as a stimulus to make a learned response stronger.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f356bc7b15ad715f072b90c5f59effff19f9acf36055d44dc00ee7d85dbaea1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Reinforcement, Verbal” (D012057).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012057). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reinforcer
<a id="reinforcer"></a>

A reinforcer is something that makes a behavior happen more often because it is presented after that behavior. Common examples include rewards such as food, water, or opportunities to explore, and some drugs can also act as reinforcers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67551dd2915302e1668817dd38b5607ffdcf572e7fcfe3885ad6a250a4d09942

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Positive Reinforcer” (C41211).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reintegration
<a id="reintegration"></a>

Reintegration means integration carried out again, or a repeated process of combining parts into a whole. The entry also points to redintegration as a related term.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80007e595d2cb85b70e3f39b5a798bdc3b8a5ca83a31134b11f9bb0c69ae9542

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2488500-2500500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Reissner’s membrane
<a id="reissners-membrane"></a>

Reissner’s membrane is the membrane that forms the roof of the scala media in the cochlea. It separates the scala media from the scala vestibuli.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f86087d6509c7343c4c04762bc4346d61bd8a366faa51ee5121fac53985afd55

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hearing” (Hearing).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Hearing). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rejection error
<a id="rejection-error"></a>

Rejection error, in this source, refers to a misidentification problem in which records from the same individual are not recognized as a match. This kind of false rejection can make capture-mark-recapture estimates less accurate and less precise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59d508dc2bc064181e235ea23a514a8cd826e7e9ff75cc8ef8da00bb30bef11b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Winiarski Kristopher J; McGarigal Kevin. Effects of Photo and Genotype-Based Misidentification Error on Estimates of Survival, Detection and State Transition using Multistate Survival Models. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0145640; article XML SHA-256 5b090773af58e960baa41e829ab6c03c2023b551a80bca60ba453fa82d09f8d9. “Effects of Photo and Genotype-Based Misidentification Error on Estimates of Survival, Detection and State Transition using Multistate Survival Models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0145640).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145640). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relapse
<a id="relapse"></a>

Relapse is a return to substance use after treatment or a period of abstinence. In this context, it is understood as an outcome shaped by biological, psychological, and social influences, with some factors increasing risk and others helping protect ongoing recovery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7e7e6689a3bba6b6321d1f4596d4cb83323219e9ea47c08dedf35acb7aa65529

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Naeem Sajid; Rasheed Amna; Ali Hasnain. Risk and protective factors for relapse after residential substance use treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08330-4; article XML SHA-256 9f09c10aa6bcb1ec469d70a58235ddf5b1c3cc2645dc599e6ccf6348312d4455. “Risk and protective factors for relapse after residential substance use treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1186/s12888-026-08330-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08330-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relatedness
<a id="relatedness"></a>

Relatedness, in this packet, means a person’s felt connection with nature and living things across cognitive, emotional, and lived experience. Stronger nature relatedness is linked to a greater sense of belonging, more concern for the environment, and more environmentally responsible behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3cb60736b859cf07d2acaa3ededf2ad3ff56dddc8eeb16439ea80c97cea0761d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bolukbasi Selman; Yelboga Nurullah; Aktu Yahya. The role of nature relatedness on environmental ethics awareness and environmental behavior among young adults: a moderated mediation model of environmental organization membership. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1750175; article XML SHA-256 00eeb2bce14121146a74dd279d7bbfddc2fec70feaf7e86aa6413c1d6d98f435. “The role of nature relatedness on environmental ethics awareness and environmental behavior among young adults: a moderated mediation model of environmental organization membership” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1750175).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1750175). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relation
<a id="relation"></a>

In this psychology context, relation means the way two or more factors are connected or associated with each other. It refers to examining how variables such as beliefs, resilience, and relationships are linked as pairs or as a larger pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 57a3d767defceb03796fe7871d82ab003f0cafd833e56c8982540c810269957d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Peng Zhuo; Zhang Weijuan. A study of the correlation among adolescents’ personal belief in a just world, resilience and teacher-student relationship: a second-order and mediation model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878362; article XML SHA-256 c1f3abbc24bf35f555b03d4d29fe90f5b68f68b8a7d7d283a743680f9e10a9c4. “A study of the correlation among adolescents’ personal belief in a just world, resilience and teacher-student relationship: a second-order and mediation model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878362).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878362). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relational aggression
<a id="relational-aggression"></a>

Relational aggression is a form of aggression that targets a person’s social ties, status, or reputation rather than using direct physical harm. It involves intentionally manipulating relationships, such as through rumors, threats within peer relationships, ignoring someone on purpose, or excluding them from a group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a1816e8ceb9c7b33b33053f8d7ffdaca80c3b537e9b2c200df93bf89711f97ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiang Yongzhi; Tong Lifang; Cao Wenjiao; Wang Huizhe. Dark Triad and relational aggression: the mediating role of relative deprivation and hostile attribution bias. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1487970; article XML SHA-256 f5477fa84f22447d129260172520e77a93426c0adfbe008cbf2c6d53b2cbaa00. “Dark Triad and relational aggression: the mediating role of relative deprivation and hostile attribution bias” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1487970).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1487970). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relational frame theory
<a id="relational-frame-theory"></a>

Relational frame theory is a psychological framework for understanding human language and behavior. In this source, it is described as addressing perspective-taking and as providing training methods aimed at improving that ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7ea815ab50fd310c7af1d1faec8b536ba38652af203c934d1480a880a9a8a006

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ooshima Yasuhiro; Mitamura Takashi. Effects of perspective-taking training based on relational frame theory for cognitive empathy and emotional empathy: Differences in perspective-taking according to various theoretical approaches. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323120; article XML SHA-256 67ddbc6c0469b4888d9bf23905b8f0e4c4a13711c1e4b0f4e9df872e4109b097. “Effects of perspective-taking training based on relational frame theory for cognitive empathy and emotional empathy: Differences in perspective-taking according to various theoretical approaches” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323120).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323120). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relationship
<a id="relationship"></a>

In this context, a relationship is a consistent association between two factors, such as alcohol use and aggressive behaviour. The packet describes it as stronger under certain conditions, particularly high intoxication, and as shaped by other pre-existing tendencies rather than being a simple direct cause.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ccd2ee73ebb496b78b4068e1563e2b0f93c3308386d523333c570fa515a7771

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sebalo Ivan; Sebalo Vňuková Martina; Anders Martin. Burned aggression: the relationship between burnout and aggressive behaviour among young adults in Czechia. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1872129; article XML SHA-256 52a9806c19cdbdf862f4ca3eb826df0e8b2ea31e468ae1fc582ac17fd0d08209. “Burned aggression: the relationship between burnout and aggressive behaviour among young adults in Czechia” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1872129).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1872129). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relative frequency
<a id="relative-frequency"></a>

Relative frequency is the proportion of all observations that fall into a particular category or class. It expresses how common something is as a part of the whole and is often shown in graphs such as histograms, pie charts, and bar graphs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f05660608f51ef7f9d17e25989dcb14da309c8628e3ac382a477171704108bf8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Relative Frequency” (relative_frequency.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/relative_frequency.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relative frequency distribution
<a id="relative-frequency-distribution"></a>

A relative frequency distribution shows how often each value or range of values occurs as a proportion of the total rather than as raw counts. It is the same basic idea as a frequency distribution, but expressed in relative amounts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e38806a19af143c9bdab68d6d4ff36d7a830b6802c6776082204ab432f3bbee0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Relative Frequency Distribution” (relative_freq_dist.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/relative_freq_dist.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relative judgment
<a id="relative-judgment"></a>

Relative judgment is judging how individuals compare with one another on a skill, rather than only estimating each person’s overall level. In this context, it means how accurately a teacher can rank children within a group according to their mathematical skills.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 13643b573e70588a666091018481b7394be80c1bbbd49538c1ebfa397d391729

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hosoya Georg; Blömeke Sigrid; Eilerts Katja; Jenßen Lars; Eid Michael. Absolute and Relative Judgment Accuracy: Early Childhood Teachers' Competence to Evaluate Children's Mathematical Skills. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.701730; article XML SHA-256 5ca1cb466e403e2f7dfd036cfb8a905fcc8345f0cf5ac277495fbbf61fbed527. “Absolute and Relative Judgment Accuracy: Early Childhood Teachers' Competence to Evaluate Children's Mathematical Skills” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.701730).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.701730). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relative pitch
<a id="relative-pitch"></a>

Relative pitch is the ability to understand or identify musical notes by their relationship to a tonal center, especially the intervals they form with the keynote or tonic. In contrast to absolute pitch, it depends on context-based comparison rather than treating each heard note as a fixed label.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce591daef8e216386c4ae62fcc523d79d84938aca2974863a5543197b3f77b0d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shibayama Karen; Shimada Hitoshi; Itoh Kosuke. Cognitive control in music: adaptive strategies for relative pitch across the absolute-pitch proficiency continuum. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1723224; article XML SHA-256 6abd78a7d396e01c7df2cf5df1e0e57cac62992f3ee0736a9043167a6bdeba93. “Cognitive control in music: adaptive strategies for relative pitch across the absolute-pitch proficiency continuum” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1723224).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1723224). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relative refractory period
<a id="relative-refractory-period"></a>

The relative refractory period is the phase after an action potential when a cell is recovering its excitability. During this time, the cell can respond again, but only to a stronger-than-usual stimulus, and that extra strength needed gradually returns to normal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b27ef088a5e229ee97e0f328d201f0e88458d6ae9075381461143917a4a3b641

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Refractory Period, Electrophysiological” (D012032).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012032). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relative sensitivity
<a id="relative-sensitivity"></a>

Relative sensitivity is the degree to which one assessment model or measure is more responsive than another to symptoms or differences in psychopathology. In this context, it means comparing personality measures by how well they detect symptoms of personality disorders and non-personality disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c42fd0f29c6f697fca7ec6009298446f25d0398e9e854d1e1cf1f7bcd51eb6d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Komasi Saeid; Hemmati Azad; Rezaei Farzin; Rahmani Khaled; Miettunen Jouko; Amianto Federico; Hopwood Christopher J. Comparison of the relative sensitivity of two dimensional personality models to the psychopathological symptoms: the section III DSM-5 maladaptive traits versus affective temperaments. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-04156-y; article XML SHA-256 bbcfcb5552cee3644c3ee7b37b88a6682b2eaa7bc68c6523a677b0df63b48c5a. “Comparison of the relative sensitivity of two dimensional personality models to the psychopathological symptoms: the section III DSM-5 maladaptive traits versus affective temperaments” (10.1186/s12888-022-04156-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-04156-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relativism
<a id="relativism"></a>

Relativism is presented here as a position in theories of knowledge that questions the validity or limits of what we can know. In this historical usage, it is linked with agnostic views that judge knowledge inadequate by demanding conditions it cannot meet.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f7e6101a2437c67eba26759ca6ceba38d1be1d9b6f8e757be0aff021fc2b30e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Epistemology” (Epistemology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Epistemology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relaxation
<a id="relaxation"></a>

Relaxation is an activity that lowers feelings of tension and lessens the bodily effects of physiological stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39ab19650419fb6eb236e6ea2ec0293942326d23c4ba490088d4c584312bef2d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Relaxation” (D012063).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012063). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relaxation technique
<a id="relaxation-technique"></a>

A relaxation technique is a method used to lessen tension and anxiety and help control pain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2273f60f8b745b2e1b3faedfdbda311fd41e2be2ab7f4206b6779e4c41e070ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Relaxation Technique” (C28184).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Relaxation Therapy
<a id="relaxation-therapy"></a>

Relaxation therapy is a treatment approach that aims to improve health by using methods that lower physical stress, psychological stress, or both.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 85e42d347f37c2997ef7f4315afc4427230de93aed6c6fc2ab8f084ef5600e98

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Relaxation Therapy” (D012064).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012064). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relay nucleus
<a id="relay-nucleus"></a>

A relay nucleus is a thalamic nucleus that passes activity on to the cortical module in thalamo-cortico-thalamic circuitry. In this packet, it refers to the thalamic relay nucleus as part of the pathway linking thalamus and cortex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f58f3487a80d3e802ddcb5810fa167b4dbe3ce5066e9846b007038c87654eb81

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li XiaoYuan; Yang XiaoLi; Sun ZhongKui. Alpha rhythm slowing in a modified thalamo-cortico-thalamic model related with Alzheimer’s disease. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0229950; article XML SHA-256 7258ef4da1f67d671d728a1dc6bb73687925b487d081815c68331c9e9ace1bb6. “Alpha rhythm slowing in a modified thalamo-cortico-thalamic model related with Alzheimer’s disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0229950).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229950). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## release therapy
<a id="release-therapy"></a>

Release therapy, in this packet, refers to fascia knife release therapy, a physical treatment approach that was studied together with exercise for neck and shoulder pain. The source only supports this narrow use of the term, not a broader general definition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ee3aac143a383c58b2e1a8969745de2b8963dea67b2f6a67140c41ac916bf1a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yunqing Li; Shinian Zhang; Jie Li; Xianfeng Wu. Effects of 12 weeks of fascia knife release therapy in combination with exercise for treating neck and shoulder pain in adolescent table tennis players. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpubh.2025.1679219; article XML SHA-256 a3d7cd5596bab9afee8d03013378345dc5a584294534a9e2e0861a58549556fc. “Effects of 12 weeks of fascia knife release therapy in combination with exercise for treating neck and shoulder pain in adolescent table tennis players” (10.3389/fpubh.2025.1679219).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2025.1679219). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## releaser
<a id="releaser"></a>

In historical psychological laboratory apparatus, a releaser was the part of reaction-time equipment that delivered or exposed the stimulus. It was arranged so that, at the moment the stimulus appeared or was applied, it also started the timing circuit for measuring the subject’s reaction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ff1d50538a22b232706b43c9c679926234a67e81878f46bc8dc4835e2bcaa4e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Laboratory (of psychology) and Apparatus” (Laboratory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Laboratory). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reliability
<a id="reliability"></a>

Reliability is the consistency of a test, classically understood as how strongly scores on two parallel versions of the same test agree. In this view, it reflects the proportion of score variation due to true differences rather than measurement error.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fecdc2ed23f86074de3cf790a409ea05c6b29d0a667288279d21698b14fe6af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Reliability” (reliability.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/reliability.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reliability coefficient
<a id="reliability-coefficient"></a>

A reliability coefficient is a numerical summary used to represent how reliable a scale is. In this context, it refers to a general reliability value estimated for a measure by bringing together reported Cronbach’s alpha results from multiple studies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b9eceb575d5d9d85a73aae32f3e68df8e106c90061a385f2eacdd6773ed9043e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Özdemir Emine Ören; Yildirim Ibrahim. A reliability generalization meta-analysis of self-report measures of statistics anxiety. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1675957; article XML SHA-256 23166a8bb94af74618d38fac145cf2927f3a37c5145c7509409ff8700d20ae19. “A reliability generalization meta-analysis of self-report measures of statistics anxiety” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1675957).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1675957). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reliability index
<a id="reliability-index"></a>

A reliability index is a number used to show how consistently a questionnaire or similar measure performs. In this packet, it refers to the questionnaire’s consistency estimate calculated with Cronbach’s alpha.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47ebfd103a5fc135e8df79cbdf6eefd4f135d02d2f33d8b93328a56814cde4a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aja Lucy; Odhine Innocent Sunday; Muhammad Tukur; Lubega Mohammad. Students'psychological patterns and academic performance in public secondary schools in Kazo District, Uganda: a quantitative analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03187-w; article XML SHA-256 e13451235af276fa7f1e7b45a2b3296c49f0299cd734909f41ebf51ca5e45499. “Students'psychological patterns and academic performance in public secondary schools in Kazo District, Uganda: a quantitative analysis” (10.1186/s40359-025-03187-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03187-w). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## relief
<a id="relief"></a>

Relief is a short-term easing of negative emotion in the moment, such as after a supportive interaction. In this context, it is distinct from adaptive emotion regulation because feeling better right away does not by itself mean a person has strengthened their ability to manage future emotions on their own.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98f6de12639ebca0e790e09baafeb3aca0eb3b2c27b266e3f9720942e3d1a255

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Chun. How emotional response styles of generative AI companions shape adaptive emotion regulation and short-term AI reliance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1950163; article XML SHA-256 dad9d098809a03c7647d1c381d06c49f6bee4eb992e0b1915dd4dc4315cc417a. “How emotional response styles of generative AI companions shape adaptive emotion regulation and short-term AI reliance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1950163).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1950163). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## religiosity
<a id="religiosity"></a>

Religiosity is the more institutional, social, and behavior-based side of religious experience. It involves private and public religious practices and commitment to an organized set of beliefs, and is distinct from spirituality, which refers more to a personal inner experience of the divine.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b6e9fe3802d1ecc34f43ab618f347cabc55982cc200e46b6b226407db14e70f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Almaraz David; Baumann Klaus; Moreno Martín Florentino; Sánchez-Iglesias Iván; Saiz Jesús. The relationship of religiosity, spirituality and health in Spanish cancer patients: testing underlying psychological, social and behavioral pathways. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03097-x; article XML SHA-256 781b8e134b013e676729c2d07c0f477afff6ad482356ebf6780b7ec396a01632. “The relationship of religiosity, spirituality and health in Spanish cancer patients: testing underlying psychological, social and behavioral pathways” (10.1186/s40359-025-03097-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03097-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## religious faith
<a id="religious-faith"></a>

Religious faith refers to the beliefs and practices of a religion or denomination, often linked with spiritual worship and guidance. In counselling contexts, it may be relevant as part of a person’s source of spiritual and moral support.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 21b2a6c64a48609e45e05e482ae8e6f74b10eaab5f2ce3e5172206480aa26f28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Religious Workers” (C122503).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## religious mania
<a id="religious-mania"></a>

In this historical psychology source, religious mania refers to a form of mental disturbance in which intense religious experiences appear as symptoms. It is described as involving a marked change in self-consciousness, with the person experiencing a new religious identity, revelation, inspiration, or sense of special mission.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b195c746455b127583532f5841f7d21d10cc83348ea4b868ca423ccfb0e2abf7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2625000-2637000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## religious therapy
<a id="religious-therapy"></a>

Religious therapy refers to using religious practices or sacred elements, such as holy water, as a way of coping with illness, including mental health problems. In this context, it describes a faith-based approach people may turn to alongside their experience of symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2802d858fe0d83ea8803c2e3ff0507397b2b3707490ff834dc2300660ca75d1b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Belete Amsalu; Abate Moges Wubneh; Nigat Adane Birhanu; Tigabu Agimasie; Bantie Berihun; Yirga Gebrie Kassaw; Tiruneh Chalie Marew; Emiru Tigabu Desie; Tibebu Nigusie Selomon; Legas Getasew; Asnakew Sintayehu; Walle Belete Gelaw; Yitayew Moges Yinges; Kibret Simegnew; Tesema Kassa Abebaw. The magnitude of common mental illness and associated factors among adult holy water users in Amhara regional state Orthodox Tewahido churches, Ethiopia, 2021. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-04524-2; article XML SHA-256 6b5e979aad5909eb13fd009a82415d8e0878c6f4740157730798cc57824541be. “The magnitude of common mental illness and associated factors among adult holy water users in Amhara regional state Orthodox Tewahido churches, Ethiopia, 2021” (10.1186/s12888-023-04524-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04524-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## religiousness
<a id="religiousness"></a>

Religiousness is a spirituality-related aspect of a person’s life that is considered relevant to how people report their quality of life and health. In psychology, it is discussed as part of coping and well-being, alongside factors such as faith, positive attitude, and inner peace that may relate to lower stress and depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dfef804d5b174d6949e68bff45725ea1b482222f7c5782cfb657e678b3bb1df1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Borges Cezimar Correia; Maciel Renata Custódio; Lemes Uitarany do Prado; Noll Matias; Barbosa Maria Alves; Porto Celmo Celeno; dos Santos Patrícia Roberta; Lucchetti Giancarlo; Silva Weder Alves; Ribeiro Celaine; Aprigliano Vicente; Silveira Marina; Ferrari Gerson; Sá Filho Alberto Souza. Quality of life in university professors: association with components of spirituality and professional achievement. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1735377; article XML SHA-256 eaecf988457f1acab7a680e91f3875d928ec350509fe2f5ba50d905dbbcba487. “Quality of life in university professors: association with components of spirituality and professional achievement” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1735377).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1735377). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## REM behavior disorder
<a id="rem-behavior-disorder"></a>

REM behavior disorder is a sleep disorder in which a person shows vigorous, sometimes violent movements during REM sleep. The person may injure themselves or others, can be hard to wake, and often later remembers a vivid dream that matches the behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2de2c53eae5a3075853c7475d003f657d536b8115c2d4b573598311974e19a12

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “REM Sleep Behavior Disorder” (D020187).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020187). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## REM latency
<a id="rem-latency"></a>

REM latency is the length of time before rapid eye movement sleep begins. In this context, a shorter REM latency is described as a biological marker linked with depression, while some antidepressants increase it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7973ac83fab4526c5c417163e9e4d24e6fad6f5b5960a0b4b14fbc80995f85c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kostyalik Diána; Vas Szilvia; Kátai Zita; Kitka Tamás; Gyertyán István; Bagdy Gyorgy; Tóthfalusi László. Chronic escitalopram treatment attenuated the accelerated rapid eye movement sleep transitions after selective rapid eye movement sleep deprivation: a model-based analysis using Markov chains. 2014; DOI 10.1186/s12868-014-0120-8; article XML SHA-256 66274c22633aa99927616006490b25cba5b4bce95fd2eae92e8b49e9c771e218. “Chronic escitalopram treatment attenuated the accelerated rapid eye movement sleep transitions after selective rapid eye movement sleep deprivation: a model-based analysis using Markov chains” (10.1186/s12868-014-0120-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-014-0120-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## REM rebound
<a id="rem-rebound"></a>

REM rebound is the return of rapid eye movement sleep after it has been selectively deprived, marked by more REM sleep and a shorter delay before REM begins. In this context, it is a biological sleep response that can resemble REM changes seen in depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c3905f8a96b10e836b04911763ede14bd422d22de84389cc7d0b29c0581efe03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kostyalik Diána; Vas Szilvia; Kátai Zita; Kitka Tamás; Gyertyán István; Bagdy Gyorgy; Tóthfalusi László. Chronic escitalopram treatment attenuated the accelerated rapid eye movement sleep transitions after selective rapid eye movement sleep deprivation: a model-based analysis using Markov chains. 2014; DOI 10.1186/s12868-014-0120-8; article XML SHA-256 66274c22633aa99927616006490b25cba5b4bce95fd2eae92e8b49e9c771e218. “Chronic escitalopram treatment attenuated the accelerated rapid eye movement sleep transitions after selective rapid eye movement sleep deprivation: a model-based analysis using Markov chains” (10.1186/s12868-014-0120-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-014-0120-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## REM sleep
<a id="rem-sleep"></a>

REM sleep is a phase of sleep in which the eyes move quickly and brain activity shows a low-amplitude, fast pattern. This stage is commonly connected with dreaming.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a55f81f849902d399cfcc983debd54684a30456661e6fd0cb6cfd50c070802b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep, REM” (D012895).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012895). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
<a id="rem-sleep-behavior-disorder"></a>

REM sleep behavior disorder is a condition in which a person shows vigorous, sometimes violent movement during REM sleep and can be hard to wake. After an episode, the person often vividly remembers a dream that matches the aggressive behavior, and the episodes can lead to injury to the person or others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a894bd7237a996a3744f7df7ee2ef6c5fdd00ab5c468f605d6b67a15d2fc80e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “REM Sleep Behavior Disorder” (D020187).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020187). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## REM-sleep deprivation
<a id="rem-sleep-deprivation"></a>

REM-sleep deprivation is the prevention or loss of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. In the source packet, prolonged REM-sleep deprivation in rats is described as a stressful state that raises corticosterone and is typically followed by a rebound increase in REM sleep during recovery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc13d2148f39dae9d67d83e522dfcdcb5ad38f9d564dff010ae2c39501b6ae33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Machado Ricardo Borges; Tufik Sergio; Suchecki Deborah. Role of Corticosterone on Sleep Homeostasis Induced by REM Sleep Deprivation in Rats. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0063520; article XML SHA-256 f88d958d00ae54b583fd0eb9b63e6b93ce873da88de3e148eeb02cc3213013ef. “Role of Corticosterone on Sleep Homeostasis Induced by REM Sleep Deprivation in Rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0063520).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0063520). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## remember–know procedure
<a id="rememberknow-procedure"></a>

The remember–know procedure is a memory method that asks whether retrieval is accompanied by conscious recollection of a past event or instead by a mere feeling of knowing. It is used to distinguish recollective awareness from familiarity-like knowing when studying episodic memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2bf1ba0fdd2debf9d809795c073326a47af5487b3a104752b0a9d63fd579c936

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Saive Anne-Lise; Royet Jean-Pierre; Garcia Samuel; Thévenet Marc; Plailly Jane. " What-Where-Which " Episodic Retrieval Requires Conscious Recollection and Is Promoted by Semantic Knowledge. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0143767; article XML SHA-256 b317945306b6e9c779771376eb4ca1ba3665c4ff5b23b0a1f57566d76bba0c6e. “" What-Where-Which " Episodic Retrieval Requires Conscious Recollection and Is Promoted by Semantic Knowledge” (10.1371/journal.pone.0143767).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143767). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## remembrance
<a id="remembrance"></a>

Remembrance here means short-term memory: keeping information in mind for a brief period, from a few seconds to hours.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0db0cbe9c8d97920cf894e9b3e764dd7323c44e916c40e023ebaf619e1c6c6e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Memory, Short-Term” (D008570).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008570). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Remeron
<a id="remeron"></a>

Remeron is a brand name for mirtazapine, an antidepressant drug. It increases signaling in brain systems involving norepinephrine and serotonin, and it also blocks several serotonin, histamine, and adrenergic receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e550c5d26a62086c2b1b42d27fa58340385156c6d8b039f70603d1dfe7eb9f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mirtazapine” (C29265).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reminiscence
<a id="reminiscence"></a>

In this context, reminiscence means bringing back autobiographical or episodic memories, often through music. It can create chances for social sharing, conversation, and engagement with others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7cc3f616ba374e95d9cd73dd09f2d2f17a44a6bf8043cc418cf2b86e45716b4f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Genguelou Mikael; Platel Hervé; Bourgeois Cécile; Gambonnet Marie; Bayard Sophie. Social engagement, pleasure, and memory in musical reminiscence workshops for individuals with Alzheimer’s disease. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1803210; article XML SHA-256 7203fafc5878f273bf890c4c183ad70c9631ccdf20e64f599f8e63638f45708b. “Social engagement, pleasure, and memory in musical reminiscence workshops for individuals with Alzheimer’s disease” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1803210).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1803210). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reminiscence therapy
<a id="reminiscence-therapy"></a>

Reminiscence therapy is a mental health intervention used to help people cope with psychological pressure. In the supplied source, it is described as being used with cancer patients with the aim of reducing anxiety and depression and improving quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1dd7bd68345921d9dcdabf1cf9ed62598f1de5f3d3b9c509b2237b5cb96e6dc6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sun Xingliang; Su Wenlian; Yin Mengyue; Xia Ling. Effects of a reminiscence therapy-involved program on anxiety, depression, and the quality of life in cancer patients: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1408941; article XML SHA-256 b7edcd5dbaa0a21791738da4cabdfddf423afd173286859e5b4d32f2eab52ac0. “Effects of a reminiscence therapy-involved program on anxiety, depression, and the quality of life in cancer patients: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1408941).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1408941). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## remote association
<a id="remote-association"></a>

Remote association is the ability to connect ideas or elements that seem unrelated and form new relationships between them. In psychology, it is linked to creativity because stronger remote associative ability is associated with producing more unusual and novel ideas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fbacd3d7f5e4b6ea1c59ce4acfb68f62b46b0ee36907d7e4b1fd7fca49a3f3e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Ching-Lin; Chen Hsueh-Chih. Visual-Spatial and Verbal Remote Association: An fMRI Study. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.672997; article XML SHA-256 7307e65026464f8059c513554f501b0c3b5443279f6ae6e6dd2376104c0f9db5. “Visual-Spatial and Verbal Remote Association: An fMRI Study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.672997).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.672997). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## remote cause
<a id="remote-cause"></a>

Remote cause means a cause that brings about an outcome indirectly, by first producing another, more immediate effect through which the later effect occurs. In contrast, the intermediate effect is the proximate cause.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dbe4ac5e877c458b30bb2e4882d546651970ffd803301b7a68a2aa5d3c74a6b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2625000-2637000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## renewal following extinction
<a id="renewal-following-extinction"></a>

Renewal following extinction is an increase or return of learned fear after extinction learning. In this context, it refers to fear becoming stronger again after it had been reduced through extinction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1caa705e050500751aa05e8740d260474e2ece147d962756a8866c9294dde799

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ritger Alexandra C.; Parker Rachel K.; Trask Sydney; Ferrara Nicole C.. Elevated fear states facilitate ventral hippocampal engagement of basolateral amygdala neuronal activity. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnbeh.2024.1347525; article XML SHA-256 ad50c5f8d0f5ea4aea8b94bd706d97806bdeff191768472bdd0ad7976ec126ff. “Elevated fear states facilitate ventral hippocampal engagement of basolateral amygdala neuronal activity” (10.3389/fnbeh.2024.1347525).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2024.1347525). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Renshaw cell
<a id="renshaw-cell"></a>

A Renshaw cell is an inhibitory interneuron in the ventral gray horn of the spinal cord. It forms a reciprocal connection with a motor neuron, receiving input from that neuron and sending inhibitory signals back to it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 426156316645d61fda9ef10d2a50f7c38928b875dc19a78454e8487e6502cbf2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Renshaw Cell” (C33463).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reparameterization
<a id="reparameterization"></a>

Reparameterization is a way of reorganizing part of a network so it can use features more efficiently while reducing computational load and memory use. In this packet, it refers to combining intrinsic and redundant features through a lightweight layer to improve speed and keep performance strong.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e2ccade34b7f03bdb4b2c15a1c1f58a29bfac1d6147affbe1e14b0089aba906

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Tianyu; Jin Xiaoshi; Liu Qiang; Liu Xi; Yuan Zehang; Liang Tianyang; Lou Jia; Rao Yangfan. R 2 GDN: RepGhost based residual dense network for image super-resolution. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338432; article XML SHA-256 e5d63dd1b8e3c5b61d373ab3b561e19cf4ee834af0af0ae3bf23f21184f78f0d. “R 2 GDN: RepGhost based residual dense network for image super-resolution” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338432).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338432). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## repeated measures design
<a id="repeated-measures-design"></a>

A repeated measures design is a study design in which the same participants are measured in more than one condition, such as when each person evaluates both options being compared. Because the observations come from the same people, this design can control for individual differences and can provide greater statistical power when the repeated observations are strongly related.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bea79a9810b969846b35095f8e11e800eacd4c71e5fe1a617a99e61553adbd63

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## repertoire
<a id="repertoire"></a>

Repertoire refers to a grouped body of works or styles used for comparison within a performance domain, such as Baroque, Romantic, or late Romantic music. In this context, repertoire means the category of material being performed, allowing differences in expressive behavior to be examined across stylistic groupings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3fe733d5dd5af0b8fc491172290d8355fa44f6d9577db457c6c252cc6655d5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yan Mengjiao. Expressive coupling and textural dissociation in classical piano performance: evidence from the ASAP dataset. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1882570; article XML SHA-256 74008a538e128b99c60f5630b8906d3c5ceaa63cde5ee8ddb6c672fe4a14c438. “Expressive coupling and textural dissociation in classical piano performance: evidence from the ASAP dataset” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1882570).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1882570). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## repertory grid
<a id="repertory-grid"></a>

A repertory grid is an assessment method from personal construct theory used to explore a person’s conceptual structure, including how they understand themselves, other people, and the world. In psychology, it is used to examine how someone construes or makes sense of experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 749fb2367ea343d421139dd7623ae146bc5ad924c84ff079045319dcfd82f683

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wozniak Eleanor Elizabeth; Hare Dougal Julian; Gregg Lynsey; Wittkowski Anja. Construal of self as a mental health inpatient: a systematic review and narrative synthesis of repertory grid studies. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1431798; article XML SHA-256 75b1ecbd636333719c2b6a6ffedae73e565906bd040413824d96c4100d05d34a. “Construal of self as a mental health inpatient: a systematic review and narrative synthesis of repertory grid studies” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1431798).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1431798). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## repetition effect
<a id="repetition-effect"></a>

In this packet, the repetition effect refers to the Hebb repetition effect: improved serial recall when a sequence is repeated across trials. The packet indicates that this memory effect appears across different kinds of visual material and is influenced by whether repeated and filler sequences share the same items.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ec1149224ff57496094564e4c5c785a1bb72231612edac2232444ea2779617f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Johnson Andrew J.; Miles Christopher. Visual Hebb Repetition Effects: The Role of Psychological Distinctiveness Revisited. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00017; article XML SHA-256 3a154bbb12bdf0b6213c84cb0f3d37b6c458144a06be4bde9ed6218226ec43c5. “Visual Hebb Repetition Effects: The Role of Psychological Distinctiveness Revisited” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00017).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00017). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## repetition priming
<a id="repetition-priming"></a>

Repetition priming is a form of procedural memory in which prior exposure to an item or stimulus changes how easily it can later be identified. In plain terms, encountering something before can influence later recognition of it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f44a91b44c79d4ad20eb04620965648375cf58e4adf7b099fa9c9d615eaa4ca2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Repetition Priming” (D060865).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D060865). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation
<a id="repetitive-transcranial-magnetic-stimulation"></a>

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation is a type of brain stimulation therapy. It has been studied as a possible treatment for depression, psychosis, anxiety, and other disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 77dea113e186fa2afb02e61bb36d916c7d96ad0d7b03824464c9018ed74f2580

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation” (C154664).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reportability
<a id="reportability"></a>

Reportability is whether a person can consciously notice and describe a stimulus. In this context, a stimulus may be unreportable either because attention is directed elsewhere or because the stimulus does not reach conscious perception, such as when it is masked.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 693971a31f24f08df3a4b969e64f40ce46b1c47ee4b95a1e415730e75a666562

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meuwese Julia D. I.; Scholte H. Steven; Lamme Victor A. F.. Latent Memory of Unattended Stimuli Reactivated by Practice: An fMRI Study on the Role of Consciousness and Attention in Learning. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0090098; article XML SHA-256 ee75375ae06a1118e3757aa56d2a215078c0689bc9496c60e04bcd68db7af474. “Latent Memory of Unattended Stimuli Reactivated by Practice: An fMRI Study on the Role of Consciousness and Attention in Learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0090098).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090098). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## representational change
<a id="representational-change"></a>

Representational change is a shift in how a person mentally frames a problem, moving beyond the current context and unstated constraints. In psychology, it is used to explain insight problem solving and can also help account for divergent thinking in creativity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e1b556a67e71fb87b8209ba5d531c211a93aeae68c38d5dbabc4be4308d25b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Harada Tsutomu. Mood and Risk-Taking as Momentum for Creativity. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.610562; article XML SHA-256 adf5ff68da4fbdff16eec583c12c93e0a92396253f2637c1b13afbdabf70e291. “Mood and Risk-Taking as Momentum for Creativity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.610562).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.610562). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## representativeness
<a id="representativeness"></a>

In this historical usage, representativeness means how far a mental state depends on ideas or re-presented experience rather than immediate sensation or perception. The passage uses it as a scale for classifying feelings, from simple bodily pleasures and pains linked to direct presentation up to emotions and sentiments shaped more by associated and abstract ideas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3ea4af9fd213803bfaf988ddd8fa8473f9c871328d15093822141bcaab565211

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-220500-232500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## repression
<a id="repression"></a>

Repression is a psychological process in which a person keeps painful memories or traumatic thoughts out of conscious awareness as a form of self-protection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc90a3d0785ac5daa5b30714418ab6c9fa5762b4496fbbeb7684eb45d04330db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Repression” (C17086).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Repression, Psychology
<a id="repression-psychology"></a>

In psychology, repression is a mental process in which a person keeps unacceptable thoughts or impulses out of conscious awareness. It involves pushing these ideas away from consciousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2ff90da50548c10f68cc295f3eae90de8bb8a0798a1e94967da6e6b318489ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Repression, Psychology” (D012094).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012094). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## repression–sensitization
<a id="repressionsensitization"></a>

Repression–sensitization is a pattern of defense against threatening stimuli that ranges between avoidance and approach. In sensitization, the person moves toward or tries to control the threat through intellectualization, while in repression, the person avoids it through unconscious denial.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5254732f5fa20ae9cf24615e11b3a945d383b28f5589b0fa0466a7f9ccce1285

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Repression-Sensitization” (D012095).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012095). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reproductive behavior
<a id="reproductive-behavior"></a>

Reproductive behavior refers to how people act and plan in relation to having children, including the number of children they intend to have, whether they are currently trying to conceive, and their near-term intentions about childbearing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 04dc729bb66c361d0f369041fd503cdf2e886be73e25f329357a5899779cf304

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Slabá Jitka. Changes in reproductive behavior associated with the perception and individual experiences of the COVID-19 pandemic. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288833; article XML SHA-256 da0f795dc3310e9e0c6cb8af72ac90fa954e58908e96daa14cf97456651c2379. “Changes in reproductive behavior associated with the perception and individual experiences of the COVID-19 pandemic” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288833).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288833). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reproductive function
<a id="reproductive-function"></a>

Reproductive function is the ability of an organism’s reproductive system to produce and support offspring. In this packet, it is reflected by measures such as ovulation, fertilization, embryo development, implantation, and live birth, which decline with female reproductive aging.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e99009090d7bcbf3cbe8267868c5c021ec591f29c8d653e3f7358c10979759f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sato Yorino; Kawagoe Yuta; Kawamura Kazuhiro. Age-related upregulation of p16 expression in mouse ovarian somatic cells correlated with reproductive function decline p16 expression and ovarian aging in mice. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348870; article XML SHA-256 23681831d6deaf2652f044604685e04f62d03af6e31aecc80f61b21cb1880b1b. “Age-related upregulation of p16 expression in mouse ovarian somatic cells correlated with reproductive function decline p16 expression and ovarian aging in mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348870).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348870). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reproductive type
<a id="reproductive-type"></a>

Reproductive type means the mode of reproduction an organism shows, such as producing males from unfertilized eggs and females from fertilized eggs, or producing females from unfertilized eggs. In this packet, it specifically refers to a form of thelytoky in which meiosis is absent, called apomictic thelytoky.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3c744249358dc4641fef7ca71062c4a277133029d29d36f6d9244d059b309a23

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Du Sujie; Ye Fuyu; Xu Shiyun; Liang Yongxuan; Wan Fanghao; Guo Jianyang; Liu Wanxue. Apomixis for no bacteria-induced thelytoky in Diglyphus wani (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae). 2023; DOI 10.3389/fgene.2022.1061100; article XML SHA-256 dd87438efae21597ff4e4e352a3c21b3dd86f9e36083139e34d0297bf492b5d7. “Apomixis for no bacteria-induced thelytoky in Diglyphus wani (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)” (10.3389/fgene.2022.1061100).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2022.1061100). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## research
<a id="research"></a>

In this health context, research means studies involving people that are done to find new or better ways to prevent, detect, or treat health conditions. It often examines whether tests, treatments, or preventive measures are safe and effective.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b60f5e5f870d57d3a040fc1b6bf2da2180ee29e628f3036f6a4e1c2b498478a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 ff7a7468286526ac17a328be4c934d7799aad584950f0a10e9047534a7dd859b. “Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## research design
<a id="research-design"></a>

Research design is the overall plan for gathering and using data so the needed information is obtained with enough accuracy or so a hypothesis can be tested appropriately.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 815ff0fb04ed345a84817b0ebfb1a1a52eb10803456746ea192368dd5b085493

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Research Design” (D012107).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012107). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Research Diagnostic Criteria
<a id="research-diagnostic-criteria"></a>

Research Diagnostic Criteria, in this context, refers to a standardized method used to identify temporomandibular disorders in research. It includes a physical examination component called Axis I and is used to classify these disorders, including muscular and degenerative forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7edc37687e85c6fc5168f034ae4d6d71bfb2371798489215c441009c1a6f0a78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Suassuna Thalles Moreira; de-Barros Allan Vinícius Martins; da Silva Bárbara Araújo; dos Santos Araújo Fernanda Souto Maior; Faro Tatiane Fonseca; de Souza Lucena Eudes Euler; Filho José Rodrigues Laureano; de Oliveira e Silva Emanuel Dias; da Costa Araújo Fábio Andrey. Temporomandibular joint disorders in skeletal class II patients referred to orthognathic surgery: A cross-sectional study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297944; article XML SHA-256 cc13ab80035111ecf63b262fe25d62a3a7903d596259c009d832afbe40aad81d. “Temporomandibular joint disorders in skeletal class II patients referred to orthognathic surgery: A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297944).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297944). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## research ethics
<a id="research-ethics"></a>

Research ethics is the area of ethics concerned with the moral values that guide scientific research and research practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6bda6e76973e68a35943077cba982b65f3b4a5913e2ef12f4d0b6d2cec25a46c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Research Ethics” (C18465).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## research protocol
<a id="research-protocol"></a>

A research protocol is the planned framework for a study that states its goals and how the research will be carried out. In this example, it includes the study’s methods, recruitment approach, and the roles participants and advisors will have in developing, analyzing, interpreting, and sharing the work.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e2b8935a6713b224892a33dc95ec3646c4847fffa56ecdf12ae8556b67403c1c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pham An; Webster Zoe; Jackson Melissa-Irene; Bean Melanie; Thomson Maria; Mazzeo Suzanne; Ahrens Kym. Using youth-engaged research methods to develop a measure of disordered eating in transgender, non-binary, and gender-diverse youth: Research protocol. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313908; article XML SHA-256 06dc1262ad19db602e9ec4b38507ae557b7bbd7ebee73b24d5bf28bfd27e1694. “Using youth-engaged research methods to develop a measure of disordered eating in transgender, non-binary, and gender-diverse youth: Research protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313908).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313908). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reserpine
<a id="reserpine"></a>

Reserpine is an alkaloid from Rauwolfia plant roots that reduces stored norepinephrine, other catecholamines, and serotonin in nerve terminals. It has been used as a blood pressure drug, an antipsychotic, and a research substance, but side effects have limited its clinical use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6cf196f979088e29fdde2e939319c65013084882036e742214c82b668602e88

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reserpine” (D012110).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012110). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reserve capacity
<a id="reserve-capacity"></a>

Reserve capacity, in this context, means a person’s cognitive or brain reserve: a larger built-up capacity associated with factors such as higher IQ, education, or occupational attainment. It is used to explain why some people show lower risk or later clinical signs of dementia, with symptoms appearing only after more brain pathology has accumulated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dfc3d26b14baa1e84d3c57bf1a08f7aadc9c4dbb9079c2721b23cfb657ec2439

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meng Xiangfei; D’Arcy Carl. Education and Dementia in the Context of the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analyses and Qualitative Analyses. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0038268; article XML SHA-256 7962b8dc96fa8b75c1781b5c7960893b247fd89c9d8e3b49ebe72bff01dfbd52. “Education and Dementia in the Context of the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analyses and Qualitative Analyses” (10.1371/journal.pone.0038268).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038268). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## residence rate
<a id="residence-rate"></a>

In this historical asylum-statistics usage, residence rate means the length or average duration of patients’ stay in an institution. It refers to studying how long residents remain, often by comparing the periods of residence across groups such as those who recovered, improved, died, or were still in the asylum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4685e299c0e9cb89c4be14061174454d6f576594e3b6d13327659716b3a271b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-2730000-2742000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Residential Treatment
<a id="residential-treatment"></a>

Residential treatment is a structured live-in program for people with behavior disorders, including substance abuse. It can involve planned therapeutic group living and learning experiences, including teaching practical adaptive skills to support functioning in the community.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b1671322a3def9803ee4fb6a2796a4038c25ae5f411bed392f39421295481e25

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Residential Treatment” (D012114).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012114). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## residual analysis
<a id="residual-analysis"></a>

Residual analysis is a way of examining frequency data to pinpoint where the biggest differences between groups occur. In this study, it was used to show which metaphor category was especially overrepresented in one naming pattern compared with another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f5e44f26b4a46b79f9128907a04fc419be20268fc680e7d9c65cabc3bb4f90bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zheng Danyang. Container metaphor and the cognitive conventionalization of residential naming: a diachronic corpus study of the [X + Li] construction in Chinese. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794229; article XML SHA-256 b29529d072aaff1ad4c94c25b84f11653fa09cc2934627d8c76b0f19a358b74e. “Container metaphor and the cognitive conventionalization of residential naming: a diachronic corpus study of the [X + Li] construction in Chinese” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794229).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794229). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## residual error
<a id="residual-error"></a>

Residual error is the refractive error that remains after a toric intraocular lens is implanted, especially when the lens is not perfectly aligned. In this source, it refers to the remaining astigmatic or related optical error produced by lens rotation, axial shift, or both.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0c301fcfde84b8c590a21e469aaa324e576054183c8d962f6fd30ddf5d26f2eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gargallo Diana; Remón Laura; Ares Jorge; Castro-Alonso Francisco J. The influence of rotational error and axial shift of toric intraocular lenses on residual astigmatism. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311566; article XML SHA-256 12a1fcc63cc3163d7c06f033f91fb9ff5c70f0aa8f7b96eed65341507cae24f2. “The influence of rotational error and axial shift of toric intraocular lenses on residual astigmatism” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311566).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311566). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## residual schizophrenia
<a id="residual-schizophrenia"></a>

Residual schizophrenia is a form of schizophrenia in which a person has previously had a schizophrenia episode, but the prominent psychotic symptoms are no longer present. Ongoing features may remain as negative symptoms, such as reduced emotional expression or lack of motivation, or as milder positive symptoms, such as unusual beliefs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0dc0c34a99c8c24fd223b1d6fadde128b334af90235ef7dd1fa554d9b79be9c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Residual Type Schizophrenia” (C35007).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## residual term
<a id="residual-term"></a>

A residual term is the leftover part of the data after an initial decomposition step, which may still contain patterns not captured by the main components and can be analyzed separately to improve prediction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: abb0456f0928319cd280c1e5db43bec4ea60f72d77f2ce2db0b2db94150953d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Beibei; Cheng Yunhe. Predicting regional carbon price in China based on multi-factor HKELM by combining secondary decomposition and ensemble learning. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285311; article XML SHA-256 3148a3d9721f0f8bf98a116e9a63446986b7cd9e5f4f6dedbafc4211153e66f5. “Predicting regional carbon price in China based on multi-factor HKELM by combining secondary decomposition and ensemble learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285311).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285311). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## residual vision
<a id="residual-vision"></a>

Residual vision is the remaining visual function a partially blind person still has after vision loss, such as following optic nerve damage. It refers to vision that is reduced but not completely absent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18d02467b611066fc97d0b02f8ba401599d88d73e693a035d38e34026c1e408e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gall Carolin; Schmidt Sein; Schittkowski Michael P.; Antal Andrea; Ambrus Géza Gergely; Paulus Walter; Dannhauer Moritz; Michalik Romualda; Mante Alf; Bola Michal; Lux Anke; Kropf Siegfried; Brandt Stephan A.; Sabel Bernhard A.. Alternating Current Stimulation for Vision Restoration after Optic Nerve Damage: A Randomized Clinical Trial. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0156134; article XML SHA-256 4b65c9943bc07c6f4689ccaac09b0d37dd403e1595b45488c3b620ba5b191b78. “Alternating Current Stimulation for Vision Restoration after Optic Nerve Damage: A Randomized Clinical Trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0156134).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0156134). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## residue method
<a id="residue-method"></a>

A residue method is a laboratory testing approach used to screen a sample for multiple chemical residues at the same time. In the source, it refers to a validated multi-residue method for detecting pesticides in honeybees, honey, and beeswax.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4959b55efbe23d7233b466524f0f3841912c7c61a758e27bb90a85d8a78e2bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Amulen Deborah Ruth; Spanoghe Pieter; Houbraken Michael; Tamale Andrew; de Graaf Dirk C; Cross Paul; Smagghe Guy. Environmental contaminants of honeybee products in Uganda detected using LC-MS/MS and GC-ECD. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0178546; article XML SHA-256 623d9bdcd2c978aa4b9d5a28a7caa841f54b1e149af411e0cc91609556136d6d. “Environmental contaminants of honeybee products in Uganda detected using LC-MS/MS and GC-ECD” (10.1371/journal.pone.0178546).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178546). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## resilience
<a id="resilience"></a>

Resilience is a person’s ability to adjust and keep functioning when facing trauma, tragedy, hardship, adversity, or ongoing major stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c257ff6a22ae72165ef99163ce67c3b8feb91728d3137912c8b00785d3b4acb7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Resilience, Psychological” (D055500).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055500). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Resilience, Psychological
<a id="resilience-psychological"></a>

Psychological resilience is the human ability to adapt when facing tragedy, trauma, adversity, hardship, or ongoing major life stressors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ae2dd3365c026778df342aeeb091e1b2e5a53494b24e786aa7fa762d61092f8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Resilience, Psychological” (D055500).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055500). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## resistance to change
<a id="resistance-to-change"></a>

Resistance to change is a person’s reluctance or opposition to altering problematic or risky behavior. In counselling, it refers to the pushback that can make open discussion and motivation for change harder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4113d79922a813bb0fc4042113201f763f2afc75a028f6060122a8ea476004e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Motivational Interviewing” (D062405).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D062405). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## resistance to extinction
<a id="resistance-to-extinction"></a>

Resistance to extinction is the tendency for a learned response to persist even when the cue is repeatedly presented without the outcome that originally gave it meaning. In this context, it refers to conditioned disgust being relatively hard to weaken through cue-only exposure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16b023cd07bbf06d68ffebecf617a1d489c9e62eeb4df08fa7fa244263aec887

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bosman Renske C.; Borg Charmaine; de Jong Peter J.. Optimising Extinction of Conditioned Disgust. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0148626; article XML SHA-256 f4450a9334b6093f59564c26a3caefa6dd3796a519d8f996d2ce509b06757478. “Optimising Extinction of Conditioned Disgust” (10.1371/journal.pone.0148626).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148626). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## resource allocation
<a id="resource-allocation"></a>

Resource allocation is the way available resources are distributed and used within a system, such as higher education. In this context, it refers to how educational inputs are assigned across places or institutions and how efficiently those resources support desired outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1cb46baab16e7e5a3f437086e3be64e26e077baca916db2568e1d78b9addd475

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ye Ziyu; Khanal Ribesh; Cao Zhiqiang. Studying on the efficiency of higher education resource allocation and its influencing factors in the western China using DEA-Malmquist and Tobit models. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334090; article XML SHA-256 cab243f7a6621af37453636279650df826b201bc4dd22b327178b643144b6a90. “Studying on the efficiency of higher education resource allocation and its influencing factors in the western China using DEA-Malmquist and Tobit models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334090).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334090). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## resource defense polygyny
<a id="resource-defense-polygyny"></a>

Resource defense polygyny is a mating pattern in which males compete to control valuable resources or territories that attract females, allowing one male to mate with more than one female. In the source example, males defended nesting sites and used calls and aggression to keep or take over those sites, which increased their mating success.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7214f1384ca4829fe97c7fc9b3fba8b16a06e5e150139629be4f78c3c8bc5d7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hudson Cameron M.; Fu Jinzhong. Male-Biased Sexual Size Dimorphism, Resource Defense Polygyny, and Multiple Paternity in the Emei Moustache Toad ( Leptobrachium boringii ). 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0067502; article XML SHA-256 c9b4771dd74e851a7a340d42008843202fd21534648ad017070b078bb3cc6d9b. “Male-Biased Sexual Size Dimorphism, Resource Defense Polygyny, and Multiple Paternity in the Emei Moustache Toad ( Leptobrachium boringii )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0067502).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0067502). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## respect
<a id="respect"></a>

Respect is a feeling of strong admiration for someone or something based on their abilities, qualities, or achievements, and it also involves consideration for other people's feelings, wishes, and rights.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb49671890c85a78c761dcbdaf3ccf85900b7c0cbac0c79ed47756c2e5fc04bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Respect” (D000078682).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000078682). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## respiration
<a id="respiration"></a>

Respiration is the body’s breathing-related activity. In this psychology context, it is considered a physiological process that can change across mental states and can be examined in relation to heart rate variability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a9f7c5fb15f8d37829ef90925f20cd6308293a1eaea3dbc13a03fa3071792073

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Singh Raghuwansh; Panda Rajanikant; Tarvainen Mika P.; Ranjan Vivek; Ganguly Anindita; Halder Suman. Multiscale cardiorespiratory complexity reveals autonomic signatures of Rajyoga meditation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792917; article XML SHA-256 612fc3328f0613331d4a3350faddec89bc9d206af43a1bb27e155e3e9df00714. “Multiscale cardiorespiratory complexity reveals autonomic signatures of Rajyoga meditation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792917).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792917). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## respiratory depression
<a id="respiratory-depression"></a>

Respiratory depression is a dangerous slowing and disruption of breathing, marked by reduced ventilation and rising carbon dioxide levels in the blood. In the context of opioid use, it can progress to irregular breathing and apnea, making it a major cause of death in overdose.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b14e2ea3a3de54756b191d2ab145b083e50e993721997789b975997071c7905e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moss Laurence M; Algera Marijke Hyke; Dobbins Robert; Gray Frank; Strafford Stephanie; Heath Amy; van Velzen Monique; Heuberger Jules A A C; Niesters Marieke; Olofsen Erik; Laffont Celine M; Dahan Albert; Groeneveld Geert Jan. Effect of sustained high buprenorphine plasma concentrations on fentanyl-induced respiratory depression: A placebo-controlled crossover study in healthy volunteers and opioid-tolerant patients. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0256752; article XML SHA-256 1721fe7a99c056463a8f80f3b01d55935688019dfbc83fe15a75c3809f12a37f. “Effect of sustained high buprenorphine plasma concentrations on fentanyl-induced respiratory depression: A placebo-controlled crossover study in healthy volunteers and opioid-tolerant patients” (10.1371/journal.pone.0256752).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256752). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## respiratory distress syndrome
<a id="respiratory-distress-syndrome"></a>

Respiratory distress syndrome is a condition in which breathing failure becomes progressively severe and life-threatening even though no known lung disease is present. It usually happens after a major bodily stress, such as surgery or serious trauma.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8f29ade4aaab20d4f5f6411e23687ada663e1d68d66679af60a4f7e15b7073b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Respiratory Distress Syndrome” (D012128).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012128). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## respiratory sinus arrhythmia
<a id="respiratory-sinus-arrhythmia"></a>

Respiratory sinus arrhythmia is a measure of heart-rate variation linked to breathing and to cardiac vagal activity. Its size is affected by breathing pattern, including how fast and how deeply a person breathes, so these influences may need to be taken into account in psychophysiology research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a7cc557120827be5ca0c28e9ed39328ea5eb7d3f7cdeb4f5f287c2310aaa6468

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ritz Thomas; Bosquet Enlow Michelle; Schulz Stefan M.; Kitts Robert; Staudenmayer John; Wright Rosalind J.. Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia as an Index of Vagal Activity during Stress in Infants: Respiratory Influences and Their Control. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0052729; article XML SHA-256 4d06d547352bd16f9c6ba0f87a0a21940ca19f95a5d039086c5360ee0a6de9c2. “Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia as an Index of Vagal Activity during Stress in Infants: Respiratory Influences and Their Control” (10.1371/journal.pone.0052729).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0052729). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## respite care
<a id="respite-care"></a>

Respite care is a short-term care arrangement for people who need a high level of support. It gives caregivers personal time away from caregiving to help reduce stress in the caregiving relationship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 228ce41b4b171cc545121c27ec0b4c754d8f6841bd1446278e77776e7021a024

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Respite Care” (C94472).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## response
<a id="response"></a>

A response is a reaction or reply by a living organism, or part of it, to a preceding stimulus or other agent. In psychology and learning, it refers to the behavior or other observable reaction that follows something that affects the organism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5669ec3ec991772863f211884ba166371e50786599cda81813ccf95a54d2bc3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Response” (C25755).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## response bias
<a id="response-bias"></a>

In this context, response bias means a tendency for a person’s reports or judgments about bodily signals to be shifted by expectations or other top-down influences rather than matching the signals accurately. It reflects biased perception of internal body sensations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0df11c1282dcd1cdc074ffd0b20189e462b613218674b7bafb9521dd65346b3f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wolters Carolin; Gerlach Alexander L; Pohl Anna. Interoceptive accuracy and bias in somatic symptom disorder, illness anxiety disorder, and functional syndromes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0271717; article XML SHA-256 9c83098b424d9d40c2165b5a45013e35d9c99ebb282e79a8f63d6a02e7513eb2. “Interoceptive accuracy and bias in somatic symptom disorder, illness anxiety disorder, and functional syndromes: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0271717).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0271717). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## response class
<a id="response-class"></a>

A response class is a broader grouping of different behaviors that are considered together because they reflect the same general kind of action or goal. In this source, it refers to behaviors such as distancing, mask use, testing, and vaccination as examples of adherence to public health recommendations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2fc3f85720932bbec6fcc8bf06d55ae96b5d97dbcb65cd35e1d4f874ce68655c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Strickland Justin C; Reed Derek D; Hursh Steven R; Schwartz Lindsay P; Foster Rachel N S; Gelino Brett W; LeComte Robert S; Oda Fernanda S; Salzer Allyson R; Schneider Tadd D; Dayton Lauren; Latkin Carl; Johnson Matthew W. Behavioral economic methods to inform infectious disease response: Prevention, testing, and vaccination in the COVID-19 pandemic. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0258828; article XML SHA-256 e673e3868ab696b382e54bd229def4935f71dd94f0658ffdaa0cadfa892b85fb. “Behavioral economic methods to inform infectious disease response: Prevention, testing, and vaccination in the COVID-19 pandemic” (10.1371/journal.pone.0258828).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258828). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## response cost
<a id="response-cost"></a>

Response cost is the perceived burden or drawbacks of carrying out a protective behavior. In this context, it means the costs a person associates with following the recommended behavior, such as adhering to a restricted diet.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: baf3dd391668ace0673e3a2ba47565096b8bded9717e27d80cc13f534ee699b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Huijie; Deng Yueyi; Huang Yitong; Blake Holly. Predicting dietary management intention of patients with chronic kidney disease using protection motivation theory. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320340; article XML SHA-256 196f25c51f308dc6b6b797ee3085b388a62f8b5c740531c7db1688df61d32561. “Predicting dietary management intention of patients with chronic kidney disease using protection motivation theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320340).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320340). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## response effect
<a id="response-effect"></a>

A response effect is a pattern in which outcomes change depending on features of an intervention, such as its type, amount, frequency, duration, or whether it is done in a group. In this source, it refers to exercise components being linked with stronger improvement in repetitive stereotyped behaviors in autism spectrum disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b62f25c90674b5a657c61c542b90580fb7b6b8cf71a531a03c31cc7f8aa25f43

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Juanjuan; Li Ruxin. Systematic review and randomized controlled trial meta-analysis of the effects of physical activity interventions and their components on repetitive stereotyped behaviors in patients with autism spectrum disorder. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1579345; article XML SHA-256 df4eef327409fc9c89e30bd0deef8de9b761a6e45c65cd0fe738715c8ffbf946. “Systematic review and randomized controlled trial meta-analysis of the effects of physical activity interventions and their components on repetitive stereotyped behaviors in patients with autism spectrum disorder” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1579345).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1579345). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## response-focused emotion regulation
<a id="response-focused-emotion-regulation"></a>

Response-focused emotion regulation is a way of managing emotion by trying to suppress its outward expression after the emotional response has already begun. In this packet, it refers specifically to the habitual use of expressive suppression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9574f96ac379e4808e3d4acb2f8ce9a63ec5091f595c87cfb032662323913e7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kühn Simone; Gallinat Jürgen; Brass Marcel. “Keep Calm and Carry On”: Structural Correlates of Expressive Suppression of Emotions. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0016569; article XML SHA-256 2506fbd39f05ffc9eec2941855a496cddf033adbd5133282cfd78872f7fdb6ff. ““Keep Calm and Carry On”: Structural Correlates of Expressive Suppression of Emotions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0016569).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0016569). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## response learning
<a id="response-learning"></a>

Response learning is learning the connection between a stimulus and the response it predicts or requires, rather than learning the stimulus’s meaning or other features. In the source context, it refers to learning response contingencies that can strongly influence performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 72d94ab1cbb7a993f1f177f3808e4d69e0340f66f5fe1350f520a218c104e403

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Geukes Sebastian; Vorberg Dirk; Zwitserlood Pienie. Disentangling semantic and response learning effects in color-word contingency learning. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0212714; article XML SHA-256 e61bf46b40a20399d4d3acefafc17b7185815e9b95bb373f50490bd513eed9b1. “Disentangling semantic and response learning effects in color-word contingency learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0212714).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212714). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## response scale
<a id="response-scale"></a>

A response scale is a psychometric rating method used to measure subjective characteristics or symptoms by having a person indicate a value along a continuum between two fixed end points.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 51c9b9e2e87b0c3e0b1a1a52f34a3a9160c7663b40e8f589852365b772c4f2d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Visual Analog Scale” (C121547).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## response set
<a id="response-set"></a>

Response set is the set of possible responses available in a task. In the source context, its size refers to how many response alternatives a person must choose from, which changes response uncertainty.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c3df89dac763d3b6ac4909a9dad0d44fe90eec7c83fce07ee1b3002958deb569

Sources:
- Drafting source: [García-López Elena; Parmentier Fabrice B. R.. Distraction by deviant sounds: Response repetition vs. response change. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357782; article XML SHA-256 70a04ab0da922112aac3c35924d878efdef558c28f30ea635fea1b475a8fc490. “Distraction by deviant sounds: Response repetition vs. response change” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357782).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357782). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## response time
<a id="response-time"></a>

Response time is the interval between the start of a stimulus and the observed response to it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3168eb5497776437a25558e55b4ca18e4892213a106ea8c1bb3e50779c555a02

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reaction Time” (D011930).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011930). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## response variable
<a id="response-variable"></a>

A response variable is the outcome in a model that reflects how a person responds to other factors being studied. In this example, the response variable is willingness to continue using slow fashion apparel.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d7aff0d369712ab56c5f9e434f108a85cb7534d83c492dd96dad82609782bef4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Jiayu; Liu Anding. The mechanism of fashion consciousness influencing Gen Z’s Willingness to continue using slow fashion apparel in a sustainable context. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357599; article XML SHA-256 8c6082c7e2b44e7f58fb3371d26b70f8c829b966da2cb3399a6e8f439dfbbfab. “The mechanism of fashion consciousness influencing Gen Z’s Willingness to continue using slow fashion apparel in a sustainable context” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357599).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357599). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## REST
<a id="rest"></a>

REST is a human protein made from the REST gene. It helps switch off the expression of neuronal genes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 746837fe7c73f880dbfe0fc0694ae2c799daef4671bd04133f3eb3665071d066

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “RE1-Silencing Transcription Factor” (C122746).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## resting potential
<a id="resting-potential"></a>

Resting potential is the baseline electrical state of a neuron when it is not actively firing. In this context, it refers to the membrane voltage that can be slightly shifted by transcranial direct current stimulation, changing cortical excitability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ba3a0fa5b758e95cb63d8f066ef8b02ada66abcb17bd0fadf21a2243a2fec21

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Norata Davide; Motolese Francesco; Magliozzi Alessandro; Pilato Fabio; Di Lazzaro Vincenzo; Luzzi Simona; Capone Fioravante. Transcranial direct current stimulation in semantic variant of primary progressive aphasia: a state-of-the-art review. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1219737; article XML SHA-256 07fe87b2fe6abdb6d6cab5afd23103ee401c8e28e7efcc6ed37fcaaf843838da. “Transcranial direct current stimulation in semantic variant of primary progressive aphasia: a state-of-the-art review” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1219737).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1219737). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## restless-legs syndrome
<a id="restless-legs-syndrome"></a>

Restless-legs syndrome is a disorder in which aching or burning feelings, usually in the legs and less often in the arms, happen before sleep or wake a person from sleep. It is defined by these uncomfortable sensations occurring around sleep.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c6ac00a068f96765d860036f68b9c5d07f596499e267a1f1aa3f0fb065ea551

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Restless Legs Syndrome” (D012148).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012148). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## restlessness
<a id="restlessness"></a>

Restlessness is a state of inner unease accompanied by increased physical movement or inability to stay still. It can appear in a range of conditions, including as a sign of toxicity from drugs that affect the nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a24055ef1714bbd5204266dbcec4f2fe95a3d09371c64264e8ae5f8ebabd08ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychomotor Agitation” (D011595).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011595). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## restoration therapy
<a id="restoration-therapy"></a>

Restoration therapy, in this source, refers to vision restoration therapy: a software-based visual training program used to try to improve lasting visual deficits after optic neuritis or other injury affecting the visual pathway.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc31b1f67da08920ee771e398343e9137d69ac327eec4ef65d0c176f58433dda

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schinzel Johann; Schwarzlose Lina; Dietze Holger; Bartusch Karolina; Weiss Susanne; Ohlraun Stephanie; Paul Friedemann; Dörr Jan. Efficacy of vision restoration therapy after optic neuritis (VISION study): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. 2012; DOI 10.1186/1745-6215-13-94; article XML SHA-256 1b7a03d7a18a7df9563576dd88e9ffcef92d2e8e4deac74148a50e2b762eb8e2. “Efficacy of vision restoration therapy after optic neuritis (VISION study): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/1745-6215-13-94).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-6215-13-94). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## restorative environment
<a id="restorative-environment"></a>

A restorative environment is a setting, often natural or nature-like, that helps psychological well-being by lowering stress, renewing attention, improving mood, and supporting everyday recovery. In environmental psychology, it is understood as an environment that actively influences emotional, cognitive, and bodily states through how it is perceived and appraised.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69ef97912c89b08ea54b6298821c0d8f382b5d88107fc4e3a58b1ce307a7ce3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Qi; Zhang Chaoyuan; Li Qi; Feng Ziyu. Beyond beneficial or ineffective: three-way decision modeling of image-level affective responses to restorative environment design. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1899782; article XML SHA-256 5f88e1705f9bbc035c346b162b71c7b5c376e82276182baf0243f5d2bcdf89eb. “Beyond beneficial or ineffective: three-way decision modeling of image-level affective responses to restorative environment design” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1899782).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1899782). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## restorative justice
<a id="restorative-justice"></a>

Restorative justice is an approach to responding to wrongdoing that is presented as an alternative to retributive or punitive justice. Instead of centering on punishment, it is described as a way to address harm without the conflict and added damage associated with excessive reliance on punishment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db0685c83cded5415437bb030a5bc53d9a307b9c9a8e7444cf16b44a3cff741c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Zheng; Wong Wan-chi. Young Children's Understanding of Restorative Justice. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.715279; article XML SHA-256 9ceef1bc634f59febfa9dac15bcf5be4f6294b0e359f4aa6ad58d645e01086a3. “Young Children's Understanding of Restorative Justice” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.715279).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.715279). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## restraint
<a id="restraint"></a>

Restraint is described here as a staff-led decision event during a behavioral crisis, not just an isolated act. In this view, whether restraint happens is shaped by the surrounding context, staff thinking, and organizational conditions created by leadership, with outcomes feeding back into later practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a462185f4da2e7e9dd25b71097e08850b343ea557ce539f7ede3c9d9ab2ed3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sorensen Nicole. Leadership as decision architecture: an organizational framework for understanding and eliminating physical restraint in human services. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889369; article XML SHA-256 e92d6777b61ce012490a47cfd0cba3cc1c8d72b05d745f6504349f069c0ad80f. “Leadership as decision architecture: an organizational framework for understanding and eliminating physical restraint in human services” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889369).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889369). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## resurgence
<a id="resurgence"></a>

Resurgence is the renewed return of interest and activity in a topic after a period of decline, neglect, or skepticism. In this context, it refers to the revival of research on ephaptic coupling in the 2000s following decades in which the field was marginalized.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e1c81781e61f0ed9ab324d5505c890760441792c84d99bcb714d4a37b2546576

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hunt Tam; MacIver M Bruce. A historical review of ephaptic field research: from early foundations through contemporary renaissance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1747899; article XML SHA-256 b4b0e94b4e24c9a89b90b657dc3596d1131817b57784df64e1e0f0e2f77a85a5. “A historical review of ephaptic field research: from early foundations through contemporary renaissance” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1747899).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1747899). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retardation
<a id="retardation"></a>

In this source, retardation refers to psychomotor retardation: a depressive symptom pattern seen especially in melancholia and considered alongside vegetative symptoms. It is discussed as a feature that may be linked to altered GABA-related brain function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e070bd4fa3bd95f739089a06b11f77f77fd463f6f7cfc8c44c90185fc3428164

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Steinholtz Linda; Persson Jonas; Thörnblom Elin; Wall Anders; Lubberink Mark; Fällmar David; Bodén Robert. Inhibitory neurotransmission in frontostriatal circuitry: implications for psychomotor and vegetative symptoms in depressive episodes. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08573-1; article XML SHA-256 1ad56be6a97246f9b8aea2962cea0d5c496c37871e297f9512464f4261586468. “Inhibitory neurotransmission in frontostriatal circuitry: implications for psychomotor and vegetative symptoms in depressive episodes” (10.1186/s12888-026-08573-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08573-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retarded depression
<a id="retarded-depression"></a>

Retarded depression, as supported here in the phrase psychomotor-retarded depression, refers to a depressive presentation characterized by slowed psychomotor functioning and a hypoarousal-dominant state. In this counselling context, it is contrasted with more agitated or hyperaroused conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 76e2f2d19aeede6deb5369b36f66f96000f5e8a4140413ed9fa8fa1abd6bf6b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pandey Aarsh Ojas Parasar. The Swara-Informed model of autonomic synchrony in psychotherapy: theoretical foundations and hypotheses. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1853837; article XML SHA-256 fbef788079004d1d6a5bb240efc7b2f16161909aecd002c9597ee3ce10917096. “The Swara-Informed model of autonomic synchrony in psychotherapy: theoretical foundations and hypotheses” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1853837).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1853837). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rete mirabile
<a id="rete-mirabile"></a>

Rete mirabile is a network of small blood vessels between the cerebral and intracranial arteries in pigs. In this context, it blocks catheter access to the arteries that supply the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 81508f835532e63f88e3ed48150cadf90f1e3014c7dcd5c20972ab25a133f911

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bender Lara; Sichtermann Thorsten; Dorn Christoph; Minkenberg Jan; Stockero Andrea; May Rebecca; Ridwan Hani; Weyland Charlotte S; Nikoubashman Omid; Wiesmann Martin; Franz Christiane. Exploring Aachen minipigs as in vivo model for human intracranial studies: Focus on hind limb artery diameters. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320606; article XML SHA-256 9e0967be57a417f9cfb977c797f4968aa44ad9d71ebce3f40e0b6d0c0d33665b. “Exploring Aachen minipigs as in vivo model for human intracranial studies: Focus on hind limb artery diameters” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320606).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320606). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retention interval
<a id="retention-interval"></a>

A retention interval is the short period between an initial stimulus and a later memory test or comparison, such as the gap between two sounds that must be judged as the same or different. In memory research, this interval matters because both sensory memory and working memory may still affect performance during that delay.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8daaf54914a7f58f3c9df077566b1f9e243a5b8d9959cd3555901ebe7c316682

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nees Michael A.. Have We Forgotten Auditory Sensory Memory? Retention Intervals in Studies of Nonverbal Auditory Working Memory. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01892; article XML SHA-256 13d2bf8aad6e1cb13d9131b484eba8b047df0a8ba03f9605c098cbb2c55f92a2. “Have We Forgotten Auditory Sensory Memory? Retention Intervals in Studies of Nonverbal Auditory Working Memory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01892).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01892). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retest reliability
<a id="retest-reliability"></a>

Retest reliability is the extent to which a measure gives similar results when the same thing is assessed again in a later session. In this context, it refers to how consistently brain connectivity measures are reproduced across two testing sessions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6fc2e34b83e5aa9d2f1e4a21a297e697d18ec10e3948e795776702c3456e4fe2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kröll Jean-Philippe; Friedrich Patrick; Li Xuan; Nurislamova Yulia; Kraljevic Nevena; Geiger Anna; Mans Julia; Waite Laura; Caspers Julian; Qian Xing; Chee Michael W. L.; Zhou Juan Helen; Eickhoff Simon; Weis Susanne. Test–retest reliability of meta analytic networks during naturalistic viewing. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346967; article XML SHA-256 ff0270475331a84e4f90fcee4faf4f1ff9646f8a5bff2ed03c87c9d5567db681. “Test–retest reliability of meta analytic networks during naturalistic viewing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346967).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346967). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reticular formation
<a id="reticular-formation"></a>

The reticular formation is a brain region that runs from the pons and medulla oblongata through the mesencephalon. It contains many different kinds of neurons, grouped in various clusters and interwoven with a complex network of fibers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe7ddf1a85c859af2a7da4e380262e25b87dcc17a183849eb963b82250482cda

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reticular Formation” (D012154).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012154). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retina
<a id="retina"></a>

The retina is the light-sensitive nervous tissue lining the inside of the eye. It is continuous with the optic nerve, receives images from the outside world, and sends visual signals to the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8dbdc0fb7a1b4c0aa206d596a7b7cf7df0ac996d7546ff5498bde889686578c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retina” (D012160).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012160). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinal
<a id="retinal"></a>

Retinal is a vitamin A–derived diterpene that serves as the active light-sensitive component of the visual cycle. It is bound within rhodopsin, where light changes it from one form to another, altering rhodopsin’s shape and helping trigger vision before it is converted back.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b149ad431e4f46a31fcddc3af4e8c1cba426304f6146c3b9c8f7c29ba30efe5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinaldehyde” (D012172).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012172). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinal cone
<a id="retinal-cone"></a>

A retinal cone is a light-sensitive nerve cell found mainly in the fovea of the macula. Cone cells function in daylight vision and support color perception and sharp central vision, with three main types that differ in their sensitivity to red, blue, or green light.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 788ffced82e2b92b06b58e74706077ce2c1f9e70f9150cd29599b79b1749c858

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinal Cone Photoreceptor Cells” (D017949).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017949). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinal detachment
<a id="retinal-detachment"></a>

Retinal detachment is a condition in which the inner retinal layers, or neural retina, separate from the underlying pigment epithelium. It is reported more often in men and is seen more commonly with degenerative myopia, older age, aphakia, and sometimes after cataract surgery, especially when vitreous humor has been lost during the operation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b5da25f3bf29e595411eeb1203be68399340922eecd2e78866b2501df4337159

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinal Detachment” (D012163).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012163). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinal disparity
<a id="retinal-disparity"></a>

Retinal disparity is the slight difference between the images each retina receives when viewing the same object. It happens because the eyes are in different positions, so each eye sees the visual stimulus from a somewhat different angle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd72db475e8884668671967271512b70c9ac31692d1335b8790f4314260fdb3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vision Disparity” (D015357).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015357). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinal ganglion cell
<a id="retinal-ganglion-cell"></a>

A retinal ganglion cell is a retina neuron that serves as an output cell, receiving visual information from photoreceptors through intermediary neurons. It sends that information through the optic nerve to brain areas including the thalamus, hypothalamus, and superior colliculus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf94c1edb94a8faad2b2a3fe92964c1ef386192076390ba102054733b014dfd3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Retinal Ganglion Cell” (C12642).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinal light
<a id="retinal-light"></a>

Retinal light is a historical term for the dim, misty grey areas that may appear in vision when the eyes are at rest and no after-image is present. In the source, it is discussed in relation to older explanations of after-images.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4011f9428a9558ebe4ebf3289075ecbce7d5181e2ee5aed42c8b2f7a8fe282a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Idio-retinal Light” (Idio-retinal).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Idio-retinal). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinal oscillations
<a id="retinal-oscillations"></a>

Retinal oscillations are abnormal rhythmic patterns of electrical activity in the retina that can appear after photoreceptors degenerate. In retinitis pigmentosa models, they are described as pathological rhythmic activity that may interfere with efforts to restore vision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 10c62099d5598aed8495b79d68601d1e9b746f2182adce5f2a30414e119f3f50

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nruthyathi; Jung Marie; Wang Jing; Montes Viviana Rincón; Offenhäusser Andreas; Willuweit Antje; Müller Frank. Late emergence of pathological oscillatory activity in the retina of the Retinitis pigmentosa model RCS ( R oyal C ollege of S urgeons) rat. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324345; article XML SHA-256 4476449ff3e800c13ae22393eb8378109c5d4d5c4e407d4c98bde06509b18466. “Late emergence of pathological oscillatory activity in the retina of the Retinitis pigmentosa model RCS ( R oyal C ollege of S urgeons) rat” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324345).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324345). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinal pigment epithelium
<a id="retinal-pigment-epithelium"></a>

The retinal pigment epithelium is a single layer of pigment-containing cells in the retina that lies next to the outer parts of photoreceptor cells. It supports these light-sensing cells by helping move nutrients, clearing shed cell material, and helping keep the retina attached.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70c5c0fcac1902fda88e488dfd679eed1c7006ab493bae2af07b572f658b127b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinal Pigment Epithelium” (D055213).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055213). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinal rod
<a id="retinal-rod"></a>

A retinal rod is a light-sensitive nerve cell in the outer parts of the retina that becomes more common farther from the central fovea. It is more sensitive to dim light than cone cells and supports night and peripheral vision, but it does not detect color.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 223edac7dc22ee763bb1f5c2b2800decf8a5ad58279a0f0f770e7ce7d596b7d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinal Rod Photoreceptor Cells” (D017948).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017948). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinal size
<a id="retinal-size"></a>

Retinal size is the size of an image as it falls on the retina. In this context, changes in retinal size act as a monocular depth cue, with increasing retinal size making text appear to loom closer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cda2a470a22a275d101e43debac99ee38571f201c5fcb101d3a3920d31720ecd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schotter Elizabeth R.; Blythe Hazel I.; Kirkby Julie A.; Rayner Keith; Holliman Nicolas S.; Liversedge Simon P.. Binocular Coordination: Reading Stereoscopic Sentences in Depth. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0035608; article XML SHA-256 29ab09322d367bde9710b1197a48d49a6c675b19d64c77a0c4bb328ebee74e9d. “Binocular Coordination: Reading Stereoscopic Sentences in Depth” (10.1371/journal.pone.0035608).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035608). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinene
<a id="retinene"></a>

Retinene, also called retinaldehyde, is a vitamin A–derived compound that serves as the light-sensitive part of rhodopsin in the visual cycle. Light changes it from one form to another, altering rhodopsin’s shape and helping start the process of vision, after which it is converted back to its original form.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa27fa69790913a1f533ac0c6774ff3100cb89f02d8dc7b7eaed33197828d1c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinaldehyde” (D012172).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012172). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinex theory
<a id="retinex-theory"></a>

Retinex theory is a framework used in image processing to adjust for uneven lighting. In this source, it serves as the basis for an image-enhancement step aimed at illumination correction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c34bd0ce34fc1064b071da8ac19e19458271d460e425d69c5d6da533190c505

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao Yitian; Liu Yonghuai; Wu Xiangqian; Harding Simon P.; Zheng Yalin. Retinal Vessel Segmentation: An Efficient Graph Cut Approach with Retinex and Local Phase. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0122332; article XML SHA-256 c57c7040700955d555a21cfe3608553cf43c0af8ebae5c250cfdcea933def948. “Retinal Vessel Segmentation: An Efficient Graph Cut Approach with Retinex and Local Phase” (10.1371/journal.pone.0122332).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0122332). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinitis pigmentosa
<a id="retinitis-pigmentosa"></a>

Retinitis pigmentosa is an inherited condition in which the retina gradually degenerates as rod cells die first and cone cells later. It involves pigment buildup in the retina and leads to progressive retinal damage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a502fcc272d26df0eb60b57cf28529349bafec12c556385b463237ce5d694ca0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinitis Pigmentosa” (D012174).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012174). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinol
<a id="retinol"></a>

Retinol is a fat-soluble form of vitamin A. It is important for normal retinal function, growth and tissue differentiation, reproductive organ function, and immune system regulation, and it acts through retinoid receptors to influence cell differentiation and programmed cell death in some cancer cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a51f6858e155a590219c5d3ce28f4af01ef3d909fc040d686f8a651c3d33968e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Retinol” (C68302).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinopathy of prematurity
<a id="retinopathy-of-prematurity"></a>

Retinopathy of prematurity is an eye disorder affecting both eyes in premature infants who have been exposed to excessively high oxygen levels. It involves abnormal retinal blood vessel changes and swelling that can progress to retinal detachment, scarring, poor eye growth, and sometimes blindness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 091447cb204072ed47c7e4203108589b8f09b921c5b2924e1c500af30cbf1a5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinopathy of Prematurity” (D012178).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012178). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retinoscope
<a id="retinoscope"></a>

A retinoscope is an instrument used in retinoscopy to assess how the eye focuses light, helping determine refractive errors such as nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism. It works by shining light into the eye and using the reflected image from the retina to estimate the eye’s refractive state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 214064fa970892d5951f07d745926f319fec0f3ccce9b389ae4aa3064a99a2d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinoscopes” (D042261).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D042261). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retrieval cue
<a id="retrieval-cue"></a>

A retrieval cue is a prompt or piece of information linked to stored memories that helps bring them back to mind. When several memories share the same cue, presenting that cue can reactivate more than one memory and make them compete for recall.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d9e06d8e17fb50f6e4301ba9ea6765e351ad7d697d97ebef8c7656a300c43c9f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hellerstedt Robin; Johansson Mikael. Competitive Semantic Memory Retrieval: Temporal Dynamics Revealed by Event-Related Potentials. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0150091; article XML SHA-256 f046b1fc8ec7e2a7b6b6eefeb5fc41f1cbf3669d046c7fe02439c32cebed29a2. “Competitive Semantic Memory Retrieval: Temporal Dynamics Revealed by Event-Related Potentials” (10.1371/journal.pone.0150091).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0150091). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retrocochlear hearing loss
<a id="retrocochlear-hearing-loss"></a>

Retrocochlear hearing loss is hearing loss caused by disease or damage beyond the cochlea, especially in the vestibulocochlear nerve, brainstem, or central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 758444273ac6f27b34763ef09420000929c026c1751c58df1e6394d939002687

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retrocochlear Diseases” (D012181).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012181). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retrograde amnesia
<a id="retrograde-amnesia"></a>

Retrograde amnesia is loss of access to memories that were formed before the onset of the problem. It often follows trauma such as brain injury, stroke, or seizure, though it can also have a psychological origin, and the ability to form new memories is usually not significantly impaired.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b63f04d209aa44296d1b617347e4a39c1d8056004cd606829d17c3a1693e4f28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Retrograde Amnesia” (C34372).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retrograde degeneration
<a id="retrograde-degeneration"></a>

Retrograde degeneration is a disease-related change that develops in the part of a neuron nearest an axon injury, affecting both the axon and the cell body. It is marked by central chromatolysis, including swelling of the cell, loss of Nissl substance, and flattening and shifting of the nucleus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c6d397bc71b168f03b3e9b25941088ea6bd6d8c6b66bd1bc8c1e2f265614779

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retrograde Degeneration” (D012183).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012183). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retrograde ejaculation
<a id="retrograde-ejaculation"></a>

Retrograde ejaculation is a condition in which seminal fluid moves backward from the back part of the urethra into the bladder instead of flowing outward. It can happen because of nerve injury or disease, surgery in nearby tissues, or medication side effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05cb0e10099154f616d22a668b1e38bf89be2f8e418b8a198d034c3aa1fe532d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retrograde Ejaculation” (D000097908).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000097908). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retrograde transport
<a id="retrograde-transport"></a>

Retrograde transport is a cellular recycling process in which material taken in from the cell surface is moved from early endosomes to the Golgi and then returned to the plasma membrane. It helps recycle certain membrane cargo, such as receptor proteins.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 744aee5efc47ffc786d2ade53a37c8526eed25b1cff58dacdc614ba999a6b503

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Donglei; Dubey Jyoti; Koushika Sandhya P.; Rongo Christopher. RAB-6.1 and RAB-6.2 Promote Retrograde Transport in C . elegans. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0149314; article XML SHA-256 c1f49a9943f2f62b6215799fb5e6ef7f6a491518581efe79b2014803e9a65852. “RAB-6.1 and RAB-6.2 Promote Retrograde Transport in C . elegans” (10.1371/journal.pone.0149314).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0149314). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retrogression
<a id="retrogression"></a>

Retrogression is a historical term for change from a more complex and complete form to a simpler or more incomplete one. In the supplied source, it refers to biological degeneration, including cases where later forms lose structures present in earlier ones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e29435e5895efe309858aedec65018cf2c41e708b09d183f81f9bf0df400201

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Degeneration (in biology)” (Degeneration (in biology)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Degeneration (in biology)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retrolental fibroplasia
<a id="retrolental-fibroplasia"></a>

Retrolental fibroplasia is an eye disorder in premature infants that has been linked to exposure to excessively high oxygen levels. It affects both retinas, causing abnormal blood vessel changes and swelling that can progress to retinal detachment and a fibrous mass behind the lens, with possible arrested eye growth and blindness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a4800c01f4d952806ad21d6a53cd60e3cfce265f1c8f15f023cd594999e8ec1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinopathy of Prematurity” (D012178).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012178). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retronasal olfaction
<a id="retronasal-olfaction"></a>

Retronasal olfaction is the sensing of odors released in the mouth while food is being processed. It contributes strongly to flavor perception and can influence appetite and feelings of fullness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 058f7999b3fc8e4563d5f72c8a7843b94296c8228141eaf280aa5364c255a8b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rebello Michelle R.; Kandukuru Padma; Verhagen Justus V.. Direct Behavioral and Neurophysiological Evidence for Retronasal Olfaction in Mice. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0117218; article XML SHA-256 f9ee39bb09f7cf1fb1988d9b6e05940cf1abee35e7c2fe35c4d95a65a988f4d6. “Direct Behavioral and Neurophysiological Evidence for Retronasal Olfaction in Mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0117218).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117218). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retropulsion
<a id="retropulsion"></a>

Retropulsion is a tendency to lose balance and fall backward. In the source packet, it is described as a feature seen in Parkinson disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e167d02c0c391579ebca1704b0611488c48bf089826178334e792981d586442

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Parkinson Disease” (D010300).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010300). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retrospection
<a id="retrospection"></a>

Retrospection is a way of understanding an event or organism after its course has already been completed or as if it were already accomplished. In this historical usage, it contrasts with a forward-looking, developmental view by treating living or mental organization in terms suited to finished outcomes and past careers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 37b02dd10f6e9d425791818444022ee082b26875f41364bbba0aec66fae05fce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Origin versus Nature” (Origin versus Nature).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O2defs.htm#Origin versus Nature). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retrospective audit
<a id="retrospective-audit"></a>

A retrospective audit is a review that looks back at existing past cases or records over a set time period to describe patterns, causes, and outcomes. In this context, it was used to examine previously recorded infections across many years.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93026ac96f1ff3f67431cf8ca64571e88f10b9a6831887f3eb0efd26864d3ef9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sim Beatrice Z.; Conway Luke; Smith Laura K.; Fairhead Lee; Der Yi Shan; Payne Lara; Binotto Enzo; Smith Simon; Hanson Josh. The aetiology and clinical characteristics of cryptococcal infections in Far North Queensland, tropical Australia. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0265739; article XML SHA-256 b3f73540abbfc1661c089d58899fd3a3206df4806a5830dce2510f61238b898c. “The aetiology and clinical characteristics of cryptococcal infections in Far North Queensland, tropical Australia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0265739).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265739). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## retrospective memory
<a id="retrospective-memory"></a>

Retrospective memory is the remembered account or evaluation of experiences after they have already happened, rather than the experience as it was felt in the moment. This recall can differ from real-time experience and may be shaped more by especially intense, particularly negative, or final moments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dbede73d79caf82515a8abca023486b61d619111bcade238b5a3d199e84cab9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Villinger Karoline; Wahl Deborah R.; Schupp Harald T.; Renner Britta. Memorable meals: The memory-experience gap in day-to-day experiences. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0249190; article XML SHA-256 c26dee9eadd0af0350227de7b6373717b5551af6aa1533941c2c85d648ceeb20. “Memorable meals: The memory-experience gap in day-to-day experiences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0249190).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249190). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Rett syndrome
<a id="rett-syndrome"></a>

Rett syndrome is an inherited neurodevelopmental disorder with X-linked inheritance that mainly affects females and may be lethal before birth in hemizygous males. After apparently normal early development, usually between 6 and 25 months, affected girls develop progressive loss of purposeful hand use and communication skills, often along with ataxia, seizures, autistic behavior, intermittent hyperventilation, and hyperammonemia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd89b4de0704dd099a9b08f16936603ad092f0e395b3feb4e5e8f1510406db21

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Rett Syndrome” (D015518).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015518). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reuptake
<a id="reuptake"></a>

Reuptake is the taking back up of chemical messengers such as norepinephrine and serotonin. In this context, it refers to a biological process that some medications can block.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0dc3d846331a0fd15135fa0a488387779df5c705dfdfd39a2c54400534a96995

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Amoxapine” (D000657).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000657). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reversal learning
<a id="reversal-learning"></a>

Reversal learning is a learning situation in which a person or animal first learns different responses to two stimuli based on reward and punishment, and then must adjust when those reward values are switched. It reflects learning to change a response when what was previously rewarded becomes punished, and vice versa.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90c898ddc9bd8c6b862416967456facc7afefcd602ad42299e338c0d762e27e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reversal Learning” (D012193).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012193). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reversal shift
<a id="reversal-shift"></a>

In this learning context, a reversal shift is an early change in movement strategy in which a person responds as if the required correction is the opposite direction, applying about a 180° reversal. It describes a compensatory directional adjustment used during visuomotor adaptation when the task is difficult.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4e8bb176d54b615c0f164d55c9a9cf2b3973f8874b7656bc175d3a09d3e99db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rand Miya K.; Rentsch Sebastian. Eye-Hand Coordination during Visuomotor Adaptation with Different Rotation Angles: Effects of Terminal Visual Feedback. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0164602; article XML SHA-256 f4613e8c8f9d4b666d8d66ad0e30caa83b2ebc787b8fa332c585f520dbda601e. “Eye-Hand Coordination during Visuomotor Adaptation with Different Rotation Angles: Effects of Terminal Visual Feedback” (10.1371/journal.pone.0164602).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0164602). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reversal theory
<a id="reversal-theory"></a>

Reversal theory is a psychological approach that explains behaviour in terms of shifts, or reversals, between meta-motivational states. In this packet, it is used to describe how changes in motivational state can alter priorities and contribute to sudden unsanctioned aggression under pressure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 76aff6de02a1aae9f12b401ba82c222b1d03312807a57a2e8b48e2e3408c57e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Zhao; Yu Shaoran. From conformity to loss of control: psychological mechanisms in Suárez’s biting incidents and the development of the SDA model. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1670490; article XML SHA-256 035a9751810137f52ef63215a96c4846191be9cd69d43b81f4551e779dbfaafc. “From conformity to loss of control: psychological mechanisms in Suárez’s biting incidents and the development of the SDA model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1670490).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1670490). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reverse causality
<a id="reverse-causality"></a>

Reverse causality is when an observed link is interpreted in the wrong direction, so the supposed outcome may actually be influencing the supposed cause. In the source example, evidence suggests physical activity may affect motor competence rather than motor competence driving later physical activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 361f328b34843ea544fa279b11f23581e46592850a399b927c3993e33096f016

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zi Yahua; de Geus Eco J. C.. Reviewing the association between motor competence and physical activity from a behavioral genetic perspective. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1480631; article XML SHA-256 bda1e19f9afd60663f1a0864c0c87ad16d60616fa36c068206a9ea7056d5459a. “Reviewing the association between motor competence and physical activity from a behavioral genetic perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1480631).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1480631). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## revolving-door phenomenon
<a id="revolving-door-phenomenon"></a>

The revolving-door phenomenon is a pattern of repeated rehospitalization among people with severe mental illness. In this source, it is linked to missed follow-up visits and the absence of active follow-up after discharge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d40d20581da6d9fa16924e96ad8c5c0a323785502b535a2e31f3f04450d625b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hajebi Ahmad; Sharifi Vandad; Ghadiri Vasfi Mohammad; Moradi-Lakeh Maziar; Tehranidoost Mehdi; Yunesian Masud; Amini Homayoun; Rashidian Arash; Malakouti Seyed Kazem; Mottaghipour Yasaman. A multicenter randomized controlled trial of aftercare services for severe mental illness: study protocol. 2013; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-13-178; article XML SHA-256 983bff0a33ac0d3b4a03d99d8e57fe414731d87a42d8c3241a7c5acc6dce04fd. “A multicenter randomized controlled trial of aftercare services for severe mental illness: study protocol” (10.1186/1471-244x-13-178).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-13-178). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reward
<a id="reward"></a>

A reward is an object or situation that strengthens a response, meets a motive, or gives pleasure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3dd530da6de102d437ab5da35b0edce340551c4ba18d404bfc88949c4118e1ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reward” (D012201).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012201). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reward expectancy
<a id="reward-expectancy"></a>

Reward expectancy is the anticipated likelihood or value of getting a reward in response to a particular cue or action. In the source, it is reflected in how strongly behavior is directed toward stimuli that predict reward, compared with similar stimuli that predict less or no reward.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5bc4fec1ccb96aa329c5734d2e79d170d253bbf350e496054c0107eee187e2d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Starosta Sarah; Güntürkün Onur; Stüttgen Maik C.. Stimulus-Response-Outcome Coding in the Pigeon Nidopallium Caudolaterale. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0057407; article XML SHA-256 8772bc9aef5eabaabe7fa505ef7d079d18c4a0e158814c26a28cc4c792a093de. “Stimulus-Response-Outcome Coding in the Pigeon Nidopallium Caudolaterale” (10.1371/journal.pone.0057407).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0057407). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## reward responsiveness
<a id="reward-responsiveness"></a>

Reward responsiveness is the extent to which a person changes their behavior when rewarding cues are present. In this source, it refers specifically to behavioral adjustment in response to socially rewarding cues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cdbc462b7d57a95c3067fdf0c8fef443e4a4a816e5bb167942ba168e730c9a1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chevallier Coralie; Tonge Natasha; Safra Lou; Kahn David; Kohls Gregor; Miller Judith; Schultz Robert T. Measuring Social Motivation Using Signal Detection and Reward Responsiveness. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0167024; article XML SHA-256 cbcb129e3e80a039296b2dc5a2161253b6f84181d0dd4b94146ffcd2491fdf92. “Measuring Social Motivation Using Signal Detection and Reward Responsiveness” (10.1371/journal.pone.0167024).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167024). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test
<a id="rey-auditory-verbal-learning-test"></a>

The Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test is a classic neuropsychological assessment that uses a spoken word list longer than immediate memory span to evaluate verbal memory and learning. It can provide scores for short-term recall, learning across repetitions, interference, and later retrieval such as delayed recall and recognition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0accec9f327c4be3d76f346242e01b74258ec33c8b6f2f6393f269c0f4a99e87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cremona Sandrine; Jobard Gaël; Zago Laure; Mellet Emmanuel. Word Meaning Contributes to Free Recall Performance in Supraspan Verbal List-Learning Tests. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02043; article XML SHA-256 47fa534bd100fdcff07de64d18c5b161a39168484f030bd3030e081e21441040. “Word Meaning Contributes to Free Recall Performance in Supraspan Verbal List-Learning Tests” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02043).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02043). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure Test
<a id="reyosterrieth-complex-figure-test"></a>

The Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure Test is a neuropsychological assessment of cognitive function that uses a complex geometric drawing task. It typically includes copying the figure and later drawing it again from memory to evaluate visuospatial construction, perceptual organization, executive functioning, and visual memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f8fbfe1863161a5eb45c2398e78852beedeb6f3a9c47d122bc77e1da31d63c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Park Jin-Hyuck. Non-equivalence of sub-tasks of the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test with convolutional neural networks to discriminate mild cognitive impairment. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05622-5; article XML SHA-256 2d56a626929cfa820521ce5ac605ca23563e4347244a34b4ba43f419bdd75358. “Non-equivalence of sub-tasks of the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test with convolutional neural networks to discriminate mild cognitive impairment” (10.1186/s12888-024-05622-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05622-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RFT
<a id="rft"></a>

RFT refers to regulatory focus theory, a psychological perspective on motivation. In this packet, it is used to explain how differences in motivational orientation may relate to strategic risk-taking in organizational settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 40b9d814e5783243c788c3be61450a583463477e87d0ad2f858927a7ce060121

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Miązek Amadeusz Jacek; Światowiec-Szczepańska Justyna. Promote or prevent? A regulatory focus perspective on managerial risk taking. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352905; article XML SHA-256 902b0e0c285cf016b20d698f74e524652a146ed6a8ca5246a2f12967742c6b3d. “Promote or prevent? A regulatory focus perspective on managerial risk taking” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352905).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352905). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Rh factor
<a id="rh-factor"></a>

Rh factor is a blood group characteristic used to classify a person’s Rh status as part of blood typing. In the source material, it is treated as a biological marker examined alongside ABO blood groups for possible links with disease patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9551fd28316513a2b1c5d14b0523c9c93052085246750c9badd0b9d6b0289848

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Öncül Hasan; Dağ Umut; Alakuş Mehmet Fuat; Dertsiz Kozan Betül; Savar Çağlayan Mehtap. Association between ABO and Rh blood groups and subtypes of age-related macular degeneration: A cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354886; article XML SHA-256 31663ae5c20e20d07f0687f664f0ce801f8d53dabc8722783d027bccd952b757. “Association between ABO and Rh blood groups and subtypes of age-related macular degeneration: A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354886).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354886). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rheumatoid arthritis
<a id="rheumatoid-arthritis"></a>

Rheumatoid arthritis is a long-lasting autoimmune disease that affects the whole body, causing ongoing inflammation of the joint lining, worsening joint damage, and problems outside the joints. It can limit physical functioning and lower quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66534d35d5436a51465f41e3bcc0fd37926476c6d6250aee2953174ccd54150b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mustafa Mohammad. Sleep-related problems among patients with rheumatoid arthritis in the World Health Organization Eastern Mediterranean region: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1786989; article XML SHA-256 edda0057069e0367629c844a0b201a0a6b2834e491d5bcc3bd0cfb83665df681. “Sleep-related problems among patients with rheumatoid arthritis in the World Health Organization Eastern Mediterranean region: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1786989).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1786989). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rhinencephalon
<a id="rhinencephalon"></a>

The rhinencephalon is the olfactory cortex. It includes parts of the basal forebrain and the medial temporal lobe that receive signals from the olfactory bulb.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a26ecd83f18f52097a8946665489ae00fcdb215a676666bae9b4d8a4ced5a3f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Olfactory Cortex” (D066194).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066194). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rhino-
<a id="rhino"></a>

In this packet, rhino- refers to rhinoceroses, including black and white rhinos whose temperament and responses to novelty were studied in relation to wellbeing and management.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 60558c134e1291e8633f4960880bc83bc909af70899a8068eaaf23aa8dfb4099

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mac Leod Kelly Chimpén; Jones Marieke K.; Metrione Lara C.; Freeman Elizabeth W.. Temperament assessment of black ( Diceros bicornis ) and white ( Ceratotherium simum ) rhinos using keeper temperament surveys and novel object tests. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356484; article XML SHA-256 e6b86cdf75a8be432e44a6a2ed4d1c6c5f6ad976b5b1a9f937a2e1f58b85493f. “Temperament assessment of black ( Diceros bicornis ) and white ( Ceratotherium simum ) rhinos using keeper temperament surveys and novel object tests” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356484).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356484). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rhizotomy
<a id="rhizotomy"></a>

Rhizotomy is a surgical procedure that cuts or otherwise interrupts a spinal or cranial nerve root.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ecee6e7ee4ac50cd479c48ca54e72fb920cd2aa31d67fe30f3d022b3c8fbb3d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Rhizotomy” (D019051).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019051). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rhodopsin
<a id="rhodopsin"></a>

Rhodopsin is a light-sensitive reddish-purple pigment in the rod cells of the retina in most vertebrates. It is made from rod opsin linked to 11-cis retinal and absorbs light most strongly at about 500 nm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f781d8ce4c02a8ea21ec7ad7b8a7cd6895de47d2c00b2a4b8b9a4352bcd89c9b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Rhodopsin” (D012243).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012243). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rhombencephalon
<a id="rhombencephalon"></a>

The rhombencephalon is the embryonic hindbrain, the backmost of the three early brain vesicles. It gives rise to parts of the brain stem, including the medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum, and its enlarged cavity becomes the fourth ventricle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d9b782ecb7c7a4ef128e321792c5ca98cbe31080094d07844cd2d3de2509646b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Rhombencephalon” (D012249).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012249). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rhythm
<a id="rhythm"></a>

In a counselling context, rhythm refers to the regular patterns of a person’s biological functions and social routines. In therapies such as interpersonal and social rhythm therapy, these patterns are understood and worked with as part of care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 022c5a1777228f19922b30edc3570bb7a57431970248964baaca673da55607af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 340e646cd122c31f2ae7dd7aa7041a63efb2312a91d487d37080bcfec38efea9. “Bipolar Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rhythmic stimulation
<a id="rhythmic-stimulation"></a>

Rhythmic stimulation is stimulation delivered in a regular repeated pattern. In this historical account, it is described as tending to produce broader nervous discharge, increased muscular movement, and a stronger feeling of vitality or expansion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a48cc2de6d8db62529c706ee1b189c10091a2b55a9836c6d8f3c8b0233765b43

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2688000-2700000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ribonucleic acid
<a id="ribonucleic-acid"></a>

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a single-stranded molecule found in all living things that carries and helps transfer genetic information. It has an essential role in making cellular proteins and in supporting organism maintenance and growth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 55df374aefd07b7aa423351dbe0c6faeac06bd5686b0d7931304539c38826a56

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nafi Md Muhaiminul Islam. Deep learning framework for RNA 5hmC prediction using RNA language model embeddings. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341649; article XML SHA-256 f5242c532afd3165de78c35b89b6ef7937421be6177f7bb0e9eb986809d02789. “Deep learning framework for RNA 5hmC prediction using RNA language model embeddings” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341649).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341649). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rickets
<a id="rickets"></a>

Rickets is a group of disorders in which the growing skeleton does not mineralize properly at the growth plates and in bone tissue. It can be acquired, such as from too little vitamin D or calcium, or inherited, and it often involves low calcium and/or phosphorus levels along with bone deformities and sometimes muscle weakness, tetany, convulsions, or laryngospasm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09c8f04aeb563a59974bc06e088d4c5113c2b1fedda3f549f1db70daab6b84cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Turhan Banu; Yaşar Niyazi Erdem; Sungur Mehmet Ali; Turhan Yalçın; Bekmez Şenol. Management preferences of orthopedic surgeons in rickets patients in Turkey: Results of a nationwide survey. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329944; article XML SHA-256 691ae26e47b04ac8cd32b1bf070f6a6af90628f2c6dbe89dc140880ca99ed8d5. “Management preferences of orthopedic surgeons in rickets patients in Turkey: Results of a nationwide survey” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329944).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329944). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## right brain
<a id="right-brain"></a>

In this historical usage, the right brain means the right side of the brain, especially as discussed in relation to speech and writing. The passage describes it as sometimes helping preserve or restore speech when the left side is damaged, and as being linked to reversed or mirror-writing in some cases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 87936c34a6cf822e2ce967da5f7da736b3245c4fe8c2d6362b9d7d8726f01720

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2299500-2311500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## right-handedness
<a id="right-handedness"></a>

In this historical source, right-handedness means the usual greater skill or superiority of the right hand over the left. It is contrasted with ambidexterity, where both hands are used with equal or nearly equal ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 491a97e951c3061833c8bc07e29613653062837368e63d2da4618222b94dfa0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ambidextrous” (Ambidextrous).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Ambidextrous). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## right hemisphere
<a id="right-hemisphere"></a>

The right hemisphere is the right half of the cerebrum. It controls the muscles on the left side of the body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c3c9bec70a74f39e73794c4413dd86fc25670ab2f53cd702300b992845abfe20

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Right Cerebral Hemisphere” (C33472).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## right-wing authoritarianism
<a id="right-wing-authoritarianism"></a>

Right-wing authoritarianism is an individual difference that, in this research, helps explain how people react to anti-prejudice messages. Higher levels were linked with consistently greater prejudice and little change across messages, suggesting resistance to prejudice-reduction appeals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 57522d4ce0ed6a462e85eff9e47c17e9d5fe8baab8a253a831cbaace788119d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bouguettaya Ayoub; Vergani Matteo; Sainsbury Chloe; Bliuc Ana-Maria. I won’t listen if I think we’re losing our way: How right-wing authoritarianism affects the response to different anti-prejudice messages. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0280557; article XML SHA-256 192f82275b53b4bf4a8d7d860092384014da340408ae59d4efe4fcb1dfb36912. “I won’t listen if I think we’re losing our way: How right-wing authoritarianism affects the response to different anti-prejudice messages” (10.1371/journal.pone.0280557).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280557). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## righting reflex
<a id="righting-reflex"></a>

Righting reflex is an automatic response that helps the body return to its usual upright or normal position in space after being moved or displaced.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43a70feb4dbacecd9ba13799be4f4ae3c817db8d00cc4b3b7f22a2e85b7956f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reflex, Righting” (D057897).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D057897). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rigidity
<a id="rigidity"></a>

In this context, rigidity means a style of thinking in which negative beliefs stay fixed and resist change even when contrary evidence is available. It is described as a feature of depression-related cognition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46d63d4300d08e0686748d96571358ab94f928567a6acdd264c6945819022a52

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sun Jian; Jin Li. Depression as inferential rigidity: a meta-abductive account. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776494; article XML SHA-256 65b0d7a347c5efd5dbc6d16d13c7f5f3f14cd14b82a765529f6cfe7f26c2ce12. “Depression as inferential rigidity: a meta-abductive account” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776494).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776494). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Riley–Day syndrome
<a id="rileyday-syndrome"></a>

Riley–Day syndrome is an inherited disorder affecting the peripheral and autonomic nervous systems, described in people of Ashkenazic Jewish descent. It is present from birth and involves problems such as reduced tearing, poor temperature regulation, blood pressure drops on standing, abnormal pupils, excessive sweating, reduced pain and temperature sensation, and absent reflexes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 635320f91a9ff60124bcebaeafe08e457def4c736cdd1caf44d92c28b910f05f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dysautonomia, Familial” (D004402).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004402). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rise
<a id="rise"></a>

RISE is a clinical test used to evaluate episodic memory, specifically how well a person encodes and retrieves memories, in people with cognitive impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b0dbf09f010873c667811989c687cac8f71e0f2d29d6397e55fafd7bfed4c183

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Relational and Item-Specific Encoding Task” (C131877).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## risk
<a id="risk"></a>

Risk is the likelihood that an event will happen, especially when considering outcomes that are generally harmful or unfavorable. It can refer to different ways of estimating that probability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e491b8ecb5ad8bc5c4048742519e611debda75c5faf33c156fd5cfc328ee1ff7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Risk” (D012306).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012306). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## risk assessment
<a id="risk-assessment"></a>

Risk assessment is the process of estimating, in qualitative or quantitative terms, how likely harmful effects are from exposure to particular health hazards or from lacking beneficial influences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 302b7007b0bd6f606d0191c826afb314802a83a8ce8a6fab68c535876f83846d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Risk Assessment” (D018570).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018570). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## risk aversion
<a id="risk-aversion"></a>

Risk aversion is a tendency to view risk negatively and to be less willing to choose risky options, reflecting greater sensitivity to risk. In this context, higher risk aversion is described as a possible protective factor against gambling disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 980211f0ceeca1e1c96dcd8f89aba16264de0bbc3714fc2d78de2262d708732e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Hui; Wu Anise M S. The protective effects of cognitive empathy and emotional empathy on gambling disorder are mediated by risk aversion and responsible gambling attitude. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05509-5; article XML SHA-256 cd8c60b5a58ae5ef05ee9b0458e022f8da368da5c1e5b3188cdd4c3a9483f201. “The protective effects of cognitive empathy and emotional empathy on gambling disorder are mediated by risk aversion and responsible gambling attitude” (10.1186/s12888-024-05509-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05509-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## risk factor
<a id="risk-factor"></a>

A risk factor is any part of a person’s life, behavior, environment, or inherited makeup that makes a disease, condition, or injury more likely.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1165cb15d313e53944ea3fb9f32554ee667d13792fa625fd9fb0819c81f3d76

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Risk Factor” (C17103).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## risk metrics
<a id="risk-metrics"></a>

Risk metrics are measures used to estimate how much risk is involved in a decision scenario. In the source, they refer specifically to volatility-based measures used to compare investment options and help balance risk, return, and regret in decision-making.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 37930083daba23544262160e44551d26962e50b8a03e0c3e958b56ee4fb5c291

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Larni-Fooeik AmirMohammad; Sadjadi Seyed Jafar; Mohammadi Emran. Stochastic portfolio optimization: A regret-based approach on volatility risk measures: An empirical evidence from The New York stock market. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299699; article XML SHA-256 7cccd9171495b8e7a61e29d062311c2d24d1a04ca0e0fb5e7d8abeaf53907ab5. “Stochastic portfolio optimization: A regret-based approach on volatility risk measures: An empirical evidence from The New York stock market” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299699).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299699). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## risk perception
<a id="risk-perception"></a>

Risk perception is a person’s subjective judgment about how threatening or dangerous an emergency or crisis may be. It shapes how people evaluate risk, make decisions, and respond, including whether they seek out more information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9ae07ce4992561e162e0a62de98315d7ba35a0d67d97d735baca803c1272798

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gong Wanlan; Li Zhihong; Tang Jun. Impact of risk perception on emergency information seeking behavior: a meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1646584; article XML SHA-256 7c51992e5fb0ad11870399ab5cf194c5c51fe8696d1fb3ce231ed9df33c9f183. “Impact of risk perception on emergency information seeking behavior: a meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1646584).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1646584). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## risk proneness
<a id="risk-proneness"></a>

Risk proneness is a tendency to favor an option with uncertain outcomes, especially when its possible gains are appealing. In this source, it refers to showing greater preference for risky choices, with that preference shifting depending on how the decision context presents risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eae032517b29f4cd269a40a0881587264aa7489b6e1b4b5f1a35078a42bfe088

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lacombe Penelope; Brocard Sarah; Zuberbühler Klaus; Dahl Christoph D. Rationality and cognitive bias in captive gorillas’ and orang-utans’ economic decision-making. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0278150; article XML SHA-256 d1e766bf862b7c08eeda627d98e51e1f55165b485cf04fecb201d469495acd6f. “Rationality and cognitive bias in captive gorillas’ and orang-utans’ economic decision-making” (10.1371/journal.pone.0278150).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278150). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## risk taking
<a id="risk-taking"></a>

Risk taking is choosing to do something challenging in order to achieve a goal despite uncertainty or fear of failing. It can also refer to behaviors that may lead to harm or danger for the person or for others connected to them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a3b8c31cb6d8e468b1e969c653d39731fff6890f8e3e0277b148c407010d857

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Risk-Taking” (D012309).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012309). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## risk–rescue rating
<a id="riskrescue-rating"></a>

Risk–rescue rating is a measure used in mental health to judge how lethal a suicide attempt was. It estimates the likelihood that the attempt would cause irreversible harm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bafe57dec8637f0c9e57152502e96c9cecbc4a4b689f5a55e588035c53db4173

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Oh Sang Hoon; Kim Han Joon; Kim Soo Hyun; Kim Young Min; Park Kyu Nam. Which deliberate self-poisoning patients are most likely to make high-lethality suicide attempts?. 2015; DOI 10.1186/s13033-015-0028-4; article XML SHA-256 8a477e8a08073ae1992d050cc8c03f7d05fefc8b760d01aa859ed5f54cc6b6c3. “Which deliberate self-poisoning patients are most likely to make high-lethality suicide attempts?” (10.1186/s13033-015-0028-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-015-0028-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## risperidone
<a id="risperidone"></a>

Risperidone is an atypical antipsychotic medicine that blocks dopamine D2 and serotonin 5-HT2 receptors. It is used in schizophrenia and has been shown to improve both positive and negative symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e6804afe6d0a21aad5ed26efa041b319e07ea7974f74525b5da2ee9325acd15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Risperidone” (D018967).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018967). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ritual
<a id="ritual"></a>

A ritual is an act or set of acts performed according to personal habits or social customs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a16231da653096b2e2c529ccd634739baf6acb72f2ac27d23f0e4d56491a47e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ritual” (C94194).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RMD
<a id="rmd"></a>

RMD stands for rheumatic medical diseases, a group of illnesses for which patients may be treated in rheumatology clinics. In the source, the term refers to conditions commonly managed with glucocorticoid therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7337b04d7197962a48f5d952c7ea427677c02156ee13b6e2fe57f523f6b09104

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alnaimat Fatima; Alduraidi Hamza; Yaghi Ali Rezeq Ali; Tarbiah Mohammad Mahmoud; Khanfar Asim; Abusheikha Moath; Hamad Ali M. Glucocorticoid use and perceptions of side effects among patients with rheumatic medical diseases: Insights from a developing country. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327436; article XML SHA-256 d3e0d7367ab7519fc7f61aa10961956488966766d65b18361b2e4be85904fa6a. “Glucocorticoid use and perceptions of side effects among patients with rheumatic medical diseases: Insights from a developing country” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327436).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327436). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RMS
<a id="rms"></a>

RMS stands for Rapid Mood Screener, a brief assessment tool developed to help identify bipolar disorder. It is intended to improve detection of bipolar disorder, which is often mistaken for unipolar depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e1593b20de221feeb5fe484039a9c3a73d1c7a17c67c7ef8f935221c9c234389

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Som-On Chayanis; Suradom Chawisa; McIntyre Roger S.; Suttajit Sirijit; Kawilapat Suttipong; Pilakanta Sutrak; Srisurapanont Manit. Reliability and validity of the Thai version of the Rapid Mood Screener (RMS-T). 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355733; article XML SHA-256 d1923a53a30ddad3487506bae880110c3933a6a84af4f188f93b4d4be67f6b6d. “Reliability and validity of the Thai version of the Rapid Mood Screener (RMS-T)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355733).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355733). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RMT
<a id="rmt"></a>

RMT stands for Rasch Measurement Theory, an approach to improving psychological measurement by testing whether a questionnaire works as a single underlying scale, its items function independently and consistently, and response options are ordered as intended. It can also convert ordinal sum scores into interval-level latent trait scores to increase measurement precision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a84257bbf6f242ff77f6ff57e9d70f3bccb3246b112d919028ee21e8eb86d02f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hentati Isacsson Nils; Johansson Magnus; Kaldo Viktor. Latent trait or sum score: addressing measurement challenges in the prediction of self-rated symptom outcomes in psychological treatment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1654996; article XML SHA-256 cfc870147a061e9549f72f4205e236c4059ad1ad8c0f5c07d9b73e898ee86bb9. “Latent trait or sum score: addressing measurement challenges in the prediction of self-rated symptom outcomes in psychological treatment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1654996).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1654996). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RN
<a id="rn"></a>

An RN is a nurse who completes an approved nursing education program, qualifies through a state licensing examination, and is authorized by a state body to practice nursing. Training for this role can come from diploma, associate-level, or bachelor’s-level nursing pathways, including mixed routes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 30441d23662b969cdca99838cfc5df2790bdccce90997630603d7389499d3de3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Registered Nurse” (C20824).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RNG
<a id="rng"></a>

RNG refers to a behavioral task in which reduced randomness in a person’s output is used as a sign that attentional control and other executive resources are under strain. It is often used in dual-task settings because higher mental demands, including rumination, tend to lower randomness and reveal limits in updating, inhibition, and shifting between tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d30ec715c46043610e28410dd6c0ad3db8650059089c5b0141404ad4c414e4bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schwarz Kristina; Lützkendorf Julia; Giller Franziska; Endrass Tanja. Randomness as a behavioral marker of attentional control during the attention training technique and its neural correlates. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1765858; article XML SHA-256 417fd9022b127fdf93683d8178dba5fae8aee14c09e7f02b241ce6200fb7fa6f. “Randomness as a behavioral marker of attentional control during the attention training technique and its neural correlates” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1765858).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1765858). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## road rage
<a id="road-rage"></a>

Road rage is extreme anger triggered by a traffic incident or accident that results in one vehicle’s driver or passenger attacking the driver or passenger of another vehicle with a motor vehicle or another dangerous weapon.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be9e81d0ac7369627bd81c1204b3da8b4a0903122d4db97947eb7bcf84585851

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Road Rage” (D000077315).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077315). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Roberts syndrome
<a id="roberts-syndrome"></a>

Roberts syndrome is a cohesinopathy, also called SC phocomelia syndrome, caused by bi-allelic mutations in the ESCO2 gene. It is associated with a range of developmental problems that can include growth retardation, intellectual disability, microcephaly, and congenital abnormalities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f6f1fb52ed8a513e8e222584805bd1d842446e62fc01764fc5cfb714751b203

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Faramarz Atiq; Balk Jesper A.; van Schie Janne J. M.; Oostra Anneke B.; Ghandour Cherien A.; Rooimans Martin A.; Wolthuis Rob M. F.; de Lange Job. Non-redundant roles in sister chromatid cohesion of the DNA helicase DDX11 and the SMC3 acetyl transferases ESCO1 and ESCO2. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0220348; article XML SHA-256 2e0bb3a451ca4e0938cbc9768aa90d5cf5d65cf73e51272ebd82de8dedaf0a02. “Non-redundant roles in sister chromatid cohesion of the DNA helicase DDX11 and the SMC3 acetyl transferases ESCO1 and ESCO2” (10.1371/journal.pone.0220348).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220348). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## robotics
<a id="robotics"></a>

Robotics refers to the use of robotic technology in work such as agriculture. In this ethics context, it is considered in terms of its possible social and ethical benefits, risks, and effects on the future role of farmers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 51f7a047704c9417fa4f5ba806a9455917170f70c8d700f73f028d6714a64877

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sassano Angie; Sparrow Robert; Mayes Christopher; Travers Cheryl; Moss Megan; Degeling Chris. “You’re opening Pandora’s Box”: Public attitudes on AI and robotics in Australian agriculture. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332461; article XML SHA-256 91b24be384a383fe49551b4139df1312dec2eba0299e3c76830a0534208f9210. ““You’re opening Pandora’s Box”: Public attitudes on AI and robotics in Australian agriculture” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332461).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332461). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ROC curve
<a id="roc-curve"></a>

An ROC curve is a graph used to judge how well a screening test can tell apart people with a condition from those without it. It can also be used more broadly to show how well responses are distinguished, such as detecting faint stimuli versus no stimulus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96b386142ce781f84799dc7c3df0f3abf4ba250ebea3c06ffb3d7ea874b40f7e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “ROC Curve” (D012372).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012372). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ROCFT
<a id="rocft"></a>

ROCFT stands for the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test, a neuropsychological assessment in which a person copies and later recalls a complex drawing. It is used to evaluate visuoconstruction, executive planning, and visual memory, and its scoring can be done by clinicians or by automated systems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb1984f4eb989f0c73eac554a7eee05d887f91315835967bf3a18fc7b60bec8d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Andersen Sander Lindholm; Lundervold Astri J.; Ronold Eivind Haga. Automated versus human scoring of the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test: a rapid review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1746720; article XML SHA-256 ba661b6df7c7f792682def71cf23d7873f7375e988f0bb42fce0d7c6cb755308. “Automated versus human scoring of the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test: a rapid review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1746720).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1746720). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rod
<a id="rod"></a>

A rod is a light-sensitive cell in the retina that helps the eye see in dim or low-light conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 256ec5bebcedcd3e302b3cb0efe26d974686db079c94896bf12d5a74ed2f751b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Rod” (C12638).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Rod-and-Frame Test
<a id="rod-and-frame-test"></a>

The Rod-and-Frame Test is a method used to assess a person’s sense of upright verticality when the surrounding visual field is tilted or misleading. It is used to estimate visual dependence—how much someone relies on visual cues rather than other bodily signals for orientation—and has been studied in relation to simulator sickness and cybersickness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7533c57ba00af22aba5f42eac246b36da4e84d1d45ab8f5c56f2c05e81c073cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Josupeit Judith. In rod we trust–The evaluation of a virtual rod and frame test as a cybersickness screening instrument. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313313; article XML SHA-256 ee1f418becbcce23f480e7fdfc3768801cce80f210dcb095ca623f9f21e28305. “In rod we trust–The evaluation of a virtual rod and frame test as a cybersickness screening instrument” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313313).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313313). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rod vision
<a id="rod-vision"></a>

Rod vision is the eye’s visual function for seeing in very low light, such as at night. It depends on retinal rod photoreceptors, which are highly sensitive to light and are most responsive near the blue end of the spectrum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 303a708b51f48439971c10d7ac9398e4503a635d4769f906ac523e8f30f13961

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Night Vision” (D055254).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055254). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rods of Corti
<a id="rods-of-corti"></a>

Rods of Corti are two sets of firm rod-like structures in the organ of Corti that rise from the basilar membrane, lean toward each other, and join at the top to form a tunnel running along the organ. In this historical source, they are described as lying between rows of hair cells and were once considered possible structures involved in analyzing sound.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc11763d1bacae0166c660538803d9a28a21cfa33fe2542d3c8b8ac63040b510

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hearing” (Hearing).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Hearing). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Rokeach Value Survey
<a id="rokeach-value-survey"></a>

The Rokeach Value Survey is a measure of human values that has been widely used in areas such as social psychology, work-related assessment, marketing, and cross-cultural research. In this source, it is described as an older values instrument whose items can be aligned with the Schwartz value framework so researchers can study values across datasets and over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e4d7197fb5c85cd95ac4d7626e47db8765d81b82f022ed9158e5ff1da8f352f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Smallenbroek Oscar; Leijen Ingmar; Stanciu A; van Herk Hester; Bardi A. Constructing Schwartz values framework using the Rokeach values survey: Human value measurement in the longitudinal internet survey for social sciences. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329179; article XML SHA-256 ab467abbeab3c8ac95a35a89f6769defe5ba720ea7a339c72036e25430702624. “Constructing Schwartz values framework using the Rokeach values survey: Human value measurement in the longitudinal internet survey for social sciences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329179).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329179). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## role
<a id="role"></a>

A role is the usual and expected way a person behaves as part of a particular social group. It reflects the pattern of behavior linked to that person’s place or membership in the group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0c4ae0cbb33424303f92f26887cbb4b240e816ff6e78c06e0f60fe8a482448b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Role” (D012380).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012380). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## role conflict
<a id="role-conflict"></a>

Role conflict is tension or distress that happens when the demands of one role a person has make it harder to meet the demands of another role.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 424c75ee7248c5bbe7b6333df40c6cd19c8d06774eb8c7319a7fbb2f3cb57260

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Role Conflict” (D000097823).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000097823). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## role confusion
<a id="role-confusion"></a>

Role confusion is a state of uncertainty or strain about what a person is expected to do when different roles or demands overlap. In this packet, it refers to distress linked to competing professional expectations and difficulty balancing work and personal life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8b645b4b98c47a2dfcb2ec4fb2e821e956f6281e84e5605e71c7f2f18cd56886

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Duan Maojun. Psychological distress among early career university teachers: an ecological perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815223; article XML SHA-256 9b4be8e9b1e4e70f9b71e921f8b10da6dc7e5ecfbb7d461d395be2ee02df95e8. “Psychological distress among early career university teachers: an ecological perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815223).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815223). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## role enactment
<a id="role-enactment"></a>

Role enactment is the way a person actually carries out and shapes a role in practice. In a career context, it refers to how someone performs, adapts, and tailors their job or career role over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c4e4f316dac14a2db74b6f8b2de03dc4bd2f951a55ec6813757808f3fae87123

Sources:
- Drafting source: [de Jong Nicole; Wisse Barbara; Heesink José A. M.; van der Zee Karen I.. Personality Traits and Career Role Enactment: Career Role Preferences as a Mediator. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01720; article XML SHA-256 2450dac2e365bc3b4962e6372ee563929389b7a9b5d4e08758505790bdcaf4f9. “Personality Traits and Career Role Enactment: Career Role Preferences as a Mediator” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01720).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01720). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## role model
<a id="role-model"></a>

A role model is a person whose behavior or qualities are observed and used as a guide for what to copy, avoid, or adapt. In learning, this can involve imitating one individual, or combining selected traits from several people into a mentally constructed “composite” role model.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ebee5cc7a06dbdd35d1c302a5980bb52286f4cf3295857dce7f32ea4c03cb40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hasani Reihaneh; Mohammadi Elaheh; Norouzi Ali; Khabaz Mafinejad Mahboobeh. Understanding diverse subjectivities of medical students in seeking composite role models: A Q-methodology study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339766; article XML SHA-256 fc779ef283e8473875531bbf7b3031c6bda9cfc084fa7e6c376141d263285fe0. “Understanding diverse subjectivities of medical students in seeking composite role models: A Q-methodology study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339766).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339766). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## role set
<a id="role-set"></a>

A role set is the pattern of roles within a team and how those roles relate to one another in their expected capabilities and responsibilities. In changing teams, a role set may be more disconnected or more intersecting, which can affect how flexibly members coordinate their work.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 99f2179b9a2221a43a0c9f19b9503e5a6c53b8f21bf6b8e1bea9acd9c5135b16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aggarwal Ishani; Mayo Anna T.; Murase Toshio; Zhang Evelyn Y.; Aven Brandy; Woolley Anita Williams. Cognitive versatility and adaptation to fluid participation in hospital emergency department teams. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1144638; article XML SHA-256 8908ff349dae7e5e6982d1617b53222ce0961042016d5e48d9c154b96dd10529. “Cognitive versatility and adaptation to fluid participation in hospital emergency department teams” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1144638).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1144638). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ROM
<a id="rom"></a>

ROM stands for range of motion, meaning how far a joint or body part can move. In this context, it refers to movement capacity measured before and after stretching.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 79858bda94048e1d363b9ca98cb33d9765ff296a8236a650c4475029b42030f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Parsons Hunter; Behm David G.. The effects of dynamic, static, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching on local & non-local range of motion and pain onset. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358885; article XML SHA-256 08f3c884750d92959fa443ec806316c68a3ee070bdbb17fce9b3d95514af9d98. “The effects of dynamic, static, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching on local & non-local range of motion and pain onset” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358885).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358885). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## romantic love
<a id="romantic-love"></a>

Romantic love is a strongly exclusive attachment to a particular person, usually marked by pleasure in that person’s presence, distress at separation, and deep concern for the person’s well-being. In this historical psychological account, it is distinguished from friendship or fraternal affection by a stronger element of longing or desire and by greater mental restlessness when the loved person is absent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 20b6463285b6c4aa4181e965c79c408990564bd67540648e9641f4fcc108d7e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Love” (Love).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L4defs.htm#Love). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Romazicon
<a id="romazicon"></a>

Romazicon is flumazenil, a drug that blocks benzodiazepine action in the central nervous system. It is used to reverse benzodiazepine-related effects such as sedation, memory impairment, slowed psychomotor functioning, and reduced breathing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e762bbbcd394811eb5f68abfe25ae8544ea5026f9dbf05fd5d1a8ac44686dbc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Flumazenil” (C47534).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ROP
<a id="rop"></a>

ROP refers to retinopathy of prematurity, a condition seen in preterm infants that is closely linked with prematurity, low birth weight, neonatal illness severity, oxygen exposure, and other perinatal risks. In developmental research, it is viewed not only as an eye disorder but also as a possible clinical marker of broader neurodevelopmental vulnerability, including later cognitive, motor, and behavioral difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34d9501ed330bc8e28dc337d907ff1b6e144555096047ea75f3cd36c8697b5ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Tae-Eun; Park Hye Won; Park Sanghyun; Shin Hyun Jin. Retinopathy of prematurity as a clinical marker of developmental vulnerability in preschool children: A nationwide Korean Health Screening study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356773; article XML SHA-256 7329082bbe3f38f6bdbd4ad09293fb8545ebd0d5110a09ddc5aae61c7a8f5302. “Retinopathy of prematurity as a clinical marker of developmental vulnerability in preschool children: A nationwide Korean Health Screening study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356773).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356773). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rostral
<a id="rostral"></a>

Rostral means toward the front, or anterior, part of a structure. In the hippocampus, the rostral portion refers to its front end and is contrasted with the caudal, or rear/posterior, portion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 579a595c95c7244f3cdd5f5c557db197ba54b6c1ff7271e3a2d63e37b8289433

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vorobiova Alicia Nunez; Feurra Matteo; Pavone Enea Francesco; Stieglitz Lennart; Imbach Lukas; Moiseeva Victoria; Sarnthein Johannes; Fedele Tommaso. Functional segregation of rostral and caudal hippocampus in associative memory. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1509163; article XML SHA-256 c22456fc23666eb4d0256a59da219b2f8f2630bd99716a3d40ca52ab7ecbf30e. “Functional segregation of rostral and caudal hippocampus in associative memory” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1509163).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1509163). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rotarod
<a id="rotarod"></a>

Rotarod is a mouse behavioral assay used to measure how well trained animals perform on a dowel as part of testing balance-related behavior. In the source packet, it is one of several assays used to examine imbalance and postural effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f56cffcd75b00da124ff0a9a0bbc78f4b348b113e34c477d036745da0d86a7c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rahman Shafaqat M.; Dweh Abigail; Luebke Anne E.. Comparing the impact of systemic pituitary adenylate-cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) on motion-induced nausea and balance behaviors in mice. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334444; article XML SHA-256 3ba70b982365b5a801a5ec03f2ad9bcb0ed7e12ced87135f1211c93c5c8f3d34. “Comparing the impact of systemic pituitary adenylate-cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) on motion-induced nausea and balance behaviors in mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334444).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334444). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rough-and-tumble play
<a id="rough-and-tumble-play"></a>

Rough-and-tumble play is playful fighting between willing participants that stays enjoyable through self-control and mutual give-and-take. In this view, it can support psychosocial development by exercising self-regulation and encouraging empathy, prosocial behavior, and social bonding, though it can also escalate if not well moderated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3a298d7347e8361a515dad80f266215e4c9b63d2897c6d8796e9724d56c90d16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Blomqvist Mickelsson Tony; Stylin Pilo. Integrating Rough-and-Tumble Play in Martial Arts: A Practitioner’s Model. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731000; article XML SHA-256 332dd464b9f3136b608fa9cacbaa31b3c07630cba4f06fa13640baf5dadcb3aa. “Integrating Rough-and-Tumble Play in Martial Arts: A Practitioner’s Model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731000).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731000). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## roughness
<a id="roughness"></a>

In this historical psychology source, roughness refers to a harsh quality of musical sound. It can mean an intermediate stage in hearing two tones together, a quality of some intervals caused by interacting overtones, the coarse character of low tones compared with smoother high tones, or the presence of noise or especially prominent partial tones in a sound.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da16ebb1da47f269f3598d54e7585022c45b17be880317a1b2d80668bf5bfa38

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Harshness (of tone)” (Harshness).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Harshness). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## route learning
<a id="route-learning"></a>

Route learning is the process of learning to travel a specific path, usually by first following directions and then repeating the same route without help until it can be completed accurately. It is commonly judged by how many attempts or how much time is needed to perform the route without errors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1b557cc695d56b63b691ca70385d0027f638455021c1fe98c4b2e318fa50817

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Merrill Edward C.; Yang Yingying; Roskos Beverly; Steele Sara. Sex Differences in Using Spatial and Verbal Abilities Influence Route Learning Performance in a Virtual Environment: A Comparison of 6- to 12-Year Old Boys and Girls. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00258; article XML SHA-256 84b7a84cefda7d63e67c643cb79cbbb428144ab2350386d922bac28e4f527a7b. “Sex Differences in Using Spatial and Verbal Abilities Influence Route Learning Performance in a Virtual Environment: A Comparison of 6- to 12-Year Old Boys and Girls” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00258).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00258). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RPE
<a id="rpe"></a>

RPE stands for Rating of Perceived Exertion, a scale a person uses to judge how hard their own physical effort feels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90b8bca1d8540aabb8cd4d1f5ff50077b9f5080d7ce253dff11fe170f3e6978f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Rating of Perceived Exertion” (C122028).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RPE scale
<a id="rpe-scale"></a>

The RPE scale is a subjective rating tool used to show how hard a person feels they are working or how fatigued they feel during activity. In this study, Borg’s 6–20 RPE scale was used as a self-report measure that was combined with physiological and reaction-time data to assess fatigue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f525c80e4c6a47ed11740c511f3a8ee8f1edf7933a019bc9e57506f0d34937a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Mingwei; Yang Shangxue; Wang Ke; Yu Chengliu; Liu Guanlin; Dai Chao; Wang Ruiqi. A study on the classification and prediction of firefighter’s operational fatigue level. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323911; article XML SHA-256 392e11c732b5b768dd8b1bad11cd7520aee72feeea6015fb70bfe00d251a25ee. “A study on the classification and prediction of firefighter’s operational fatigue level” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323911).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323911). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RRT
<a id="rrt"></a>

RRT stands for registered respiratory therapist. It refers to a certified respiratory therapist who has passed a clinical simulation exam and usually has at least a bachelor’s-level education in an allied health program.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc31156e26869b2c28a25dd20d673955691a488adc9c2c279a999e1dd79dff65

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Registered Respiratory Therapist” (C205560).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RSA
<a id="rsa"></a>

RSA stands for recurrent spontaneous abortion, meaning repeated miscarriages. In the provided psychology context, it is described as an experience linked with major psychological distress and uncertainty during a later pregnancy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ed7e9fc3509cc7536ead9940c4de95341dfba258cbad49905649fa88ea087217

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Ling; Yue Chongyu; Wang Yan; Wang Yiqian; Zhang Meng. Factors associated with adverse pregnancy outcome and psychological outcomes during re-pregnancy: a cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834444; article XML SHA-256 e608f4fadeb57a375d92c2d2276163bfbc53e6c8f5058ae6bcd634959db69082. “Factors associated with adverse pregnancy outcome and psychological outcomes during re-pregnancy: a cross-sectional study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834444).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834444). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RSI
<a id="rsi"></a>

RSI stands for Restriction Spectrum Imaging, a type of diffusion-weighted MRI that uses measurements taken under multiple settings and directions to assess the orientation and scale of water diffusion in tissue. It has been used to distinguish different microscopic tissue types based on how water moves within them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e4c63081d8329602760a485cf0e5522f7cd837ead54bcf07b384b22a1f771e71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Restriction Spectrum Imaging” (C143150).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RSS
<a id="rss"></a>

RSS stands for Relationship Sabotage Scale, a psychological assessment measure used to evaluate relationship self-sabotage. In the supplied source, it is discussed as a scale whose measurement properties were examined in Chinese college students.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4fe24eead3b5d3898530063af5dc2af71146c7b104f377e3483f14d4aab3c33f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Feng Wei; Zhang Manyu; Wang Changle; Bu Yubo. The validation, reliability, and measurement invariance of the relationship sabotage scale in Chinese college students. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04546-x; article XML SHA-256 10548570968961c945c2066308eabcf735ec99f577b691627971b4717a8dd1b9. “The validation, reliability, and measurement invariance of the relationship sabotage scale in Chinese college students” (10.1186/s40359-026-04546-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04546-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RST
<a id="rst"></a>

RST, or Response Styles Theory, is a psychological theory that says the way people respond to negative emotions influences how severe and long-lasting depressive episodes become. In this theory, rumination—repeatedly dwelling on negative feelings or events instead of moving toward solutions—intensifies distress and uses mental resources that can disrupt effective action and problem-solving.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84de91f1b68e28f73e05f6cb467368f2c86559d89e68e1a1697e7ad9440adcbe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Yue; Wang Xinyue; Yu Haonan; Jiang Hongyan. The effects of negative life events on depression in middle-aged women: the mediating role of rumination and coping styles. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1723958; article XML SHA-256 aaaded8f7173fa56655fe1b5dee51972175f7e59a0624780a9b1789f51019d8a. “The effects of negative life events on depression in middle-aged women: the mediating role of rumination and coping styles” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1723958).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1723958). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RSTS
<a id="rsts"></a>

RSTS refers to the right superior temporal sulcus, a brain region involved in combining social and motion-related cues. In this source, it is described as being more strongly engaged by fearful facial expressions, which can signal alarm in the environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8cc641474fe1ca1bd713c0a5380187d2e263e5f0b4a1fb783855f2cc3071e389

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wende Kim C.; Kessler Roman; Rusch Kristin M.; Sommer Jens; Jansen Andreas. Differential arousal and neural engagement for angry and fearful faces: a combined pupillometric and fMRI study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1739802; article XML SHA-256 31a8927c16d43145ea70098f2de846523e997e035e34ee0d135e8dfa12d5c826. “Differential arousal and neural engagement for angry and fearful faces: a combined pupillometric and fMRI study” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1739802).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1739802). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RSVP
<a id="rsvp"></a>

RSVP stands for rapid serial visual presentation, a task in which visual items are shown in quick succession. In psychology and cognition research, it is used to study attention because people must stay engaged while processing a fast-paced stream of visual information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2019c02308c8b292a22256ad412d3480e2dbf90e65e6b25fd47d00049cd9e66

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lim Seongyeon; Dong Suh-Yeon; Jung Tzyy-Ping. Prefrontal fNIRS hemodynamic correlates of attentional load during rapid serial visual presentation tasks. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1843879; article XML SHA-256 f835af232fc0209772a3e965d0172aef73a90402012bb9b3d70bdc48c5e0a3f2. “Prefrontal fNIRS hemodynamic correlates of attentional load during rapid serial visual presentation tasks” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1843879).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1843879). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RT
<a id="rt"></a>

RT stands for reaction time, the speed of a person’s response to a stimulus or event. In this context, it is treated as an important aspect of cognitive performance in esports and competitive gaming.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8658fc43a3f38ee105e92fd1a483bc74bc3318663c4dcb09041ba7b0e1795c93

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Choudhary Prashant Kumar; Choudhary Suchishrava; Saha Sohom; Rajpoot Yajuvendra Singh; Ciocan Vasile-Cătălin; Nicolae-Lucian Voinea; Gorgan Carmina Mihaela; Șufaru Constantin. Brain-computer interfaces and neural synchronization in esports: a systematic review of effects on reaction time, decision-making, and cognitive performance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1774230; article XML SHA-256 9a7da3cbea72585da2e38439bcc328d3377d3d168ed07ef4700eec5298c1aac3. “Brain-computer interfaces and neural synchronization in esports: a systematic review of effects on reaction time, decision-making, and cognitive performance” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1774230).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1774230). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rTMS
<a id="rtms"></a>

rTMS stands for repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, a therapy that stimulates the brain. It has been investigated for use in depression, psychosis, anxiety, and other mental health conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 69642d7b65321cac7e0190d8221fb4d230a1b1a8d99d2609f52689535787618a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation” (C154664).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RTS
<a id="rts"></a>

RTs means response times: the time taken to make a response during a task, such as the timing recorded for correct recognitions and false alarms in a continuous recognition test. In this context, response times are used as a measure of performance in episodic memory assessment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 583a6aec3cfea708a18680c8237afa9c136b8ef7240c07a6ad275141c31810e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Clifford James O.; Anand Sulekha; Tarpin-Bernard Franck; Bergeron Michael F.; Ashford Curtis B.; Bayley Peter J.; Ashford John Wesson. Episodic memory assessment: effects of sex and age on performance and response time during a continuous recognition task. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1304221; article XML SHA-256 227fb79d8142a61ea794e30c9a4cdf4b5f883c748a49c7b129d6805432d1811a. “Episodic memory assessment: effects of sex and age on performance and response time during a continuous recognition task” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1304221).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1304221). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome
<a id="rubinsteintaybi-syndrome"></a>

Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome is a chromosomal disorder marked by intellectual disability together with distinctive physical differences such as broad thumbs, finger and toe webbing, characteristic facial features, and a range of possible brain, heart, skeletal, breathing, skin, and bowel abnormalities. It follows an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern and is associated with deletion on the short arm of chromosome 16 (16p13.3).

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2365cd1e486ac0700148a2e1f6a89819e3e1c82adfc1e804222240c21f726e45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Rubinstein-Taybi Syndrome” (D012415).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012415). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rule-governed behavior
<a id="rule-governed-behavior"></a>

Rule-governed behavior is behavior that is analyzed as being guided by rules, and it has been used in behavior analysis to explain complex human actions such as thinking and problem-solving. In relational frame theory, it includes functional forms such as pliance and tracking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48e86b46e9dd0af70c4ab6bf251f134d5b7c680473af8c9c8b66303cca3eb51a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ruiz Francisco J.; García-Martín María B.; Suárez-Falcón Juan C.; Bedoya-Valderrama Luna; Segura-Vargas Miguel A.; Peña-Vargas Andrés; Henao Ángela M.; Ávila-Campos Jorge E.. Development and initial validation of the Generalized Tracking Questionnaire. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0234393; article XML SHA-256 8622222b9adecc390effa47371e7d6613624929c9df66578a4a68066b02fccc9. “Development and initial validation of the Generalized Tracking Questionnaire” (10.1371/journal.pone.0234393).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0234393). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rule learning
<a id="rule-learning"></a>

Rule learning is the ability to detect a pattern or regularity in a sequence and apply that same pattern to new examples. In infants, this includes recognizing simple structures such as ABA or ABB and generalizing them beyond the specific items originally seen or heard.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c765230e0f23faf04580930bb4d72fbbd986025a52c20a67aa08f6e82ccc7204

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bulf Hermann; Brenna Viola; Valenza Eloisa; Johnson Scott P.; Turati Chiara. Many faces, one rule: the role of perceptual expertise in infants’ sequential rule learning. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01595; article XML SHA-256 ae0fcdc476f6c35236eeea514d41632c61d7d71b020d6a1d9979b29224adff51. “Many faces, one rule: the role of perceptual expertise in infants’ sequential rule learning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01595).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01595). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rule of double effect
<a id="rule-of-double-effect"></a>

A moral guideline used to judge whether it can be acceptable to do something aimed at a good outcome while foreseeing that it will also cause harm. It holds that this may be permissible only when the act is not inherently wrong, the harm is not intended, the good does not come from the harm, and the good is weighty enough in relation to the harm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71d99f41203e07c9e6483047846d79b0aa252cbc30cf960bcb9f4b4b191793d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Double Effect Principle” (D034723).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D034723). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rule of thumb
<a id="rule-of-thumb"></a>

A rule of thumb is an experience-based shortcut used in learning, problem-solving, or discovery. It aims for a solution that is good enough for the goal rather than one guaranteed to be the best possible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2427976adc583774d864adcdc277ae0f759de33623285fbef44d635b0a1caf85

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Heuristics” (D000066506).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000066506). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Rumination Syndrome
<a id="rumination-syndrome"></a>

Rumination syndrome is a gastrointestinal disorder in which recently eaten food repeatedly and effortlessly comes back up from the stomach into the mouth soon after eating. It is different from GERD and vomiting, can occur beyond infancy, and is associated with functional digestive problems as well as psychiatric conditions such as anxiety and depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae9eecbf93cdc1a1d8e1481bca07ab06bf6671759e7c0e0b73f712a87fb8ec03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Rumination Syndrome” (D000079562).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000079562). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## rumor
<a id="rumor"></a>

In this historical psychology passage, rumor means the undifferentiated background murmur of ordinary sounds and events that usually pass unnoticed. It refers to the general noise of the world from which a particular signal stands out when it has personal meaning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a51a4beb488e2c1a4cd7b29f834babb9880b93b7c9901bd02cb4227b143a1b36

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## run
<a id="run"></a>

In this context, run means a condition tends to occur in some families more than in others. This suggests a possible family-related or genetic influence, although the exact cause is still unknown.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a3faae1906754524452da8c96dba03453cf06a5f029f975b2a51058109224d61

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 77e8e3f9797bdd3e545d836e3c7a022d849dbcb9046d75b9663fada09c613399. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## runway
<a id="runway"></a>

In this source, Runway refers to Runway ML, an AIGC tool used to generate dynamic images as part of an automated system for creating emotion-based animations. It supports controllable visual expression by helping map emotional, behavioral, and style-related information into animated output.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de622d73fb1ad66d52debec06dbf7400a786f40342f94720ebfb1a396dc3bc9d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Yitian; Zhao Zhou; Qi Kun. Research on emotion animation generation based on AIGC tools: Personalized expression and multi-level encoding strategy. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356895; article XML SHA-256 19189c417c6a3de1e4223708a194e049b4d8c0d51b3e8c3e94a1dce0fc073587. “Research on emotion animation generation based on AIGC tools: Personalized expression and multi-level encoding strategy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356895).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356895). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## RWA
<a id="rwa"></a>

RWA is a psychological construct referring to support for coercive social control and obedience to authority. In this context, it describes an authoritarian orientation centered on enforcing social order through compliance with authority.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43bf819069fb126c5811bbb50502145c3524f14ea0a656786191147ed0c1a3a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Troncoso-Tejada Gustavo; Gálvez-Nieto José Luis; Norambuena-Paredes Ignacio; Galván-Cabello Miguel; Casas David González. Psychometric study and validation of an abbreviated version of the Left-Wing Authoritarianism Scale (LWA-9) in Chilean university students. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1627540; article XML SHA-256 b757d6469a9dbebc0e3fa62f84a58d9dd3ecdbf97cc7949c36571996bd127761. “Psychometric study and validation of an abbreviated version of the Left-Wing Authoritarianism Scale (LWA-9) in Chilean university students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1627540).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1627540). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## S and M
<a id="s-and-m"></a>

In this source, "S and M" refers to two retinal cone classes identified by their opsins: S-cones and M/L-cones. These are light-sensitive cone cells whose degeneration patterns were examined in a mouse model of retinitis pigmentosa.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f153859a08b0ea368a735a0d0f06a57089c8d46eac5b4131068cb9d31342293

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Narayan Daniel S; Ao Jack; Wood John P M; Casson Robert J; Chidlow Glyn. Spatio-temporal characterization of S- and M/L-cone degeneration in the Rd1 mouse model of retinitis pigmentosa. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s12868-019-0528-2; article XML SHA-256 89c09c6171cdf86f8ab14630bef2acefaf2aff05838e7d2ac6d169136a27d9e5. “Spatio-temporal characterization of S- and M/L-cone degeneration in the Rd1 mouse model of retinitis pigmentosa” (10.1186/s12868-019-0528-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-019-0528-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## S1
<a id="s1"></a>

S1 is a brain area mainly involved in processing incoming body-sensation feedback. It is also understood as part of sensorimotor integration, contributing to movement, motor learning, and movement planning by combining predicted motor-command signals with sensory input.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6232b2f6d84e9b2e2349d641d17db6fb179a675733d9a0405cc5affbc3685037

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gimple Sophia; Freudenburg Zachary V.; Ramsey Nick F.; Branco Mariana P.. Temporal responses in sensorimotor cortex during hand movements. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347647; article XML SHA-256 b4fd0f8cf25d0e7323c68f19116182e970ab12c31c04c4af7cd4b80b131c7889. “Temporal responses in sensorimotor cortex during hand movements” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347647).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347647). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## S2
<a id="s2"></a>

S2 is an Encephalofluctuogram Technology (ET) spectral index derived from ultra-slow fluctuations in EEG activity. In ET research, it has been used as an indirect, model-based indicator interpreted as reflecting glutamatergic involvement rather than a direct measurement of glutamate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61ed7b2134bbaeb65843ace260f6540ae5866ec3a720500055dea0cc3ed28e67

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Xiaoyu; Lin Ling; Wang Huaye; Dai Meixian. Impact of 1-h memory tasks with different cognitive loads on ET-derived indices of neurotransmitter-system involvement in university athletes. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1710518; article XML SHA-256 67d1f2aa7cdf329aedb92968f6e18ca11beeaf238d6ff201fce3a5c5eb6e54b9. “Impact of 1-h memory tasks with different cognitive loads on ET-derived indices of neurotransmitter-system involvement in university athletes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1710518).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1710518). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SAB
<a id="sab"></a>

SAB stands for Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia, a bloodstream infection caused by Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. In the source, it is discussed as an infectious disease outcome whose incidence was examined in relation to heat stress days.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0760005bc9131c69ddf5ab23f111cf24ff850f6a1e805955e0bb0b748184d540

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mathé Philipp; Graw Kathrin; Matzarakis Andreas; Maros Máté Elod; Tobys David; Kohlmorgen Britta; Käding Nadja; Peter Silke; Seifert Harald; Gastmeier Petra; Rupp Jan; Göpel Siri; Imirzalioglu Can; Hornuss Daniel; Peyerl-Hoffmann Gabriele; Joost Insa; Tacconelli Evelina; Kern Winfried V; Wolkewitz Martin; Rieg Siegbert; DZIF R-Net Study Group. Impact of seasons and heat waves on the incidence of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli bacteremia – A prospective multicenter study using biometeorological data. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352186; article XML SHA-256 ad875a8d2396c81e6015d8f3a55c68693820d7a7d1d3e2f60290ac2f6b6a3469. “Impact of seasons and heat waves on the incidence of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli bacteremia – A prospective multicenter study using biometeorological data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352186).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352186). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## saccade
<a id="saccade"></a>

A saccade is a type of eye movement studied in oculomotor tasks and measured with eye-tracking. In psychology research, saccade behaviour is examined along with fixation and pupil changes to look for differences between groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31e46dd1b3a824fad0106a26ecdb2025381490aae3902c219907f23f0fddba55

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Noyes Blake K.; Booij Linda; Riek Heidi C.; Coe Brian C.; Brien Don C.; Khalid-Khan Sarosh; Munoz Douglas P.. Identifying an oculomotor phenotype for adolescent depression with an interleaved pro- and anti-saccade task. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1850946; article XML SHA-256 06d1675f1583b3bd5f9cd57aa5b449420175b1198809ac5e35c6e06a0bf62d23. “Identifying an oculomotor phenotype for adolescent depression with an interleaved pro- and anti-saccade task” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1850946).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1850946). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## saccule
<a id="saccule"></a>

The saccule is a small sac in the inner ear and one of the two otolith organs, alongside the utricle. It has a specialized sensory lining that detects changes in linear acceleration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0dbf861b5306dbb605f922294e9ffb2753b00b6ba0786a546507c3c0eacd9d04

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Saccule” (C33503).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sacral nerve
<a id="sacral-nerve"></a>

In this source, the sacral nerve is a nerve whose injury by transection is used to produce neuropathic pain. It is discussed as part of a biological pain pathway rather than being described anatomically in detail.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de5f51d0980302cf4d2a774428871f0aa9b4d48864ed266b6558911c301c15cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hahm Eu-Teum; Kim Younghoon; Lee Jong-Ju; Cho Young-Wuk. GABAergic synaptic response and its opioidergic modulation in periaqueductal gray neurons of rats with neuropathic pain. 2011; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-12-41; article XML SHA-256 ff311345c142d143e4a8f1f2e9a8edc44fc61d4ae083a2b3316318743ff6b7ca. “GABAergic synaptic response and its opioidergic modulation in periaqueductal gray neurons of rats with neuropathic pain” (10.1186/1471-2202-12-41).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-12-41). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sacred disease
<a id="sacred-disease"></a>

In this historical source, the sacred disease is an illness understood in antiquity as having a divine or god-sent character. It is linked with hallucination and other mental disturbance, for which ritual purification and sprinkling were used.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 87ac4edcece06ce9afdf6f156fa0632be7c9a4784fb0354d0939d38be1000dd8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-94500-106500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SAD
<a id="sad"></a>

SAD refers to social anxiety disorder, a clinical condition discussed here in relation to how exercise or structured physical activity might be used alongside established treatments such as cognitive behavioral therapy and medication. In this context, it is the target diagnosis for which direct and indirect evidence about adjunctive exercise is being reviewed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e485d9c826c6f0d85494912678a66bdd8c1b5f5f3772acf84c9eceda601f4fbd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lele Liu; Xin Yang; Song Yong-Gwan. Exercise as an adjunct intervention for social anxiety disorder: a mini-review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1894573; article XML SHA-256 fe7e5785bcf2bbfa920aea108e3dec506179cf3a70e8cb3dbdbeaa88b06e6bef. “Exercise as an adjunct intervention for social anxiety disorder: a mini-review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1894573).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1894573). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sadism
<a id="sadism"></a>

Sadism is a condition in which a person gains pleasure from causing another person pain, discomfort, or humiliation. The sexual meaning of these wishes or behaviors may be either conscious or unconscious.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e21ac60e8afaef43bada0f21f4238ba63797f8ac187145cbd7adc41dea7df97e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sadism” (D012448).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012448). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sadness
<a id="sadness"></a>

Sadness is a feeling or expression of sorrow, or a sense of being unhappy. It is related to depression but is not the same thing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67e3b281df8d3673197d25bd8716e03826c181cfbea7b17b62cd83c3345df8c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sadness” (D000078602).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000078602). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## safe sex
<a id="safe-sex"></a>

Safe sex means sexual practices intended to prevent or lower the chance of sexually transmitted infections and pregnancy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e2ef62210e92c17afede3c08c3e64806bf51ba57039cb9baee8a1467e9e141e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Safe Sex” (D021841).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D021841). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## safety behavior
<a id="safety-behavior"></a>

Safety behavior refers to actions by employees that help prevent injuries and accidents at work. In this research context, it includes both following safety rules and actively taking part in safety-related efforts, with consistent participation being important for improving safety performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6f4e8b20987639f880ac344eb85dd6d80bc1b4c7d58008d8a4a792448a19d41

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Shanshan; Zhu Weiwei; Zhang Li; Ahmad Haris. From safety commitment to safety behavior: The mediating role of safety awareness. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332080; article XML SHA-256 bc4631ad782fda90b7d54aee0c644d84deba2b7ab1b3b4e463ffd65d7eb366c0. “From safety commitment to safety behavior: The mediating role of safety awareness” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332080).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332080). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## salient
<a id="salient"></a>

In this historical psychological usage, salient means especially noticeable or prominent among a group of symptoms or features. Here it indicates the symptom that stands out most clearly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43fa61fa4b8afac15cf6b316ff7cb386c69184c5be2411d891f8e9375673a4b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Alcoholism” (Alcoholism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Alcoholism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## salpingectomy
<a id="salpingectomy"></a>

Salpingectomy is a surgical procedure in which an affected fallopian tube is removed. In this context, losing one tube can reduce future fertility potential and may contribute to fertility-related stress, anxiety, grief, and uncertainty about future pregnancy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8cd60c246e21b65411918df691fd5bac3655d07b0b3f64f69176bd7bea33ed4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Li; Guo Zhen; Guo Ya-Li; Li Jing-Ping. Analysis of perioperative fertility-related stress and associated factors in women of childbearing age undergoing salpingectomy for ectopic pregnancy: a study based on the health ecology model. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1637467; article XML SHA-256 12247a58250d50632aa0e13d23114b388987fda4beff4c54c2480f900bd26fe6. “Analysis of perioperative fertility-related stress and associated factors in women of childbearing age undergoing salpingectomy for ectopic pregnancy: a study based on the health ecology model” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1637467).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1637467). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## saltation
<a id="saltation"></a>

Saltation is a historical term for abrupt, jump-like change in biological development or evolution. In this usage, “evolution by saltation” means the sudden appearance of divergent types rather than gradual change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c78fabf5c981d7d8bea57dc46a52a443f0b6fc3c739b1aaf4ef6400a8732e42

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2740500-2752500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## saltatory conduction
<a id="saltatory-conduction"></a>

Saltatory conduction is the transmission of nerve impulses along a myelinated peripheral axon by effectively jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next. This pattern is faster and uses less energy than continuous conduction along the whole axon.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: befed06daa3412cea747d9d0bf27c616c358168491d5a2a18c3e083be67f8b89

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ranvier's Nodes” (D011901).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011901). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SAM
<a id="sam"></a>

SAM is a patient-reported measure used with people who have sarcoma to capture how the condition affects areas of life such as physical and emotional well-being, social and financial well-being, and sexuality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b1a26d54308fff26b7158e8bd2fb1d752c9bdd437ac4e58e874d99b5826a3d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sarcoma Assessment Measure” (C186690).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## same-sex marriage
<a id="same-sex-marriage"></a>

Same-sex marriage is the legal right for a person to marry a partner of the same sex. In the literature provided, it is discussed as an equal marriage right linked to psychosocial effects such as greater social acceptance and less stigma for sexual minority people, even though stigma can still continue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c5c26c567ad75b1ab3325b68642081a36fc95f329c13f26db5d2d639d99ac2b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Drabble Laurie A; Wootton Angie R; Veldhuis Cindy B; Riggle Ellen D B; Rostosky Sharon S; Lannutti Pamela J; Balsam Kimberly F; Hughes Tonda L. Perceived psychosocial impacts of legalized same-sex marriage: A scoping review of sexual minority adults’ experiences. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0249125; article XML SHA-256 e55577c67f3913af09ae7fd7d31f17023b5f6457350df5c3163867415dd4dba6. “Perceived psychosocial impacts of legalized same-sex marriage: A scoping review of sexual minority adults’ experiences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0249125).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249125). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SAMHSA
<a id="samhsa"></a>

SAMHSA stands for the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, a U.S. Public Health Service agency that oversees and supports work in mental health and substance use. It took over this role from ADAMHA in 1992.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2bef4fada62aed09e1180ad0759d044e426a96daaaa00b629becf2d76aa1545a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “United States Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration” (D014482).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014482). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sample
<a id="sample"></a>

A sample is a smaller group taken from a larger population, usually so conclusions can be drawn about the whole population. In research, it is often selected randomly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0698a25e5944e0bb8596a49911f9b4ec1e28844902f62f5f0972e04048e0b9f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Sample” (sample.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/sample.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sample size
<a id="sample-size"></a>

Sample size is the number of units in a study, such as people, animals, patients, or other specified situations being examined. It is chosen large enough to improve the chance of finding a real difference between groups if one exists.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 735f45db28569e629635a8406ea041f0d0706cc8885c1e87aa40e7e6ba4a7f3d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sample Size” (D018401).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018401). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sampling bias
<a id="sampling-bias"></a>

Sampling bias is distortion in a study’s findings that comes from the sample, so the effect seen in the study can differ from the effect in the population. In this source, it is described as decreasing when sample size increases, which helps produce better effect size estimates.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 23a98ce0086eb019ce1bd8c2c86226cf57cab5c17fa7487a4f13ae744ba0a3da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sampling distribution
<a id="sampling-distribution"></a>

A sampling distribution is the pattern of values you would get for a statistic or variable across a very large number of samples. As the number of samples becomes extremely large, the relative frequencies of those values approach the probabilities, or probability densities for continuous values, that make up the sampling distribution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2bc48a5155419e595a1b95674d7ba0243757a5acb8d58c081e7072791b2a49e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Sampling Distribution” (sampling_distribution.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/sampling_distribution.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sampling error
<a id="sampling-error"></a>

Sampling error is the uncertainty that occurs because values are estimated from sample data rather than measured exactly for every member of a population. In this context, it means that survey-based estimates can vary by chance, which can make scores or rankings less stable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0d21b8cf8c1810908b2b09fdb6752de782a53913c6bbe81e77b604d294ead78a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Saba Jawata A; Ash Kevin D. Quantifying uncertainty due to sampling error in a social vulnerability index: A Monte Carlo approach. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354333; article XML SHA-256 1bdaf065b9ca12ffd86d7596d88be75f936af72db3a88c09973f2cd6b279d6ee. “Quantifying uncertainty due to sampling error in a social vulnerability index: A Monte Carlo approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354333).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354333). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sampling frame
<a id="sampling-frame"></a>

A sampling frame is the set of sources or cases identified as the pool from which a study’s material will be screened or selected. In this study, it meant the ten most active gender-related WeChat accounts used as the starting pool for choosing posts to analyze.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8991c0600daca373f4a9d9c2d205ecaabfa33d6a7fc608d69719c47057779b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Qingqing; Zhang Xin; Liu Taixuan. A feminist critical discourse analysis of gender norms on Chinese social media: Empirical insights from WeChat public accounts. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338967; article XML SHA-256 42fd340a7c2599d546c5f462a9b48a05c1aa063ad09f75773130a345540a1bc1. “A feminist critical discourse analysis of gender norms on Chinese social media: Empirical insights from WeChat public accounts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338967).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338967). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sampling variability
<a id="sampling-variability"></a>

Sampling variability is the variation in results or parameter estimates that occurs because they are calculated from a particular sample of data. In this packet, it is described as a source of impact on how robust and efficient statistical estimates are.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0d91437d3e704f4fc874ebf9053faa7697da72b2353d261055b6689a2197bd43

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Helu Amal. The principle of maximum entropy and the probability-weighted moments for estimating the parameters of the Kumaraswamy distribution. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0268602; article XML SHA-256 cb50bb8a90e48b96a915c1c6b55dbf88629b9a0cfd1edbf0599dcd9b65e6472a. “The principle of maximum entropy and the probability-weighted moments for estimating the parameters of the Kumaraswamy distribution” (10.1371/journal.pone.0268602).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268602). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sampling without replacement
<a id="sampling-without-replacement"></a>

Sampling without replacement is a way of choosing training examples in which each selected item is taken from the available data and not returned to be chosen again in the same sample. In the packet, it is used to help build a comprehensive and balanced training dataset.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c6f62b28f8515a456550cd54afd0f0fe66e484de9eb9faf754bbc24781e641c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gleason Alec C; Ghadge Ghanashyam; Chen Jin; Sonobe Yoshifumi; Roos Raymond P. Machine learning predicts translation initiation sites in neurologic diseases with nucleotide repeat expansions. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0256411; article XML SHA-256 886fdb7043c0149e675d2793eed6d8d790673ce79a94c5baf0272f0d5334403b. “Machine learning predicts translation initiation sites in neurologic diseases with nucleotide repeat expansions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0256411).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256411). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## samsara
<a id="samsara"></a>

Samsara is the unending temporal cycle of death and reincarnation from which liberation is sought in Indian religious thought. In this historical source, it is the realm bound up with karma and individual existence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0ee6845e3ed22fef0b982331225ab8d97b78c481dd6a8668856987aac1c9430

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nirvana” (Nirvana).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nirvana). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sanatorium
<a id="sanatorium"></a>

A sanatorium is a therapeutic or wellness facility intended to support patient recovery and well-being. In this context, it is described as a setting where architectural and environmental features may be used to promote a more healing experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1f12d31311329545d014614983198dc561f75e03383c8f7bafc6735b9e69f46

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ekhaese Eghosa N; Salami Bukola T. Exploring therapeutic architectural strategies as recovery- supportive design interventions in selected international sanatorium and therapeutic wellness facilities. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1830779; article XML SHA-256 801b611895ead435b240cb69be936160ce9ed41d9606fde749a0b1a21b4b29be. “Exploring therapeutic architectural strategies as recovery- supportive design interventions in selected international sanatorium and therapeutic wellness facilities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1830779).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1830779). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sanction
<a id="sanction"></a>

In this context, a sanction is a penalty or negative consequence expected for breaking data-related rules or laws. People’s views about how likely the penalty is and how serious it would be can influence whether they comply.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2bb7c5314acad5ebac9b1b61a1598bc27948cfa884a9b3dac09349598b034fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Xinyuan; Zhang Zhenyang. How legal awareness shapes developers’ data compliance behavior: A deterrence theory perspective. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356356; article XML SHA-256 e51aab7cf5226b115886c7a4e9e6c857f850e5b0baf68dc04f2fca82fe0ca1a6. “How legal awareness shapes developers’ data compliance behavior: A deterrence theory perspective” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356356).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356356). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sandwich generation
<a id="sandwich-generation"></a>

The sandwich generation refers to people, especially women in this study, who are simultaneously managing responsibilities as a mother, a carer for a parent, and a worker. In this context, the term highlights the challenge of balancing caregiving and employment roles at the same time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5431bfe1cc64299bfc1101670db33192024a40e46c236016da13771213bb0e73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Evans Kiah L.; Millsteed Jeannine; Richmond Janet E.; Falkmer Marita; Falkmer Torbjorn; Girdler Sonya J.. Working Sandwich Generation Women Utilize Strategies within and between Roles to Achieve Role Balance. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0157469; article XML SHA-256 7a8ad326ae96bbf9abe2faf208e891962707d661dc7bfb9e1719e97d388b401a. “Working Sandwich Generation Women Utilize Strategies within and between Roles to Achieve Role Balance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0157469).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157469). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sanfilippo syndrome
<a id="sanfilippo-syndrome"></a>

Sanfilippo syndrome is a rare inherited disorder in which a lysosomal storage problem disrupts the body’s handling of mucopolysaccharides. In psychology or learning contexts, it is relevant because it can involve developmental delays along with behavioral changes, sleep problems, and seizures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 489928c275a89902de28b046f710c44da721ca85f9ba48f29eb519bfa62f62c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sanfilippo Syndrome” (C61262).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sapir–Whorf hypothesis
<a id="sapirwhorf-hypothesis"></a>

The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is the idea that the structure of language habitually shapes how people think. In this source, it is used in a weakened form that treats linguistic patterns as influencing cognition without making language an absolute limit on thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bb9e239637c5d1abefbcf7be9703a02178ff4d7649875085c6a4d6827c0bf5b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kuang Xue; He Chao; Chen Qiang; Song Youxing; Song Tianjiao. Language, silence, and logic: Zen, Nishida, and fthe Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in cognitive and cultural perspectives. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1638010; article XML SHA-256 5abe2bb165b1c87a966222e0151f9223ec7ac3247b4b8f6e195e60847ddd25ba. “Language, silence, and logic: Zen, Nishida, and fthe Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in cognitive and cultural perspectives” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1638010).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1638010). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SAS
<a id="sas"></a>

SAS refers to the Survey of Autonomic Symptoms, a self-report questionnaire used to rate how severe autonomic symptoms are in people with neuropathy. It uses separate item counts for women and men and a five-point response scale.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7416a0f54b9d5afe5a90efd5075373265d2ba9331a8967f841639fbdd7962af5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Survey of Autonomic Symptoms” (C155966).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SAT
<a id="sat"></a>

SAT, or Sonic Augmentation Technology, is described as a passive auditory method informed by polyvagal theory. It is based on the idea that emotional and bodily difficulties can relate to atypical autonomic regulation, and that healthy functioning depends on flexible coordination among interacting physiological systems rather than any one system alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 49ba85a8e3f073ba962b6a9d2c53cf154e0c9f9d308f0a4db444930c6b987ec7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dale Lourdes P.; Dana Audrey N.; Lee Carrie E.; Lamont Hannah; Van Vleet Goelz Donnalea; Dale Caitlin V.; Nazarloo Parmida; McIntosh Mark; Cuffe Steven P.. Feasibility study examining the short-term effects of Sonic Augmentation Technology™. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1772405; article XML SHA-256 3b9dc5d31f266b3e5131f8a10b1d3401fb7df1c952fb9f71e0c3d520a0896f8e. “Feasibility study examining the short-term effects of Sonic Augmentation Technology™” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1772405).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1772405). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Satanism
<a id="satanism"></a>

In this source, Satanism refers to a locally held supernatural explanation for childhood anaemia. It is described as a personalistic cause of illness, distinct from natural causes such as malaria or poor nutrition, and believed to be addressed through prayer rather than hospital care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61ff813110d37a1dc4e63c03f85891faa81fe2a4556035d1a58bf58085c4ac1a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Svege Sarah; Nkosi-Gondwe Thandile; Lange Siri. “Satanism is witchcraft’s younger sibling”: Changing perceptions of natural and supernatural anaemia causality in Malawian children. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0250661; article XML SHA-256 a4762efac2198495cbf7d211d75a4a53d8597231ce080aa32b6c0987baffc4de. ““Satanism is witchcraft’s younger sibling”: Changing perceptions of natural and supernatural anaemia causality in Malawian children” (10.1371/journal.pone.0250661).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250661). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## satiation
<a id="satiation"></a>

Satiation is the state that comes after a need or desire has been fully satisfied, when a person becomes relatively less responsive to that same need or desire for a time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eac0136d802dbc6bdbc3ab243a3956cc9245a84ffa6b8b2bfb1d2e4e7cedcc13

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Satiation” (D012527).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012527). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## satiety
<a id="satiety"></a>

Satiety is the state of feeling full, including being able to recognize and express that fullness. In childhood, it is part of learning to regulate food intake and become an independent eater.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45d91749587b690585c663aff5cbbfba4d357e446d1b4ca1789a233a1025dad6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nyberg-Akremi Sandra; Willemsen Annerose; Cromdal Jakob; Wiggins Sally. Children’s verbal satiety expressions and caregivers’ responses during preschool mealtimes in Sweden. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05650-8; article XML SHA-256 302f2e0c47319d2b40c199a6f4b7e962ebec453a135fc66a39d342a4877093da. “Children’s verbal satiety expressions and caregivers’ responses during preschool mealtimes in Sweden” (10.1186/s40359-026-05650-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05650-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Satisfaction With Life Scale
<a id="satisfaction-with-life-scale"></a>

The Satisfaction With Life Scale is a widely used five-item self-report measure of subjective well-being that asks people for an overall judgment of how satisfied they are with their lives. Evidence in the source indicates it mainly reflects a single life-satisfaction dimension and is broadly comparable across many countries, languages, genders, and age groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f0e99e5b5752c73ee2ac2b5dc023e2ef74b0b898a769ad2fbf493db5f266c60

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Swami Viren; Stieger Stefan; Voracek Martin; Aavik Toivo; Abdollahpour Ranjbar Hamed; Adebayo Sulaiman Olanrewaju; Afhami Reza; Ahmed Oli; Aimé Annie; Akel Marwan; Al Halbusi Hussam; Alexias George; Ali Khawla F; Alp-Dal Nursel; Alsalhani Anas B; Álvarez-Solas Sara; Amaral Ana Carolina Soares; Andrianto Sonny; Aspden Trefor; Argyrides Marios; Aruta John Jamir Benzon R; Atkin Stephen; Ayandele Olusola; Baceviciene Migle; Bahbouh Radvan; Ballesio Andrea; Barron David; Bellard Ashleigh; Bender Sóley Sesselja; Beydaǧ Kerime Derya; Birovljević Gorana; Blackburn Marie-Ève; Borja-Alvarez Teresita; Borowiec Joanna; Bozogáňová Miroslava; Bratland-Sanda Solfrid; Browning Matthew H E M; Brytek-Matera Anna; Burakova Marina; Çakır-Koçak Yeliz; Camacho Pablo; Camilleri Vittorio Emanuele; Cazzato Valentina; Cerea Silvia; Chaiwutikornwanich Apitchaya; Chaleeraktrakoon Trawin; Chambers Tim; Chen Qing-Wei; Chen Xin; Chien Chin-Lung; Chobthamkit Phatthanakit; Choompunuch Bovornpot; Compte Emilio J; Corrigan Jennifer; Cosmas Getrude; Cowden Richard G; Czepczor-Bernat Kamila; Czub Marcin; da Silva Wanderson Roberto; Dadfar Mahboubeh; Dalley Simon E; Dany Lionel; Datu Jesus Alfonso D; de Carvalho Pedro Henrique Berbert; Coelho Gabriel Lins de Holanda; De Jesus Avila Odia S; Debbabi Sonia Harzallah; Dhakal Sandesh; Di Bernardo Francesca; Dimitrova Donka D; Dion Jacinthe; Dixson Barnaby; Donofrio Stacey M; Drysch Marius; Du Hongfei; Dzhambov Angel M; El-Jor Claire; Enea Violeta; Eskin Mehmet; Farbod Farinaz; Farrugia Lorleen; Fian Leonie; Fisher Maryanne L; Folwarczny Michał; Frederick David A; Fuller-Tyszkiewicz Matthew; Furnham Adrian; García Antonio Alías; Geller Shulamit; Ghisi Marta; Ghorbani Alireza; Gomez Martinez Maria Angeles; Gradidge Sarah; Graf Sylvie; Grano Caterina; Gyene Gyöngyvér; Hallit Souheil; Hamdan Motasem; Handelzalts Jonathan E; Hanel Paul H P; Hawks Steven R; Hekmati Issa; Helmy Mai; Hill Tetiana; Hina Farah; Holenweger Geraldine; Hřebíčková Martina; Ijabadeniyi Olasupo Augustine; Imam Asma; İnce Başak; Irrazabal Natalia; Jankauskiene Rasa; Jiang Ding-Yu; Jiménez-Borja Micaela; Jiménez-Borja Verónica; Johnson Evan M; Jovanović Veljko; Jović Marija; Jović Marko; Junqueira Alessandra Costa Pereira; Kahle Lisa-Marie; Kantanista Adam; Karakiraz Ahmet; Karkin Ayşe Nur; Kasten Erich; Khatib Salam; Khieowan Nuannut; Kimong Patricia Joseph; Kiropoulos Litza; Knittel Joshua; Kohli Neena; Koprivnik Mirjam; Kospakov Aituar; Król-Zielińska Magdalena; Krug Isabel; Kuan Garry; Kueh Yee Cheng; Kujan Omar; Kukić Miljana; Kumar Sanjay; Kumar Vipul; Lamba Nishtha; Lauri Mary Anne; Laus Maria Fernanda; LeBlanc Liza April; Lee Hyejoo J; Lipowska Małgorzata; Lipowski Mariusz; Lombardo Caterina; Lukács Andrea; Maïano Christophe; Malik Sadia; Manjary Mandar; Márquez Baldó Lidia; Martinez-Banfi Martha; Massar Karlijn; Matera Camilla; McAnirlin Olivia; Mebarak Moisés Roberto; Mechri Anwar; Meireles Juliana Fernandes Filgueiras; Mesko Norbert; Mills Jacqueline; Miyairi Maya; Modi Ritu; Modrzejewska Adriana; Modrzejewska Justyna; Mulgrew Kate E; Myers Taryn A; Namatame Hikari; Nassani Mohammad Zakaria; Nerini Amanda; Neto Félix; Neto Joana; Neves Angela Nogueira; Ng Siu-Kuen; Nithiya Devi; O Jiaqing; Obeid Sahar; Oda-Montecinos Camila; Olapegba Peter Olamakinde; Olonisakin Tosin Tunrayo; Omar Salma Samir; Örlygsdóttir Brynja; Özsoy Emrah; Otterbring Tobias; Pahl Sabine; Panasiti Maria Serena; Park Yonguk; Patwary Muhammad Mainuddin; Pethö Tatiana; Petrova Nadezhda; Pietschnig Jakob; Pourmahmoud Sadaf; Prabhu Vishnunarayan Girishan; Poštuvan Vita; Prokop Pavol; Ramseyer Winter Virginia L; Razmus Magdalena; Ru Taotao; Rupar Mirjana; Sahlan Reza N; Salah Hassan Mohammad; Šalov Anđela; Sapkota Saphal; Sarfo Jacob Owusu; Sawamiya Yoko; Schaefer Katrin; Schulte-Mecklenbeck Michael; Seekis Veya; Selvi Kerim; Sharifi Mehdi; Shrivastava Anita; Siddique Rumana Ferdousi; Sigurdsson Valdimar; Silkane Vineta; Šimunić Ana; Singh Govind; Slezáčková Alena; Sundgot-Borgen Christine; Ten Hoor Gill; Tevichapong Passagorn; Tipandjan Arun; Todd Jennifer; Togas Constantinos; Tonini Fernando; Tovar-Castro Juan Camilo; Trangsrud Lise Katrine Jepsen; Tripathi Pankaj; Tudorel Otilia; Tylka Tracy L; Uyzbayeva Anar; Vally Zahir; Vanags Edmunds; Vega Luis Diego; Vicente-Arruebarrena Aitor; Vidal-Mollón Jose; Vilar Roosevelt; Villegas Hyxia; Vintilă Mona; Wallner Christoph; White Mathew P; Whitebridge Simon; Windhager Sonja; Wong Kah Yan; Yau Eric Kenson; Yamamiya Yuko; Yeung Victoria Wai Lan; Zanetti Marcelo Callegari; Zawisza Magdalena; Zeeni Nadine; Zvaríková Martina; Tran Ulrich S. Life satisfaction around the world: Measurement invariance of the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) across 65 nations, 40 languages, gender identities, and age groups. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313107; article XML SHA-256 4b6828a9225ebae31851604b1537f79297e6db503ab2e2f002251aa69102d090. “Life satisfaction around the world: Measurement invariance of the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) across 65 nations, 40 languages, gender identities, and age groups” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313107).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313107). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## satyriasis
<a id="satyriasis"></a>

Satyriasis is a historical term for a morbid, uncontrollable sexual desire in a man. In this source, it is described as a symptom that may appear in mental disorders, especially acute mania.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 557af945cc49cf0aa4117b47c6cff2453a183dd53bbffc2f1d8f1a85dddb65a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nymphomania” (Nymphomania).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Nymphomania). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sawtooth waves
<a id="sawtooth-waves"></a>

Sawtooth waves are a non-sinusoidal alternating-current waveform with a ramped shape that can be delivered in transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS). In this context, they can be set with either a positive or negative ramp direction, and their EEG recording artifact is described as easier to remove than that produced by a sine wave.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7912416b1cb2a0b6ac43846cb6fcd4bf55ce8bb8db4283eeb4bfbfa33d1c77c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dowsett James; Herrmann Christoph S.. Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation with Sawtooth Waves: Simultaneous Stimulation and EEG Recording. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00135; article XML SHA-256 2a3b38f9438445de34d41d7a5986f3db8dfbc57502dca866edead06027f16850. “Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation with Sawtooth Waves: Simultaneous Stimulation and EEG Recording” (10.3389/fnhum.2016.00135).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00135). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## saxitoxin
<a id="saxitoxin"></a>

Saxitoxin is a neurotoxic poison produced by Gonyaulax that can build up in some edible shellfish. In mammals it can cause paralytic shellfish poisoning, including respiratory paralysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64f99d01646657a78b0e9c1d9af759bb7e5c84d12ff6033924f3cbb0e560e8ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Saxitoxin” (D012530).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012530). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SB
<a id="sb"></a>

SB refers to a social beneficiary identifier, a government-issued identifier used to recognize a person if they apply for or receive social services or benefits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c8a3078373c9068b9774868ce5723dfe58b3bdb4f6fb193c998236ea985a530

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Social Beneficiary Identifier” (C209937).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SBS
<a id="sbs"></a>

SBS stands for stimulated Brillouin scattering, an optical effect used in devices such as filters, sensing systems, and spectrum analysis. In this packet, it refers to a light-based process in fiber systems whose performance can be affected by polarization changes unless compensated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1d29941c481c1c438d3d780fdb9a63c256e20562f01d595cc32ec3d076f586e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Jing; Tan Xiangguan; Liu Jiaqing; Xu Yan. Polarization-insensitive stimulated Brillouin scattering filter with birefringence compensation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357986; article XML SHA-256 8daffc34518b9049e15128253523c8e11c4422a4549558297501f1ecc7f5439f. “Polarization-insensitive stimulated Brillouin scattering filter with birefringence compensation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357986).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357986). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scaffolding
<a id="scaffolding"></a>

Scaffolding is support provided by a teacher or other more capable person that is adjusted to the learner’s needs so the learner can do more than they could independently. In sociocultural learning, this support can include not only explanations or questions but also cues such as tone of voice, facial expression, gaze, and gesture that direct attention and help build meaning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46a3009468d1becb1454431fdab1aff791c278740344493f8b5e5b86b92845d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Sifan; Song Tao. Effects of affective vs. instructional teacher scaffolding on preschoolers’ emotional engagement and social attention in picturebook reading. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1743106; article XML SHA-256 e8726764855c552a36f73cd25ed7e75c045ae269a6a8350edeb05a28052386af. “Effects of affective vs. instructional teacher scaffolding on preschoolers’ emotional engagement and social attention in picturebook reading” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1743106).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1743106). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scala media
<a id="scala-media"></a>

Scala media is the cochlear duct, an endolymph-filled spiral tube within the cochlea. It winds about 2.5 turns around the modiolus and separates the surrounding perilymph-filled canal into the scala vestibuli and scala tympani.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0964f01f36733846dd980962a6163c2d53b928366fdd62a875036f5d12ee4699

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cochlear Duct” (D003053).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003053). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scala tympani
<a id="scala-tympani"></a>

The scala tympani is the lower chamber of the cochlea. It runs from the round window to the helicotrema, where it connects with the perilymph-filled space of the scala vestibuli.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f08581159a2d6dc6a175abc6d2b2020562c6b34b40cd61c8054a6df394f9808

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Scala Tympani” (D012533).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012533). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scala vestibuli
<a id="scala-vestibuli"></a>

The scala vestibuli is the upper chamber of the cochlea, and it contains perilymph. At the tip of the cochlea, it connects with the scala tympani through the helicotrema.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09f3a0ef5d5fc7168fb54873a1721913af933555f7ab6ae6b1c4e563186194cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Scala Vestibuli” (D054738).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D054738). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scalability
<a id="scalability"></a>

Scalability is the ability of a research method or tool to be used with very large numbers of people efficiently. In this context, it is presented as an advantage of automated online psychological assessment because it supports large-scale data collection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cd96c8974af9c5424bf26197ac8842873d659b2de66d312c1529598a97f35ff4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rida Laila; Ioannidis Konstantinos; Chamberlain Samuel R; Grant Jon E; Hellyer Peter; Giunchiglia Valentina; Trender William; Allebrandt Karla V; Shergill Sukhi; Williams Steven C R; Hampshire Adam. Validation of the comprehensive online sleep monitoring scale in a large population sample. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1840525; article XML SHA-256 46bdbcd3285268e9588ce540c6455ae3e33885414763b264484e8ef2b3769c9c. “Validation of the comprehensive online sleep monitoring scale in a large population sample” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1840525).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1840525). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scale development
<a id="scale-development"></a>

Scale development is the process of building a measurement scale for a concept by defining what it includes and creating items that represent its dimensions and subthemes. In this context, it refers to the initial steps of turning a conceptualization into a set of proposed items for later refinement and use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 625561e68f772966e6b8a4165b8505024a86784279c365f71fd1e0b5cb1ae2da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kis Andrea; Tur Elena M; Vaesen Krist; Houkes Wybo; Lakens Daniël. Academic research values: Conceptualization and initial steps of scale development. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318086; article XML SHA-256 cdcb04306f3150aa22902817f617c1f3ed5d572d670f033c28626c7fcac09533. “Academic research values: Conceptualization and initial steps of scale development” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318086).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318086). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Scale of Prodromal Symptoms
<a id="scale-of-prodromal-symptoms"></a>

The Scale of Prodromal Symptoms is a symptom-rating scale used to assess prodromal, or early pre-psychotic, symptoms. In the supplied source, it was used to evaluate psychiatric symptoms in people at clinical high risk for psychosis and in healthy controls.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8200e0ed3b27562da584bb2577d54cd73ef4cbb1027d933a267e7b55e964125f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mao Zhen; Tian Lu; Sun Yue; Dong Fang; Wang Chuanyue; Bo Qijing. Quality of life and its predictors in first-episode schizophrenia and individuals at clinical high-risk for psychosis. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05303-9; article XML SHA-256 5a134d6c54ac93dc50cef6cdf64e9b2a039fd03b97410d7c3c9493546bb32941. “Quality of life and its predictors in first-episode schizophrenia and individuals at clinical high-risk for psychosis” (10.1186/s12888-023-05303-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05303-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scaling
<a id="scaling"></a>

Scaling is the process of determining whether an intervention can be expanded or adapted so it works in broader real-world settings and reaches more people in need. In this context, it also includes using assessments either to refine a program so it fits its delivery setting better or to judge whether wider expansion is feasible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d278cd21c721b0a7639b1624e1935527181d6d42650d25e933d1be5f16aa1a82

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Steele Thomas; Ang Chloe; Rose Vanessa; Kembhavi Gayatri; Rowland Jamie; Abdo Maryanna; Kwok Janell; Young Katherine; Merryfull Sophie; Whittaker Sara; Brusco Natasha; Watt Rhiannon; Büsst Cara. Protocol for evaluation of Movember’s scaling what works grant funding program: Supporting the delivery of mental health interventions for men & boys in Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339006; article XML SHA-256 23daef148dad49001a76944177f6a0f1173407d638f37f8f25c9f9566c6be843. “Protocol for evaluation of Movember’s scaling what works grant funding program: Supporting the delivery of mental health interventions for men & boys in Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339006).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339006). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scapegoating
<a id="scapegoating"></a>

Scapegoating is the process of directing aggression, hostility, or frustration toward another person or group through projection or displacement, while assigning them more blame than is justified.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 25b1f210c0e0d0af510f22d10c888a59d6518f0ca55cf5b0f94b635b803c6500

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Scapegoating” (D012539).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012539). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SCAT
<a id="scat"></a>

In this source, scat is an evidence-type category used to label mammal observations in citizen-science data rather than a sighting of the animal itself. It refers to observations based on this kind of animal sign and can be used to help describe how the observation was obtained.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e1ff520b2bafc3be4b617958012150aa0a45a6525931655b6ae78892c287a1ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alyetama Mohammad; Jensen Alex J; Jackson Yakira; Widness Jane; Kays Roland; Goldstein Benjamin R. iNaturalist mammal observations classified by evidence type. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353282; article XML SHA-256 9a9d5e141734d8de6fa3ccdbc07e633013f56ace14f84d0c4e5642b6364bbe4b. “iNaturalist mammal observations classified by evidence type” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353282).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353282). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## schadenfreude
<a id="schadenfreude"></a>

Schadenfreude is the feeling of pleasure, satisfaction, or grim enjoyment at another person’s misfortune. In psychology and ethics, it is viewed as a common but socially disapproved emotion that can be tied to motives such as envy, rivalry, or a sense that someone got what they deserved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 91990d6d2054ffa30782e81ab7b5edbdad1f9a4635c9ce4cc523d2bc83ee8599

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Joseph Joshin; Abdelwahab Mahmoud M; Elbatal Ibrahim; Gillariose Jiju; Hasaballah Mustafa M. Curiosity in calamity: How personal schadenfreude shapes disaster-tourism intentions. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347535; article XML SHA-256 d0c557548050449800b101b5352d9675685b788d0995a78849b2fa922d1084ca. “Curiosity in calamity: How personal schadenfreude shapes disaster-tourism intentions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347535).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347535). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Schaffer collateral
<a id="schaffer-collateral"></a>

Schaffer collateral is the main axon pathway linking the CA3 and CA1 pyramidal cell regions of the hippocampus. It is involved in memory, learning, and changes in neural activity related to plasticity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 567517ca9ac569dadae7949468043510ff9c7491a6b9eebc2b7cec65f3404f71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Schaffer Collaterals” (D000094282).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000094282). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia
<a id="schedule-for-affective-disorders-and-schizophrenia"></a>

The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia is a semi-structured psychiatric interview used to assess and diagnose a wide range of current and past mental health problems. In its child and adolescent present-and-lifetime form, it is used for ages roughly 6 to 18 and has versions adapted to DSM categories.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ef5a7c14964ca77bc4de7f2faf215b3e6152949eb6f1839f92a7386b7b35425

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kolaitis Gerasimos; Zaravinos-Tsakos Foivos; Rokas Ioannis-Marios; Syros Ioannis; Tsakali Antonia; Belivanaki Maria; Giannakopoulos Georgios. Navigating young minds: reliability and validity of the Greek version of kiddie – schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia – present and lifetime DSM-5 version (K-SADS-PL-GR-5). 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05076-1; article XML SHA-256 dd4dba2bf40a663c761aea497feb85f47597a00895e031ca72a7fccb2731872a. “Navigating young minds: reliability and validity of the Greek version of kiddie – schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia – present and lifetime DSM-5 version (K-SADS-PL-GR-5)” (10.1186/s12888-023-05076-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05076-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## schedule-induced polydipsia
<a id="schedule-induced-polydipsia"></a>

Schedule-induced polydipsia is a laboratory task in which animals are assessed for excessive or compulsive drinking that develops under a scheduled procedure. In this packet, it is used to distinguish low- and high-compulsive drinking behavior in rats.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1752775721789741de8a0f634837ae9720710a31a12d405039ae009494ffb55c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Martín-González Elena; Prados-Pardo Ángeles; Sawiak Stephen J; Dalley Jeffrey W; Padro Daniel; Ramos-Cabrer Pedro; Mora Santiago; Moreno-Montoya Margarita. Mapping the neuroanatomical abnormalities in a phenotype of male compulsive rats. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12993-023-00221-y; article XML SHA-256 c6688efedc6e5365726a6f1e63af7d368e9b38cc2c89f727d8583946b8fe4655. “Mapping the neuroanatomical abnormalities in a phenotype of male compulsive rats” (10.1186/s12993-023-00221-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-023-00221-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scheduled awakening
<a id="scheduled-awakening"></a>

Scheduled awakening means waking a person at a predetermined time as part of a planned sleep–wake protocol. In the source, it refers to the set wake time when cortisol was sampled immediately after waking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba0f9fa8c23c1cb4815b7e3a8a6938365a6e427da02976b21772184a89155086

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bowles Nicole P.; Thosar Saurabh S.; Butler Matthew P.; Clemons Noal A.; Robinson LaTroy D.; Ordaz Omar H.; Herzig Maya X.; McHill Andrew W.; Rice Sean P. M.; Emens Jonathan; Shea Steven A.. The circadian system modulates the cortisol awakening response in humans. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2022.995452; article XML SHA-256 15932cdf19527d64afa4c0527fcf6deda41d7b5b20bd42908a18a6ffac1d95d2. “The circadian system modulates the cortisol awakening response in humans” (10.3389/fnins.2022.995452).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.995452). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scheduled drug
<a id="scheduled-drug"></a>

A scheduled drug is a psychotropic substance whose use is controlled by law. In the source, these drugs can be used medically only under restricted conditions and usually on a case-by-case basis when standard treatment has not worked and there is some evidence the drug may help the condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4fc5ca86d4148552e17262d11a24af686963db586677201e2c87e8a868470705

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Oehen Peter; Gasser Peter. Using a MDMA- and LSD-Group Therapy Model in Clinical Practice in Switzerland and Highlighting the Treatment of Trauma-Related Disorders. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.863552; article XML SHA-256 3b7207e94515ae7a2d212ab80bddc9dac6f1e2d53260a7df8232e8f129eaa91c. “Using a MDMA- and LSD-Group Therapy Model in Clinical Practice in Switzerland and Highlighting the Treatment of Trauma-Related Disorders” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.863552).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.863552). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## schema therapy
<a id="schema-therapy"></a>

Schema therapy is a form of psychotherapy that focuses on long-standing life patterns, uses methods aimed at changing emotions, and places strong importance on the therapist-client relationship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1c2f35e27f2c536547da5288bea86de26a12e415baf78882fa0eaa8373a8bd3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Schema Therapy” (D000081843).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000081843). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## schematic representation
<a id="schematic-representation"></a>

Schematic representation is a simplified depiction that keeps the most relevant features of a scene, such as important structural edges and object outlines, while leaving out much of the original visual detail. In this context, it is used to make limited visual input easier to interpret for recognizing objects and understanding indoor environments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 534c727c81d4e761a3cafbdd7efd28c0806a511e084f5403e82ae29c227362bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sanchez-Garcia Melani; Martinez-Cantin Ruben; Guerrero Jose J.. Semantic and structural image segmentation for prosthetic vision. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0227677; article XML SHA-256 ee447b9051dbce0f54101578732d26fe0ae08672409e2829155ed12535dce94c. “Semantic and structural image segmentation for prosthetic vision” (10.1371/journal.pone.0227677).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227677). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## schizoaffective disorder
<a id="schizoaffective-disorder"></a>

Schizoaffective disorder is a mental disorder in which a person has both schizophrenia-type symptoms and mood-disorder symptoms, such as depression or bipolar symptoms, during a substantial part of the illness. At other times in the active illness period, delusions or hallucinations occur without prominent mood symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02590dc8f0c720bb53a805c67328777efca1940f90471531d63d06ac041efdbe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Schizoaffective Disorder” (C94378).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## schizoid personality disorder
<a id="schizoid-personality-disorder"></a>

Schizoid personality disorder is a personality disorder marked by major difficulty forming social relationships, little or no wish for social involvement, and indifference to praise or criticism from others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80de14982340bdd3db45abf0415398dce9370987336ddb18c0ea3875d0524da2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Schizoid Personality Disorder” (D012557).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012557). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## schizophrenia
<a id="schizophrenia"></a>

Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder with psychotic features in which a person becomes detached from reality. It is marked by delusions, hallucinations, disrupted emotional expression, and regressive behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a7dfbe281d18a710085886a4aa9b3f8e9ff98544d551b567295b08e9bf764c7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Schizophrenia” (D012559).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012559). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Schizophrenia, Catatonic
<a id="schizophrenia-catatonic"></a>

Catatonic schizophrenia is a type of schizophrenia marked by abnormal motor behavior. This can include stupor, rigidity, excitement, or inappropriate posture.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 114819c927bd1d38663b750ea7e4599d0457b892985335de9a50127bb0662e7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Schizophrenia, Catatonic” (D012560).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012560). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Schizophrenic Psychology
<a id="schizophrenic-psychology"></a>

Schizophrenic psychology is the study of the mental processes and behavior of people with schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a476c0a950d34c0537cc27be5c7d357086e71bc543ae8794bbe0d3ce165bd7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Schizophrenic Psychology” (D012565).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012565). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## schizophreniform disorder
<a id="schizophreniform-disorder"></a>

Schizophreniform disorder is a mental disorder marked by schizophrenia-like symptoms, but its total duration is shorter: it lasts at least 1 month and less than 6 months. It also usually causes less disruption in social and work functioning than schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c987e0431ae5dbb9910bcbc936bd227f201e5b721f81b7d6f65e635191a460d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Schizophreniform Disorder” (C94376).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## schizophrenogenic
<a id="schizophrenogenic"></a>

Schizophrenogenic means tending to produce or contribute to schizophrenia-like pathology or features. In this source, it describes cellular lesions or changes that may help generate the abnormal brain-function pattern associated with schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b700f7cc0f37b4248f07d4719cc4106eb2e5567c044c07a2a244c1ef161be5d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Siekmeier Peter J.; vanMaanen David P.. Development of Antipsychotic Medications with Novel Mechanisms of Action Based on Computational Modeling of Hippocampal Neuropathology. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0058607; article XML SHA-256 8fad47e4460e6869f97b308abeb2b2d02ebd07162e65c427254c33e88454a963. “Development of Antipsychotic Medications with Novel Mechanisms of Action Based on Computational Modeling of Hippocampal Neuropathology” (10.1371/journal.pone.0058607).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0058607). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## schizotypal personality disorder
<a id="schizotypal-personality-disorder"></a>

Schizotypal personality disorder is a personality disorder marked by unusual patterns of thinking, perception, speech, and behavior, such as magical thinking, suspiciousness, illusions, vague or overly elaborate speech, and socially inappropriate affect or isolation. These features are present but not severe enough to be considered schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 147dc79641a2620d8876ed707ffca0cb8a370c600004dd8ae3c0a69ec82b3aad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Schizotypal Personality Disorder” (D012569).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012569). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## schizotypy
<a id="schizotypy"></a>

Schizotypy refers to relatively stable subclinical traits involving odd or eccentric beliefs, speech, and behavior. These traits are commonly grouped into interpersonal difficulties, cognitive-perceptual unusualness, and disorganization, and are often understood either as part of the schizophrenia spectrum or as latent traits linked to vulnerability to schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1642173ed3e99b440d91ce8173f5fe09f08a56c92c4c623d14174a7e55aab4bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [So Melody Miriam; Wong Stephanie Ming Yin; Suen Yi-nam; Chan Sherry Kit Wa; Lee Edwin Ho Ming; Chen Eric Yu Hai; Hui Christy Lai Ming. The unique contribution of Schizotypal personality subscales to psychotic-like experiences and social-personality factors in Hong Kong community youths. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1590707; article XML SHA-256 e5512f62cf8b2416482293baaa872b6c66f18190da299ed7c7e50e86575515fd. “The unique contribution of Schizotypal personality subscales to psychotic-like experiences and social-personality factors in Hong Kong community youths” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1590707).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1590707). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Scholastic Assessment Test
<a id="scholastic-assessment-test"></a>

The Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) is a general test used for undergraduate university admission. In the source, it is treated as an assessment of the kinds of knowledge and skills used in college entry testing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4e1141c778db9544b5b3f9b99cc4020b5cafb980c7bca4b6dece2726f4c0c3e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Giunti Marco; Garavaglia Fabrizia Giulia; Giuntini Roberto; Sergioli Giuseppe; Pinna Simone. ChatGPT as a prospective undergraduate and medical school student. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308157; article XML SHA-256 c91fb16dc3758b08ab4619f3596dbce347c8838f8d80fab78f42b9f6b314e415. “ChatGPT as a prospective undergraduate and medical school student” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308157).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308157). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## school-based intervention
<a id="school-based-intervention"></a>

A school-based intervention is a support program delivered within the school setting, such as one led by teachers and supported by peers, to improve students’ participation at school and their sense of connection or engagement there. In this source, it refers to an approach used in mainstream elementary classrooms for students on the autism spectrum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c6d72d8f72fa6e7cdbf8316e39b20e3c54bb1a1afa4660ea467cbaba09c780fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hodges Amy; Cordier Reinie; Joosten Annette; Bourke-Taylor Helen; Chen Yu-Wei. Evaluating the feasibility, fidelity, and preliminary effectiveness of a school-based intervention to improve the school participation and feelings of connectedness of elementary school students on the autism spectrum. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0269098; article XML SHA-256 b7e36f96ce9bcaef398df688b2a9a2f7b32358157229bc473fe93ffc9da4f872. “Evaluating the feasibility, fidelity, and preliminary effectiveness of a school-based intervention to improve the school participation and feelings of connectedness of elementary school students on the autism spectrum” (10.1371/journal.pone.0269098).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269098). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## school grade
<a id="school-grade"></a>

School grade is a student’s year level in school. In this source, it refers to progression through specific school years, such as moving from 5th grade in elementary school to 3rd grade in middle school.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5d204386166ca8833ba7d514e54cbc9566ad88bcaedeacd69a0546c501d8dde5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Park Hye-sook; Kang Seokmin; Kim Sungyeun. A longitudinal study of the effect of individual and socio-cultural factors on students’ creativity. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1068554; article XML SHA-256 2e73cb4077ced00e365e21d8d16df49614d6b8ad2200be1f995186b6be1fb6bd. “A longitudinal study of the effect of individual and socio-cultural factors on students’ creativity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1068554).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1068554). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## school phobia
<a id="school-phobia"></a>

School phobia is a strong and ongoing unwillingness to go to school, usually seen in the primary school years. It is often a sign of an educational, social, or emotional problem.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a6c948e0966263b3d4df43ff0e47a9064bbae517cd939e0492856c40825d4eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Phobia, School” (D000098453).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000098453). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## school psychology
<a id="school-psychology"></a>

School psychology is a branch of psychology concerned with school settings and with how psychological work can support students’ learning, communication, coexistence, and development. In the source packet, it is described especially from a critical, inclusive perspective that emphasizes institutional and collective action to build more plural and accessible educational environments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a01898cbc8b5f16b754b0385cb27e631463854bb25a9cf5ed640556fdc637fc7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Galvão Pollianna; Nunes Leonardo Vieira; Menezes Aline Beckmann; da Silva Najda Maria Vieira; Kenyon Paula Braga; dos Santos de Oliveira Mônica; Marinho-Araujo Claisy. School psychology and institutional initiatives for school inclusion processes. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1698658; article XML SHA-256 dafccba426f9cf8fe375800cad158710a918e14321161f2da70013ea7baf19e2. “School psychology and institutional initiatives for school inclusion processes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1698658).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1698658). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## school refusal
<a id="school-refusal"></a>

School refusal is a persistent or recurring pattern in which a young person has trouble getting to school, staying there, or taking part in school, and the difficulty is expressed by the young person rather than being explained by a single cause. It commonly involves distress or other aversive school-related experiences and can be maintained by different avoidance or reinforcement patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c54b1866ad47815188994f90bd621aa02a3b8a0fd7f7df79a50f394d1e0eac2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Luoyan; Li Xiang; Li Xiaodi; Lei Mengxiao; Luo Hong; Xue Bowen. School refusal behavior in children and adolescents: a concept analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1954084; article XML SHA-256 a324f7346f02b6c420e67e35e5c54227462c922c66462d6c9704b6ea04cb36d2. “School refusal behavior in children and adolescents: a concept analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1954084).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1954084). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## schooling
<a id="schooling"></a>

Schooling is the organized provision of school education, including either direct placement in regular schools or a temporary preparatory school setting before entry into mainstream education. In this context, it is described not only as academic placement but also as a source of daily structure, normality, hope, and resilience for children after major disruption.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0942db32c30e12efb25d2af6f57cb52710e9d842c083e549d5bebd70fb167003

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meurs Patrick; Schäfer Dennis; Özkan Deniz; Kulić Ina; Bär Christine; Marburger Julia. Hope in sight … Organisational challenges and mental health opportunities for refugee children in school contexts after arriving in an initial reception centre. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1721720; article XML SHA-256 3428980563016ead559582927252827f4b9a7846758f9740b88922ccde81f2b8. “Hope in sight … Organisational challenges and mental health opportunities for refugee children in school contexts after arriving in an initial reception centre” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1721720).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1721720). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Schwann cell
<a id="schwann-cell"></a>

A Schwann cell is a glial cell in the peripheral nervous system that wraps around peripheral nerve fibers to form the myelin insulation around their axons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d42d7b382cbafc81becf754d97612e26113d0cf822c7c3ab3e941d9a45d4108f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Schwann Cells” (D012583).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012583). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## schwannoma
<a id="schwannoma"></a>

A schwannoma is a noncancerous, usually enclosed, slow-growing tumor made up of Schwann cells. It occurs in peripheral or cranial nerves and tends to come back only rarely, with malignant change reported only in uncommon cases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc56285076421d9a4f61378358c01ca6081160f46094d450811643f5b4d42ced

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Schwannoma” (C3269).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sciatic nerve
<a id="sciatic-nerve"></a>

The sciatic nerve is a large nerve that arises from the lower spinal cord in the lumbar and sacral regions and provides movement and sensation to the lower limb. It is the main continuation of the sacral plexus and divides into the tibial and peroneal nerves.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4f1345ac573e24ea8f7de949ee6a63e66e2f014c5d9966735ad0cd831f6e4f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sciatic Nerve” (D012584).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012584). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## science
<a id="science"></a>

Science is the systematic study of the physical and natural world, using observation and experiment to understand how it is structured and how it behaves. It also refers to the practical and intellectual work involved in carrying out that study.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9542c307f5f15361c9b0db9775413cc9d2ef9fea1c3b21ae8f4bed1674133ea5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Science” (C61397).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scientific reasoning
<a id="scientific-reasoning"></a>

Scientific reasoning is the ability to think and act in ways that build understanding of the natural world. It includes skills such as forming hypotheses, experimenting, and judging evidence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b73afeaaee8751a362b74e709755db5642dad606d9d203052603ee0490a30bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schlatter Erika; Molenaar Inge; Lazonder Ard W.. Individual Differences in Children’s Development of Scientific Reasoning Through Inquiry-Based Instruction: Who Needs Additional Guidance?. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00904; article XML SHA-256 71791fd548b176a13a87e7b3b1f45212e9c81ca72cce0065d37b5c9c99a9c137. “Individual Differences in Children’s Development of Scientific Reasoning Through Inquiry-Based Instruction: Who Needs Additional Guidance?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00904).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00904). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scientist-practitioner model
<a id="scientist-practitioner-model"></a>

The scientist-practitioner model is an approach to psychology training in which undergraduate study emphasizes the scientific principles of the discipline, while professional skills are developed later in graduate training. In this model, psychology education is grounded first in research and theory, with applied practice built on that foundation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2ce8e978bb38a7c61965a05aff6977bab6fb9e6284a212f02109335b8d52d9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Golding Raelee M.; Breen Lauren J.; Krause Amanda E.; Allen Peter J.. The Summer Undergraduate Research Experience as a Work-Integrated Learning Opportunity and Potential Pathway to Publication in Psychology. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00541; article XML SHA-256 8cc1732c18714e995c944c5139ab65f6ea65ab06d456da673b2a2513f8e9b11f. “The Summer Undergraduate Research Experience as a Work-Integrated Learning Opportunity and Potential Pathway to Publication in Psychology” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00541).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00541). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scintillating scotoma
<a id="scintillating-scotoma"></a>

Scintillating scotoma is a visual aura marked by a clear flickering effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b97aa2153d3b0fbd20ffa082a9823446c7f11db59616679339a1ce4bbad2c59d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Scintillating Scotoma” (C220138).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SCL-90–R
<a id="scl-90r"></a>

SCL-90–R is a self-report questionnaire used to measure symptomatic distress. It contains 90 symptom items covering nine areas of psychological symptoms and is widely used in mental health and general population research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 89b8514f8042ca40109a6122e28621b8bb93ee6dde341c3665e021040f276114

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sereda Yuliia; Dembitskyi Serhii. Validity assessment of the symptom checklist SCL-90-R and shortened versions for the general population in Ukraine. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12888-016-1014-3; article XML SHA-256 9551e16e939d8cb23e418f5b950ab5d72a9f1ee8f6395adad48cf49b72f2b799. “Validity assessment of the symptom checklist SCL-90-R and shortened versions for the general population in Ukraine” (10.1186/s12888-016-1014-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-1014-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sclera
<a id="sclera"></a>

The sclera is the tough, white outer layer of the eyeball that covers most of the eye, except the front part covered by the cornea. It helps form the eye’s protective outer coat and provides attachment points for the muscles that move the eye.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83dbdc148b087a99a3b192717a9a379ddaed884baec3ef2fd2b6713de7d1c975

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sclera” (D012590).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012590). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SCN
<a id="scn"></a>

SCN refers to solitary circumscribed neuroma, a noncancerous tumor of the peripheral nerve sheath made up of Schwann cells, axons, and perineurial fibroblasts. It usually develops in the skin of the head and neck or in the oral mucosa and typically appears as a single painless nodule.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5491e33f86189a33a850094809bcb610a238a46b78676157a517d83dcd8a8302

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Solitary Circumscribed Neuroma” (C121681).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scopo-
<a id="scopo"></a>

In this historical source, scopo is the Italian term for aim: a relatively broad or distant project in voluntary action. It is treated as close in meaning to purpose, but less exact than end or motive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 77b72f76783c756c68bba624ed17678b55f5e47a4718b0feaaf939c2c792def0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aim” (Aim).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Aim). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## score equating
<a id="score-equating"></a>

Score equating is the process of making scores from different versions of a test directly comparable. It is used with alternate forms that measure the same ability so the forms can be interpreted interchangeably.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 048dff1f1f0aefa4831e22f3bb71ac34546bbc43ac9dfcb9cedb0fe1fc1cb481

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lúcio Patrícia Silva; Lourenço Fausto Coutinho; Cogo-Moreira Hugo; Bandalos Deborah; de Carvalho Carolina Alves Ferreira; Kida Adriana de Souza Batista; de Ávila Clara Regina Brandão. Reading Comprehension Tests for Children: Test Equating and Specific Age-Interval Reports. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.662192; article XML SHA-256 ba271b020614db56ad5488f0a1b8ee0361f2a5e63851781769eaa96be833be78. “Reading Comprehension Tests for Children: Test Equating and Specific Age-Interval Reports” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.662192).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.662192). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scoring
<a id="scoring"></a>

In the Holtzman Inkblot Test, scoring is the process of evaluating personality by rating several variables drawn from a person’s responses to 47 inkblot plates.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c872ee31d6741f29b352864fc5a83430390faf25cbd39c86ee99fac7afece9e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Holtzman Inkblot Test” (D006698).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006698). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scotoma
<a id="scotoma"></a>

A scotoma is a small, localized area of missing or reduced sight within the visual field, surrounded by otherwise normal vision. It can occur in a range of eye and optic nerve conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7bb2cafd5b537952717663644e21a1beea2a392d19011b34b897cf847b6df1ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Scotoma” (D012607).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012607). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scotopic
<a id="scotopic"></a>

Scotopic refers to vision under very low light, such as in darkness or nighttime conditions. It relies on the eye’s rod cells, which are especially light-sensitive and respond most strongly to wavelengths around 507 nm toward the blue part of the spectrum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0dd4020ef2907bdac5b044118ae14894252ba84b941604e86a0caa7fed41f612

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Night Vision” (D055254).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055254). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## scotopic vision
<a id="scotopic-vision"></a>

Scotopic vision is visual functioning under very low light, such as in darkness or nighttime conditions. It relies on rod cells in the retina, which are especially light-sensitive and are most responsive to wavelengths around 507 nm toward the blue part of the spectrum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 20103ccf3ac01ecb1e3e81d83f3039c6e186722ddf73a1763a469702964845ae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Night Vision” (D055254).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055254). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## screening experiment
<a id="screening-experiment"></a>

A screening experiment is a study step used to search through many possibilities to find a target of interest. In this packet, it refers to using a yeast two-hybrid screen to identify cellular proteins that interact with a specific viral protein.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f7d001098c5fb7f6c48c5560d87a7ab1fbc34c3d88b123eedf7aebc868b9e7e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fang Chiu-Ping; Li Zhi-Cheng; Yang Chee-Hing; Cheng Ju-Chien; Yeh Yung-Ju; Sun Tsai-Hsia; Li Hui-Chun; Juang Yue-Li; Lo Shih-Yen. Hepatitis C Virus Non-Structural Protein 3 Interacts with Cytosolic 5′(3′)-Deoxyribonucleotidase and Partially Inhibits Its Activity. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0068736; article XML SHA-256 7857e17ae1b7b388c3d8203eafc0e24ba0b6c499b163a92337db5bd527aba17e. “Hepatitis C Virus Non-Structural Protein 3 Interacts with Cytosolic 5′(3′)-Deoxyribonucleotidase and Partially Inhibits Its Activity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0068736).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068736). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## screening test
<a id="screening-test"></a>

A screening test is a brief assessment used in clinical settings to detect whether a person is likely to have a condition and to distinguish those who may need fuller evaluation from those who do not. It is designed to be practical to administer and is judged by how accurately and reliably it identifies the target problem.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0d0d7e9453408f6303999603ad9f69be0c8a4ec94e6a8a4b0f006bd78ef6344

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zakariás Lilla; Lukács Ágnes. The first aphasia screening test in Hungarian: A preliminary study on validity and diagnostic accuracy. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290153; article XML SHA-256 cbbcc84cd2050ead945934d95bf83e3fbe68ef2c016a5d686b5f6e3af805478f. “The first aphasia screening test in Hungarian: A preliminary study on validity and diagnostic accuracy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290153).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290153). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## script
<a id="script"></a>

In this historical context, script means ordinary written characters or handwriting used to represent language on the page, as contrasted with systems such as Braille or specialized type. It refers to the usual visible form of writing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e6eef10348d21ef40d30137be4376bb2395c62a32aaac37efe7263724334040d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Bridgman, Laura, and Keller, Helen” (Bridgman, Laura, and Keller, Helen).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B2defs.htm#Bridgman, Laura, and Keller, Helen). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## script theory
<a id="script-theory"></a>

Script theory is the idea that people use stored knowledge structures, or internal scripts, to guide how they act in collaborative learning situations. In this account, these scripts include elements such as roles, scenes, and smaller action units, and they are reorganized as people work toward their goals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac9a32eb990969e7dd96d871bcd8bb65800c0454ba3a2177308d6c056a26a836

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Özbek Tugce; Greisel Martin; Wekerle Christina; Gegenfurtner Andreas; Kollar Ingo. How do different goals affect students’ internal collaboration script configurations? Results of an epistemic network analysis study. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1410152; article XML SHA-256 156db402b3346c247c4f4b89874a3c552f49ec480fb5aadc7cc8b84970395ea2. “How do different goals affect students’ internal collaboration script configurations? Results of an epistemic network analysis study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1410152).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1410152). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SD
<a id="sd"></a>

SD refers to spreading depolarization, a brain process often seen after stroke. In ischemic stroke it commonly appears around the infarct and helps drive damage into nearby at-risk tissue, and in hemorrhagic stroke it is part of the secondary injury process linked to later cerebral ischemia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a91b1e494e22693a0e5e05057920d2289e3c17914bc04b4ed072b3e55ea6752b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Peng; Liu Xianyun; Huang Jingcun; Tong Yu; Peng Xi. Spreading depolarization in neurocritical care: a review of SD’S pathophysiological continuum and clinical translation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1759247; article XML SHA-256 aaa1ec40306674ace071aaf4d3395419eea0618574881f7690aada9cc00b8d07. “Spreading depolarization in neurocritical care: a review of SD’S pathophysiological continuum and clinical translation” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1759247).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1759247). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SDO
<a id="sdo"></a>

SDO refers to social dominance orientation: a person’s preference for inequality between social groups and support for group-based hierarchies. People high in SDO tend to see these differences as legitimate or natural and show more negative attitudes toward outgroups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c07df2ceb36024bd9823f8c3e2e6c74585e46f7426563a670aa02895b58e82f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Çağış Zafer Güney. Initial psychometric properties of the national entitlement scale and its association with social dominance orientation and psychological sense of global community. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04826-6; article XML SHA-256 9fc93289fb6298016a5722469ea993ea4ca5f80e0d4352ebe326606a4ba7d8b7. “Initial psychometric properties of the national entitlement scale and its association with social dominance orientation and psychological sense of global community” (10.1186/s40359-026-04826-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04826-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SDS
<a id="sds"></a>

SDS refers to the Sheehan Disability Scale, a standardized questionnaire used to assess how much symptoms such as panic, anxiety, phobia, or depression interfere with functioning at work or school, in social life, and in family life. It provides separate ratings for these areas and an overall disability score.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b35ca4f25b6e71a90e853c5aa4921a396f95f946fd245230b8714b3d13c212ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sheehan Disability Scale Questionnaire” (C111384).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SDT
<a id="sdt"></a>

SDT stands for Self-Determination Theory. In this source, it is identified as a major theoretical framework used to understand psychological flourishing across the lifespan.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 63f23746c0e64406f504f09676fa9722ced0cf2576354d3a8524cccc672dbb1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meiping Wang; Akhter Shamim; Tan Mengqiu. Understanding psychological flourishing across the lifespan: an integrative review of theory and evidence. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815314; article XML SHA-256 d80804014e84ea41b9cd246a42974941e313167494333f4868bfb202716c7869. “Understanding psychological flourishing across the lifespan: an integrative review of theory and evidence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815314).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815314). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SE
<a id="se"></a>

SE stands for Sport Education, a pedagogical model used in physical education. In this context, it is discussed as an approach that can be used alone or combined with Teaching Games for Understanding to support learning across physical, social, emotional, and thinking-related areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 52299b8b979450dd9e1daa0037f00a1904c37a42a6128c73db9f33745f9de78a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aygun Yalin; Tufekci Sakir; Boke Hulusi; Yagin Burak; Berktas Hulya; Canpolat Burak; Turhan Fatih Harun; Norman Goktug; Guldogan Emek. What do we know about the effectiveness of the application of hybrid SE–TGfU model in physical education on learning outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1762732; article XML SHA-256 869676357fb5399d17c0ff56feb7705140d68d44343a77e59e65e54634c75ae0. “What do we know about the effectiveness of the application of hybrid SE–TGfU model in physical education on learning outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1762732).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1762732). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## search
<a id="search"></a>

In this context, search is the cognitive process of scanning a visual scene to find a target, sometimes from among several possible targets held in memory. The packet specifically describes hybrid search, where memory, attention, and visual processing work together during active looking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cddc67ff31fec988f9246d5c52beffcd67a5736764ace5a183524d272edf6aab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gonzalez Joaquin E.; Bauer Markus; Ries Anthony J.; Kamienkowski Juan E.; Ison Matias J.. Mapping neural activity during naturalistic visual and memory search. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1812919; article XML SHA-256 53f683aaf2185688e899f8042a2555a0f69881cbb2acb2002bdd6938b3795512. “Mapping neural activity during naturalistic visual and memory search” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1812919).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1812919). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## search asymmetry
<a id="search-asymmetry"></a>

Search asymmetry is a difference in how easily or efficiently a target is found depending on which feature is present or absent in a search task. In the supplied source, it refers to this kind of asymmetry in sequential search, examined in auditory and visual tasks and discussed as possibly reflecting differences in attention or in how discriminable the stimuli are.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba3b009be74354fd12c5fab0ec9684965da6e71ea337de0257ae61c6854425a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Blundon Elizabeth G; Rumak Samuel P; Ward Lawrence M. Sequential search asymmetry: Behavioral and psychophysiological evidence from a dual oddball task. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0173237; article XML SHA-256 e83b7c1977205907024372f5b290fbb4615a10df9d70a90e6c267ffd89ca4443. “Sequential search asymmetry: Behavioral and psychophysiological evidence from a dual oddball task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0173237).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0173237). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## seasonal affective disorder
<a id="seasonal-affective-disorder"></a>

Seasonal affective disorder is a pattern of depression that returns at the same time each year, most often in winter. It may also involve anxiety, irritability, low energy, sleeping longer, increased appetite especially for carbohydrates, and weight gain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ad89c88be0072031488c901bdf1ee1df38cdebef4c5b1d5ac9c5da39b97675b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Seasonal Affective Disorder” (D016574).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016574). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## seasonal mood disorder
<a id="seasonal-mood-disorder"></a>

Seasonal mood disorder is a recurring pattern in which depressive episodes come back at a similar time each year, most commonly in the winter. It can also involve anxiety, irritability, low energy, sleeping longer than usual, eating more with cravings for carbohydrates, and gaining weight.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62359130782446ce6d5d37d18b1dd8c553eefbfab1967ce839eaf6d36cd18134

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Seasonal Affective Disorder” (D016574).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016574). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## seasonal variation
<a id="seasonal-variation"></a>

Seasonal variation is change across the seasons of the year in environmental conditions or in how strongly related outcomes and interactions occur. In the source, it refers to shifts from summer to winter in factors such as temperature, food availability, and physical stress, with corresponding changes in behavior, growth, and survival.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5126086d44554b119d2858ed05fdfa73c82473abdef143d53fcff784760c62c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Capelle Jacob J; Hartog Eva; Wilkes Tony; Bouma Tjeerd J. Seasonal variation in the balance and strength of cooperative and competitive behavior in patches of blue mussels. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293142; article XML SHA-256 bfdd3f74dc8a6940d3e1bf1acb9bed5bc61042f675f2f9e109a0142a26375726. “Seasonal variation in the balance and strength of cooperative and competitive behavior in patches of blue mussels” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293142).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293142). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Seckel syndrome
<a id="seckel-syndrome"></a>

Seckel syndrome is a rare inherited condition passed in an autosomal recessive pattern. It is marked by severe growth restriction before birth, short stature, a very small head size, cognitive impairment, and a distinctive bird-like facial appearance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5d19ac1e41f6fde007ef4885684e6d7a9c354603c6ed7bcc83a3a3757d0dbc43

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Seckel Syndrome” (C125488).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## second cranial nerve
<a id="second-cranial-nerve"></a>

The second cranial nerve, or optic nerve, transmits visual input from the retina into the brain. It is formed by fibers from retinal ganglion cells that partially cross at the optic chiasm and then project onward, and despite its name it is regarded as part of the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b36288c49d6258d1dc1eedd8ea0eb9ced9d8acae1c9a531860dd6bc702ae90f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Optic Nerve” (D009900).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009900). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## second-order interaction
<a id="second-order-interaction"></a>

Second-order interaction is the pairwise relationship between variables that a model uses to capture how multivariate exponential signals are connected. In this source, it refers to estimating those interactions for the rate intensity parameters in logarithmic space so the underlying correlation structure of the signals can be represented.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fcd4e468aea711629bcb52b298bdca2fe30cb7c30023a9066d29695759ad8aa5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Changbo; Zhou Ke; Tang Fengzhen; Tang Yandong; Li Xiaoli; Si Bailu. A hierarchical Bayesian inference model for volatile multivariate exponentially distributed signals. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fncom.2025.1408836; article XML SHA-256 d107c40854eb24deef0a1253a1f35b9cfcb699b11b0e68b6a429b779bb262b41. “A hierarchical Bayesian inference model for volatile multivariate exponentially distributed signals” (10.3389/fncom.2025.1408836).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fncom.2025.1408836). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## second-order language
<a id="second-order-language"></a>

Second-order language refers to language understood as system-like patterns or constraints that shape how people engage in languaging. In this view, it is not separate from lived interaction but describes the broader regularities that guide whole-body, affective sense-making in social activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8ccb486c29d6c9487da0dda2bd772be663808a4794e43f24553fc66fcf528f26

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jensen Thomas W.. Emotion in languaging: languaging as affective, adaptive, and flexible behavior in social interaction. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00720; article XML SHA-256 0e248d1ffc6dc37ccf794259ac21bac360b5658e4af77aeb41f1f2d0b87805e4. “Emotion in languaging: languaging as affective, adaptive, and flexible behavior in social interaction” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00720).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00720). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## second sight
<a id="second-sight"></a>

Second sight is a historical name for a conjuring act presented as clairvoyance. In this use, the effect is produced by quickly and skilfully reading a devised system of signals rather than by any genuine power of seeing distant or hidden things.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c72ce74b3f61d722b5e5b492f08905569b612b2cc5a3933bcc1d3989eccba8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Clairvoyance” (Clairvoyance).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Clairvoyance). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## secondary appraisal
<a id="secondary-appraisal"></a>

Secondary appraisal is the stage after an initial emotional interpretation in which a person turns that reaction into a practical response or coping behavior. In the source context, employees use this stage to decide how to act toward customers, such as how much recovery effort to provide.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 746a0e64b0441ba848cd67b4dd0044c46afe33084aa137d9d0d02a70bc12c530

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Song Pushen; Wang Yaqin; Yang Yang; Li Ying. How employees respond to customer anger and sadness: emotional reciprocity and recovery strategies in service failures. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1795506; article XML SHA-256 a8012af212ce7cf8b2b26ab871bb1f464809f934f4738a28f35cb6650bef8f29. “How employees respond to customer anger and sadness: emotional reciprocity and recovery strategies in service failures” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1795506).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1795506). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## secondary attention
<a id="secondary-attention"></a>

Secondary attention refers to attentional resources used for a second task at the same time as a primary activity. In this context, it means the attention needed for a concurrent task during navigation, with slower responses indicating that the main task is using more limited cognitive resources.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab6e543adaa3e61b94dd6c5b1ec65ed66c04a1752f00faac66275aae1b4df7de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barhorst-Cates Erica M; Rand Kristina M; Creem-Regehr Sarah H. The Effects of Restricted Peripheral Field-of-View on Spatial Learning while Navigating. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0163785; article XML SHA-256 ba9ff85421ac7189fc6f049951b828e2d2aee5a21b1d3ae689502e0a5b16011f. “The Effects of Restricted Peripheral Field-of-View on Spatial Learning while Navigating” (10.1371/journal.pone.0163785).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163785). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## secondary auditory cortex
<a id="secondary-auditory-cortex"></a>

Secondary auditory cortex is a higher-level auditory brain area, often called A2, that works beyond primary auditory cortex (A1). In the source packet, it is described as functioning in a supramodal and multimodal way to support spoken language, and in early congenital deafness it may become functionally uncoupled from A1.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2734c51043d4bf40b1d22b5991ef0f815b0802ee79a41f1fa18eb17fc5148059

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Campbell Ruth; MacSweeney Mairéad; Woll Bencie. Cochlear implantation (CI) for prelingual deafness: the relevance of studies of brain organization and the role of first language acquisition in considering outcome success. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00834; article XML SHA-256 ac2f1808c61dbbe72f386400fef24bc51aba575adf79bf3128b7bbfdb528acb4. “Cochlear implantation (CI) for prelingual deafness: the relevance of studies of brain organization and the role of first language acquisition in considering outcome success” (10.3389/fnhum.2014.00834).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00834). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## secondary cause
<a id="secondary-cause"></a>

In this historical philosophical use, a secondary cause is a subordinate agency placed between God as the primary efficient source and the particular details of the world. It refers to nature understood not as independent, but as an intermediate principle through which events are brought about.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e137d787b74241abc0d5cf827e649bcad4f616590adeb7f5ecd2a9f113d2a6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nature” (Nature).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N1defs.htm#Nature). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## secondary coping
<a id="secondary-coping"></a>

Secondary coping is a way of responding to stress by changing oneself or the way one interprets the situation, rather than trying to change the outside circumstances directly. It is contrasted with primary coping, which focuses on altering the external environment through action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7409c2f35cc99a0bd2cff769a83876325f6178a49f0218ab401ac9c7da8a6a16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [English Alexander S; Geeraert Nicolas. Crossing the rice-wheat border: Not all intra-cultural adaptation is equal. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0236326; article XML SHA-256 e3757308e7fd0705122535acc98852a507db51aa60374cc7113fdc102b7d8dfe. “Crossing the rice-wheat border: Not all intra-cultural adaptation is equal” (10.1371/journal.pone.0236326).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236326). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## secondary identification
<a id="secondary-identification"></a>

Secondary identification refers to an additional identifier used for a study besides its main registry entry, such as a grant number.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef0b88c5c5a943397d26460e032106361f8e9e2b7472128f574de6a24ce88552

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Leonard Elizabeth; Kwinda Zwannda; Baernighausen Till; Dronavalli Mithilesh; Adam Maya; Pillay Yogan. Optimizing knowledge and behavioral intention of women and their partners in the perinatal period in South Africa: a randomized control trial study protocol in the Tshwane district, Gauteng province, South Africa. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12889-022-13600-3; article XML SHA-256 3696ff3804870f855a3cc54d7830bf14204c40c2ee61a63e3ba60ee465328db2. “Optimizing knowledge and behavioral intention of women and their partners in the perinatal period in South Africa: a randomized control trial study protocol in the Tshwane district, Gauteng province, South Africa” (10.1186/s12889-022-13600-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13600-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## secondary memory
<a id="secondary-memory"></a>

Secondary memory is memory proper: awareness of a past event or fact after it has already passed out of consciousness, together with the sense that it was previously experienced or thought. It is more than a repeated image in the mind, because the revived content is understood as belonging to the past.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08cb375ca01f405f5366b31e8e7e4c2a91be671f99c2d30228b7a1d0b408367f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## secondary motor cortex
<a id="secondary-motor-cortex"></a>

The secondary motor cortex is a motor area identified in rodents that, like the primary motor cortex, helps control voluntary movement through direct pathways to the spinal cord. In this source, it appears to handle basic movement information similarly to primary motor cortex but may be more involved in adjusting actions according to internal state and goal-directed or reward-related context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7ac483efbee73763b7c95b32b7f1d07ed3cecd0d574c7cc9fb69708f9508db9d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Saiki Akiko; Kimura Rie; Samura Toshikazu; Fujiwara-Tsukamoto Yoko; Sakai Yutaka; Isomura Yoshikazu. Different Modulation of Common Motor Information in Rat Primary and Secondary Motor Cortices. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0098662; article XML SHA-256 a897dddb9c846c77cfba6087e267d8707a475c2ec54e89dfe5390924a679f4f1. “Different Modulation of Common Motor Information in Rat Primary and Secondary Motor Cortices” (10.1371/journal.pone.0098662).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0098662). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## secondary personality
<a id="secondary-personality"></a>

In this historical usage, a secondary personality is a supposed subconscious part of the person that has become split off from the main stream of conscious thought. It was used to explain automatic writing as if a separate directing intelligence were operating outside ordinary awareness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 009ae25f9461f3da36fb81f451dfb78e96a1040f8f23cd0abe40e8d8673510e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Automatic Writing” (Automatic Writing).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Automatic Writing). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## secondary position
<a id="secondary-position"></a>

In historical discussions of eye movement, a secondary position is any position of the eye other than the primary position. In Listing’s law, movements from one secondary position to another are described as involving rotation about the line of regard.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ace90499d4bf3229568e2d031c980b188e9d9b3829161f4f9619d96bb29f7fe6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Listing's Law” (Listing's Law).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Listing's Law). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## secondary quality
<a id="secondary-quality"></a>

In this historical usage, a secondary quality is a property understood as arising from how matter acts rather than from a fixed, sharply bounded substance. Here, impenetrability is treated as secondary because it is explained as the increasing repulsive force that prevents two portions of matter from occupying the same space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fa646ac845cbcafd55af5f5ab67a9f5353f9bf518a3d09259be354ce0b11087b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Impenetrability” (Impenetrability).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Impenetrability). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## secondary symptoms
<a id="secondary-symptoms"></a>

In this historical usage, secondary symptoms are changes found along with a disorder that may result from it rather than produce it. The passage uses the term for bodily changes, such as common pathological findings, whose role as cause is doubtful.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5459692f25567541f4f25feebd950bee520fabb2b112f50ba7212306b7b9637a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1186500-1198500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## secondary traumatization
<a id="secondary-traumatization"></a>

Secondary traumatization is emotional distress that can develop from repeatedly or over a long period responding with compassion or empathy to others. It may occur in people who work in caregiving roles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3589b2d9dd7c8dfd44a78a9f1d3e5d0b55d7f9afcd795030a7b2fd33775c6ca3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Compassion Fatigue” (D000068376).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000068376). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Section 504 plan
<a id="section-504-plan"></a>

A Section 504 plan is a formal school accommodation plan used to support a student’s needs at school. In this source, it is described as one of the structured educational supports recommended for pediatric patients whose medical conditions may affect physical, cognitive, or developmental functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c6e618c3b067694d34113f08656a9a8770ff84971e87dee3132c37ff94a5e5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Thibodaux Lia K.; Orr Ashley L.; Reisinger Debra L.; Fodstad Jill; Xu Guang; Wikel Kristin; Curtin Michelle. A pilot study of the utility of a hospital-based school program for pediatric patients with cardiac diagnoses. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fped.2024.1502378; article XML SHA-256 a6ba8bc45f9023304ace9d4e3309e831c275a7a64e3266697a9e2f9f19a358be. “A pilot study of the utility of a hospital-based school program for pediatric patients with cardiac diagnoses” (10.3389/fped.2024.1502378).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2024.1502378). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## secure attachment
<a id="secure-attachment"></a>

Secure attachment is a form of attachment shaped by early experiences that becomes an internal model for how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. Research described in the source links secure attachment with parenting-related thinking, emotion, and behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5118c02b163246266d8ba703762d3a3811d67dc6b693f8e46064694bddd1a751

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ding Fangyuan; Jia Yuncheng; Cheng Gang; Wu Lili; Hu Tianqiang; Zhang Dajun. Secure Attachment Priming Amplifies Approach Motivation for Infant Faces Among Childless Adults. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.736379; article XML SHA-256 42058b1ed5851b703205463c44971e03078b1def47c3e465a6c2928e9903cea2. “Secure Attachment Priming Amplifies Approach Motivation for Infant Faces Among Childless Adults” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.736379).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.736379). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## security operations
<a id="security-operations"></a>

Security operations refers to the monitoring and handling of security-related event data in distributed information systems, such as alerts produced by intrusion detection sensors. In this context, it involves interpreting those alerts consistently so machine-learning tools can support reliable security decisions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 996fb0dcc6181f62428f5922a69c861eaac7d68fb9f0af30c5398664af760f2c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Yoonho; Im Joonghyuk; Kim Jisu; Yoon Myungkeun. Mitigating semantic label divergence in federated learning: Obfuscated encoding and alert filtering for security monitoring. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338488; article XML SHA-256 50ddc3ed1a689681634644448ff6b594b5df5944be6bf8672abc19eb42148137. “Mitigating semantic label divergence in federated learning: Obfuscated encoding and alert filtering for security monitoring” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338488).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338488). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sedative
<a id="sedative"></a>

A sedative is a drug in a class of compounds that can change behavior and interact with many proteins in the nervous system. In this source, sedative drugs are described as having distinct effects on neuronal motor machinery and mitochondrial movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 182db4cc7e8b73ad07cc4c89439efba4eaf5199c9e39fa0d082f6fe2452d9576

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dubey Priya; Datta Roshni; Eckenhoff Roderic G; Bedell Victoria M. In vivo changes in zebrafish anesthetic sensitivity in response to the loss of kif5Aa are associated with the alteration of mitochondrial motility. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316959; article XML SHA-256 1221642521b130f9f9017fe97492b42902b1414eb7013694048f1a2e3664b18a. “In vivo changes in zebrafish anesthetic sensitivity in response to the loss of kif5Aa are associated with the alteration of mitochondrial motility” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316959).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316959). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic abuse
<a id="sedative-hypnotic-or-anxiolytic-abuse"></a>

A finding that a person is abusing sedative, hypnotic, or anti-anxiety drugs, without mention of added complications. It indicates problematic use of these substances.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 19f70ca046b46cdc199b6275a2ed97a9a2e9e82ca71fb7b0b939aad858d0de0f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sedative, Hypnotic or Anxiolytic Abuse, Uncomplicated” (C195639).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## segment
<a id="segment"></a>

In this context, a segment is a named portion of an artery used to specify the exact section being measured or compared, such as the M1 part of the middle cerebral artery or the A1 part of the anterior cerebral artery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 575dbd97e3ffb43ba68b9a1945f189ae751e2304b29e29af01d5333313381f36

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Leng Yihan; Wang Xinyue; Wang Xiaoqing; Wang Pingzi; Luo Jiaming; Li Na; Ye Litao; Li Ling; Yang You; Li Yang; Yu Jinhong. Cerebral and cervical hemodynamic differences in adolescents with first-episode depressive disorder: a TCCD and cervical artery ultrasound study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1892664; article XML SHA-256 797290ac9c06fa73e889236a231d705a1d4cdbd760828a86301bbe278f01fa2b. “Cerebral and cervical hemodynamic differences in adolescents with first-episode depressive disorder: a TCCD and cervical artery ultrasound study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1892664).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1892664). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## segmental reflex
<a id="segmental-reflex"></a>

A segmental reflex is a reflex action produced within a local spinal or bodily segment rather than under normal higher brain control. In the supplied example, it refers to the bladder cooling reflex, which is active in newborns, later suppressed by descending control, and can return when that inhibition is lost.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03a7fa44ab24053580fec2949d121a2eda4009e2ab76e3ca50b200408bcda1bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mukerji Gaurav; Waters Janet; Chessell Iain P; Bountra Chas; Agarwal Sanjiv K; Anand Praveen. Pain during ice water test distinguishes clinical bladder hypersensitivity from overactivity disorders. 2006; DOI 10.1186/1471-2490-6-31; article XML SHA-256 8bf8cc693c88ecd9bc9197d76bc35f4002ba52eea29f9b2e2ee71e1c6d664cca. “Pain during ice water test distinguishes clinical bladder hypersensitivity from overactivity disorders” (10.1186/1471-2490-6-31).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2490-6-31). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## segmentation
<a id="segmentation"></a>

Segmentation is the process of labeling each pixel in an image so that pixels with similar visual features are grouped together. This divides the image into separate parts such as boundaries, lines, or curves.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86ef994f1823f8cb0672f1d8419517f0bcd9e49aa600dc6a1d05cef6b183e27f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Image Segmentation” (C80146).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## segregated model
<a id="segregated-model"></a>

In this context, a segregated model is an educational approach in which students with disabilities are taught separately rather than within inclusive schooling. It is contrasted with a more inclusive form of education.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 28a47f95d5005cb767f414bd27cf83a763613902053323e3db16ff6353f65496

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maeda Kaede; Hashimoto Hirofumi; Sato Kosuke. Creating a positive perception toward inclusive education with future-oriented thinking. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s13104-021-05882-4; article XML SHA-256 36ff4a30ca451ff89c72c4abdb6dbad53b64ae66aef682cebac47092ec80e336. “Creating a positive perception toward inclusive education with future-oriented thinking” (10.1186/s13104-021-05882-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-021-05882-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## segregation
<a id="segregation"></a>

In this context, segregation refers to a perceptual process in hearing in which an alternating sound pattern is experienced as two distinct auditory streams rather than one mixed sequence. For example, a repeating ABAB pattern may be heard as separate A and B streams.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9c75aecbada6e90aad8b2e831ccbbea53d0d8adaa6377caaedd3b8f44e9fbd1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kojima Simon; Kanoh Shin'ichiro. The ASME-speller: 30-class auditory brain-computer interface speller using stream segregation and the QWERTY layout. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1807535; article XML SHA-256 c5a8e9ccf618467f38a2e8d564f6fa99b47ebd48f764a98faa40c94c7707b610. “The ASME-speller: 30-class auditory brain-computer interface speller using stream segregation and the QWERTY layout” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1807535).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1807535). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## segregation analysis
<a id="segregation-analysis"></a>

Segregation analysis is a method used to examine how a trait appears across families in order to test its mode of inheritance or transmission. In this context, it was used to assess whether a color-perception trait might reflect a major genetic effect rather than a simple Mendelian pattern alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e2cfaff26296149c6b1d2f505194b04c2202d16a1daef492920dc5da9a9e55e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xiao Feifei; Cai Guoshuai; Zhang Heping. Segregation Analysis Suggests That a Genetic Reason May Contribute to “the Dress” Colour Perception. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0165095; article XML SHA-256 799fcd85e7456ffcc4406a25ac5efcfebcbeade628641b330fa8ac52f0f15442. “Segregation Analysis Suggests That a Genetic Reason May Contribute to “the Dress” Colour Perception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0165095).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165095). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## seizure disorder
<a id="seizure-disorder"></a>

A seizure disorder is a brain condition in which bursts of unusually increased nerve-cell activity cause brief episodes of sensory, movement, or mental dysfunction. These episodes can happen with or without loss of consciousness or convulsions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 555b8f05346647aaa68aeda6d0e1b786a7571ffaacebac1f9dae3d32faef8e98

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Seizure Disorder” (C3020).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## selection
<a id="selection"></a>

In this context, selection means choosing which predictor variables or model features to include when building a prediction model. It is used to keep the most relevant information and can help reduce overfitting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bb9edb0257c1d8263c63d79e1fe49b397d28d32a4cd7aad05af3a1d25b88ac30

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vey Johannes A.; Heinze Georg; Kieser Meinhard. Variable selection for clinical prediction models in low-dimensional data - a simulation study comparing traditional regression and machine learning methods. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12874-026-02930-0; article XML SHA-256 884ac8eccb11cb653cccf6466327754061572f46afd6a9f926ca2f0b4adca15b. “Variable selection for clinical prediction models in low-dimensional data - a simulation study comparing traditional regression and machine learning methods” (10.1186/s12874-026-02930-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-026-02930-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## selection research
<a id="selection-research"></a>

Selection research is the study of how hiring and employee-screening methods work, including tests and other assessment tools used to choose applicants. In this context, it examines whether these methods fairly measure job-relevant qualities or create systematic disadvantages for particular groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8658317cbf51b4ff94cd947731cdf9e1d6f06e0d8071d068e8fe6a33abc41256

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Whelpley Christopher E.; Fezzey Tyler; Batchelor John H.; Weekley Jeff A.. Using selection tests to hire autistic employees: An exploration of methods. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356539; article XML SHA-256 b0fe2ba8286a9857bfac0459a6bbe8ad669478fd603e183949fce4af7f82d735. “Using selection tests to hire autistic employees: An exploration of methods” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356539).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356539). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## selective action
<a id="selective-action"></a>

In this historical source, selective action is used as a rendering for an action that is willed or volitional. It refers to action involving an act of will rather than action understood in a lower, merely conative sense.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fdd5b6d330b6b4e7ad78c44a1c57fbdfa3d75bcb8b13cbcedbe901cbab61f289

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3853500-3865500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## selective attention
<a id="selective-attention"></a>

Selective attention is a mental process that helps people focus on information that matters for a current goal while dealing with complex surroundings. It supports targeted task performance and can be shaped by emotional factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c279f799503cac1c076cbba1797750eb70b853241efa1ce3bb4cb5b65d800367

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Fang; Zhang Qin. The effect of high approach-motivated positive affect on selective attention under high perceptual load. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1628818; article XML SHA-256 d647afbd873389298cacfed9c559d8447825e9e643a1e4fa60bcf8a9b8fe7801. “The effect of high approach-motivated positive affect on selective attention under high perceptual load” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1628818).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1628818). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## selective breeding
<a id="selective-breeding"></a>

Selective breeding is the intentional shaping of a species’ characteristics by choosing which individuals reproduce. In the source context, it is described as a way domesticated strains can develop traits such as lower stress responsiveness or greater stress resilience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5eaa94ffae508ff34cb7c2ef86dd64f978d08b1378b483fbc9f7b919de2bb2f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ghazal Ahmad; Paul Richard; Tarkan Ali Serhan; Kurtul Irmak; Pegg Josephine; Andreou Demetra; Britton J Robert. Domestication as the driver of lower chronic stress levels in fish in catch-and-release recreational fisheries and aquaculture versus wild conspecifics. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326497; article XML SHA-256 b42848117cdcd7d42bd228f9a0653e571680b6885694b688ca6e37f1de043cc5. “Domestication as the driver of lower chronic stress levels in fish in catch-and-release recreational fisheries and aquaculture versus wild conspecifics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326497).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326497). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## selective cell death
<a id="selective-cell-death"></a>

Selective cell death is a form of tissue injury in which a mild, temporary loss of blood flow to the brain kills some cells rather than causing widespread destruction. In the source context, it marks a mild ischemic insult that can be followed by functional recovery even though minor brain damage remains.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 769fd61be1d4f3127116d3010444e9c324e4d361670db217e52878cd6a9cee1a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuor Ursula I.; Zhao Zonghang; Barber Philip A.; Qiao Min. Recurrent mild cerebral ischemia: enhanced brain injury following acute compared to subacute recurrence in the rat. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12868-016-0263-x; article XML SHA-256 c0992dacdf08426ebb27f1b2b0b0564cef55a00feb4a162d9b34e926ecb37120. “Recurrent mild cerebral ischemia: enhanced brain injury following acute compared to subacute recurrence in the rat” (10.1186/s12868-016-0263-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-016-0263-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## selective learning
<a id="selective-learning"></a>

Selective learning is a form of social learning in which a learner is selective about when or from whom to take in information from others. In developmental research, it is described as supporting learning from infancy and continuing to facilitate learning at older ages, especially in uncertain environments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7af03761d8703f87b65f03dcea622b469f4ee1b79cf9783f565d95587e7298f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ishikawa Mitsuhiko; Itakura Shoji. The development of social learning: from pedagogical cues to selective learning. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1466618; article XML SHA-256 14242ac2e3e82327d70ab7d5ed6645517581b33bb83f5b49e47324053df5206d. “The development of social learning: from pedagogical cues to selective learning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1466618).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1466618). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## selective mutism
<a id="selective-mutism"></a>

Selective mutism is an ongoing pattern in which a person does not speak in certain social settings, such as school, where speaking is expected, even though they do speak in other situations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc6e1b9f56ccc09e00d67d36e3c80dd6046af1f0cc7ccf3fde21500ca140c3e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Selective Mutism” (C92569).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## selective perception
<a id="selective-perception"></a>

Selective perception is the process of noticing information that is relevant within a situation while filtering out other available cues. In the source context, it refers to choosing the classroom signals that matter for understanding what is happening.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 10e7c999aae8e0a998c51ae0d7b80d9c992bc6169e31a05c49dfd318418a340d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Seidel Tina; Böheim Ricardo; Kosel Christian. Developing a cognitive model of advanced teacher professional vision for understanding processes of noticing and reasoning. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1769094; article XML SHA-256 ac9d954eba259412d6c126ab29ab3821dbf7eb899edbe47568847b9ea077fd5e. “Developing a cognitive model of advanced teacher professional vision for understanding processes of noticing and reasoning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1769094).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1769094). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## selective potentiation
<a id="selective-potentiation"></a>

Selective potentiation is the strengthening of some neural connections rather than others according to patterns of firing activity. In the source, it refers to spike-timing-dependent plasticity preferentially increasing connections with particular transmission delays, especially during oscillatory input.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e6719019c5faf21baf10f2183f69495902731ddfc175d5bfb4046cef9033c640

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kerr Robert R.; Burkitt Anthony N.; Thomas Doreen A.; Gilson Matthieu; Grayden David B.. Delay Selection by Spike-Timing-Dependent Plasticity in Recurrent Networks of Spiking Neurons Receiving Oscillatory Inputs. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002897; article XML SHA-256 7d5735e62c1684ee1479a18d6ab2131e8f78511b590813e791bb4c3224174c36. “Delay Selection by Spike-Timing-Dependent Plasticity in Recurrent Networks of Spiking Neurons Receiving Oscillatory Inputs” (10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002897).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002897). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## selective response
<a id="selective-response"></a>

Selective response is a pattern in which a brain area reacts more strongly to a particular kind of visual information than to others. In the source material, it refers to ventral lateral prefrontal cortex activity that is especially responsive to faces, with the eyes appearing to contribute strongly to that response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f77d4c3a92abe0b964b9cc68016c49363b7773b58a54b7578a6cffcfe59bae13

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chan Annie W.-Y.. Functional organization and visual representations of human ventral lateral prefrontal cortex. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00371; article XML SHA-256 6a12fde490068badd1fef7e48d54efcfbd9c9bbe6dace697e97ab9d2eb3c6f22. “Functional organization and visual representations of human ventral lateral prefrontal cortex” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00371).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00371). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
<a id="selective-serotonin-reuptake-inhibitor"></a>

A selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor is a drug that raises serotonin levels outside nerve cells by blocking its reuptake into the presynaptic cell, which extends serotonin’s action at the postsynaptic receptor. These drugs are commonly used for depression, anxiety disorders, some personality disorders, and some cases of insomnia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e6286cb1a45ce60a22f4d0a4aef72bf23a64d2a859730bd13a0bd5ba15ddca71

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor” (C94725).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self
<a id="self"></a>

In psychology, the self is the person considered as the focus of their own awareness and reflection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 211babe5663796daf642d101b33a0705dcf03d30025996e3b3a8d11fc2ef7d34

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Self” (C25200).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-abasement
<a id="self-abasement"></a>

Self-abasement is a marked lowering or humbling of one’s sense of self-worth. In this source, it refers to the strong self-depreciation seen in shame, involving self-condemnation or a feeling of ill-desert rather than mere social hesitation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4530a85faf4080a88339a52fc7247bf05438b87d9ef820c944ec728322f8132

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2971500-2983500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-activity
<a id="self-activity"></a>

Self-activity, also called immanent activity, is a course of change that appears to arise within the thing itself rather than being mainly produced by outside influences. In psychology and biology, it refers to changes in the organism or mind that seem internally determined or self-directing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f3ce3500a893ff3ff6bb0904ae1acba24f62ad1f3259d378de9a746aba06cc8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Immanent and Transeunt Activity” (Immanent).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Immanent). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-actualization
<a id="self-actualization"></a>

In person-centered psychotherapy, self-actualization is the person’s natural tendency to develop in a healthier direction when facilitative conditions are present. It is linked with becoming more congruent, self-aware, and self-accepting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45056467a57d4fabe14245b153fdea57e7d3d3fb1dec3580c5c49b6e1dcbd7ca

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Person-Centered Psychotherapy” (D009629).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009629). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-advocacy
<a id="self-advocacy"></a>

Self-advocacy is a person’s active ability to speak up for their own needs, preferences, and rights, especially in interactions with services or institutions. In this context, it is part of effective agency and can be reduced when person-in-context barriers make participation and rights-claiming harder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70cf796c965b1471201d98e2305e004d1991862767baa88ec59088dde31175a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Niederlohmann Eik. Psychodynamic accessibility: a testable framework for supported agency in social psychiatry and psychiatric rehabilitation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1865419; article XML SHA-256 f9b986935731465c42e4269b08e96a4b72ae2fe961cd653555e161d8eab9ac02. “Psychodynamic accessibility: a testable framework for supported agency in social psychiatry and psychiatric rehabilitation” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1865419).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1865419). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-affirmation
<a id="self-affirmation"></a>

Self-affirmation is a psychological exercise in which a person focuses on valued personal qualities or important values about themselves. In this study, using self-affirmation before a socially excluding situation was associated with less hostile interpretation of the situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2fb253e62130134a6bd06d20ac793c5c5d7106725aa3c836811a940db5d90b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Xiu; Liu Xin. Bidirectional predictive modeling of narcissists’ social exclusion and their hostile interpretations: a deep learning-based exploration of cognitive mechanisms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1761090; article XML SHA-256 18237380762223350e689392aec9c1a4d149d877c016af7778a9363d74e8d71c. “Bidirectional predictive modeling of narcissists’ social exclusion and their hostile interpretations: a deep learning-based exploration of cognitive mechanisms” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1761090).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1761090). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-appraisal
<a id="self-appraisal"></a>

Self-appraisal is a person’s own evaluation of themselves. In this source, it is described as one of the internal self-evaluations that helps shape identity regulation and emotional wellbeing, alongside beliefs about how others evaluate the person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 944cfcab876014f85329ff29729f42d304998712f6a6ffee3279082219b5c5f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gütges Isabel Dorothee; Xi Haoran; Gauggel Siegfried; Forster Saskia Doreen. Identity in interaction: momentary dynamics of self-appraisal and reflected appraisal. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814576; article XML SHA-256 8178524417871b82d2a78b31c30efef05d8a9b92a5df1dfe79b105080dafc2aa. “Identity in interaction: momentary dynamics of self-appraisal and reflected appraisal” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814576).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814576). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self as agent
<a id="self-as-agent"></a>

In historical psychology, “self as agent” refers to the remembered or represented self as the one who acted in a past event. In discussions of memory, it contrasts with recalling oneself as the one to whom something happened.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab26f02af1df5c9f1409947e1ca50c9d995e010beb45fc8018e1624ce15f0df7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Memory” (Memory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Memory). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-assertion
<a id="self-assertion"></a>

In this historical philosophical-psychological usage, self-assertion means the Ego’s original affirmation or positing of its own existence. It refers to an immediate, basic self-activity taken as the starting point from which further thought or reality is derived.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83a16782292eb903d81bf1eb04195370f876d9f65530da919cb0be8babdeb879

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1764000-1776000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-assessment
<a id="self-assessment"></a>

Self-assessment is a person’s evaluation of their own qualities or traits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8bf6a99cd9dd1ac76409c9bd69eee2fcdd470b3dc03a952ccb87ed727c76ff35

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self-Assessment” (D012647).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012647). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-awareness
<a id="self-awareness"></a>

Self-awareness is the ability to notice and express your own wishes, needs, and emotions when interacting with other people. In this context, it is one of the dimensions of autonomy-connectedness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae248e003cbc739ab22ba6a7f6408b08b570662bd45697a7b5dbeabfd88313db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stroink Luuk; Huijbregts Klaas; Rakic Andrej; de Vries Ralph; Rijkeboer Marleen; Bekker Marrie H J. A systematic review of personality-related factors associated with autonomy-connectedness in functional neurological disorder. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1788675; article XML SHA-256 6b13b7d394c99fd1ed5e9d72d0d72e9d4c410686313ee7806aad575dfd8e2529. “A systematic review of personality-related factors associated with autonomy-connectedness in functional neurological disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1788675).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1788675). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-awareness theory
<a id="self-awareness-theory"></a>

In this source, self-awareness theory refers to the idea that after personal failure, people who are strongly self-focused may feel intense distress and turn to immediately rewarding behaviors such as drinking to escape the self-relevance of those emotions. It frames such behavior as a maladaptive way of regulating emotion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aefbe3c03165e780717ba9fb3bee4cfddd2eefc8c6f59371e13eff3d0cfdea4e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Poncin Marie; Vermeulen Nicolas; de Timary Philippe. Distress Response to the Failure to an Insoluble Anagrams Task: Maladaptive Emotion Regulation Strategies in Binge Drinking Students. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01795; article XML SHA-256 6d5fd15f0413a4251fc30643190c80be2aa83f91b35f79e6b8a665e1aff4ebe1. “Distress Response to the Failure to an Insoluble Anagrams Task: Maladaptive Emotion Regulation Strategies in Binge Drinking Students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01795).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01795). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-care
<a id="self-care"></a>

Self-care means looking after yourself when you are ill and taking healthy, preventive actions to help avoid illness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f370f73829067d97514b1950272a6aa19e632fb3b3e9987eeaa28261db4f777b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self Care” (D012648).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012648). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-categorization theory
<a id="self-categorization-theory"></a>

Self-categorization theory is a social psychology theory proposing that how people define themselves in relation to a group influences their experience and behavior in group settings. In the packet, it is used to explain why people who identify more strongly with a crowd may feel less crowded and report more positive emotion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42fd078fa7eaa2388854c8bb9b60b1250faa1ce89b1c02b5a899eeea58e4d33e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Novelli David; Drury John; Reicher Stephen; Stott Clifford. Crowdedness Mediates the Effect of Social Identification on Positive Emotion in a Crowd: A Survey of Two Crowd Events. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0078983; article XML SHA-256 dd0a162a04f5607c5578fd48787df3d217def6a2c6faa3d52beb7415191b27db. “Crowdedness Mediates the Effect of Social Identification on Positive Emotion in a Crowd: A Survey of Two Crowd Events” (10.1371/journal.pone.0078983).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0078983). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-compassion
<a id="self-compassion"></a>

Self-compassion is an attitude of treating yourself with kindness and understanding during pain or failure. It involves recognizing that suffering is part of the shared human experience and noticing difficult thoughts and feelings with mindful awareness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99c5673d5882663ecca1da289da53e498ed500da0a030c057d4be437f3669461

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self-Compassion” (D000087342).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000087342). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-concept
<a id="self-concept"></a>

Self-concept is a person’s set of beliefs and views about themselves. In psychology, it can be discussed in terms of its content, such as specific self-evaluations, and its structure, meaning how those self-beliefs are organized over time and across different aspects of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7c3b8b8179421c8f40cc676373055a0f8b3bb76308ec5d3881bd05f932bd906

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Qianhui; Zhang Zhenyu; Xu Chen; Xu Xiaoxiao; Li Min; Ma Jianwei; Li Yang. Self-compassion and self-concept clarity mediated by resilience: variable-centered and person-centered approaches. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1714878; article XML SHA-256 a4ae84052be68f27ad386f09d6a5ca8375892d542a7a5eb6318915fab2a4981f. “Self-compassion and self-concept clarity mediated by resilience: variable-centered and person-centered approaches” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1714878).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1714878). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-confidence
<a id="self-confidence"></a>

Self-confidence is a psychological factor referring to a person’s level of confidence in themselves. In the supplied source, it is described as influencing how athletes interpret pre-competition arousal and as being linked to later performance satisfaction and results.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 63b49f431452546464ff843a05b4e833ae5ef0b1150615f73864c5ec4d634962

Sources:
- Drafting source: [López-Hernández Alejandro; Simón-Piqueras Juan Ángel; González Ravé José María. Self-confidence and perceived fatigue as predictors of performance satisfaction in trained swimmers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755167; article XML SHA-256 f47f921f268a85cbe80b9e9eb816d3ab084bdd9cb38e20acb01cdb0e0d972cb6. “Self-confidence and perceived fatigue as predictors of performance satisfaction in trained swimmers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755167).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755167). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-conscious emotion
<a id="self-conscious-emotion"></a>

A self-conscious emotion is an emotion such as embarrassment, shame, or pride that involves the self and has a distinct nonverbal expression. Research described in the packet treats these emotions as a group whose expressions can be recognized, although recognition varies across cultures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b5338eff04549cf2664e0411ef276b97f4b12dd59d27dd7d02fd7ec1576cf714

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chung Joanne M.; Robins Richard W.. Exploring Cultural Differences in the Recognition of the Self-Conscious Emotions. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0136411; article XML SHA-256 2eda7652c3496306da8ade3d9b7aff813cabc6a5dbc9da522dfb347f7686111a. “Exploring Cultural Differences in the Recognition of the Self-Conscious Emotions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0136411).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0136411). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-consciousness
<a id="self-consciousness"></a>

Self-consciousness is the capacity for conscious awareness of oneself, discussed in psychology and philosophy as a form of consciousness tied to the self. The packet indicates that many different theories try to explain where it comes from, ranging from bodily, cognitive, neural, social, and evolutionary accounts, but no single definition or explanation is universally accepted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 49ab88639706846c12a23a95d08b471e7c99204aeb23ea7db9c5d9b8820525b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Xiaodong. Mirror-induced origination process of human self-consciousness—restructuring consciousness-based cognitive theory. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1679440; article XML SHA-256 5e81d002f5f0fb8acd2649f53b82f5aad5eeba91ce166634cdeaa71897b621d3. “Mirror-induced origination process of human self-consciousness—restructuring consciousness-based cognitive theory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1679440).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1679440). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-construal
<a id="self-construal"></a>

Self-construal is a person’s own understanding of who they are and how they experience themselves. It is often described as either more independent, with the self defined mainly by personal inner qualities, or more interdependent, with the self defined through relationships and social context.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fe9ba554f47fdc4ff6c26ea15add676ac4a8a2b83db00b5f87ffa52e55c2f56f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Konakawa Hisae; Kawai Toshio; Tanaka Yasuhiro; Hatanaka Chihiro; Bowen Kimberly; Koh Alethea. Examining the association between cultural self-construal and dream structures in the United States and Japan. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1069406; article XML SHA-256 5468ded57f0947b38d737abe54609c38748269a12b7b25bd6a3d6f8f5f8d7a27. “Examining the association between cultural self-construal and dream structures in the United States and Japan” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1069406).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1069406). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-control
<a id="self-control"></a>

Self-control is a person’s ability to regulate and keep track of their emotions, behavior, and urges when facing outside pressures so they can function effectively in society.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40492f61586279c65ded1785259eb21a4fdbcbe43e8f94c44a56b9d5295e2b9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self-Control” (D000068356).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000068356). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-deception
<a id="self-deception"></a>

In this historical source, self-deception means misleading oneself in judgment, especially by taking limited human standards as if they were enough to measure moral or religious perfection. The passage presents it as a common danger when people assess themselves by relative rather than absolute standards.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd327e7625fddd1eda59418d38c09a665286d70788078d86736972e789171928

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1585500-1597500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-defeating behavior
<a id="self-defeating-behavior"></a>

Self-defeating behavior refers to patterns of acting that work against a person’s well-being, such as behaviors shaped by inaccurate or harmful automatic thoughts. In the source context, changing these patterns can help reduce anxiety and worry.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 74fc07b1def14bec44970421046c6af364fe1e3c228f9197eb4015ab38f89868

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 77e8e3f9797bdd3e545d836e3c7a022d849dbcb9046d75b9663fada09c613399. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-definition
<a id="self-definition"></a>

Self-definition is the way a person understands and describes who they are as part of their self-concept. In this packet, it specifically refers to defining oneself through group membership, as in a collective self-concept.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2bf6ed7055904cfc1d7656d2a98f6b1b7e051bb7edf1ea4c880de60309648080

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Afota Marie-Colombe; Robert Véronique; Vandenberghe Christian. Workaholism, work engagement, and affective commitment: relationships to self-concept levels and work outcomes. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1434482; article XML SHA-256 56ce5a4b3ca071632a631fdfb901229632f01db57abece54f672c045249adda2. “Workaholism, work engagement, and affective commitment: relationships to self-concept levels and work outcomes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1434482).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1434482). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-desensitization
<a id="self-desensitization"></a>

Self-desensitization is a reduced response to a stimulus after that same stimulus has been applied before. In this source, the tingling caused by an alkylamide became weaker when the applications were separated by about 30 minutes, showing decreased sensitivity to the compound itself over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a51a6bfa0611441ba9b56b795ac8285c9eaa226cfe159b9d149a62ed489d43f5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Albin Kelly C.; Simons Christopher T.. Psychophysical Evaluation of a Sanshool Derivative (Alkylamide) and the Elucidation of Mechanisms Subserving Tingle. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0009520; article XML SHA-256 42892f01e40f44d42e7b50a0b416c92145fcaf0af713c99621ca0500df19d100. “Psychophysical Evaluation of a Sanshool Derivative (Alkylamide) and the Elucidation of Mechanisms Subserving Tingle” (10.1371/journal.pone.0009520).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0009520). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-destructiveness
<a id="self-destructiveness"></a>

Self-destructiveness is presented here as a proposed cross-diagnostic psychopathological concept in which a person engages in self-harming patterns that are driven by reward-related processes. In this view, conditions such as anorexia nervosa and non-suicidal self-injury can be understood as related forms of self-destructive behavior linked with problems in emotion regulation and reward-system functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bbf52385260fe5f97977b516d4a6bba95711c8a18aabefcf35eee6df34b18cf8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Oudijn Marloes; Linders Jara; Mocking Roel; Lok Anja; van Elburg Annemarie; Denys D.. Psychopathological and Neurobiological Overlap Between Anorexia Nervosa and Self-Injurious Behavior: A Narrative Review and Conceptual Hypotheses. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.756238; article XML SHA-256 0a853aafa8baac3fb5d3a86e688c50c6c8c37fccbec2bcf4562f38140161af47. “Psychopathological and Neurobiological Overlap Between Anorexia Nervosa and Self-Injurious Behavior: A Narrative Review and Conceptual Hypotheses” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.756238).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.756238). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-determination
<a id="self-determination"></a>

Self-determination means independence or freedom to direct oneself without outside restraint or authority. In historical discussions of the will, it can also mean a will that acts relatively free from motives imposed by others or by accepted authorities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 33d770e1c8227ecc146589bd83751a9b512164d71f15de54bf3e3d33e1adf318

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Autonomy” (Autonomy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Autonomy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-directedness
<a id="self-directedness"></a>

Self-directedness is a character trait marked by being responsible, goal-oriented, resourceful, and self-accepting. It also involves having good habits that support a person’s chosen direction in life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 96090aee7d33f6a45e574eb1e14f74c4e68003b45d9b987053b9884127755824

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shahini Najmeh; Talaei Ali; Salimi Zanireh; Adinepour Sarab Moussalreza; Gholamzad Shakiba; Teimouri Ali; Hajebi Khaniki Saeedeh; Kamkar Mohammadzaman. Temperament and character traits in substance use disorder in Iran: a case control study. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s40359-021-00647-x; article XML SHA-256 904579ec9913c5acf34f5c1b106deaa58ee2485d7ebe48e927724c84d3046b8e. “Temperament and character traits in substance use disorder in Iran: a case control study” (10.1186/s40359-021-00647-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00647-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-discipline
<a id="self-discipline"></a>

In this historical psychology source, self-discipline means the deliberate training of one’s own habits through steady, repeated mental effort. It refers to practices like regularly reviewing and organizing experience so that attention and recall become more effective, even if basic retentiveness itself is not changed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6bda393b939af49e02c2a0ad1805f3b6365cb894f13077f77d612f88d0a9aeb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-disclosure
<a id="self-disclosure"></a>

Self-disclosure is a person’s willingness to share personal information with other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb09b5fccabdb3281d3ae424f48f9dc4acb2196915958da156ab17e7ed440b31

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self Disclosure” (D012650).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012650). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-discrepancy
<a id="self-discrepancy"></a>

Self-discrepancy is a mismatch between how a person sees their actual self and how they believe they ideally should be or ought to be. In self-discrepancy theory, these inconsistencies in self-representation are linked with shame, guilt, depression, and anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bddd07de5d3dd6b8d67ea401cc531a816b59c1bda3a48de02a4c98cf26aa750f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Oh Hyunjoo; Lee Dong-gwi; Cho Hunggu. The differential roles of shame and guilt in the relationship between self-discrepancy and psychological maladjustment. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1215177; article XML SHA-256 0de4a36943d2fbbf783f7fc08236b7915fa67e9d7fe71524923156977f68cfca. “The differential roles of shame and guilt in the relationship between self-discrepancy and psychological maladjustment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1215177).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1215177). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## self-effacement
<a id="self-effacement"></a>

Self-effacement is the effort to turn attention away from oneself and one’s own troubles, and instead live by higher aims, useful work, and less self-centred feeling. In this historical source, it is presented as the opposite of self-consciousness, self-distrust, and selfish preoccupation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c47c5787992278d843a1c47a48b7d444e777f31288637d7b46b14eab4e3c054

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1564500-1576500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-efficacy
<a id="self-efficacy"></a>

Self-efficacy is a mental belief or expectation about your own ability to carry out the actions needed to achieve a particular result. In psychology, it is also understood as an important part of theories about behavior change used in therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c32d59a252af9c1ebc3505cdeda1d6cebeb6f486512c48eb9529cb729810a836

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self Efficacy” (D020377).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020377). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-esteem
<a id="self-esteem"></a>

Self-esteem is a person’s overall evaluation of themselves, including both positive and negative views of who they are. In psychology, it is treated as an important aspect of children’s physical and psychological development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a39a6ead4aef7d02d4fff2bd2a252cc33dd951210db0c2e806ca3aaf33b20db0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shiota Shoichi; Ohitokata Takahiro; Harada Hiroshi. Morning yoga as an embodied regulatory practice: longitudinal changes in children’s self-esteem and gratitude following participation in a school-based yoga program. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884043; article XML SHA-256 3460a88c2e68c43484aa2f36d568ae50c20aee442d7decb973697687d094ade8. “Morning yoga as an embodied regulatory practice: longitudinal changes in children’s self-esteem and gratitude following participation in a school-based yoga program” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884043).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884043). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-evident
<a id="self-evident"></a>

In this historical source, self-evident refers to something recognized as true without needing proof, or as not open to proof at all. It describes the kind of truth attributed to an axiom or ultimate principle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a12dc9af044d0abb5ea5298c6f3ad41598c883f9b2cc4345fd53b1f566c79ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Axiom” (Axiom).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Axiom). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-examination
<a id="self-examination"></a>

Self-examination is checking your own body, usually to look for possible signs of disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7c7e688ea9859fb4d96b6316d4ef85d49d92a6d365ed421130ae0aec805a11de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self-Examination” (D016353).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016353). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-expression
<a id="self-expression"></a>

In this historical idealist usage, self-expression means the rational or ethical self making its own nature real in the world. It is the self’s striving toward complete realization, though in Fichte’s view that completion remains an ideal rather than something fully achieved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 069a2f1b2776c65298fc6666a63ca9908db8ba3eb040199639282e066163cc2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Idealism” (Idealism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Idealism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-extension
<a id="self-extension"></a>

Self-extension is the psychological process of experiencing something outside oneself, such as a social networking site, as part of one’s self-system. In this context, it means perceiving the platform as an extension of the self, which can help explain how people manage privacy boundaries there.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd4f189e39525a733d64701183796397d15d43dc25399d31296fc3e2cef40481

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kang Hyunjin; Shin Wonsun. When Facebook Becomes a Part of the Self: How Do Motives for Using Facebook Influence Privacy Management?. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769075; article XML SHA-256 a8aeb5f16b06ef698e575919a5e8db505665704a159de747ca38f194b762d0e5. “When Facebook Becomes a Part of the Self: How Do Motives for Using Facebook Influence Privacy Management?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769075).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769075). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-feeding
<a id="self-feeding"></a>

Self-feeding means obtaining one’s own food independently. In the historical source, it is used to describe a larval stage as distinct from an embryo, because the young organism must feed itself and therefore has functioning locomotor and digestive systems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 82ffab04b218a572ce31aa26fc5d0b7caf5c56b93ba2913ce3beb3df0ff20002

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Larva” (Larva).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L2defs.htm#Larva). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-guide
<a id="self-guide"></a>

In self-discrepancy theory, a self-guide is a standard or image of attributes used to evaluate oneself. An ideal self-guide is the qualities a person wants to have, while an ought self-guide is the qualities another person believes the individual should have.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4663ad6dbaa0ebb097d6aacd77a8598bf14847de24775813fb3636f7b7386e96

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Min-Kyeong; Jung Young Hoon; Kyeong Sunghyon; Shin Yu-Bin; Kim Eunjoo; Kim Jae-Jin. Neural Correlates of Distorted Self-concept in Individuals With Internet Gaming Disorder: A Functional MRI Study. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00330; article XML SHA-256 fe5fa625b40408fd179a3a1f044a3d94ea187cc3f68cc42ddb330aaf339964a0. “Neural Correlates of Distorted Self-concept in Individuals With Internet Gaming Disorder: A Functional MRI Study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00330).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00330). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-handicapping
<a id="self-handicapping"></a>

Self-handicapping is a defensive strategy in which a person reduces effort or creates obstacles for themselves when a challenging task feels threatening to their competence. It serves to protect self-image by providing a way to explain poor performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7166a8e3e1e96e2d58e8a72ac01a684e9e7c555026656f6ca7a69583ddb2c8ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Uras Muhammed Celal. Mathematics teaching outcome expectancy, self-handicapping, and mathematics teaching anxiety: a two-wave mediation study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887406; article XML SHA-256 a27d89c21807d7a26dbf3dfe8d703f66aa30a205830a11cd776770523725e447. “Mathematics teaching outcome expectancy, self-handicapping, and mathematics teaching anxiety: a two-wave mediation study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887406).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887406). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-help
<a id="self-help"></a>

In mental health, self-help refers to getting support from a self-help or support group where people share their problems and achievements with one another. These groups may meet in person or online, but their advice should be treated cautiously and is not a substitute for guidance from a health care provider.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d9079b9a6bfc84cbebe885918ee6d92beaf52627bfc1a315706b4d826c1b6189

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 77e8e3f9797bdd3e545d836e3c7a022d849dbcb9046d75b9663fada09c613399. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-ideal
<a id="self-ideal"></a>

In Arnold’s theory, the self-ideal is a person’s guiding ideal of who they should become. It is described as orienting positive emotions and the desire for happiness toward valuable, meaningful life goals, and is linked with maturity and the flourishing of personality rather than pleasure alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3704b1a469d960606ed47cc6b41096fe5ae1a85b06b4482f005d51623b41a5cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ruiz-Fuster Fátima; Bernal-Martínez de Soria Aurora; Echavarría Martín F.. Emotional regulation and Arnold’s self-ideal: a way to flourishment. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1425850; article XML SHA-256 d1051319e2972beaf729fc97772ac12d56dae10b2ba8ccc990364667eb2d220d. “Emotional regulation and Arnold’s self-ideal: a way to flourishment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1425850).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1425850). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-identity
<a id="self-identity"></a>

Self-identity is the condition of being the same with oneself, especially as persistence without change through time. In this historical philosophical use, it is contrasted with change and was treated as a mark of being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 88400543ef6dcd59445ac297a5c92f37768985e3b80a4fe229f96b24cb42ecfb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1596000-1608000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-image
<a id="self-image"></a>

Self-image is the many-sided mental picture a person has of themselves. It includes how they perceive and understand their own traits, values, lifestyle, and social roles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d787f54de398dcb785232f3c8b2d50523c9a22d1d6052a8bfb2f4a896680678

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fan Junchen; Fan Yajing; Li Qing; Yu Shuhan; Liang Chenjie; Ibrar Ahmad Muhammad; Zhang Yi; Lu Yunhang. The impact of sports brand image and product quality on consumer satisfaction: the mediating effects of self-image congruence. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778226; article XML SHA-256 4656615a04b5bd6a39ee8d55a5bbb0cf0eed0991b031bf57e39a19a354be5d3a. “The impact of sports brand image and product quality on consumer satisfaction: the mediating effects of self-image congruence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778226).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778226). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-injurious behavior
<a id="self-injurious-behavior"></a>

Self-injurious behavior is behavior in which a person deliberately hurts or harms themselves, but not with the aim of suicide or for sexual purposes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3b2ce12bd80f0bedfd5dc922c35d3b4de0e7a40aef366492ea9616d4d71a5e1b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self-Injurious Behavior” (D016728).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016728). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-insight
<a id="self-insight"></a>

Self-insight is a person’s awareness and understanding of their own subjective experiences, including their thoughts, feelings, and related mental processes. People differ in how much self-insight they have, and higher self-insight is linked in this source to richer understanding of words for abstract and emotional experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ffbd1a4889ff86c2f5187877588923389caa48bf21ac6e1359d6f3cb1d50dc7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Xu; Kang Chunyan; Guo Taomei. The Effects of Gender and Self-Insight on Early Semantic Processing. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0114421; article XML SHA-256 e2554ce29262fd7b8cc7a01116e62203361e692a6c207ec32d108b0c81f7cfd0. “The Effects of Gender and Self-Insight on Early Semantic Processing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0114421).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0114421). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-management
<a id="self-management"></a>

Self-management is a person’s ability to handle a chronic condition in daily life. It includes watching their condition and managing the thoughts, behaviors, and emotions needed to maintain a satisfactory quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5964f83909b28184a7adc57176a5705d0bc408fcf42cbe0122c77991f536c67e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self-Management” (D000073278).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000073278). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-management therapy
<a id="self-management-therapy"></a>

Self-management therapy is described here as a brief, low-intensity therapeutic approach that can be used across different kinds of problems rather than for only one diagnosis. In this context, it is intended to improve health in people with chronic pelvic pain that has not responded to medical treatment and may also lessen social, economic, and health-care burden.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a109cbec37288f3907ee9838cd895129b4ef543fefaf21ce47a8eecd2b88234

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lackner Jeffrey M; Jaccard James; Quigley Brian M; Ablove Tova S; Danforth Teresa L; Firth Rebecca S; Gudleski Gregory D; Krasner Susan S; Radziwon Christopher D; Vargovich Alison M; Clemens J Quentin; Naliboff Bruce D. Study protocol and methods for Easing Pelvic Pain Interventions Clinical Research Program (EPPIC): a randomized clinical trial of brief, low-intensity, transdiagnostic cognitive behavioral therapy vs education/support for urologic chronic pelvic pain syndrome (UCPPS). 2022; DOI 10.1186/s13063-022-06554-9; article XML SHA-256 be723625b552ac024f3341d113376ba10ab79fa999320229e65df8234fdbc2ad. “Study protocol and methods for Easing Pelvic Pain Interventions Clinical Research Program (EPPIC): a randomized clinical trial of brief, low-intensity, transdiagnostic cognitive behavioral therapy vs education/support for urologic chronic pelvic pain syndrome (UCPPS)” (10.1186/s13063-022-06554-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-022-06554-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-monitoring
<a id="self-monitoring"></a>

Self-monitoring is the ability to keep track of your own behavior and performance, including checking whether a task was done accurately and noticing how your actions affect other people. In this source, it is described as a skill assessed within an executive function behavior rating scale for children.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8ec839a11c3446005aab92fd5fe1942ed16d72108a9eed313d87cd8b4f382ab3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Monitor Scale” (C121472).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-mutilation
<a id="self-mutilation"></a>

Self-mutilation is the act of harming one’s own body so severely that a limb or another essential body part is cut off or permanently destroyed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2286cae464227265e52173cd8c565489d4f3c2983b5e185f1718b304c46aeb75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self Mutilation” (D012652).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012652). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-objectification
<a id="self-objectification"></a>

Self-objectification is a way of viewing oneself mainly from an outsider’s perspective, with appearance given more importance than inner qualities or bodily experiences. It is linked to internalizing social appearance standards, comparing oneself unfavorably with others, and can contribute to body-focused shame, reduced awareness of internal bodily signals, and weaker self-regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4efcbcb40fb1578218b0d668719415beb699c8aacceb04b4f85818dce97b74e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Zhennan; Fu Mei; Shi Jianmei; Hu Yinying; Gao Xiangping. The psychological mechanism of Self-objectification: the interaction between sociocultural pressures and the self-system. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1531222; article XML SHA-256 84371fd117033fbbc81eeeaca6c1ac2b72554d64ce12b9c7147ef42ff5b62692. “The psychological mechanism of Self-objectification: the interaction between sociocultural pressures and the self-system” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1531222).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1531222). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-perception
<a id="self-perception"></a>

Self-perception is a person’s mental image or idea of themselves, shaped by personal experience, cultural norms, and social interactions. It includes aspects such as self-esteem and self-schemas and influences how people interpret experiences, relate to others, and respond to stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2cc85a5d6a0b1a7f8460fcaedbe0425f0152d17bd0fa4ee2bb8529a9a1e188bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ibrahim Radhwan Hussein; Hamarash Mariwan Qadir; Ahmed Abdulhakeem Jamil; Al Mukhtar Salwa Hazim; Yaas Marghoob Hussein. The role of self-perception in mental health: current insights on self-esteem and self-schemas. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1683194; article XML SHA-256 7a70189dcfd19e11108cb957dd49171bfd0d5c1c59169c925d97ab22b1a2d999. “The role of self-perception in mental health: current insights on self-esteem and self-schemas” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1683194).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1683194). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-presentation
<a id="self-presentation"></a>

Self-presentation is the way people try to shape how others see them. In this packet, it refers specifically to strategically selecting and sharing content to create a desirable image, seem interesting or admired, and influence others’ impressions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01d69769d4cf52b5244030a4e7295ec0af0aebfcb4d2287243e6eccc43dcedae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zheng Weijun; Wang Xianle; Chen Xia; Weng Wei. The “Perfect Trip” on social media: strategic self-presentation in travel sharing, posting anxiety, and retrospective trip satisfaction with social comparison orientation as a moderator. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805325; article XML SHA-256 f8463a61bebfd2a1c577e65627aab6cb26774f2b73e197b80f3f3a1685399d0b. “The “Perfect Trip” on social media: strategic self-presentation in travel sharing, posting anxiety, and retrospective trip satisfaction with social comparison orientation as a moderator” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805325).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805325). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-promotion
<a id="self-promotion"></a>

Self-promotion is the use of appearance or behavior to draw attention to oneself and improve how one is viewed by others. In the source context, it refers to using clothing choices to enhance perceived physical attractiveness and attract attention from potential mates.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bf11f94a59fdbb6dbd160f57909091dce1533f24f303c6dee0f3a4143d56cc4c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Prokop Pavol; Tomanová Čergeťová Ivana; Balcerčík Jozef. Women’s and men’s perceptions of (not) wearing a bra in public. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1797201; article XML SHA-256 f57b9ec6825a466fbec47c084297b24c011fb9c061cc3f022652767977901ec2. “Women’s and men’s perceptions of (not) wearing a bra in public” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1797201).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1797201). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-protection
<a id="self-protection"></a>

In this context, self-protection means a student’s awareness of risks to their voice and their use of preventive habits to avoid strain, fatigue, hoarseness, and misuse. It involves noticing vocal condition, regulating practice and rest, managing emotional readiness, and making sustainable choices during learning and performance preparation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb0690458d74bb5df220ff52c0b5c3fb95d642c50b0ba8b2ad24f67a20b4813f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xiao Guo; Mazlan Chamil Arkhasa Nikko. Self-regulated vocal health in undergraduate vocal music education: a qualitative needs analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1894233; article XML SHA-256 783e194f09d85643898b1b2d2b1b47f688bb80c7ddc0f716a94a246c0b0aab1a. “Self-regulated vocal health in undergraduate vocal music education: a qualitative needs analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1894233).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1894233). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self psychology
<a id="self-psychology"></a>

Self psychology is a psychoanalytic theory that interprets behavior in relation to the self. It expands psychoanalytic ideas about narcissism and the self, emphasizing awareness of excessive needs for approval and self-gratification.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5873be468b21181938b340d0874ae16fe56b0230d22c8a4b864e519b223f4ddb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self Psychology” (D019455).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019455). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-punishment
<a id="self-punishment"></a>

Self-punishment is a function or purpose a behavior may serve for a person, especially in the context of self-harm or non-suicidal self-injury. It means the behavior is carried out as a way of punishing oneself rather than, for example, regulating emotion or communicating with others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 32c7ffffe200c6f3eaf8a1c80947a61b98e7a83709e58fdabe464d83664c6cf2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhu Li-Li; Qian Jing; Yan Wen-Jing. The interactive turn in generative AI for self-harm. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1877825; article XML SHA-256 14558a8bcd17f084ff40a229196a164eb0c7e47024b0e000e6d4bab22bf3e430. “The interactive turn in generative AI for self-harm” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1877825).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1877825). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-rating scale
<a id="self-rating-scale"></a>

A self-rating scale is a self-report questionnaire in which people rate their own symptoms or difficulties. In this context, it is used to assess mental health problems by comparing questionnaire scores with a clinical interview standard.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a76e45f2ef3ebee052452205bb7526ec15c77cfcd9f6f6e0d1039eefc182c2d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ventevogel Peter; Komproe Ivan H; Jordans Mark J; Feo Paolo; De Jong Joop TVM. Validation of the Kirundi versions of brief self-rating scales for common mental disorders among children in Burundi. 2014; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-14-36; article XML SHA-256 6700fde8444d0794cb1233b17358af250a9b73b4c048ad57d2995cf6173602d6. “Validation of the Kirundi versions of brief self-rating scales for common mental disorders among children in Burundi” (10.1186/1471-244x-14-36).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-14-36). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-realization
<a id="self-realization"></a>

In this historical ethics context, self-realization is named as one of the rival ideas about the highest end of conduct—that is, a candidate for the ultimate aim to which other purposes should be subordinated. The packet does not provide a fuller explanation of what self-realization itself means.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 104c19274e53b9c33927850746f8b9a9e834e12ec14f90091ff1549fb3846f47

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “End (ethical)” (End).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#End). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-reference effect
<a id="self-reference-effect"></a>

The self-reference effect is the tendency for information linked to oneself to be remembered or recognized better than information linked to someone else. In other words, material processed in relation to the self tends to leave a stronger memory trace.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3045952aa685a92465bfc63487605b9623c8526d7972ebc5b8b54d1b86213a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yaoi Ken; Osaka Mariko; Osaka Naoyuki. Neural correlates of the self-reference effect: evidence from evaluation and recognition processes. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00383; article XML SHA-256 14d8fbcd355bd2fd8479f7f0d44f5ae6a71cd570085e036b98c3094c06fd8441. “Neural correlates of the self-reference effect: evidence from evaluation and recognition processes” (10.3389/fnhum.2015.00383).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00383). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-regulated learning
<a id="self-regulated-learning"></a>

Self-regulated learning is the process of planning, monitoring, and evaluating your own performance in order to reach personal goals. In this packet, it is described as an important part of improving classical music performance across lessons, practice, and performance settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 776222a974c9cbdccab42d9791d80ab9864647ecd7e2ed0d7d2225536c8a0360

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fujimoto Marie. Interpretive autonomy predicts self-regulated learning behaviors in lessons, practice, and performance among classical musicians. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859878; article XML SHA-256 2c6fb6f02db579d4fee8ba8f580f8274592ca0f877a6d1add148221164d2c1da. “Interpretive autonomy predicts self-regulated learning behaviors in lessons, practice, and performance among classical musicians” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859878).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859878). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-regulation
<a id="self-regulation"></a>

Self-regulation is the ability to monitor and manage one’s emotions, behavior, and impulses when responding to outside demands so that a person can function effectively in society.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3adf7aac31725dfd9dae6326809ad44739c4fa6393ebc0a86a88a1b4105d06e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self-Control” (D000068356).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000068356). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-relevance
<a id="self-relevance"></a>

Self-relevance is the degree to which another person is personally connected or meaningful to someone, such as being a friend, acquaintance, or stranger. In this study context, higher self-relevance was linked to more generous sharing toward that person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 607b8a0f20446595fe7a1b392234035000da5b3ddad7e0f7e1775ee4181c1d99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Wenjie; Xiang Songmei; Dai Hongmei; Ren Mengmeng; Shen Yuqi; Fan Wei; Zhong Yiping. The Impact of Self-Relevance on Preschool Children’s Sharing. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01028; article XML SHA-256 d6316f9c8de4aa58c8a107f653951780734d58fba3b5ce2b74d2f939fc59732f. “The Impact of Self-Relevance on Preschool Children’s Sharing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01028).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01028). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-report bias
<a id="self-report-bias"></a>

Self-report bias is distortion that happens when people describe their own behavior in ways that do not fully match objective measurements. In this packet, it refers to errors such as overestimating physical activity or showing weaker agreement between survey reports and device-based measures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 02471324eda9a197a0f2cc07ff42590c788e541df0958a0bb1ee82bf3d271ab1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Curtis Rachel G; Olds Timothy; Plotnikoff Ronald; Vandelanotte Corneel; Edney Sarah; Ryan Jillian; Maher Carol. Validity and bias on the online active Australia survey: activity level and participant factors associated with self-report bias. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12874-020-0896-4; article XML SHA-256 f59e549b623b943bbfeda81c586c37ce7bc33a81a7ec983dca3e5f304b89b70e. “Validity and bias on the online active Australia survey: activity level and participant factors associated with self-report bias” (10.1186/s12874-020-0896-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-020-0896-4). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-stimulation
<a id="self-stimulation"></a>

Self-stimulation is the act of doing something to raise or create arousal in oneself. It can appear in different situations, such as when an understimulated infant explores the environment or babbles alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb750a7f1cbee80d80597574435e1acbe87e2ad588d07ba2d24c55d6c67191fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self Stimulation” (D012653).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012653). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## self-worth
<a id="self-worth"></a>

Self-worth is the idea that a person has inherent value and dignity. In this ethical sense, that basic worth grounds rights such as life, liberty, and protection from harm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0b1c4e5b242ffdc6c7847bf5c7377bc523e71b17f6c90cec2f570801223cb99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Moral Status” (D000072577).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000072577). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## semantic
<a id="semantic"></a>

Semantic refers to meaning in language; in this packet, it describes meaning-based links between words or morphemes that can change how easily a later word or phrase is understood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dff1f9cf2be3769306afaf62dd0db54901a80973c05a4cbc7821e0fea566f2ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lei Qianqian; Wang Jianqin; Yang Xingang. Inhibitory reversal of morpheme-mediated semantic priming in L2 Chinese: embodiment conflicts in conventional action metaphor processing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778678; article XML SHA-256 0a8bbd10b3a5ed433482745771506c3511411136ef2c0e3dfde322a9c2e50ba8. “Inhibitory reversal of morpheme-mediated semantic priming in L2 Chinese: embodiment conflicts in conventional action metaphor processing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778678).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778678). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## semantic dementia
<a id="semantic-dementia"></a>

Semantic dementia is a form of frontotemporal dementia in which loss of semantic memory leads to a gradually worsening language problem, and it is linked to marked shrinkage in the temporal lobe. Along with verbal difficulties, it can involve notable social-emotional and behavioral changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f81f6ade26492a8dfbfe2a66766d93295c2759f666aa6e099492440b6befbbcc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sakuta Shizuka; Hashimoto Mamoru; Ikeda Manabu; Koyama Asuka; Takasaki Akihiro; Hotta Maki; Fukuhara Ryuji; Ishikawa Tomohisa; Yuki Seiji; Miyagawa Yusuke; Hidaka Yosuke; Kaneda Keiichiro; Takebayashi Minoru. Clinical features of behavioral symptoms in patients with semantic dementia: Does semantic dementia cause autistic traits?. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0247184; article XML SHA-256 0a4a97bb6801ab9cdb20cb9c0c7448163634ac1e9a0781772cd46362e4d4cfb8. “Clinical features of behavioral symptoms in patients with semantic dementia: Does semantic dementia cause autistic traits?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0247184).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247184). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## semantic differential
<a id="semantic-differential"></a>

A semantic differential is a way of examining the meaning a person gives to a word or concept by having them rate it between opposite adjectives, such as good and bad. Where the concept is placed along these scales reflects its connotative or felt meaning for that person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c73baba7fa379b73683ad0a4157ea16dafc1d4274718a9a3fd383e0094d36fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Semantic Differential” (D012659).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012659). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## semantic encoding
<a id="semantic-encoding"></a>

Semantic encoding is the processing of information in terms of its meaning, creating associations with related ideas or words. Deeper semantic encoding supports stronger understanding and later responses that reflect those meaning-based links.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8be6e798c3c793c9beaa14e504fba7c07c58e02fcc14d282116fc307f5744a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Froud Karen; Levinson Lisa; Maddox Chaille; Smith Paul. Middle-schoolers’ reading and lexical-semantic processing depth in response to digital and print media: An N400 study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290807; article XML SHA-256 5f16836e1988402990e06876025102aec92658a96209fc049d953ebe4f6e8eca. “Middle-schoolers’ reading and lexical-semantic processing depth in response to digital and print media: An N400 study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290807).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290807). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## semantic generalization
<a id="semantic-generalization"></a>

Semantic generalization is the carryover of meaning-based similarity between stimulus features, so that different features are treated as related because they share the same semantic content, such as “left” location and a shape pointing left. In this context, it can make effects appear to transfer across different perceptual dimensions even when low-level features differ.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e95cae4493e8e76a5850505c97c3f854aa4601d945d474d0bea2ccddfa6d6a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wendt Mike; Luna-Rodriguez Aquiles; Jacobsen Thomas. Sequential modulation of distractor-interference produced by semantic generalization of stimulus features. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01271; article XML SHA-256 3a6ba98924c06054f99cb4ba72f20d59878e6b33ba2ba4d847cab0657dd90279. “Sequential modulation of distractor-interference produced by semantic generalization of stimulus features” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01271).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01271). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## semantic memory
<a id="semantic-memory"></a>

Semantic memory is the part of memory for concepts and their meaning-related features. It is thought to depend on stored knowledge representations working together with control processes that help select, retrieve, use, and monitor relevant meaning while suppressing irrelevant information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d682f3e45deb79784ed0d99c888d95e7a8d839d38158c3e194844a7fb0d8d60b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Haitas Niobe; Amiri Mahnoush; Wilson Maximiliano; Joanette Yves; Steffener Jason. Age-preserved semantic memory and the CRUNCH effect manifested as differential semantic control networks: An fMRI study. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0249948; article XML SHA-256 4f56e6fc0746bd17fe71e3963f2053cf954c2073ccfc0347c9100a34853cd135. “Age-preserved semantic memory and the CRUNCH effect manifested as differential semantic control networks: An fMRI study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0249948).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249948). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## semantic paraphasia
<a id="semantic-paraphasia"></a>

Semantic paraphasia is a speaking error in which a person says the wrong word and the substituted word is related in meaning to the word they intended to say. It can be a sign of a neurological disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d53b7800c6346f7eff8425b0396fea1602b677c31e965d84820781b8890da04

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Verbal Paraphasia” (C220224).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## semantic priming
<a id="semantic-priming"></a>

Semantic priming is the tendency for a person to process a word more easily when it is preceded by a meaningfully related word rather than an unrelated one. It is used to study how knowledge is organized and retrieved, and the effect can reflect both automatic and more deliberate processing of the first word.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4ce56dea2624c09ea8389ceea4c0e67c987a86d44904be43b3455d2a93e4c94

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mangat Ajay; Taikh Alexander; Gagne Christina; Spalding Thomas L. The influence of prime characteristics in semantic priming. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1680365; article XML SHA-256 a59e86c09eab8675a479f81afcf77d674548665182cce794e62a8321b42258d1. “The influence of prime characteristics in semantic priming” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1680365).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1680365). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## semi-interquartile range
<a id="semi-interquartile-range"></a>

The semi-interquartile range is half of the interquartile range, which is the distance between the 75th and 25th percentiles. It is used as a robust measure of variability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73ec514791555e84e77810b351a44feae9448bf3a868d0e554f956f9007adc3f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Semi-Interquartile Range” (semi-interquartile_range.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/semi-interquartile_range.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## semicircular canals
<a id="semicircular-canals"></a>

Semicircular canals are three canals in the bony labyrinth of the inner ear: anterior, posterior, and lateral. They are arranged at right angles to one another, lie behind and above the vestibule, and contain the semicircular ducts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d0b86008774e3d7c55e8712cb667bc08033f0f8c65979ea71c466301628fab8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Semicircular Canals” (D012665).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012665). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## semiconscious
<a id="semiconscious"></a>

Semiconscious describes a state of awareness in which a person moves in and out of consciousness, with awareness present at some times and absent at others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dada97d3df70354258d81489b98040792bd59f151c96b90d573fa87b3aad2565

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Semi-conscious” (C88440).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## seminiferous tubule
<a id="seminiferous-tubule"></a>

A seminiferous tubule is a testicular structure with a complex cellular arrangement that includes Sertoli cells, peritubular myoid cells, and spermatogonia. It forms a local microenvironment, or niche, that supports the survival, growth, and differentiation of spermatogonia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9895f30e77cc05725e6c46cf073f7a02e3ef9b56bc9f0990edd3c9f9bbeb514

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mäkelä Juho-Antti; Toppari Jorma; Rivero-Müller Adolfo; Ventelä Sami. Reconstruction of Mouse Testicular Cellular Microenvironments in Long-Term Seminiferous Tubule Culture. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0090088; article XML SHA-256 de2ac142185a50a25bc2f4dadc65df10f2f4826961b08d0abca8f9321d3d1c13. “Reconstruction of Mouse Testicular Cellular Microenvironments in Long-Term Seminiferous Tubule Culture” (10.1371/journal.pone.0090088).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090088). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## semiology
<a id="semiology"></a>

Semiology, also spelled semeiology, is a historical term for the study of signs, and in a broader sense for the use and meaning of words and signs in general. In medicine it also refers to the study of the signs or symptoms of disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ff8eaf35f575eaa4273d2bedbd6e9671f07f5c584f0b8d9da3dfac722c5087ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2908500-2920500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## semiotics
<a id="semiotics"></a>

Semiotics is the study of signs and sign systems, including language, images, and gestures. It focuses on how signs come to have meaning through interpretation by a perceiver.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 768a0981df23a8f18272f7589ae2b87bad4c3731d1f7940cc36d0a02c8750729

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Clarkson Melissa D.; Perry Noah C.; Detwiler Landon T.. The Graphic Descriptor Ontology: An ontology for semantic annotation of graphics and its application to graphic libraries of anatomical standards. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347931; article XML SHA-256 a378ac5c2995356f5cb82da44665ad42f2701014cde411d6cf0a195e4f88b8fd. “The Graphic Descriptor Ontology: An ontology for semantic annotation of graphics and its application to graphic libraries of anatomical standards” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347931).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347931). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## semitone
<a id="semitone"></a>

In this historical source, a semitone means half a tone in music. The entry also notes a sign that raises or lowers a note by a semitone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5cf28d5c5a0f963e56a9eb5b302896ebd7e4904e5aa573cdbcfc0107a13148a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Chroma” (Chroma).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Chroma). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sender
<a id="sender"></a>

In communication, a sender is the individual or group that produces and delivers a signal to a receiver. In this packet, the sender is the parasite that uses venom displays as a signal to influence the host’s behavior during conflict.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cd4505cd3246d4fa08645a8df99a68df32653f6dc6b88dd8c71941baf939fd12

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Boot Matthew R; Sozanski Kyle S; Davis Mazie; Hamilton Ian M; Adams Rachelle M M. Guest-ant social parasites avoid conflict with social hosts using venom signaling. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345143; article XML SHA-256 9bebc1dd95f34ed984c754dbeab78616638e143fc615f6130ec6c99c4ff7aa7f. “Guest-ant social parasites avoid conflict with social hosts using venom signaling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345143).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345143). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## senescence
<a id="senescence"></a>

Senescence is a cellular aging state controlled mainly by the p16INK4a/Rb and p53/p21 pathways. It can be triggered by DNA damage responses or by epigenetic changes that alter gene expression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3ef4673d803e225292b4022e3b2f96c712917aeb8a668f8e5adc0c9bdbd2b246

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Dongliang; Liu Yudong; Wu Tianding; Hu Jianzhong. UTX/Top2β axis mediated spinal cord microvascular endothelial cells senescence exacerbates spinal cord injury. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338326; article XML SHA-256 843ca0a1be833ca6626ef077c70b8705226eaf539764a22280e2cf06529869d6. “UTX/Top2β axis mediated spinal cord microvascular endothelial cells senescence exacerbates spinal cord injury” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338326).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338326). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## senile
<a id="senile"></a>

Senile refers to the stage of advanced age in an individual. In the packet, it describes older animals that showed signs consistent with age-related decline, such as possible reduced tooth function or changed chewing behaviour.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e86481531f92a6c94a7e0c00c5b8ad4dd1bf7bd45f2c92e874a2331a221677e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schwermann Achim H.; Schultz Julia A.; Fuchs Eberhard; Leha Andreas; Hummel Jürgen; Kullmer Ottmar; Steuer Patrick; Martin Thomas. Does age matter?—Efficiency of mechanical food break down in Tupaia belangeri at different ages. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0274439; article XML SHA-256 6e7f997e6d2a8378bbd1ab5d67703838810c7fa4806ad3f04a6113d5e4cb87f3. “Does age matter?—Efficiency of mechanical food break down in Tupaia belangeri at different ages” (10.1371/journal.pone.0274439).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0274439). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensation
<a id="sensation"></a>

Sensation is the process by which specialized sensory receptor cells convert physical or chemical stimulation in the body into nerve impulses that are sent to sensory areas of the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5cf302baf456cd776dc5f23a26ec5f25cc9926c9020381167615106e7b666521

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sensation” (D012677).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012677). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensation seeking
<a id="sensation-seeking"></a>

Sensation seeking is a tendency to take risks and look for excitement. In psychology, it can be measured with a rating scale used in child behavior assessment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7a6a34c901183fce70784e2947f926a723b9a4f088c7c4e3d11f4efcffc70b85

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sensation Seeking Scale” (C121284).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sensation-Seeking Scale
<a id="sensation-seeking-scale"></a>

The Sensation-Seeking Scale is a rating scale in the Behavior Assessment System for Children. It assesses how much a person tends to take risks and look for excitement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 759fbadb0daceb7373c522e8b2a2d08c9cef288850be55be707d462ab60be416

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sensation Seeking Scale” (C121284).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensation unit
<a id="sensation-unit"></a>

In historical psychophysics, a sensation unit is Fechner’s proposed basic unit of feeling, identified with a just-perceptible increase in stimulation. He treated sensations as if they were built up from equal units of this kind across the scale of intensity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 272368429657ef79f93a3c47ab2d23b8caf69aba211c83243808265ae0cac283

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sense experience
<a id="sense-experience"></a>

Sense experience is immediate experience gained through the senses. In this historical context, it is treated as the direct basis from which knowledge or truth is sought in empiricist thought.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac9fb9e884384f2c543171133ed3f4110dd6269ad24d1f136441dfdff542e3de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Empiricism” (Empiricism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Empiricism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sense impression
<a id="sense-impression"></a>

In this historical source, a sense impression is a sensory experience that can be referred to a particular position in space, such as a locality on the skin or retina. It is discussed as something that may be projected to the body’s surface and related to how objects are located in the external world.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 441c0fe5d84d65cd9f85f3df0b8b6e8e61489e9e5e820c6834706777ffaaa20c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Localization (in space)” (Localization (in space)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Localization (in space)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sense of coherence
<a id="sense-of-coherence"></a>

Sense of coherence is a way of seeing life and one’s surroundings as understandable, workable, and worth engaging in. This outlook holds that how people make sense of their lives can positively affect health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 29dfdfae854c71a73d610e67bf746ca94b27a0bb55b1ced9ab219e6b2965ccb4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sense of Coherence” (D060685).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D060685). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sense of equilibrium
<a id="sense-of-equilibrium"></a>

The sense of equilibrium is the bodily awareness involved in keeping oneself upright and balanced. It appears to depend on combined input from muscle, skin, pressure, and vision, with the ear’s semicircular canals helping maintain the muscular tone that supports balance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 29826cfa2e6c5eab077284286dd85a46ba845abb3b395570eb3f5e8b57bb91b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Equilibrium (sensation of)” (Equilibrium(sensation)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Equilibrium(sensation)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sense of presence
<a id="sense-of-presence"></a>

A sense of presence is the feeling of being in an immersive virtual setting as if it were real. In a computer-generated, interactive three-dimensional environment, this experience can reduce avoidance and support emotional engagement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1578560d6773f720ca4f6a20cf30ba0a4c3751a372a0cbf49a9ede074853c450

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy” (D063367).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063367). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sense organ
<a id="sense-organ"></a>

A sense organ is a body structure used for sensing information from the environment. In this packet, it refers specifically to an auditory structure involved in detecting acoustic cues and showing physiological and behavioural function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e9e40812a4163fc4dd450d7bfdc74352bb5611e8e782e1dd8ae0ae437c635e03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lakes-Harlan Reinhard; deVries Thomas; Stölting Heiko; Stumpner Andreas. Useless Hearing in Male Emblemasoma auditrix (Diptera, Sarcophagidae) – A Case of Intralocus Sexual Conflict during Evolution of a Complex Sense Organ?. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0087211; article XML SHA-256 313bbe3bb5842135391ef585c83a365103ddd7f11fef9f3c732530efbe1e7a60. “Useless Hearing in Male Emblemasoma auditrix (Diptera, Sarcophagidae) – A Case of Intralocus Sexual Conflict during Evolution of a Complex Sense Organ?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0087211).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0087211). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensible
<a id="sensible"></a>

Sensible means reasonable or appropriate in the situation. In this source, it describes focusing on clinically relevant areas rather than irrelevant background information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab7f4948b6a31760c24c7c5b5dbe3ff2f1fb67cf0c3c28799b4ea606f71c9f31

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pandurangan Krithika; Gowri Doddi Chandana; Surekha Jonnla Naga; Chafle Pratiksha V.; Reddy Kolagotla Venkateswara; Bansal Shonak; Prakash Krishna; Islam Md. Shabiul; Tariqul Islam Mohammad. Toward reliable computer-aided brain tumor diagnosis: a contrast-enhanced deep learning approach with hybrid KNN classification. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1883543; article XML SHA-256 2027edc1371fc1f81bd193e4ea65e6b82f85330459bfce0937c213cc5bd14af6. “Toward reliable computer-aided brain tumor diagnosis: a contrast-enhanced deep learning approach with hybrid KNN classification” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1883543).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1883543). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensitive
<a id="sensitive"></a>

In this social-psychological context, sensitive refers to an approach that takes account of people’s lived circumstances and structural inequalities when understanding selfhood, resilience, and agency. It emphasizes interpreting experience in relation to social position, adversity, and context rather than treating these as separate from the person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4dfce9fc4d40b49c20533cdbf669bd7e169705a654f9852f1c85773e42d9bff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Wenyuan; Zhu Xiaomin. Beyond vulnerability: reflective selfhood, rural woman identity reinterpretation, and agency under structural constraint. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893046; article XML SHA-256 2f7598fd49a571560ca30b2b253a3df729ae5f81b4a70500b4a20c4126b4c105. “Beyond vulnerability: reflective selfhood, rural woman identity reinterpretation, and agency under structural constraint” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893046).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893046). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensitive dependence
<a id="sensitive-dependence"></a>

Sensitive dependence is a feature of nonlinear systems in which very small differences in starting conditions or disturbances can lead to much larger changes over time. It is a classic property of chaotic systems, which are not random but follow underlying patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96dcad75865b5a713b2f87fa05f7aaa4571a8609f1558ba42bd652e349a697b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nonlinear Dynamics” (D017711).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017711). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensitive period
<a id="sensitive-period"></a>

A sensitive period is a limited developmental window when learning is especially responsive to experience. In the packet, it refers to phonetic learning in infancy, usually around 6 to 12 months of age, and is described as an early milestone linked to later language development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b375bc9ceec5f6122d5b1d6716a02335ca6db2f99e366ee2361cea656c2a41d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Goble Gina; Hennessy Victoria; Cheng Tzu-Han Zoe; Rodda Amy; Taulu Samu; Gordon Reyna L.; Zhao T. Christina. Tracking Acquisition of Language in Kids (TALK) study protocol: A longitudinal investigation of infants at high vs. low risk for atypical speech and language development. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335596; article XML SHA-256 fa0dc92a76b13b892b0d9f14d96e0fe9a28411e280c04040387a6e729a46b124. “Tracking Acquisition of Language in Kids (TALK) study protocol: A longitudinal investigation of infants at high vs. low risk for atypical speech and language development” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335596).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335596). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensitive soul
<a id="sensitive-soul"></a>

In historical philosophy and psychology, the sensitive soul was a lower kind of soul distinguished from the rational soul. In the passage, it is treated, along with the vegetative soul, as a preparatory form in the embryo rather than the form that specifically makes a human being human.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b33e7d84bc3e56e553b9f7b0438490ab9dc5bc0f4b865fed1ec641c61eb27fef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-304500-316500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensitization
<a id="sensitization"></a>

In this packet, sensitization refers to central sensitization: a condition marked by increased sensitivity to pain and other sensory stimuli.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 935883c8058e9ea302f25ac490c149db134e60f99061c52a59c582e645c5e612

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zouini Btissame; Lundqvist Sara; El Mzadi Abdennour; Knez Rajna; Kantzer Anne-Katrin; Sánchez Pérez Ana Maria; Kerekes Nóra. Exploring central sensitization symptoms in children with ADHD and their parents: a case-control study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08296-3; article XML SHA-256 d203dec82d8e9eebd63c3c6a8adcb4d89ad0bd63ec44741c6eda0b5876dcd521. “Exploring central sensitization symptoms in children with ADHD and their parents: a case-control study” (10.1186/s12888-026-08296-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08296-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensor
<a id="sensor"></a>

A sensor is a monitoring point or device that captures input data, such as vibration signals, so the information can be analyzed or combined with data from other sensors. In learning systems, sensor data can be used to extract features and transfer what is learned from one monitoring point to another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3e64ae384fde26d3a68f40f711463667e6a6a5600e7ea735d4632bc3550d3bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Zhijie; Lu Jiao; Ren Yu; Li Songbin. Cross-sensor domain adaptation multi-point monitoring network for mechanical fault diagnosis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358240; article XML SHA-256 13c0f0c710e1c55f556c7d23dff4af298542191e08a735b2ffb16a72e0264e53. “Cross-sensor domain adaptation multi-point monitoring network for mechanical fault diagnosis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358240).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358240). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensorimotor
<a id="sensorimotor"></a>

Sensorimotor refers to the linked functioning of sensory and motor systems, especially how sensory areas and motor areas work together during movement. In the packet, it describes the interaction between somatosensory cortex and motor cortex in movement execution and initiation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 19ac7fb1a4f42e531ce5ee37cd9c939e7917679ddfc3415d28906488df0662a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gimple Sophia; Freudenburg Zachary V.; Ramsey Nick F.; Branco Mariana P.. Temporal responses in sensorimotor cortex during hand movements. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347647; article XML SHA-256 b4fd0f8cf25d0e7323c68f19116182e970ab12c31c04c4af7cd4b80b131c7889. “Temporal responses in sensorimotor cortex during hand movements” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347647).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347647). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensorimotor cortex
<a id="sensorimotor-cortex"></a>

The sensorimotor cortex is a combined region of the cerebral cortex involved in both controlling movement and processing sensory information. It includes motor, somatosensory, gustatory, olfactory, auditory, and visual cortical areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b92b46a0c12ce216547ab4c038dd02908677f656cb4674cedc6ff8a3d51b4a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sensorimotor Cortex” (D066191).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066191). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensorimotor memory
<a id="sensorimotor-memory"></a>

Sensorimotor memory is the short-term carryover of information from a recent action that influences how a later movement is planned and performed. In this source, it refers to remembered object weight from a previous lift, which affects predictive fingertip force scaling on a later lift and can transfer between hands.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7bb1a6fda7df55e34d20887d7d202dee12d2e86650ab291f28a2622da3f4d4c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Polanen Vonne. Transfer of weight information depends differently on used hand and handedness for perception and action. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0278133; article XML SHA-256 25ce49aef172fee8a8e234817bd17df8e4d900d813164ca97745094f45e4fc0a. “Transfer of weight information depends differently on used hand and handedness for perception and action” (10.1371/journal.pone.0278133).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278133). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensorimotor rhythm
<a id="sensorimotor-rhythm"></a>

Sensorimotor rhythm is an EEG frequency band around 12–15 Hz linked to motor-related brain activity. In this packet, stronger or more stable SMR synchronization is described as supporting efficient movement preparation and consistent motor execution, especially under pressure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a537de9e3a413367c48262b1faa0650688ab34095486a1c2e8c3c8a9cc835e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Zhenjun; Liu Heng; Liu Chao; Liu Fuyi; Liu Baohua. Effects of EEG neurofeedback and training interventions on golf putting performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736851; article XML SHA-256 88a31231d8c0fc8599b33a34795325a6fb74a4a29ef804eecd9c008f4e027765. “Effects of EEG neurofeedback and training interventions on golf putting performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736851).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736851). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensorineural deafness
<a id="sensorineural-deafness"></a>

Sensorineural deafness is hearing loss caused by damage in the inner ear cochlea, the auditory nerve, or the brainstem.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c13c9a0012917fdda567f89599fd8fe14133967091e54fc38609ed5c25b5842

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sensorineural Hearing Loss” (C26739).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensorium
<a id="sensorium"></a>

In this historical usage, the sensorium is the conscious nervous mechanism taken as a whole, whose overall balance of activity gives rise to sensation and conscious states. It refers not to a single sensory center, but to the total cortical equilibrium as stimuli shift consciousness from one pattern of activity to another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b4eb9fe6245d23b7264f10900235be83976aa627c150f1eb72dee7ec34dbcac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Brain” (Brain).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B3defs.htm#Brain). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory
<a id="sensory"></a>

Sensory refers to how a person takes in and makes sense of signals from inside the body and from the surrounding environment so they can respond effectively. When this functioning is altered, it can interfere with regulating, combining, or telling apart sensory information and may reduce daily functioning, participation, and well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a246946704528b4dad44f3b46904f16da1839a93042bea59a9e4aaaa9f0be3f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gibello-Rufo Alicia; Garrido-Ardila Elisa M; Jiménez-Palomares María; Cilleros-Sánchez María Carmen; González-Sánchez Blanca; Rodríguez-Mansilla Juan. Sensory processing and its relevance to occupational performance: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1844400; article XML SHA-256 0086a5b6667b96a64dab07b3c2859e802abd106008aaae0d8ce24dddf632d255. “Sensory processing and its relevance to occupational performance: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1844400).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1844400). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory adaptation
<a id="sensory-adaptation"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, sensory adaptation is presented as a form of attention that occurs in response to sensory stimulation. It is described as something drawn out by the object or stimulus, rather than actively bestowed by the mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0fe9ffc43dcabff73c873f61f6c5bd82f48fa074cbbe25820a1121d9bc9bf485

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory ataxia
<a id="sensory-ataxia"></a>

Sensory ataxia is a form of ataxia in which smooth, coordinated voluntary movement is impaired because sensory function is disrupted. It may result from injury to the posterior columns or from peripheral nerve diseases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90695f724d7bd807371200def31ec07eb3538845efccf6852198c15939d214e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ataxia” (D001259).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001259). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory bias
<a id="sensory-bias"></a>

Sensory bias is a tendency in an animal’s sensory or cognitive processing that makes some kinds of stimuli stand out more than others, leading to stronger responses to those more relevant cues. This bias can help the animal judge which signals are most important and choose an appropriate behaviour.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d68d3156fee9aa64d30996cca14b4a727e9adcf2a419f81b9bf1fa20009ccb6b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Raine Nigel E.; Chittka Lars. The Adaptive Significance of Sensory Bias in a Foraging Context: Floral Colour Preferences in the Bumblebee Bombus terrestris. 2007; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0000556; article XML SHA-256 f35b8b0a534becb0df41fafb770677f1ffabf6d7b4a03e974c72bff6f5f316ca. “The Adaptive Significance of Sensory Bias in a Foraging Context: Floral Colour Preferences in the Bumblebee Bombus terrestris” (10.1371/journal.pone.0000556).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000556). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory cue
<a id="sensory-cue"></a>

A sensory cue is a detectable feature of the environment that an organism uses to guide perception or behavior, such as orienting in a particular direction. In this source, the Earth’s geomagnetic field is described as a possible sensory cue for navigation toward food.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39acfb9695f32710685c78f287534a2a712fa0b87b7177a696decabda3211a7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chae Kwon-Seok; Oh In-Taek; Lee Sang-Hyup; Kim Soo-Chan. Blue light-dependent human magnetoreception in geomagnetic food orientation. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0211826; article XML SHA-256 43c2fd32455858ed5d543689640bc6cae9c9098149c6bf6e672ecbf635b10d59. “Blue light-dependent human magnetoreception in geomagnetic food orientation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0211826).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211826). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory deficit
<a id="sensory-deficit"></a>

A sensory deficit is a reduction or impairment in the functioning of a sense, such as vision impairment. In psychology and social functioning, this kind of sensory decline can disrupt autonomy, emotional regulation, and social participation, which may increase vulnerability to depressive symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e3406ca11f6241feda39c3e075ef5003c72187ed3c64e948f8535500fcfe85d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ji Xi; Zhang Yujie. The impact of vision impairment on depressive symptoms among older adults: The mediating role of dispositional optimism. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328053; article XML SHA-256 d719aa00362c580c70f8d07b8c691a8dd3a9c4d0a43eb7af55ebd4562627571c. “The impact of vision impairment on depressive symptoms among older adults: The mediating role of dispositional optimism” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328053).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328053). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory deprivation
<a id="sensory-deprivation"></a>

Sensory deprivation is a state in which the usual sights, sounds, and other outside sensory input a person normally responds to are absent or limited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb1e9f6188c8de480921f7a15c0797b4233dd836ee9d92e0322ea3685e46b3d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sensory Deprivation” (D012683).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012683). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory discrimination
<a id="sensory-discrimination"></a>

Sensory discrimination is the ability to tell apart and recognize features such as pattern, shape, or outline through the senses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d92295fa4d7f0bf19b8f980ba1f33b711efc3039a5437bdd39f8edba7b46e28b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Form Perception” (D005556).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005556). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory engineering
<a id="sensory-engineering"></a>

Sensory engineering is an approach to design research that examines how people’s emotional responses and preferences relate to the sensory or aesthetic features of a product or image. In this context, it is used to map evaluated qualities such as style, color, market appeal, and psychological impression to consumers’ emotional needs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 748cd7fc60e1eabc0e333d5b94b0a6899e8754e1c0999986ded1e573f4666db6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Jing; Yao Wenting; Su Sheng; Zhang Jing; Wang Li. Research on the aesthetic sensitivity evaluation of tourism mascots based on semantic differential method. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318715; article XML SHA-256 b6e974a4823a6dd07d2e4007ca0a0c4b8deda2f349da232cf63b8e7c264d04bf. “Research on the aesthetic sensitivity evaluation of tourism mascots based on semantic differential method” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318715).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318715). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory field
<a id="sensory-field"></a>

In this historical usage, a sensory field is a sensory area represented on the cerebral cortex, with parts corresponding to regions of the body or to a particular sense. Its exact borders are described as hard to fix because these cortical representations overlap and work together as part of a larger whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3999671cae86fd14752c1b15b64f21b2e4d3f7bf3bc315f343a270f5e998ef9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Localization (cerebral)” (Localization (cerebral)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Localization (cerebral)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory gating
<a id="sensory-gating"></a>

Sensory gating is the brain’s ability to reduce its response to incoming sensory information, including sights and sounds. This filtering helps a person screen out stimuli that are irrelevant, repetitive, or without meaning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc212e0962757b76106cd27615da86b18dad41d9972ab62574e1ae880843985f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sensory Gating” (D055139).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055139). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory integration
<a id="sensory-integration"></a>

Sensory integration is the process of combining information from different senses so the central nervous system can make sense of the body and the surrounding environment and support appropriate physical responses. When this process is disrupted, a person may misprocess sensory input and have related difficulties in areas such as touch, balance, movement, hearing-language, or spatial perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ca9caa7a534dc5346f2e1ec38c73bffe4a2fc3593cf7a6f5e56522596ccd6e12

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lyu Bingchen; Ba Yi; Ma De; Liu Niu; Fu Limin; Xue Yaqi. Effectiveness of sensory integration-based intervention in autistic children, focusing on Chinese children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1623149; article XML SHA-256 8a51f80fb3e7721979c6f8f848a069ffa524be787777870645809c59b0139bbf. “Effectiveness of sensory integration-based intervention in autistic children, focusing on Chinese children: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1623149).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1623149). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory intensity
<a id="sensory-intensity"></a>

Sensory intensity is the degree of sensory stimulation in a message or advertisement, based on its audiovisual and content features. In this context, higher sensory intensity refers to a more attention-grabbing format.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c817ff968b22fa389b20b4a63bee15a5fbf4170161aac035d4df308576feae85

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Seelig David; Wang An-Li; Jaganathan Kanchana; Loughead James W.; Blady Shira J.; Childress Anna Rose; Romer Daniel; Langleben Daniel D.. Low Message Sensation Health Promotion Videos Are Better Remembered and Activate Areas of the Brain Associated with Memory Encoding. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0113256; article XML SHA-256 8e32eadc415597ce6969c80a6e68d59d4d55616f13979ae7886d3790b5fc387b. “Low Message Sensation Health Promotion Videos Are Better Remembered and Activate Areas of the Brain Associated with Memory Encoding” (10.1371/journal.pone.0113256).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0113256). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory interaction
<a id="sensory-interaction"></a>

Sensory interaction is the process by which physical information is conveyed through the senses and linked with action and thinking to support learning. In this packet, it refers especially to tactile and haptic experiences that help people engage actively, build multisensory understanding, and grasp abstract ideas through embodied experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a8c120edda7e949125478e3087b35ce961638010a09a1ec43cb574050978b9c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Salibay Ricio Milo; Entice Mae E.; Paraiso Mary Jane Q.; Tampus Vincent Gee A.; Espina Joseph Vergil M.; Cabaron Achilles I.; Apas Cherenlie G.. Tactile and haptic interaction in STEM learning: a scoping review of embodied and multisensory pathways for conceptual learning processes. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1840215; article XML SHA-256 7288858a9861b5b4e94b98ca8eccf2db661a44dfbfc0c27de2e2e277c5687b4f. “Tactile and haptic interaction in STEM learning: a scoping review of embodied and multisensory pathways for conceptual learning processes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1840215).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1840215). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory modality
<a id="sensory-modality"></a>

Sensory modality is the particular sense through which something is perceived, such as sight, taste, or smell. In this context, differences in sensory modality can shape how people interpret subjective language and decide whose point of view or opinion is being expressed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 89f2b0888abd707030efdebae85e1bfeb69252e3037a1a24c686b0eb5f2f20ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kaiser Elsi. Consequences of Sensory Modality for Perspective-Taking: Comparing Visual, Olfactory and Gustatory Perception. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.701486; article XML SHA-256 1a43c08015c705fedca24e9a1c103a3517859193b0165b87e50943c1735f94bf. “Consequences of Sensory Modality for Perspective-Taking: Comparing Visual, Olfactory and Gustatory Perception” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.701486).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.701486). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory modulation dysfunction
<a id="sensory-modulation-dysfunction"></a>

Sensory modulation dysfunction is a type of sensory processing disorder in which one or more sensory systems do not regulate responses to input in a flexible, graded way. It can involve over-responsiveness, where ordinary non-painful sensations feel unusually unpleasant or painful, and/or under-responsiveness, where reactions to sensory input are reduced, and it can interfere with daily activities, work, and quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: add7bd9216e558a9cc54ddc9fd1bfdef9fc5a575712c861ea28dc0960d3b5b81

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bar-Shalita Tami; Livshitz Anatoly; Levin-Meltz Yulia; Rand Debbie; Deutsch Lisa; Vatine Jean-Jacques. Sensory modulation dysfunction is associated with Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0201354; article XML SHA-256 436389466c395a5a09ab11ee60b0f9c0c723c8b4a5a67b569325f1c658420a1b. “Sensory modulation dysfunction is associated with Complex Regional Pain Syndrome” (10.1371/journal.pone.0201354).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201354). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory neuron
<a id="sensory-neuron"></a>

A sensory neuron is a nerve cell that detects stimulation from the environment, changes it into electrical signals, and carries those signals to the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc8f5b39e58df73f7798436aa89b08b906bfce7fff60a22e579be2f449310943

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Afferent Neuron” (C12628).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory organ
<a id="sensory-organ"></a>

A sensory organ is a body structure involved in sensing and supporting functions such as hearing and balance. In this packet, the cochlea is described as a delicate sensory organ whose disturbance can affect those functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7a65d8ab36edd756382db02e5cbaea9da2ec85283aebc7ea2d9a1773edca6b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wanniarachchi Kujani; Clark Sita Tarini; Donnelly Neil; Bance Manohar; Creber Nathan. Utility of cochlear perilymph biomarkers for hearing loss - A systematic review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334351; article XML SHA-256 1375b92d533207de438b89a0432aa339d2b660b5ad440489f7b5ae2a328b2561. “Utility of cochlear perilymph biomarkers for hearing loss - A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334351).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334351). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory root
<a id="sensory-root"></a>

The sensory root is the smaller intermediate part of the facial nerve. It carries sensory information including taste from the front two-thirds of the tongue and touch from the external ear, and is part of the seventh cranial nerve.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3023ab09f7eb034663861510165591dd2f285005aab97dc30e79ca388d0418aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Facial Nerve” (D005154).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005154). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory spot
<a id="sensory-spot"></a>

A sensory spot is a simple patch of sensory epithelium in the inner ear or related structures. In this historical account, it refers especially to the uncomplicated hearing-equilibrium patch found in fishes, contrasted with the more specialized organ that later develops into the cochlea in higher vertebrates.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f43d29691d277aa09b414968f1aa1b4e3027b3ee254cecc48c0433eddbc224f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hearing” (Hearing).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Hearing). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory substitution
<a id="sensory-substitution"></a>

Sensory substitution is the use of a device or method that delivers information usually received through one sense, especially vision, through another sense such as hearing or touch. In this context, it refers to systems that translate visual input into auditory or tactile signals so users can learn to identify visual information through a different sensory channel.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd06cb3547ce9e8b01d2df5b22675f6d563e53bcd62b0b1e5ff78cef895a44a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Buchs Galit; Haimler Benedetta; Kerem Menachem; Maidenbaum Shachar; Braun Liraz; Amedi Amir. A self-training program for sensory substitution devices. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0250281; article XML SHA-256 5c3a79d77c8de1ec017c4859298120177fe79765361c7822d27cecd909d93b2c. “A self-training program for sensory substitution devices” (10.1371/journal.pone.0250281).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250281). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory suppression
<a id="sensory-suppression"></a>

Sensory suppression is a biological process in which the nervous system reduces selected incoming sensory information. In the source packet, it is described as a form of sensory inhibition seen when the response to a second identical auditory or somatosensory stimulus is weaker than the response to the first.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be492c9a7db3113523dcd2725757bccdf0b9fc07e4aec3516c8d710b2e70b379

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Takeuchi Nobuyuki; Sugiyama Shunsuke; Inui Koji; Kanemoto Kousuke; Nishihara Makoto. Long-latency suppression of auditory and somatosensory change-related cortical responses. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0199614; article XML SHA-256 6019b11f7756e9085a68036797e4452df35131feabda45ec07a5bc2cafd20468. “Long-latency suppression of auditory and somatosensory change-related cortical responses” (10.1371/journal.pone.0199614).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199614). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory system
<a id="sensory-system"></a>

The sensory system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that detects, processes, and carries information from the body’s internal and external environment to the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c0a252c084c438b76f04f42c715578d30a0d5a6d42f18e35e0a460c1da93948

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sensory Nervous System” (C222299).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sensory test
<a id="sensory-test"></a>

A sensory test is a way of measuring how well a person detects different kinds of sensation, such as temperature or vibration. In this source, it refers to a simplified form of quantitative sensory testing used to track changes in sensory nerve function and possible neuropathy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 900d68d56ca3891c3c7e96e7f1e0a40d1112b79307795bcfe7efb5ead74baec1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dujmović Marin; Dunham James Philip; Gausden Johannes; Groves Bethany; de Cothi Elizabeth Anne Cottuli; Burgess Charlotte; Geddie Chris; Adams Lottie; Grant Alex; Maharjan Nisla; Thakkar Bhushan; O’Neill Anthony; Young Alan; Whittaker Roger Graham; Colvin Lesley; Pickering Anthony Edward. Sense-checking the approach to quantitative sensory testing to detect chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338105; article XML SHA-256 9930eefb7c6608c40a31830463930a6e846c09c71b82f16a93c44e7056daaaa4. “Sense-checking the approach to quantitative sensory testing to detect chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338105).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338105). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sentence-completion test
<a id="sentence-completion-test"></a>

A sentence-completion test is a projective assessment in which people are asked to finish sentence stems, with their responses used to reveal underlying psychological characteristics. In psychology it is valued because it can be given to groups, scored more objectively than some other projective methods, and may be less affected by deliberate impression management than standard questionnaires.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2bbdc3e9a64a4dfec7eb0bbdfbce5477255fba9aad24ea0bddfc645161bc8a91

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Yuchen; Lei Mengxiao; Zhang Hanyu; Zong Lu; Zhu Bin; Luo Hong. An intelligent agent for sentence completion test: creation and application in depression assessment. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1649905; article XML SHA-256 dfc99d8ca5b63cb0a627209126d7fb4a6e770cfbb7ae8f88cc8714da84e2cc74. “An intelligent agent for sentence completion test: creation and application in depression assessment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1649905).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1649905). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sentence-verification task
<a id="sentence-verification-task"></a>

A sentence verification task is a test in which people judge whether statements are correct based on information they have just read. In the study described, it was used to check understanding of spatial descriptions, either while the text was still available or after it had been removed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7af2cf66b97cc10d7f3817f795dce0087a3e4b5fddd61a292614f7fdb099ff18

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mammarella Irene C.; Meneghetti Chiara; Pazzaglia Francesca; Cornoldi Cesare. Memory and comprehension deficits in spatial descriptions of children with non-verbal and reading disabilities. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01534; article XML SHA-256 f2fe95bb06cf1632413aa321989bfa5704bdf335e73ff88a1d9f41575e88fc9f. “Memory and comprehension deficits in spatial descriptions of children with non-verbal and reading disabilities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01534).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01534). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sentience
<a id="sentience"></a>

In this historical philosophical usage, sentience names a limiting or explanatory notion for one aspect of mind rather than a concrete account of consciousness. In the source, it appears alongside terms like thought, spirit, and will as one way of marking what is left when mind is contrasted with purely mechanical explanations of nature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6084f370cdd55f7f0e6f472d5f221687ddb25e322c3035b3ce9b706ab9f52f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mind (in philosophy)” (Mind).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Mind). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## separation anxiety
<a id="separation-anxiety"></a>

Separation anxiety can be a normal part of development in children around ages 1 to 3, but in its disorder form it may persist in children, adolescents, and some adults and can worsen over time. Early separation anxiety has also been described as a general vulnerability linked to later anxiety problems in adulthood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 91c3546b3b05fadcc31f5eef3249c24ea33babd62771cec7c4c739a0388c2b3c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Yiyuan; Cai Yan; Tu Dongbo; Guo Yingying; Liu Siyang. Development of a Computerized Adaptive Test for Separation Anxiety Disorder Among Adolescents. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01077; article XML SHA-256 4ea1e732f7d428b9b77f9721f3470bdb766f4045624d5a2d4710ec8b787ccfc4. “Development of a Computerized Adaptive Test for Separation Anxiety Disorder Among Adolescents” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01077).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01077). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## separation anxiety disorder
<a id="separation-anxiety-disorder"></a>

Separation anxiety disorder is an anxiety disorder in which a person has repeated, unusually intense distress about being separated from home or from major attachment figures. The fear is not typical for the person’s developmental stage and interferes with social, school, or other areas of functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0317abd6dd18d644c75240af8b8e55178aafbcfeb8f47f6a2d4be91f51fb0d32

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Separation Anxiety Disorder” (C35014).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## separation distress
<a id="separation-distress"></a>

Separation distress is the part of homesickness that involves feeling the absence of home and close relationships, such as missing family and friends or longing for home. In this context, it is distinguished from difficulties adjusting to a new situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3ea9401d86d13aaa1e3646105f4fa83459db19209dbf49e1d89712c45b9a881

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rosner Rita; Hagl Maria; Bücheler Leonie; Comtesse Hannah. Homesickness in asylum seekers: The role of mental health and migration-related factors. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1034370; article XML SHA-256 532f809d64f521350e9d1fe278a39c152a67901bff41b0173744f756458c0fc4. “Homesickness in asylum seekers: The role of mental health and migration-related factors” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1034370).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1034370). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## separation–individuation
<a id="separationindividuation"></a>

Separation–individuation is an inner psychological process in which a person gradually differentiates the self from a caregiver or parent while developing autonomy and a more independent sense of self. It begins mainly in infancy and toddlerhood, is described again in adolescence as revising internal views of parents, and in some contemporary settings may continue into emerging adulthood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9e2b94f5fccbec6cec43180b5bfd1dd84f70d12613d4f46324b5d414267272e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Glavač Timotej; Zupančič Maja. The role of primary emotions in separation-individuation during emerging adulthood. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1675495; article XML SHA-256 bf2dfb13df02395be1ab84116c1e63143a7daacfab70da56949f984225974283. “The role of primary emotions in separation-individuation during emerging adulthood” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1675495).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1675495). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sepsis
<a id="sepsis"></a>

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition in which harmful microorganisms in the bloodstream trigger a rapidly worsening reaction throughout the body that can lead to shock. Common signs include fever, chills, fast heart rate, and rapid breathing, and it is a medical emergency needing urgent care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 787cdfb2d8a5486ba5488433fe9b4b64a126a14d9cd33197169783aa12f4752f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Septicemia” (C3364).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## septicemia
<a id="septicemia"></a>

Septicemia is a dangerous bloodstream infection in which disease-causing germs enter the blood and trigger a fast-moving whole-body response that can progress to shock. Typical signs are fever, chills, a racing pulse, and breathing faster than usual, and it needs immediate medical care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: dea75617aee407ded559c9aa8c7792047ef9d7c1781a151fdb786d6202ab0456

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Septicemia” (C3364).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## septum pellucidum
<a id="septum-pellucidum"></a>

The septum pellucidum is a thin, two-layered triangular membrane in the middle of the brain that separates the front parts of the lateral ventricles. It lies in the median plane between the corpus callosum and the body and columns of the fornix.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ea8eb98ea7dccab97b202a80552d63762d4c6d1d40292a576f8af7020eb11af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Septum Pellucidum” (D012688).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012688). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sequela
<a id="sequela"></a>

A sequela is a condition or lasting problem that develops as a consequence of an earlier injury or illness. In this context, chronic ankle instability is described as a sequela of a lateral ankle sprain because it can follow that sprain and persist afterward.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8973edf72819b58b26c9b41fa50ee1066af0a84482bdfdf7c84f2f2b4011eff6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nam Seung-Hee; Jeong Min-Ju; Kim Kyoung Jae; Jung Hyun Chul; Kim Kyung-Min. Postural control responses during single-leg balance in individuals with chronic ankle instability under graded visual and somatosensory disruption. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1892350; article XML SHA-256 0ac0b5010006faf1ce0a1876f99f0734fbea0667698b323ee5106936777477b2. “Postural control responses during single-leg balance in individuals with chronic ankle instability under graded visual and somatosensory disruption” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1892350).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1892350). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sequence effect
<a id="sequence-effect"></a>

In cognition research, sequence effect usually refers to the congruency sequence effect: a change in performance across successive trials in conflict tasks such as Stroop, Flanker, or Simon tasks. It means that after an incongruent trial, the usual slowdown or accuracy cost on the next incongruent-versus-congruent comparison is smaller, reflecting trial-by-trial adjustment of cognitive control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dee8447694d298a64dea65ffd563300eabdadf48d1607ea60f07eec809584a3c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Dandan; Chen Xuefei; Li Hong; Lei Yi. Distributional analyses reveal the individual differences in congruency sequence effect. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0272621; article XML SHA-256 50360104b2e63e4fe72a8426ba034aba2e6110ee9ed5a5e2c0886b22e77d9c7d. “Distributional analyses reveal the individual differences in congruency sequence effect” (10.1371/journal.pone.0272621).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272621). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sequential effect
<a id="sequential-effect"></a>

A sequential effect is the influence of an earlier judgment or preference on the one that comes next. In this context, a person’s preference for a previous stimulus can shift preference for a later stimulus, often in the same direction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14054db93997eed7f0038cb8c041b39bef626a2aaf3993dc348797ba13a61662

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chang Seah; Kim Chai-Youn; Cho Yang Seok. Sequential effects in preference decision: Prior preference assimilates current preference. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0182442; article XML SHA-256 843e9d36219038f86c0b01ab8f9bbaa96060a76ce302dd66b79e4d25ff191746. “Sequential effects in preference decision: Prior preference assimilates current preference” (10.1371/journal.pone.0182442).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182442). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Serax
<a id="serax"></a>

Serax is oxazepam, a synthetic benzodiazepine derivative with anxiety-reducing and sedative-hypnotic effects. Its exact action is not fully established, but it appears to increase GABA receptor affinity for GABA and extend GABA’s effects at synapses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3048ee5527d9498bfdd46012011e823fd3d34e09fd2099e5dc00d1180ac26f51

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Oxazepam” (C47642).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## serial correlation
<a id="serial-correlation"></a>

Serial correlation is the tendency for repeated measurements from the same person to be related to one another across time rather than acting like independent observations. In N-of-1 data, failing to account for this time-linked pattern can lead simple statistical tests to give misleading results.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4733a93c7ad8f7bed0f5d41b6caa961aa0a70f623429098cdcedc17af282b8b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Jillian; Landes Reid D. Some t -tests for N -of-1 trials with serial correlation. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0228077; article XML SHA-256 85dc9b10b952926a91636f460bed4b50e876466e35bc141908e81b49b8c6f07d. “Some t -tests for N -of-1 trials with serial correlation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0228077).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228077). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## serial learning
<a id="serial-learning"></a>

Serial learning is learning to produce a sequence of responses in the correct order.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7ee5946b69f56358fbe5e550405221823084a33034d63e0544bbaa2e1cda55b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Serial Learning” (D012691).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012691). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## serial memory
<a id="serial-memory"></a>

Serial memory is memory for the order of items or positions in a sequence. In the source packet, it refers to remembering the position of speech segments within syllables during speech planning, where this ordering is shaped by the language’s syllable structure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a205e72a97efc151937dc911184c1639991304d493548f9f93ffdd969f4a708

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Sangyub; Saito Satoru; Nam Kichun. Impact of syllabic constraints on error production in Korean speech: a study of serial order control with practice. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1612386; article XML SHA-256 52bcc4a6904ed135732df7cfbb85511bd5851df895162543951d7a8520823f62. “Impact of syllabic constraints on error production in Korean speech: a study of serial order control with practice” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1612386).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1612386). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## serial position curve
<a id="serial-position-curve"></a>

A serial position curve is the predictable pattern of memory performance across items in an ordered series, such as remembering presidents better depending on where they fall in the sequence. In this packet, recognition of presidents’ names and faces both followed this kind of ordered-memory pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98dea4b9412cbe51ccb67ef301e40eb7607186f8a60a2620e22c2bbfc05bd0dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Putnam Adam L.; Drake Sarah Madison; Wang Serene Y.; DeSoto K. Andrew. Collective memory for American leaders: Measuring recognition for the names and faces of the US presidents. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0255209; article XML SHA-256 cd8f07a6410921c72458e7862746a61738dc7e293c60c76e8c49e4f2e19e14c6. “Collective memory for American leaders: Measuring recognition for the names and faces of the US presidents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0255209).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255209). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## serial recall
<a id="serial-recall"></a>

Serial recall is remembering a set of items and reproducing them in the same order they were presented. In this context, it refers especially to ordered recall of verbal items in short-term memory, which can be disrupted by irrelevant sounds such as speech, tones, or music.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad244bc564c59bffed42ba33c7e42a03792f2a79cb9b8faaa33369c634811ae9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kattner Florian; Meinhardt Hanna. Dissociating the Disruptive Effects of Irrelevant Music and Speech on Serial Recall of Tonal and Verbal Sequences. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00346; article XML SHA-256 2734e29e182f5a84268e3eadc46b7186c7c3699420309af2a6b657f3a8399a6f. “Dissociating the Disruptive Effects of Irrelevant Music and Speech on Serial Recall of Tonal and Verbal Sequences” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00346).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00346). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## serial response
<a id="serial-response"></a>

In this source, serial response refers to a motor task in which finger movements are coordinated with an external cue. It is described as one of the tasks used to study improvement in motor performance with practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc2a819ce1606e624aa5b8029a2cd289b27c676449efaa205b81f62151974b7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dürschmid Stefan; Quandt Fanny; Krämer Ulrike M.; Hinrichs Hermann; Heinze Hans-Jochen; Schulz Reinhard; Pannek Heinz; Chang Edward F.; Knight Robert T.. Oscillatory Dynamics Track Motor Performance Improvement in Human Cortex. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0089576; article XML SHA-256 dc4aa5649816f2eecd1b1a2a5d649c742b2b3dc82bc5ee08247806981260cdc7. “Oscillatory Dynamics Track Motor Performance Improvement in Human Cortex” (10.1371/journal.pone.0089576).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089576). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## serotonin
<a id="serotonin"></a>

Serotonin is a chemical signaling substance made from the essential amino acid tryptophan. In humans it is concentrated in the brain and nervous system, the digestive tract, and platelets, where it helps regulate nerve signaling, gut movement, blood clotting, and cardiovascular function through several receptor types.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dbd2b015af844ed9bcb6799abc625e4c49b844f09c6f5608440ea52fbb6fc745

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Serotonin” (D012701).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012701). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## serotonin agonist
<a id="serotonin-agonist"></a>

A serotonin agonist is a substance that attaches to serotonin receptors and turns them on, producing serotonin-like activity at those receptor sites.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4df0ce11a294cc893385d80003fe0c04f32ae8b8acf52fa0e8f38447192a040b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Serotonin Agonist” (C47794).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor
<a id="serotonin-and-norepinephrine-reuptake-inhibitor"></a>

A serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor is a type of antidepressant drug that blocks the return of serotonin and noradrenaline into nerve endings at the cell membrane, increasing their availability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 70c7db15a34f572bcdaa35e955272b9f5f7ed4847f30bf23a7feb3876842c1c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Serotonin and Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitors” (D000068760).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000068760). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## serotonin antagonist
<a id="serotonin-antagonist"></a>

A serotonin antagonist is a substance that attaches to serotonin receptors and prevents serotonin from activating them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 373ae00291783e4271bb92cc072f431a576e8fea9e8b42bd1a2c2f64060817e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Serotonin Antagonist” (C66885).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## serotonin receptor
<a id="serotonin-receptor"></a>

A serotonin receptor is a protein on the cell surface that attaches to serotonin and starts internal cell changes that affect how the cell behaves. There are several kinds of serotonin receptors, and they differ in how they work and in their biological and chemical properties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14d1130f282d7679e580b5d4edd3604962958d2b1f5ef0ca6c20178b6c9eeca4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Receptors, Serotonin” (D011985).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011985). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## serotonin syndrome
<a id="serotonin-syndrome"></a>

Serotonin syndrome is a harmful drug interaction in which too much serotonin activity in the central nervous system causes changes in mental state, automatic body functions, and muscle or movement control. It most often occurs when serotonin reuptake inhibitors are used together with monoamine oxidase inhibitors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 56acacd98f710d22e90face574ce1375e2a119ac431db3d97b21b6916ff14afa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Serotonin Syndrome” (D020230).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020230). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## serotonin transporter
<a id="serotonin-transporter"></a>

The serotonin transporter is a protein on the membrane of serotonin-releasing nerve cells that moves serotonin from the extracellular space back into the presynaptic terminal. By clearing serotonin after it is released, it helps control how strong and how long serotonin signaling lasts, and it is distinct from serotonin receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6344a2f891de2c6e83600e5eac47bf5395a5670a587063578411a0898a4e00c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Serotonin Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins” (D050486).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D050486). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sertoli cell
<a id="sertoli-cell"></a>

A Sertoli cell is a cell in the developing testis that helps guide testis formation. In XY embryos, early Sertoli cells respond to Sry and gather around germ cells to form testis cords, while also interacting with other testicular cell types during compartmentalization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d2560951673e538b465c5e7074abdeabe43b062446f5c89152ea66934a14cf0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wen Qing; Wang Yuqian; Tang Jixin; Cheng C Yan; Liu Yi-Xun. Sertoli Cell Wt1 Regulates Peritubular Myoid Cell and Fetal Leydig Cell Differentiation during Fetal Testis Development. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0167920; article XML SHA-256 f15a0e8a4df5df9958e216bfe0d5ef349eb53a4b96f4ec76f377cd7747e92375. “Sertoli Cell Wt1 Regulates Peritubular Myoid Cell and Fetal Leydig Cell Differentiation during Fetal Testis Development” (10.1371/journal.pone.0167920).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167920). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sertraline
<a id="sertraline"></a>

Sertraline is a medication that selectively blocks serotonin reuptake and is used to treat depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 360e94b177b5db2b6ce827c9e124bb101750a576b4033ddca7281ba0c11df154

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sertraline” (D020280).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020280). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SES
<a id="ses"></a>

SES refers to socioeconomic status, a social concept used to describe a person’s or group’s social and economic position. Because it cannot be measured directly, it is usually estimated with indicators such as education, income, and employment, either for an individual or for the area where they live.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7274fb8c1658e3365ef3b780a9a685811d68478fc3692a8b8e0b8137b818652

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cromer Sara J.; Gervis Julie E.; Burnett-Bowie Sherri-Ann M.; Patel Chirag J.. Heterogeneous associations of socioeconomic status with metabolic disease in racial and ethnic subgroups in the United States: A cross-sectional cohort study in NHANES and All Of Us. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351075; article XML SHA-256 6190bc21d1aecb5b590962d324566d908afdf6e13a1615c86ca29d26f2cd0a2a. “Heterogeneous associations of socioeconomic status with metabolic disease in racial and ethnic subgroups in the United States: A cross-sectional cohort study in NHANES and All Of Us” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351075).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351075). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## seventh cranial nerve
<a id="seventh-cranial-nerve"></a>

The seventh cranial nerve is the facial nerve. It includes a main movement-related branch and a smaller sensory branch that help move the muscles used for facial expression, supply the tear and salivary glands, and carry taste from the front part of the tongue and touch sensation from the outer ear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b057f71b369207e4f72884517f004b56176b820121c2d923153a0681e2cdaba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Facial Nerve” (D005154).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005154). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sex
<a id="sex"></a>

Sex refers to a person’s biological classification, such as male or female. In this study context, it was examined as a factor that might relate to differences in symptom presentation or changes over time during treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4cea70fcb8a5f0076ddef96a85e84c1f51f2447adc0dd1711598cabc4e4e26a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lamarca Maria; Goncalves Adrien; Moritz Steffen; Gawęda Łukasz; Acuña Vanessa; König Caroline; Berna Fabrice; Ochoa Susana. Exploring sex-specific symptom trajectories in psychosis following metacognitive training (MCT): Evidence from a large-scale retrospective harmonized database. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356632; article XML SHA-256 3756729c249f7ef381141447d2b78d5105ea1aedd8485425ae2bb9ff586de2cc. “Exploring sex-specific symptom trajectories in psychosis following metacognitive training (MCT): Evidence from a large-scale retrospective harmonized database” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356632).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356632). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sex Counseling
<a id="sex-counseling"></a>

Sex counseling is guidance and supportive help for people dealing with difficulties in sexual adjustment, aimed at improving understanding and resolving those concerns. It does not include treatment for psychosexual disorders or psychosexual dysfunction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f6d735eaaa974eecc8b0af5bf86430a4e3936a38c554e28a456cd3e71134652

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Sex Counseling” (D012731).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012731). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sex differentiation
<a id="sex-differentiation"></a>

Sex differentiation is the developmental process in which sex- or gender-specific tissues, organs, or functions form after the gonads have already been set as male or female. It mainly affects the reproductive tract and the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5d069c2fabfbbae7b576883b6250041dd1b63305550044c3c48c96a36e601c17

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sex Differentiation” (D012733).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012733). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sex discrimination
<a id="sex-discrimination"></a>

In this historical source, sex discrimination means a linguistic distinction based on sex, especially in the way nouns or grammatical forms become associated with male or female classes. The passage treats it as part of grammatical gender rather than as a broader social concept.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 87035dd463be0c98bda12587f18b99d8391da5c23270db11aeb9fef420601faf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Gender” (Gender).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Gender). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sex education
<a id="sex-education"></a>

Sex education is teaching that builds understanding of how human reproduction works, including its bodily structures, functions, and related behaviors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b9ff3664ad94a53dead2783f8d58e7c42c93d6e0ed4b9804663ec888915beac8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sex Education” (D012736).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012736). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sex hormone
<a id="sex-hormone"></a>

A sex hormone is a steroid hormone that works by attaching to androgen, progesterone, or estrogen receptors and turning them on. These hormones help regulate sexual development and reproduction, and also influence functions such as stress responses, nerve activity, metabolism, and blood salt balance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1bde84f237ebdb275150b120ee1d9516fd8b83af2ddf861be3ffe25e3f76c927

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sex Steroid Hormone” (C123796).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sex identification
<a id="sex-identification"></a>

Sex identification is the process of determining whether an organism is male or female. In this source, it refers specifically to trying to classify the sex of early chick embryos from images of their extraembryonic blood vessel patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8549656d937b363c988c2f6a4f02db2f96dd6c99ea1d013d5f1e8bab2b5fdde7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mahler Simon; Arora Anika; Readhead Carol; Yin Siyuan; Hari Surya Narayanan; Wang Ellie; Moxley Cecilia I; Adeboye Abdullahi A; Dong Zhenyu; Zhou Haowen; Chen Xi; Bronner Marianne; Yang Changhuei. Detection of non-invasive sexing of early chick embryos in intact eggs using laser speckle contrast imaging and deep neural networks. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323847; article XML SHA-256 cd01fa33d3c9856138fed29aacc6bdda88f182391fdb1a5a625ab8502a9a29b4. “Detection of non-invasive sexing of early chick embryos in intact eggs using laser speckle contrast imaging and deep neural networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323847).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323847). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sex identity
<a id="sex-identity"></a>

Sex identity is a child’s developing subjective sense of self as female or male. In this source, it is described as emerging from early caregiver-infant interactions, becoming more clearly subjective around 18 months, and growing more stable by about 3 years of age.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f14a1d438c6b3effe5032e8aa434116123931774c40a987d041e223e249c253

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fausto-Sterling Anne. A Dynamic Systems Framework for Gender/Sex Development: From Sensory Input in Infancy to Subjective Certainty in Toddlerhood. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2021.613789; article XML SHA-256 54c0f27774654e69f976fb2505b2011594f65cb594580e4d44587ae61fd643a0. “A Dynamic Systems Framework for Gender/Sex Development: From Sensory Input in Infancy to Subjective Certainty in Toddlerhood” (10.3389/fnhum.2021.613789).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.613789). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sex role
<a id="sex-role"></a>

Sex role is the social role linked to a person’s biological sex, including behaviors and attitudes viewed as acceptable for that sex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 49e3575f5b019c4c70aa293f1f9ab5d3c7113578714170a96e37900168f33982

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gender Role” (D000085402).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000085402). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sex steroid
<a id="sex-steroid"></a>

A sex steroid is a type of steroid hormone that binds to and activates androgen, progesterone, or estrogen receptors. These hormones help regulate sexual development and reproduction and also influence processes such as stress response, nerve function, salt balance, and metabolism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b09a0a326a234920add3058ce26561af41e660254579a36f5cf569a075df036

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sex Steroid Hormone” (C123796).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sex therapy
<a id="sex-therapy"></a>

Sex therapy is a therapeutic approach used to help couples address sexual concerns and improve intimacy. In this packet, it appears as part of a phone-based couple intervention that uses education and skills training to strengthen physical and emotional closeness after breast cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38f657b56054f24d91008fc90934d1b474c63ac21170039a68198c0cf4a36790

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Intimacy Enhancement” (C160751).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sex trafficking
<a id="sex-trafficking"></a>

Sex trafficking is the repeated sexual exploitation of a person through coercion, abuse, threats, and violence, often over long periods. In the psychology context, it is associated with severe, cumulative trauma and high rates of mental health problems such as post-traumatic stress, depression, and anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b111029ea2fb00da73674b7b431f4c0e20e786908d4b929439b7c4f23d2ff407

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marti Castaner Marti; Fowler Rachel; Landers Cassie; Cohen Lori; Orjuela Manuela. How trauma related to sex trafficking challenges parenting: Insights from Mexican and Central American survivors in the US. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0252606; article XML SHA-256 5d0711d6c98b79aee91597b9e80df85267d642a2fe2fadbb0a3f873cbd5ebb02. “How trauma related to sex trafficking challenges parenting: Insights from Mexican and Central American survivors in the US” (10.1371/journal.pone.0252606).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252606). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexism
<a id="sexism"></a>

Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on gender, or attitudes and behaviors that support rigid, stereotyped gender roles. It involves treating people unfairly or viewing them through limiting expectations because of gender.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 42ab436fb619851afead68e1d5b5578a77effc297d5869748bbc69ecf87e016c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sexism” (D063507).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063507). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sexology
<a id="sexology"></a>

Sexology is the discipline that studies sexuality and applies knowledge about sexual attitudes, psychology, and sexual behavior. Its work is used in settings such as education, clinical counselling, and other areas.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40e0bf8530a1f0bf9d02f7bba4c26200c4447cf371ce0025fbcec6a192b8fc82

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Sexology” (D044347).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D044347). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual addiction
<a id="sexual-addiction"></a>

Sexual addiction refers to a persistent inability to control intense, repeated sexual urges or impulses that leads to repetitive sexual behavior. The behavior may become a central focus of life, continue despite harmful consequences or little satisfaction, and resist repeated efforts to reduce it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ddc3fbf9321eb24e608176f391055e62558355ab68e167f7704bb4d618d224a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder” (D000096583).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000096583). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual aggression
<a id="sexual-aggression"></a>

Sexual aggression is aggressive sexual behavior in which a person is harmed as a victim or acts as a perpetrator. In psychology, the term should be understood in a gender-inclusive way, because both women and men can be victims and both women and men can be perpetrators.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 20116e37c2f4136db5f695726e410f1cc1e63dbe95500f85242e2fbae496fc27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schuster Isabell; Krahé Barbara; Ilabaca Baeza Paola; Muñoz-Reyes José A.. Sexual Aggression Victimization and Perpetration among Male and Female College Students in Chile. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01354; article XML SHA-256 888cff8849e22e0167c11c55fea3d71d00dc0de661a1f2a863952460faa02b8c. “Sexual Aggression Victimization and Perpetration among Male and Female College Students in Chile” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01354).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01354). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual arousal
<a id="sexual-arousal"></a>

Sexual arousal is the body’s physical state of activation in response to sexual contact or other erotic stimulation. It involves signals traveling through the central nervous system along with bodily changes such as sex hormone release, increased blood flow to the genitals, and reduced nerve-driven narrowing of blood vessels in that area.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: adf3bdebf3379aaa485603d980fc9bdf8f7bde80662959467ec35bb92f23ea38

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sexual Arousal” (D000083942).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000083942). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual assault
<a id="sexual-assault"></a>

Sexual assault is any attempt to obtain sexual acts through coercion or force, including rape by an intimate partner or a stranger. In psychology, it is recognized as a traumatic experience that can be associated with post-traumatic stress reactions such as hyperarousal, numbness, dissociation, and other lasting difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a50ba4b2a2e562df900edfa1c65ffa56ee9272cba2bf29814b78622ec7438d2b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ayudia Ligina; Purba Fredrick Dermawan; Samuels Annemarie; Iskandarsyah Aulia. Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial of a group-adapted Somatic Experiencing® intervention for Indonesian women survivors of sexual assault with PTSD symptoms. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336956; article XML SHA-256 ccada6fbaf0324574e4bcef580a917c18235c7064202950888e876fc5d2b5a38. “Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial of a group-adapted Somatic Experiencing® intervention for Indonesian women survivors of sexual assault with PTSD symptoms” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336956).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336956). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual attitudes
<a id="sexual-attitudes"></a>

Sexual attitudes are a person’s or group’s beliefs and norms about sexual relations. In this source, they are described as part of the couple’s normative context, where more regressive attitudes can reflect sexual entitlement, limit a partner’s autonomy, and influence reproductive outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f1a1ed5d1a5fbace07f73773b2518ebeaceae609b978f2d575df57c91e6f6663

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lakhotia Monika; Das Bhaswati. Beyond individual choice: Exploring pathways linking couple dynamics with Unintended Pregnancy and Birth in India. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344370; article XML SHA-256 1e0ea57ea14082e19380ccf8ade768f2df65ef1cf2927ce70336a9a8ba73acaf. “Beyond individual choice: Exploring pathways linking couple dynamics with Unintended Pregnancy and Birth in India” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344370).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344370). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual attraction
<a id="sexual-attraction"></a>

Sexual attraction, in this packet, refers to attraction or sexual relationships involving both people of the same sex and people of the opposite sex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 68b074dff92e578e56dd61f59434513d09978cccf50772214254e00a9257c29a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bisexuality” (D001727).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001727). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual aversion disorder
<a id="sexual-aversion-disorder"></a>

Sexual aversion disorder is a diagnosis in which a person repeatedly or persistently feels an intense dislike of sexual contact and avoids all genital contact with a sexual partner. The aversion is not better explained by another psychiatric disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc5ca46179acecce24f610dbd6c68955285339e16ba6284b4572ce68bb50056c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sexual Aversion Disorder” (C94338).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual contact
<a id="sexual-contact"></a>

Sexual contact is direct person-to-person contact of a sexual kind between people. In social research, it can be treated as a social tie linking partners within a network.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17005cf6fa7f96db09319a6479e17bb0b01abdd9d152199b3a298b15e6c8b4fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ito Hiromu; Shigeta Keiko; Yamamoto Taro; Morita Satoru. Exploring sexual contact networks by analyzing a nationwide commercial-sex review website. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0276981; article XML SHA-256 b5a18836e3822735e32ff60b3b6da3efbd118ac8b49d44fd8385bb897afd4f4a. “Exploring sexual contact networks by analyzing a nationwide commercial-sex review website” (10.1371/journal.pone.0276981).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276981). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual curiosity
<a id="sexual-curiosity"></a>

Sexual curiosity is an interest in learning about sexual matters that can emerge as part of the many changes of early adolescence. In this context, it is linked to a young person’s wish to seek sexual health information and understanding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5f5f7df4ec6a9811c71307127917af4a546efc49dfe8dcea5f7ef0e1caa6e59

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chimwaza-Manda Wanangwa; Kamndaya Mphatso; Chipeta Effie Kondwani; Sikweyiya Yandisa. Sexual health knowledge acquisition processes among very young adolescent girls in rural Malawi: Implications for sexual and reproductive health programs. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0276416; article XML SHA-256 a6e14254013cfb3d6a14728154e7f80b8734b0d73c08dc5602fd1a3b2b49e43e. “Sexual health knowledge acquisition processes among very young adolescent girls in rural Malawi: Implications for sexual and reproductive health programs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0276416).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276416). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual differentiation
<a id="sexual-differentiation"></a>

Sexual differentiation is the developmental process by which sex- or gender-specific tissues, organs, or functions form after the gonads have been set as male or female. Important areas of this process include the reproductive tract and the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4c89e0a7126cb7cea5ee266e4af65294d55ce23f3a4ecc44f5fff96cd27bfce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sex Differentiation” (D012733).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012733). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual dimorphism
<a id="sexual-dimorphism"></a>

Sexual dimorphism is a form of dimorphism in which the males and females of a species differ noticeably in bodily form and other characteristics. More broadly, dimorphism means the division of members of a species into two distinct forms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35ba6b362da066fb7888ea0b57fb048bb1dede29dd9c01e77d11eb8e3253743e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dimorphism” (Dimorphism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dimorphism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual drive
<a id="sexual-drive"></a>

Sexual drive is described here as one of the body’s basic physiological motivational systems. In this account, it is regulated by brain regions such as the nucleus accumbens and lateral hypothalamus, together with neurotransmitter and β-endorphin activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35a7a6dbd6be3d50d1464d647585e9ccfadd189ce9ca6ca48dc7f2fc8e9fa26c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kirsch Michael. Give me five! A modern perspective on addiction from the up-dated Freudian drive theory. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1562619; article XML SHA-256 1a282b199b21aa05847944bb9a1119030902ed093eb100413cf8a1f672c739f9. “Give me five! A modern perspective on addiction from the up-dated Freudian drive theory” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1562619).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1562619). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual dysfunction
<a id="sexual-dysfunction"></a>

Sexual dysfunction is a clinically significant problem in sexual functioning that can affect quality of life, intimate relationships, self-esteem, and staying with treatment. In psychiatric care, it may exist before medication or emerge during treatment, so it is important to distinguish illness-related difficulties from medication-associated impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6eeaf3aa2c962b4375edb898e7863f4273b7bad1ecc8d3228cf88e85199d2a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Siladji Djendji; Maletin Nemanja; Denda Nikola; Knežević Milica; Paut Kusturica Milica; Kuljančić Dušan; Rašković Aleksandar. Sexual dysfunction associated with antidepressants and antipsychotics: a structured narrative review of mechanisms, assessment, and personalized management. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1865752; article XML SHA-256 72627f115aa7a2478cabbef3a1522010634eac07d52d08ab7ae591a04d02ae2f. “Sexual dysfunction associated with antidepressants and antipsychotics: a structured narrative review of mechanisms, assessment, and personalized management” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1865752).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1865752). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual erethism
<a id="sexual-erethism"></a>

In this historical usage, sexual erethism means increased sexual excitement or arousal. In the cited passage, it is mentioned as one of the bodily functions that may become heightened during the early excited stage of drunkenness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3fb1a995c93465c796255815f5b53c2f4e4dbd2a64a9258c3cd2dfcc62f25a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2404500-2416500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual fantasy
<a id="sexual-fantasy"></a>

A sexual fantasy is a sexual thought or imagined scenario. The source supports that these fantasies vary in frequency and type across people, including exploratory, intimate, impersonal, and sadomasochistic themes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b23f435e14132337fa3eb40686defbe526dd14e37e71275f81a96f51832d447c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cannoot Emily; Moors Amy C.; Chopik William J.. Associations between big five personality traits, facets, and sexual fantasies. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329745; article XML SHA-256 13c9867367f60f794c10f758554154c0771cd689484fcf8e683d05ace93cb4d8. “Associations between big five personality traits, facets, and sexual fantasies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329745).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329745). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sexual Harassment
<a id="sexual-harassment"></a>

Sexual harassment is a form of discrimination marked by unwanted sexual behavior, such as unwelcome advances, comments, touching, or questions about marital status or sex practices. Although workplace law addresses it in employment settings, it can also occur in schools, athletics, and other social environments, and both men and women may be victims or aggressors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c0816596a73b492f983a4bcd361215375d2c0499ca3e5b4ee03ecacbb296932a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Sexual Harassment” (D017406).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017406). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## sexual inhibition
<a id="sexual-inhibition"></a>

Sexual inhibition is the part of sexual regulation that restrains or controls sexual responses and behavior. In the source, it is described as involving both motivational and cognitive forms of inhibition and as varying across individuals alongside sexual excitation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 23bca88048cda629442b89ccab8449a3205deef123e22f161c11c47a3340abb5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rodriguez Geraldine; Sack Alexander T.; Dewitte Marieke; Schuhmann Teresa. Inhibit My Disinhibition: The Role of the Inferior Frontal Cortex in Sexual Inhibition and the Modulatory Influence of Sexual Excitation Proneness. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00300; article XML SHA-256 8c5d464e1cd78a5e0a217348517407bdee8d5fa503016213a3cf7992d0422b1f. “Inhibit My Disinhibition: The Role of the Inferior Frontal Cortex in Sexual Inhibition and the Modulatory Influence of Sexual Excitation Proneness” (10.3389/fnhum.2018.00300).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00300). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual instinct
<a id="sexual-instinct"></a>

Sexual instinct refers to the mental drive or energy linked to sexuality in a broad sense, including seeking pleasure and a loved or desired object. The term can also be used more broadly for psychic energy connected with instincts that motivate behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4e314de78ceb6f5b13c6e6fdbb29b0881ed732693eea9dfc73e075eea63d6bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Libido” (D007989).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007989). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual intercourse
<a id="sexual-intercourse"></a>

Sexual intercourse is sexual union between a male and a female, and the term is used only for humans.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16104e37b00463cda92741ef7462106b7e16549fd8f5e76556f9344312830508

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Coitus” (D003075).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003075). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual inversion
<a id="sexual-inversion"></a>

In this historical source, sexual inversion means an extreme form of effeminacy in a male, with feminine traits of mind and character taken to an excessive degree. The source also uses invert for a person described in this way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cbcfb152b6036506075b8de2eecca959246a22f08605d2c964e5b96a14867fe3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Effeminacy” (Effeminacy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Effeminacy). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual masochism
<a id="sexual-masochism"></a>

Sexual masochism is a disorder marked by repeated sexual thoughts, desires, or actions focused on actually experiencing humiliation, restraint, pain, or similar suffering. The distressing or painful experience involved is real rather than staged.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 504fca2674f9e0f06e68d5857a3eda2a342f2a1b5ac55b815741c13c88f40f66

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sexual Masochism” (C94356).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual maturation
<a id="sexual-maturation"></a>

Sexual maturation is the part of adolescent development in which a young person undergoes physical changes related to becoming sexually mature. In the packet, it is described as one of the major changes that occur during adolescence alongside emotional and cognitive development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2c06c9ad207e9445e88f5ef593dad82196b81cc39d9de77b853715ddc43239b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mwalukunga Lusajo Jason; Vincent Moshi Fabiola; Kibusi Stephen Matthew. Preferences for accessing sexual and reproductive health information and services among adolescent girls and young women in higher learning institutions in Tanzania: A qualitative study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352671; article XML SHA-256 596a3189c750de526c1db73fee17bc2aed3ffde972e5f2d6237f77344a782612. “Preferences for accessing sexual and reproductive health information and services among adolescent girls and young women in higher learning institutions in Tanzania: A qualitative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352671).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352671). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual orientation
<a id="sexual-orientation"></a>

Sexual orientation is the pattern of a person’s emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47d26ce36853ef80e77d5f70cd0f7bae0e2b0fd31c31544f6baace4b9352fd0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sexual Orientation” (C84361).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual perversion
<a id="sexual-perversion"></a>

In this historical source, sexual perversion is treated as a pathological disturbance of sexual feeling or impulse. It is presented as one possible basis for obsessive thoughts or urges that a person feels unable to resist and that are accompanied by distress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99fcf24f61449282d6be43d6baa71f74e6794b389240139f175c36b8c691211e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-829500-841500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual preference
<a id="sexual-preference"></a>

Sexual preference refers to the pattern of a person’s emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9af2b79272a6502afeca678dd2e4bf925631d45c77e66cb5905a89d08d162f90

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sexual Orientation” (C84361).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual receptivity
<a id="sexual-receptivity"></a>

Sexual receptivity is a female’s tendency to accept rather than reject a courting male as a mating partner. In this source, it is reflected in mating acceptance and reduced rejection behavior during courtship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a8c267b891b6e09c63da7dc62888e232c24555f3a88a872a02e1a26cd8c7c49

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sakai Takaomi; Watanabe Kazuki; Ohashi Hirono; Sato Shoma; Inami Show; Shimada Naoto; Kitamoto Toshihiro. Insulin-Producing Cells Regulate the Sexual Receptivity through the Painless TRP Channel in Drosophila Virgin Females. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0088175; article XML SHA-256 9166132a482da2b374afe119f4955ff0881cfc7b206a27771a65a172c82ed0a7. “Insulin-Producing Cells Regulate the Sexual Receptivity through the Painless TRP Channel in Drosophila Virgin Females” (10.1371/journal.pone.0088175).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088175). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual-response cycle
<a id="sexual-response-cycle"></a>

The sexual-response cycle is the pattern of psychophysiologic changes involved in sexual responding. In this packet, it is referenced in the context of disturbances in sexual desire or these changes when they lead to marked distress and interpersonal difficulty.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5420df164efbc45a60a4647bfe67737067799bf2f2fce4f1a8a35b7abe5fff0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sexual Dysfunctions, Psychological” (D020018).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020018). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual sadism
<a id="sexual-sadism"></a>

Sexual sadism is a mental or behavioral disorder in which someone is repeatedly sexually aroused by real acts that cause another person psychological or physical suffering.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9810f36cad833026209b92ce08becbdb4cc3301889dc61aa2f7da73fa9a6e031

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sexual Sadism” (C94358).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexual selection
<a id="sexual-selection"></a>

Sexual selection is an evolutionary process in which reproductive success is shaped by competition for access to breeding opportunities or resources. It can produce very uneven mating success, with some males gaining many matings, and has often been discussed in terms of female choice and male dominance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 988f38cbfd2c5618095999457463b95f0d053db4ba9ba2bd4238dfb8e45b4ece

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lombardi Sonia; Santini Giacomo; Marchetti Giovanni Maria; Focardi Stefano. Generalized structural equations improve sexual-selection analyses. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0181305; article XML SHA-256 7205853c08a2e0048d90ca1a5097dc5dd3a4e4c14a9ea49efdbdc0fe3333159a. “Generalized structural equations improve sexual-selection analyses” (10.1371/journal.pone.0181305).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181305). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sexual Trauma
<a id="sexual-trauma"></a>

Sexual trauma is physical and psychological injury caused by sexual violence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6197c05c0a389e271acc4ab03d1429f0a7a49d5d61462ed98717db13e46d39ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Sexual Trauma” (D000082002).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000082002). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sexuality
<a id="sexuality"></a>

Sexuality is a person’s pattern of sexual functioning, behavior, attitudes, and orientation. It typically becomes more apparent at puberty through the combined influence of hormones and social factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36b371b1b35895c3fe0786d469f00828211342643a73111e7e8b241f77ce9712

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sexuality” (D019529).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019529). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shading
<a id="shading"></a>

In this historical evolutionary usage, shading means passing gradually into another form, with one species or type blending into the next without sharp breaks. It refers to apparent continuity between forms rather than clear-cut separation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2f4e5e8b978762b8d3859348fd15e1aca87c6fec658b5a69ff7b3c6ee119b5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Evolution (in biology)” (Evolution).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Evolution). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shadow
<a id="shadow"></a>

In this context, shadow refers to a wandering pattern in which a cognitively impaired person follows along behind other people who pace or wander. It is described as one form of movement through space seen during confusion or cognitive impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a42aeeb601d6b0d4754d88b86798d0a7f0cd77bf1207f10c43bfb825bc94cc94

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Wandering Behavior” (D055816).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055816). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shadowing
<a id="shadowing"></a>

Shadowing is a task in which a person immediately repeats the same word or utterance they have just heard. In this context, it is used to study how closely speakers adapt their own pronunciation to the speech input.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4448b666cd88ba1bee6473161462131532d68020577c398d286819b1a2390c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sabev Mitko; Yuen Ivan; Andreeva Bistra; Möbius Bernd. Phonetic accommodation depends on processing conditions: evidence for task-dependent frequency effects. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885387; article XML SHA-256 f478db2df4c1e67eae9683417174e7404bb23093f903a7b3427601ba4b106b7c. “Phonetic accommodation depends on processing conditions: evidence for task-dependent frequency effects” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885387).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885387). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shaken baby syndrome
<a id="shaken-baby-syndrome"></a>

Shaken baby syndrome is a pattern of brain injury caused by forcefully shaking an infant or young child, producing extreme movement of the head. It is marked by bleeding inside the skull and in the eyes without obvious external injury, and severe cases can be fatal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f2d56775b21597526d3303f9d074ed1120fb1ebfdf953402fb7bf3906036c3d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Shaken Baby Syndrome” (D038642).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D038642). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sham feeding
<a id="sham-feeding"></a>

Sham feeding is chewing stimulation without actually consuming food, such as chewing tasteless gum. In this context, it is used to study how chewing alone can reduce subjective appetite and lessen attention drawn to food cues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb31849b4deb1f79e73e38b61bd0b7110b5dd3e556424cf2d540c6d6bbeff1a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ikeda Akitsu; Miyamoto Jun J.; Usui Nobuo; Taira Masato; Moriyama Keiji. Chewing Stimulation Reduces Appetite Ratings and Attentional Bias toward Visual Food Stimuli in Healthy-Weight Individuals. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00099; article XML SHA-256 4ee5e92f104c02c059d59df77f66a4adaf5fe77af5b98ef1e4a4a445e66c04c1. “Chewing Stimulation Reduces Appetite Ratings and Attentional Bias toward Visual Food Stimuli in Healthy-Weight Individuals” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00099).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00099). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sham surgery
<a id="sham-surgery"></a>

In this study, sham surgery refers to the comparison surgical condition used as a control when assessing the behavioral and cognitive effects of tMCAO. It serves as the baseline group for judging whether the experimental surgery led to added deficits or brain changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 74543123165a2d7d4769e99f0b830269f31e62aeec48f37e9d408f34cd6a9424

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Jin; Zhuang Jian; Li Jie; Ooi Evelyn; Bloom Jonathan; Poon Carrie; Lax Daniel; Rosenbaum Daniel M.; Barone Frank C.. Long-Term Post-Stroke Changes Include Myelin Loss, Specific Deficits in Sensory and Motor Behaviors and Complex Cognitive Impairment Detected Using Active Place Avoidance. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0057503; article XML SHA-256 d16f324234f751057a0c9f7e98a36d47dcf2c04bdb2393d60572d8e2cd0b9da0. “Long-Term Post-Stroke Changes Include Myelin Loss, Specific Deficits in Sensory and Motor Behaviors and Complex Cognitive Impairment Detected Using Active Place Avoidance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0057503).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0057503). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shaman
<a id="shaman"></a>

A shaman is a religious healer believed to mediate with gods, spirits, or demons and to oversee illness and its cure. In the source material, the shaman is described as using mainly psychotherapeutic or ritual means to influence disease by acting on the unseen spiritual world.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 2 · SHA-256: db27bf7e762bf7cec9072aa1b6e2551cd305fc69f64748caf5a1e778a9506637

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Shamanism” (D019423).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019423). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Shame
<a id="shame"></a>

Shame is an emotional response that arises when a person becomes aware of a fault, mistake, or improper behavior in themselves.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7dfb4cdf8cdf7832ca8e00ccefae5ab3a1106d33053b2028ea1ec8e26f650f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Shame” (D012752).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012752). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shape coding
<a id="shape-coding"></a>

Shape coding is a visual processing mechanism that represents the overall form or pattern of items, helping people quickly estimate small numbers by matching what they see to familiar shape-like arrangements. In this context, it refers to how the organization of elements into simple shapes can support numerosity judgments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 65717a23f513a0ad38cfec07dd29ca4e136f3ab4affb8e1a0ef20d7c23d6bc73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gheorghiu Elena; Goldschmitt Dirk. Spatial and chromatic properties of numerosity estimation in isolation and context. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0274564; article XML SHA-256 09c9d2b0e94699118c7193bb622d7cc3001c7da0401371a4fc462ca89cd814a6. “Spatial and chromatic properties of numerosity estimation in isolation and context” (10.1371/journal.pone.0274564).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0274564). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Shapiro–Wilk test
<a id="shapirowilk-test"></a>

The Shapiro–Wilk test is a statistical test used to check whether a set of data fits a normal distribution. In research, it can help determine whether assumptions of normality are violated when choosing how to analyze data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fafd99fb94a930c57ee48c360b92b04bb5850597a67360dded5728a9682df90a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [BMC: Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies. Version of record 2018-11-21; DOI 10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7. “Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency” (05ea0554db4e6d0f11b4).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shared attention
<a id="shared-attention"></a>

Shared attention is a state in which many people focus on the same event or information at the same time, often while also interacting through media. In the source context, this common focus is linked to spikes in activity and attention becoming concentrated on a smaller number of users rather than being spread across many interpersonal exchanges.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b21e11ba492b7c9a3cb347cdcc43e228308baa1f6c82a00a84b381a61efc5d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lin Yu-Ru; Keegan Brian; Margolin Drew; Lazer David. Rising Tides or Rising Stars?: Dynamics of Shared Attention on Twitter during Media Events. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0094093; article XML SHA-256 5b036cd9531240fc5498aa3fbc6b36b678f7770563f78d94e7874fb3451eee89. “Rising Tides or Rising Stars?: Dynamics of Shared Attention on Twitter during Media Events” (10.1371/journal.pone.0094093).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0094093). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shared environment
<a id="shared-environment"></a>

Shared environment refers to influences that people in the same family or household have in common, which can make them more alike on a psychological ability or trait. In the source study, it describes common environmental factors that contributed to children’s emotion recognition and to the overlap between recognizing emotions from faces and from voices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b9f3d34c19067890d492dd8af4f432dc8e9f2f9df381f408bd413c43887e2741

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schapira Rotem; Anger Elfenbein Hillary; Amichay-Setter Meirav; Zahn-Waxler Carolyn; Knafo-Noam Ariel. Shared Environment Effects on Children’s Emotion Recognition. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00215; article XML SHA-256 754d871b7a8af66ec1f8bdb883c1686d03e79067094632c4814caac6da3350d8. “Shared Environment Effects on Children’s Emotion Recognition” (10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00215).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00215). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Shared Paranoid Disorder
<a id="shared-paranoid-disorder"></a>

A condition in which closely related people, usually in the same family, share the same delusional beliefs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c340c18a796659a5daaadd7f997b13119c5ee81504a655caba459c8a9dd1484b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Shared Paranoid Disorder” (D012753).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012753). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shared psychotic disorder
<a id="shared-psychotic-disorder"></a>

Shared psychotic disorder is a condition in which one person develops a delusion through a close relationship with someone who already has that same fixed false belief, often in the setting of schizophrenia or delusional disorder in the other person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d4fd2a50daf4dc0db84eff23e38049039cfe0a3eb336175699c40aefff4f3e73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Shared Psychotic Disorder” (C94391).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shenjing shuairuo
<a id="shenjing-shuairuo"></a>

Shenjing shuairuo refers to neurasthenia, a clinical idiom of distress described here as involving passive, fatigue-centered bodily complaints. In this source, it is contrasted with later adolescent self-harm as an earlier way distress was commonly expressed in China.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ad80d9efce9a6621cf1af0782e64d20c8c6ed2e1fcec4ab4307fe0ee5c5c489

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yan Wen-Jing; Ruan Qian-Nan; Xu Dongwu. The somatization of structural friction: deciphering the surge of adolescent self-harm in post-transition China. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1776994; article XML SHA-256 1a0ecebf6b383dba485f78480c66f25fd5b5f9e59abf00e40e2d11f49596ffaa. “The somatization of structural friction: deciphering the surge of adolescent self-harm in post-transition China” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1776994).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1776994). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shift work
<a id="shift-work"></a>

Shift work is work that can disrupt the normal 24-hour sleep–wake cycle. In this context, it is noted as a cause of circadian-rhythm-related sleep problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c15f618a83638c5ee961b6f41b141b8514b0c84ca0a76cbf86cd32e67f466a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep Disorders, Circadian Rhythm” (D020178).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020178). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shock therapy
<a id="shock-therapy"></a>

Shock therapy is a treatment in which convulsions are deliberately produced to help treat mental disorders. It has been used mainly for severe mood disorders and schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 86c23e47266c3ce313541084b39f3430d6adfedaf38f7c2712889e351fd6fa38

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Convulsive Therapy” (D003295).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003295). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Short Grit Scale
<a id="short-grit-scale"></a>

The Short Grit Scale is a brief 8-item assessment used to measure grit, a noncognitive personal quality involving passion and perseverance in pursuing long-term goals. It evaluates two parts of grit: consistency of interests over time and perseverance of effort when facing challenges.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac2857f6e0d73d12a01bf6a61387c3b211405c3c44f6069ce9cfd7b2d8803d9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bae Sung-Woo; Kim Ji Geun; Park Byung-Sun; Lee Keungeun; Park Jungkyu. Psychometric properties and measurement invariance of the short form of grit scale in Korean adolescents. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296795; article XML SHA-256 38d3eeaee5ae31ce473ef174cce7c08ed2fe4e1591155a37b11555c2316e4084. “Psychometric properties and measurement invariance of the short form of grit scale in Korean adolescents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296795).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296795). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy
<a id="short-term-psychodynamic-psychotherapy"></a>

Short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy (STPP) is a manualized form of psychodynamic psychotherapy designed to be delivered over a limited period. In this packet, it is described as a psychotherapy approach studied in routine practice for social anxiety disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c03eb26e93ef541a78ac251802ab6bc20943247c03182f2e9e2e1d44a42d5d53

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wiltink Jörg; Ruckes Christian; Hoyer Jürgen; Leichsenring Falk; Joraschky Peter; Leweke Frank; Pöhlmann Karin; Beutel Manfred E.. Transfer of manualized Short Term Psychodynamic Psychotherapy (STPP) for social anxiety disorder into clinical practice: results from a cluster-randomised controlled trial. 2017; DOI 10.1186/s12888-017-1257-7; article XML SHA-256 814aa29960321fc05dd6e218c6de0e75818340697905fd2d57fbc8d65a0ee4f5. “Transfer of manualized Short Term Psychodynamic Psychotherapy (STPP) for social anxiety disorder into clinical practice: results from a cluster-randomised controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-017-1257-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1257-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## short-term psychotherapy
<a id="short-term-psychotherapy"></a>

Short-term psychotherapy is psychotherapy planned to bring about improvement in a relatively brief period, usually in no more than about 20 sessions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 481b9c431b1c37cfde35bd0f0e59b0de83e51765f9cfc1fea7e5174445fc1cd9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychotherapy, Brief” (D011614).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011614). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## showup
<a id="showup"></a>

A showup is an eyewitness identification procedure in which a person makes a decision about one presented suspect, such as judging whether that individual is the perpetrator. In the supplied research, participants made separate showup decisions for different perpetrators after watching a mock crime.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f109be114ba230ccc8d34422b7d88b8e1412cd68bb51c32c26f6f5b48eb3f808

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tupper Nina; Sauerland Melanie; Sauer James D.; Broers Nick J.; Charman Steve D.; Hope Lorraine. Showup identification decisions for multiple perpetrator crimes: Testing for sequential dependencies. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0208403; article XML SHA-256 9653d5a435123c09e19dbd3f9eb172a860a38d6f4174d68c282db4f0598449e3. “Showup identification decisions for multiple perpetrator crimes: Testing for sequential dependencies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0208403).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208403). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shrinkage
<a id="shrinkage"></a>

In this packet, shrinkage refers to the contraction of membranes in the vitreoretinal area of the eye after retinal pigment epithelial and glial cells multiply and form membranes. Collagen fiber formation and cell growth appear to underlie the membranes’ pulling or contractile behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7b177103ad347396f35b0f8d969662e7d11f3ed0d78fe65a1aff216cf5fb4669

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vitreoretinopathy, Proliferative” (D018630).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018630). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SHRM
<a id="shrm"></a>

SHRM, or strategic human resource management, is the planned use of human resource practices to help an organization meet its goals. It includes activities like recruitment, training, employee participation, performance management, and compensation, with an emphasis on arranging people and resources strategically so the organization can adapt to change and use them efficiently.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b87e63a28836671f8d362dfadc4f906c40f530a4281ea0a5f380ea58c180f9ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Jiabao; Zhang Jiaxue; Zhao Yi. Strategic HRM and SME innovation: a chain mechanism of learning-resilience pathway and nonlinear environmental dynamism. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1584489; article XML SHA-256 7c0331a9facce91333b6ed4e2821feb8afbe7ce3b8ecc608a7038467f510aafb. “Strategic HRM and SME innovation: a chain mechanism of learning-resilience pathway and nonlinear environmental dynamism” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1584489).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1584489). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shunt
<a id="shunt"></a>

In this context, a shunt is a device placed to drain cerebrospinal fluid as part of treatment for hydrocephalus. The packet specifically discusses infections that can occur after shunt placement or revision surgery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2916648a9915f91429db1cd16df52aafd0e0b1d502a61fcf83d20b5bd6c4fa30

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hodor Paul; Pope Christopher E; Whitlock Kathryn B; McDonald Patrick J; Hauptman Jason; Hoffman Lucas R; Limbrick David D; Simon Tamara D; on behalf of the Cerebrospinal FLuId MicroBiota in Shunts (CLIMB) Study Group. A search for bacteria identified from cerebrospinal fluid shunt infections in previous surgical events. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311605; article XML SHA-256 e4af780a6afdd71dd590eeae983b7cb0e7d87bfb7a027c147dc75f9bc8ef9f0f. “A search for bacteria identified from cerebrospinal fluid shunt infections in previous surgical events” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311605).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311605). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shuttle box
<a id="shuttle-box"></a>

A shuttle box is a behavioral test setup used in animal research to measure performance related to cognition, and in this study it was one of the tests used to evaluate cognitive and motor function in mice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a7003e546603b03048635a0c5ed20ccca253fe4f267f45915b9aebffaeb9009c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mariki Aliakbar; Kohlmeier Kristi Anne; Mousavi Seyed Mohammad; Keyhani Alireza; Harandi Majid Fasihi; Sabzalizadeh Mansoureh; Shabani Mohammad. Fasciola hepatica excretory-secretory products attenuate demyelination and reduce neuroinflammation in the Cuprizone –induced multiple sclerosis model. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349675; article XML SHA-256 48a1f33e50c03d7f71701f4b3a57b139f15239f92733f32e2eaaba6c9a06b162. “Fasciola hepatica excretory-secretory products attenuate demyelination and reduce neuroinflammation in the Cuprizone –induced multiple sclerosis model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349675).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349675). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shy–bold continuum
<a id="shybold-continuum"></a>

The shy–bold continuum is a way of describing behavioral types by placing individuals along a range from more shy to more bold. In this source, differences along that range are linked to exploration style and may help explain how individuals differ in their use of space and recurring movements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 74d43e4c5fb60152d0435277587a17e20b9305dd54b895f243fce72942e08572

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Stiegler Jonas; Lins Alisa; Dammhahn Melanie; Kramer-Schadt Stephanie; Ortmann Sylvia; Blaum Niels. Personality drives activity and space use in a mammalian herbivore. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s40462-022-00333-6; article XML SHA-256 c25bd02efbd5276d88ac6c7d4243873703477fafd0b2e8d921a8bed213a81ab9. “Personality drives activity and space use in a mammalian herbivore” (10.1186/s40462-022-00333-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40462-022-00333-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## shyness
<a id="shyness"></a>

Shyness is discomfort around other people that can partly hold a person back from acting in their usual way when others are present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d78b1d87fa724b77370a3326e1d8f0edc08c410761240195d6f87e6b112318d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Shyness” (D012792).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012792). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sib
<a id="sib"></a>

In this packet, SIB refers to the siblings of people with schizophrenia, specifically healthy siblings studied as a group with possible familial or genetic risk. The term is used as a research label rather than a diagnosis itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8dd9dff91766516a909db5980bbc6414f35d64c209a9066252f2fffe942e0284

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Chang; Liang Lingyun; Wu Guowei; Li Xinchun. Age-dependent gray matter volume alterations in healthy siblings of schizophrenia patients: a structural magnetic resonance imaging study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1774832; article XML SHA-256 125ee13f9ffc5a772b56850209ed6f19f37ee9b61172259c5d62cee4bbfbd689. “Age-dependent gray matter volume alterations in healthy siblings of schizophrenia patients: a structural magnetic resonance imaging study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1774832).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1774832). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sick headache
<a id="sick-headache"></a>

Sick headache is the popular name for migraine or megrim, a severe headache usually affecting one side of the head. In this historical source it is described as often beginning with warning sensations such as dizziness or visual disturbance, then becoming intensely painful and commonly accompanied by digestive upset and vomiting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d4f2885a70edf678b228ba7f3cd788c6dd991734ea3ee58a9c273c7e72fd687f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Migraine or Megrim” (Migraine).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Migraine). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sick role
<a id="sick-role"></a>

Sick role is the socially recognized set of expectations that relieves a person of blame for being ill and releases them from some usual duties or responsibilities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 56e1b8c566930b07e2cf660cd5ea1b41c6daea8c1e175a728d5d11a679c6b40c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sick Role” (D012803).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012803). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SIDS
<a id="sids"></a>

SIDS stands for Small Island Developing States. In this packet, it refers to island nations or territories that face limited infrastructure and resources, which can make activities like environmental monitoring harder to carry out.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ff52b7f6969c2ae6d86f6dcaef5f5d74bc95a2e0ea380e521f58e1ee21faaf7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Godéré Irène; Edmunds Taiamiti; Gaertner-Mazouni Nabila; Gimenez Fiona; Wong-Wah-Chung Pascal; Lebarillier Stéphanie; Baudrimont Magalie; Pupier Chloé; Maihota Nicolas; Gaertner Jean-Claude. Exploring Nile Red and machine learning for microplastics detection in Tridacna maxima. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357014; article XML SHA-256 31932a965ee2ecef2bd3082df5aa7ae07c45a1d63e138c3289a4d27813831452. “Exploring Nile Red and machine learning for microplastics detection in Tridacna maxima” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357014).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357014). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sighting line
<a id="sighting-line"></a>

A sighting line is the straight line joining two luminous points that appear to the observer to lie in exactly the same direction. In this historical optics usage, the main sighting line is treated as practically the same as the line of sight.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f665c911a2d1ca7b493f647b300deb193bafaf8e8732c97e9829194e4d4c86eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2982000-2994000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sigma
<a id="sigma"></a>

In this source, sigma refers to sigma receptors, a type of cell membrane receptor that can bind several psychoactive substances, including some opioids, and affect changes inside cells. Unlike the main opioid receptor classes, their natural endogenous ligands are not known from the information provided here.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 823ec6e193da65c087d7a68b423deeb1f6bb032ada176bfd8bf7d8111031714e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Receptors, Opioid” (D011957).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011957). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sigmoid curve
<a id="sigmoid-curve"></a>

In this historical source, a sigmoid curve is the pronounced S-shaped bend of the human vertebral column. It is described as one of the bodily features associated with the fully erect walking posture of humans.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c9c8e9224b2d7b644f40994f23c51d7f5cd6e898c6bb480b3a25b97262088e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anthropoid” (Anthropoid).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anthropoid). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sign
<a id="sign"></a>

A sign is an objective indication of disease that can be noticed by a healthcare professional during examination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2536347636b0b17849b1348ce41f6e4be9f3ed3081708a3efdb5ecad3b02e7ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sign” (C53458).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sign language
<a id="sign-language"></a>

Sign language is a communication system that uses hand gestures. It is used by people with hearing loss and can also be used between people who speak different languages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e791ca57f9eb369d874ceea02352d88068d1dfd20f58eda0022a0b4a881c339d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sign Language” (D012813).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012813). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## signal
<a id="signal"></a>

In this context, a signal is the meaningful part of recorded data that contains abrupt changes or event-related information. It is contrasted with background noise, which the analysis aims to reduce so the important events can be identified more accurately.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a409e4106b6d8308afb2071acd957254903f9380770c9872149985ac5971324d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Weijian; Li Jianbo; Zhang Zhizeng; Yuan Zhenxia; Teng Shuai; Song Danqing; Zhu Mingrui; Lv Wenlong. Research on automatic segmentation method of microseismic monitoring signal under low signal-to-noise ratio conditions. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358562; article XML SHA-256 0756923623844ab97429fb2ad28c73201793990fd6d7af5df1d689e5d46168e5. “Research on automatic segmentation method of microseismic monitoring signal under low signal-to-noise ratio conditions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358562).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358562). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## signal detection task
<a id="signal-detection-task"></a>

A signal detection task is a task in which a person must notice and respond to signals that appear at unpredictable times. In this source, it is used as a secondary visual task to measure sustained attention through response speed and accuracy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4330555e8bd03fb51fedb528585f7e0c52e90bf3a68eda987dae82a78adb6d2b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Zizheng; Chen Ruiya; Zhang Kan; Pan Yirun; Wu Jianhui. The Impairing Effect of Mental Fatigue on Visual Sustained Attention under Monotonous Multi-Object Visual Attention Task in Long Durations: An Event-Related Potential Based Study. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0163360; article XML SHA-256 0302e551542391ea51de70e6896781709dcb43e413cdb699dd418eac9d327bb0. “The Impairing Effect of Mental Fatigue on Visual Sustained Attention under Monotonous Multi-Object Visual Attention Task in Long Durations: An Event-Related Potential Based Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0163360).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163360). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## signal detection theory
<a id="signal-detection-theory"></a>

Signal detection theory is a psychophysical approach used to estimate both how well a person can detect a stimulus and how much their judgments are influenced by response bias across sensory modalities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c5a0cca375bab78b09ed14c1de11e8a92780ad91b90dc98f176fdb209507ecb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Signal Detection, Psychological” (D017603).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017603). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## signal-to-noise ratio
<a id="signal-to-noise-ratio"></a>

Signal-to-noise ratio is the relationship between meaningful information and data that are irrelevant or wrong. It indicates how much useful signal is present compared with noise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a11c23fe37fd7347dd54b31723babd109c3796bafbfe60c9af26c5f5773d7e89

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Signal-To-Noise Ratio” (D059629).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D059629). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## signaled avoidance
<a id="signaled-avoidance"></a>

Signaled avoidance is an aversive learning task in which a cue such as a tone signals an upcoming unpleasant event, and the learner acquires a response that prevents it. It refers to learning to act during the warning signal to avoid the aversive outcome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97fc1fee9c205d453a4860fddfe8639417b3b98b7aea19250ca5d421f240c4a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Orczyk John J.; Banks Melissa K.; Garraghty Preston E.. The effects of valproic acid on appetitive and aversive instrumental learning in adult rats. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00113; article XML SHA-256 6abecc81d13b580be50d68abc0a1c34a14218b90fe6f6de65e23f22bfd28ed95. “The effects of valproic acid on appetitive and aversive instrumental learning in adult rats” (10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00113).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00113). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## significance level
<a id="significance-level"></a>

In significance testing, the significance level is the cutoff probability used to decide when to reject the null hypothesis. It is the largest p-value that still counts as statistically significant, with 0.05 and 0.01 being common choices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f74f758bc197fe16995f461c1805ec104418f07834db1a71b37a65379c6c911c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Significance Level” (significance_level.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/significance_level.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## significance testing
<a id="significance-testing"></a>

Significance testing is a statistical method used to judge whether the null hypothesis remains plausible in light of the data. When the observed data, or more extreme results, would be very unlikely if the null hypothesis were true, the null hypothesis is rejected and the finding is called statistically significant; this does not by itself mean the effect is important.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cec860017abc6236c454b852470818b1151ca4b910d715d321db4e2f235a0375

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Significance Testing” (significance_testing.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/significance_testing.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SII
<a id="sii"></a>

SII stands for Systemic Immune-Inflammation Index, a composite biomarker intended to reflect the body’s overall inflammatory state. In this context, it is being examined as a possible biological marker related to anxiety in Parkinson’s disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75944e678f5545bf9fc6ab9db86aa1133b9e0db320df6e1ca98d5643e9443801

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Wen; Zeng Tianfang; Liu Duan; Pang Ruijuan; Gong Liang. Association between inflammatory markers (SII and SIRI) and anxiety levels in Parkinson’s disease. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1635817; article XML SHA-256 f040d14fecc0715cb0695c8e97c074a34cee65b70ebe81494166de34f4bc1a7c. “Association between inflammatory markers (SII and SIRI) and anxiety levels in Parkinson’s disease” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1635817).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1635817). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Silenor
<a id="silenor"></a>

Silenor is doxepin, a tricyclic antidepressant that can reduce depression, anxiety, and itching. It works by increasing the availability of norepinephrine and serotonin in the brain and also blocks several receptors, including histamine receptors, which helps explain its antipruritic effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 979bc115636fc72c30fe4de3551a1af22e777c109479e8e80bc26fa83f13eb66

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Doxepin” (C65475).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Silver–Russell syndrome
<a id="silverrussell-syndrome"></a>

Silver–Russell syndrome is a rare imprinting disorder marked by slowed growth before and after birth, most often linked to loss of methylation on chromosome 11p15 or maternal uniparental disomy of chromosome 7. In psychology and learning contexts, it has been associated with reported attention and learning difficulties, although executive functioning is not clearly impaired as a defining feature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c832bd38d088a8acb961c7c1e56bb9691820548a0db3048eb732fb795d5ebd4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Burgevin Mélissa; Lacroix Agnès; Ollivier Fanny; Bourdet Karine; Coutant Régis; Donadille Bruno; Faivre Laurence; Manouvrier-Hanu Sylvie; Petit Florence; Thauvin-Robinet Christel; Toutain Annick; Netchine Irène; Odent Sylvie. Executive functioning in adolescents and adults with Silver-Russell syndrome. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0279745; article XML SHA-256 bc065a2868ba2a59f5617619e1bd120bfd4e33531b90a46ff97e30c795ac278a. “Executive functioning in adolescents and adults with Silver-Russell syndrome” (10.1371/journal.pone.0279745).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279745). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## simple comparison
<a id="simple-comparison"></a>

Simple comparison is the mental act or faculty of comparing the subject and predicate within a judgment. In this historical usage, it refers specifically to bringing those two terms into relation as part of judging.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fba827972713e4a9fb5df8bcb2b048fe9f699f1c6e1be00c42a678f30dc28ab0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3003000-3015000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## simple effect
<a id="simple-effect"></a>

A simple effect is the effect of one factor examined at one specific level of another factor. For example, it looks at how one variable works within a particular subgroup defined by another variable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5f039d75d008169b65fa26e6cf38a07c0d4acaeff7fc36122f63e56d2776132b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Simple effect” (simple_effect.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/simple_effect.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## simple eye
<a id="simple-eye"></a>

In this historical usage, a simple eye is a very elementary light-sensitive organ, such as an eye-spot or pigment-lined pit, found in many lower animals. It is described as serving basic sensitivity to light, and in pit form it can also provide the structural starting point for more image-forming eyes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e280dbb69b39805ad5a128d8f923fa6bb103d9745018f7c20841dcc7d5b90cfe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4347000-4359000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## simple partial seizure
<a id="simple-partial-seizure"></a>

A simple partial seizure is a seizure that begins in one specific area of the brain and occurs without disturbing consciousness. It may involve motor, sensory, or autonomic symptoms and can sometimes spread to become more generalized.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: caf9a72ac97d22b16f867f55371cf83d25214413a694851cfc086317c28aec06

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Epilepsies, Partial” (D004828).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004828). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## simple reaction time
<a id="simple-reaction-time"></a>

Simple reaction time is the total time between the sudden presentation of an expected stimulus and the person’s prearranged movement in response, with the task made as automatic as possible. In this historical account, it was treated as a near-reflex action passing through the higher brain centres.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f4f63f0a33bda3ab266b1ece8ec3e531e084e546cf7529c0ae58262bf40b234

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2362500-2374500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## simple tone
<a id="simple-tone"></a>

In this historical source, a simple tone is a basic tone contrasted with a compound tone. The entry notes that some writers treated it as the same as a simple clang, although it also argues that clang is more strictly the term for a musical note made up of a fundamental tone and its overtones.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06119bdbdcaa57ca7bcd4f38b8b662125246fb06c7990d8e09d41e265471f09f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Clang” (Clang).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Clang). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## simple universal
<a id="simple-universal"></a>

In this historical scholastic use, a simple universal means a general term. It contrasts with the "complex" use of universal, which refers to a whole proposition stated of all cases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce8e002a50ab164bcc9e0d2f2f3c78b4265fe4df7fbea6c3af394c2f89a17e47

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4168500-4180500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## simulation
<a id="simulation"></a>

Simulation is a way of representing a system in an abstract form so its behavior can be estimated. It uses a mathematical model with chosen parameters and starting conditions to predict how the system may act.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba6bba3f8fbbe3f9d9cbffab5cd590ba9887feee86fbaf497685da0be392c846

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Computer Modeling” (C16461).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## simulation training
<a id="simulation-training"></a>

Simulation training is a tailored interactive program or learning environment that lets people learn and practice real-world activities in a realistic setting designed to be safe and secure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 242d7c4ae9b2d0ffcc4c82c0ed15e4372d8b62bdbd4da472897e5acf1c04c45e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Simulation Training” (D000066908).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000066908). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## simultanagnosia
<a id="simultanagnosia"></a>

Simultanagnosia is a symptom in which a person can understand only one part of a visual scene at a time and cannot put the separate parts together into a whole picture.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ef2cba0817fc16620033e00a1c5c3314c4aea6d9c5bb138254995ec478d01dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Simultanagnosia” (C84395).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## simultaneous contrast
<a id="simultaneous-contrast"></a>

Simultaneous contrast is the visual effect in which a surface’s apparent colour or brightness is changed by the colours or brightness of other objects seen with it, especially nearby ones. The effect tends to make the difference seem stronger, often in the direction of the opposite or complementary quality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d9cd89346e1ba8036e5ebc83076d34e3eb470b9f5b472c4a6fa05ae42fedc93a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: C4defs.htm” (ffd1bbd428b354054301).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sine qua non
<a id="sine-qua-non"></a>

Sine qua non means an indispensable or necessary condition: something that must be present for another event or state to occur. In this usage, the second thing does not happen unless the sine qua non is present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1b196c4105cf8471c641d6864923c98cad387a482a9ffdc14cbf6cdbe75b44b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Necessary (1) and (2) Sufficient Condition” (Necessary (1) and (2) Sufficient Condition).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N1defs.htm#Necessary (1) and (2) Sufficient Condition). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sinemet
<a id="sinemet"></a>

Sinemet is an oral medicine that combines carbidopa and levodopa. Levodopa is converted to dopamine in the brain, while carbidopa reduces levodopa’s breakdown outside the brain, helping more of it reach the central nervous system; it has dopaminergic and antiparkinsonian effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 439608d094766a1b91437cc9195c38117a52bde7f91bdc1d743758d190ba2c67

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Carbidopa/Levodopa” (C153096).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sinequan
<a id="sinequan"></a>

Sinequan is doxepin hydrochloride, a tricyclic antidepressant with sedative and anti-itch effects. It works by increasing the availability of norepinephrine and serotonin and also blocks histamine and several other receptor types.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 32e57c3e7eeaaaeb001ca9b56da15cff5b07f1adc4ae6027ea4babebd47c79de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Doxepin Hydrochloride” (C29006).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## single parent
<a id="single-parent"></a>

A single parent is a natural, adoptive, or substitute parent of a dependent child in a situation where the child has only one parent in the household. This can include a parent who lives with the child or visits, and includes people who are never married, divorced, or widowed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03c658b1204f2d1c65c941575c338d5fb2889c3baf9c6455bee1fd776a03f499

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Single Parent” (D015406).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015406). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## single-session therapy
<a id="single-session-therapy"></a>

Single-session therapy is a way of delivering mental health care in which an evidence-based, solution-focused brief intervention is provided in one stand-alone therapy meeting. It can offer immediate psychological support and referrals, including while people are waiting for longer-term services.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c85cbf00650e566ebd1a66b9fc7363c0b7260f183246a0c6d57ab2a697f52da7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wellspring Ian; Ganesh Kirthana; Kreklewetz Kimberly. Walk-in mental health: Bridging barriers in a pandemic. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302543; article XML SHA-256 a9a9f07fc85f7f8863c120603932b58f78924270113a64360216fcd5768828bc. “Walk-in mental health: Bridging barriers in a pandemic” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302543).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302543). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sinistrality
<a id="sinistrality"></a>

Sinistrality is left-handedness, the term corresponding to dextrality. In this historical usage, it refers to the asymmetry of hand preference in which the left hand is the preferred or more developed hand.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ebf917723775cb49ab991160e483fba474eb1eed1dab655ac709b839884bcb5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dextrality” (Dextrality).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Dextrality). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SIQ
<a id="siq"></a>

SIQ stands for the Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire, a standardized self-report measure used to assess how often adolescents in grades 10 through 12 have suicidal thoughts. It has 30 items rated on a seven-point scale.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02a763c1908b4ed9152ad6fde48d71ce623ff752e2c81640944a90f0b7306c42

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire” (C150920).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SIT
<a id="sit"></a>

In this source, SIT refers to the 30-second sit-up, a measure of muscle strength examined for its relationship to working memory performance and prefrontal cortex activation in older adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00f5838fabe4f95789cef8fe2ea3cdc8f0d49155364742342bdfc45ac746d3c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meng Xiangbo; Liao Kaifang; Cai Zhidong. The relationship between muscle strength and working memory in older adults: fNIRS-based evidence. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748549; article XML SHA-256 dc80b4c67348da8be414e992c76afb7300c83d4b6fb9adbe500346c67d325816. “The relationship between muscle strength and working memory in older adults: fNIRS-based evidence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748549).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748549). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## situated cognition
<a id="situated-cognition"></a>

Situated cognition is the view that thinking does not occur in isolation but depends on a person’s bodily form, ongoing interaction with the environment, use of physical supports, and social-cultural context. In this view, cognitive activity is embodied, enacted, extended, and embedded rather than being only an abstract process located in the brain or body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a582668c4f0d526427e0e80fdba41c28b453f7acb6cd77074ba4b5a64e450450

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vogel David H. V.; Jording Mathis; Kupke Christian; Vogeley Kai. The Temporality of Situated Cognition. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.546212; article XML SHA-256 b7e5c974fe7ce98df66b5ea43b51ee18c434d5780ff39b85888b31543633594d. “The Temporality of Situated Cognition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.546212).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.546212). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## situational attribution
<a id="situational-attribution"></a>

Situational attribution is a way of explaining a person’s behaviour by the circumstances or social context around them, rather than mainly by the person’s own dispositions. In this source, it is discussed as a psychological tendency that varies across cultures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 405d99fc708508a80bb1b364859a6444afd577eacc7b09297f9ba36a8f403b74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mesoudi Alex; Magid Kesson; Hussain Delwar. How Do People Become W.E.I.R.D.? Migration Reveals the Cultural Transmission Mechanisms Underlying Variation in Psychological Processes. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0147162; article XML SHA-256 04688d58700dfa06c5edb0486e5e2f0380be00bbe408f69f8bf07141b9f44f47. “How Do People Become W.E.I.R.D.? Migration Reveals the Cultural Transmission Mechanisms Underlying Variation in Psychological Processes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0147162).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147162). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## situational conditions
<a id="situational-conditions"></a>

Situational conditions are features of a particular context that shape how people can act and how strongly an intervention affects behavior. In this source, they refer to contextual factors such as the lower autonomy available at work compared with home, which can limit behavior change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3f189b31ba6e50c67991d5ecdfc71c50850af0792d6d09b736b45a9866677152

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bentler Dominik; Kadi Gizem; Maier Günter W.. Increasing pro-environmental behavior in the home and work contexts through cognitive dissonance and autonomy. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1199363; article XML SHA-256 21bbb162c8935d5ce78a79852b8ad231e9ecdbfc7efb4a05035cde32efd838ba. “Increasing pro-environmental behavior in the home and work contexts through cognitive dissonance and autonomy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1199363).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1199363). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## situational differences
<a id="situational-differences"></a>

Situational differences are variations in the immediate social context or circumstances that can change how psychological factors are related. In this source, the term refers to differences within the same overall setting, such as being in a more relationship-fluid versus more stable interpersonal situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26f789dc153780a218e771b8181d0b1ccd07cb4ff0f893b12392896682a3670e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sato Kosuke; Yuki Masaki. The association between self-esteem and happiness differs in relationally mobile vs. stable interpersonal contexts. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01113; article XML SHA-256 170e21e3150495cc9e02b3563d43527a4be56ad688a5c5e9cc9c277d66dbcd5c. “The association between self-esteem and happiness differs in relationally mobile vs. stable interpersonal contexts” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01113).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01113). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## situational judgment test
<a id="situational-judgment-test"></a>

A situational judgment test is an assessment that presents people with scenarios and then asks follow-up questions about them, often in an open-ended format. It is used to sample personal or non-academic qualities such as communication, empathy, ethics, problem solving, professionalism, resilience, and self-awareness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c05b527179e181f6a96381a2e1fde48f5d596a597bd623191e3c76bc61f67dd5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gustafson Chelsea E.; Johnson Crystal J.; Beck Dallaghan Gary L.; Knight O’Rese J.; Malloy Kimberly M.; Nichols Kimberley R.; Rahangdale Lisa. Evaluating situational judgment test use and diversity in admissions at a southern US medical school. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0280205; article XML SHA-256 a99e62814517807bc60a28e56b429cba8ace25c0a67e72d6ff05868a5b85554e. “Evaluating situational judgment test use and diversity in admissions at a southern US medical school” (10.1371/journal.pone.0280205).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280205). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sixth cranial nerve
<a id="sixth-cranial-nerve"></a>

The sixth cranial nerve, also called the abducens nerve, begins in the pons and carries motor signals to the lateral rectus muscle of the eye. It helps control horizontal eye movement, and injury to the nerve or its nucleus can disturb that movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8228ed35e6889c26fc3b90e372069b5e5970488f715aff4575240df64ea4b38f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Abducens Nerve” (D000010).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000010). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sixth sense
<a id="sixth-sense"></a>

In this historical source, “sixth sense” refers to common bodily feeling or general sensation: an overall sense of bodily lightness and liveliness, or of tiredness and weariness, arising apart from work or illness. It is used as another name for coenesthesis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7fdb8085a88cd3783fbc327908e665555b2c50996bcd022da62d374de26894c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-976500-988500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## size constancy
<a id="size-constancy"></a>

Size constancy is the perceptual process of judging an object’s size by combining viewing distance, the size of its retinal image, and surrounding visual context, so perceived size can remain relatively stable despite changes in how large the image appears on the eye.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 23b0d59d002fe8190c11b70e0f1002876c2ccfcb0342ceb20b66e3a198619cfe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mruczek Ryan E. B.; Fanelli Matthew; Kelly Sean; Caplovitz Gideon P.. The combination of target motion and dynamic changes in context greatly enhance visual size illusions. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2022.959367; article XML SHA-256 1bf335590df8ff4e833e761e1077d04518adaa1ce0d4aa2f654febe71bc4b58c. “The combination of target motion and dynamic changes in context greatly enhance visual size illusions” (10.3389/fnhum.2022.959367).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.959367). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## size cue
<a id="size-cue"></a>

A size cue is a visual sign based on an object’s size that people can use to predict its weight when planning how to lift it. In this context, size can also shape perceived heaviness, as in the size-weight illusion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 25fa94fb176ee14ba6e7581a172df30643410c654f5e26732e75ab354eb45e49

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Negen James; Slater Heather; Nardini Marko. A new audio cue to object weight resembles a naturalistic weight cue during movement planning but not during weight illusions. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325074; article XML SHA-256 439c62cf20d3e4d264b2c69dcdb9f56a3d582080e62d2df7f62eb38d96b157ad. “A new audio cue to object weight resembles a naturalistic weight cue during movement planning but not during weight illusions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325074).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325074). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## size–weight illusion
<a id="sizeweight-illusion"></a>

The size–weight illusion is a perceptual effect in which objects with the same mass feel different in weight when they differ in apparent size, typically making the effect depend on how clearly size is perceived. It can occur through visual, haptic, or even echolocation-based size information, suggesting it reflects a central perceptual process rather than only skin contact or touch at the periphery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f19b61eaf30bb8fe9adea119d352a55a150548b80ad361fda6a08c25f6f4836d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wolf Christian; Drewing Knut. The size-weight illusion comes along with improved weight discrimination. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0236440; article XML SHA-256 9d157278bf947a4c957c291f2b576ed4096e14681787eeb64c01b60136b9174b. “The size-weight illusion comes along with improved weight discrimination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0236440).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236440). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SJT
<a id="sjt"></a>

SJT stands for situational judgment test, a commonly used personnel selection method used in hiring research. In the supplied source, it is discussed as one of several assessment tools used to compare applicant performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a3806ea07b42e58cf5e18e5f8b97f53c66f9f062b9c067c4c59fd395e950d1e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Whelpley Christopher E.; Fezzey Tyler; Batchelor John H.; Weekley Jeff A.. Using selection tests to hire autistic employees: An exploration of methods. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356539; article XML SHA-256 b0fe2ba8286a9857bfac0459a6bbe8ad669478fd603e183949fce4af7f82d735. “Using selection tests to hire autistic employees: An exploration of methods” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356539).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356539). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## skeletal age
<a id="skeletal-age"></a>

Skeletal age is a measure of biological maturation based on how developed a person’s bones are. In this context, it was estimated from X-ray images of the left hand.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7bfc7a34b7eaa574b90bc394c96acf6701bfa4ed6c9bbcbd7c02fe44e03d7c82

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Norill Kvalvaag Ulrikke; Eriksen Hege R; Gundersen Hilde; Johansen Thomas; Pensgaard Anne Marte; Kristoffersen Morten. Multidimensional performance characteristics of youth academy and club soccer players. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348716; article XML SHA-256 47091991c8ff6ca2f647d2b00963e4937f9087f3febed67001a1881066e1a94d. “Multidimensional performance characteristics of youth academy and club soccer players” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348716).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348716). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## skeletal muscle
<a id="skeletal-muscle"></a>

Skeletal muscle is a type of striped muscle that is attached to the skeleton by tendons. Its activity is supplied by nerves and its movements can be brought under conscious control, so it is also called voluntary muscle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c79932ca3f32aec7587488ad805f44c110517a20b142ab43bdd2b934e6b129ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Muscle, Skeletal” (D018482).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018482). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## skill learning
<a id="skill-learning"></a>

Skill learning is the process of improving performance in a skill over time so that the gains last. In the supplied source, it is described in motor behavior as being strongly shaped by feedback, with motivation and metacognitive involvement helping support durable improvement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f59407f53f3af19fc7f42a4dd72bf0c9438855d83cdb4276f56c386e54c7c306

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Tianpeng; Li Kai; Zhang Xinmiao; Cai Yujun. Self-controlled and low-frequency KP feedback enhances gymnastics skill learning via motivation and metacognition. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1769157; article XML SHA-256 43f56fe5ed08f21e19381f0df7e3c8044e485e1650e71ae654edab6dd79d0f86. “Self-controlled and low-frequency KP feedback enhances gymnastics skill learning via motivation and metacognition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1769157).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1769157). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## skill theory
<a id="skill-theory"></a>

Skill theory is a view of cognitive development in which abilities for acting and thinking, including speech and gesture, become more complex through ordered layers of growth. More advanced abilities are formed by coordinating simpler ones across sensorimotor, representational, and abstract forms, and this progression is not strictly straight-line.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 774e626b216c19690eebe5520c7562f338a0aa24f9df69bd1f0ffd24acdb1430

Sources:
- Drafting source: [De Jonge-Hoekstra Lisette; Van der Steen Steffie; Van Geert Paul; Cox Ralf F. A.. Asymmetric Dynamic Attunement of Speech and Gestures in the Construction of Children’s Understanding. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00473; article XML SHA-256 78f15daad92de3c89e9a91236823edcceeeaf4218876722e0dec1ffbf71d9709. “Asymmetric Dynamic Attunement of Speech and Gestures in the Construction of Children’s Understanding” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00473).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00473). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## skin resistance
<a id="skin-resistance"></a>

Skin resistance is a physiological measure of how the skin’s electrical resistance changes during emotional arousal. In this study, larger or more frequent changes in skin resistance were used as signs of a stronger bodily response to feared snake images.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e310eeb795aa8866d56fd83c64acabd0f6e86f22352149e7766db63af02adfd6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Landová Eva; Peléšková Šárka; Sedláčková Kristýna; Janovcová Markéta; Polák Jakub; Rádlová Silvie; Vobrubová Barbora; Frynta Daniel. Venomous snakes elicit stronger fear than nonvenomous ones: Psychophysiological response to snake images. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0236999; article XML SHA-256 dc8e3c32457b7b162cdc15b4063a3c98f918016ecb20fa654b77346a6611b8bc. “Venomous snakes elicit stronger fear than nonvenomous ones: Psychophysiological response to snake images” (10.1371/journal.pone.0236999).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236999). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## skin sense
<a id="skin-sense"></a>

Skin sense here refers to the skin’s ability to detect temperature through thermoreceptors, allowing the body to register its own temperature as well as the temperature of surrounding air and objects. This sensory function supports thermosensation, including detection of heat.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9856ba1f38732e9b58d6e3021480a3ff570c443c0d90e7564c45b5482ec07bd9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Uchida Kunitoshi. TRPM3, TRPM4, and TRPM5 as thermo-sensitive channels. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12576-024-00937-0; article XML SHA-256 04aeea51bff67ca89dac9d6e566b166718c5e6e09607a7aff43433b2f5950a99. “TRPM3, TRPM4, and TRPM5 as thermo-sensitive channels” (10.1186/s12576-024-00937-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12576-024-00937-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Skinner box
<a id="skinner-box"></a>

A Skinner box is a testing setup used in operant conditioning research. In this packet, it refers to the apparatus used for short-term memory tasks such as delayed alternation and delayed non-matching to position in rats.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c29aba42a1695b236341c4602122b6ee14ae2c863c3ff7751d3c8817f8468bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Clemensson Erik Karl Håkan; Clemensson Laura Emily; Riess Olaf; Nguyen Huu Phuc. The BACHD Rat Model of Huntington Disease Shows Signs of Fronto-Striatal Dysfunction in Two Operant Conditioning Tests of Short-Term Memory. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0169051; article XML SHA-256 868ccc2c2206db6e8466ce17f0bc1d3bcdc0df93f96c5e3f7d55e3c29d9f9938. “The BACHD Rat Model of Huntington Disease Shows Signs of Fronto-Striatal Dysfunction in Two Operant Conditioning Tests of Short-Term Memory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0169051).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169051). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sl
<a id="sl"></a>

SL refers to Synchronization Likelihood, an EEG-derived measure summarized as SL values. In this study, SL values were calculated across frequency bands and used to derive graph-based features for classifying sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and healthy older adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c48d41f433b6863ac7446c8a1e58553c1c5c294cfea1ceb8b92a3d88f6079c20

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Takeoka Chisho; Yada Tetsushi; Yamazaki Toshimasa; Kuroiwa Yoshiyuki; Hirai Toshiaki; Fujino Kimihiro; Mizusawa Hidehiro; Takao Masaki; Terao Yasuo; Yamada Masahito. Classification of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease based on resting state scalp-recorded electroencephalogram-derived indices. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355367; article XML SHA-256 3ec18067115fde2b1040301c6a3c266386c05405851939bc0b506e9aaf56dd1d. “Classification of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease based on resting state scalp-recorded electroencephalogram-derived indices” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355367).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355367). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SLD
<a id="sld"></a>

SLD stands for specific learning disorders. In this source, it refers to a neurodevelopmental clinical population of children whose error patterns on reasoning tasks such as Raven’s Matrices are being studied.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 101d03e001cb4fdce82614cb682b70cc69ed7c0b72abf8c0be18e4f6d491bcf1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Spinoso Matilde; Benassi Mariagrazia; Riccardi Alice; Orsoni Matteo; Mazzoni Noemi; Brancaccio Andrea; Epifania Ottavia M.; Allegretti Mariella; Muccinelli Michela; Novelli Chiara; de Chiusole Debora; Anselmi Pasquale; Stefanutti Luca; Bacherini Alice; Pierluigi Irene; Balboni Giulia; Giovagnoli Sara. Error patterns on a computerized version of Raven’s progressive matrices in specific learning disorders. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800128; article XML SHA-256 d9b2f81529b49c27a95ae281d8b6bf2ff062d1a6ee327a161d41dee4934edc4a. “Error patterns on a computerized version of Raven’s progressive matrices in specific learning disorders” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800128).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800128). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SLE
<a id="sle"></a>

SLE, or systemic lupus erythematosus, is a chronic autoimmune disease that can affect multiple organs and is linked with difficulties in emotion and mood regulation. In psychology-related contexts, it is associated with higher stress, depression, and anxiety, along with reduced quality of life and daily functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5602530310bd9c447b092a62d4c02ffa186f5db87d8bb17675100f13d36b0663

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Singhal Pragya; Srivastava Priyanka; Rajasekhar Liza. Psychological well-being of SLE patients: A comprehensive examination of stress, depression, anxiety and quality of life. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344330; article XML SHA-256 ea6ca1406a069a50d396c04ca43f696c00658a8abbfc3730a06068ad3a8e3e62. “Psychological well-being of SLE patients: A comprehensive examination of stress, depression, anxiety and quality of life” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344330).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344330). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sleep
<a id="sleep"></a>

Sleep is a state in which interaction with the environment through sensing and movement is suspended but can be readily reversed. It is usually linked with lying down and being still.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e56580e702ebffbc42e5ed63cfb225aa895049456bb65b1daeaab9a47f0d9db8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Sleep” (D012890).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012890). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleep apnea
<a id="sleep-apnea"></a>

Sleep apnea, specifically obstructive sleep apnea, is a sleep-related condition in which the upper airway repeatedly narrows or collapses during sleep, causing partial or complete blockage of airflow. If it is not treated, it can contribute to important health problems, including neurocognitive difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59c8147fbe897fed5218243fe29a382b88272e43673f075b9428441dc18aacb6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Radhakrishnan Dhenuka; Kendzerska Tetyana; Katz Sherri; Blinder Henrietta; Bin Hasan Saadoun; Naik Tanvi; Benchimol Eric; Narang Indra; Al-Saleh Suhail. Validation of a health administrative definition of obstructive sleep apnea in children in Ontario, Canada. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347148; article XML SHA-256 bce5af8dbc01506b3e6013ca554a19a39c999ea91a41ced9618d058fd50e9e41. “Validation of a health administrative definition of obstructive sleep apnea in children in Ontario, Canada” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347148).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347148). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleep deprivation
<a id="sleep-deprivation"></a>

Sleep deprivation is a state of not getting sleep. It can occur in research settings, because of life circumstances, or from physical or mental health causes such as medication effects, chronic illness, psychiatric illness, or a sleep disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e96b6b719d4aaa524da1b5b8a0d37e8f19f574cb1e27ae12d12dfced48f6ac43

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep Deprivation” (D012892).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012892). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sleep Disorders, Circadian Rhythm
<a id="sleep-disorders-circadian-rhythm"></a>

Circadian rhythm sleep disorders are sleep problems linked to a disruption of the body’s usual 24-hour sleep–wake pattern. They can occur with travel, shift work, or other causes that disturb normal timing of sleep and waking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7de3fdcc05b7dbed4394a17875c3e56d99923f517d4b8915e87ac1e4756e0478

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Sleep Disorders, Circadian Rhythm” (D020178).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020178). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sleep Duration
<a id="sleep-duration"></a>

Sleep duration is the total number of hours a person sleeps in one day.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 30a5a9ec55df1f6322ce6cc2f4d03d0438659471022dab53da52cccc60bff455

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Sleep Duration” (D000094362).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000094362). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleep hygiene
<a id="sleep-hygiene"></a>

Sleep hygiene means the habits and routines that help a person get enough good-quality sleep, including how they manage environmental conditions that can affect sleep.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 21a23ad5b566e59f6029c1839c3d3179386ecf33c73eccb4860c0b75a97e59ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep Hygiene” (D000070263).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000070263). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sleep Latency
<a id="sleep-latency"></a>

Sleep latency is the amount of time it takes a person to reach REM sleep. It is usually measured with EEG or polysomnography during sleep testing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0dffdae244d623f49916f24857b842561a2b14ef4f1d441e1e27254e4d51d9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Sleep Latency” (D000074361).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000074361). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleep paralysis
<a id="sleep-paralysis"></a>

Sleep paralysis is a common condition in which a person is temporarily unable to move some or all skeletal muscles when waking up, or less often when falling asleep. Episodes usually last seconds to minutes and may stop with stimulation such as touch or sound; it can occur on its own or alongside narcolepsy, cataplexy, and hypnagogic hallucinations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53a0e7fde8f85b864daa5d89d7eb656666fcbbd26bf05a43de9293c178c23ec7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep Paralysis” (D020188).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020188). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleep pattern
<a id="sleep-pattern"></a>

Sleep pattern refers to the way a person’s sleep is organized over time, including how it changes or develops. In this context, it is studied as something that can evolve and relate to academic performance and social networks in college students.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d70aabb40b55ff19e4ccde3ef57a7198a23df9873b6c7dc1f5d8a2cef07fd0c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao Yao; Zhou Haoyu. Functional data analysis of college students’ sleep patterns and their relationships with academic performance and social networks: A four-year longitudinal study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351120; article XML SHA-256 6cc0b2f5b636b7b9fd1a9dd01721b8bad76231fab20d69ede693880ef512364a. “Functional data analysis of college students’ sleep patterns and their relationships with academic performance and social networks: A four-year longitudinal study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351120).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351120). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sleep Phase Chronotherapy
<a id="sleep-phase-chronotherapy"></a>

Sleep phase chronotherapy is a method of shifting a person’s sleep schedule by gradually moving bedtime earlier or later until the target bedtime is reached.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2b13b9f5b48ba48956c199615cc014086b026120e230bca9401277a63e3261c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Sleep Phase Chronotherapy” (D055865).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055865). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleep psychology
<a id="sleep-psychology"></a>

Sleep psychology is the area of psychology concerned with how psychological factors contribute to the development or persistence of sleep disorders. It also involves helping with differential diagnosis and using evidence-based cognitive-behavioral assessment and interventions to prevent sleep problems and support quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 99966de4c491324858831874a9e3065e20b81da40983ee912faa79e2801503a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [de Almondes Katie Moraes; Marín Agudelo Hernán Andrés; Jiménez-Correa Ulises. Impact of Sleep Deprivation on Emotional Regulation and the Immune System of Healthcare Workers as a Risk Factor for COVID 19: Practical Recommendations From a Task Force of the Latin American Association of Sleep Psychology. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.564227; article XML SHA-256 75f777616b7a46c8543ad8de44c2647843280dfe1a396d9144ba2b3aa94e1a03. “Impact of Sleep Deprivation on Emotional Regulation and the Immune System of Healthcare Workers as a Risk Factor for COVID 19: Practical Recommendations From a Task Force of the Latin American Association of Sleep Psychology” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.564227).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.564227). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleep recovery
<a id="sleep-recovery"></a>

Sleep recovery is the compensatory period of sleep that follows sleep loss or forced wakefulness, when sleep rebounds to make up for what was missed. In this context, it refers to the recovery period after REM sleep deprivation, during which REM and sometimes non-REM sleep can increase as part of sleep homeostasis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a5ce1c2f5d183fc76d3deb29d6fd72289a57d6ba21b9d3b1d09cdaee96fc183

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Machado Ricardo Borges; Tufik Sergio; Suchecki Deborah. Role of Corticosterone on Sleep Homeostasis Induced by REM Sleep Deprivation in Rats. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0063520; article XML SHA-256 f88d958d00ae54b583fd0eb9b63e6b93ce873da88de3e148eeb02cc3213013ef. “Role of Corticosterone on Sleep Homeostasis Induced by REM Sleep Deprivation in Rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0063520).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0063520). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleep rhythm
<a id="sleep-rhythm"></a>

Sleep rhythm is the pattern or timing of a person's sleep across days. In this source, it is discussed in terms of how sleep timing can differ between workdays and free days.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2a4b7038eeefd1d1abf87da6a9d116573dc40cc91e448a082b0e0b58b3ea2d81

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Krueger Bettina; Stutz Bianca; Jankovic Nicole; Alexy Ute; Kilanowski Anna; Libuda Lars; Buyken Anette E.. The association of chronotype and social jet lag with body composition in German students: The role of physical activity behaviour and the impact of the pandemic lockdown. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0279620; article XML SHA-256 65989e16569bcbd90982d720bf0db3fb7149deb6cc5f0db0d5c84479585559fa. “The association of chronotype and social jet lag with body composition in German students: The role of physical activity behaviour and the impact of the pandemic lockdown” (10.1371/journal.pone.0279620).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279620). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleep spindles
<a id="sleep-spindles"></a>

Sleep spindles are brief patterns of brain activity during sleep that have been linked to memory-related sleep processes and cognitive abilities. They are thought to help coordinate communication between the hippocampus and neocortex involved in forming memories.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4c6d7bbb0fbf14951fb56ef3b6d0082dd8de9aa133022535c90acd3947343939

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Petit Jean-Marie; Strippoli Marie-Pierre F; Stephan Aurélie; Ranjbar Serateh; Haba-Rubio José; Solelhac Geoffroy; Heinzer Raphaël; Preisig Martin; Siclari Francesca; Do Kim Q. Sleep spindles in people with schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorders or bipolar disorders: a pilot study in a general population-based cohort. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-04423-y; article XML SHA-256 138e04a58250b7e61e8762ec3aac1c1d6023a17475eb45dd17d043dc2fdd57a8. “Sleep spindles in people with schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorders or bipolar disorders: a pilot study in a general population-based cohort” (10.1186/s12888-022-04423-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-04423-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleep stages
<a id="sleep-stages"></a>

Sleep stages are distinct periods within sleep that are identified by patterns of brain-wave activity and related behavior. They are now commonly grouped as N1 and N2 for sleep onset and light sleep, N3 for slow-wave sleep, and REM sleep.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84f2365daaf0122fb4f029e1a352e7e1ee991d0695efd5f2a81c9c8b37d43723

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep Stages” (D012894).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012894). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleep terror disorder
<a id="sleep-terror-disorder"></a>

Sleep terror disorder is a condition marked by partial awakening from sleep with actions that show intense fear. It is seen mainly in children and young adults, usually happens in deep sleep, and the person commonly does not remember the episode afterward; sleepwalking often occurs along with it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: feebc796d148c6c25c4e4fcadb81e5fa313c4979e592d1f6972babd06a14c527

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Night Terrors” (D020184).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020184). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sleep-Wake Transition Disorders
<a id="sleep-wake-transition-disorders"></a>

Sleep-wake transition disorders are parasomnias involving unusual behaviors that happen as a person is falling asleep or waking up. They occur during the shift between being awake and asleep.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a049616a16936c6518e09e92ed573f7d691900de923da0ce5167e15fac84c53f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Sleep-Wake Transition Disorders” (D020922).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020922). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleeper effect
<a id="sleeper-effect"></a>

In this context, a sleeper effect is a delayed outcome in which an early experience or deprivation does not show its full impact until much later in development. It refers to a later-emerging change in how emotional information is mentally represented, suggesting that early visual input helps shape abilities that continue to develop after birth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 88c67ff593c0836e925c348309cab22dbc8a54be2edd30245bbdff558653e323

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Xiaoqing; Maurer Daphne; Nishimura Mayu. Altered representation of facial expressions after early visual deprivation. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00878; article XML SHA-256 46ae4eb0f64094aabe3514b752b3428e716005acb05cd3bde31576764d143e39. “Altered representation of facial expressions after early visual deprivation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00878).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00878). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleepiness
<a id="sleepiness"></a>

Sleepiness, in this packet, refers to daytime drowsiness or a tendency to feel sleepy during the day. In adolescents, higher daytime sleepiness is described as being linked to slightly poorer cognitive performance, including weaker verbal working memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 986c9d825bd23f8ae9659c3a672effcf3bf1464bbd9083221311e6d0988d1e99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xinxin Tian; Demareva Valeriia; Malykh Artem; Xinghua Wang; Ismatullina Victoria; Adamovich Timofey; Malykh Sergey. The relationship between daytime sleepiness and working memory performance in Russian adolescents: evidence from the Backward Digit Span task. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748332; article XML SHA-256 e869af7505bd0fcb953379f4d9563d0255efb0f5d06348cd89e4c331b616eada. “The relationship between daytime sleepiness and working memory performance in Russian adolescents: evidence from the Backward Digit Span task” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748332).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748332). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleeping sickness
<a id="sleeping-sickness"></a>

Sleeping sickness is a parasitic illness spread by flies in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa that can damage the nervous system. In addition to early physical symptoms, it can cause confusion, disturbed sleep-wake patterns, and progressive mental decline, and may advance to coma and death if untreated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 58507eedb9845b628856e3f57ad20059802916bdf692829ab3dbab46e1f94ed6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “African Trypanosomiasis” (C84541).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleeplessness
<a id="sleeplessness"></a>

Sleeplessness, or insomnia, is an inability to sleep, especially a marked shortfall from a person’s usual sleep. In this historical source, the term is used mainly for a more lasting problem, often linked to nervous disturbance, though poor sleep can involve reduced quality as well as reduced amount.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 219a09dee0e7b4f38c4670b803ec3839c43fac28141c6e58659999c4ae94d810

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Insomnia” (Insomnia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Insomnia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleep–wake cycle
<a id="sleepwake-cycle"></a>

The sleep–wake cycle is the usual 24-hour pattern of sleeping and being awake. When this pattern is disrupted, such as by travel, shift work, or other causes, it can be associated with circadian rhythm sleep disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 78913e2acd961bbe326b298f5ae9038c333ce43d367606701e444836ad75e712

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep Disorders, Circadian Rhythm” (D020178).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020178). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sleep–wake schedule disorder
<a id="sleepwake-schedule-disorder"></a>

Sleep–wake schedule disorder is a circadian sleep problem in which a person’s normal 24-hour sleep–wake pattern is disrupted. It can occur because of travel, shift work, or other causes that disturb usual timing of sleep and wakefulness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a99fde207ae2f12ea81c2bedf0d1838e1119f594d2105091ac08a60836405703

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep Disorders, Circadian Rhythm” (D020178).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020178). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## slip
<a id="slip"></a>

In this historical neurology context, a slip is the glass piece to which a thin tissue section is attached so it can be stained and kept for study. The packet does not support any broader psychological or counselling meaning of the term.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64aa6148f36cf02261cdf18b1fdbfde10bc4db967e42b9ce50d5b665e2ea57f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Neurology” (Neurology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Neurology). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## slope
<a id="slope"></a>

Slope is the amount a line’s Y value changes for each 1-unit increase in X. In plain terms, it shows how steep the line is, often described as rise over run.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9fbe51a2e46810f6a903352cb6f6a0d600f732a3d366d4d02b033510c4de6209

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Slope” (slope.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/slope.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## slow wave
<a id="slow-wave"></a>

Slow wave refers to the deep sleep stage defined in the current sleep-stage system as N3, marked by characteristic EEG changes and related behavioral signs. Earlier staging systems grouped sleep into stages differently, with deep or delta sleep corresponding to the later stages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 983d932c59d9345e9b36489a026090b9e0762bae6847e9a583e89baf0b8654ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep Stages” (D012894).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012894). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## slow-wave sleep
<a id="slow-wave-sleep"></a>

Slow-wave sleep is a sleep stage in which the brain shows very slow, coordinated electrical activity on an EEG. The pattern consists of waves at about 0.5 to 2 hertz with large size, exceeding 75 microvolts from peak to peak.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0512d84deb1bbc89bcefd42b9b5e9050b378b6936cb968c6a3b96c89c74ac7e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep, Slow-Wave” (D000077310).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077310). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sly syndrome
<a id="sly-syndrome"></a>

Sly syndrome is a rare inherited lysosomal storage disease caused by a lack of the enzyme beta-glucuronidase. It is associated with an enlarged liver and spleen, skeletal abnormalities, a larger head, and intellectual disability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 87426b117205f1b8e5c972b3648c421c23d63021078aba5e0b403f969d55176d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sly Syndrome” (C84903).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SMA
<a id="sma"></a>

SMA stands for spinal muscular atrophy, a rare inherited neuromuscular disorder caused by a single gene and passed on in an autosomal recessive pattern. It involves degeneration of lower motor neurons, leading to progressive muscle weakness, and while it often begins in infancy or early childhood, milder forms can start in adolescence or adulthood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01e7486c5e69acf4134da1e1adcbcef454f618235d31db82fa652bfc5d5d1821

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Jiayi; Liu Yang; Yuan Annie; Ning Ke. Therapeutic strategies for spinal muscular atrophy: the history and future perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1833269; article XML SHA-256 b8eace0fa49d383ec7ce1f27cff38e2a7caf06f45c304988d64e5568dfbe21b3. “Therapeutic strategies for spinal muscular atrophy: the history and future perspective” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1833269).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1833269). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SMART
<a id="smart"></a>

In this packet, SMART refers to a smart classroom environment: a technology-enhanced learning setting that provides multiple instructional resources or supports. It is described as a context that can promote student engagement partly by increasing positive emotions such as foreign language enjoyment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 356b0f574797e3f1e6a2e39c32f75e51380aee9118d33d48229d7e4909e10f04

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Jing. Multiple sources and student engagement in the smart classroom: the mediating role of foreign language enjoyment under control-value theory. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803799; article XML SHA-256 14bcf3defb0ae638a7d1bc26f8425c2f52fd0cc7022890bb63c237ab5c0aeb6b. “Multiple sources and student engagement in the smart classroom: the mediating role of foreign language enjoyment under control-value theory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803799).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1803799). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## smell
<a id="smell"></a>

Smell is the ability to notice scents or odors through the sense of smell. It refers to the sensory function carried out by olfactory receptor neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 60e7094f25bb00591138c31e0a007d2f5a57497cccf2b8927dcb04406412da8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Smell” (D012903).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012903). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Smell Identification Test
<a id="smell-identification-test"></a>

A Smell Identification Test is a brief assessment of a person’s sense of smell that is used to measure olfactory function and detect reduced smell ability, such as hyposmia. In the source context, it was used in Parkinson’s disease research because smell loss is a common non-motor feature and may be related to later cognitive decline and dementia risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 412680fdaf42ec50afe65f641e54a67924acc6069af074c74dd81faf9b59e613

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Larsson Victoria; Hall Sara; Blennow Kaj; Hansson Oskar. Olfactory dysfunction and amyloid-positivity in Parkinson’s disease—longitudinal analysis of cognitive decline and cerebrospinal fluid markers. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325560; article XML SHA-256 f2af219c822d8332faac9d00a58ccb47ab78d0fb86853451b115350a42ef4417. “Olfactory dysfunction and amyloid-positivity in Parkinson’s disease—longitudinal analysis of cognitive decline and cerebrospinal fluid markers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325560).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325560). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## smell prism
<a id="smell-prism"></a>

Smell prism is Hans Henning’s idea that odors can be organized within a three-dimensional model built from six basic odor categories or dimensions. In this view, any smell can be located somewhere within that space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43a49fd458d2d1991124400e3efb265303fa9c395298fc646cb6fd8bde5b4c81

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Koyama Sachiko; Heinbockel Thomas. Chemical Constituents of Essential Oils Used in Olfactory Training: Focus on COVID-19 Induced Olfactory Dysfunction. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fphar.2022.835886; article XML SHA-256 eb5ad9b394f0b7d8f753e955164042279ca108b1ad5d4d651988435bfb03a35c. “Chemical Constituents of Essential Oils Used in Olfactory Training: Focus on COVID-19 Induced Olfactory Dysfunction” (10.3389/fphar.2022.835886).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.835886). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome
<a id="smithlemliopitz-syndrome"></a>

Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome is a rare inherited disorder caused by changes in the DHCR7 gene that disrupt cholesterol production. It involves multiple congenital malformations such as facial differences, small head size, and fused fingers or toes, and behavioral abnormalities can also occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71501a23c45a8144b8d2254ed9c82a3818c2e768af982b21ddc7ec28b4ed7bf0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome” (C85071).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## smoking
<a id="smoking"></a>

Smoking is the intentional act of breathing in and out smoke from a burning substance that is held in the hand.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 025044c6992f9659d84edde2340e4c969b41d0ebb60fb2b8e1fde31006a90d96

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Smoking” (D012907).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012907). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## smoking cessation treatment
<a id="smoking-cessation-treatment"></a>

A smoking cessation treatment that uses tailored counseling to help people stick with their nicotine replacement medication. It includes checking beliefs before quitting that could interfere with adherence, ongoing review of medication use, and coaching adjusted to those assessments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f4ce562ce4c700fc787ca85f581e73bbf680e99c6cff7421b05c18d5f16a26a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cognitive Medication Adherence Counseling” (C172158).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## smooth movement
<a id="smooth-movement"></a>

Smooth movement is purposeful motion produced by gradual, well-coordinated adjustment of opposing and assisting muscles, with proper starting, stopping, and selective activation of the muscles needed for the task. Better smooth movement is associated with more differentiated muscle activity and faster, more controlled performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad8dc479e1036a7dc6557062d7f04c2e192de0c968b940a21c3fe1032d2a793a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Toxopeus Carolien M.; de Jong Bauke M.; Valsan Gopal; Conway Bernard A.; van der Hoeven Johannes H.; Leenders Klaus L.; Maurits Natasha M.. Impairment of Gradual Muscle Adjustment during Wrist Circumduction in Parkinson's Disease. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0024572; article XML SHA-256 3e1a08be51486a0f39970c64cd8eb4a4617630e8ea797f2107acfb233c47d145. “Impairment of Gradual Muscle Adjustment during Wrist Circumduction in Parkinson's Disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0024572).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024572). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## smooth muscle
<a id="smooth-muscle"></a>

Smooth muscle is the muscle tissue in the gastrointestinal tract whose electrical activity and movement help drive digestion. In this context, its activity can be altered by stress-related hormonal changes, affecting gut motility.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7b975fbe295c625c1c1096e1ec64c52e96e161a3e7c8887397d99e3d0e757aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Csötönyi Orsolya; Béres Gabriella; Baráth Ágnes; Sarkadi László; Szőke Zsuzsanna; Molnár Zsófia; Plank Patrik; Halas Veronika. Surface electromyography as a non-invasive method for detecting stress-induced changes in gastrointestinal motility in pigs. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358481; article XML SHA-256 57151dbdacafa318df098e9c07f8b1434cdf0e6331c26fb9a76c6ac5d0a86773. “Surface electromyography as a non-invasive method for detecting stress-induced changes in gastrointestinal motility in pigs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358481).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358481). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## smooth-pursuit eye movement
<a id="smooth-pursuit-eye-movement"></a>

Smooth-pursuit eye movement is one of the two main kinds of coordinated eye movement, alongside saccades. It refers to eye movement that follows a moving visual target and can interact with postural control during standing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6450a77cf282656df551a14d59c3fcbc1685b4f5f8727086f117cc8d7be24b15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nakahara Hikaru; Nawata Rukia; Matsuo Ryota; Ohgomori Tomohiro. Deterioration of postural control due to the increase of similarity between center of pressure and smooth-pursuit eye movements during standing on one leg. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0276119; article XML SHA-256 c8e4bde88b4649a85d7e2b0ba9b9729371a180fdfd7a15a7b699c517131bed26. “Deterioration of postural control due to the increase of similarity between center of pressure and smooth-pursuit eye movements during standing on one leg” (10.1371/journal.pone.0276119).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276119). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## smoothed curve
<a id="smoothed-curve"></a>

A smoothed curve is a fitted line used to show the overall pattern in data, making it easier to see whether a relationship changes in a nonlinear way rather than following a straight line. In the source, smoothed curve fitting was used to examine the pattern between one measured factor and disease risk and to identify a possible turning point.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ee93723cd82f1d1ac576c9f9d0fceb25ca0ccde69d3bf8872cb04d5fab44b2ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yu; Zhuang Yangping; Lin Changsha; Hong Hanqing; Chen Feng; Ke Jun. The neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio is associated with coronary heart disease risk in adults: A population-based study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296838; article XML SHA-256 fcea6b32a5529eeed50f88d2c475699c7c8667d671ec3bbe5dee2ba26518049b. “The neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio is associated with coronary heart disease risk in adults: A population-based study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296838).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296838). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SMR
<a id="smr"></a>

SMR stands for sensorimotor rhythm, a pattern of brain activity measured with EEG. In this context, it is a target of neurofeedback training, where people try to learn to regulate that activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db67dc3cdb6381c7c42c16b16bbcce5b62c0208d119cfc3e513d3bf14a5b1ea6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [An Yan; Feng Zhengning; Lu Jiaojiao. Individual SMR neurofeedback responsiveness during a single session and its associations with autonomic regulation and shooting performance in elite rifle athletes. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1922593; article XML SHA-256 0cbe9a10d6c1676fa60962cd43a7ac8cbb46bd8ebd51a5acc1c81ff8e927eb5a. “Individual SMR neurofeedback responsiveness during a single session and its associations with autonomic regulation and shooting performance in elite rifle athletes” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1922593).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1922593). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Snellen chart
<a id="snellen-chart"></a>

A Snellen chart is an eye chart used while checking vision, serving as the point the person looks at as different lenses are tried to find the correction that gives the clearest sight.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf4e0e666086c899f63e677994f83d727f546fffc03dc84c1b80efdb12b937d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Subjective Refraction” (C190612).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SNF
<a id="snf"></a>

SNF stands for structural network fingerprint. In this context, it means a single combined pattern derived from T1-weighted MRI data to represent structural brain-network features of mild traumatic brain injury.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bdc786201537f1f6c8e95da6127bad27ea7ec7f3cbecefbb8a7b283c406717b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mavroudis Ioannis; Petridis Foivos; Ciobîcă Alin-Stelian; Cojocariu Roxana O.; Kazis Dimitrios; Kamar Ahmed Adel Mansour; Ionescu Cătălina; Gheban Diana; Morosan Catalin; Gurzu Bogdan; Novac Otilia; Novac Bogdan. A structural network fingerprint of mild traumatic brain injury: a multi-study synthesis of T1-weighted MRI abnormalities. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1800956; article XML SHA-256 d4407874bdbdcf61c41194e4a3792680592ebd5bc942e0a93493319572a36827. “A structural network fingerprint of mild traumatic brain injury: a multi-study synthesis of T1-weighted MRI abnormalities” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1800956).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1800956). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## snowball sampling
<a id="snowball-sampling"></a>

Snowball sampling is a way of recruiting research participants by asking people already in a study to use their social contacts to help find additional participants.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59d8b6da08e888b040a6eb5633f6f62941a8f8f72bd2909a6e8eb4b121f50655

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Snowball Sampling” (C71514).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SNP
<a id="snp"></a>

SNP stands for single nucleotide polymorphism, meaning a variation at one DNA building block in the genome. In this packet, SNPs are discussed as genetic differences that may be linked to susceptibility to myasthenia gravis and related biological mechanisms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 350102bac62c486615ac4e8041901d82550c0344f72b626119f1426a1d236d29

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Zihong; Guo Qingling; Tian Liting; Jin Jingnan; Wang Xia; Yu Chunyu; Li Yichen; Zhang Jingjing; Li Yan; Zhao Yufan; Zhang Jiayi; Zhang Lanxin; Qiao Lukuan; Wang Jianjian. Identification of rs28362336 as a risk SNP for generalized myasthenia gravis and its impact on HCG27 regulation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359069; article XML SHA-256 d351776eb67ed8bc33003a8917483b0e3bcab937da4e5b7d1f584fd2181906d9. “Identification of rs28362336 as a risk SNP for generalized myasthenia gravis and its impact on HCG27 regulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359069).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359069). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SNRI
<a id="snri"></a>

SNRI stands for serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor, a type of antidepressant drug. It works by selectively reducing the reuptake of serotonin and noradrenaline into nerve endings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7080ad43b33d64cb00b4f2e7a56d59adec51c32ef0bbcb6324115eb17f13514f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Serotonin and Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitors” (D000068760).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000068760). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SOA
<a id="soa"></a>

SOA stands for sense of agency, meaning a person’s felt sense of being in control of their actions and of how those actions affect the outside world. In this source, it is described as having implicit and explicit forms, with the more explicit and general aspect measured using questionnaires such as the Sense of Agency Scale.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 139b2d741917e42f20259222036ad039abb6b5c4f2052bb6bae4b069dc18fbbd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Wenzhen; Legaspi Roberto; Ishikawa Yuichi; Washida Yuichi. Measuring general sense of agency: a Japanese adaptation and validation of the sense of agency scale (J-SoAS). 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1427169; article XML SHA-256 e392d53a77dceaa8ee2c98921bb83701f26a86791c19ae884c081cd655011a5e. “Measuring general sense of agency: a Japanese adaptation and validation of the sense of agency scale (J-SoAS)” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1427169).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1427169). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Soar
<a id="soar"></a>

In this historical psychology passage, to soar means to attempt an unsupported flight of thought beyond what can be intelligibly connected or explained. It refers to trying to understand the link between brain processes and consciousness without any adequate conceptual basis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f46fd639fcdb38bbd85727f4c794bd800ea336b8527a4985920fffb9f6aab7ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sobriety
<a id="sobriety"></a>

In this historical source, sobriety means a period of abstaining from drink, especially the stretches between separate drinking bouts. It contrasts with episodes of drunkenness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2c26d33eea892fbfc1673b6916431e7bddc6f81174043dd4cedaa11bdfccd72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-829500-841500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sociability
<a id="sociability"></a>

Sociability is a personality trait involving effective communication, social assertiveness, and the ability to manage emotions in social situations. It is closely tied to social interaction and social integration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36cb86b1cb8f56e24ea88c7e5061f899c031ef37b1aed430f0e234087bb70e99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dan Yuet Ruh; Siew Savannah K H; Yu Junhong. Intrinsic functional connectivity brain networks mediate effect of age on sociability. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324277; article XML SHA-256 3b5547026bd69dff24ceacacbb5815562454c9c075986c2a680a68867c1389e8. “Intrinsic functional connectivity brain networks mediate effect of age on sociability” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324277).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324277). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social acceptance
<a id="social-acceptance"></a>

Social acceptance is a personality-related quality that makes a person more acceptable in social or interpersonal relationships. It is associated with being socially approved of, popular, higher in social status, or seen as a desirable companion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b338f7d08239bd3ea8474b5de9b9910fb140d1ff260aaecf0b291f01db3960b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Desirability” (D012928).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012928). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social adjustment
<a id="social-adjustment"></a>

Social adjustment is how a person adapts to the social world around them. This can involve changing oneself to fit the environment, changing the environment, or both.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c76bd66b0eebe2de15a751ce90762fd69478172465205626e1a69be97833fc62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Adjustment” (D012917).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012917). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social age
<a id="social-age"></a>

Social age refers to a person’s place in the socially patterned stages of life, reflected in the kinds of goals, concerns, and tasks that are typical at different ages. In this sense, people of different ages may focus on different developmental or role-related priorities, such as education and work in younger adulthood versus broader social concerns in older adulthood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 77b308e4c32e00a72fb5713d4aa1c8cd74c0ddda3473a9b64cc0f8b037f96aaa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Penningroth Suzanna L; Scott Walter D. Age-related differences in the goals and concerns that motivate real-life prospective memory tasks. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0216888; article XML SHA-256 78d65c8aaf09bdd686b15cd23c127ec7055a542bb0331fba1b47ac049d83de36. “Age-related differences in the goals and concerns that motivate real-life prospective memory tasks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0216888).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216888). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social agency
<a id="social-agency"></a>

Social agency is the quality of an intelligent system that leads people to see it as a social, human-like partner rather than just a tool. In the source, this feature is described as something that can shape a person’s mental model of the machine and affect trust in human–robot teamwork.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86c4eaf9d407f1581c698d1456aa2e72e0ce118649a5c1943bc3d7c7e07c9dce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lin Jinchao; Panganiban April Rose; Matthews Gerald; Gibbins Katey; Ankeney Emily; See Carlie; Bailey Rachel; Long Michael. Trust in the Danger Zone: Individual Differences in Confidence in Robot Threat Assessments. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.601523; article XML SHA-256 010646c6ed5b46144b7078c0d9d00636b98aa7dadf37fe7a7e71e3c2891d91aa. “Trust in the Danger Zone: Individual Differences in Confidence in Robot Threat Assessments” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.601523).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.601523). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social anxiety
<a id="social-anxiety"></a>

Social anxiety is a common anxiety disorder in which a person feels strong fear or anxiety in social situations where they might be watched, evaluated, or judged by other people. This can include public speaking, meeting new people, interviews, asking for help, or even everyday activities like eating, drinking, or using a public restroom in front of others because of fear of humiliation, rejection, or negative judgment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 368077d0c15370fdd37edddf7e969f81f74a4f150ae7e740de0b6402f291bd10

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Social Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 219dd350478d5e198b1c80914abdd6f76c94cbf69e7a886e0cd14337d4a29db9. “Social Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/social-anxiety-disorder-more-than-just-shyness).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/social-anxiety-disorder-more-than-just-shyness). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social anxiety disorder
<a id="social-anxiety-disorder"></a>

Social anxiety disorder is an anxiety disorder involving an intense, irrational fear of social or performance situations where a person expects to be watched or judged by others. Being in these situations triggers anxiety, and adults typically recognize the fear as excessive or unreasonable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c2eb8767e7cb3d2b385fa9c19d3a8aa04ce38d49a4db70634bfc506fce8c6cc3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Social Anxiety Disorder” (C34927).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social approval
<a id="social-approval"></a>

Social approval is a personality trait that makes a person more acceptable in social or interpersonal relationships. It is tied to being seen as socially desirable, such as through popularity, social status, leadership qualities, or other traits that make someone a preferred companion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 418e4e2e34adc55b36e3367aa96e55c387ed75db12e610cf77fdd680c793be9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Desirability” (D012928).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012928). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Social Behavior
<a id="social-behavior"></a>

Social behavior is behavior that is influenced by another individual or group, or that has an effect on another individual or group, usually within the same species.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 62593eadee91d707923b3fbb7f9e7d47e450f8a14d2cf26d5dec9f923096cfa4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Social Behavior” (D012919).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012919). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social bond
<a id="social-bond"></a>

In this historical usage, a social bond is the intrinsic tie that unites people in society and makes social solidarity possible. In the passage, it is shown by sympathy as a normal response to the social environment, rather than by each person acting only from private self-interest.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fb2c5398c84aeafa1330e90648029e4781ab6c0f0505f61afc9deb5bf00e0f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3696000-3708000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social change
<a id="social-change"></a>

Social change is a gradual or noticeable shift in human behavior and culture that develops over time. These changes lead to measurable effects on a society’s values and norms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 52eae0ea72eb777c478875cd4ba32ef8f9d2e3e1b83d7247415523b1e6d57eaf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Change” (D012922).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012922). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social class
<a id="social-class"></a>

Social class is a level or grouping in society made up of people with a similar social position and degree of prestige. It refers to social stratification and is commonly described using factors such as education, occupation, and income.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: efc82c4b3bb176999fe65e9c6a9384d47ba5599b1448b03fb809cca97fae38a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Class” (D012923).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012923). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social clock
<a id="social-clock"></a>

Social clock means the local clock time a society uses to organize daily life. It is set by social and political choices such as time zones and daylight saving time, and it may not match a person’s biological circadian timing or the timing of the sun.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8eb7b8b1c2951f1502734cc07ee69b1db041905f72452e765c823a2a96ce25f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Roenneberg Till; Winnebeck Eva C.; Klerman Elizabeth B.. Daylight Saving Time and Artificial Time Zones – A Battle Between Biological and Social Times. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fphys.2019.00944; article XML SHA-256 232005dbe26377282dd580ce4095e9e2d1096c78e3d0f0536eaa846502217693. “Daylight Saving Time and Artificial Time Zones – A Battle Between Biological and Social Times” (10.3389/fphys.2019.00944).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.00944). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social code
<a id="social-code"></a>

In this context, the Social Code refers to German social legislation, specifically Social Code Book V. It includes a provision (§64b) that allows cross-sector, patient-centered psychiatric care models using a shared per-patient budget across inpatient and outpatient treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0c8ca4e4b5100b3f0d20ffbc834d9479dae2b672560d04d49f6e930d01eac00a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Neumann Anne; Swart Enno; Häckl Dennis; Kliemt Roman; March Stefanie; Küster Denise; Arnold Katrin; Petzold Thomas; Baum Fabian; Seifert Martin; Weiß Jessika; Pfennig Andrea; Schmitt Jochen. The influence of cross-sectoral treatment models on patients with mental disorders in Germany: study protocol of a nationwide long-term evaluation study (EVA64). 2018; DOI 10.1186/s12888-018-1721-z; article XML SHA-256 cf2d6e658f3bbb8ada157c3c55eec54acad87633d228485fcb1f40fcd584aacf. “The influence of cross-sectoral treatment models on patients with mental disorders in Germany: study protocol of a nationwide long-term evaluation study (EVA64)” (10.1186/s12888-018-1721-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1721-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social cohesion
<a id="social-cohesion"></a>

Social cohesion is the strength of connections among people in a community and their shared sense of belonging and solidarity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae0db0204f2c2f49d7a8c2c851dd2eefa03a3ebbc2b1cb0338c2a6271a662899

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Cohesion” (D000091782).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000091782). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social communication disorder
<a id="social-communication-disorder"></a>

Social communication disorder is a diagnosis marked by ongoing difficulty using verbal and nonverbal communication in social situations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b78d0f88335a67a172953ae9142c329d64fe1be5a17b460a3cba7cc0be50dc9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Communication Disorder” (D000067404).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067404). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social conflict
<a id="social-conflict"></a>

Social conflict is a common part of human interaction in which people experience conflict within relationships or other social situations. It is often emotionally significant and can affect stress, psychological wellbeing, relationship functioning, and resilience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 74dfb3c91e106cb9802da1c489643ced13ac6a2eb81e66cc70342f42597710a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Choi Jae Chan; Choi In-Ho; Jeong KeeSam; Kim Jee Yeon; Choi Jun-Ho. Social conflict imagery induces stress, social and physical pain: sex differences in autonomic and affective responses and pathways to resilience and wellbeing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738699; article XML SHA-256 6574a814be86620668a66f76802aae0ef36c7e5a31c2ff20bf8dac4dcf45e4a1. “Social conflict imagery induces stress, social and physical pain: sex differences in autonomic and affective responses and pathways to resilience and wellbeing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738699).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738699). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social contagion
<a id="social-contagion"></a>

In this historical source, social contagion is treated as a type of mimetic process in which one mind is influenced by another through imitative copying. It refers to the spread of expressions or reactions by repetition, often in a relatively impulsive, echoing way.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 856c28099e6dc5d4a1f9d11586d6e822d78c3e3497aeeb287d8e49a31993fa72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mimetism” (Mimetism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Mimetism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social context
<a id="social-context"></a>

Social context is the combined social and cultural surroundings, structures, and patterns that shape the lives of a person or a community.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 51ed91b53e53bcabc14bc13779a417c4d7d5d289d26dd6f278bef244f04eba59

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Environment” (D012931).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012931). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social contract
<a id="social-contract"></a>

In historical philosophical usage, a social contract is the idea that the formation of a state or society rests on a kind of contract or agreement among free persons. It treats social or political union as founded on mutual consent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86950e4ea19bcfc2ec63c030167b220b6d494ba56fd0d9a1f4a931f5e4b19aa9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Contract” (Contract).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Contract). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social control
<a id="social-control"></a>

Social control is a framework for understanding how behavior is shaped or restrained by different kinds of influence. In this source, it includes formal control by state and community institutions, informal control through social relationships and moral influence, and self-control involving a person’s own regulation of feelings and habits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ba1ef45a8dcc8c5c2dba2d2f15b230841b7202c593292bff1895c671b8312a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Anqi Gu. An exploratory assessment model for preventing individual extreme violent crimes from a social control perspective—a qualitative study of four Chinese cases. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1593232; article XML SHA-256 afe0e461ef172fdbdd4a405335d85754583cb0e54b234e7b86b03410f02da36a. “An exploratory assessment model for preventing individual extreme violent crimes from a social control perspective—a qualitative study of four Chinese cases” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1593232).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1593232). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social density
<a id="social-density"></a>

Social density is the degree of crowding or concentration of others in an individual's social environment, such as living in a higher- versus lower-density group or colony. In the source, differences in social density are treated as differences in how socially competitive or stressful the environment is.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0980ff50996f3f17af6973d3d96dc9ff3e11d45a4274524b5e8c1648e9dc5ced

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meise Kristine; von Engelhardt Nikolaus; Forcada Jaume; Hoffman Joseph Ivan. Offspring Hormones Reflect the Maternal Prenatal Social Environment: Potential for Foetal Programming?. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0145352; article XML SHA-256 340cd5db7d28833df8c865c9c8158f806a397bc37bba9ab4f5136dabc0838fca. “Offspring Hormones Reflect the Maternal Prenatal Social Environment: Potential for Foetal Programming?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0145352).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145352). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social deprivation
<a id="social-deprivation"></a>

Social deprivation is a lack of access to a society’s resources because of poverty, discrimination, or other disadvantage. It is often described using demographic indicators such as poverty, low education, single-parent households, rented or overcrowded housing, lack of a car, and unemployment among adults under 65.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1d7267b4b3d12003eccb9a238e5bc84a5c733a945c16c28ed3c9f788b3113001

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Deprivation” (D000091489).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000091489). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social desirability
<a id="social-desirability"></a>

Social desirability is a personality trait involving qualities that make a person seem acceptable or appealing in social and interpersonal relationships. It is linked with being socially approved of or accepted, and with attributes such as popularity, social standing, or leadership that make someone a preferred companion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a66bd619f4c247ce2232c823c79513f380d4e634a531f40636249b121a26d93a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Desirability” (D012928).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012928). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social dilemma
<a id="social-dilemma"></a>

A social dilemma is a situation in which choices that protect or benefit the group conflict with what individuals want or gain for themselves. It involves weighing personal costs or interests against the collective good and the broader harm or benefit to society.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 33082b27e403a9283ff7578145f7834f4590f2569c27d03c6d5e675f8f8d53ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Veseli Besarta; Seifert Rouven; Clement Michel; Shehu Edlira. Trading-off health safety, civil liberties, and unemployment based on communication strategies: the social dilemma in fighting pandemics. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318541; article XML SHA-256 55630c143b2e95e6677d2c8208ce291b77ccdb67f190394b10f8da79bde8519f. “Trading-off health safety, civil liberties, and unemployment based on communication strategies: the social dilemma in fighting pandemics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318541).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318541). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social disapproval
<a id="social-disapproval"></a>

Social disapproval means negative judgment or lack of approval from other people. In this source, avoiding social disapproval is presented as a traditional value orientation, meaning concern with not being viewed unfavorably by others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18106086581a2a0979ae1ed4f76680bf19ecef51e850ce7215381d282e610b4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jia Yayu; Zhang Chen. Traditional values and adolescent depression: Unraveling mediating mechanisms through self-esteem. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331660; article XML SHA-256 b5934e2c1f3f4a38046a8499e6038472dbbc2b94cb042d674ea339c4977d997d. “Traditional values and adolescent depression: Unraveling mediating mechanisms through self-esteem” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331660).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331660). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social discrimination
<a id="social-discrimination"></a>

Social discrimination is prejudicial or unequal behavior by one group toward others because they belong to a particular group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9870a2aec147b9f45060fa61d3dd734ba94b44d0a4f7d6db654de7fe93881a4b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Discrimination” (D063508).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063508). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social dominance theory
<a id="social-dominance-theory"></a>

Social dominance theory is a social framework for understanding intergroup relations that emphasizes how group-based hierarchies shape people’s behavior. In this view, unequal positions between groups help organize social interactions and outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc279e7dc59f5ba50db4ac513f554a585c16f619a5bc5292260b9fa74a4a597a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Genç Turhan Funda; Kuşdil Muharrem Ersin. A systematic review of ego depletion phenomenon in group-based hierarchical relations. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569692; article XML SHA-256 fe4dff2aab1081e950dc28648fdd6666a7ddb6f1d6a2cc059e23897d0b925501. “A systematic review of ego depletion phenomenon in group-based hierarchical relations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569692).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569692). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social drinker
<a id="social-drinker"></a>

A social drinker is a person who usually drinks alcohol only in social settings or at social events.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97c9fd45f746d5e2d3cebe0cc3c1ae0961e234a5ef1a77fac13e9cf8c1c5e641

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Social Drinker” (C156429).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social dynamics
<a id="social-dynamics"></a>

Social dynamics are the ways relationships and group connections form, change, and persist over time within a social setting. In this source, the term refers to evolving patterns of ties, subgroup stability, isolation, and similarity-based connection within groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bd023cdae0da9dbaeadabafdf129455090266e15767662d8db4a3f76800f7243

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Park Rinseo; Miller Mark Roman; Han Eugy; DeVeaux Cyan; Bailenson Jeremy N; Ram Nilam. Evolution of networks in virtual reality: A scalable framework for studying social dynamics of small groups. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355470; article XML SHA-256 cad2b10641d9e79bbe8ac9b6b97e52ea44abb5cb85793a9ad1f841456b4d50c3. “Evolution of networks in virtual reality: A scalable framework for studying social dynamics of small groups” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355470).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355470). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social ecology
<a id="social-ecology"></a>

Social ecology is a social theory that explains well-being in relation to the social environment, while emphasizing that this link depends on social behavior. In this view, how people perceive their social surroundings affects subjective well-being through the way they interact socially.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f33338a66f5fb470fb12f2214a62febe10f3e9ab7f6ec27070378ea7b94c2508

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chengxia Xiong; Jing Jin. Associations of perceived natural and social environments with subjective well-being among Chinese older adults: a cross-sectional study of gender differences. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880057; article XML SHA-256 1ed7a80a247479440e839c96d7dad19cd608d2247ce82f1a99d56a0832b39697. “Associations of perceived natural and social environments with subjective well-being among Chinese older adults: a cross-sectional study of gender differences” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880057).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880057). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social emotion
<a id="social-emotion"></a>

A social emotion is an emotion oriented toward society and other people. It has both positive and negative dimensions: positive social emotion reflects constructive, engaged feelings that support prosocial and harmonious relationships, while negative social emotion involves dissatisfied, anxious, restless, or disengaged responses to social conditions that can weaken connection and adjustment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6264c98a82a5890b6b629a3086b421b9bce540aaa95bb93b9848d389d60962e5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lin Xiaokang; Yuan Xiwen; Tian Yunlong. The association between relative deprivation and cyber-ostracism: the mediating role of social emotions and the moderating role of self-esteem. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834878; article XML SHA-256 5f0fa09cfd103a231b50429a199a8edf31384da573a92d0ce8807682c1e58629. “The association between relative deprivation and cyber-ostracism: the mediating role of social emotions and the moderating role of self-esteem” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834878).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834878). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social evolution
<a id="social-evolution"></a>

Social evolution is the gradual buildup of change in social interactions across generations, particularly among members of the same species. It refers to how patterns of relating and interacting can shift cumulatively over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc70204e45db842e452baa420e38648da214aaf8820cc134c7d3839a86ffd839

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Evolution” (D000083645).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000083645). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social exchange theory
<a id="social-exchange-theory"></a>

Social exchange theory views relationships as shaped by reciprocal exchanges between people, so one person’s behavior can influence another person’s attitudes and responses in return. In this study, it is used to explain how mentorship leadership may affect loyalty and craftsman spirit through those back-and-forth exchanges.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e4e0314c1a33d96a44b7c96150ce5f2f4ceae6429066ee5b99291eda5eb4b438

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Huanhuan; Li Fan. Exploring the connection between authoritarian-benevolent leadership and craftsman spirit: the mediating role of loyalty. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1456088; article XML SHA-256 ff5b89a4ddbe371220c318ff045bcc6b0ddf08bc8e093429b02f246c3500ba23. “Exploring the connection between authoritarian-benevolent leadership and craftsman spirit: the mediating role of loyalty” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1456088).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1456088). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social facilitation
<a id="social-facilitation"></a>

Social facilitation is an increase in a motivated behavior that occurs when people do the same activity together, with mutual stimulation leading to greater coordination. It refers to improved performance or strengthening of the behavior in the presence of others engaged in it as well.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e5c6ce007f3cbd301d3d365bd686a63df89c21128dcd35fcf2590bc66bfb2e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Facilitation” (D012932).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012932). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social factors
<a id="social-factors"></a>

Social factors are the social and cultural conditions or influences that shape how people behave.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ed63b5ea1762f8d000a7b446fee8029665ee35176e00e286c12e8860be42c6d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Factors” (D000083663).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000083663). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social force
<a id="social-force"></a>

Social force refers to a cause of change within social life itself: it means the social factors that bring about social change. In this historical usage, it should not be treated like a physical force or confused with outside conditions that merely limit or affect social processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9dbb7581cdcb50988a9e64e53a3a488e5baa6f5ec2245724eb27def54eaf52fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Force and Condition” (Forcec).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Forcec). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social growth
<a id="social-growth"></a>

Social growth is the way a society develops and progresses over time. In this historical source, it is contrasted with biological growth and is understood as arising through social and psychological processes such as imitation, invention, tradition, and shared moral or religious life rather than through bodily processes like heredity or cell division.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ecad5900208c60ae4902150756a024b96ca64ef34678dfa3eb92829bfddce5ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Biological Analogy (in sociology)” (Biological Analogy (in sociology)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Biological Analogy (in sociology)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social identity
<a id="social-identity"></a>

Social identity is the part of a person’s self-image that develops from feeling they belong to a social or cultural group. It is shaped by identification with one’s own group and may involve in-group preference or ethnocentric attitudes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa34ec2618f0f966d8433afb82513205807a023eef07c57e4de647300525606f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Identification” (D012933).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012933). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social identity theory
<a id="social-identity-theory"></a>

Social identity theory is a social psychology framework for understanding how shared social norms and group meanings become part of people’s sense of identity and reputation. In this source, it is used to explain how wider expectations can shape family rules, responses, and relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c30347e1fddba43b91ea90be6bb66ca5895817656677a53d19118113f3c989fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mathoora Durvashi; Chee Kwan Foong; Leow Serena; Woon Chin Ong; Ming Long Chiau. Integrating social identity theory and family systems theory to explain how sociocultural norms become family life. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1902682; article XML SHA-256 88ae5e4d22d41de67800623fca6a91cb1e757ff40d2925182d907883c68cef3c. “Integrating social identity theory and family systems theory to explain how sociocultural norms become family life” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1902682).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1902682). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social image
<a id="social-image"></a>

Social image is how a person or group is believed to be seen by others in society, such as through traits or stereotypes like being viewed as frightening, oppressed, honorable, or powerful. In this context, it refers to people’s perceptions of society’s view of their own group and the emotions that can follow from that perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e1a018963c7c474c8477f0ec3c639d8b550c2e417ea5d891f07fcc26f13cf029

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rodriguez Mosquera Patricia M.; Khan Tasmiha; Selya Arielle. American Muslims’ Anger and Sadness about In-group Social Image. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02042; article XML SHA-256 be4d8c9dac35ee2b1dbc63f350a743c7bbbdb2e46cc4fcacf3162d3a0b0eb1f1. “American Muslims’ Anger and Sadness about In-group Social Image” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02042).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02042). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social incentive
<a id="social-incentive"></a>

A social incentive is a social factor that encourages people’s behavior, such as influence from others, features of their social network, and trust in other people or institutions. In this context, it refers to social conditions that can motivate attitude change and support desired actions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ab22d195eca3b2abd41e33f882a663e047cc7469e7a1ab84dd5d3f0ed56cf32

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nguyen-Van Phu; Stenger Anne; Tiet Tuyen. Social incentive factors in interventions promoting sustainable behaviors: A meta-analysis. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0260932; article XML SHA-256 cbb4c70c17f2b67bde87a24d7a863f1081097df1dc968ca119eba1b51e97d737. “Social incentive factors in interventions promoting sustainable behaviors: A meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0260932).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260932). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social inhibition
<a id="social-inhibition"></a>

Social inhibition is a tendency to hold back emotional expression and avoid contact with other people because of fear of disapproval or rejection. In this context, it is described as one of the two main features of Type D personality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8343477b3a7994b780071783372ae8898f8768c8092c7862e9db047a4517abcb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Falenta Adrianna; Przytocka Natalia; Droździok Natalia; Florek Szymon; Suchodolski Alexander; Piegza Magdalena; Szulik Mariola; Kalarus Zbigniew; Gorczyca Piotr; Dębski Paweł. An analysis of the relationship of selected personality traits on perceived stress in patients undergoing ablation for atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1681576; article XML SHA-256 6435dd9fbf1b2bcc2a92f732ea84e39b6d4d76f3a0ec8a8146f258cf6de66b3d. “An analysis of the relationship of selected personality traits on perceived stress in patients undergoing ablation for atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1681576).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1681576). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social insects
<a id="social-insects"></a>

Social insects are insects that live and work as a group, with individuals often dividing tasks among members. In the supplied source, ants are an example, with worker ants differing in how often and on which days they carry out foraging activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 314a6772d2a90d006b95821d79d76a0c40536cc0a671208e84c9d467d1105fe7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Goko Hiromichi; Yamanaka Osamu; Shiraishi Masashi; Nishimori Hiraku. Characteristics of daily foraging activity of Camponotus japonicus via time series analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293455; article XML SHA-256 0b448d1e62adff45b339f00865d81154f90a817eb2e804128993716db040cf73. “Characteristics of daily foraging activity of Camponotus japonicus via time series analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293455).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293455). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social instinct
<a id="social-instinct"></a>

In this historical usage, social instinct means an inborn tendency toward social conduct that was regarded as a source of virtue. It refers to behavior that can appear moral before a person has reflective understanding or deliberate choice about good and evil.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c9996cc9a08eddbe3fe10fdd6461d5070535f3fbeb95250bc56e43b597911ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Instinctive Morality” (Instinctive).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Instinctive). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social integration
<a id="social-integration"></a>

Social integration is an ongoing, values-based process in which all members of a society take part in dialogue to build and sustain peaceful social relationships. It excludes forced integration or pressured assimilation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 397f29504da9f795577cc1dd44b1f78c74a88d145c0a1aff96c4522ada47eb69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Integration” (D000080442).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000080442). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social interaction
<a id="social-interaction"></a>

Social interaction is the process in which two or more people respond to one another. It includes how people cooperate or compete, how roles and status affect behavior, and how group processes such as leadership and conformity develop; ongoing interaction between particular people can form social relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 85d11460a1c16dd5fc7ca9883c60721ae374d62b7c924b759cdad59a971f19bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Interaction” (D000083505).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000083505). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social interest
<a id="social-interest"></a>

Social interest is a person’s tendency to cooperate with others and feel that they belong in the wider community. In Adlerian psychology, it is viewed as a marker of mental health and is linked with empathy, cooperation, optimism, and better interpersonal relationships, whereas low social interest is associated with self-centeredness, loneliness, and seeking attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7aea8e004a195813b50dc2ecfd48f0dc42cd92c1669dc51c2f583e2e646214f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Jianbin; Wu Fangfang; Huang Yinpin; Pan Deng. The mediating role of parental early maladaptive schemas in the relationship between parental self-efficacy and social interest in students with learning disabilities. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1762731; article XML SHA-256 ad677b6d53b1ca805e15e1727ae0d4dba1d3505b65d237aa631b28d6db9bc8a3. “The mediating role of parental early maladaptive schemas in the relationship between parental self-efficacy and social interest in students with learning disabilities” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1762731).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1762731). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social intervention
<a id="social-intervention"></a>

A social intervention is a program, in this context within primary health care, that aims to address individual and community social needs. Its successful implementation is described as relying on creativity, persistence, partnership, understanding those needs, and overcoming barriers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a71e9d19fb87e81e49f07d21be1fb7f2641dabfed58c2205155f7e3a1e5ea277

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bloch Gary; Rozmovits Linda. Implementing social interventions in primary care in Canada: A qualitative exploration of lessons learned from leaders in the field. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281112; article XML SHA-256 20c02360cba3254f34f0564158cd9ea44e781c790d19954d0a3d932ee71c25a9. “Implementing social interventions in primary care in Canada: A qualitative exploration of lessons learned from leaders in the field” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281112).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281112). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social introversion
<a id="social-introversion"></a>

Social introversion refers to a personality tendency toward pulling back from other people and having difficulty with social functioning. In this source, higher social introversion scores are described as part of a pattern linked with social withdrawal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18f487e753ceb14568e49b47267e5236552f891477067c808fda4c0d724d3c07

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rutkowski Krzysztof; Dembińska Edyta; Walczewska Jolanta. Effect of trauma onset on personality traits of politically persecuted victims. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12888-016-0853-2; article XML SHA-256 4ab9677e1fa53b33c86bd507eebce312490c8e7f35745193e5aecd9f18552b44. “Effect of trauma onset on personality traits of politically persecuted victims” (10.1186/s12888-016-0853-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0853-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Social Isolation
<a id="social-isolation"></a>

Social isolation is a state in which a person or group is separated from others so that social contact or meaningful communication is greatly reduced or absent. It can arise through physical distance, social barriers, or psychological processes, including situations where people interact without truly communicating.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 906c67c2922e7bda461027d588fbfb53ac08a56010f9c1ec63c65040f02e596d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Social Isolation” (D012934).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012934). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social judgment theory
<a id="social-judgment-theory"></a>

Social judgment theory describes how people interpret information and evaluate others’ views in relation to their own existing attitude. It proposes that people have an internal reference point, or anchor, on an issue, and they judge other opinions against that baseline.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80f2b3168e9e73f2fcf57486da53b22426316e6fc44bd06347f04fb213dcdf6a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Quan; Yao Yuekang; Jia Meimei; Li Huizong; Pan Qiru. An opinion evolution model for online social networks considering higher-order interactions. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321718; article XML SHA-256 4a0e7d356cb5bbf427a52da539be2315be34a69f48743c228c61495ce5d4bef8. “An opinion evolution model for online social networks considering higher-order interactions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321718).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321718). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social learning
<a id="social-learning"></a>

Social learning is gaining new knowledge by watching other people and through interacting with them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be62b28e21f7227857b92b9ba4a3d3370c30ddb0e865a01b948c8ac8a46cf73c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Learning” (D000067570).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067570). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social learning theory
<a id="social-learning-theory"></a>

Social learning theory is a framework for understanding learning and cognitive development in social settings. It emphasizes that learning is shaped by a person’s self-regulation, interactions with peers, and the surrounding environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90654c301e835c6aa67877bbac6d5aa1e7af925ed00d88e304ac9707f2d6dd49

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yu Yan. Embedded self-conceptualization and social learning in online social networking platforms. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.901625; article XML SHA-256 594a762f6c76a2aa1b5f6010b0049b5599057712a56725244c429d6a19d8603d. “Embedded self-conceptualization and social learning in online social networking platforms” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.901625).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.901625). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social loafing
<a id="social-loafing"></a>

Social loafing is the tendency for people to put in less personal effort when working on a group task than when their own contribution can be clearly identified. It is commonly discussed in group performance and teamwork, especially when responsibility is shared and individual effort is less visible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50023845b499ca8a8d6e7353a1b2b4528d5695b09e9f8ce636459809f1432ef7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xi Xiao-Lei; Lin Xin-Mao; Huang Mei-Yao; Shih Kuo-Tung. When does narcissism matter? Motivation and peer interaction as conditional pathways to social loafing in college physical education. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1790033; article XML SHA-256 4b5f2e76ab39d35e941f34c5ddbf557b05e1b3c085cebc4b9108b3152c2fd816. “When does narcissism matter? Motivation and peer interaction as conditional pathways to social loafing in college physical education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1790033).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1790033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Social Marginalization
<a id="social-marginalization"></a>

Social marginalization is the exclusion of individuals or groups from participating in the economic, social, and political activities of community membership.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 274c1b28cb6d59be074a908f7d30580dffb96becef5af233d9e93fb3124e44b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Social Marginalization” (D062487).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D062487). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social marketing
<a id="social-marketing"></a>

Social marketing is the use of marketing methods to encourage ideas, attitudes, and behaviors that support a social goal. It focuses on increasing acceptance of beneficial practices in specific groups for the good of the audience and society rather than for the marketer’s gain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 173d8ecdda90db27a45f1d413beceea1f6a59895a94dc5df4a6c079fd470ec63

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Marketing” (D040241).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D040241). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social memory
<a id="social-memory"></a>

Social memory is memory for prior social experience, commonly studied with social discrimination procedures in which an animal is familiarized and then tested after a delay. In this literature, it is discussed as short-term when examined over minutes and as long-term when assessed over longer intervals, with evidence that these forms rely on different mechanisms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4bbd9839e1f22e1f4be41e8968dff8d0c2108e5e2d388ec07fcfeb9957dbad27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pirri Fardad; Burke Francine F.; McCormick Cheryl M.. A protocol for investigating long-term social discrimination memory: Evidence in female and male Long Evans rats. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311920; article XML SHA-256 fbed9e7c369a8a9b0482f4d1c56fdb144b4b45590cf7dfe7420835e5b122a6e1. “A protocol for investigating long-term social discrimination memory: Evidence in female and male Long Evans rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311920).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311920). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social mobility
<a id="social-mobility"></a>

Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups from one social class to another, or shifts in their position within the same social class.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf5c08f6be42ff50dce5d1bf4a57eba8d374f194697554d4bb466f9724ce1c37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Mobility” (D012937).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012937). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social monogamy
<a id="social-monogamy"></a>

Social monogamy refers to a pattern of social behavior centered on a stable pair bond rather than exclusive mating. It typically includes pairing, care of offspring by both parents, and relatively low male aggression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 964fd041030ab37361a46a2091b87de8d1f4ac9247420b011694fea6b0267b7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cushing Bruce S.. Estrogen Receptor Alpha Distribution and Expression in the Social Neural Network of Monogamous and Polygynous Peromyscus. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0150373; article XML SHA-256 07cbfbfb64b250be2ced99fa015d605dba6628593e9062ce935473e0136f3b8a. “Estrogen Receptor Alpha Distribution and Expression in the Social Neural Network of Monogamous and Polygynous Peromyscus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0150373).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0150373). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social movement
<a id="social-movement"></a>

A social movement is a form of collective action in which large numbers of people mobilize outside formal institutions around shared grievances and demands for social or political change. In the packet’s example, it began in response to price increases and broadened into protest against longstanding inequality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4487f72750657aa6d3a5a2c61445fcb8552e3e5aad6805ff1a230379d46eea64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Castro-Abril Pablo; Da Costa Silvia; Navarro-Carrillo Ginés; Caicedo-Moreno Angélica; Gracia-Leiva Marcela; Bouchat Pierre; Cordero Begoña; Méndez Lander; Paez Darío. Social Identity, Perceived Emotional Synchrony, Creativity, Social Representations, and Participation in Social Movements: The Case of the 2019 Chilean Populist Protests. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.764434; article XML SHA-256 a2ae6dc0bec20c17b8d346dde44e379d5cc8b96201f46792edec9d9f076eed3f. “Social Identity, Perceived Emotional Synchrony, Creativity, Social Representations, and Participation in Social Movements: The Case of the 2019 Chilean Populist Protests” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.764434).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.764434). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social need
<a id="social-need"></a>

In this historical source, social need means the strong human requirement for companionship and nearness to other people, which is treated as basic to mental well-being. It also includes the need to keep the approval of one’s social group, shaping conduct toward conformity with its customs and regard for others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cde8b3eb472e0eed3bdaa9b55f99499c38bc87a0ffcf4d790a1880e2e126c469

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1407000-1419000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social network
<a id="social-network"></a>

A social network is the set of social relationships a person maintains that can provide support and other resources. It is considered an important part of lifestyle and can affect health and well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a8cb9bf0e8b68004457fcdae8ab51c9e19788e9a76765b809adb4bdb22a85933

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chai Yuan; Zhang Qi; Yuan Yifei. A study of the impact of social network types on the health of older adults — Mediated by psychological resilience. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333966; article XML SHA-256 2cb14efc68cf434793759afcc78deb48e3a208134139a46fbf8790aa4fa69b2b. “A study of the impact of social network types on the health of older adults — Mediated by psychological resilience” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333966).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333966). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social network analysis
<a id="social-network-analysis"></a>

Social network analysis is a group of methods used to map and examine the ties or relationships connecting each member of a group with every other member.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b436c116f8b53a8743111f5880f7d1c7667f9a2df6acf475d98d79ec78d3da38

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Network Analysis” (D000083482).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000083482). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social organism
<a id="social-organism"></a>

In this historical usage, a social organism is society understood as an organized whole whose different parts or members have distinct functions and are meant to work in harmony rather than interfere with one another. The phrase appears in explaining justice as depending on the proper assignment of function within that social whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8658de9bd915239b5bcd0b1a464219d4cd068d87b915f6acc4d001bffc3b9389

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Justice” (Justice).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/J1defs.htm#Justice). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social penetration theory
<a id="social-penetration-theory"></a>

Social penetration theory is a social psychology framework used to explain how self-disclosure can create closer interpersonal connection. In this packet, it is applied to the idea that when a person shares more about themselves, others may feel less psychological distance and greater similarity, which is linked to stronger responses toward that person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a8f55a4a519c6debbc1c07c951c34e4ad2be291c117c80f90d92bde9b209bc47

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Yi. The relationship between live streamers’ self-disclosure and consumers’ purchase intention: The parallel mediating role of psychological distance and perceived homophily. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345061; article XML SHA-256 8e7507aab99d3801444dec0a47a24c6423136bb11892dc2f627e843da1759764. “The relationship between live streamers’ self-disclosure and consumers’ purchase intention: The parallel mediating role of psychological distance and perceived homophily” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345061).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345061). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social perception
<a id="social-perception"></a>

Social perception is the process of noticing and interpreting the traits, qualities, and actions of other people and social groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eeaf61b41177951fbab914ec34f4b0795a2db5de7022ecdfcca4cb361a871575

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Perception” (D012938).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012938). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social phobia
<a id="social-phobia"></a>

Social phobia is an anxiety disorder marked by strong fear in social or performance settings where a person expects close attention or judgment from other people. Entering these situations brings on anxiety, and adults usually understand that the fear is out of proportion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6bd871d52b87f337ddfbee99f0bdb4e1b0b18b8471de9d7eabffa8a011c19f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Social Anxiety Disorder” (C34927).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social planning
<a id="social-planning"></a>

Social planning is a structured way of assessing and identifying a community’s needs, then putting practical measures in place to address those needs and improve quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47bbcc60e0816af92edfe9d457458dcae3b37628d3a14d0b2893e52af30f392e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Planning” (D012939).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012939). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social play
<a id="social-play"></a>

Social play is play between children, especially peers such as siblings, that helps build social skills during early and middle childhood. It is an important part of everyday relationships and may strengthen social bonds and support mental health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67b8a0af1a8f7cd6f4dbc73ec962923f749b2b7dc15a96a56b00229f25662cc9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Battistin Tiziana; Zanatta Alessia; Zanardo Vincenzo; Brugnaro Luca; Mercuriali Elena; Reffo Maria Eleonora. Sibling relationships and visual impairment: investigating their bond with a focus on the role of social play. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1555895; article XML SHA-256 e3a9dcecbfca3ac91f0f8a79a8e63a70c046c104630719da3a2c93bca8cbb0cf. “Sibling relationships and visual impairment: investigating their bond with a focus on the role of social play” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1555895).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1555895). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social (pragmatic) communication disorder
<a id="social-pragmatic-communication-disorder"></a>

Social (pragmatic) communication disorder is a communication disorder marked by difficulties with social communication and social interaction, especially pragmatic language use. Unlike autism spectrum disorder, it does not include restricted or repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9627dce5d9e135a86c7ce3fef6aa18c5be02084092db96967d919f24c4a9c5ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yoshinaga Kiyohiro; Egawa Jun; Watanabe Yuichiro; Kasahara Hiroyuki; Sugimoto Atsunori; Someya Toshiyuki. Usefulness of the autism spectrum quotient (AQ) in screening for autism spectrum disorder and social communication disorder. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05362-y; article XML SHA-256 3ec5473172c562c775b6f6011c474723c3c149e8640b21ab4a7f02562e74b824. “Usefulness of the autism spectrum quotient (AQ) in screening for autism spectrum disorder and social communication disorder” (10.1186/s12888-023-05362-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05362-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social presence
<a id="social-presence"></a>

Social presence is the degree to which a person experiences others in an interaction as being vividly there and genuinely human. In social relationships, it reflects how strongly another social partner feels real and present during communication or shared interaction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dd4839cb26719359b8eb1d671c94b769fdabcd765f6d477437393b1f21199764

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Tao; Cui Tianyu; Zhang Yan; Xu Zhuangzhuang; Jia Yunxiang. Examining the influence of the domestic social robot anthropomorphism on users' perceived affinity via intelligent design process: robot social presence as a mediator. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847715; article XML SHA-256 c4409285bcabb466bd490986db1785738fb44a1f7a2929e2562ee1533a140e6f. “Examining the influence of the domestic social robot anthropomorphism on users' perceived affinity via intelligent design process: robot social presence as a mediator” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847715).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847715). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social psychology
<a id="social-psychology"></a>

Social psychology is the branch of psychology that examines people in relation to other people, groups, and society as a whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b2002823139b71e5775816905b6777ffd2e82f6f3aef46e9a1c1f0035b1599ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Social Psychology” (C17033).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Social Readjustment Rating Scale
<a id="social-readjustment-rating-scale"></a>

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale is a 43-item measure of common life events used to estimate how much social adjustment and stress a person has experienced. It assigns weighted “life change units” to events to reflect the amount of change in usual routine they typically require and to gauge their possible impact on health and well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0531f0659e73987dbf554b72389a827113355c2693cc5c9c26b10eb56574d2e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wallace Denise; Cooper Nicholas R.; Sel Alejandra; Russo Riccardo. The social readjustment rating scale: Updated and modernised. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0295943; article XML SHA-256 a12716a514383dab64b6157960979caa197c8f2a4ab9d729f200c134446c0413. “The social readjustment rating scale: Updated and modernised” (10.1371/journal.pone.0295943).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295943). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social recovery
<a id="social-recovery"></a>

Social recovery is an approach in youth mental health that aims to help young people spend more time in meaningful, structured activities. Its goal is to reduce the risk of long-lasting mental health difficulties and social disability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf66b1d25772366cee748303c35e860fb469e6842c083d75c076d5ef9dd08f82

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Berry Clio; Othman Ellisha; Tan Jun Chuen; Gee Brioney; Byrne Rory Edward; Hodgekins Joanne; Michelson Daniel; Ng Alvin Lai Oon; Marsh Nigel V; Coker Sian; Fowler David. Assessing social recovery of vulnerable youth in global mental health settings: a pilot study of clinical research tools in Malaysia. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s12888-019-2164-x; article XML SHA-256 2dc569de00bfb93a1af493d48365c83237fe8124bfcf772ca2adfc4283bc91a7. “Assessing social recovery of vulnerable youth in global mental health settings: a pilot study of clinical research tools in Malaysia” (10.1186/s12888-019-2164-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2164-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social referencing
<a id="social-referencing"></a>

Social referencing is the tendency to look to another person for information when something is unclear or ambiguous, and then use that social cue to guide one’s own behavior. It begins in infancy and supports later social learning and evaluation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c212d094d19ca737048ec1989379067fc7c334df8f867b15c632c6d006a65e93

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ehli Samantha; Wolf Julia; Newen Albert; Schneider Silvia; Voigt Babett. Determining the Function of Social Referencing: The Role of Familiarity and Situational Threat. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.538228; article XML SHA-256 5bf64b21bda3395b59d16a3eb6441aef01812d473105bf8597f6757b4e42ec49. “Determining the Function of Social Referencing: The Role of Familiarity and Situational Threat” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.538228).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.538228). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social reinforcement
<a id="social-reinforcement"></a>

Social reinforcement is the strengthening of a behavior through social rewards, such as approval, attention, or affection from other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8d08f36092272a4f4042949db016130c6d1861f67b83e04c40f3324f54726ad1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reinforcement, Social” (D012056).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012056). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social relationship
<a id="social-relationship"></a>

A social relationship, in this source, means the bond between a male and female animal formed for reproduction, sometimes also involving care of their young.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a96a32fbf1865042571ececeea94a39cfde16a70c01a800fef6a2a0a6fbab5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pair Bond” (D010152).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010152). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social representation
<a id="social-representation"></a>

A social representation is a shared way a group builds and organizes understanding about a social object and its meaning. It also functions as a system of values, ideas, and practices that helps create social order, support communication, and shape how people perceive and act in social life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3cea469df546de8e050f00523c4cc8ce6907531a33beed8d70c419ac187de4dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Li-Ju; Luo Fang; Zong Wei; Hu Fa-Wen; Liao Wen-Zhi; Ding Yu. The social representation of the identity perception among China’s new social strata: a central nucleus analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722048; article XML SHA-256 e7741ec204a78e7eef79038ffd1144e886d53490c2802eb5e6f563d4aaa72861. “The social representation of the identity perception among China’s new social strata: a central nucleus analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722048).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722048). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social resistance
<a id="social-resistance"></a>

Social resistance is opposition by people or communities to a response effort, shown on a spectrum from passive noncompliance to open aggression toward response teams. In the source, it is described as being linked with continued disease transmission.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c55cbd9d11b3a065540b4ced56269a28dfd8d4f523402938fa0d4d904298fff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Masumbuko Claude Kasereka; Underschultz Jack; Hawkes Michael T. Social resistance drives persistent transmission of Ebola virus disease in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: A mixed-methods study. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0223104; article XML SHA-256 8c73182c5a60c66823aa8e04789f9d2d2e677a7bb116886934612c98c16f1268. “Social resistance drives persistent transmission of Ebola virus disease in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: A mixed-methods study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0223104).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223104). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social reward
<a id="social-reward"></a>

Social reward is a form of reinforcement in which a behavior becomes stronger because it is followed by social approval, affection, or attention from other people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8983bf0beb3c48ab2f556ee64e589624b7a355185c5ee4e5b06c39b71e97dc9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reinforcement, Social” (D012056).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012056). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social role
<a id="social-role"></a>

A social role is the set of actions or activities assigned to, required of, or expected from a person or group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4fe86459d6c4d9b76a105ed8edbae362d88be856d1d98fc87bb53734f03da735

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Social Role” (C25199).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social role theory
<a id="social-role-theory"></a>

Social role theory is the view that gender stereotypes are shaped by the social roles women and men are seen as occupying, and that these stereotypes can change as those roles actually or apparently change. In this account, perceptions of work, family, and other role divisions help determine how agentic or communal women and men are believed to be.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c28bde0fa5558f96b17af86f684ce8945a5d6109dcc793cec1797205e4f7defc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gustafsson Sendén Marie; Klysing Amanda; Lindqvist Anna; Renström Emma Aurora. The (Not So) Changing Man: Dynamic Gender Stereotypes in Sweden. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00037; article XML SHA-256 27492285b5de51d87289825f8cf4b07511c70d0ea7de385502a23681e3bebef7. “The (Not So) Changing Man: Dynamic Gender Stereotypes in Sweden” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00037).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00037). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social sanction
<a id="social-sanction"></a>

A social sanction is any reward, honor, blame, or penalty that a society attaches to conduct according to what public opinion or common feeling approves or condemns. It includes informal responses such as praise, ridicule, and boycotting, as well as punishments carried out by collective agreement, including legal penalties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 59652369c44e55406a0dacb7d88fb207304d2e32302eed65013e8d894e45a82f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2761500-2773500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Social Sciences
<a id="social-sciences"></a>

Social sciences are fields of study that examine how people relate to one another within social settings, including the roles of organizations and institutions. They include areas such as sociology and anthropology.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 323fef6f032b9cb1a5dd685787d669993ee1b81c1217c3e2f21f3b4396f9328b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Social Sciences” (D012942).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012942). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Social Security
<a id="social-security"></a>

Social Security is money paid to retired workers who contributed to the Social Security system during their working years.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8e111f5a7930ef82bc2d87e1a283193ae9e458c428b5da8bb734427b7828478e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Social Security Retirement Benefit” (C120451).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social self
<a id="social-self"></a>

A social self is the self as formed by social influence and the surrounding environment. In this historical account, it refers to the organized personal consciousness that grows out of earlier emotional and active responses to others and social conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 224a2208759b72b7234b11e62913138e098e9f15499c4ddb4510fde2f6c92f78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Conscience” (Conscience).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Conscience). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social skills
<a id="social-skills"></a>

Social skills are the personal abilities that help someone interact and communicate effectively with other people. They include spoken communication as well as nonverbal ways of relating, such as gestures, body language, and personal appearance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a21c17dab05fecbe1d5b32b5f456aaaca39506e1249a7d64ff3368ede7e0c2d8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Skills” (D066107).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066107). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social skills training
<a id="social-skills-training"></a>

Social skills training is a structured method for helping people develop more appropriate and effective social interaction skills. It is traditionally delivered by human trainers, but it can also be provided through computer-based interactive systems that practice both spoken and nonverbal aspects of communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50f521b39a637312bc0defb4d05d4c48738f6b4a65206109ac1b1e967f3f79d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tanaka Hiroki; Negoro Hideki; Iwasaka Hidemi; Nakamura Satoshi. Embodied conversational agents for multimodal automated social skills training in people with autism spectrum disorders. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0182151; article XML SHA-256 4e7cfe60cde78d820167d296de1938a895631b970d51ac9a4a104c0595c2b7b5. “Embodied conversational agents for multimodal automated social skills training in people with autism spectrum disorders” (10.1371/journal.pone.0182151).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182151). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social smile
<a id="social-smile"></a>

A social smile is a voluntary, relatively fixed facial expression produced by lifting the lips, often showing the teeth and sometimes the gums. It is described as one of the two main types of smile, distinct from an enjoyment smile.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ea635dfa6acf87c13ff4f536790d49562fde1939848e3bf76eea09d501cb194

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Abbasi Hoshyar; Golshah Amin; Seifodini Soraya. Correlation of social smile symmetry with facial symmetry. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12903-023-03260-z; article XML SHA-256 33f19f10ca3aa5a602b20e04163d80e25326917aa4a8e8a69bf6487270292b51. “Correlation of social smile symmetry with facial symmetry” (10.1186/s12903-023-03260-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-023-03260-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social status
<a id="social-status"></a>

Social status is a person’s or group’s standing relative to others in terms of prestige, authority, and privilege.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08111657d353c7de0a3233a63d71acf74b9d9ae1aa74a0925f30a3f99127a165

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Status” (D000091743).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000091743). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social stimulus
<a id="social-stimulus"></a>

A social stimulus is something a person perceives that carries social cues or information, such as signals available in biological motion. In this source, social stimuli are contrasted with non-social stimuli because they are relevant to social recognition and can automatically draw attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ee24497489935aa71ac65765357390ae1626f6b0b021054ea5750519e991cd8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Boxtel Jeroen J. A.; Lu Hongjing. Impaired Global, and Compensatory Local, Biological Motion Processing in People with High Levels of Autistic Traits. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00209; article XML SHA-256 3e838d773e0a5fcfb5472e3369165dfa0e3880fe3f8e861b934a57c4c08db4bf. “Impaired Global, and Compensatory Local, Biological Motion Processing in People with High Levels of Autistic Traits” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00209).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00209). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social stratification
<a id="social-stratification"></a>

Social stratification refers to the division of people into social layers based on similar standing and prestige. These social positions are commonly described using factors such as education, occupation, and income.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a8fa8e8f19233948f19e7dca899d186c79c6cd91897e1593483f67409404689

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Class” (D012923).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012923). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social structure
<a id="social-structure"></a>

Social structure is the overall pattern of relationships and systems that organize and guide how people interact in a group or society. It includes elements such as roles, norms, status, communication, and the links among individuals, groups, and institutions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38a5eb44630148d9999b40875eec4a894a6608ef32a4182d5856a45b378ac51d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Structure” (D000091485).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000091485). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social studies
<a id="social-studies"></a>

Social studies is the scientific study of human aspects of the world, including areas such as the mind, society, government, and the distribution of wealth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f776b6a5f1889bd99cf836ff4a44b95b799b9b57d2f5a0cf3e9c576d2f76990

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Social Sciences” (C17141).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social support
<a id="social-support"></a>

Social support is help and encouragement from a support system that assists people in coping with physical or emotional difficulties. It can come informally from friends, relatives, or peers, or more formally from organizations and groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3bdea5ff7daf030c91b8456949628e3e5b889659c8d0fdc8bd9a7ebc389bf175

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Support” (D012944).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012944). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social transmission
<a id="social-transmission"></a>

Social transmission is the process by which people in one generation adjust to an ongoing social environment and, through this continuity across generations, create tradition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7302745516ff0d7e43c2c3de02c89f1f31a8815d8e5b3c30f5129d2570c4a5d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Heredity” (Heredity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H2defs.htm#Heredity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social work
<a id="social-work"></a>

Social work is the use of community resources and work with individuals or groups to help people strengthen their ability to adapt to social and economic conditions. It also includes the agencies that provide these social services.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a81a072ccc14b24d5038bc8525403cfe44b0deb9bd762ad2e11a25f2ec1e51e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Work” (D012947).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012947). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Social Work, Psychiatric
<a id="social-work-psychiatric"></a>

Psychiatric social work is the use of all social work processes in treating patients in a psychiatric or mental health setting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 42f5f9fe1bf0cee9b57c31845b979303ed1e7f9aee342ee00ca7d8e85dffc156

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Social Work, Psychiatric” (D012949).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012949). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## social zone
<a id="social-zone"></a>

In a social approach test, the social zone is the area associated with a social stimulus, such as a novel conspecific. Time spent in this area is used as a measure of social approach and, in this study, to help classify stress-related response patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b2525305abb37d06ea027d7e6d05a5d317ffa5aacb5abb79be5b244ff4482727

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sailer Lindsay L.; Hanadari-Levy Amit; Ophir Alexander G.. Adolescent social instability stress alters social processes in male prairie voles. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnbeh.2026.1761549; article XML SHA-256 ad7611fe16285a63561e9f8d49e35489f1b29aef1c2eb98df198e57a95fd229a. “Adolescent social instability stress alters social processes in male prairie voles” (10.3389/fnbeh.2026.1761549).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2026.1761549). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sociality
<a id="sociality"></a>

Sociality is the tendency or capacity to engage in social interaction and more social, cooperative behavior. In this source, it refers to differing degrees of built-in social behavior that can affect how well individuals or agents do under different environmental conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 70ac6694fdc00a861cb27c686d65de4c5acaae723b1bb49267e01ac8703d03f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Miletitch Roman; Cambier Nicolas; Benítez-Burraco Antonio; Raviv Limor. Pros and cons of sociality across ecological niches: a swarm robotics approach. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872416; article XML SHA-256 eae5b745075a11ba86939318c4d526ae737a20d411a08dd27ffc1800e2d7555d. “Pros and cons of sociality across ecological niches: a swarm robotics approach” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872416).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872416). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## socialization
<a id="socialization"></a>

Socialization is the process by which a person is shaped through relationships, education, and social influences so they can function as a member of a particular society.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b59c11975e38ecc445fe8212d8c9f08d6e8ff4110caa77514607750296b8f8d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Socialization” (D012951).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012951). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Society for Psychical Research
<a id="society-for-psychical-research"></a>

The Society for Psychical Research was an organization noted here for collecting a census of hallucinations. In this historical context, its survey was used to estimate how widely hallucinations occurred among otherwise sane people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 35eda143e6efc4778dae173997ba74a384cf7b787a612bfaab98a3f78cc17ef0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hallucination” (Hallucination).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Hallucination). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sociobiology
<a id="sociobiology"></a>

Sociobiology is the comparative study of how social organization is structured in animals, including humans. It focuses especially on how social behavior may relate to genetic influences and evolutionary history.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 246bc47df453444530fbce120e67c9f73ee991f4a6329674137790baf60c9f75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sociobiology” (D035503).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D035503). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sociocultural factors
<a id="sociocultural-factors"></a>

Sociocultural factors are social and cultural influences that shape people’s behavior and experiences. In this source, they include the combined effects of gender, culture, and pressures related to acculturation on alcohol use among immigrant women.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3a24794c0e3719bd988c94dde1dfc77ea252d16aacaf1e47667f96ea854f3972

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Catherine; Butac Michael; Kim Hyoun S; Yoon Rosanra; Wong Josephine Pui-Hing. Sociocultural factors influencing alcohol use among Korean immigrant women: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353742; article XML SHA-256 fa6ad0d5fabf589b911d8d21054c0d50d9f9c7960c672c63649cd26b126a12bf. “Sociocultural factors influencing alcohol use among Korean immigrant women: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353742).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353742). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sociological factors
<a id="sociological-factors"></a>

Sociological factors are social influences and experiences that shape a person’s personality, attitudes, and way of life. They come from the values and behavior of groups a person belongs to or wants to belong to.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db7449bc77b6f78e09aa1c7d703ec3be8b01e07ff37f1cb8627242a36f7f8a74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sociological Factors” (D066252).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066252). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sociology
<a id="sociology"></a>

Sociology is the study of how groups relate to one another, how people behave collectively, and how societies are organized.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48fa6500a13de9f37b53aed5b9ab21ffcfcac6eeba942a10fd5edbec1828c95b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sociology” (D012961).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012961). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sociometric status
<a id="sociometric-status"></a>

Sociometric status is a person’s level of acceptance or rejection by peers within a group. It is commonly assessed by asking group members whom they would or would not choose for a particular activity, with status reflected in how many peers accept or reject that person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7913076f715a8ef08cd21b319e8ecaaecfb9de27d6204b90033bd5bf9018dd36

Sources:
- Drafting source: [D’Amico Antonella; Geraci Alessandro. The Role of Emotional and Meta-Emotional Intelligence in Pre-adolescents’ Well-Being and Sociometric Status. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749700; article XML SHA-256 431259ec3b5921a0620a3b38f156ad89d09252d980bafdce55d9a1dfd186de33. “The Role of Emotional and Meta-Emotional Intelligence in Pre-adolescents’ Well-Being and Sociometric Status” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749700).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749700). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## socionomics
<a id="socionomics"></a>

Socionomics is a special branch of the social sciences concerned with how social groups relate to one another and to their environment. It includes such matters as intercourse between groups, migration, geographical distribution, rivalry, and social accommodation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 001e09cbb509cd062f18126ef4ba9cf244ed04e8227a66b5e45fd3e0b5d3a7f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3055500-3067500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sociopathic personality
<a id="sociopathic-personality"></a>

Sociopathic personality refers to a personality disorder marked by an ongoing pattern of disregarding and violating other people’s rights. This pattern begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7c45a2a445bb80052d57aabd33824e537d1a9a38c46cf20009d08c2a0fcab0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Antisocial Personality Disorder” (D000987).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000987). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sociopathy
<a id="sociopathy"></a>

Sociopathy refers to a mental disorder involving an enduring pattern of ignoring and infringing on other people’s rights, with signs appearing in childhood or early adolescence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 976bc6d751c3e84b1e1f3cfb963ed774858c1aafa9e1e91c4d24d4264db96e63

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Antisocial Personality Disorder” (C88413).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sociosexual orientation
<a id="sociosexual-orientation"></a>

Sociosexual orientation is a personality characteristic describing how much emotional commitment a person typically wants before engaging in sexual relationships. A more unrestricted sociosexual orientation means needing less commitment and being more inclined toward short-term rather than long-term relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7cfbb651e44144b305b46aa5fd5e32be001f33cede32d930556c4b3bc51cdc7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mitrovic Aleksandra; Goller Juergen; Tinio Pablo P. L.; Leder Helmut. How relationship status and sociosexual orientation influence the link between facial attractiveness and visual attention. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0207477; article XML SHA-256 3b0205f3f1be9818245d00bf109c2d1d3c9ff2d1ff308e7ccfcecad959f2f1d6. “How relationship status and sociosexual orientation influence the link between facial attractiveness and visual attention” (10.1371/journal.pone.0207477).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207477). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sodium channel
<a id="sodium-channel"></a>

A sodium channel is a type of ion channel that selectively lets sodium ions pass through. Different sodium channel subtypes support specialized functions including nerve signaling, heart muscle contraction, and kidney function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 154c8493dbf1f5d88064482410ba0315d49b241152fd21843ac2b32d90c37a45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sodium Channels” (D015222).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015222). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## soft palate
<a id="soft-palate"></a>

The soft palate is part of the oropharyngeal region and plays an important role in swallowing, breathing, hearing, and speech. In this source, it is also described as a structure whose development involves signaling pathways such as Wnt, Hh, and Fgf, especially during muscle formation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: adaaac72b3270482be3af473b60d136e2ad202d0954355c721678a51279e004f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Janečková Eva; Feng Jifan; Li Jingyuan; Rodriguez Gabriela; Chai Yang. Dynamic activation of Wnt, Fgf, and Hh signaling during soft palate development. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0223879; article XML SHA-256 0c698d610b1a592fa4629082ae1c415603c0047880e724d865231b9a498a4821. “Dynamic activation of Wnt, Fgf, and Hh signaling during soft palate development” (10.1371/journal.pone.0223879).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223879). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## solitary nucleus
<a id="solitary-nucleus"></a>

The solitary nucleus is a cluster of gray matter in the dorsomedial medulla oblongata that is connected with the solitary tract. It receives incoming signals from many body systems, including endings of the facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves, and plays an important role in autonomic control related to circulation, breathing, taste, digestion, chemical sensing, and overall homeostasis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae2380f03f7748684c5bd51a6e0ed7f761f94df9720773f2687e6e68d5fd9f92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Solitary Nucleus” (D017552).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017552). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Solomon four-group design
<a id="solomon-four-group-design"></a>

Solomon four-group design is an experimental research design used to test an intervention while also checking whether giving a pretest affects the results. In the packet, it is used by comparing experimental groups that receive gamification-supported teaching with control groups that do not, with some groups pretested and others not.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a50b23fff11273df25827fc37b802782bbf230ef8588200f172e937c2923cdb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Uysal Funda. The role of gamification in sustainable teacher education: Examining concept images of curriculum elements using a solomon four-group design. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346892; article XML SHA-256 39ca3b0d8e111323122508b3bfd703e4e13c82a6005a14b501a914d55b58b924. “The role of gamification in sustainable teacher education: Examining concept images of curriculum elements using a solomon four-group design” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346892).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346892). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## solution-focused brief therapy
<a id="solution-focused-brief-therapy"></a>

Solution-focused brief therapy is a short-term, goal-directed form of psychotherapy used in a range of settings. It is intended as a brief therapeutic approach, though the packet notes that its evidence base for common mental disorders is still being clarified.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 12d29242b968cc7362ba81af474980df886caf1503afad34a87f82c61b77b6cf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pękala Krzysztof; Seweryn Michał; Żak Andreea M. Solution-focused brief therapy for common mental disorders in the light of empirically supported treatment revised criteria: a systematic review protocol. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1602060; article XML SHA-256 b9b363500a6daf2f0839451ae80988b2095b8b97b606bd36bd222cca97e084a2. “Solution-focused brief therapy for common mental disorders in the light of empirically supported treatment revised criteria: a systematic review protocol” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1602060).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1602060). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## solvent
<a id="solvent"></a>

In biological sample preparation, a solvent is a liquid used in stepwise exchange procedures, such as graded ethanol series, to dehydrate or rehydrate tissues. These solvent changes help prepare specimens for staining, clearing, and microscope imaging.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47987a49d811e67b50ec8a40dccaa9e7ea71b8bcd5917bbce78a43a3264c1539

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang May; Pelletier Samantha; Ellis Alexis; Shepherd Robert F; Frank Margaret H; Stroock Abraham D; Mishra Anand Kumar; Bacheva Vesna. Design and evaluation of low-cost, DIY programmable tissue processor for solvent exchange in biological sample preparation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341033; article XML SHA-256 e9e4bceb1b07d38b50cddc5d3ffbc50d6d46c688acd8c1a1b517cf28ca748d09. “Design and evaluation of low-cost, DIY programmable tissue processor for solvent exchange in biological sample preparation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341033).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somatic anxiety
<a id="somatic-anxiety"></a>

Somatic anxiety is the bodily or physical side of anxiety, considered as a dimension distinct from cognitive anxiety. In the source material, it is linked to subjective feelings of arousal and to psychophysiological responses across emotional situations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d632d569d60605fb6f837b8c5d22faafdd5313d38a435ecc739da86b818655c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barros Filipa; Figueiredo Cláudia; Brás Susana; Carvalho João M.; Soares Sandra C.. Multidimensional assessment of anxiety through the State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA): From dimensionality to response prediction across emotional contexts. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0262960; article XML SHA-256 ed18753ccf36480922b4a0875cf772c033fb79b1aeab3b6ed7af23e94b52affb. “Multidimensional assessment of anxiety through the State-Trait Inventory for Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety (STICSA): From dimensionality to response prediction across emotional contexts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0262960).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262960). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somatic depression
<a id="somatic-depression"></a>

Somatic depression is a form of depression distinguished from non-somatic depression and discussed in relation to bodily, or somatic, symptoms. In this context, it has been studied for links with brain connectivity in insular regions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0897ea282dba5ce5153c88c03213ae80605cf4ad1032b5e192bea08ce6073b72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yan Rui; Geng Ji Ting; Huang Ying Hong; Zou Hao Wen; Wang Xu Miao; Xia Yi; Zhao Shuai; Chen Zhi Lu; Zhou Hongliang; Chen Yu; Yao Zhi Jian; Shi Jia Bo; Lu Qing. Aberrant functional connectivity in insular subregions in somatic depression: a resting-state fMRI study. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-03795-5; article XML SHA-256 299a92e938644bdfebe88080815af70970246122abd5540846f38fa606d4c1f8. “Aberrant functional connectivity in insular subregions in somatic depression: a resting-state fMRI study” (10.1186/s12888-022-03795-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-03795-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somatic symptom and related disorders
<a id="somatic-symptom-and-related-disorders"></a>

Somatic symptom and related disorders are conditions in which a person has one or more physical symptoms along with excessive thoughts, feelings, or behaviors related to those symptoms. Common complaints include pain, fatigue, exhaustion, or problems involving body functions, and the symptoms are not adequately explained by usual medical disease or body abnormalities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0f8a937c8f9f18c65c005eb86c040b3a9f593bfec082dbcc8a77169c92985ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Okur Güney Zeynep Emine; Sattel Heribert; Witthöft Michael; Henningsen Peter. Emotion regulation in patients with somatic symptom and related disorders: A systematic review. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0217277; article XML SHA-256 3e90543b4d1c11193f99aaeeaf0cf9d88dc15ebcf3a5d0e6ca22346234f6ec7e. “Emotion regulation in patients with somatic symptom and related disorders: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0217277).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217277). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somatization
<a id="somatization"></a>

Somatization is the process in which mental experiences or emotional states are expressed as physical symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5ffd0e650ba3733f5358664688cd6f7a54e7ca1b23a75384c1327130f6a3df8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Somatization” (C86911).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somatization disorder
<a id="somatization-disorder"></a>

Somatization disorder is a diagnosis marked by many physical complaints affecting different body systems over at least two years, severe enough to cause major impairment or lead the person to seek treatment. These symptoms commonly involve areas such as gastrointestinal, cardiorespiratory, urogenital, internal, or musculoskeletal functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 958e573c640e920d97600771ea02e3a3b06c83f580f3a9e3a602d3dd908a3bd9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Su Qinji; Yao Dapeng; Jiang Muliang; Liu Feng; Jiang Jiajing; Xu Chunxing; Dai Yi; Yu Miaoyu; Long Liling; Li Hongzheng; Liu Jianrong; Zhang Zhikun; Zhang Jian; Xiao Changqing; Guo Wenbin. Dissociation of Regional Activity in Default Mode Network in Medication-Naive, First-Episode Somatization Disorder. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0099273; article XML SHA-256 609a9d79d7c40510fec48b1d0c52f0ea3dfad383517da02f74d97978b59e2be5. “Dissociation of Regional Activity in Default Mode Network in Medication-Naive, First-Episode Somatization Disorder” (10.1371/journal.pone.0099273).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099273). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somato-
<a id="somato"></a>

In this historical psychiatric usage, somato- means relating to the body or bodily organs. It appears in terms such as somatic and somato-aetiological to mark the view that mental disorder was understood as arising from bodily disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d174dee9ff3f0c3f0f401fea6cdfdf5f61c2dc03c43914d12c49dcb148385a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1312500-1324500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somatoform disorder
<a id="somatoform-disorder"></a>

Somatoform disorder is a group of psychiatric disorders in which a person has physical symptoms that seem like they could come from a medical illness but are not fully explained by known medical causes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf761f9333b550280002cc31e8b2fc4ca98481b2fcfc5dafc099370638db4a74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Somatoform Disorder” (C34956).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somatoform pain disorder
<a id="somatoform-pain-disorder"></a>

Somatoform pain disorder, described here as persistent somatoform pain disorder, is a mental disorder in which ongoing pain occurs without an associated bodily injury. It can involve major problems in bodily sensation and emotional functioning, and has been linked to disturbances in pain, memory, and emotion processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bc91f3e3413f28e509132e588c36b4d40a182daff7e2577d3e2a5f22013050bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Tianming; Zhao Zhiyong; Yan Chao; Lu Jing; Li Xuzhou; Tang Chaozheng; Fan Mingxia; Luo Yanli. Altered Spontaneous Activity in Patients with Persistent Somatoform Pain Disorder Revealed by Regional Homogeneity. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0151360; article XML SHA-256 dc6f965d3b2f583991a6b0beaac883b5536d2fa9e88c424882244c7efd8b24d3. “Altered Spontaneous Activity in Patients with Persistent Somatoform Pain Disorder Revealed by Regional Homogeneity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0151360).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151360). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somatosensory area
<a id="somatosensory-area"></a>

The somatosensory area is a part of the brain involved in bodily sensation. In this source, stimulating the right or left hand somatosensory area produced touch sensations in the corresponding hand.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 782623cdfc26247c7e8c522a4e15244cabf7254442406f3efe25c1fc1518e142

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Wonhye; Kim Suji; Kim Byeongnam; Lee Chungki; Chung Yong An; Kim Laehyun; Yoo Seung-Schik. Non-invasive transmission of sensorimotor information in humans using an EEG/focused ultrasound brain-to-brain interface. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0178476; article XML SHA-256 ec7b726d5a3afa72875d29529011628c9c4bf8da73ccae397189020568c895bf. “Non-invasive transmission of sensorimotor information in humans using an EEG/focused ultrasound brain-to-brain interface” (10.1371/journal.pone.0178476).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178476). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somatosensory system
<a id="somatosensory-system"></a>

The somatosensory system is the sensory-input part of the peripheral nervous system. It carries incoming bodily sensation signals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f33c18cc2d74dcec784e38775b977a7c15ae8d8c2c8061a67f71f92da9cf8a34

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sensation Disorders” (D012678).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012678). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somatostatin
<a id="somatostatin"></a>

Somatostatin is a small peptide found in the brain, nerves, gut, and other organs that reduces the release of several hormones, especially growth hormone. It also functions in the nervous system as both a neurotransmitter and a neuromodulator.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8bce90a4194bff47cc8ad2cf9b15588fb921d6dc9724f35b6cb2e0c7cf231909

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Somatostatin” (D013004).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013004). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somatotopic organization
<a id="somatotopic-organization"></a>

Somatotopic organization is a patterned brain mapping in which seeing or using a particular body part is linked to activity in the corresponding sensorimotor area for that body part. In this context, it refers to the matching of observed hand or foot actions with hand- or foot-related regions of the observer’s brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c24d6d7eebccfe58392b8f9392d7c4fcdceec15b0b19745ef5b0d27787ef68fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Saby Joni N.; Meltzoff Andrew N.; Marshall Peter J.. Infants’ Somatotopic Neural Responses to Seeing Human Actions: I’ve Got You under My Skin. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0077905; article XML SHA-256 b6b3e9d3f87f7995b6fba4634ab72a8d6f10554680144f27aefa48aaa29b1f60. “Infants’ Somatotopic Neural Responses to Seeing Human Actions: I’ve Got You under My Skin” (10.1371/journal.pone.0077905).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077905). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somatotropin-release inhibiting factor
<a id="somatotropin-release-inhibiting-factor"></a>

Somatotropin-release inhibiting factor is a peptide, also called somatostatin, that suppresses the release of growth hormone from the pituitary. It is found in the nervous system, gut, and other organs, where it also helps regulate the release of several other hormones and can act in neural signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8a5724d7f9382e8bbb5788742e37b55feed430d677bb69821bfbf4babcc11400

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Somatostatin” (D013004).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013004). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somnambulism
<a id="somnambulism"></a>

Somnambulism is a parasomnia in which a person partly awakens during deep non-REM sleep and may carry out semipurposeful actions such as walking while being hard to fully wake. It mainly affects children, especially around ages 4 to 6.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 88afcda9ba9db93df5f266000ab7f78036bc109759b8a5bcf662434fa777ff13

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Somnambulism” (D013009).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013009). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## somnolence
<a id="somnolence"></a>

Somnolence is a state of daytime sleepiness or drowsiness. In this packet, it refers to adolescents being sleepier during the day, which was linked with shorter sleep duration and poorer academic performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d8527e5a7854daac62b93d3eb190bd2d9fa45d353321cbe9f29de1a6a336dfbc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pérez-Chada Daniel; Bioch Sergio Arias; Schönfeld Daniel; Gozal David; Perez-Lloret Santiago; On behalf of the Sleep in Adolescents Collaborative study group. Screen use, sleep duration, daytime somnolence, and academic failure in school-aged adolescents. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281379; article XML SHA-256 1d81506e789ca628904ede8d1f1cdbddc7c78011c959c69606d87c9bf4a38106. “Screen use, sleep duration, daytime somnolence, and academic failure in school-aged adolescents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281379).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281379). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sonata
<a id="sonata"></a>

Sonata is zaleplon, a nonbenzodiazepine drug with hypnotic, sedative, anxiolytic, and muscle-relaxant effects. It acts on GABA-A receptor systems in the brain, enhancing inhibitory GABA activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e89d241701646bed00f51efb1497107cf665b3194c84e322f4473c13717c6bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Zaleplon” (C29551).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## soothability
<a id="soothability"></a>

Soothability is an early indicator of infant emotion regulation, referring to how readily an infant can be calmed and return from distress toward a more settled emotional state. It reflects regulation processes rather than temperament traits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bd1df039c4472a4c8093586ce692a23d2422c3275bb132d435df7d58401d3ded

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cervellione Brenda; Lombardo Ester Maria Concetta; Geraci Silvia; Iacolino Calogero. Prenatal bonding and early emotion regulation in infancy and toddlerhood (0–36 months): a systematic review of developmental associations, psychological mediators, and contextual moderators. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1700636; article XML SHA-256 26c0eeb2f608c4e38cfc1083f9d67d94cf09209295b367e99c25fedbbee0cf65. “Prenatal bonding and early emotion regulation in infancy and toddlerhood (0–36 months): a systematic review of developmental associations, psychological mediators, and contextual moderators” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1700636).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1700636). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sophistry
<a id="sophistry"></a>

Sophistry is deceptive or merely seeming reasoning, especially argument used to mislead or to leave an opponent unsure how to answer. In a narrower logical sense, it can also mean a false argument that may not actually deceive but is hard to refute.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22233f4067b134b6739cfc47d10db743a93ab26d0faf34c5416d6562ff7efa21

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3150000-3162000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## soporific
<a id="soporific"></a>

Soporific means sleep-producing or tending to put people to sleep. In the historical source, it appears as an abstract quality attributed to something that causes sleep.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: edc6866cae70e1912e61800d1c8bf282cbfbb89950eaecaecaba397f1fa7a0e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Name (in logic)” (Name (in logic)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N1defs.htm#Name (in logic)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sorting test
<a id="sorting-test"></a>

A sorting test is a neurobehavioral assessment in which a person works through a set of cards or card-like images, and performance is scored from response patterns such as errors, repeated responding, and categories completed. It is used to measure executive function, including mental flexibility, and can help detect impairment related to brain disorder or damage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 948f640eda9ec9a5e4bb6d37d8899a9aa3406ada6b4c82bd666ad7685316d556

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fox Christopher J.; Mueller Shane T.; Gray Hilary M.; Raber Jacob; Piper Brian J.. Evaluation of a Short-Form of the Berg Card Sorting Test. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0063885; article XML SHA-256 796c589459fb961af52d715e176483ba2f17a775a608a94e8ea05a3ed159f87e. “Evaluation of a Short-Form of the Berg Card Sorting Test” (10.1371/journal.pone.0063885).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0063885). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sotos syndrome
<a id="sotos-syndrome"></a>

Sotos syndrome is an overgrowth condition present from birth or developing after birth, usually involving greater height and head size than expected. In psychology and counselling contexts, it is relevant because motor and cognitive development can be delayed, and it may also occur with features such as low muscle tone, seizures, scoliosis, jaundice in newborns, advanced bone age, and an increased adult risk of tumors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8a702922443e865f6ae2aeb7844e2add40700249e61d3ca2ee8df00a6fa93e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sotos Syndrome” (D058495).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058495). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sound change
<a id="sound-change"></a>

Sound change is the historical alteration of the speech sounds that make up words as a language is passed from one generation to the next. In historical phonology, it refers especially to the tendency for a change affecting a sound in one setting to spread through other words with the same sound under similar conditions, eventually producing broad regularity across the vocabulary.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1742723db7ea523710bf1084afd77e68c911b90f078adf68a363d25697bb61b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Language” (Language).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Language). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sound intensity
<a id="sound-intensity"></a>

Sound intensity is the strength or level of a sound, used in auditory research by comparing brain responses to higher- and lower-intensity sounds. Changes in sound intensity can be used to study automatic neural responses to sound.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6e3d16c82de25a37c752399eed2e071c01af209082869b0a5e1a76741d60703

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ruohonen Elisa M.; Kattainen Saara; Li Xueqiao; Taskila Anna-Elisa; Ye Chaoxiong; Astikainen Piia. Event-Related Potentials to Changes in Sound Intensity Demonstrate Alterations in Brain Function Related to Depression and Aging. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00098; article XML SHA-256 b2f3e89df7f12f62d8a877fa5c8e5bb78ead2a85b8379eb4ba70e272e66e2396. “Event-Related Potentials to Changes in Sound Intensity Demonstrate Alterations in Brain Function Related to Depression and Aging” (10.3389/fnhum.2020.00098).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00098). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sound-level meter
<a id="sound-level-meter"></a>

A sound-level meter is a device used to monitor and measure noise levels in an environment, such as at roads and intersections during different times of day. Its readings can be used to map noise exposure and show how sound levels vary across locations and heights.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 316a178b59e91137d5f0f7e65f56aad155ec12e1242f12861250d6f04425d1ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alam Pervez; Ahmad Kafeel; Khan Afzal Husain; Khan Nadeem A.; Dehghani Mohammad Hadi. 2D and 3D mapping of traffic induced noise near major roads passing through densely populated residential area of South Delhi, India. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248939; article XML SHA-256 7ebbec064b9466503d3205af45e34754a6e69708bda221284906f5431ddb20b0. “2D and 3D mapping of traffic induced noise near major roads passing through densely populated residential area of South Delhi, India” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248939).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248939). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sound localization
<a id="sound-localization"></a>

Sound localization is the ability to identify where a sound is coming from.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a567d38f182176ca4464c9655c599b4de776d30153f91762f7f81845f08fc89f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sound Localization” (D013017).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013017). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sound pressure
<a id="sound-pressure"></a>

Sound pressure is the pressure component of a sound field, distinct from the sound-driven motion of particles in the surrounding medium. In the source, it refers to the part of the acoustic stimulus that can be increased independently and that can drive oscillation of structures such as swim bladder walls.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ae5325e9deb964db7e622e569611ec5364a8efe867b65a081d25afd04f60ee80

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schulz-Mirbach Tanja; Ladich Friedrich; Mittone Alberto; Olbinado Margie; Bravin Alberto; Maiditsch Isabelle P; Melzer Roland R; Krysl Petr; Heß Martin. Auditory chain reaction: Effects of sound pressure and particle motion on auditory structures in fishes. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0230578; article XML SHA-256 c606d1649943e6350a3de96fc56dd09112a209ba49206ff61368b114df7734cb. “Auditory chain reaction: Effects of sound pressure and particle motion on auditory structures in fishes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0230578).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230578). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sound-pressure level
<a id="sound-pressure-level"></a>

Sound-pressure level is a measure of how strong a sound is, expressed in decibels. In this context, it is used as an acoustic indicator to compare environmental noise, such as the louder sound from an aircraft flying lower overhead.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9b573666c2c30b9a11714b27e52620352759053082a746ace04a02af59638390

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Memoli Gianluca; Hamilton-Fletcher Giles; Mitchell Steve. Soundscape Assessment of Aircraft Height and Size. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02492; article XML SHA-256 75ed093a2d2c5710e3417b54dc4f5339645aaf5b9543cc07e48f0a6f91509db6. “Soundscape Assessment of Aircraft Height and Size” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02492).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02492). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sound symbolism
<a id="sound-symbolism"></a>

Sound symbolism is the study of non-arbitrary links between speech sounds and meaning. It refers to systematic sound–meaning associations found in human languages, challenging the idea that these relationships are always arbitrary.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ae6ecf878bc5f9ce331f49a7692ca5b56b9c3fcdce2612807246b00494ae687

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kawahara Shigeto; Godoy Mahayana C.; Kumagai Gakuji. English Speakers Can Infer Pokémon Types Based on Sound Symbolism. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648948; article XML SHA-256 eb533b4831914ad736f1412519c5aa5582324a227c9b491315e76d9cb5c45594. “English Speakers Can Infer Pokémon Types Based on Sound Symbolism” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648948).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648948). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## source language
<a id="source-language"></a>

In bilingual processing and interpreting, the source language is the original language being read or understood before producing another language. Its wording and sentence structure can influence how the target language is produced, sometimes helping when structures match and sometimes causing errors when they do not.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea079f439b61349af1b455d22feee5fd79a6b35231c2c4eba4182e81dd562843

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhao Nan; Cai Zhenguang G; Dong Yanping. Speech errors in consecutive interpreting: Effects of language proficiency, working memory, and anxiety. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0292718; article XML SHA-256 b9775dde9e2d4577b5d48979783ebe8149ac3783d1d6152daadcb5f04d3da469. “Speech errors in consecutive interpreting: Effects of language proficiency, working memory, and anxiety” (10.1371/journal.pone.0292718).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292718). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## source memory
<a id="source-memory"></a>

Source memory is memory for the context in which something was previously encountered, such as where, when, or how it was experienced. It differs from simply recognizing the item itself by involving remembered details that surrounded the original event.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0165a8dbf5928024c6490e84e45e789378ad00fff2f9e4c99479f0635f0f3f22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Antón-Méndez Inés; Talk Andrew; Johnston Simone. Gaze direction reveals implicit item and source memory in older adults. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0226018; article XML SHA-256 9c4df98c3b6c34970bfb4f56741b7ee48e0945d8f1b5ebb1e46a65daa6574710. “Gaze direction reveals implicit item and source memory in older adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0226018).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226018). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## source monitoring
<a id="source-monitoring"></a>

Source monitoring is the mental process of judging where a memory, thought, or other mental experience came from. When it fails, a person may confuse imagined events with real ones or mix directly perceived information with suggestions, heard information, or prior knowledge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9bf201894aa29390c2f986a842fa4d0246759a4642186558e7f9c28cca9bc548

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Martínez-Suárez Pedro C; Valdevila Figueira José Alejandro; Luna-Cambi Joselyn M; Guerrero-Granda Carlos E; Santiesteban Rocío Valdevila. Memory Monitoring Recognition Test (MMRT), a new measurement of stimular source monitoring: Software and comprehension. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321991; article XML SHA-256 2c98827fdef384a7c1e11e8d493146254d4b641d04b5eced53e5245deeb5e310. “Memory Monitoring Recognition Test (MMRT), a new measurement of stimular source monitoring: Software and comprehension” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321991).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321991). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## source trustworthiness
<a id="source-trustworthiness"></a>

Source trustworthiness is the degree to which a person sees an information source, such as an expert source, as credible and worthy of trust. In this context, greater perceived trustworthiness can increase how effective a message seems and support acceptance of the recommendation even when detailed evidence is limited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c238b41e3c36dbc1525f2f16b833f1665ee172b70b498b45e393c5f7ed5109e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kikut Ava Irysa. The doctor knows or the evidence shows: An online survey experiment testing the effects of source trust, pro-vaccine evidence, and dual-processing in expert messages recommending child COVID-19 vaccination to parents. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288272; article XML SHA-256 5a57e6b367c52bebeaf1da32debae81580904e367d8d431e92349477757543ae. “The doctor knows or the evidence shows: An online survey experiment testing the effects of source trust, pro-vaccine evidence, and dual-processing in expert messages recommending child COVID-19 vaccination to parents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288272).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288272). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Southern blot
<a id="southern-blot"></a>

Southern blot is a laboratory method used to find particular DNA fragments. It works by separating DNA pieces in a gel, transferring them onto a membrane, and identifying the target sequence with a labeled probe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a3e94a14be385c3a7e23c67fc10f90f7462e25192a07541b536e05eeb81b9592

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Southern Blotting” (C16356).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## space adaptation syndrome
<a id="space-adaptation-syndrome"></a>

Space adaptation syndrome is a condition linked to space flight in which a person may develop nausea, vomiting, and dizziness, possibly because of balance-system disorientation or shifts in body fluids.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d86b1b1ce31a632046e1694188247a7b83e70e0018c97e1ca7eeef5e49c0091

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Space Motion Sickness” (D018489).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018489). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## space-based attention
<a id="space-based-attention"></a>

Space-based attention is a form of visual attention that is directed toward locations in space rather than toward the shapes or boundaries of objects. Which kind of attention people use can depend on what a task calls for.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e805ed122a021701b7a62a7d00e29d0b5dd82d30723463edfb2e09878ebe6f56

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lange-Küttner Christiane; Vinueza Chavez Ximena. The space paradox in graphic representation. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.968918; article XML SHA-256 5c436d3e2699d67cd5bba8d6b2430757afabe2dea5682d80937117273c39c6a0. “The space paradox in graphic representation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.968918).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.968918). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## space motion sickness
<a id="space-motion-sickness"></a>

Space motion sickness is a condition during space flight marked by nausea, vomiting, and dizziness, possibly related to disorientation in the balance system or shifts in body fluids.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 424bf2861e4f1ba14f0c890982d167573ab4b2e7a3dd7a955b29de87b9756834

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Space Motion Sickness” (D018489).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018489). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## space perception
<a id="space-perception"></a>

Space perception is awareness of where objects are and of their spatial qualities, including properties of physical space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7daafec02f01e252cc4ebed6b17472e3f4d2adae219f7d01b3a3af050019452

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Space Perception” (D013028).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013028). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spaced practice
<a id="spaced-practice"></a>

Spaced practice is a way of organizing training so that practice sessions are distributed over time rather than grouped together in a massed format. In the source packet, it refers to one of two practice regimens used to compare whether spreading working memory updating training across time changed transfer effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 44eedd3014930d964fc8a496b936d1978434e459f42449a4a4ec4a7ad4fa7342

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Linares Rocío; Borella Erika; Lechuga Mª Teresa; Carretti Barbara; Pelegrina Santiago. Nearest transfer effects of working memory training: A comparison of two programs focused on working memory updating. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0211321; article XML SHA-256 ab83e3510429b88480d2b30eb496e695fee208f18e5372b55792b0f716066dd4. “Nearest transfer effects of working memory training: A comparison of two programs focused on working memory updating” (10.1371/journal.pone.0211321).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211321). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spacing effect
<a id="spacing-effect"></a>

The spacing effect is the finding that learning or practice spread out over time usually leads to better later retention or preserved performance than the same amount of learning done all at once. It appears across many kinds of material and learners, and its benefit can vary with the interval between sessions, with some spacing intervals working better than others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2407b895a29ac4541084275be55e855db3f0e4299bf613bb386b397ea288e354

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kornmeier Jürgen; Spitzer Manfred; Sosic-Vasic Zrinka. Very Similar Spacing-Effect Patterns in Very Different Learning/Practice Domains. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0090656; article XML SHA-256 75124c13db16eb754f62696e3d15981ecda40fdaf99f6e6b616ad23ea98f6748. “Very Similar Spacing-Effect Patterns in Very Different Learning/Practice Domains” (10.1371/journal.pone.0090656).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090656). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spandrel
<a id="spandrel"></a>

In evolutionary biology, a spandrel is a trait that arises as a by-product of selection acting on other features rather than being directly selected for itself. In the source packet, the human chin is discussed as a possible spandrel because its form may have emerged from other craniofacial evolutionary changes instead of as a specific adaptation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b405451bceafcaf73bef2be4ef421ea161b0e81609053322e7a060d1b20f3a7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [von Cramon-Taubadel Noreen; Scott Jill E.; Robinson Chris A.; Schroeder Lauren. Is the human chin a spandrel? Insights from an evolutionary analysis of ape craniomandibular form. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340278; article XML SHA-256 33368a6f108cec9e404145d17db0980e82a5ac13c982d66f245f1e28f7c96b08. “Is the human chin a spandrel? Insights from an evolutionary analysis of ape craniomandibular form” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340278).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340278). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spasm
<a id="spasm"></a>

A spasm is an involuntary tightening or contraction of a muscle or of a group of muscles. It can affect either skeletal muscle or smooth muscle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b64e8e824e008c636f055a7c9180bf66cce0ed8ad6d551944e9c96bb37a4cf77

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Spasm” (D013035).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013035). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spastic
<a id="spastic"></a>

Spastic refers to increased involuntary muscle tightness due to central nervous system disorders that disrupt voluntary movement. It can lead to problems with walking, movement, and speech.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cfaf97a10156059a839290c44a870310c25f486d21f9f131d6adace3f4fe599a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Spasticity” (C79750).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spastic dysarthria
<a id="spastic-dysarthria"></a>

Spastic dysarthria is an acquired speech disorder caused by neurological injury in which muscle control for speech becomes tense, slow, imprecise, or poorly coordinated, reducing how understandable speech is. It can affect breathing, voice production, resonance, and speech rhythm, often leading to slow, effortful speech, unclear pronunciation, and hypernasality, with social and emotional impact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 697a09927fe3445aa0af1df30db4a2cf98831d5b65dd0b9844000f8e4845642d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lin Lan-Xin; Yao Shun-Yu; Chen Quan; Du Miao-Qiao; Kang Xu-Hui; Jiang Dai-Yi; Peng Yong. Stroke-associated dysarthria. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fneur.2025.1629640; article XML SHA-256 2b59aba894b6bb51ec8e57bcc88657b6b494523943736513669fa57995eaec84. “Stroke-associated dysarthria” (10.3389/fneur.2025.1629640).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2025.1629640). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spastic paraplegia
<a id="spastic-paraplegia"></a>

Spastic paraplegia, especially the familial form, refers to a varied group of disorders mainly marked by gradually increasing stiffness and weakness in the legs. The familial type has been linked to many different genetic locations and patterns of inheritance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: af079df4b4395797707ceae409cfcf810da162dcc8f361841c38cd063b1468e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Miaoxin; Ho Philip Wing-Lok; Pang Shirley Yin-Yu; Tse Zero Ho-Man; Kung Michelle Hiu-Wai; Sham Pak-Chung; Ho Shu-Leong. PMCA4 (ATP2B4) Mutation in Familial Spastic Paraplegia. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0104790; article XML SHA-256 dc1d85341e32a830e245fcba9a28ac26780eee38aad4284cd89cd9ab2a5f3221. “PMCA4 (ATP2B4) Mutation in Familial Spastic Paraplegia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0104790).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0104790). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spasticity
<a id="spasticity"></a>

Spasticity is abnormally increased, involuntary muscle tightness caused by disorders of the central nervous system that disrupt voluntary movement. It can interfere with walking, general movement, and speech.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b28f1b91990c299965c059cd691a1b20f5b2272b1673f57f9971433b236d714

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Spasticity” (C79750).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spatial ability
<a id="spatial-ability"></a>

Spatial ability is a basic cognitive skill involved in understanding and working with spatial information, and it strongly predicts success in STEM learning. In this context, three-dimensional geometric thinking is a formalized use of spatial ability for solving three-dimensional geometry problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a54da49095e0330583813146fc0bd1e48970fd7acc2cf464164f1add2a70115

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ma Tanjun; Zhang Wenlan. Research on the impact of different teaching methods on students’ spatial ability and three-dimensional geometric thinking. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1744734; article XML SHA-256 a2b2ef39328e09464c49116734be2295c3104e3ddbf803939c7a7822b8017307. “Research on the impact of different teaching methods on students’ spatial ability and three-dimensional geometric thinking” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1744734).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1744734). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spatial autocorrelation
<a id="spatial-autocorrelation"></a>

Spatial autocorrelation is the spatial dependency or regional patterning seen in data, where variables are related across locations. In research methods, it is taken into account in spatial regression to model regional variation and describe spatial relationships among variables.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6437ac60271fe1d5760b1e1e0f338ee75e8b863f573d085853148d60a7227f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Spatial Regression” (D000068916).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000068916). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spatial cognition
<a id="spatial-cognition"></a>

Spatial cognition is the ability to learn, use, remember, and update information about the layout of the environment. It supports navigation and finding important places or resources while helping an animal avoid danger.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0b3ae99a140d04beb67d8c897bda0e576475e6e792b669ee01c77aed252397a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Johny Alex; Janczak Andrew M; Nordgreen Janicke; Toscano Michael J; Stratmann Ariane. Mind the ramp: Association between early life ramp use and spatial cognition in laying hen pullets. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302454; article XML SHA-256 9b1229e99341c2fc6d4a8d37f459684a1cb368f24c2aa8c5e002c2cc47585255. “Mind the ramp: Association between early life ramp use and spatial cognition in laying hen pullets” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302454).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302454). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spatial coherence
<a id="spatial-coherence"></a>

Spatial coherence is the extent to which patterns in a signal stay similar or consistent across different locations. Weak spatial coherence means the pattern is more local and less globally shared, so consistency across space drops off quickly.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d8c2db0c31e6a3a8ccb1a696f907e04fa1104b5860d1decc62f680cec0c8d5bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dong Zhilin; Xiong Haoqing; Yang Jun; Su Rongqiang; Shen Qianfeng; Zhang Shaohua; Chang Yixin; Chen Jiaxu; Qian Xuejin. A measurement-driven graph learning framework for Wideband oscillation localization in power systems. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355190; article XML SHA-256 8337c699f304ca290a3a26b55ff69837ad5306fac39a45480691b4111d31e911. “A measurement-driven graph learning framework for Wideband oscillation localization in power systems” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355190).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355190). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spatial density
<a id="spatial-density"></a>

Spatial density refers to how intensely space is developed or used, especially in urban areas, and is linked to how much activity or function that space can support. It is commonly indicated by floor area ratio, which compares total building floor area with the land area it occupies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c69cfe9ee60456050866e79b597a5f7db2bab1e395c88f3ee4440e0e471a347

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tu Fan; Ji Ruijia; Zhou Jinyu; Ling Gabriel Hoh Teck. Shaping industrial spatial density: How floor area ratio varies across regions and sectors in Zhejiang, China. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343089; article XML SHA-256 aecf81b874fd7fbf063ae96de2187e4959290ca3ad045c6b0b1e110a91d466ca. “Shaping industrial spatial density: How floor area ratio varies across regions and sectors in Zhejiang, China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343089).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343089). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spatial discrimination
<a id="spatial-discrimination"></a>

Spatial discrimination is the ability to tell apart different places of stimulation on the skin. In this historical source, it is described as less precise for temperature spots than for pressure spots, and less precise for heat spots than for cold spots.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e64d7a5f6790e2d05dc5ac265123e8d5bff243f501eb7df87c7ceb0adcf689b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3811500-3823500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spatial intelligence
<a id="spatial-intelligence"></a>

Spatial intelligence is a distinct area of cognition involving understanding spatial representations and the relationships among objects or features in space. It supports learning in fields such as mathematics and geography and is linked to later success in STEM.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2fdac0350b966defe33f521c885dc05eb4a5bf3b47e0e219798fffdce5e45675

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Özkaya Ali; Turan Saim; Uzun Adem; Akhan Osman. Disciplinary trends in spatial concept associations: a multifaceted analysis of student responses. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745600; article XML SHA-256 cd7ebc61ac4906ae0a663c407a9961aa3c6d00f26b800d6a9193dc3a5e0a422f. “Disciplinary trends in spatial concept associations: a multifaceted analysis of student responses” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745600).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745600). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spatial learning
<a id="spatial-learning"></a>

Spatial learning is the process of taking in and organizing information about cues in the environment so a person can find their way through space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f47ffa7a3891d25842fc6e0155e9271df23859e4ed19519baa629a5bbf838011

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Spatial Learning” (D065853).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065853). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spatial neglect
<a id="spatial-neglect"></a>

Spatial neglect is a finding involving impaired visuospatial functioning, described in this source as occurring after cerebral infarction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 349f3167623035567694632fc99390ab67c73b5459a49cf701564c03fdc393a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Visuospatial Deficit and Spatial Neglect following Cerebral Infarction” (C196354).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spatial summation
<a id="spatial-summation"></a>

Spatial summation is the combining of synaptic signals arriving at a postsynaptic cell from multiple synaptic junctions so they can reach threshold and trigger an action potential. The summed signals may be excitatory or inhibitory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 21dd9b8d66768edf83cc1fb4c2463d13960b18b8fa033ed3d0c090653f5f3f8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Postsynaptic Potential Summation” (D059227).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D059227). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spatial updating
<a id="spatial-updating"></a>

Spatial updating is the mental ability to keep track of your position and direction as you move through an environment. It supports navigation by helping a person maintain an ongoing sense of where they are in relation to the surrounding space.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bde6ea0b335c32efed3340dcb2ec321303029a3a5ce1b38c339f5c91abd5ab6e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Legge Gordon E.; Gage Rachel; Baek Yihwa; Bochsler Tiana M.. Indoor Spatial Updating with Reduced Visual Information. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0150708; article XML SHA-256 59a39d83a02d2db0f45fb3ae1cafdb0edf75e7895355fc93276eaf945b16a9ec. “Indoor Spatial Updating with Reduced Visual Information” (10.1371/journal.pone.0150708).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0150708). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spatial vision
<a id="spatial-vision"></a>

Spatial vision refers to visual abilities involved in resolving fine detail and detecting contrast, such as visual acuity and contrast sensitivity. In this packet, it is discussed as a domain that can show deficits in amblyopia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f6c84de495d8b581e1ac7e9cb39de31aab381045c4761b3c59177e4d3f9b17f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Campana Gianluca; Camilleri Rebecca; Pavan Andrea; Veronese Antonella; Lo Giudice Giuseppe. Improving visual functions in adult amblyopia with combined perceptual training and transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS): a pilot study. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01402; article XML SHA-256 3f195b1498bcd9cb51f84ab9065fffda826e5fe188b5af884ac81be78701a6ba. “Improving visual functions in adult amblyopia with combined perceptual training and transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS): a pilot study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01402).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01402). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SPC
<a id="spc"></a>

SPC is a heuristic model that distinguishes three kinds of phenomena in psychiatry and psychotherapy: stable mental structures, changeable problems or problem behaviors, and temporary conditions. It is used to clarify what is relatively fixed, what can be worked on or changed, and what is a transient state that must be treated or endured.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b2a76890019f592dcf82b92fb0fb6a72c34818049aa3e23f2ae9ec63c771b6ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tebartz van Elst Ludger. The SPC model as a heuristic tool to better understand autism spectrum disorder and other structural diagnosis in psychiatry and psychotherapy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1805806; article XML SHA-256 4229f1dad50ed2c7189fe5be4eb1be4dd5be75ed1d46f3860ee5ccd7d155ad13. “The SPC model as a heuristic tool to better understand autism spectrum disorder and other structural diagnosis in psychiatry and psychotherapy” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1805806).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1805806). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speaking in tongues
<a id="speaking-in-tongues"></a>

Speaking in tongues, or glossolalia, is the rhythmic production of word-like speech that does not show stable meaning or usual sentence structure. In the source, it is described as a culturally rooted religious practice whose relationship to mental disorder remains debated rather than established.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f321233c8dd06d30ef991a6860bb2bd1b767360e9185ebc52f38c4511ad93a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kéri Szabolcs; Kállai Imre; Csigó Katalin. Attribution of Mental States in Glossolalia: A Direct Comparison With Schizophrenia. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00638; article XML SHA-256 2ad43b4c063b990c42a857368a05234d199a85fc08f8c36e44fd23f3f932acd7. “Attribution of Mental States in Glossolalia: A Direct Comparison With Schizophrenia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00638).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00638). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Spearman correlation coefficient
<a id="spearman-correlation-coefficient"></a>

The Spearman correlation coefficient is a statistical measure used to show how similar two orderings or rankings are. In this context, it was used to compare different ways of ordering brain-network vertices and to assess whether the resulting rankings matched closely.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3149f6b2318700a8b7e48d18e0ee29d13130c68a730fd8da94c83ee442d4e885

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hegedűs Dániel; Grolmusz Vince. Robust circuitry-based scores of structural importance of human brain areas. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0292613; article XML SHA-256 097998326978a6530a1a6d96913f47e1e2370b214e2bfb3e30cf90916ee167d6. “Robust circuitry-based scores of structural importance of human brain areas” (10.1371/journal.pone.0292613).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292613). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Spearman–Brown prophecy formula
<a id="spearmanbrown-prophecy-formula"></a>

The Spearman–Brown prophecy formula is a psychometric method used to predict how reliability will change when repeated measurements are combined, such as averaging across more observation days. In assessment research, it is often used to estimate how many observations are needed to reach a target level of reliability, though the packet notes this can overestimate longer-term reliability when based only on short-term data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eefa204fb5a44c29bdec99731c4dbef6e1e0c262f66511795efdaf9acd983666

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hilden Patrick; Schwartz Joseph E.; Pascual Christian; Diaz Keith M.; Goldsmith Jeff. How many days are needed? Measurement reliability of wearable device data to assess physical activity. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0282162; article XML SHA-256 68f5d7b835ada3d2ff8734744dcf94b720806c2697ba31eff09d649e10c7303e. “How many days are needed? Measurement reliability of wearable device data to assess physical activity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0282162).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282162). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## special education
<a id="special-education"></a>

Special education is instruction designed for people whose intellectual, physical, social, or emotional development differs markedly from what is considered typical, so they need specially adapted teaching.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 13e724330bd48349dd05c21bf5cd1bf89842ed9dfe142a7c54b3c8f648caeb87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Education, Special” (D004519).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004519). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## special needs
<a id="special-needs"></a>

In this source, special needs refers to a child or other individual whose care requires extra support and ongoing attention beyond usual family routines. The term is used socially to describe circumstances that can increase caregiver responsibilities and burden, affecting parents’ time, social life, and ability to do other activities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 65770ee80bb56e33f27de38aacd2d86d6464d333f5c7d52b99d9acc80da7aef1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kurşunel Melek; Akpınar Öznur; Yanar Tunçel Nazlı; Akpınar Selahattin. Is having a child with special needs a barrier to physical activity? A mixed design study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348527; article XML SHA-256 abca1268093106f93aa3d2de68c559eeb3ea1b6b97924b744ddaef1c1fbf242a. “Is having a child with special needs a barrier to physical activity? A mixed design study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348527).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348527). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## special needs child
<a id="special-needs-child"></a>

A special needs child is a child with a chronic illness or disability whose care needs are greater than those of children without special needs, such as needing specialised medical care and frequent medical visits. The term refers to the child’s additional support and care requirements, which can place substantial demands on parents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96af59f8748580c4be2e90c5662c743c2c7b63e876320d611dc4ae65ef294770

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brekke Idunn; Früh Elena Albertini; Kvarme Lisbeth Gravdal; Holmstrøm Henrik. Long-time sickness absence among parents of pre-school children with cerebral palsy, spina bifida and down syndrome: a longitudinal study. 2017; DOI 10.1186/s12887-016-0774-8; article XML SHA-256 0a2f3fd126645eccb34cb90b25a6ae4b6407065f91fb304c4b8aa700be79cdf5. “Long-time sickness absence among parents of pre-school children with cerebral palsy, spina bifida and down syndrome: a longitudinal study” (10.1186/s12887-016-0774-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-016-0774-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## special school
<a id="special-school"></a>

A special school is a school where students with disabilities are educated. In this context, it is discussed as a setting that can be organized to provide high-quality learning, supportive relationships, and better opportunities for educational and social inclusion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6b7a65b124c18c12d0e3b517cb7f8066f08175c0cf128bea767eb8a980b8ed6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [García-Carrión Rocío; Molina Roldán Silvia; Roca Campos Esther. Interactive Learning Environments for the Educational Improvement of Students With Disabilities in Special Schools. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01744; article XML SHA-256 64538a92d60c12a053c711df5db393d18ab6ef1d7fdb10a5673ddde5103df707. “Interactive Learning Environments for the Educational Improvement of Students With Disabilities in Special Schools” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01744).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01744). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speciation
<a id="speciation"></a>

Speciation is the identification and measurement of the different chemical forms in which a substance occurs within a sample. In this source, it refers to analyzing phosphorus in bird feces to determine which phosphorus forms are present and how much of each form contributes to ecological risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0c44ad38b9279c51895355832a7aa5df906366ae93a19c61426eb59dd86f024f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Long Yunchuan; Lang Jian; Wang Longyan; Guo Jin; Jiang Xuankong; Jiang Juan. Ecological risk assessment of migratory bird feces in plateau wetland: Phosphorus speciation, ARGs, and pathogens. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348709; article XML SHA-256 241e443f6deaf427276571078f6b8ad1be0f1dc6839ac739749afaab3b6e9f6c. “Ecological risk assessment of migratory bird feces in plateau wetland: Phosphorus speciation, ARGs, and pathogens” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348709).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348709). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## species
<a id="species"></a>

In this context, a species is a distinct kind of bird used as a category for identification and classification. Bird species are treated as separate groups so recordings can be assigned to the correct type.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0ec8db588c355be6d1f4cc320c9c0886b835fbf1a2ce7be8a372a16e60748458

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baowaly Mrinal Kanti; Sarkar Bisnu Chandra; Walid Md Abul Ala; Ahamad Md Martuza; Singh Bikash Chandra; Alvarado Eduardo Silva; Ashraf Imran; Samad Md Abdus. Deep transfer learning-based bird species classification using mel spectrogram images. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305708; article XML SHA-256 8f42ce4ade639425fda289a012971f460fe1ceccb329acf2d76683358bb65b0c. “Deep transfer learning-based bird species classification using mel spectrogram images” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305708).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305708). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## species-specific behavior
<a id="species-specific-behavior"></a>

Species-specific behavior is the characteristic way members of a species act in relation to their environment, such as the kinds of resources or habitats they tend to choose from what is available. Studying these patterns can help show a species’ ecological relationships, resource needs, and how behavior may adapt under extreme conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34462ba39fd4a096493d24170bd2898017b9c4655110998db36b4d9fd32bec2e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dutt Neil R; Veals Amanda M; Koprowski John L. Resource selection of a montane endemic: Sex-specific differences in white-bellied voles ( Microtus longicaudus leucophaeus ). 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0242104; article XML SHA-256 aff7421ece208fda90c1d342fc569540b47255c88428b31f0d6d2ff9c7ecb809. “Resource selection of a montane endemic: Sex-specific differences in white-bellied voles ( Microtus longicaudus leucophaeus )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0242104).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242104). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## specific ability
<a id="specific-ability"></a>

A specific ability is a cognitive skill in which people differ that is relatively independent of general intelligence, meaning it shows little correlation with g. It refers to being especially good or poor at a particular kind of mental task rather than to broad overall mental ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d4066b50df1323fbfef1d2c8ef212da3dc9b3830f0aea05576bcdf95be18c86c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wilmer Jeremy B.; Germine Laura T.; Nakayama Ken. Face recognition: a model specific ability. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00769; article XML SHA-256 70c3eb45612ee06d4c81a3901cfb7efbfa5cc5a274d98b5c157a59880d8384c1. “Face recognition: a model specific ability” (10.3389/fnhum.2014.00769).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00769). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## specific exploration
<a id="specific-exploration"></a>

Specific exploration is a set of behaviors triggered by something new in the environment that helps an animal become more familiar with a novel object or stimulus. It can be altered by defensive responses to possible threats.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42631dbaabcd108ab08e3cf55ec0710b2bc9a0fb28297370da8d168c9ad6853f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [de la Flor Miguel; Chen Lijian; Manson-Bishop Claire; Chu Tzu-Chun; Zamora Kathya; Robbins Danielle; Gunaratne Gemunu; Roman Gregg. Drosophila increase exploration after visually detecting predators. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0180749; article XML SHA-256 d9c9e60536a393067011cba6df3ef37d2ed0edaaaf1c5cacc7ac965ad3a1ab2b. “Drosophila increase exploration after visually detecting predators” (10.1371/journal.pone.0180749).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180749). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## specific factor
<a id="specific-factor"></a>

A specific factor is a particular part of an intervention that is treated as the element directly responsible for its effects. In this context, it is contrasted with non-specific or contextual influences such as general therapeutic aspects, social interaction, or novelty.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2f9c71f875d2bb1d6981417cf723eb5f2f2017f0115ad11bf9244f3ff342f436

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wagner Cora; Grob Carmina; Hediger Karin. Specific and Non-specific Factors of Animal-Assisted Interventions Considered in Research: A Systematic Review. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.931347; article XML SHA-256 bdf99ba6453334bbf933af046b52654f6a3b7d7c6862443913dca8dce722db74. “Specific and Non-specific Factors of Animal-Assisted Interventions Considered in Research: A Systematic Review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.931347).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.931347). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## specific language impairment
<a id="specific-language-impairment"></a>

Specific language impairment is a language disorder in children that slows the development of spoken language skills. It refers to these language delays when the child does not have hearing loss or other developmental delays.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bbc824a4a35cdea7128177a9a15ad01040cb39e2ef6a5ed60e6822334d3a1597

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Specific Language Disorder” (D000080888).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000080888). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## specific learning disability
<a id="specific-learning-disability"></a>

A specific learning disability is a difficulty in acquiring a particular academic skill despite otherwise normal general intelligence. In this packet, the example given is developmental dyscalculia, which affects the learning of mathematical skills.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36c62b1779082fdd56eb74d8eed9afa652505938efa7a96a5ae6a91a3f1d91d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kucian Karin; Loenneker Thomas; Dietrich Thomas; Dosch Mengia; Martin Ernst; von Aster Michael. Impaired neural networks for approximate calculation in dyscalculic children: a functional MRI study. 2006; DOI 10.1186/1744-9081-2-31; article XML SHA-256 1226b34c89a0daea10f047ce69b0288a538eaec190444a8da2fff53d7988fe0f. “Impaired neural networks for approximate calculation in dyscalculic children: a functional MRI study” (10.1186/1744-9081-2-31).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-2-31). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## specific learning disorder
<a id="specific-learning-disorder"></a>

Specific learning disorder is a diagnosis in which a person has ongoing, impairing difficulty efficiently and accurately processing information needed for basic academic skills such as reading, writing, or math. It begins during the school years, and the affected skills are much weaker than expected for age or can be maintained only with unusually great effort.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 105fb144a4ff6ac165291456b9025d155b1cba2ad76e82b50af3063612fac3cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Specific Learning Disorder” (D000067559).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067559). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## specific phobia
<a id="specific-phobia"></a>

Specific phobia is an anxiety disorder involving a strong, irrational fear triggered by a particular object or situation, or even by expecting it. Contact with the feared trigger brings on an immediate anxiety reaction, and adults usually recognize that the fear is excessive or unreasonable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0962b260fe83080af24a6f2c536c5cc73c475a6109afb207e87c4e9f9d4c0a7b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Specific Phobia” (C35284).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## specific transfer
<a id="specific-transfer"></a>

In this source, specific transfer refers to the particular form chosen for transferring farmland rights or use, rather than just whether the transfer is market-based or government-led. Examples named here include transfer of contracted management rights, leasing, and shareholding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e03977df0f6ad4246b6a5c5ff5f5277d43e7309fe9387c1af08d70fca0721b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [He Guoping; Xiao Taofen. A study on the mode choice of large-scale households’ farmland transfer-in in rural China: Based on the economic analysis paradigm of transaction costs. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0287022; article XML SHA-256 52a7006f6e8e7fbac538f5bc46405585822437f933209ab3dfa22e6354c2a9b4. “A study on the mode choice of large-scale households’ farmland transfer-in in rural China: Based on the economic analysis paradigm of transaction costs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0287022).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287022). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## specious present
<a id="specious-present"></a>

Specious present is the experienced “now” understood not as a mathematical instant, but as a brief stretch of duration that makes up the smallest concrete present in consciousness. The term refers to the minimal time-span within which experience is still felt as present, rather than divided into past and future.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5cf68d5c9d5da6bb7732d5e89fe597328669ea540bf9ba3831ab61c0d29099e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1900500-1912500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spectral scale
<a id="spectral-scale"></a>

In this context, spectral scale means a frequency-based level of brain signal activity examined after transforming BOLD-fMRI data into wavelet components. It is used to compare functional connectivity patterns across multiple frequency or timescale bands of spontaneous brain activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 19faec0bd3598553361057f6056631ff13d62539f09671bb524aef8f5456b83a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Billings Jacob C. W.; Thompson Garth J.; Pan Wen-Ju; Magnuson Matthew E.; Medda Alessio; Keilholz Shella. Disentangling Multispectral Functional Connectivity With Wavelets. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2018.00812; article XML SHA-256 f8a6736568e69b0f656b980b45fc4eca1712ff9e46bef338833f5e745e12780b. “Disentangling Multispectral Functional Connectivity With Wavelets” (10.3389/fnins.2018.00812).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00812). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spectral sensitivity
<a id="spectral-sensitivity"></a>

Spectral sensitivity is how strongly a light-sensitive cell or pigment responds across different wavelengths of light. In retinal cone cells, different photopigments have different spectral sensitivity patterns, which supports color vision in daylight.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 13bb3265bb88579262ed3424a96491b92a7cdc81547b35b37f21d9213c8dc216

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinal Cone Photoreceptor Cells” (D017949).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017949). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spectrogram
<a id="spectrogram"></a>

A spectrogram is a visual way of showing how the frequency content of a signal changes over time. It is made by dividing the signal into short segments and applying a Fourier transform to each segment, which helps capture spectral information at different time intervals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5642fdf436c9adf77c11a2621c3602a9607ca79214177dbc248d4b018484004f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Haiying; Shang Yuxin; Lin Haiyan. Discriminant spectrogram local descriptors for electrocardiography biometric authentication. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343293; article XML SHA-256 ad631e7614f2e49edf6e470669646dbdeb2a57a1138fb12e76a8824ed23734f6. “Discriminant spectrogram local descriptors for electrocardiography biometric authentication” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343293).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343293). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speculation
<a id="speculation"></a>

In this historical psychology source, speculation refers to a stage of reflective questioning and idea-seeking that may appear in later adolescence, alongside doubt, criticism of existing conditions, and ambitions for large reforms or achievements.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 27fb919b23efb23176faa73827b2788d3f5a1d47d572656a6bdb308ccff120b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Adolescence” (Adolescence).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Adolescence). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speech
<a id="speech"></a>

Speech is communication using an agreed system of spoken sounds and words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b0882ba2cf80a4e9052e7967e9622a9563acf574cf9224df6d49be1b4549a564

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Speech” (D013060).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013060). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speech and language disorder
<a id="speech-and-language-disorder"></a>

A speech and language disorder is a problem affecting spoken communication, including speech production and language understanding or expression. In the supplied source, it is described as involving disrupted speech-motor control and, in some cases, severe receptive and expressive language impairments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f5c55568d75ccfe77185a025a09410a6f562cb8794bd6711622075e896dd1508

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Rhijn Jon-Ruben; Vernes Sonja C.. Retinoic Acid Signaling: A New Piece in the Spoken Language Puzzle. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01816; article XML SHA-256 7c0226cb28a00e613e0119120be684963d3cf5c7a914f4a655a890c60eb348cc. “Retinoic Acid Signaling: A New Piece in the Spoken Language Puzzle” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01816).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01816). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speech and language therapy
<a id="speech-and-language-therapy"></a>

Speech and language therapy is a service that helps address the goals of people with aphasia, including better language use, fuller participation in everyday life, and support with adjustment and communication needs. Its purpose can include assessment, prevention, maintenance, enabling participation, rehabilitation, supportive care, and comfort.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09621598e3062d74cec5a6c5cd432ed08d7241c7bebbb90c0eedb2baa6a18713

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Palmer Rebecca; Witts Helen; Chater Timothy. What speech and language therapy do community dwelling stroke survivors with aphasia receive in the UK?. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0200096; article XML SHA-256 c64f465ae4cff37c357dc84f1addea14e7c219247f637e9e966fa5dcb1e951bb. “What speech and language therapy do community dwelling stroke survivors with aphasia receive in the UK?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0200096).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200096). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speech aphasia
<a id="speech-aphasia"></a>

Speech aphasia is a loss or serious disturbance of spoken or written language in which a person can still form ideas and usually make vocal sounds, but cannot properly recall, understand, or arrange words to express thought. In this historical account, it is distinguished from speech problems caused mainly by general intellectual ruin or by paralysis of the tongue, lips, or palate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50882a12dd263a9d040c08959be76486cc6ed900967ce6867dd81033103064ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-546000-558000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speech error
<a id="speech-error"></a>

A speech error in which a person says one word in place of another while speaking. The substituted word may be related in meaning to the intended word or unrelated, and this can be a sign of a neurological disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1ec954c40f19957f20ef56887e25c1efb65815ff33e5303df5f5660b117661b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Verbal Paraphasia” (C220224).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speech impairment
<a id="speech-impairment"></a>

Speech impairment is a difficulty with producing spoken sounds, including problems with pronunciation, articulation, fluency, or phonation, that can reduce how effectively a person communicates. Because speech is important for communication and children’s logical and social development, identifying these difficulties early can help improve outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c3c19a4d3f66381d0760416a19f3f413a0a8b722b1c119372180a53c9d854bf8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Manoswini Manisa; Swain Brijesh Raj; Sahoo Biswajit; Gourisaria Mahendra Kumar; Jha Amitkumar V.; Bizon Nicu; Swetapadma Aleena. Speech impairment detection in children using time frequency features of speech and deep learning techniques. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1766439; article XML SHA-256 86f8f230664edb993bb92bc17f848383d4d65f7dcf56681271e8a86e5a99f7e4. “Speech impairment detection in children using time frequency features of speech and deep learning techniques” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1766439).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1766439). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Speech Perception
<a id="speech-perception"></a>

Speech perception is the process of decoding a spoken utterance into a representation made up of linguistic units. These units include sequences of phonetic segments that combine into lexical and grammatical morphemes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d885d656f059daf42c8d968e26691d75071d8a6a6f4fcccf4e6c2a45e4ae673b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Speech Perception” (D013067).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013067). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speech production
<a id="speech-production"></a>

In this historical source, speech production refers to the muscular activity required for speaking. It is described as being closely connected with hearing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 150f0d7d87ca0a45aaf3033bc54f49e94bdf3d1fd9a9c53c5c9847d3baf2e71c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3864000-3876000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speech-reception threshold
<a id="speech-reception-threshold"></a>

Speech-reception threshold is a measure of how well a person can understand speech, especially when speech and background noise are presented from different locations. A lower speech-reception threshold means better speech intelligibility under those listening conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 41dac32c9c5655d11cc5930e566f077b27c26383f4af4809657a76f84508589f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wagner Luise; Geiling Lukas; Hauth Christopher; Hocke Thomas; Plontke Stefan; Rahne Torsten. Improved binaural speech reception thresholds through small symmetrical separation of speech and noise. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0236469; article XML SHA-256 5481ee669d6c78573f6f93ca6c5e00fb682858677dc5f6c52772e8105990608e. “Improved binaural speech reception thresholds through small symmetrical separation of speech and noise” (10.1371/journal.pone.0236469).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236469). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speech recognition system
<a id="speech-recognition-system"></a>

A speech recognition system is technology that converts spoken language from audio recordings into text so the speech can be transcribed and further analyzed. In this context, it is an automatic system trained for children's speech and used to speed the processing of oral narrative data, sometimes with human checking to improve accuracy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bbeeac8996dd594e9dc7c91acfc3036eda70ddee8456dd9096798034399a738e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Scott Amy; Gillon Gail; McNeill Brigid; Kopach Alex. The Evolution of an Innovative Online Task to Monitor Children's Oral Narrative Development. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.903124; article XML SHA-256 939098d921f7cb6228187d6453f8b8650a4bb5e8913cb83fb5cfca4249d16002. “The Evolution of an Innovative Online Task to Monitor Children's Oral Narrative Development” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.903124).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.903124). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speech rehabilitation
<a id="speech-rehabilitation"></a>

Speech rehabilitation is an approach to helping a child develop speech-related abilities, such as speech perception and phonological skills. In this source, it refers to different communication-focused methods used with children who have cochlear implants, including multisensory and hearing-focused approaches.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 29d4fec443b396f2c2700cd9c289da8e763bb8a8e76afee04c3028824058917c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Van Bogaert Lucie; Machart Laura; Gerber Silvain; Lœvenbruck Hélène; Vilain Anne; Consortium EULALIES Costa Maud Gillet-Perret Estelle MacLeod Andrea A. N. Meloni Geneviève Puissant Clarisse Rose Yvan Université Grenoble Alpes, France; CRTLA, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Grenoble Alpes, France; University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; Université Grenoble Alpes, France and Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada; Université Grenoble Alpes, France; Memorial University, Newfoundland, Canada. Speech rehabilitation in children with cochlear implants using a multisensory (French Cued Speech) or a hearing-focused (Auditory Verbal Therapy) approach. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1152516; article XML SHA-256 12493f14c958a12f4f738960891ab7e1a982cd6b8d9761fcedc02d50afe88daa. “Speech rehabilitation in children with cochlear implants using a multisensory (French Cued Speech) or a hearing-focused (Auditory Verbal Therapy) approach” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1152516).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1152516). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Speech Sound Disorder
<a id="speech-sound-disorder"></a>

Speech sound disorder is a persistent difficulty producing speech sounds that interferes with verbal communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1eba9d8b578c5d3568e3855bc200abcc0528fdc3fa79e92a3f44b859429c48a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Speech Sound Disorder” (D066229).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066229). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speech therapy
<a id="speech-therapy"></a>

Speech therapy is treatment for people with speech problems that uses counselling along with exercises and supportive aids to help build new, more effective speech habits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5f8d13d43a7ca862c1b098dbd0ca900ec32f2731c825db620a531b489401e5b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Speech Therapy” (D013070).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013070). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## speed test
<a id="speed-test"></a>

A speed test is a physical performance measure used to assess how fast a person can cover a set distance. In this source, it refers to a 30-meter sprint used to compare players’ sprint performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 085083321a8743069054b7596b3dfc1c65eb8a5009a9dd383a08e4b9e1835cc6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [García-Unanue Jorge; Felipe José Luis; Bishop David; Colino Enrique; Ubago-Guisado Esther; López-Fernández Jorge; Hernando Enrique; Gallardo Leonor; Sánchez-Sánchez Javier. Muscular and Physical Response to an Agility and Repeated Sprint Tests According to the Level of Competition in Futsal Players. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.583327; article XML SHA-256 79f5b5250ebd003113ed4cba94c0d27dcef1e6357a11529b5069642ee908467a. “Muscular and Physical Response to an Agility and Repeated Sprint Tests According to the Level of Competition in Futsal Players” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.583327).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.583327). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sperm competition
<a id="sperm-competition"></a>

Sperm competition is competition among sperm from different males to fertilize a female’s eggs when she mates with two or more males during the same receptive period. It is described as a strong evolutionary influence on male reproductive behavior and related biological traits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4eb034ecae0d3056c560906fb8daff639fdd473cc78ab3b3b0c332c025438ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gómez Montoto Laura; Magaña Concepción; Tourmente Maximiliano; Martín-Coello Juan; Crespo Cristina; Luque-Larena Juan José; Gomendio Montserrat; Roldan Eduardo R. S.. Sperm Competition, Sperm Numbers and Sperm Quality in Muroid Rodents. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0018173; article XML SHA-256 e7101f8e34831d79d9eec52ac7acf21ce67e2f0ad94af5efe5fe1d8d22be5a58. “Sperm Competition, Sperm Numbers and Sperm Quality in Muroid Rodents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0018173).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0018173). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spermatogenesis
<a id="spermatogenesis"></a>

Spermatogenesis is the process by which male germ cells develop into sperm. In the source described here, this involves a gradual change from a round cell into an elongated sperm cell as the acrosome forms, the cytoplasm shifts toward the head, and the flagellum develops.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9b6a378353469d584dab0e182600c5df58dc5c7b2fd6bd7d320168e2a8a84156

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Hyeon Jin; Park Jung Jun; Lee Jung Sick. Transformation of sperm structure in Octopus vulgaris : From spermatogenesis to spermatophoric release. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316519; article XML SHA-256 1cbd16054e803fd9ca59c534a31b0829794723fc9057d9c6a93ae0a7f6c8f9b2. “Transformation of sperm structure in Octopus vulgaris : From spermatogenesis to spermatophoric release” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316519).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316519). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spherical aberration
<a id="spherical-aberration"></a>

Spherical aberration is a major higher-order optical imperfection in the human eye. It refers to a mismatch in the eye’s optical system that affects retinal image quality, normally moderated in youth by a balance between the cornea and crystalline lens, but tending to worsen with age as that balance is lost.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a6747369329a6d718bb758b9e2e873abce19a41838b7d7a4a00f3ce6dcd800d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Jianping; Zhao Jiangyue; Ma Liwei; Liu Guangcong; Wu Di; Zhang Jinsong. Contrast Sensitivity and Spherical Aberration in Eyes Implanted with AcrySof IQ and AcrySof Natural Intraocular Lens: the Results of a Meta-Analysis. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0077860; article XML SHA-256 f25cc04a1ba41e86a4112276991216f8e37c2af2835fbc4bc40b19a89e17230b. “Contrast Sensitivity and Spherical Aberration in Eyes Implanted with AcrySof IQ and AcrySof Natural Intraocular Lens: the Results of a Meta-Analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0077860).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077860). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sphericity
<a id="sphericity"></a>

Sphericity means the quality of being spherical or globe-like. In this historical passage, it refers to the earth’s round form as opposed to being a flat plane.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f447429b71456417540ac1082ca4572a03cdbc71cf2b10100998345d09574b8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1512000-1524000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sphincter control
<a id="sphincter-control"></a>

In this source, sphincter control refers to a behavioral training approach used in treating premature ejaculation. It is described as an eight-week program that can be used alone or together with a masturbation aid device.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7295723cabec537ff36d8166fe604ffd330df92266fb57e4dfea7be93fac988c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rodríguez Jesús E.; Picazo Jose A.; Marzo Juan C.; Piqueras José A.; Reina Leandro; Hidalgo Guillermo; Tornero Guillermo. Efficacy of Sphincter Control Training and medical device in the treatment of premature ejaculation: A multicenter randomized controlled clinical trial. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0257284; article XML SHA-256 cd3a9556028a4c3831664f980ffbe3c5b40e509f60e8ef5a5f842070e3157947. “Efficacy of Sphincter Control Training and medical device in the treatment of premature ejaculation: A multicenter randomized controlled clinical trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0257284).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257284). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sphingomyelin
<a id="sphingomyelin"></a>

Sphingomyelin is a type of lipid found mainly in the brain and other nervous tissue. It is a sphingolipid with a phosphocholine or phosphoethanolamine head group, which makes it the only sphingolipid class also grouped as phospholipids.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c45a3dd5699ec8239095b30c923af651f8613bf4887c6a6408714e070681743

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sphingomyelins” (D013109).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013109). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sphingomyelin lipidosis
<a id="sphingomyelin-lipidosis"></a>

Sphingomyelin lipidosis is the classic infantile form of Niemann-Pick disease caused by a mutation affecting sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase. It involves buildup of sphingomyelins in immune-system scavenger cells and other body cells, leading to cell death and problems such as jaundice, enlarged liver and spleen, and severe brain damage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d5fb6b10e723c1bc254a075bdb05ce1acc8859394ce361fe5e7185ff3878d71a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Niemann-Pick Disease, Type A” (D052536).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D052536). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sphygmograph
<a id="sphygmograph"></a>

A sphygmograph is a graphic recording apparatus that uses air-pressure transmission through paired tambours to move a quill. As the quill rises and falls over a rotating, blackened cylinder, it produces a curve that records a movement over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b39c0ecab8cf967c44a948291d028f7740f5f5083f72e49a96fe9ddd09c17659

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Laboratory (of psychology) and Apparatus” (Laboratory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Laboratory). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spider phobia
<a id="spider-phobia"></a>

Spider phobia, or arachnophobia, is an anxiety disorder marked by unusually strong fear of spiders, which are mostly harmless. It involves emotional and cognitive aspects of spider fear and is relatively common in the population.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2ed9f5d43beb9631cd82d9468bdb5c21846fc501a313b0582d4da29f69d65d82

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Polák Jakub; Sedláčková Kristýna; Janovcová Markéta; Peléšková Šárka; Flegr Jaroslav; Vobrubová Barbora; Frynta Daniel; Landová Eva. Measuring fear evoked by the scariest animal: Czech versions of the Spider Questionnaire and Spider Phobia Beliefs Questionnaire. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-021-03672-7; article XML SHA-256 e9ddc498e349c2a6ee083aaee1a6ae91c003f921d05fffdf8f7a57ac7524ee44. “Measuring fear evoked by the scariest animal: Czech versions of the Spider Questionnaire and Spider Phobia Beliefs Questionnaire” (10.1186/s12888-021-03672-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03672-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spike-and-wave discharges
<a id="spike-and-wave-discharges"></a>

Spike-and-wave discharges are epileptiform EEG activity patterns generated within the cortico-thalamo-cortical circuit. In this source, they are described as arising from a focal network that can spread to surrounding areas and are linked with transitions between normal brain activity and absence-seizure activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e06fb9c0c23bce55e6f4df7820e8cafb06d45c4e0605fcebadc30e4bec288294

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Medvedeva T M; Sysoeva M V; Lüttjohann A; van Luijtelaar G; Sysoev I V. Dynamical mesoscale model of absence seizures in genetic models. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0239125; article XML SHA-256 50e7f8d3d946ee30d81f1bbefdf2423d03d394bb3ba857a5d7351f0120670927. “Dynamical mesoscale model of absence seizures in genetic models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0239125).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239125). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spike-wave activity
<a id="spike-wave-activity"></a>

Spike-wave activity is a pattern of brain electrical activity discussed here in relation to absence seizures. In this source, prolonged spike-wave activity is linked with absence status epilepticus and a distinct behavioral state between sedation and wakefulness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1f7011c912b61bd96f38c469e807922f68482a0e493fbb52ad2833c5aa4d641b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sitnikova Evgenia. Adrenergic mechanisms of absence status epilepticus. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fneur.2023.1298310; article XML SHA-256 4afc25057c6e7c199bf97b1f3cab0e24461414d62bb1ec1132f1fc521e90bc2e. “Adrenergic mechanisms of absence status epilepticus” (10.3389/fneur.2023.1298310).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2023.1298310). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spina bifida
<a id="spina-bifida"></a>

Spina bifida is a birth defect of the neural tube in which some vertebrae do not fully develop, leaving an opening in the spine. This can allow the spinal cord to protrude through that opening.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d9aef499208981f86a4dfdd0348cf2345bb2eb28cc737dde3e7effbc00cdc872

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Spina Bifida” (C101214).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spinal cord
<a id="spinal-cord"></a>

The spinal cord is a cylindrical column of tissue inside the vertebral canal. It is made up of white matter and gray matter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9aa00f891b01fee48f0588d51773c9611c4998f50cdad8e27322c498815f587a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Spinal Cord” (D013116).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013116). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spinal cord injury
<a id="spinal-cord-injury"></a>

Spinal cord injury is damage to the spinal cord that disrupts neural connections and can lead to major problems with movement, sensation, and automatic body functions. It is described as a serious health condition with broad effects on functioning and quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fede697a5f7c7522a54ed309e596165445e1a828d83d3ebf44a92cfc3e330be3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marques Dantas Rodrigo Lantyer; Vilela Diego N.; Melo Mariana Cardoso; Fernandes Gustavo; Lemos Nucelio; Faber Jean. Neurostimulation on lumbosacral nerves as a new treatment for spinal cord injury impairments and its impact on cortical activity: a narrative review. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1478423; article XML SHA-256 dce20ae621884a409dbd095aaa1791c07454e0f2a807070703d258444b4446dd. “Neurostimulation on lumbosacral nerves as a new treatment for spinal cord injury impairments and its impact on cortical activity: a narrative review” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1478423).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1478423). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spinal muscular atrophy
<a id="spinal-muscular-atrophy"></a>

Spinal muscular atrophy is a group of usually inherited disorders in which motor neurons in the spinal cord progressively degenerate, leading to increasing muscle weakness and wasting. It generally occurs without signs of damage to the corticospinal tracts and includes forms such as Werdnig-Hoffmann disease and later-onset childhood types.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 952e4fa95fdb7632e55dc9f542a6c4becf3c693b32071a8ca86a98c47f86573e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Muscular Atrophy, Spinal” (D009134).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009134). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spinal reflex
<a id="spinal-reflex"></a>

A spinal reflex is a response produced through spinal cord pathways, here described as being evoked in lower-limb muscles by stimulation that activates sensory fibers. In this context, it can be measured across several muscles by examining the size and recruitment of the muscle responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 075d59aa2cf2ad21d49bd95b11f2a731d972ce79a1c6af11cccdf081d5690b29

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Saito Akira; Masugi Yohei; Nakagawa Kento; Obata Hiroki; Nakazawa Kimitaka. Repeatability of spinal reflexes of lower limb muscles evoked by transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0214818; article XML SHA-256 3e8f0cf117b2089d22a250a9ff725f6f7904ef42c0664983351a3a36b9e0696f. “Repeatability of spinal reflexes of lower limb muscles evoked by transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0214818).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214818). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spinal root
<a id="spinal-root"></a>

A spinal root is one of a pair of bundles of nerve fibers that enter or leave the spinal cord at each spinal segment. The dorsal root mainly carries sensory signals toward the cord, and the ventral root mainly carries motor and autonomic output away from it; together they form a mixed spinal nerve.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a7843db994c2b06ae44ba39c39b30225da3048054ac87691d9f44dbafc7eb8cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Spinal Nerve Roots” (D013126).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013126). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spinal stenosis
<a id="spinal-stenosis"></a>

Spinal stenosis, in this packet specifically lumbar spinal stenosis, is described as a common degenerative condition of the spine. It is a condition for which surgical decompression may be used, with outcomes assessed through pain, disability, walking ability, recovery time, imaging findings, and surgery-related complications.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1334264cbe4aef423f1231ac15ceefe3f83f4b0047cd8aac10616ed7941dbb54

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Jin-Sung; Bae Junseok; Lee Dong Chan; Shin Sang-Ha; Keum Han Joong; Choi Young Soo; Eun Sang Soo; Shin Seung Ho; Hong Hyun Jin; Kim Ji Yeon; Kim Tae Hyun; Lim Woojung; Kim Junghoon; Park Sang-Min; Park Hyun-Jin; Lee Hong-Jae. Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of conventional and interlaminar full-endoscopic decompressive laminectomy to treat lumbar spinal stenosis (ENDO-F trial): Protocol for a prospective, randomized, multicenter trial. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0283924; article XML SHA-256 1c84e5f1fa9de882a3fbfc61c6880cbcfe7f37c8de8b7c5cec2ee0b65b2098da. “Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of conventional and interlaminar full-endoscopic decompressive laminectomy to treat lumbar spinal stenosis (ENDO-F trial): Protocol for a prospective, randomized, multicenter trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0283924).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283924). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spinal tap
<a id="spinal-tap"></a>

A spinal tap is an invasive medical procedure in which a hollow needle is placed through the lower back between the vertebrae to reach the space around the spinal cord. It is done to collect cerebrospinal fluid or to deliver medication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 550e29aecb82121fe84be1751596e912f2bd17a8e024184b9cd776908eb1a11e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lumbar Puncture” (C15327).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spindle waves
<a id="spindle-waves"></a>

Spindle waves are spindle-like patterns of brain electrical activity seen on the EEG during general anesthesia, also described as anesthesia alpha oscillations. They appear with several anesthetic drugs and have been proposed as possible signs of anesthesia depth and level of unconsciousness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8cd5b057bd43d139b759ebfa2b79c73189a9b3cf079887f4ec819ebb5351c8d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [You Ying; Liu Hui; Yang Zhanfei; Chen Yuxuan; Yang Fei; Yu Tian; Zhang Yu. Anesthetic spindles serve as EEG markers of the depth variations in anesthesia induced by multifarious general anesthetics in mouse experiments. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fphar.2024.1474923; article XML SHA-256 5ebca3ee403168286b7aeb8d91276f7c959ec8228d53fc371b5d70da7e4b61d8. “Anesthetic spindles serve as EEG markers of the depth variations in anesthesia induced by multifarious general anesthetics in mouse experiments” (10.3389/fphar.2024.1474923).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2024.1474923). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spine
<a id="spine"></a>

In this context, a spine means a dendritic spine: a small structural feature on neurons that helps prefrontal brain circuits combine incoming information. Loss of these spines in the prefrontal cortex is described as a shared brain abnormality in several neuropsychiatric disorders and may contribute to problems with cognition such as attention, working memory, and decision-making.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b574280371998db4ce8539167adbded322962530bd6b01ded9c83d80dae4b2f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bitzenhofer Sebastian H; Günther Anne. Prefrontal spine loss in neuropsychiatric disorders: circuit consequences for cognition. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1730869; article XML SHA-256 e22bfca237dcf2ede3f3b920608e7c37304b2c2edfa44ef103092dd6b879d59a. “Prefrontal spine loss in neuropsychiatric disorders: circuit consequences for cognition” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1730869).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1730869). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spiral ganglion
<a id="spiral-ganglion"></a>

The spiral ganglion is the sensory nerve-cell cluster of the cochlear nerve. Its cells carry signals from the cochlear hair cells toward the brain stem’s cochlear nuclei.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2499b95724961135ebefc2b0ec50c127b25ddcfc282a8fef0e8f122e3aaa4de2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Spiral Ganglion” (D013136).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013136). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spirit photography
<a id="spirit-photography"></a>

Spirit photography is a spiritualist mediumistic claim that photographs can show spirit figures near living people, especially as forms thought to belong to deceased relatives. In this historical source, it is presented as one of several reported séance phenomena rather than as a scientifically supported finding.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42c74100ff11339ec944f8b4ac311d8024202619a8d8fb387c7cfce692c7fc0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3318000-3330000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spiritual factor
<a id="spiritual-factor"></a>

In this assessment context, a spiritual factor is a grouped pattern of responses reflecting emotional and spiritual concerns within the electronic Holistic Needs Assessment. It was the strongest factor found in the tool’s item structure and may help guide support when a person reports many problems at once.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f5831ba5c147b713566b81e005cb97e54882c705a249718a7e0ed0e362b270a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Snowden Austyn; Fleming Mick. Validation of the electronic Holistic Needs Assessment. 2015; DOI 10.1186/s40064-015-1401-0; article XML SHA-256 bcb472b4b6f56c621b246fbb4df144e029565fa6c7b21b53123eba274533259b. “Validation of the electronic Holistic Needs Assessment” (10.1186/s40064-015-1401-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-015-1401-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spirituality
<a id="spirituality"></a>

Spirituality is a person’s orientation toward religious meaning or other nonmaterial, inner concerns rather than mainly worldly or material interests. It involves sensitivity or attachment to values related to the spirit.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e08d68ebf4a72b560c01b3cecfb1ee3c259f453b0a409776af645e85337bd0cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Spirituality” (D029181).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D029181). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## split brain
<a id="split-brain"></a>

Split brain is a condition or preparation in which the corpus callosum, the main connection between the brain’s hemispheres, has been completely severed. In humans this is usually done as a procedure for severe epilepsy that has not responded to medical treatment, and similar preparations are also used in animal research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 10279ce551a2ac37cb0635b6f7dfa0b32c6e20d5b2427d3773582aea66ea2e1c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Split-Brain Procedure” (D050812).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D050812). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## split personality
<a id="split-personality"></a>

Split personality is an older term for dissociative identity disorder, not schizophrenia. It refers to a condition in which a person has two or more independent identities with different behaviors and memories.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d331d2da8d1a16e6fd4a392565ade83a985e1e4c24168c1b61240be093b70cdf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Schizophrenia. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 43270b4941f013ac9885be92f3b32f1ed64375ff1fb44d589f3cc1975e5a59a1. “Schizophrenia” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## SPMSQ
<a id="spmsq"></a>

SPMSQ stands for Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire, a brief questionnaire used to assess mental status or cognitive functioning. In this study, it was scored out of 10, with lower scores used to indicate cognitive impairment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bc495d0062eebce99e79677983d829b3f08d0dec5e9c1c998257d56a02b02889

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Duval Guillaume T; Schott Anne-Marie; Rolland Yves; Gautier Jennifer; Blain Hubert; Duque Gustavo; Annweiler Cedric. Orthostatic hypotension and neurocognitive disorders in older women: Results from the EPIDOS cohort study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281634; article XML SHA-256 dbf4771192d553d1edd9d761149aaf8cc6823ece939b6f77eb6c4435e995de5f. “Orthostatic hypotension and neurocognitive disorders in older women: Results from the EPIDOS cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281634).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281634). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spongiform encephalopathy
<a id="spongiform-encephalopathy"></a>

Spongiform encephalopathy is a transmissible brain disease caused by a protein that triggers abnormal folding of normal proteins. It produces sponge-like changes in the brain with loss of nerve cells and no inflammatory response, typically develops after a long incubation period, then progresses quickly and is fatal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7fa799244e1352ad042d9950d6ec0f5420f4bd1d494ef8cf9814f4d4f8d4ca19

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy” (C128346).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spongioblast
<a id="spongioblast"></a>

In historical neuroembryology, a spongioblast is one of the early cells that differentiates from the neuroepithelium alongside neuroblasts. Unlike neuroblasts, which develop into nerve-cells, spongioblasts remain to form the supporting framework of nervous tissue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7f80c49819532fb1536b7ef9e2a1f96b144a065c8bfe5dce207a26de25a8d8ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-903000-915000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spontaneous discharge
<a id="spontaneous-discharge"></a>

Spontaneous discharge is the baseline firing activity of neurons that occurs without an added stimulus. In this source, it refers to the rate at which locus coeruleus neurons fire on their own, which was found to increase during opiate withdrawal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3950b782150d8098823079c1d0cbf1a06e41680c8d5f50b7049840c9d02564a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kaeidi Ayat; Azizi Hossein; Javan Mohammad; Ahmadi Soleimani S. Mohammad; Fathollahi Yaghoub; Semnanian Saeed. Direct Facilitatory Role of Paragigantocellularis Neurons in Opiate Withdrawal-Induced Hyperactivity of Rat Locus Coeruleus Neurons: An In Vitro Study. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0134873; article XML SHA-256 3035719c2dc795f5db70b314f387ba3409e09371c602b61081211ab50f011e28. “Direct Facilitatory Role of Paragigantocellularis Neurons in Opiate Withdrawal-Induced Hyperactivity of Rat Locus Coeruleus Neurons: An In Vitro Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0134873).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0134873). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sport Imagery Questionnaire
<a id="sport-imagery-questionnaire"></a>

The Sport Imagery Questionnaire is a measure used to assess imagery ability, including cognitive-general and cognitive-specific imagery. In this packet, it was used to track changes in children’s imagery over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97828a86ac79b3f9408cd4563fa99b9fdf475f8a760cd875e31a70c0302e0d2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Meng; Zhou Sheng; Zhang Xu. Development and preliminary evaluation of a ciliary muscle–oriented motor imagery script for primary school children: a school-based cluster randomized controlled trial. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809541; article XML SHA-256 1096d6fac8b79c0ba855e71ac2bfbad85ebddeb266ca99816e59682c489728af. “Development and preliminary evaluation of a ciliary muscle–oriented motor imagery script for primary school children: a school-based cluster randomized controlled trial” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809541).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809541). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sport psychology
<a id="sport-psychology"></a>

Sport psychology is a research field that examines how mental factors affect the development of athletic skills and sports performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a045304819abd30aba24ecd9c37764dd603a6c85a39f65f3bee7f4e0dbf6eae1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychology, Sports” (D000067450).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067450). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sportsmanship
<a id="sportsmanship"></a>

In organizational psychology, sportsmanship is an employee’s tendency to stay positive and constructive when work conditions are difficult or inconvenient, rather than engaging in excessive complaining or fault-finding. It reflects tolerance of less-than-ideal situations in ways that support a cooperative work environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cac1eb389365729ef90019ea6cc876602c7241c6979b0f1c73af0e479c8296ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aldabbas Hazem; Elamin Abdallah M; Ahmed Ahmed Z E; Gernal Liza. Building positive workplace behaviors: how trust in the manager enhances sportsmanship behaviors through organizational trust. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828581; article XML SHA-256 f7d76a98d7cc0f94ee01d5b1ae7242e25748ed603627ddd8b11b2cbd1b629921. “Building positive workplace behaviors: how trust in the manager enhances sportsmanship behaviors through organizational trust” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828581).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828581). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spreading activation
<a id="spreading-activation"></a>

Spreading activation is the idea that memory works like an associative network, so activating one cue can trigger related information and help bring a personally experienced event to mind. In this context, it refers to recall benefiting when a self-generated cue sets off connected memories.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0b6c87313d6007309c38945763d1be1f8059c89b1c77499a02f2b3a1bc2a528

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wheeler Rebecca L.; Gabbert Fiona. Using Self-Generated Cues to Facilitate Recall: A Narrative Review. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01830; article XML SHA-256 ca9654dd520c6283e0ee129dd41007d35d6b9e69930c1373f6ac8bc9b5818687. “Using Self-Generated Cues to Facilitate Recall: A Narrative Review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01830).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01830). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## spreading depression
<a id="spreading-depression"></a>

Spreading depression, specifically cortical spreading depression, is a biological brain process in which a wave spreads across the cortex in a changing pattern. It is described as a pathophysiological phenomenon linked to some neurological disorders, and the wave may move through the whole cortex or skip some regions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: daeed943369c5025158967c507b33a950a5c37d14d218786153cd61a8349f200

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Bing; Chen Shangbin; Li Pengcheng; Luo Qingming; Gong Hui. Refractory Period Modulates the Spatiotemporal Evolution of Cortical Spreading Depression: A Computational Study. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0084609; article XML SHA-256 5ae3c09c5d3084fb0f99076bf994019a555064352969d69099195a2f7962af4c. “Refractory Period Modulates the Spatiotemporal Evolution of Cortical Spreading Depression: A Computational Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0084609).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0084609). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## square matrix
<a id="square-matrix"></a>

A square matrix is a grid with the same number of rows and columns. In this source, it refers to a 5-by-5 arrangement of cells formed by dividing two dimensions into five ordered categories each.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c76268344202d897abc3a0e09c8f474965c6da2e40253570a1e95a41a4d8d553

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mobbs Anthony E. D.. An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0227877; article XML SHA-256 dc3d2d654817f17d77a477623643c18242a3b5e70709e5a5d81745df34c23802. “An atlas of personality, emotion and behaviour” (10.1371/journal.pone.0227877).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227877). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## square-root transformation
<a id="square-root-transformation"></a>

A square-root transformation is a way of changing data by taking square roots of the values. In the source, it is used to map compositional microbiome data onto the surface of a hypersphere as part of handling zero-inflated data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f7fbbf4f9358c0a92b2e4f45ae31cf02d3f3252e4f75885e24705a930183494e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Jeseok; Kim Byungwon. Zero inflated high dimensional compositional data with DeepInsight. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320832; article XML SHA-256 4b19a937d9d6aa8ee04d71b0503b8bb9d7ffdb74bdf648c06586c09ed14901c7. “Zero inflated high dimensional compositional data with DeepInsight” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320832).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320832). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## squint
<a id="squint"></a>

Squint is a misalignment of the eyes so their visual axes do not point in the same direction. The amount of misalignment may stay the same in all directions of gaze or change depending on where a person looks or which eye is focusing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f210023f4e6dbb28cc10b9ca0ac025f376dd215d00527c940d116964a523dc27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Strabismus” (D013285).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013285). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## S–R
<a id="sr"></a>

S–R means stimulus–response. In psychology of learning and habits, it refers to a link in which a particular cue comes to trigger a particular action, especially after repeated reward-based training; behavior governed mainly by this link tends to be relatively insensitive to changes in the value of the outcome or in the response–outcome contingency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dee1d36a5b0a5faf3d0b6f64799b2b98fcb86b464fc0c44f932cbbff54b78975

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Molinero Sara; Martínez-López Pablo; Morís Joaquín; Quintero María J; Cobos Pedro L; López Francisco J; Luque David. The degraded contingency test fails to detect habit induction in humans. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334087; article XML SHA-256 19f184e140c2936bf883b3074cf0e57447f4416b3cace7811421bde1b0fa1646. “The degraded contingency test fails to detect habit induction in humans” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334087).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334087). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SRT
<a id="srt"></a>

SRT stands for Social Resource Theory. In this source, it is a social perspective that views social support as an important part of the context shaping athletes’ psychological functioning and engagement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ff9f0204e4efbfb9a07855ce819d092a25137c27256cf644b2853c18c744c4e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Xue; Li Hengyu; Hwang Jin; Gao Weijie. The impact of perceived social support on athletic engagement among elite track and field athletes: an integrated perspective based on self-determination theory and social resources theory. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763813; article XML SHA-256 6fcefc7aa843040d43b491b4c3ad2b1bd585bf768fb8c40768c801ea0ee7e5e7. “The impact of perceived social support on athletic engagement among elite track and field athletes: an integrated perspective based on self-determination theory and social resources theory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763813).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763813). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SSA
<a id="ssa"></a>

SSA refers to the Social Security Administration, a U.S. government agency that issues Social Security numbers, manages retirement, disability, survivor, and family benefits, and handles Medicare enrollment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cddb295a7fe2925061ad4b884b246e3deed3833eff1ecb64f1bf8c6fbb326f95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Social Security Administration” (C203327).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SSE
<a id="sse"></a>

SSE stands for Square-Stepping Exercise, a form of exercise studied in early geriatric rehabilitation. In this context, it was examined for its effects on cognitive function, especially executive functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8615e8866fd755d7b80792ae771ec7fa2f633ded43c956c29163bb1f265f52e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fränzel Katja; Koschate-Storm Jessica; Freiberger Ellen; Shigematsu Ryosuke; Zieschang Tania; Tietgen Svenja. Effects of Square-Stepping Exercise on cognitive function in early geriatric rehabilitation: A randomized controlled explorative study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338695; article XML SHA-256 642456562f25be24b5d06ce165eabcb35754c85835299c967152f9fefc12fda1. “Effects of Square-Stepping Exercise on cognitive function in early geriatric rehabilitation: A randomized controlled explorative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338695).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338695). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SSRI
<a id="ssri"></a>

An SSRI is a type of drug that raises serotonin levels between nerve cells by blocking its reuptake into the presynaptic cell, which extends serotonin’s effect on the receiving cell. These medications are commonly used for depression and anxiety disorders, and are also used in some personality disorders and some cases of insomnia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca15e81fe6796168a1910c640b055ff16a7093c47f34efae7d26f27cad50f405

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor” (C94725).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SST
<a id="sst"></a>

SST stands for social skills training. In this psychology context, it refers to an intervention aimed at improving social deficits, such as those studied in people with autism spectrum disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1a062c9e37b7e86a13c48cee95db02c3813a1abd5662fb07251411981c5755ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Yu-lu; Wang Hui; Kat Siuching; Ma Zeng-Hui; Yin Ting-Ni; Sun Ya-Jing; Tang Xin-Zhou; Gong Xiao-Yun; Wang Duo; Li Lei; Li Xue; Liu Jing. Changes in regional homogeneity of the social brain in individuals with autism spectrum disorder after social skills training. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1674370; article XML SHA-256 807c6810a1fbad00ab17e210183b52b25781beb994e9d840b0c3a509547d44de. “Changes in regional homogeneity of the social brain in individuals with autism spectrum disorder after social skills training” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1674370).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1674370). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## St. John’s wort
<a id="st-johns-wort"></a>

St. John’s wort is an herbal dietary supplement that some people use in hopes of easing depression symptoms. It is not approved by the FDA for treating depression, and it can carry risks, including interactions with prescription medicines.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b6de57c4e2004d4d12c56c6c368cae4d43223d733e303368a87b6fe7e0ce434d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 5e865d35b1103be91b52db38911aadcdf861e23a0de4e1b3e1eeb01399b987b8. “Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stability
<a id="stability"></a>

In diagnosis, stability means how well an initial diagnosis stays the same over time after follow-up. It is clinically meaningful because a stable diagnosis may reflect a brief, self-limited episode, while a changing diagnosis can indicate relapse or the emergence of a different, more persistent disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 698551b87848fe48457d2ad08f88bb8abe445f9e6856cc757d6087a7e7678b04

Sources:
- Drafting source: [He Qian; Wang Yi-chao. Diagnostic stability and long-term outcomes of acute and transient psychotic disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1839599; article XML SHA-256 f2089ae22f95a3065f6563af087ea95cade7edd022a8a38118992610b1c7fee4. “Diagnostic stability and long-term outcomes of acute and transient psychotic disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1839599).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1839599). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stabilizing selection
<a id="stabilizing-selection"></a>

Stabilizing selection is a pattern in which environmental stress favors survival of individuals with a particular phenotype, while those showing less stable development are less fit. At the population level, this tends to narrow the range of observed traits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bdae972666f13c43fd14fc5abc3adc0c9c4056933c1c7623bab52ad5375ede33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Weinkauf Manuel F. G.; Bonitz Fabian G. W.; Martini Rossana; Kučera Michal. An extinction event in planktonic Foraminifera preceded by stabilizing selection. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0223490; article XML SHA-256 fdd928c387cba6cd05b4b1db969651972e63c34335a2ead8ff8568f63572c10e. “An extinction event in planktonic Foraminifera preceded by stabilizing selection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0223490).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223490). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## staff turnover
<a id="staff-turnover"></a>

Staff turnover is the rate at which staff members start or leave work in an organization over time. In this mental health service context, it refers to changes in clinical staff such as psychiatrists, physicians, and psychologists, and contrasts with staff consistency, meaning longer periods without such changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 30806cd5ef578ef644c811db7cae778d4316a748ece8d6ba20e50620421c0493

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brandt Wolfram A.; Bielitz Christoph J.; Georgi Alexander. The Impact of Staff Turnover and Staff Density on Treatment Quality in a Psychiatric Clinic. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00457; article XML SHA-256 c0b71b66cfd42d26e9b9636c0992635f204707c22e6c173c389533be050a42c4. “The Impact of Staff Turnover and Staff Density on Treatment Quality in a Psychiatric Clinic” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00457).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00457). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Stage 1 sleep
<a id="stage-1-sleep"></a>

Stage 1 sleep is the earliest, drowsy period at sleep onset, identified by characteristic EEG and behavioral changes. In older sleep-stage systems it was called Stage 1, but newer classification groups sleep onset and light sleep under N1–N2.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f28bcd9a21b4d79c48a7677e80490cfb3c65242dfd982cf6d56a5972510c911

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sleep Stages” (D012894).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012894). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Stage 2 sleep
<a id="stage-2-sleep"></a>

Stage 2 sleep is a phase of non-REM sleep, also called N2, marked here by 12–15 Hz sleep spindles or sigma activity. In this source, N2 spindle activity is linked with memory consolidation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a35e69c4862e1424eacab31a6f1ef9e530a1af8f30be7ef29fa4b46672a8a2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maski Kiran; Steinhart Erin; Holbrook Hannah; Katz Eliot S; Kapur Kush; Stickgold Robert. Impaired memory consolidation in children with obstructive sleep disordered breathing. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0186915; article XML SHA-256 b0c1af3e7740fe9f7885964ed5f72d20cf85b1a58af2fa54106ee3a9dc828614. “Impaired memory consolidation in children with obstructive sleep disordered breathing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0186915).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186915). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stage fright
<a id="stage-fright"></a>

Stage fright is a historical psychology term for the fear or nervousness felt before appearing in public, seen as an example of how mental states can disrupt normal bodily functions. In this sense, it may affect movement, heart-beat, or breathing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eec0b6bbb37745d8eb690c6b9b7e1a9acbc8dbf2dec2b545af81a85a6adbacd9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2236500-2248500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stage sampling
<a id="stage-sampling"></a>

Stage sampling is a survey sampling approach carried out in steps rather than all at once. In the two-stage form described here, researchers first randomly select clusters or groups from the population, then randomly select individual elements from within each chosen cluster.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d702f5a96c0550036418245f05376cf889ab33395e06af7b32f4d006c94663cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Minhas Kanwal Shafiq; Semary Hatem E.; Jabeen Riffat; Zaka Azam. Multiscale study of memory type simple ratio estimators in two stage sampling under exponentially weighted moving averages. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335586; article XML SHA-256 d391b486280e96c3b1af2e3c2cd6891d7d6d39d780cb86af1502f8bfe4a95dd6. “Multiscale study of memory type simple ratio estimators in two stage sampling under exponentially weighted moving averages” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335586).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335586). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stagnation
<a id="stagnation"></a>

Stagnation is a state in which progress or action is held back, often because people see problems but avoid change and prefer familiar discomfort over uncertain outcomes. In social or scientific settings, it refers to development being stalled by resistance to disruption and the unknown.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 642938f309ee8a18ad7bab17dc5ea40ed025fd900d8a334192775f95817921c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Araújo-Pereira Mariana; Andrade Bruno B. The puzzle of scientific progress: cultivating problem solvers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1732871; article XML SHA-256 27d34b7215085784c562622be8d34a838fa65d6f10f8e56c77d71bbde69607ea. “The puzzle of scientific progress: cultivating problem solvers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1732871).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1732871). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## staircase method
<a id="staircase-method"></a>

In this context, a staircase method is a way of adjusting a perceptual task so objective accuracy is kept stable while other changes, such as perceptual thresholds or learning-related improvements, are measured. It is used to reduce the confounding effect of accuracy when studying metacognition or perceptual learning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3917677917cf02eab8722ec1ec9d7f79b9e29aa9b3275b5d01d2a304098b151a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Benjamin; Mundy Matthew; Tsuchiya Naotsugu. Metacognitive Accuracy Improves With the Perceptual Learning of a Low- but Not High-Level Face Property. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01712; article XML SHA-256 8caa2c66703a4134c863f2224d8694ecb90c096923e5a3f8e3dd7271084f81c5. “Metacognitive Accuracy Improves With the Perceptual Learning of a Low- but Not High-Level Face Property” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01712).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01712). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stakeholder
<a id="stakeholder"></a>

In this context, a stakeholder is a person or group involved in or affected by a workplace issue and its support arrangements. Examples implied here include employers, line managers, and employees with chronic pain, whose views may differ about roles, control, and access to support.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d44b617c4ae5dec105c6d7c1d6ac72e1787ca8d7537480c6883822e2d564136

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Thornton Angela Claire; Wainwright Elaine; Chaplin Wendy J; Abbott-Fleming Victoria; McWilliams Daniel F; Walsh David A; Taylor Gordon; McNamee Paul; Walker-Bone Karen; Blake Holly. “Shining a light on chronic pain”: A qualitative study of stakeholder views towards chronic pain at work and the Pain-at-Work Toolkit. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351938; article XML SHA-256 0abd88a8bb29d31f0f5128e58375b9c743ee3bf644aae4411ffaa9606553acf8. ““Shining a light on chronic pain”: A qualitative study of stakeholder views towards chronic pain at work and the Pain-at-Work Toolkit” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351938).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351938). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stalking
<a id="stalking"></a>

Stalking is a pattern of behavior aimed at a particular person that happens repeatedly, such as unwanted closeness, nonconsensual contact, or threats. It is the kind of conduct that would make a reasonable person feel fear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 917045ee5f50f85097b19e65284114e53d87a922a6bc8fbcbef8a74ef186a512

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Stalking” (D055807).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055807). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stammering
<a id="stammering"></a>

Historically, stammering was described here as a lack of precise articulation, like the less exact speech often heard in childhood. It was regarded as a disorder when this pattern did not fade over time with education.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 55e42061b3f39cc72e50706cad779a58437240ddd862a26f7366b68ae14c3f4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Lalling” (Lalling).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Lalling). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## standard deviation
<a id="standard-deviation"></a>

Standard deviation is a common statistical measure of how much scores vary or spread out. It is the square root of the variance, and in a normal distribution it can be used with the mean to determine the percentile rank of a score.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2edc31fde4dcb62292b62f67c208e0d4bfa9c665db7d3fe992dc1ec5dd6d976e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Standard Deviation” (standard_deviation.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/standard_deviation.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## standard error
<a id="standard-error"></a>

Standard error is the amount a statistic typically varies from one sample to another, expressed as the standard deviation of that statistic’s sampling distribution. It is used in building confidence intervals and in significance testing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca6de397a9ddcfbc2da60d1d12dff2d0483ea6830d57f1bb0757aa0841fe1042

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Standard Error” (standard_error.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/standard_error.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## standard error of estimate
<a id="standard-error-of-estimate"></a>

Standard error of estimate is a measure of how much predicted values from an equation differ from the actual values in the sample being studied. A higher value indicates poorer accuracy of the predictive equation, whereas a lower value indicates closer estimates.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8573f5598d05d9aa2044adf42f131a0ede2bee6496eaa27fdc857bbf03587cef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pineau Jean-Claude; Ramirez Rozzi Fernando V.. Measuring body fat—How accurate is the extrapolation of predictive models in epidemiology?. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0263590; article XML SHA-256 70c30065bea3cb046112d562a6f3c5407c180b826216b727be661dfd846ce84f. “Measuring body fat—How accurate is the extrapolation of predictive models in epidemiology?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0263590).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263590). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## standard error of measurement
<a id="standard-error-of-measurement"></a>

In test theory, the standard error of measurement is the standard deviation of the observed scores expected for people who have the same true score. It expresses how much a test score may vary because of measurement error.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 640de2b8348eb1e78539a344efd6811687026c0842ecdb89a5670aee20f51d58

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Standard Error of Measurement” (se_measure.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/se_measure.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## standard error of the mean
<a id="standard-error-of-the-mean"></a>

The standard error of the mean is the standard deviation of the distribution of sample means. It shows how much a sample mean would be expected to vary from sample to sample, and in a population it depends on the standard deviation and the sample size.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 79daa22751f574e2f65af9e924fcbb72b34ab8d771f265da3cfd554676624b75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Standard Error of the Mean” (sem.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/sem.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## standard language
<a id="standard-language"></a>

Standard language is a language variety that has been formally established and codified, with agreed norms for grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. It functions as the accepted form used in formal settings such as education, government, and public communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2b2759c952b0cb70dd8fe77e8706c9a43c8ac8fe5e5f4080bd8ef79fb752433

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wei Yangyang; Cai Xin. Standard language proficiency as social capital: Impacts on subjective socioeconomic status in China. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334861; article XML SHA-256 ee148a3c53e503db24edc7ba96078fbaeb970ce4c8a3c9b95332905a04bf50fc. “Standard language proficiency as social capital: Impacts on subjective socioeconomic status in China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334861).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334861). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## standard normal distribution
<a id="standard-normal-distribution"></a>

A standard normal distribution is a normal distribution that has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b30b2ce4990b8bd1377fc7efffc12c294c3b8b003f187c465ea535d9c7145abe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Standard Normal” (standard_normal.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/standard_normal.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## standard stimulus
<a id="standard-stimulus"></a>

A standard stimulus is the stimulus used as the reference point in an experiment where other stimuli are changed and compared against it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 15f16e8fe9caba8358077c8dedc009814da700e8bb192e01adaad4a813b8d261

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Normal or Standard Stimulus” (Normal or Standard Stimulus).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N3defs.htm#Normal or Standard Stimulus). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## standardization
<a id="standardization"></a>

Standardization is the process of making an assessment method uniform and objective so results can be interpreted more consistently across studies and clinical settings. In this context, it means using common procedures for balance-control testing to reduce methodological differences and support wider clinical use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b761541c50035e872c955c3d9db72b080dd5fbfa39f7deab247355a3137062a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brodsky Jennifer L.; Lee Jae W.; King Laurie A.; Peterka Robert J.. Assessment of balance control mechanisms in patient populations using perturbation-based modeling: a narrative review with clinical implications. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1768417; article XML SHA-256 28a601daec48a561cb6c4645313e04d638e7966564893d769e681d7312dcfac1. “Assessment of balance control mechanisms in patient populations using perturbation-based modeling: a narrative review with clinical implications” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1768417).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1768417). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## standardized test
<a id="standardized-test"></a>

A standardized test is an assessment meant to give a common, objective measure of students’ academic performance so results can be compared across students. It is based on the idea that score differences mainly reflect differences in the quality of education, although environmental factors can also influence scores and distort what performance appears to be.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1bd464c2d9dde8f9ff082d460806ccc987a2439314606ea48d6db59179eb8b69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Grieken R.; Tena J. D.; Pires Luis; Sanz Ismael; Avendaño-Miranda Lilliana L.. The importance of test order in external and standardized test results: The case of PISA 2018. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0309980; article XML SHA-256 f1c8fa7a396458b8513e278dc1db839de64fa646b633d278547b1bfd2dc269b6. “The importance of test order in external and standardized test results: The case of PISA 2018” (10.1371/journal.pone.0309980).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309980). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## standards of practice
<a id="standards-of-practice"></a>

Standards of practice are agreed benchmarks used to judge how care is provided. In this context, they are the shared expectations colleagues use to assess service quality, identify what needs improvement, and promote good practice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 690507bb2ab8c8cf13e0a79aebeb765a558370b617dd8e4cd92fe722da66c29d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aimola Lina; Jasim Sarah; Tripathi Neeraj; Tucker Sarah; Worrall Adrian; Quirk Alan; Crawford Mike J. Impact of peer-led quality improvement networks on quality of inpatient mental health care: study protocol for a cluster randomized controlled trial. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12888-016-1040-1; article XML SHA-256 1ba99621e662ae7e663ebee74c9ae705a5ea96c005705a09f0c2a29e2948e64e. “Impact of peer-led quality improvement networks on quality of inpatient mental health care: study protocol for a cluster randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-016-1040-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-1040-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale
<a id="stanford-hypnotic-susceptibility-scale"></a>

The Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C, is a measure of how responsive a person is to hypnosis. It assesses responses across three broad areas: direct motor suggestions, reduced voluntary motor control, and suggested changes in perception, memory, and thinking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 264ca8916460d00a6cf2d2a8123804cd7e1048cdc87e6fccc4c8fb0696774e16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Fenghua; Chen Wanzhen; Huang Jingyi; Xu Peiwei; He Wei; Chai Hao; Zhu Junpeng; Yu Wenjun; Chen Li; Wang Wei. Preliminary study of relationships between hypnotic susceptibility and personality disorder functioning styles in healthy volunteers and personality disorder patients. 2011; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-11-121; article XML SHA-256 5064d70e1e20febb54f3d8ba5274a7e1ce47abb944295657327e2f90c0341d49. “Preliminary study of relationships between hypnotic susceptibility and personality disorder functioning styles in healthy volunteers and personality disorder patients” (10.1186/1471-244x-11-121).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-11-121). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale
<a id="stanfordbinet-intelligence-scale"></a>

The Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale is a standardized assessment of intelligence and cognitive abilities for children and adults. It measures fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory, using both verbal and nonverbal tasks to help evaluate people with deafness, limited English, or communication disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f60e9e840673ec28c53ec20cb98bd015e4e4adb1a73614ab15b974911f5adc9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Stanford Binet Intelligence Test” (C86973).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stapedius muscle
<a id="stapedius-muscle"></a>

The stapedius muscle is a small middle-ear muscle that can be reached surgically and measured directly to record stapedius reflex activity. In this context, it is used as a biological target for objectively assessing electrically evoked stapedius reflex thresholds, such as during cochlear implantation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a91284b8d8a15a7001c4e1b1b52e767fed22f7e5a960160b99fe7af241c43df2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guntinas-Lichius Orlando; Arnold Dirk; Volk Gerd Fabian; Korth Daniela; Aschenbach Rene; Hempel Johann-Martin; Schneider Fritz; Schade-Mann Thore; Gamerdinger Philipp; Tropitzsch Anke; Löwenheim Hubert. Accessing the stapedius muscle via novel surgical retrofacial approach during cochlear implantation surgery: Intraoperative results on feasibility and safety. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0272943; article XML SHA-256 a2b90e99067337a965bf92f44f5a20e05facfdf9925810d6b21fb84a63d572ab. “Accessing the stapedius muscle via novel surgical retrofacial approach during cochlear implantation surgery: Intraoperative results on feasibility and safety” (10.1371/journal.pone.0272943).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272943). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stapes
<a id="stapes"></a>

The stapes is the smallest and innermost of the three tiny bones in the middle ear. It works with the other middle-ear bones to pass sound vibrations from the eardrum into the inner ear.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 136bbb09c1c2a0507276e84eea394a664d0826a53191305c5e073688b38d886c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Stapes” (C33612).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## startle response
<a id="startle-response"></a>

The startle response is an automatic, complex reaction triggered by a sudden intense stimulus. It includes withdrawing from the stimulus, tightening and bending of the muscles and limbs, blinking, and shifts in heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e1e3c834d87ea1bafc14a15ac15d123a97f683e09f98fcfdbbf08cbc2f03dc4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reflex, Startle” (D013216).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013216). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## state space
<a id="state-space"></a>

In this social-processes context, a state space is a way of representing the moment-to-moment relation between two time-synchronized categorical variables so that changes in an interaction system can be visualized over time. It helps researchers examine the emerging structure and dynamic properties of social or team processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7427bb0bb21f638c860ddda8f8e90465aaed21b3a858018a3f0ac7a11513d4c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meinecke Annika L.; Hemshorn de Sanchez Clara S.; Lehmann-Willenbrock Nale; Buengeler Claudia. Using State Space Grids for Modeling Temporal Team Dynamics. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00863; article XML SHA-256 fab5482a0c89561c994ee3b0adb3073c9813978741d1014c784b709a76b5707a. “Using State Space Grids for Modeling Temporal Team Dynamics” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00863).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00863). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## State–Trait Anxiety Inventory
<a id="statetrait-anxiety-inventory"></a>

The State–Trait Anxiety Inventory is a tool used to measure anxiety. It is intended to distinguish between anxiety that is temporary in the moment and anxiety that reflects a more general, long-lasting tendency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a55aeaae7586329d2dd97eb1fdec3c9e7323013a3ea529aadb33989e25209e35

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “State-Trait Anxiety Inventory” (C95491).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## static response
<a id="static-response"></a>

Static response is the steady, ongoing firing pattern a cold-sensitive nerve ending shows at a constant temperature. It refers to regular temperature-dependent activity, ranging from tonic firing to regular bursting, as distinct from the brief change in firing that occurs during rapid temperature shifts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3260c0404eb96399bffbd14d06c9ed7a144c64644a6d38f1d978f629d98eb649

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Olivares Erick; Salgado Simón; Maidana Jean Paul; Herrera Gaspar; Campos Matías; Madrid Rodolfo; Orio Patricio. TRPM8-Dependent Dynamic Response in a Mathematical Model of Cold Thermoreceptor. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0139314; article XML SHA-256 758ae1ae300c389422593cfc0a026d0342ed6cb278be0d0feb37a7c0a0a734f3. “TRPM8-Dependent Dynamic Response in a Mathematical Model of Cold Thermoreceptor” (10.1371/journal.pone.0139314).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139314). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## static sense
<a id="static-sense"></a>

In this historical source, static sense refers to the bodily sense involved in keeping balance and maintaining an upright posture. It is linked especially to the semicircular canals of the ear and their role in supporting the muscular tone needed for equilibrium.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 291134b68d688c72b85713ec178f2a3a5f50ed3e70371b3b388f89672ceb97f6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Equilibrium (sensation of)” (Equilibrium(sensation)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Equilibrium(sensation)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stationarity
<a id="stationarity"></a>

Stationarity is the property of a signal being stable over time. In this packet, EEG is described as non-stationary, meaning its patterns and frequency content change over time rather than remaining constant.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5272263050e03264c4b4126921ea293c26db6e1313d83e0576e35b94bf42a85b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Zhouyang; Li Hongwei; Liu Wenchao; Li Haifeng. ScaleSpecter: a frequency-aware multi-scale patch framework for robust physiological classification under non-stationarity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1856803; article XML SHA-256 95cf7e3de33d8c96eaa09b0efadeb23a88c4331e9fd7a39fcbc9127d50259aad. “ScaleSpecter: a frequency-aware multi-scale patch framework for robust physiological classification under non-stationarity” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1856803).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1856803). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## statistical analysis
<a id="statistical-analysis"></a>

In research methods, statistical analysis is the planned examination of study data to assess effects on outcomes. It can include secondary analyses that test how sensitive a study finding is to another factor, such as coenrollment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df6963a6eab126f5b412fb2ebdd75c9b04fdc672b7ef93002bd48f5ca5c886c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Thabane Alex; Heels-Ansdell Diane; Zytaruk Nicole; Cook Deborah; for the PROSPECT Investigators and the Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. Coenrollment of critically ill patients in PROSPECT: A protocol and statistical analysis plan. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345656; article XML SHA-256 370b3249a2cfc5f1096b407273a7006670bc1035bd7a6983ededf23336d52b75. “Coenrollment of critically ill patients in PROSPECT: A protocol and statistical analysis plan” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345656).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345656). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## statistical conclusion validity
<a id="statistical-conclusion-validity"></a>

Statistical conclusion validity is the extent to which a study’s conclusions are supported by an appropriate analysis of its data. It depends on using statistical methods that fit the research question and give accurate results, especially in small samples, so that the findings are dependable rather than artifacts of poor analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54313e9fd1b28396ccc09cdd8ff70861f7ed3cadf5d558cc4c6b3cde6b2f7615

Sources:
- Drafting source: [García-Pérez Miguel A.. Statistical Conclusion Validity: Some Common Threats and Simple Remedies. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00325; article XML SHA-256 773fbd8fc22ae938af43591570e0ae023cffc4ff741a64bf97d2d16a55daa86a. “Statistical Conclusion Validity: Some Common Threats and Simple Remedies” (10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00325).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00325). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## statistical control
<a id="statistical-control"></a>

Statistical control is the use of calculated control limits from statistical measures to judge whether observed data stay within an expected normal range or indicate a meaningful deviation. In this context, it separates normal conditions from failure or other abnormal change in a monitored process.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d88e5a514d97b87d146947187edaf479074aa45b90a0ce48baf6de8b36540bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pérez-Torres Antonio; Navarrete-Campos Jean; Fernández-López Reinier; Figueroa-Zúñiga Jorge; Barceló-Cerdá Susana. Early fault detection in gearboxes via dynamic principal component analysis–driven multivariate statistical process control. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348497; article XML SHA-256 9401b2e054d69c60a74f75adadf16a8155f7516b68d2795922b8a6b999b22444. “Early fault detection in gearboxes via dynamic principal component analysis–driven multivariate statistical process control” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348497).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348497). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## statistical dependence
<a id="statistical-dependence"></a>

Statistical dependence is a situation where data points or effect sizes are related rather than fully independent, such as when multiple effect sizes come from the same study. In research synthesis, this relationship needs to be taken into account so estimates of variation and overall results are more accurate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45ec21e7404a3b08eda68ef9e1b2d8774a683cf3f317a6953e2ee5676b0da154

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Qiang; Tian Zhibo; Wang Hongliang; Chen Shiwei; Han Xue. Impact of outdoor and nature-based interventions on self-efficacy among adolescents and young adults: a three-level meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1856344; article XML SHA-256 3dbb3aea81eb6db7623d807be48a90726782fd7423b8b4ddde143f6d2fa4c7bf. “Impact of outdoor and nature-based interventions on self-efficacy among adolescents and young adults: a three-level meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1856344).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1856344). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## statistical model
<a id="statistical-model"></a>

A statistical model is a mathematical way of describing data so researchers can test how well the model fits the data and evaluate the assumptions and values used in the analysis. Common kinds include linear, binomial, and polynomial models.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2f5e2b2c247444a136b3d38f5ca3522501d12018eb699067ed18793c7a2e3d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Models, Statistical” (D015233).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015233). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## statistical process control
<a id="statistical-process-control"></a>

Statistical process control is a way of examining data over time with charts to detect meaningful changes in a process. In this packet, it is described through run charts that look for persistent shifts by checking patterns such as long runs of points on one side of the centre line and how often the data cross that centre.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bfbd545294c9de99e828f60f1d0efe45bceede3f8db037bd69b90f7452245712

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Anhøj Jacob; Wentzel-Larsen Tore. Smooth operator: Modifying the Anhøj rules to improve runs analysis in statistical process control. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0233920; article XML SHA-256 d1dd34b3ba363f6be45dcf0be9b8f9569430012c5e979941f244913d2fa7b60b. “Smooth operator: Modifying the Anhøj rules to improve runs analysis in statistical process control” (10.1371/journal.pone.0233920).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233920). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## statistical stability
<a id="statistical-stability"></a>

Statistical stability is the quality of a set of measurements or markers showing consistent, reliable behavior across analyses. In this source, it is judged using coefficient of variation and correlation analyses, together with checking whether the findings remain meaningfully linked to the biological function being studied.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ac731319af455a41883d4588f1488956e40b77427a0600093836aa7e662a2ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nishi Kentaro; Fu Wenqiang; Kiyama Ryoiti. Novel estrogen-responsive genes (ERGs) for the evaluation of estrogenic activity. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0273164; article XML SHA-256 0f5b3ca71b4ea71fedc27039f78a5d8f4c59068342423b9221fba1c6816082b1. “Novel estrogen-responsive genes (ERGs) for the evaluation of estrogenic activity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0273164).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273164). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## statistical test
<a id="statistical-test"></a>

A statistical test is a method used to judge whether an observed difference or result is likely to be meaningful rather than due to chance. In this packet, it refers to using McNemar’s test to assess whether competing classifiers differ significantly in performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14b46186dd82de8888a2a667edb9b330d512d72b7f11f3e4de40da4ef4676360

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reza Md Shihab; Elias Farhana; Mahmud Monirul Islam; Ahmed Nova. Attention and residual mechanism-based CNN architecture (ARC-Net) with enhanced fairness generalization for deepfake facial image detection. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340099; article XML SHA-256 0a4690bba8eb6ebd917b2bc05a401730aec73ccf14e9d21ee9d072c18b070549. “Attention and residual mechanism-based CNN architecture (ARC-Net) with enhanced fairness generalization for deepfake facial image detection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340099).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340099). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## statistics
<a id="statistics"></a>

Statistics is the field that focuses on summarizing and interpreting data and using data to guide decisions. The term can also mean a numerical value computed from a sample to estimate a population value.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0a49c88808c64e50e6d0e730f48bd7a6ccd8148ba6c92d6a9e9eb7197a91f4f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Statistics” (statistics.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/statistics.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## status
<a id="status"></a>

In this context, status means a person’s perceived social standing or rank in relation to other people. The packet specifically refers to perceived social status among college students as something that may be related to how they view their health and well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 614a7fc67adc6a6ccb7b1743a4fa3c23d1344e8722eac4708bfcc0687eb759d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Eun Bee; Kim Jhong Yun. The sequential mediating roles of self-esteem and life satisfaction in the relationship between health perception and perceived social status among college students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1890570; article XML SHA-256 06c27a3286290aa9682edd61c20d2d9aa0fe3235633c45bf6861e2b962c2313d. “The sequential mediating roles of self-esteem and life satisfaction in the relationship between health perception and perceived social status among college students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1890570).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1890570). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## status epilepticus
<a id="status-epilepticus"></a>

Status epilepticus is a prolonged seizure or a series of seizures repeated so closely together that recovery does not occur between them over about 20 to 30 minutes. It can take several forms, including convulsive, nonconvulsive, partial, and subclinical types, and some forms may involve behavioral disturbance or become life-threatening.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7974de78b3ef73255925af9cf09363dc66ff0669a0f3dca38d0909325255844e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Status Epilepticus” (D013226).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013226). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## status planning
<a id="status-planning"></a>

In this source, status planning refers to a formal, state-led approach to language planning that focuses on managing a language’s official standing and public place. The article contrasts it with a broader, more inclusive model tied to digital citizenship and linguistic justice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0dead45419ce365d94ad372b351179ccfeabc70495d552800237bffe2ecb8c7d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zharkynbekova Sholpan; Ayupova Gulbagira; Galiyeva Bakhyt; Shakhputova Zukhra; Zabrodskaja Anastassia. Digital linguistic sovereignty and Kazakh language policy in the digital environment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1858650; article XML SHA-256 e6f209bb50ce595ac872358396fc7dbb6b0150dd265548140f3219427b34aaee. “Digital linguistic sovereignty and Kazakh language policy in the digital environment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1858650).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1858650). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## steady state
<a id="steady-state"></a>

In this context, steady state refers to the auditory steady-state response, especially at 40 Hz: a brain response to sound used as an established way to assess gamma-band neural synchronization. It is also thought to reflect the balance between excitation and inhibition in cortical microcircuits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 32542131d6505db943c6e5ddfdc1288fbff6df6b0c372639f880636305997dfa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yasumoto Mai; Miyagishi Yoshiaki; Hirosawa Tetsu; Ono Yasuki; Soma Daiki; Osaka Yoko; Kameya Masafumi; Yuasa Keigo; Sano Masuhiko; Takeuchi Ryota; Niu Ye; Yoshimura Yuko; Shiota Yuka; Tanaka Sanae; Hasegawa Chiaki; Kikuchi Mitsuru. Functional brain network organization during the 40-Hz auditory steady-state response in children with and without autism spectrum disorder. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804124; article XML SHA-256 0294ddbdeea60e338ead3be5bd8707a5dfff25c3f4d984fda49a8ba021ebc09e. “Functional brain network organization during the 40-Hz auditory steady-state response in children with and without autism spectrum disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804124).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804124). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Steele–Richardson–Olszewski syndrome
<a id="steelerichardsonolszewski-syndrome"></a>

Steele–Richardson–Olszewski syndrome is a degenerative central nervous system disorder, also known as progressive supranuclear palsy. It typically begins in midlife and slowly worsens over several years, causing problems with balance, eye movement control, speech, swallowing, and posture.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f04fa7c6beb50d57a9a98b275dc363f9118d983d8f7fd59a7bdfb373207cd58d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Supranuclear Palsy, Progressive” (D013494).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013494). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Steinert’s disease
<a id="steinerts-disease"></a>

Steinert’s disease is a neuromuscular condition involving ongoing loss of muscle tissue, delayed muscle relaxation, and wasting that can affect multiple body systems. Some people may also have mild intellectual disability, and the disorder is linked to repeat expansions in genes associated with myotonic dystrophy types 1 and 2.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c84ec6f305918df7af2c6b06ca6fa81cc43381fcf86af375fd00bf0a4f862d9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Myotonic Dystrophy” (D009223).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009223). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Stelazine
<a id="stelazine"></a>

Stelazine is trifluoperazine hydrochloride, a drug that acts on dopamine, alpha-adrenergic, and anticholinergic systems. In mental health contexts, it is described as having antipsychotic and anxiety-reducing effects and may help lessen hallucinations and delusions linked to excess dopamine activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad29fef56d2a24e51675caf91003fc35a41f788e8efdcd8da6addd86d48b118a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Trifluoperazine Hydrochloride” (C904).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stellate cell
<a id="stellate-cell"></a>

In this historical source, a stellate cell is a star-shaped cell of the brain’s supporting tissue, with branching processes. It is described as helping form fibrous networks and sometimes sending processes that attach to blood-vessel walls.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 561e8b212df6d4e281e96e66770ea1cb2fa5665898a2851301e3e9fbb662ba1b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3118500-3130500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stem-and-leaf plot
<a id="stem-and-leaf-plot"></a>

A stem-and-leaf plot is a simple display of numerical data in which each value is split into a stem and a leaf, usually with all but the last digit forming the stem and the last digit forming the leaf. The stems are listed vertically with matching leaves beside them, making small data sets easy to inspect while still preserving the original values.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 753137a5286f8a748d34428b604c2ea370bbe01e537d975113df809f549a3d5b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Stem and Leaf Plot” (stem_and_leaf_plot.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/stem_and_leaf_plot.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stem-completion task
<a id="stem-completion-task"></a>

A stem-completion task is a learning test in which a person is given the first part of a learned item and must select the matching second part to complete it. In the study described, children heard the first element of a non-adjacent dependency and chose the second element that fit the pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 392db578dd4b27ce26fc70956dd13e09f354a23dd418c6a0790353629403bcb1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marimon Mireia; Hofmann Andrea; Veríssimo João; Männel Claudia; Friederici Angela D.; Höhle Barbara; Wartenburger Isabell. Children’s Learning of Non-adjacent Dependencies Using a Web-Based Computer Game Setting. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.734877; article XML SHA-256 59a57d50450744016eafd651b7ba837fc78ef284675456a27bde885066d06ec9. “Children’s Learning of Non-adjacent Dependencies Using a Web-Based Computer Game Setting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.734877).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.734877). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stepfamily
<a id="stepfamily"></a>

A stepfamily is a newly formed family structure that may develop after changes such as parents’ separation. In this context, becoming a stepfamily is described as a period of instability for young people that can require substantial coping and adjustment, especially when other stressors are also present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9204fdf8b595c00b443ba4e1fde6384b2cc5967c1c248dd29dc9eb5945fd67c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rattay Petra; von der Lippe Elena; Mauz Elvira; Richter Felicitas; Hölling Heike; Lange Cornelia; Lampert Thomas. Health and health risk behaviour of adolescents—Differences according to family structure. Results of the German KiGGS cohort study. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0192968; article XML SHA-256 6b934caf3de4e50f8136386cc34c234b07eca59f12ca5148f2b671695289897f. “Health and health risk behaviour of adolescents—Differences according to family structure. Results of the German KiGGS cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0192968).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192968). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stereoacuity
<a id="stereoacuity"></a>

Stereoacuity is the fineness of depth perception based on using both eyes together. It means the smallest difference in the images seen by the two eyes that is enough to create a sense of depth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84cc72b53d0d9001497f0d4509709d1f69bc4846b5fbb657fd071cdf9829ed96

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Da-dong; Wu Jian-feng; Hu Yuan-yuan; Sun Wei; Lv Tai-liang; Jiang Wen-jun; Wu Hui; Wang Xing-rong; Jonas Jost B; Bi Hong-sheng. Stereoacuity and Related Factors: The Shandong Children Eye Study. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0157829; article XML SHA-256 66006744095c15e1fce74262673a8bfe2f916e8a68d9a5891049604424da74cf. “Stereoacuity and Related Factors: The Shandong Children Eye Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0157829).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157829). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stereocilia
<a id="stereocilia"></a>

Stereocilia are delicate structures on mechanosensory hair cells that convert mechanical stimulation into electrical signals. They can be damaged by loud sound or ototoxic drugs, and loss or injury of these structures is linked to hearing damage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d487835c7661ed0b9cd27ae563e6982f5d6c1d93ddddc3aa9574702e0e54f39

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Shi-Ming; Chen Wei; Guo Wei-Wei; Jia Shuping; Sun Jian-He; Liu Hui-Zhan; Young Wie-Yen; He David Z. Z.. Regeneration of Stereocilia of Hair Cells by Forced Atoh1 Expression in the Adult Mammalian Cochlea. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0046355; article XML SHA-256 843c64ac8882e6d25cb8243b3c6030e45f9c5365a9fdd3fb483078be3db53d90. “Regeneration of Stereocilia of Hair Cells by Forced Atoh1 Expression in the Adult Mammalian Cochlea” (10.1371/journal.pone.0046355).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0046355). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stereognosis
<a id="stereognosis"></a>

Stereognosis is the ability to recognize an object’s shape and form through touch and movement-based sensory information. It refers to identifying what something is by handling it rather than by seeing it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 099c44147241a260a5c91599ec3b5703549ed262a5ae595a1ad4e855a2fbd101

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Stereognosis” (D013236).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013236). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stereogram
<a id="stereogram"></a>

A stereogram is a pair of images presented separately to the left and right eyes so that depth can be perceived from their differences. In the random-dot form described here, reversing the light-dark pattern between the two eyes creates an anti-correlated stereogram, which did not produce depth perception in the cited observations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48a32174c106fa288d726809c31c731e88ec217149a77c6dbf78c5e345678094

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hibbard Paul B.; Scott-Brown Kenneth C.; Haigh Emma C.; Adrain Melanie. Depth Perception Not Found in Human Observers for Static or Dynamic Anti-Correlated Random Dot Stereograms. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0084087; article XML SHA-256 d160c24f4ec89467e3cb007366f9aa6afa6f314fed844f307d4afdad977d7637. “Depth Perception Not Found in Human Observers for Static or Dynamic Anti-Correlated Random Dot Stereograms” (10.1371/journal.pone.0084087).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0084087). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stereoisomers
<a id="stereoisomers"></a>

Stereoisomers are different forms of the same compound that share the same basic makeup but differ in their three-dimensional arrangement. In this source, FSPG has four stereoisomeric forms, distinguished by different spatial configurations and separable by chiral analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac319c2146468566fb039996fa9b4bbc6d7be16c5390955101d34095b381f09b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shih Kai-Ting; Huang Ya-Yao; Yang Chia-Ying; Cheng Mei-Fang; Tien Yu-Wen; Shiue Chyng-Yann; Yen Rouh-Fang; Hsin Ling-Wei. Synthesis and analysis of 4-(3-fluoropropyl)-glutamic acid stereoisomers to determine the stereochemical purity of (4S)-4-(3-[ 18 F]fluoropropyl)-L-glutamic acid ([ 18 F]FSPG) for clinical use. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243831; article XML SHA-256 545a184c98f657497d549205f7428ab1741e19197280f74f96673d5d6d5317ff. “Synthesis and analysis of 4-(3-fluoropropyl)-glutamic acid stereoisomers to determine the stereochemical purity of (4S)-4-(3-[ 18 F]fluoropropyl)-L-glutamic acid ([ 18 F]FSPG) for clinical use” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243831).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243831). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stereopsis
<a id="stereopsis"></a>

Stereopsis is an important visual function that is measured with stereo tests. In this packet, it is discussed as a binocular visual ability that can be reduced in some people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bffb8badc91c2c530dd6d524851f0df83ebae11b6fc8b9c5281e583a72856cd6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Neupane Sonisha; Skerswetat Jan; Bex Peter J.. Comparison of Foraging Interactive D-prime and Angular Indication Measurement Stereo with different methods to assess stereopsis. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305036; article XML SHA-256 8335093b25dd2cc3c8d1abd10970f901e1355769de49d072d4f399c57bbbae5b. “Comparison of Foraging Interactive D-prime and Angular Indication Measurement Stereo with different methods to assess stereopsis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305036).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305036). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stereoscope
<a id="stereoscope"></a>

A stereoscope is a device used to present two companion images separately to the two eyes so they can be fused into a single binocular percept. In this context, a hand-held mirror stereoscope enables cross-fusion, which can make local visual differences stand out during search tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9aec369ca6ae3cfddfd1ac03930018f09714b1fde76e7b52033cd4e8a08b63ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Venkataramanan Kavitha; Gawde Swanandi; Hathibelagal Amithavikram R; Bharadwaj Shrikant R. Binocular fusion enhances the efficiency of spot-the-difference gameplay. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0254715; article XML SHA-256 94847e1df4375488edf0ff1409462b540b6368cc75965afc932e5ec4836af152. “Binocular fusion enhances the efficiency of spot-the-difference gameplay” (10.1371/journal.pone.0254715).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254715). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stereoscopic depth perception
<a id="stereoscopic-depth-perception"></a>

Stereoscopic depth perception is seeing depth from the differences between the two eyes’ views, especially from how surface structure is differently patterned across the images. It appears to depend more on higher-order disparities in intensity, texture, and motion that reflect local surface shape than on simple mismatches of retinal position alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5520e87fdaa851aafccc1740eb523f3db684c876649836d51a7a3d19542c3236

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lappin Joseph S.. What is binocular disparity?. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00870; article XML SHA-256 05bf4f8c01c77005c9dc276895b22efa9583c726cebb6ca5b2808bf8d3f1324e. “What is binocular disparity?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00870).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00870). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stereotype threat
<a id="stereotype-threat"></a>

Stereotype threat is a psychology concept describing how people from a group that is viewed negatively may do worse on academic or thinking tasks because the stereotype itself has harmful effects. It is often discussed as a possible factor in group differences in advanced education and STEM participation, although the strength of the evidence has been debated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5ba883e3e1cce1102d207fd70767ca6b7296cdc6563ec8c9ae5fa5219416f0b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Warne Russell T; Larsen Ross A A. Protocol for a meta-analysis of stereotype threat in African Americans. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0306030; article XML SHA-256 af6c36ed0a4f659622506e5ea0a4f96c963328fab181b7d07779785b0d33e677. “Protocol for a meta-analysis of stereotype threat in African Americans” (10.1371/journal.pone.0306030).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306030). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stereotyped behavior
<a id="stereotyped-behavior"></a>

Stereotyped behavior is a relatively fixed pattern of responding that is brought out or shaped by a particular situation. It can appear in speech, body posture, or emotional expression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4327af5824fb79b26a7a6e7a6050a49144f0e2d08a6aeddd954f697b931be5d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Stereotyped Behavior” (D013239).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013239). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stereotyped movement
<a id="stereotyped-movement"></a>

A stereotyped movement is a repetitive, involuntary movement that feels compulsive and often involves the face or shoulders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2d32b483f619ddd45892b21b5f6e5f428aa900d8abd5c12d80a29b47796dee7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Muscular Tic” (C50660).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stereotypic movement disorder
<a id="stereotypic-movement-disorder"></a>

Stereotypic movement disorder is a condition marked by repetitive, seemingly driven movements that have no clear function. These behaviors significantly disrupt normal activity or can lead to serious self-inflicted injury, and are not explained by a substance or a general medical condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 681f5d04689c73cc5195d74e5f7a6a0a31ed62eadca42ac45a5a8652b25dcce1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Stereotypic Movement Disorder” (D019956).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019956). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stereotypy
<a id="stereotypy"></a>

Stereotypy refers to abnormal, repetitive behavior that appears to have no clear goal or purpose. In the supplied source, it is described as a form of abnormal repetitive behavior seen in captive animals and noted to resemble similar behaviors documented in people with neurodevelopmental disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1bf4a6d9078142dcbd262a911b29daddd783a8ccb87db163473c47fa4db06fcd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Coden Kendall M.; Beacham Kaleigh J.; Stix-Brunell Beatriz E.; Moorhead Roberta; Byrd Kyna A.; Baker Joanna N.; Geronimo Jerome T.; Parker Karen J.; Garner Joseph P.. Stereotypy is strongly linked to multiple biomarkers of oxidative stress—A potential common etiology for Abnormal Repetitive Behaviors. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326902; article XML SHA-256 5b1a679405682f14a18f86c1de00d63c2603c98c92400d0ef5d1810ab613639c. “Stereotypy is strongly linked to multiple biomarkers of oxidative stress—A potential common etiology for Abnormal Repetitive Behaviors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326902).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326902). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## steroid
<a id="steroid"></a>

A steroid is one of a large group of related chemical compounds with a shared ring-shaped core structure. This group includes cholesterol, many hormones, some vitamin precursors, bile acids, sterols, and certain natural drugs and poisons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1cb564bf358b6a47b5f83f761ce0ad7c408406ad38b534828e9fc70b07f067fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Steroids” (D013256).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013256). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Stevens–Johnson syndrome
<a id="stevensjohnson-syndrome"></a>

Stevens–Johnson syndrome is a disorder in which the outer skin layer separates from the deeper skin layer over less than 10% of the body. It is thought to be a hypersensitivity reaction that affects both the skin and the mucous membranes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9def043b4162e01d27c07fc8fd885966587965fa3838fe600288d859ce03c01b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Stevens-Johnson Syndrome, CTCAE” (C143859).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulant withdrawal
<a id="stimulant-withdrawal"></a>

Stimulant withdrawal is the state that occurs after stopping or reducing repeated, extended use of stimulant drugs such as methamphetamine or amphetamine. In the supplied source, it is described as showing variable effects, with some evidence of increased, decreased, or unchanged spontaneous movement during withdrawal depending on factors such as the specific stimulant and study conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40bc155c68676efd82630ef01ca0f35f539c7c88240837a3f8e71fcc18abbecc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kumar Jaya; Naina Mohamed Isa; Mohamed Rashidi; Ugusman Azizah; Muzaimi Mustapha; Mohamed Wael; Yahaya Mohamad Fairuz; Teoh Seong Lin; Kamaluddin Mohammad Rahim; Abdul Hamid Hafizah; Mehat Muhammad Zulfadli; Shanmugam Prem Kumar. Locomotion changes in methamphetamine and amphetamine withdrawal: a systematic review. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fphar.2024.1428492; article XML SHA-256 0b3ca50547a9dd683a263ba7e43f05591ad60f514edd7432c1fa049df9c4988e. “Locomotion changes in methamphetamine and amphetamine withdrawal: a systematic review” (10.3389/fphar.2024.1428492).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2024.1428492). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulate
<a id="stimulate"></a>

In this context, stimulate means to activate or increase activity in a specific part of the brain, such as by using repeated low-intensity magnetic pulses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ccdf39ce9dac59076d8c5a7554111a6fddb2496a08f4070f2c3daa0459eff2b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: When Unwanted Thoughts or Repetitive Behaviors Take Over. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 55e1a877f9b3c1e5dfa4238ba211333dd27035fe9365df5859e35bec980907c0. “Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: When Unwanted Thoughts or Repetitive Behaviors Take Over” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-when-unwanted-thoughts-or-repetitive-behaviors-take-over).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-when-unwanted-thoughts-or-repetitive-behaviors-take-over). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulation effects
<a id="stimulation-effects"></a>

Stimulation effects are the outcomes produced by brain stimulation, arising from the volume of nearby tissue activated by the electrical current rather than only the exact electrode contact point. Because that activated area can overlap multiple brain structures, the observed effects may be a mixture of influences from those different structures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9845459065b48e6001636df74377464e339cb1efc13fe4c717a2488f2704afb5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cooper Scott E.; Driesslein Klaus G.; Noecker Angela M.; McIntyre Cameron C.; Machado Andre M.; Butson Christopher R.. Anatomical Targets Associated with Abrupt versus Gradual Washout of Subthalamic Deep Brain Stimulation Effects on Bradykinesia. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0099663; article XML SHA-256 8f57563de7785c504f39a2cf5e2bed13378b7bce42d44e52a84c243f0368b36a. “Anatomical Targets Associated with Abrupt versus Gradual Washout of Subthalamic Deep Brain Stimulation Effects on Bradykinesia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0099663).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099663). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus
<a id="stimulus"></a>

A stimulus is an event, action, agent, or other influence in the environment that can be sensed by the body and reliably brings about some response in a living organism, such as a change in behavior or bodily functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb50e02bc6b97b66b5a25a54b2c72eb0cd644b86ece62bf0865506a62830ef58

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Stimulus” (C41210).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus-bound
<a id="stimulus-bound"></a>

Stimulus-bound describes a process that is driven automatically by the immediate input itself rather than by flexible, context-dependent control. In the source packet, absolute pitch is described this way because it treats heard notes as direct cues for fixed pitch labels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f88f768fb95b722943c612eca950a8295b5911f0596de1dfd341e30531a0d21

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shibayama Karen; Shimada Hitoshi; Itoh Kosuke. Cognitive control in music: adaptive strategies for relative pitch across the absolute-pitch proficiency continuum. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1723224; article XML SHA-256 6abd78a7d396e01c7df2cf5df1e0e57cac62992f3ee0736a9043167a6bdeba93. “Cognitive control in music: adaptive strategies for relative pitch across the absolute-pitch proficiency continuum” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1723224).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1723224). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus control
<a id="stimulus-control"></a>

Stimulus control is the careful control and clear reporting of the study materials used in research so that factors that can influence responses are accounted for. In this context, poor stimulus control makes findings harder to compare and validate across studies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76c8fc45d2a5812fd15ea13a981b2f2b51baf80d644f298162549a58bc4f3b9f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Koller Sina; Müller Nadine; Kauschke Christina. The Elephant in the Room: A Systematic Review of Stimulus Control in Neuro-Measurement Studies on Figurative Language Processing. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2021.791374; article XML SHA-256 1201d6d4363d3be8e51b3b88906e187708b17db620f0e6301859d7b41e608005. “The Elephant in the Room: A Systematic Review of Stimulus Control in Neuro-Measurement Studies on Figurative Language Processing” (10.3389/fnhum.2021.791374).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.791374). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus element
<a id="stimulus-element"></a>

A stimulus element is a distinct part of a presented stimulus that a person must attend to or encode during a task. In the source, stimulus elements are the separate pieces of information participants fixate on and process before making a response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9183cda9dee2161110ced259920cc723031249b84c8936307a2c8a6edfc9089b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gartenberg Daniel; Gunzelmann Glenn; Hassanzadeh-Behbaha Shiva; Trafton J. Gregory. Examining the Role of Task Requirements in the Magnitude of the Vigilance Decrement. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01504; article XML SHA-256 05ed172343812f2df0dd97fb89134b2b0c87ed736fc1373e5aa544e0a706ee9b. “Examining the Role of Task Requirements in the Magnitude of the Vigilance Decrement” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01504).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01504). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus equivalence
<a id="stimulus-equivalence"></a>

Stimulus equivalence is a learning paradigm used to identify symbolic relations in observable behavior when a person treats different stimuli as related or interchangeable. When tests show the logical properties of reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity, the stimuli are considered part of an equivalence class, meaning each can stand in for the others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3f8a7d972aaf0c04e53ce0f50c59bd49e68e25b3e9b2d5d188bff1440b1a5877

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bortoloti Renato; de Almeida Rodrigo Vianna; de Almeida João Henrique; de Rose Julio C.. Emotional Faces in Symbolic Relations: A Happiness Superiority Effect Involving the Equivalence Paradigm. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00954; article XML SHA-256 56c47914f21c66c5d2acc204efec56821f1ee98709dc4a46e409145d4a0afe98. “Emotional Faces in Symbolic Relations: A Happiness Superiority Effect Involving the Equivalence Paradigm” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00954).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00954). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus filtering
<a id="stimulus-filtering"></a>

Stimulus filtering is the mental process of selecting information that is relevant to the task and reducing the influence of distracting, irrelevant input. In visual working memory, it refers to separating targets from distractors so that behaviorally important items are preferentially represented.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d7576f996aafac8063bccc6e854673a23a88ca3bfb758ccc157a2f2432886dff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Matsuyoshi Daisuke; Ikeda Takashi; Sawamoto Nobukatsu; Kakigi Ryusuke; Fukuyama Hidenao; Osaka Naoyuki. Differential Roles for Parietal and Occipital Cortices in Visual Working Memory. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0038623; article XML SHA-256 26e2898dd2c1f53679056f591cccb8b7ea3985907b0091dc946051ba3046f3c1. “Differential Roles for Parietal and Occipital Cortices in Visual Working Memory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0038623).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038623). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus generalization
<a id="stimulus-generalization"></a>

Stimulus generalization is the ability to treat two distinguishable stimuli as similar enough that they lead to the same learned response or consequence. In learning, it describes applying an association learned for one stimulus to a new but related stimulus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1f79882bb11538a83794c938eeecb494203d06a6dbac7cde373153dc37f0209

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wright Geraldine A.; Kottcamp Sonya M.; Thomson Mitchell G. A.. Generalization Mediates Sensitivity to Complex Odor Features in the Honeybee. 2008; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0001704; article XML SHA-256 f29b89e78bb2bf6554cb39f9c3eb75df4848a3867fafcba0d9d0553280866f8b. “Generalization Mediates Sensitivity to Complex Odor Features in the Honeybee” (10.1371/journal.pone.0001704).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001704). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus-independent and task-unrelated thoughts (SITUTs)
<a id="stimulus-independent-and-task-unrelated-thoughts-situts"></a>

Stimulus-independent and task-unrelated thoughts (SITUTs) are thoughts that are unrelated to the task at hand and are not triggered by current external stimuli. In this usage, they refer specifically to mind wandering, excluding external distractions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 68f446fe4343855d8fd476b47b14e2cc89a100721d3b07a8ad89ca347ee1a761

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marcusson-Clavertz David; Persson Stefan D.; Cardeña Etzel; Terhune Devin B.; Gort Cassandra; Kuehner Christine. The contribution of latent factors of executive functioning to mind wandering: an experience sampling study. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s41235-022-00383-9; article XML SHA-256 38eb74fb77104c21b21a4c12bf99a38a549e61e2282c07fdfcd846c95e73d8a8. “The contribution of latent factors of executive functioning to mind wandering: an experience sampling study” (10.1186/s41235-022-00383-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-022-00383-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus object
<a id="stimulus-object"></a>

A stimulus object is the thing in the environment that produces sensory input when it moves or makes contact with the sensory surface. In this source, it refers to an object whose shape determines which whiskers are deflected and whose movement determines the direction of those deflections.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc1466578a42a453446cf93e10a1d72af25de9bd833e6be10b69ae5e4915bc17

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wilson Stuart P.; Law Judith S.; Mitchinson Ben; Prescott Tony J.; Bednar James A.. Modeling the Emergence of Whisker Direction Maps in Rat Barrel Cortex. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0008778; article XML SHA-256 14b2a26714ca119e3df2c3c72a2c2d085db257b5e76489700e5db7408fb3adef. “Modeling the Emergence of Whisker Direction Maps in Rat Barrel Cortex” (10.1371/journal.pone.0008778).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008778). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus onset asynchrony
<a id="stimulus-onset-asynchrony"></a>

Stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) is the amount of delay between the onset of stimuli in a cognitive task. In this context, longer SOA means more time to prepare, which can change reaction time and task performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 074d761169b68006a6614ac50c540256306bca91c84a321434873520d129b5d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Narmashiri Abdolvahed. Effects of stimulus onset asynchrony on cognitive control in healthy adults. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0306609; article XML SHA-256 cf411ec9508cb222058bb4b68a16de5e39a6fe79a390ea2a7c39ef0477c190ec. “Effects of stimulus onset asynchrony on cognitive control in healthy adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0306609).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306609). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus sampling
<a id="stimulus-sampling"></a>

Stimulus sampling is the way test stimuli are selected across trials in a detection task. In this context, it means choosing signal intensities broadly across the psychometric function instead of concentrating on one response level, so sensitivity and decision-related influences can be estimated separately.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c42e4ef84623192339bac7f7bd73b1be17413bd462e3f555b1af02c09a564b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lesmes Luis A.; Lu Zhong-Lin; Baek Jongsoo; Tran Nina; Dosher Barbara A.; Albright Thomas D.. Developing Bayesian adaptive methods for estimating sensitivity thresholds ( d ′) in Yes-No and forced-choice tasks. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01070; article XML SHA-256 a4a5a95c428bdfc96b23cfbfce6ba1633969037ae7c4d7f41de9dab2b84170ed. “Developing Bayesian adaptive methods for estimating sensitivity thresholds ( d ′) in Yes-No and forced-choice tasks” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01070).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01070). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus set
<a id="stimulus-set"></a>

A stimulus set is the collection of items researchers present to participants in a study, such as vignettes, text passages, or images. Its size and format can affect how long testing takes and how much variability and statistical power a study can capture.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67f5e9c8199265c202bf514c34c02d097cf280bc8fcad554a48b34d84ef0e6a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Crone Damien L.; Bode Stefan; Murawski Carsten; Laham Simon M.. The Socio-Moral Image Database (SMID): A novel stimulus set for the study of social, moral and affective processes. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0190954; article XML SHA-256 b15e8a33322ef39fc67f604a1225ca17498791a6c0e1457bd2e1e3adbb6ebe71. “The Socio-Moral Image Database (SMID): A novel stimulus set for the study of social, moral and affective processes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0190954).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190954). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus strength
<a id="stimulus-strength"></a>

Stimulus strength is the degree to which a presented stimulus is strong or weak during encoding, such as its contrast. In cognition research, it refers to a factor that affects the quality of perceptual and working-memory representations and can influence later task performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df4f708f9cf80721dec3579c96c4c487ba71ead1c580f2c3ac1b042252013e3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wildegger Theresa; Humphreys Glyn; Nobre Anna C. Retrospective Attention Interacts with Stimulus Strength to Shape Working Memory Performance. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0164174; article XML SHA-256 5bfa7c514a34017c6b76502b4f9aadeb8db56d2a42df2bb40ed10804ec199cfc. “Retrospective Attention Interacts with Stimulus Strength to Shape Working Memory Performance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0164174).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0164174). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus–response
<a id="stimulusresponse"></a>

In this packet, stimulus–response refers to a link between what a person observes and how they act in response. It appears in stimulus–response compatibility effects, where seeing an action can automatically influence motor performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c176f3ebc40d9a1349771ef48993ec393dfb2c265edc8257e9c5729eed28508

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Genovese Francesca; Fanghella Martina; Sinigaglia Corrado; Barchiesi Guido. Does experience modulate automatic imitation? A new look. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357821; article XML SHA-256 c8d0e65aca9987e237b73497baffc78d4e96bcec7cc96da87614914d5a859d24. “Does experience modulate automatic imitation? A new look” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357821).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357821). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stimulus–response compatibility
<a id="stimulusresponse-compatibility"></a>

Stimulus–response compatibility is an effect in which what a person observes automatically affects how they carry out a motor response. In this context, seeing an action can directly influence the performance of one’s own action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f4f6893ea005dde37196d3c84aa42b0be653a517ffc359b6a504431f32531f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Genovese Francesca; Fanghella Martina; Sinigaglia Corrado; Barchiesi Guido. Does experience modulate automatic imitation? A new look. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357821; article XML SHA-256 c8d0e65aca9987e237b73497baffc78d4e96bcec7cc96da87614914d5a859d24. “Does experience modulate automatic imitation? A new look” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357821).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357821). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stirrup
<a id="stirrup"></a>

In this historical psychometric apparatus, the stirrup is a mechanical part attached to an armature that catches or clamps the falling rod when the subject responds. It is used in measuring reaction-time by stopping the rod so the elapsed time can be read.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 68a05adfff828cc042c1aa1f9410ca07738421a1a68dddfd8f1b3948688cd610

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-1722000-1734000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## STM
<a id="stm"></a>

STM stands for Structural Topic Modeling, a method used to analyze large collections of text and identify underlying themes or topics in public discourse. In this context, it was used to trace how discussion themes changed over time across many social media posts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb4a70c041442dffa0270ef2a5353394bbcbc37752875ababde89e539a4f638d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qin Siwei; Lee Wonjae. From environmental concerns to nationalist waves: Mapping the evolving Fukushima wastewater discourse on Weibo. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352452; article XML SHA-256 2c34d89578c03beaaca0e1ecaac170bcf7f2b643bbbc4346911c0357661c631c. “From environmental concerns to nationalist waves: Mapping the evolving Fukushima wastewater discourse on Weibo” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352452).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352452). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stochastic model
<a id="stochastic-model"></a>

A stochastic model is a model that includes chance variation so it can represent random disturbances affecting how a system changes over time. In the source, this is done by adding Brownian motion, making the model more realistic and showing how different levels of noise can alter outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7eccf1b60901d8d5aa7cec07c4b7a3d1c1ca1813e92079c20cc42f05603a75b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiang Shaoping; Wang Hongyan; Hu Yudie. Analysis of drug-resistant tuberculosis transmission dynamics in China using fractional stochastic model. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335889; article XML SHA-256 93827294336856c2a5d1603813399d1e7ecaae9a7f1ecdcf48947e52e867ba6b. “Analysis of drug-resistant tuberculosis transmission dynamics in China using fractional stochastic model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335889).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335889). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stochastic process
<a id="stochastic-process"></a>

A stochastic process is a process that includes randomness, especially one described as a sequence of random variables over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c483dc3268269ac90fb7134f37d67955699f9f4baeec92ecc3a43d608816ae81

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Stochastic Processes” (D013269).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013269). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stop
<a id="stop"></a>

In the ethics of clinical research, stop means to end your participation in a study. The source indicates that participation is voluntary and a person may stop taking part at any time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d794ba4c62f0fc0ec0fdb448aae1244043236edee54f96eec11fe01124ca529f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 ff7a7468286526ac17a328be4c934d7799aad584950f0a10e9047534a7dd859b. “Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stop-signal task
<a id="stop-signal-task"></a>

The stop-signal task is a cognitive task used to study response inhibition by having a person begin a response to a go signal and sometimes try to stop that response when a later stop signal appears. Performance reflects a race between the go process and the stop process, so stopping becomes harder when the stop signal comes later.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc039d38f40f6c625aa3a6fadbc855f6c9f459b7e6e6fa92755474199113f687

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Weise Lorenz; Boecker Maren; Gauggel Siegfried; Falkenburger Bjoern; Drueke Barbara. A reaction-time adjusted PSI method for estimating performance in the stop-signal task. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0210065; article XML SHA-256 c82043b3404c2b5c7f964081b155e580a18c279fb7a0e531a38ce0bff4b170e6. “A reaction-time adjusted PSI method for estimating performance in the stop-signal task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0210065).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210065). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## storage
<a id="storage"></a>

In this context, storage is the holding of visual information in working memory so it can be used according to current task demands. The source describes storage as occurring in online or offline states, with offline storage being more stable and less affected by interference.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e9175a81d6a4d98384ea0ba4396bd2a4ccb9c338edffd049a6d0b85196e4e45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gong Li; Chen Jinghan; Li Xiaojing; Liu Qiang. Effects of sleep quality on the offline storage state of visual working memory. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05342-3; article XML SHA-256 272d5b2d13de0287e212c5ce8d1e9f89922dfd59c2152e0d0e587d83ee41e31d. “Effects of sleep quality on the offline storage state of visual working memory” (10.1186/s40359-026-05342-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05342-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## storytelling
<a id="storytelling"></a>

In this context, storytelling refers to creating and sharing personal narratives, especially digital stories about important life, health, illness, or care experiences. It is used to help people learn from lived experience, share knowledge, build connection, support advocacy, and sometimes provide a therapeutic outlet for the person telling the story.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d4a6c0cf1f19f6329ee3ecde0ca73445f2489f789eb33ccf740e4a35c23c3930

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hall Steven; Lang Michael; Czarniewski Lauren; Fani Cavan; Li Ziyu; Shearer Kathleen. Digital storytelling across the life course: Protocol for a theory-based analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332145; article XML SHA-256 c563e2824c0fc0a0703bafb99c3ab86f6d528054be1704f08a7f050385fa9ef6. “Digital storytelling across the life course: Protocol for a theory-based analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332145).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332145). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## strabismus
<a id="strabismus"></a>

Strabismus is a condition in which the eyes are not aligned so they do not point in the same direction. In some forms the amount of misalignment stays the same in different directions of gaze, while in others it changes depending on where the person looks or which eye is focusing on the target.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef2dabcde163e0fba8fa0accaa8f70d58c0b13d351c08eb6b0328c8142e670a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Strabismus” (D013285).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013285). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## strain
<a id="strain"></a>

Strain is a sense that something is difficult or burdensome, leading to worry or emotional tension.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 38d0ab5c0a86099b9a0bd5a34841dd8d5d586885f49eb3c0b790c696483c9252

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Strain” (C95501).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## strata
<a id="strata"></a>

In this source, strata refers to social groupings within a population. These groups are described as having shared identity perceptions that can strengthen solidarity and help shape behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7623e9fa1dfa82b10610d34cb4cc02b80c0b6009304f8867ce6600ac7f11a70

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Li-Ju; Luo Fang; Zong Wei; Hu Fa-Wen; Liao Wen-Zhi; Ding Yu. The social representation of the identity perception among China’s new social strata: a central nucleus analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722048; article XML SHA-256 e7741ec204a78e7eef79038ffd1144e886d53490c2802eb5e6f563d4aaa72861. “The social representation of the identity perception among China’s new social strata: a central nucleus analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722048).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722048). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## strategic human resource management
<a id="strategic-human-resource-management"></a>

Strategic human resource management is an approach that links human resource practices with an organization’s overall strategy so staff-related decisions help achieve long-term goals and organizational success. It treats human resources as strategically important, including developing employees and planning areas such as staffing, training, compensation, and performance appraisal in ways that fit broader organizational aims.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7508cbb703fba9bbd5aae3f71cedda00fe5392444b990e28766fc7a4bb8653d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Anvari Roya; Kumpikaitė-Valiūnienė Vilmantė; Mobarhan Rokhsareh; Janjaria Mariam; Hosseinpour Chermahini Siavash. Strategic human resource management practitioners’ emotional intelligence and affective organizational commitment in higher education institutions in Georgia during post-COVID-19. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0295084; article XML SHA-256 9db9eeb40e5dc9b7e4b290f91a8d2a03683c544a3782845fbc58b21bfb038d01. “Strategic human resource management practitioners’ emotional intelligence and affective organizational commitment in higher education institutions in Georgia during post-COVID-19” (10.1371/journal.pone.0295084).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295084). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stratum
<a id="stratum"></a>

In this packet, stratum refers to the cerebellar cortex, the superficial gray matter covering the cerebellum. It has two main layers: the molecular layer and the granular layer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3a271d9e17e73d87060bf076dab7a36a833ff30f3a8fa19122a71d8b0c36b544

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebellar Cortex” (D002525).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002525). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stream of consciousness
<a id="stream-of-consciousness"></a>

Stream of consciousness refers to the spontaneous ongoing flow of thoughts that occurs while a person is awake but not occupied by a demanding task. In contemporary psychology, this idea is commonly discussed as mind-wandering.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a43e313109aa739753ed13a70d4057c50e9a91df3d55611c7868d359917f8c1b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marchetti Antonella; Baglio Francesca; Costantini Isa; Dipasquale Ottavia; Savazzi Federica; Nemni Raffaello; Sangiuliano Intra Francesca; Tagliabue Semira; Valle Annalisa; Massaro Davide; Castelli Ilaria. Theory of Mind and the Whole Brain Functional Connectivity: Behavioral and Neural Evidences with the Amsterdam Resting State Questionnaire. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01855; article XML SHA-256 d5842b0fe63ba72ead952d4efafab44efffd41d13e887f7a46e062f294c4897a. “Theory of Mind and the Whole Brain Functional Connectivity: Behavioral and Neural Evidences with the Amsterdam Resting State Questionnaire” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01855).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01855). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## strength of association
<a id="strength-of-association"></a>

Strength of association is the degree to which variables are related. In research methods, it can be described by the correlation between paired canonical variates formed from vectors of variables.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b2fd4d66a70a2778e74deb8d18144b9fec20c4f5532bad495b36a648467fafaf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Canonical Correlation Analysis” (D000089342).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000089342). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stress
<a id="stress"></a>

Stress is a set of negative mental, emotional, and physical reactions that happens when a person experiences demands or pressures as greater than their ability to cope with them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cd6a73a876ebbc867b8bd7ba70d1a9b51f5af11b2adbf18eb81c00e62ecae6ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Stress” (C35041).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stress hormone
<a id="stress-hormone"></a>

A stress hormone is a body chemical released as part of the stress response, especially when the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is activated. In the source, cortisol is the main example, and adrenaline is also described as a stress hormone that can affect immune activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84ff0ce1b338291c5cdd978aff3923e492fadc8699b92c1a4ae1b527baa0c8e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Anwar Misbah; Waheed Abdul; Fatima Tehseen; Khan Sadaf; Shahzad Mariyam; Roome Talat; Ahmed Ibrar; Kim Seil; Hassan Zohaib Ul; Aurongzeb Muhammad; Quraishy Mohammed Saeed; Khan Salman Ahmed. Profiles of stress hormones in relation to DENV serotypes among dengue-positive patients. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344532; article XML SHA-256 e2e78389dc9f3fb0e3395c1f3616c1bd392b01d648bbfc38202f5c4bbb0ed14c. “Profiles of stress hormones in relation to DENV serotypes among dengue-positive patients” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344532).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344532). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stress management
<a id="stress-management"></a>

Stress management is the use of methods or programs to lower stress, prevent it, or help a person handle situations that may raise stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ceff7f628860b86fb2e26b6282bd679f803170728b19447709bed0784a9a791b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Stress Management Therapy” (C67032).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stress reaction
<a id="stress-reaction"></a>

A stress reaction is an excessive response to work or professional demands, often involving emotional and physical exhaustion along with feelings of frustration and failure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c78ab15fa2cbb0daf8567b0203fe8d4dc457cd7c7afdeccc80ec467abc365ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Burnout, Professional” (D002055).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002055). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stress test
<a id="stress-test"></a>

A stress test is a clinical screening tool that puts a person through a demanding task or condition to help reveal problems that may not be obvious at rest. It is used as an indirect way to gauge reserve, meaning the physiological capacity a person can draw on in challenging situations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab2c2a3f458154b43115a629109c39cb736873e5e868f6ed7ff1fe16700800a6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kozlovski Tal; Hausdorff Jeffrey M.; Davidov Ori; Giladi Nir; Mirelman Anat; Benjamini Yoav. A novel performance scoring quantification framework for stress test set-ups. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0284083; article XML SHA-256 eb5fc41438e9dc84a9c25cf7db406367fde18b6f5d6b44ce925bef0519393e74. “A novel performance scoring quantification framework for stress test set-ups” (10.1371/journal.pone.0284083).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284083). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stressor
<a id="stressor"></a>

A stressor is any agent, stimulus, activity, or event that produces stress in an organism. More generally, it can also be something that speeds up a reaction or keeps a reaction occurring at the same rate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e6c1d04cde5255593b6f3e415ebd2b39197f6c7b7364f173488e7b132cbc85c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Stressor” (C54571).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stretch marks
<a id="stretch-marks"></a>

Stretch marks are visible skin lines, often on the abdomen, that are commonly linked to obesity and are reported to occur in more than half of obese individuals. In the autism context described here, they are discussed as a possible source of discomfort or altered sensory experience that may worsen sensitivity to touch or clothing and may be associated with postural or motor difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cd5e144c81cf89d687f15652f8ec246ff43c95a9624e008ca0038773377917bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Veronese Sheila; Zoccante Leonardo; Smania Nicola; Sbarbati Andrea. Stretch marks: a visible expression of connective’s involvement in autism spectrum disorders. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1155854; article XML SHA-256 a86e73a98455040ba51c809c527ef29e6c3fcd06f9928a599746f55f0c1d4ea7. “Stretch marks: a visible expression of connective’s involvement in autism spectrum disorders” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1155854).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1155854). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stretch receptor
<a id="stretch-receptor"></a>

A stretch receptor is a sensory neuron or sensory ending that responds when tissue is stretched, producing signals that help the body detect position and movement and support motor coordination. In the source material, stretch-activated afferent neurons such as muscle spindle neurons are given as examples.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 649e21482587388242f0d809e6a02c3f4b1f642863d9f942bc330e05e7a089ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Suslak Thomas J.; Watson Sonia; Thompson Karen J.; Shenton Fiona C.; Bewick Guy S.; Armstrong J. Douglas; Jarman Andrew P.. Piezo Is Essential for Amiloride-Sensitive Stretch-Activated Mechanotransduction in Larval Drosophila Dorsal Bipolar Dendritic Sensory Neurons. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0130969; article XML SHA-256 829cd50248b7df2fc638085c761756627a5358a4f57c986fe898b94bc4a909e4. “Piezo Is Essential for Amiloride-Sensitive Stretch-Activated Mechanotransduction in Larval Drosophila Dorsal Bipolar Dendritic Sensory Neurons” (10.1371/journal.pone.0130969).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0130969). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## striate cortex
<a id="striate-cortex"></a>

The striate cortex is the primary visual area of the human visual cortex, located in parts of the occipital lobe and along the calcarine sulcus. It receives direct input from the lateral geniculate nucleus and is the cortical area where visual signals first arrive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5af389211a358ebe302432ec97a3f7d80967541f33d0c86deabd550964525e5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Primary Visual Cortex” (D000087642).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000087642). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## striatum
<a id="striatum"></a>

The striatum is a brain structure made up of the caudate and lentiform nuclei. It is a banded area of gray and white matter located in each brain hemisphere in front of and to the side of the thalamus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3cb8ad6aef34360c107b8cf3013198b96ccd1feb7d4cc2023f0bf696ef83bf34

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Corpus Striatum” (C12448).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stridor dentium
<a id="stridor-dentium"></a>

Stridor dentium is an old term for grinding or gnashing the teeth. In this source, it refers especially to tooth-grinding seen in epilepsy and other convulsive disorders from spasm of the lower jaw muscles, and also to grinding caused by peripheral nervous irritation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: beddeae29920079014d6509f8f2cc29c5473dfe6231deb4a49d7adee6b013102

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-976500-988500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stroboscope
<a id="stroboscope"></a>

A stroboscope is a device that creates the appearance of continuous movement by letting the viewer see a rapid series of slightly different pictures in brief glimpses, usually through slits in a rotating card or cylinder. Historical forms include the phenakistoscope and zoetrope.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 56699c8081985960813801e47e12f1fa13334f6396b3d64acffcee4c89c7529b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Illusions of Motion and Movement” (Illusions).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Illusions). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stroboscopic illusion
<a id="stroboscopic-illusion"></a>

A stroboscopic illusion is the appearance of smooth, continuous movement when a rapid series of separate images is seen in brief succession through slits or by similar display devices. Successive pictures showing nearby stages of motion are perceived as one moving object rather than as separate still images.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5063fba69597c5e1299c8ca28ea3453e0f5bfef051078ddfbab2ffee691b95a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Illusions of Motion and Movement” (Illusions).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Illusions). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stroke
<a id="stroke"></a>

Stroke is a group of conditions in which neurological function is suddenly lost without convulsions because part of the brain is damaged by reduced blood flow or bleeding inside the skull. It can be described in different ways, including where the damage occurs, which blood vessels are involved, and whether bleeding is present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00ac0eff00a6a3814d59c815a3014c18ac8282c0c59e5e12992b099a4e4544f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Stroke” (D020521).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020521). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## strong methods
<a id="strong-methods"></a>

In this learning context, strong methods are teaching approaches that effectively build understanding of concepts at scales that are hard to perceive directly. The packet describes them as using carefully structured analogies, progressive alignment of scale information, and active prediction with immediate feedback to improve reasoning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 67a9a4732afd38d3ef8596ae0701d81b75bd3c76df305bb208e0425adb98ca52

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Resnick Ilyse; Davatzes Alexandra; Newcombe Nora S.; Shipley Thomas F.. Using analogy to learn about phenomena at scales outside human perception. 2017; DOI 10.1186/s41235-017-0054-7; article XML SHA-256 f1e85ed48c3f8e1cef8e0a5b52b8777b23321fa32a19e253319f549deea75fee. “Using analogy to learn about phenomena at scales outside human perception” (10.1186/s41235-017-0054-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-017-0054-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Stroop Color–Word Interference Test
<a id="stroop-colorword-interference-test"></a>

The Stroop Color–Word Interference Test is a neuropsychological assessment used as a cognitive outcome measure. In this source, it is treated as reflecting higher-order executive functioning, and poorer performance on it was one of the specific cognitive changes noted in some patients after deep brain stimulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5bed05a1e70561b47d967b5ac4421ab35fdc4dd657e07b4889cf722ee7f28d40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ning Jing; Lv Xiujuan; You Jianyu; Zhou Xingyu; An Chengfei; Zhou Zhigang. Neuropsychological outcomes comparing deep brain stimulation and best medical treatment for Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587; article XML SHA-256 af971fb6a9b037c466d05ee91fa126e1c1ba634efe2ff3d6a458939cb778efd1. “Neuropsychological outcomes comparing deep brain stimulation and best medical treatment for Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Stroop effect
<a id="stroop-effect"></a>

The Stroop effect is a cognitive interference effect in which automatically activated information conflicts with the response required by the current task goal. This competition between automatic processing and deliberate control typically slows responses and can increase errors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7464d0f17e6fafe77ecde59dfe2cb23d4ad67cc3309e7847a0f6cb9c12faf1d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Yian; Wu Yanan; Yao Yuanqing; You Ke; Zhao Guangping. Isolating perceptual conflict: a theoretical and methodological analysis of the Task-Irrelevant Paradigm. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1603617; article XML SHA-256 ee4cbe7d1361066b043576ae5f1c7944b0b1155051fb5505a7d4ec986b82c306. “Isolating perceptual conflict: a theoretical and methodological analysis of the Task-Irrelevant Paradigm” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1603617).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1603617). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## structural equation modeling
<a id="structural-equation-modeling"></a>

Structural equation modeling is a statistical approach used to test how multiple variables are related to one another at the same time. In this context, it can be used in meta-analytic work to examine direct and mediating links among factors such as leadership, voice behavior, and psychological capital.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ca0117eab813c97cc1759e87a32bb5e0593e61bdaffbbc8ad953a423837c4f06

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Yin-Che; Chen Yen-Ju. A meta-analytic structural equation modeling analysis of the relationship between voice behavior, transformational leadership, and psychological capital. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1788980; article XML SHA-256 044dbbc146ee03c344e2577599e9a0ce96cb945789c75b0a186edfb2875da7d4. “A meta-analytic structural equation modeling analysis of the relationship between voice behavior, transformational leadership, and psychological capital” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1788980).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1788980). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## structural integration
<a id="structural-integration"></a>

Structural integration refers to the way separate regions of the cerebral cortex are built into an interconnected whole. In this historical usage, it means that distant areas working together are anatomically linked by association fibres, creating mutual dependence in their activity and in disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e096a8eedec433723aed923901cd1e1fca83629d4ec6777929c4478dbf4d7686

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-1050000-1062000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## structural model
<a id="structural-model"></a>

In this context, a structural model is an integrated framework that links several psychological factors so they can jointly explain a behavior and its outcomes. Here, it refers to combining personality, affect, and work attitudes to account for quiet quitting and related behaviors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 264a79e537bf8ffedd50f67a7026dea8eee0ff7d89d996ce58f74cdf296352c0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Atiq Anum; Sullman Mark J. M.; Apostolou Menelaos; Lajunen Timo. The psychological architecture of employee disengagement: a structural model of the antecedents and behavioral outcomes of quiet quitting. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813041; article XML SHA-256 108d0b69b159c61c2867d8fdb557028e239fc4931088a852d80719c043912ac1. “The psychological architecture of employee disengagement: a structural model of the antecedents and behavioral outcomes of quiet quitting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813041).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813041). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## structured group
<a id="structured-group"></a>

A structured group is a group therapy format that is organized around a clear plan and specific therapeutic goals. In the source, it refers to a group intervention designed to change unhelpful cognitive or metacognitive biases, beliefs, and coping styles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 94863a0a173b622c82589bdb74a5df52e21aa84497ddd2b2e2821d87cd908b0b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Miegel Franziska; Demiralay Cüneyt; Moritz Steffen; Wirtz Janina; Hottenrott Birgit; Jelinek Lena. Metacognitive Training for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12888-020-02648-3; article XML SHA-256 93d598bb8a32a7493992d94a28a97c73f3752457c5918466b8c77fd67c083172. “Metacognitive Training for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-020-02648-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02648-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## structured learning
<a id="structured-learning"></a>

Structured learning is a way of organizing learning so that links between stimuli are presented in a planned sequence with repeated exposure. In this source, it is associated with more efficient early learning of sound-visual mappings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3bd0150b778bd1c7b4658930b6fe52a960d735bf77156f147d7bdff77d394ab6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moon Kyeong Deok; Park Yun Kyung; Kim Moo Seop; Jeong Chi Yoon. Early acquisition efficiency in visual-to-auditory sensory substitution: the role of structured learning. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887888; article XML SHA-256 529eaf03678948dce3931e74d267a28ef937c7935e969b3fdc08a806b4c6e440. “Early acquisition efficiency in visual-to-auditory sensory substitution: the role of structured learning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887888).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887888). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## structures of the whole
<a id="structures-of-the-whole"></a>

In this source, “structures of the whole” refers to the anatomical features across an entire organ rather than just a small part of it. Here it means the microscopic parts of the whole eye as represented together in a 3D model.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c1a247dda0402c7fa5ec1a0fcc974130fd751e8d9701073658db00e6f3677a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Jiayun; Baumgarten Sabine; Balcewicz Frederic; Johnen Sandra; Walter Peter; Lohmann Tibor. A workflow to visualize vertebrate eyes in 3D. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290420; article XML SHA-256 fb3ec8474ae800c0f10351a75166e8f05582031ba1e74e589289d486b80f0730. “A workflow to visualize vertebrate eyes in 3D” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290420).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290420). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## structuring
<a id="structuring"></a>

Structuring is arranging the environment so that it allows or encourages particular patterns of behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2b76870613730665126151aee3adfacee2197529ac410ff2dc56624bb663948

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Environment Design” (D004779).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004779). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## struggle for existence
<a id="struggle-for-existence"></a>

In this historical source, the struggle for existence means competition among different groups, understood as a force that shapes economic types through natural selection. It is used to explain why laws about human economic motives apply only under the conditions that form and sustain those types.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76e447f9738335124cbdf0a8989cbc0b972210c33254334b2edcb090c1ce5aaa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Economic Law” (Economic Law).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Economic Law). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Student Dropouts
<a id="student-dropouts"></a>

Student dropouts are individuals who leave school, secondary school, or college before completing the required curriculum. The term refers to leaving before finishing the specified course of study.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1b6e09c17ca551e0fdedc6ed6cd2e45055022a75c5dd6c17d029f88d68e8300e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Student Dropouts” (D013332).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013332). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Student’s t test
<a id="students-t-test"></a>

Student’s t test is a statistical method used to analyze continuous numerical data. In this packet, it is used to compare continuous variables between groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 100080d46a69126b75a15e2cacf212d846004f2a80dedb9556c76d3e8bb97d68

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Feng Xin; Yu Junjun; Gu Xin; Yang Yilan; Jiang Nanyan; Wang Guixuan; Zou Danyang; Ye Meiping; Zhou Pingyu. Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction as a complication of penicillin G and ceftriaxone treatment in neurosyphilis. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12879-026-12683-2; article XML SHA-256 94220169b1d4fe700d1875326d036406306cef67464c133ac63633e06d5a3524. “Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction as a complication of penicillin G and ceftriaxone treatment in neurosyphilis” (10.1186/s12879-026-12683-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-026-12683-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## study
<a id="study"></a>

A study is organized research involving people or human-derived material in which the investigator has direct contact with participants. It can include work on disease processes, treatments, clinical trials, behavior, public health, health services, or new technologies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4513b9be109f8f973bad1cd11568f5b9563f411acabfecd132a98a280b18de76

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Clinical Study” (C15206).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stupor
<a id="stupor"></a>

Stupor is a state of markedly reduced awareness and responsiveness in which a person remains conscious and can still make voluntary movements, but usually responds only to strong, repeated stimulation. It differs from coma because the person can still be aroused.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bdd62cde8ea97d0e7bb4a1ad11e02f161975d26769e13bc9638b87f1f7d54c79

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Stupor” (D053608).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D053608). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sturge–Weber syndrome
<a id="sturgeweber-syndrome"></a>

Sturge–Weber syndrome is a congenital condition that is not inherited and involves abnormal blood vessels and neurological changes. It is marked by a facial port-wine stain and abnormal capillaries in the brain coverings and eye, and it can be associated with epilepsy, cognitive impairment, glaucoma, and vision problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3ffdd0fcd471e50ee80826d85ede08c1b6ee2303cb04c729047bd357cfead99e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sturge-Weber Syndrome” (D013341).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013341). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## stuttering
<a id="stuttering"></a>

Stuttering is a speech fluency disturbance in which the timing and flow of speech are not typical for the person’s age. It commonly involves repeated or prolonged sounds or syllables, and can also include blocks, broken words, extra tension during speech, and other dysfluencies; it may begin in childhood or be acquired in association with brain disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a6e9fac12ae6e18fe63e4e24445ce5b5a05642ef146db2adfd1fe01a2c25dcc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Stuttering” (D013342).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013342). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subarachnoid hemorrhage
<a id="subarachnoid-hemorrhage"></a>

Subarachnoid hemorrhage is bleeding into the subarachnoid space around the brain or spinal cord, most often due to rupture of an intracranial aneurysm, though it can also follow trauma. It commonly causes headache, nausea, vomiting, neck stiffness, changes in mental status, and variable neurological problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48b23bf371312fb2c4b32f04e9264e83943f0983b21757bd3931af2abad8ace5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Subarachnoid Hemorrhage” (D013345).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013345). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subarachnoid space
<a id="subarachnoid-space"></a>

The subarachnoid space is the area between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater. It is filled with cerebrospinal fluid and contains major blood vessels that supply the brain and spinal cord.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4dee3c8d0fd4557c49b33a02bdcd133ea7cfebf4209ab788b17d118a64a9c18

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Subarachnoid Space” (D013346).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013346). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subcommissural organ
<a id="subcommissural-organ"></a>

The subcommissural organ is a structure formed from ependymal tissue at the point where the third ventricle meets the cerebral aqueduct. It includes cells that secrete somatostatin.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6cbcca14868a9d7e677c2bd60d175548c66110b3404c4cbad4afa6a620a1da50

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Subcommissural Organ” (D013351).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013351). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subdural hematoma
<a id="subdural-hematoma"></a>

A subdural hematoma is a buildup of blood in the space between the dura mater and the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ec812f349634c8864c036e9ee5bda09aa08b4b28a015bcf511f4baae6fc6e233

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Subdural Hematoma” (C116585).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subdural hemorrhage
<a id="subdural-hemorrhage"></a>

Subdural hemorrhage is bleeding in the space between the dura mater and the brain, most often caused by a tear in a bridging vein.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c50f5f349091dcb5b077fe9bc116b55b054c30101a313fb54ed52518a5f7020

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Subdural Hemorrhage” (C50759).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subfecundity
<a id="subfecundity"></a>

Subfecundity means reduced ability to conceive, shown by taking longer than 12 months to become pregnant despite having unprotected sexual intercourse. It can also bring psychological, social, and economic effects for couples.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ea6779f6ccc86888ce799f6aae590ceea7976ef3a5ec3e58563ab537eda82314

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Andesha Elias; Abdissa Gizachew; Ganfure Gemechu; Adugna Melese; Sheleme Merga; Bedane Jemal. Subfecundity and associated factors among pregnant mothers receiving antenatal care at public health facilities in Ambo town Oromia region, Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fgwh.2025.1506481; article XML SHA-256 7a8303606f9099d33cad9df3d1b629e546b77e666f0d36d0c343b91b8f80a0c6. “Subfecundity and associated factors among pregnant mothers receiving antenatal care at public health facilities in Ambo town Oromia region, Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study” (10.3389/fgwh.2025.1506481).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fgwh.2025.1506481). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subfornical organ
<a id="subfornical-organ"></a>

The subfornical organ is a brain structure located near the opening between the brain’s ventricles. It is involved in triggering drinking behavior when stimulated by angiotensin II.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a7f519ab6165c1158f1c0d5e6b16154c1fa788eca6c24f1d4015c61f74f2030b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Subfornical Organ” (D013356).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013356). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subiculum
<a id="subiculum"></a>

The subiculum is a group of structures that forms the lowest part of the hippocampal formation, lying between the entorhinal cortex and the CA1 region of the hippocampus. It is involved in functions such as working memory, spatial processing, and regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 04b2ab9e89c06c4f7b0fa3a060da07253dacd65ed1cc8bd585ce87eb2aba1394

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Subiculum” (C33648).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subject
<a id="subject"></a>

In cognition, a subject is the matter, situation, or event that someone is thinking about, writing about, or discussing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75de6575145d5c43beced54355c5765af5df19b4491840cc442cb03924a98f45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Subject” (C48910).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subject matching
<a id="subject-matching"></a>

Subject matching is the process of aligning one person’s brain images with those of other people or with a common template so the images can be compared in the same space. In this source, it refers especially to direct matching of one subject’s EPI scans across subjects rather than relying on a separate anatomical image to guide the alignment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ada8c6e6b7216d78419f5093eedd1cd43493236789af39bc2a4ea8b7b7d3c8f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dohmatob Elvis; Varoquaux Gael; Thirion Bertrand. Inter-subject Registration of Functional Images: Do We Need Anatomical Images?. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2018.00064; article XML SHA-256 d874f909dd91bf3ace49415e244259c940ec6d60fe9b934e31f34eb824421981. “Inter-subject Registration of Functional Images: Do We Need Anatomical Images?” (10.3389/fnins.2018.00064).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00064). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subject of consciousness
<a id="subject-of-consciousness"></a>

In this historical source, the subject of consciousness is the underlying bearer or substance to which conscious experience belongs. It is treated as whatever supports consciousness, while not being identified with any particular known quality of experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1668ed6d96123d0c10f4985953683feeffe3281404ff2a983f0ced5c9f775a0b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3307500-3319500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subject variable
<a id="subject-variable"></a>

A subject variable is a participant-based factor used to sort people into different groups for comparison in a study. In the source example, the number of mandatory running sessions served as a between-subject variable because different groups of students were compared on that basis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 33c5d2775663ffda4346ee23cc80f9338bca56806a6718d05fc258455aafa297

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiang Jiahao; Huang Yating; Sang Yuanbin; Zhou Xinyu; Hou Shaofei; Li Lun. An empirical study on exercise addiction and grit among college students: based on 35 exercise sessions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755715; article XML SHA-256 a4d70688c9dc209cec71e87d4041459c298c85810508d922f0ec3dbce9802e6f. “An empirical study on exercise addiction and grit among college students: based on 35 exercise sessions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755715).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755715). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subjective idealism
<a id="subjective-idealism"></a>

Subjective idealism is a name used for the view, associated with Berkeley, that the material world has no independent substance and is real only as it is experienced by conscious beings. In this source, however, the label immaterialism is said to fit better because Berkeley still treats other minds, including a divine mind, as genuinely real.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf7b8e20bbd17c972d490a3fb65b0e5b1bfe1862912517a0a3caebb272da1ca0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Immaterialism” (Immaterialism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Immaterialism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subjective norm
<a id="subjective-norm"></a>

Subjective norm is a person’s sense of whether important people in their life think they should carry out a particular behavior. In the theory of planned behavior, this perceived social pressure helps shape intention to act.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c7157834c6470a8d92bd6a7dde76622bd758f5523c95f355d319603adac9e1d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Jia; Liu Ru-De; Ding Yi; Liu Ying; Xu Le; Zhen Rui. What Influences Chinese Adolescents’ Choice Intention between Playing Online Games and Learning? Application of Theory of Planned Behavior with Subjective Norm Manipulated as Peer Support and Parental Monitoring. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00589; article XML SHA-256 0559974b1171f50a14ce5fa628a369c81fbff803b7ace92ec79141a59ab69b4c. “What Influences Chinese Adolescents’ Choice Intention between Playing Online Games and Learning? Application of Theory of Planned Behavior with Subjective Norm Manipulated as Peer Support and Parental Monitoring” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00589).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00589). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subjective prior
<a id="subjective-prior"></a>

A subjective prior is a person’s pre-existing belief about the state of the world before current sensory information is taken into account. In a Bayesian view of learning and decision-making, this belief is combined with new information to form an updated posterior belief that guides behaviour.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 81628c82c89db745767fc249e65e82648ebba155e22e75b31af863f5159d48ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Daunizeau Jean; den Ouden Hanneke E. M.; Pessiglione Matthias; Kiebel Stefan J.; Friston Karl J.; Stephan Klaas E.. Observing the Observer (II): Deciding When to Decide. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0015555; article XML SHA-256 12e3e9b8360844afdaefbd32e4bbd8933ae07475fc4259f86cc96ef469da2fe4. “Observing the Observer (II): Deciding When to Decide” (10.1371/journal.pone.0015555).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0015555). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subjective probability
<a id="subjective-probability"></a>

Subjective probability is mere likelihood as judged from one’s state of knowledge, especially when different supposed cases are treated as equally possible because no reason is seen to favor one over another. In this historical source it is contrasted with objective probability, which is tied to the long-run proportion of events in experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cb61b2fdba351673bee616d92a574c9134b00f7bdbd13047897af97f49b90f00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2005500-2017500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subjectivity
<a id="subjectivity"></a>

Subjectivity is the first-person aspect of experience in which a world is organized from the subject’s own point of view. In the source, it is described as a structure where a third-person world appears within a first-person world, producing egocentric knowledge that also includes the subject.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3e64ca0b32e787976a9b8aca0a731df8a3dc6dc562ac9a1a7874b95ff7af2fe1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Forti Bruno. Qualities, subjectivity and spatial extension: is there a common factor?. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813385; article XML SHA-256 8c1f387565bcdb9744c6d92f9c4439b726e9340f11a136d842505cf281cabcee. “Qualities, subjectivity and spatial extension: is there a common factor?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813385).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813385). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subjects’ rights
<a id="subjects-rights"></a>

Subjects’ rights are the protections and entitlements of people who take part in research, especially regarding their privacy and ethical treatment. In this context, the term refers to safeguarding participants when biosamples are shared, reused, or stored.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d19d5c688010fdb3339a0264a991b0b093ad274fda1f9b0a9268dc5cc869f233

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alkaraki Almuthanna K; Khabour Omar F; Alzoubi Karem H; Al-Ebbini Lina M K; Altaany Zaid. Sharing, reuse, and storage of biosamples among biomedical researchers in Jordan: Practice and concerns. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0267552; article XML SHA-256 bdfa6598d24362a7cbaf757bc7dddc4d49f72e951d01249349142c408b4a3dbb. “Sharing, reuse, and storage of biosamples among biomedical researchers in Jordan: Practice and concerns” (10.1371/journal.pone.0267552).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267552). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subjunctive
<a id="subjunctive"></a>

Subjunctive is a grammatical mood referring to an assertion presented as an idea of the mind rather than as straightforward reality. In its earlier sense it expressed a willed idea, carrying a sense of assurance, promise, or personal control; in Latin usage the term was broadened to cover forms treating the statement as non-real.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 288b2d0240d94a3b0b1d2a14fb5dc0ff428df2a8116ad89808fe5ee3a4ff97eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: C4defs.htm” (ffd1bbd428b354054301).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subliminal
<a id="subliminal"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, subliminal means below the threshold of sensation or awareness. It contrasts with liminal, at the threshold, and supraliminal, above it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ab9eca3cea888ccfa24aa5c90e6951ab4fff0b6ac262d6f64d002c81a30b957

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Limen” (Limen).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Limen). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subliminal perception
<a id="subliminal-perception"></a>

Subliminal perception is the influence of a stimulus on thinking, feelings, actions, learning, or memory without the person being consciously aware of the stimulus. It involves input that is below subjective awareness and can still shape responses, such as making reactions faster or more accurate when later information matches the unseen cue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df95bfabaebf9cecc26f10e7f5a3b94164c46efa79073951f1dad9d1f2e4179b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Song Juan; Zhao Zijing; Jiao Zhibin; Peng Yao; Chu Mingyuan. Subliminal perception of others’ physical pain induces personal distress rather than empathic concern. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s40359-023-01310-3; article XML SHA-256 783ce857b97a4f172e4d85e6d0fae538980d2e6c491d02b7d998fa4801124bba. “Subliminal perception of others’ physical pain induces personal distress rather than empathic concern” (10.1186/s40359-023-01310-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01310-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subliminal stimulation
<a id="subliminal-stimulation"></a>

Subliminal stimulation is stimulation presented at a level too weak to produce a distinct, differentiated response.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e02978f32eacc011a595f7f477f436c3c5ac8ad917ff0ec4b0e10d60e5c7a12

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Subliminal Stimulation” (D013360).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013360). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## submission
<a id="submission"></a>

Submission is something presented to other people for their judgment or consideration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a8f19670a41fed19fe541549a94802984be86391e57b2189720277cfb7bf2f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Submission” (C25694).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subnormal
<a id="subnormal"></a>

Subnormal refers to intellectual functioning that is below the expected range and begins during the developmental period. It can arise from different causes, including genetic problems and injuries around the time of birth, and IQ testing is commonly used to help identify it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f6d3c9d1491a678efbfaa80df778dd993bccf2e1119519e889d75da3fa7c518

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Intellectual Disability” (D008607).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008607). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subordinate
<a id="subordinate"></a>

In this workplace psychology context, a subordinate is an employee in the lower-ranking role within a supervisor-subordinate relationship. It refers to the worker whose relationship with a supervisor is being examined.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a4a28a18c051c628a8f10bf3090f2664afef50c3f127970bad2498a77f134a18

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Yuan; Yu Ying; Liu Yixin. Supervisor-subordinate relationships, internal employability, and emotional labor: an exploratory comparative analysis of two supermarket branches in China. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1928782; article XML SHA-256 a89e10884151d1956b38b50fcfa6152c1dc04282e2905165e1649ff1db97cb85. “Supervisor-subordinate relationships, internal employability, and emotional labor: an exploratory comparative analysis of two supermarket branches in China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1928782).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1928782). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subordination
<a id="subordination"></a>

In this historical usage, subordination means arranging more particular purposes under a more general end within an ordered system. In ethics, it refers to lesser aims being directed by and placed under what is taken to be the ultimate purpose of conduct.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f61b93f68b4a516bc64a7515f087fd63fe715273ef219c15f4258e6ef5bbb088

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “End (ethical)” (End).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#End). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## substance abuse
<a id="substance-abuse"></a>

Substance abuse is a harmful pattern of using alcohol or drugs. It can contribute to problems in social life, work, mental well-being, or physical health.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 068b7e6318b4b08f0dc51d1cd984388c9ac272a9463eb6a7986ba194dfa547dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Substance Abuse” (C18272).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
<a id="substance-abuse-and-mental-health-services-administration"></a>

The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, or SAMHSA, is a U.S. federal agency focused on improving access to and quality of prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation services for substance use and mental health problems. Its role also includes providing funding for scientific research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9c9dbbf8bfce9b2e39385a216e58b3482a064eada7e50f699f566a61e4517e1f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration” (C39522).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## substance abuse treatment
<a id="substance-abuse-treatment"></a>

Substance abuse treatment is care aimed at helping people with problematic substance use reduce or stop harmful use. In the source, it is described as a treatment area that has often emphasized compliance and stopping the behavior, while newer approaches also use psychotherapeutic methods and the therapeutic relationship to reduce resistance and support client autonomy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0633b763c835a6d1354eef5541a905038b53f82354304700c958deca5a616e58

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cipriano Gina; Peluso Paul R.; Bright Emma; Hutarkova Blanka. Applying affect coding and dynamical systems mathematical modeling to understanding the role of emotional expression on the therapeutic relationship across an entire course of substance abuse treatment. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1544437; article XML SHA-256 100f1d0efd95320062862d225836607f10b947db00ff0bdf2881326d78e23a63. “Applying affect coding and dynamical systems mathematical modeling to understanding the role of emotional expression on the therapeutic relationship across an entire course of substance abuse treatment” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1544437).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1544437). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## substance dependence
<a id="substance-dependence"></a>

Substance dependence, also called addiction, is a complex disorder shaped by both environmental and genetic factors. It can involve dependence on substances such as nicotine, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, opiates, or other drugs, and is linked to serious health and social or economic harm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 32ef93160fa5f312306ed091d8c0069f94c51690993f89633320f5e8645aaa8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Xiang; Cho Kelly; Singer Burton H.; Zhang Heping. The Nuclear Transcription Factor PKNOX2 Is a Candidate Gene for Substance Dependence in European-Origin Women. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0016002; article XML SHA-256 5a5a210d23ae9cdb9767d31ee84b21de5d095fc7f57bed1a51d323dc1a1f0954. “The Nuclear Transcription Factor PKNOX2 Is a Candidate Gene for Substance Dependence in European-Origin Women” (10.1371/journal.pone.0016002).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0016002). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## substance-induced anxiety disorder
<a id="substance-induced-anxiety-disorder"></a>

A substance-induced anxiety disorder is an anxiety condition in which the anxiety symptoms are caused by the direct physical effects of a substance, such as a drug, medication, or toxin exposure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b0527837b5419264658419c7cd1784997b617eb7b0f7f5d768ca6f844b1bfbb7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Substance-Induced Anxiety Disorder” (C92623).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## substance-induced persisting amnestic disorder
<a id="substance-induced-persisting-amnestic-disorder"></a>

Substance-induced persisting amnestic disorder is a memory disorder in which a person has trouble forming new memories or recalling past ones because of the lasting effects of substance use. The memory problem continues longer than the usual period of intoxication or withdrawal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7229ac143763cfbe876acbdde0a0571cec8eadee6132e4ed726d121c5b634208

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Substance-Induced Persisting Amnestic Disorder” (C92643).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## substance-induced persisting dementia
<a id="substance-induced-persisting-dementia"></a>

A mental health finding describing lasting dementia caused by the use or abuse of a psychoactive substance, when it is not classified elsewhere.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e6a313a6d2845a811d81e30cb64f571114ae8399a3edf4e4541e57c5ff25a53

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Other Psychoactive Substance Abuse with Psychoactive Substance-Induced Persisting Dementia” (C195824).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## substance-induced psychotic disorder
<a id="substance-induced-psychotic-disorder"></a>

A substance-induced psychotic disorder is a psychotic condition in which strong hallucinations or delusions are caused by substance use, intoxication, or withdrawal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d5d4e64331e1a4dea55c0f43b778b3a602ed993dfa45c8f36a315420a8f317fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Substance-Induced Psychotic Disorder” (C34957).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## substance intoxication delirium
<a id="substance-intoxication-delirium"></a>

Substance intoxication delirium is a disorder in which intoxication from a substance directly causes a rapid, sudden change in attention along with problems in memory, language, perception, or related mental functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 371e15bf4071ddef0bb3f00b62e19539617dae26d00bb6889bbb7fa19532f7f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Substance Intoxication Delirium” (C92640).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## substance P
<a id="substance-p"></a>

Substance P is a small neurotransmitter found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. It helps transmit pain signals and also affects intestinal muscle contraction as well as inflammatory and immune activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2d40d811ea0952f3df112e6606d64009102d965dea76d87600abae260ceb1e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Substance P” (D013373).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013373). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## substance-related disorder
<a id="substance-related-disorder"></a>

A substance-related disorder is a group of mental health conditions linked to the use of drugs of abuse, including alcohol, prescribed medicines, and recreational drugs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1dc6ae091861a3f404b50553b0b4ead89d4edc99d7fcdf99149649bc447d819b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Substance-Related Disorder” (C92203).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## substance use disorder
<a id="substance-use-disorder"></a>

Substance use disorder is a disorder related to the use of substances. In the supplied source, it is described as a major global health problem that contributes substantially to overall disease burden.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2539aa55bf8053fef23c063c6b12d1c67ef589647272d2cac6760d72413ec2b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fang Shu-Ping; Yang Xin; Zhao Da-Cong; Wen Yang; Liu Yi-Hao; Li Zhe; Ran Mao-Sheng. Ketamine for substance use disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1835709; article XML SHA-256 03343be824d97bb6138cb6f0b0c9a3cd71f4827f93561c2c3979d37810704af1. “Ketamine for substance use disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1835709).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1835709). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## substantia gelatinosa
<a id="substantia-gelatinosa"></a>

Substantia gelatinosa is a gelatinous-looking region in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. It is made mainly of Golgi type II neurons, along with some larger nerve cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 33bd6a99ba528fe4fcc26940b4895cc1f516a18f2533e629bcdaeab971f6bad4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Substantia Gelatinosa” (D013376).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013376). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## substantia nigra
<a id="substantia-nigra"></a>

The substantia nigra is a dark-pigmented area in the ventral midbrain, or the group of cells located there. Its cells make dopamine, a neurotransmitter involved in movement-related functions and mood, and its dark color comes from melanin formed as a by-product of dopamine production.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e28fce562fd250dde31a32b961781d3f380c22bcdb5b9d85e5c567a7937fee3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Substantia Nigra” (D013378).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013378). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## substrate
<a id="substrate"></a>

In this mental health context, substrate means the underlying material or source that a system can draw on to make estimates or recommendations. Here, it refers to language from clinical interviews and health records as a rich base for predicting individual treatment effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 633aa2a25373fde40630748fcf44d74cdf768348e88af663c63f9f7cf19b1702

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shui Ruyi; Zhang Xu; Cai Zheya; Zhao Kangrui; Siniatchkin Michael; Hou Jiaojiao. Language-informed treatment recommendations in psychiatry: bridging the gap in individual predictability. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1888061; article XML SHA-256 b22515970f49345d2f216d17da11228cc8c5585dcab1a5940b911a2826db95fe. “Language-informed treatment recommendations in psychiatry: bridging the gap in individual predictability” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1888061).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1888061). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subthalamic nucleus
<a id="subthalamic-nucleus"></a>

The subthalamic nucleus is a lens-shaped brain structure located on the inner side of the internal capsule. It and the nerve pathways passing through this region are involved in integrating body movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16698afb67f508152733cccfe707b197ac4f29eadc5881ac1dc03a51c2c61d3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Subthalamic Nucleus” (D020531).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020531). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subtraction method
<a id="subtraction-method"></a>

The subtraction method is a restricted-diffusion imaging approach that compares two apparent diffusion coefficient maps made from diffusion-weighted images collected with short versus long effective diffusion times. It produces an image from the difference between those ADC maps to highlight diffusion-related changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36b23206b993dd5541030c567437233b14912890db81268926047cc53935af9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barham Majd; Kuroda Masahiro; Yoshimura Yuuki; Hamada Kentaro; Khasawneh Abdullah; Sugimoto Kohei; Konishi Kohei; Tekiki Nouha; Sugianto Irfan; Bamgbose Babatunde O; Ishizaka Hinata; Shimizu Yudai; Nakamitsu Yuki; Al-Hammad Wlla E; Kamizaki Ryo; Kurozumi Akira; Matsushita Toshi; Ohno Seiichiro; Asaumi Junichi. Evaluation of calculation processes of apparent diffusion coefficient subtraction method (ASM) imaging. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0282462; article XML SHA-256 18ff5626112e20fb1a56a588b805a2c221aaaa157f28d2053ffac9000026b1d7. “Evaluation of calculation processes of apparent diffusion coefficient subtraction method (ASM) imaging” (10.1371/journal.pone.0282462).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282462). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## subventricular zone
<a id="subventricular-zone"></a>

The subventricular zone is a region of the brain. In the supplied source, it is discussed as being linked to the development of glioblastoma, resistance to treatment, and prognosis when the tumor involves this area.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9256ef701cf7eaf0f3cb7de54d4671ed40f113032ef3984776d529c8e9fd1b4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Berendsen Sharon; van Bodegraven Emma; Seute Tatjana; Spliet Wim G. M.; Geurts Marjolein; Hendrikse Jeroen; Schoysman Laurent; Huiszoon Willemijn B.; Varkila Meri; Rouss Soufyan; Bell Erica H.; Kroonen Jérôme; Chakravarti Arnab; Bours Vincent; Snijders Tom J.; Robe Pierre A.. Adverse prognosis of glioblastoma contacting the subventricular zone: Biological correlates. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0222717; article XML SHA-256 e6d779a30adecc9dfbc8a2e112b0298ae0e5c4d69ac15f9ae9460ddf2aa3a339. “Adverse prognosis of glioblastoma contacting the subventricular zone: Biological correlates” (10.1371/journal.pone.0222717).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222717). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## successful aging
<a id="successful-aging"></a>

Successful aging is a multidimensional idea about growing older in a way that maintains health and functioning while staying involved in life. It is commonly described in biomedical terms as avoiding disease and disability, preserving physical and cognitive abilities, and remaining actively engaged, but broader views also include psychological well-being, social participation, independence, support, and life satisfaction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a252f7dedbf2ceb15ded46b0620a75f16d255d55bfeffe94b24e9e41daab61a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lin Yi-Hsuan; Chiou Jeng-Min; Chen Ta-Fu; Lai Liang-Chuan; Chen Jen-Hau; Chen Yen-Ching. The association between metabolic syndrome and successful aging- using an extended definition of successful aging. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0260550; article XML SHA-256 34f4cc645a14b3288ed41aab878b6748aa4c27aa44711ffd3882d9c006932a4e. “The association between metabolic syndrome and successful aging- using an extended definition of successful aging” (10.1371/journal.pone.0260550).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260550). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## successive contrast
<a id="successive-contrast"></a>

Successive contrast is the apparent change in the colour or brightness of a surface caused by earlier stimulation of the same area of the retina by a different light. In plain terms, it is the effect of an after-image falling on a newly viewed surface.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a9c98e5a849b6363a5d1d8e4b1495788db9dd89da064f996910149060a668ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: C4defs.htm” (ffd1bbd428b354054301).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## successive induction
<a id="successive-induction"></a>

Successive induction is the step-by-step activation of factors in a regulatory sequence, where one factor helps trigger the next. In the supplied source, it refers to the sequential induction of Runx3, Egr1, and Sox9b in developing zebrafish tissue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 25566b0da915c9b9d6fecdcb934cc0fa66a214b24d8a1108ff187e75293707a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dalcq Julia; Pasque Vincent; Ghaye Aurélie; Larbuisson Arnaud; Motte Patrick; Martial Joseph A.; Muller Marc. RUNX3, EGR1 and SOX9B Form a Regulatory Cascade Required to Modulate BMP-Signaling during Cranial Cartilage Development in Zebrafish. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0050140; article XML SHA-256 8074ae4b8d7e982859abf18bc8fe1acb16eea67a0e850016fdf84f0bcf508beb. “RUNX3, EGR1 and SOX9B Form a Regulatory Cascade Required to Modulate BMP-Signaling during Cranial Cartilage Development in Zebrafish” (10.1371/journal.pone.0050140).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050140). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## succinylcholine
<a id="succinylcholine"></a>

Succinylcholine is a short-acting muscle relaxant that works by activating nicotinic receptors at the neuromuscular junction and causing depolarization. Because this effect can persist, it disrupts nerve-to-muscle signaling and is followed by skeletal muscle relaxation and flaccid paralysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 31e5ac3dab3a76c3edad9f5b2019e5fb9fd2ac7935d68c47e729ce2086ef5853

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Succinylcholine” (C61955).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sudden infant death syndrome
<a id="sudden-infant-death-syndrome"></a>

Sudden infant death syndrome is the sudden death of an infant during sleep that is linked in this source to a failure to arouse and respond to life-threatening events such as low oxygen. The packet describes it as involving abnormalities in brainstem homeostatic systems, especially medullary pathways that help control breathing, cardiovascular function, and autonomic responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86ff45721f0f02052f1faac92df2c0b63a7e688422f4ae82b9b419d8d454684d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bright Fiona M.; Vink Robert; Byard Roger W.; Duncan Jhodie R.; Krous Henry F.; Paterson David S.. Abnormalities in substance P neurokinin-1 receptor binding in key brainstem nuclei in sudden infant death syndrome related to prematurity and sex. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0184958; article XML SHA-256 ab2dff79247528c332a8bd382d86394d4fce1e70a2941cbf0b59af2b7cbe8d9f. “Abnormalities in substance P neurokinin-1 receptor binding in key brainstem nuclei in sudden infant death syndrome related to prematurity and sex” (10.1371/journal.pone.0184958).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184958). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sudden insight
<a id="sudden-insight"></a>

Sudden insight is the experience in problem solving of a solution coming to mind all at once and seeming obviously right. In this context, stronger feelings of insight are more often reported for correct solutions than for incorrect ones, especially on problems meant to evoke insight.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc989e1b8b5d34f2f3bb5fbaefb3580b7e90d9eed51052023c010a0f2e340260

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Webb Margaret E.; Little Daniel R.; Cropper Simon J.. Insight Is Not in the Problem: Investigating Insight in Problem Solving across Task Types. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01424; article XML SHA-256 f8f884c243b05c085df4cbacb1f2b7da7c5fd6ea37233cf42f5ba176c2e76e16. “Insight Is Not in the Problem: Investigating Insight in Problem Solving across Task Types” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01424).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01424). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## suffering
<a id="suffering"></a>

In this source, suffering refers to enduring hardship within sport training culture. It is framed as a valued expectation that can make harmful treatment seem necessary for development and can help normalize abuse and silence resistance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a34e22327b6525a69e7942bb4747134295a5d38619a84da1424074ced1e14546

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Huang Huancheng; Chen Yuanyuan; Wan Yu; Jiang Lu; Sun Shulin; Huang Luqi. How training culture normalizes sport bullying: suffering, obedience, and structural violence in athlete development. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885241; article XML SHA-256 1ac0acd749644dff7c25f7c7cf0e0a44a5f779803a6679d46fa5f637fc0fc25a. “How training culture normalizes sport bullying: suffering, obedience, and structural violence in athlete development” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885241).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885241). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sufficient condition
<a id="sufficient-condition"></a>

A sufficient condition is something whose occurrence guarantees another event: if it happens, the other event also happens. In the same logical contrast, a necessary condition is something without which the other event does not occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: abe333d446a2054ea381edca8e78e588be69c4309a7cf4dee33193fe1188240a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Necessary (1) and (2) Sufficient Condition” (Necessary (1) and (2) Sufficient Condition).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N1defs.htm#Necessary (1) and (2) Sufficient Condition). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## suggestion
<a id="suggestion"></a>

Suggestion is the uncritical acceptance of an idea or a proposed course of action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 47ff9f0023000e118d5fb0be264d33010455179c61c2bd4debb1600b983c032c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Suggestion” (D013404).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013404). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sui juris
<a id="sui-juris"></a>

In this historical legal-psychiatric usage, sui juris means being legally competent to act for oneself rather than being under a guardian because of minority or formal legal disability. In the passage, it refers to a person who is legally their own master in law even if alleged to be insane.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6825c44091600374921c74b1941de7c4ee8d5234d108bd1a2dbf8f8676f1a670

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-315000-327000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## suicidal ideation
<a id="suicidal-ideation"></a>

Suicidal ideation is the most common form of suicidal behavior. It is associated with increased risk of suicide attempts and suicide deaths, although only a minority of people with suicidal ideation go on to engage in overt self-harm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2dc83382f01ff635733658494454e1d9efcaf82bf2d445fc106892c53031ccf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Suicidal Ideation” (D059020).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D059020). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## suicide
<a id="suicide"></a>

Suicide is death caused by a person ending their own life. It is a major global public health problem, and psychiatric disorders are an important risk factor, especially mood disorders and substance use disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c2921f2b41ff07865204808f5a5aa3d3c5b17109f2a81a514411c4bc97350c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Arafat S M Yasir; Arya Vikas; Ahmed Srijony; Kar Sujita Kumar; Menon Vikas; Khan Murad M; Spittal Matthew J; Knipe Duleeka. Population attributable fractions of psychiatric disorders for suicide in low and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08252-1; article XML SHA-256 d393be08d3ab7462c84f3b300e134a6374c149dee72dcbe77b6e4778a2205666. “Population attributable fractions of psychiatric disorders for suicide in low and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1186/s12888-026-08252-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08252-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## suicide attempt
<a id="suicide-attempt"></a>

A suicide attempt is self-inflicted harm carried out with the aim of ending one’s own life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c674285a95c7c5e51ec8ebc1da8e0480bd4446216224e3b9b715c7645612513

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Suicide Attempt” (C80111).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## suicide-prevention center
<a id="suicide-prevention-center"></a>

A suicide-prevention center is a service that supports people at risk of suicide, including crisis counseling and follow-up contact after emergency department or inpatient discharge. It may work in partnership with hospitals to reach patients after they leave acute care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c6d9a46fde9f4c6180ed136a88ab0421b5aca4344eb8174aaee90b6ee037578

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Soderlund Patricia D.; Cheung Erick H.; Cadiz Madonna P.; Siddiq Hafifa; Yerstein Maria; Lee Sae; Wells Kenneth; Heilemann MarySue V.. Bridging the gap: a qualitative study of providers' perceptions of a partnered crisis follow-up program for suicidal patients post-emergency department discharge. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05106-y; article XML SHA-256 55976f17f59b67363bf5634e0025d76b4e46cafc3a3cfc1ae6237d8b4cffd431. “Bridging the gap: a qualitative study of providers' perceptions of a partnered crisis follow-up program for suicidal patients post-emergency department discharge” (10.1186/s12888-023-05106-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05106-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sulcus centralis
<a id="sulcus-centralis"></a>

The sulcus centralis is a major groove on the surface of the brain that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe. It also marks the boundary between the brain’s primary motor area and primary somatosensory area.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8abfa065dc5bb92be6023d42dd42a25f81652937ecd16769e437094238269f22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sulcus Centralis” (C33654).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sum of squared errors
<a id="sum-of-squared-errors"></a>

Sum of squared errors is a statistical quantity used in research methods. In linear regression, it adds up the squared differences between observed values and predicted values; in analysis of variance, it reflects the summed squared deviations associated with error within the design.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86e052373b35fed79b0b65d80a8df3f35ab817a5a6119454604dcda11002b0e0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Sum of Squares Error” (sse.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/sse.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sum strategy
<a id="sum-strategy"></a>

In this image-fusion method, a sum strategy means creating the fused saliency component by simply adding together the saliency components from each input image. It is used as a straightforward way to combine salient information from multiple imaging modalities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d9e8fa2dce732c5e985d2060919a1d325cb5db4c8ce59ad71bfbe413b4c9740b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Zhengyuan; Xiang Wentao; Zhu Songsheng; Zeng Rui; Marquez-Chin Cesar; Chen Zhen; Chen Xianqing; Liu Bin; Li Jianqing. LatLRR-FCNs: Latent Low-Rank Representation With Fully Convolutional Networks for Medical Image Fusion. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2020.615435; article XML SHA-256 c7cffc1c453555afb4e4de17688360ab6e7ddf0f13eb91a974dba05cf90ba84a. “LatLRR-FCNs: Latent Low-Rank Representation With Fully Convolutional Networks for Medical Image Fusion” (10.3389/fnins.2020.615435).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2020.615435). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sumatriptan
<a id="sumatriptan"></a>

Sumatriptan is a serotonin agonist that selectively acts at 5HT1 receptors. It is used to treat migraine disorders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53ce15e4615382d7f1fb4696bea5012a44b173b78dd94da7bb22b6a4d489d66b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sumatriptan” (D018170).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018170). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## summating potential
<a id="summating-potential"></a>

Summating potential is a waveform peak in click-evoked electrocochleography that reflects activity generated by hair cells in the cochlea. In this source, it is considered alongside the action potential from cochlear neurons, and the SP/AP ratio is used as a possible sign of hidden hearing loss related to selective neural damage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3f4afd4b9c8c33bd78090e48ceb53c594f842f1bb27cc1b984ff02431cf624e6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liberman M Charles; Epstein Michael J; Cleveland Sandra S; Wang Haobing; Maison Stéphane F. Toward a Differential Diagnosis of Hidden Hearing Loss in Humans. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0162726; article XML SHA-256 eef99fc668ac05b9f6a1106e9e94f6bbdfd5b81568318a737f4d196bd23a00f9. “Toward a Differential Diagnosis of Hidden Hearing Loss in Humans” (10.1371/journal.pone.0162726).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162726). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## summation effect
<a id="summation-effect"></a>

A summation effect is an increase in the overall sensory response when similar inputs are combined. In this study, stimulating more fingers at the same vibration frequency produced a larger brain response, showing that somatosensory signals can add together rather than being processed completely separately.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8d6fcd16b1c73e53ed2a7fd47c35dfae7d3dec8a9dd287ca1475e750e24cd42

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wei Shasha; Wade Alex R; Preston Catherine EJ; Baker Daniel H. Signal combination in flutter vibration perception. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350140; article XML SHA-256 d8ec8ace4ee8511646e5b8c43c65292689b79227ea213ed01314285a90e09f18. “Signal combination in flutter vibration perception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350140).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350140). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## summative evaluation
<a id="summative-evaluation"></a>

Summative evaluation is an end-point assessment used to judge how well a programme or scheme worked overall, based on participants’ experiences, satisfaction, and perceived outcomes. In this context, it looks back on the completed activity to decide its value and identify broad results and areas for improvement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18e5b3f43ac66941355f9d57805eb6d0e17f251095633bb6ae334b6a2f359ba4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Woodrow Mirembe; Benedikz Elizabeth; Bryant Louise D; Illés Jane; Jagpal Parbir; Jennings Hannah Maria; Monks Eleanor; Nayak Vrinda; Reza Musarrat Maisha; Saha Sikha; Upadhyaya Meena; Williams Kate; Winpenny John P; Zamani Reza; Alwan Nisreen A. ‘I cannot be what I don’t see’: an evaluation of Academic Intersectionality Mentoring in medical schools (AIMMS Mentoring). 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318326; article XML SHA-256 eabb55e7070ebf17f1a4268f43ccee95f25396b117155236bd301daa6e07de70. “‘I cannot be what I don’t see’: an evaluation of Academic Intersectionality Mentoring in medical schools (AIMMS Mentoring)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318326).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318326). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## summer depression
<a id="summer-depression"></a>

Summer depression is a less common form of seasonal affective disorder in which depressive symptoms occur during the spring and summer months. It refers to a seasonal pattern of depression rather than the more typical winter pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9d69905db2220bebe313129b246d1346b7b5cea1eaf0fce556a56338914477af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Seasonal Affective Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d89120086a5f01bf70f21f43fbf64f1a5b58f4c35f5185f5dac0c769f3d6317c. “Seasonal Affective Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## superconscious
<a id="superconscious"></a>

In this historical usage, "superconscious" names what Hartmann says the absolute unconscious is in itself, even though it is not conscious for us. It refers to a level beyond ordinary consciousness, applied to the ultimate principle active in all things.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0fd0a47f8a56a98e7abbb498af0f94f6bd5ed85aa5f9bda80eea413d7c054759

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4095000-4107000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## superego
<a id="superego"></a>

In psychology, the superego is the part of personality linked to conscience, personal standards, ethical judgment, and self-criticism. It is understood as developing mainly through identification with parents or other parent-like figures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db814a8ec813bcb6f3739b85acd3e2c74d8a70b60c951ba5ce72d2bad35322c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Superego” (D013475).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013475). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## superficial
<a id="superficial"></a>

In this counselling context, superficial means limited to surface-level changes that do not address deeper cultural meanings, values, or social realities. A superficial adaptation may make an intervention look more culturally appropriate without truly grounding it in the community’s own perspectives and structures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 834239f34786b6dd91da198e09fa5acaabd0aa74d57aa4e688f345110ca11959

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ruan Qian-Nan; Qian Jing; Lin Xiu-Shuang. The imperative for culturally specific suicide prevention models beyond the Western gaze. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1755211; article XML SHA-256 f71967526dc1671ccaa18284c2a315ce06ab0a5a5cde9925432be8b73d73fe73. “The imperative for culturally specific suicide prevention models beyond the Western gaze” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1755211).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1755211). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## superior
<a id="superior"></a>

In this cognition context, superior means relatively better or more favorable than an alternative. Here it refers to one treatment approach having a better cognitive safety profile than another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b382cc76dcfa8e3c42849a1033f033a318baa3018bdfb590cf27546953eea9ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Xiaolu; Liu Ke; Shen Xiaoshan; Yang Yifan; Yu Hao; Chen Qibing; Wang Xiaoli; Li Xiao. Comparative efficacy and cognitive safety of bifrontal versus bitemporal electroconvulsive therapy in adolescents with major depressive disorder: a retrospective cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1843108; article XML SHA-256 5b104059349942050b987c7eb1bf115164b6d5aff560d9aa0d30bef292d559fb. “Comparative efficacy and cognitive safety of bifrontal versus bitemporal electroconvulsive therapy in adolescents with major depressive disorder: a retrospective cohort study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1843108).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1843108). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## superior colliculus
<a id="superior-colliculus"></a>

The superior colliculus is one of the front pair of structures in the quadrigeminal bodies. It helps coordinate general orienting actions in response to visual input, such as turning the whole body or reaching toward something seen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e17d09874b8c986fdcd074593980f0cbb16c2e7ddcadad4b79a52df229a656cb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Superior Colliculi” (D013477).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013477). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## superior oblique
<a id="superior-oblique"></a>

The superior oblique is a muscle of the eye. Its movement control is supplied by the trochlear, or fourth cranial, nerve.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b8b34875a7c8145c8c09c1555ac4d43065b3bb331c2ebf5327f0c7ea2ed9bb5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Trochlear Nerve” (D014321).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014321). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## superior olivary complex
<a id="superior-olivary-complex"></a>

The superior olivary complex is a group of auditory brainstem nuclei in the pontine tegmentum that is part of the olivary nucleus complex. It helps with locating sounds and participates in both upward and downward auditory pathways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c0b17f3244608795e286ae18a469a6f0cf3ee4cd344de9a4f8c6fe08028f7e55

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Superior Olivary Complex” (D065832).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065832). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## superior rectus
<a id="superior-rectus"></a>

The superior rectus is an extraocular muscle, meaning one of the muscles attached to the eye. In this packet, it is described as a muscle whose function and structure can change in response to sustained glial derived neurotrophic factor exposure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1dbd2b150e8eeb6568a5923698b6b6888b782de1bc9cba0d16c69c798d866ddc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fitzpatrick Krysta R; Cucak Anja; McLoon Linda K. Changing muscle function with sustained glial derived neurotrophic factor treatment of rabbit extraocular muscle. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0202861; article XML SHA-256 17aa9ed08ae75642c1844160844963e13c29d732c6f6dad030e269631a03d165. “Changing muscle function with sustained glial derived neurotrophic factor treatment of rabbit extraocular muscle” (10.1371/journal.pone.0202861).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202861). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## superior sagittal sinus
<a id="superior-sagittal-sinus"></a>

The superior sagittal sinus is a large venous channel along the upper outer surface of the brain. It carries blood backward, collecting drainage from veins of the brain and dura mater, and near the back of the skull it usually continues into a transverse sinus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d149d06e135f4f42d9921430826875029fbb121d826c32ae1db556101d57395a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Superior Sagittal Sinus” (D054063).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D054063). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## superior temporal gyrus
<a id="superior-temporal-gyrus"></a>

The superior temporal gyrus is a brain region described here as part of the vestibular system involved in balance control. It appears to play an important role during balance tasks, particularly when visual information is reduced.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: feda1e20680d32271cfac26e4ab75166a38db29f08afd60d379c22f642cd8cfb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xie Huimin; Li Xuejiao; Wang Zihan; Gao Yan; Zhang Lining. Patients with chronic ankle instability exhibit increased sensorimotor cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and superior temporal gyrus activation during single-leg stance: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1705212; article XML SHA-256 c5fbf594a6ed606c2b4d18a09fb061124442c9696b2db816fdfb7d2c4f106a27. “Patients with chronic ankle instability exhibit increased sensorimotor cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and superior temporal gyrus activation during single-leg stance: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1705212).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1705212). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## supernormal
<a id="supernormal"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, supernormal means above-normal efficiency or responsiveness, especially in relation to a sensory function as shown by testing. It refers to performance that exceeds the usual range rather than merely being abnormal or disordered.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 714f726fdb10d25f8e663739ceb31445747d8436f9fa9b7832c96d13bd7df264

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2940000-2952000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## superordinate goal
<a id="superordinate-goal"></a>

A superordinate goal is the larger shared aim that multiple interdependent teams work together to achieve while also pursuing their own more immediate goals. It is the overarching objective that coordinates effort across teams.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c0b4e3bd813e1255a3ac1a36a7eba2033f9a08b1f25634351d654666f1833b17

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Campbell Lauren N. P.; Torres Elisa M.; Zaccaro Stephen J.; Zhou Steven; Hedrick Katelyn N.; Wallace David M.; Luning Celeste Raver; Zakzewski Joanna E.. Examining Multiteam Systems Across Context and Type: A Historiometric Analysis of Failed MTS Performance. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.813624; article XML SHA-256 365612dcbbeaacbd2a3a36e610ec71a20c834c73b88c40f7127906b624c5be3d. “Examining Multiteam Systems Across Context and Type: A Historiometric Analysis of Failed MTS Performance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.813624).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.813624). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## superstition
<a id="superstition"></a>

Superstition is a facet of paranormal belief involving the view that unseen or supernatural forces can influence what happens in life. In this research context, it falls within a more traditional form of paranormal belief linked to seeking a sense of control outside oneself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df979d0d9002c60ca6065f7d35930c63813c1bc4e3748e73fa5560177aa781dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Drinkwater Kenneth G; Denovan Andrew; Dagnall Neil. Re-evaluation of the relationship between paranormal belief and perceived stress using statistical modelling. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312511; article XML SHA-256 c2eb583fcccc7ee82a85ccd42b17c8cf94e37028dd55ca76a388037000ce8198. “Re-evaluation of the relationship between paranormal belief and perceived stress using statistical modelling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312511).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312511). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## supervision
<a id="supervision"></a>

In counselling and psychotherapy, supervision is a professional support and oversight process for trainees or therapists. It is generally seen as helpful for supervisees and is associated with factors such as self-awareness, self-efficacy, and the supervisory working alliance, although evidence about its effects on patients and any one best supervision model is limited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1df64c10deabcf6a51dab5174f6ecd1963f79d0b639b475d4999a3226a79875

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schreyer Bianca; Leithner Cosima; Eilers Rebekka; Gossmann Katharina; Rosner Rita. The effects of clinical supervision on supervisees and patient outcomes in psychotherapy – a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1705578; article XML SHA-256 367330232f894511bb410d302631b8f7766417af88fda9ce8a2214e9bd0e1a7f. “The effects of clinical supervision on supervisees and patient outcomes in psychotherapy – a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1705578).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1705578). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## supine
<a id="supine"></a>

Supine refers to a body position in which a person lies on their back while exercises or movements are performed. In the source, it is described as a biomechanically safe position used to support coordinated control of the trunk and lower limbs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8067b51ca57386e1d09b3ee0c86e80ff5539c2f0049dfc900daaa0e1c3ad8d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Atomi Aya; Sato Mizuki; Oyauchi Masaki; Takano Wataru; Shimizu Miho; Watanabe Toshiyuki; Atomi Tomoaki; Atomi Yoriko. A supine exercise program linking trunk stability with lower extremity coordination is associated with improved body balance and agility: A study using randomized crossover and pre-post trial designs. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345749; article XML SHA-256 818bf64588b33ed93aeed0ecabed86d65408ceb275ba3f3b5320bb51914661f8. “A supine exercise program linking trunk stability with lower extremity coordination is associated with improved body balance and agility: A study using randomized crossover and pre-post trial designs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345749).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345749). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## supplementary motor area
<a id="supplementary-motor-area"></a>

The supplementary motor area is a region on the midline surface of the frontal lobe, positioned in front of the primary motor cortex. It is part of the brain’s motor control system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9b7055ec6bc34df39928b16655463fd1b62e5b471be97b74fe1b173a126dcc4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Motor Cortex” (D009044).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009044). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## supplication
<a id="supplication"></a>

In this historical passage, supplication means a short, prayer-like appeal or plea, here repeated inwardly as part of an obsessive mental act. The example describes it as a mental utterance used in an attempt to ward off a feared idea.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e93af3bd1c012c3200a2d248059449dc5e7e8f352aa3dc143525abee546454ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2352000-2364000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## support group
<a id="support-group"></a>

A support group is a welcoming in-person or online space where people can talk about their concerns, share experiences, and learn from others. It may be included as part of a mental health treatment plan for some people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c543ec01ef66335aef4e4506408ec4f3cbd022c83340c132c47efc01a537ed6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Phobias and Phobia-Related Disorders. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 2d1a6d608eaf14c3ef4a3753ecd44577b1d734b347d63f48248f5d170e68b142. “Phobias and Phobia-Related Disorders” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/phobias-and-phobia-related-disorders).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/phobias-and-phobia-related-disorders). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## supported employment
<a id="supported-employment"></a>

Supported employment is a vocational rehabilitation approach that helps people with severe mental illness get and keep jobs in ordinary community workplaces. It combines help with finding work and ongoing, individualised support, often coordinated with mental health or other services to support employment and wider social inclusion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f95db7a1a70ba1e144cc94bdfe905648fbea734666e93682349f9d578059fee4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Patmisari Emi; Huang Yunong; Orr Mark; Govindasamy Sumathi; Hielscher Emily; McLaren Helen. Supported employment interventions with people who have severe mental illness: Systematic mixed-methods umbrella review. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304527; article XML SHA-256 4555278d16f71f0c80084955fd8bf3050eade9e979ee655072e2db8930303577. “Supported employment interventions with people who have severe mental illness: Systematic mixed-methods umbrella review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304527).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304527). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## supported housing
<a id="supported-housing"></a>

Supported housing is a housing setting for people with severe mental illness where support is available as part of their living environment. In this context, it is described as a place where health-related support and other care can be integrated into standard services.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 21d6e65b84b243478f5cf40c3bc2ea3961a4299be9d9db23dafd55d6b5983e75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Koomen Lisanne E. M.; van der Horst Marte Z.; Deenik Jeroen; Cahn Wiepke. Lifestyle interventions for people with a severe mental illness living in supported housing: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.966029; article XML SHA-256 c7f8b71db83dcf4d540a627f1a3fa9f26ba0f452e92acae6b94796a811975d65. “Lifestyle interventions for people with a severe mental illness living in supported housing: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.966029).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.966029). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## supported living
<a id="supported-living"></a>

Supported living is a housing arrangement where a person lives in accommodation that includes some ongoing support or supervision. In this context, it refers to post-discharge living placements for people leaving forensic psychiatric services, where the stability of the arrangement and help with medication administration may matter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0d4f573d3f0cde1df73ec19a5c9c6bdae59ebb4bc109d9123fc816858a60e7f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Noland Ebba; Virtanen Suvi; Klötz Logan Fia; Chang Zheng; Strandh Mattias. Post-discharge pharmacological treatment discontinuation of forensic psychiatric patients in Sweden. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1342722; article XML SHA-256 18097a2feb3cde57871163052214b10263bac8d1e92e41a62e9a49c426bf73a1. “Post-discharge pharmacological treatment discontinuation of forensic psychiatric patients in Sweden” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1342722).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1342722). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## supportive-expressive psychotherapy
<a id="supportive-expressive-psychotherapy"></a>

Supportive-expressive psychotherapy is a form of psychotherapy described as one in which the therapeutic alliance mainly provides a helpful setting that allows the treatment to work. In this approach, the relationship supports the therapy process rather than being treated as the main active ingredient itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6692ed02a548c5897e700437bd0c8a703b980b2b3d0d7306e4b5ec94ba26100

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zilcha-Mano Sigal; Dolev Tohar; Leibovich Liat; Barber Jacques P.. Identifying the most suitable treatment for depression based on patients’ attachment: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial of supportive-expressive vs. supportive treatments. 2018; DOI 10.1186/s12888-018-1934-1; article XML SHA-256 2f47f050cfd5b5b8ce9ad92b78458f8da8c4557306d31bb62bf8ed06ada2798e. “Identifying the most suitable treatment for depression based on patients’ attachment: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial of supportive-expressive vs. supportive treatments” (10.1186/s12888-018-1934-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1934-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## supportive services
<a id="supportive-services"></a>

Supportive services are forms of help offered in settings such as schools to meet the needs linked to adverse childhood experiences and trauma. In this source, the term refers broadly to assistance intended to support school-age young people’s mental health and recovery-related needs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f4d39ab5ac3606bdc667e1becd292a4c87361742b4e6f1fc1cab56567851c390

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Avery Flo; Kennedy Natasha; James Michaela; Jones Hope; Amos Rebekah; Bellis Mark; Hughes Karen; Brophy Sinead. A systematic review of non-clinician trauma-based interventions for school-age youth. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293248; article XML SHA-256 28f3e0e6ec5323d05a822745d7d04d5ed12b1daee77fbb0a096bb7b683d1c60c. “A systematic review of non-clinician trauma-based interventions for school-age youth” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293248).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293248). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## suppressor effect
<a id="suppressor-effect"></a>

In cognition research, a suppressor effect is an apparent finding in which a variable seems to improve prediction, but the pattern may actually be caused by multicollinearity between predictors rather than a real predictive relationship. Small samples can make this kind of artifact harder to rule out.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46070ad87eb6ac3d597a7ff3018090a922a5452bdbc2cbf6f51efb8abe18560e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jin Kai; Gao Pingze; Han Shuo; Zhang Xupeng. When suppressor effects may reflect multicollinearity artifacts: a cautionary tale from multiple object tracking and clay pigeon shooting performance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1908043; article XML SHA-256 3531e49acc7bf07621562cddfd95637117a729736252d2d536bd1f2aca328865. “When suppressor effects may reflect multicollinearity artifacts: a cautionary tale from multiple object tracking and clay pigeon shooting performance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1908043).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1908043). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## supraliminal
<a id="supraliminal"></a>

Supraliminal means above the threshold, especially in contrast to what is below it. In this historical usage, it describes something lying beyond the limen or threshold.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e734de402baf324d90d55f8cfa483c067c0543abbe88435dcabd650bfff53dde

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Limen” (Limen).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Limen). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## supramarginal gyrus
<a id="supramarginal-gyrus"></a>

The supramarginal gyrus is a fold of the brain on the front part of the inferior parietal lobe. In the dominant hemisphere, it helps with understanding written language.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7249cca4d6c170e37b8a2992bb45f51703cfea388638ad6c0dd74dc92c0e76b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Supramarginal Gyrus” (C33706).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## supraoptic nucleus
<a id="supraoptic-nucleus"></a>

The supraoptic nucleus is a group of nerve cells in the hypothalamus that lies above the beginning of the optic tract.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b4dbf8213be9c519da5997b745b390c42fd6c5d0c6f2e0148f44dc8389d54d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Supraoptic Nucleus” (D013495).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013495). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## suprarenal gland
<a id="suprarenal-gland"></a>

The suprarenal gland, also called the adrenal gland, is a roughly triangular gland that sits on top of each kidney. It is a ductless gland that releases hormones into the body, including epinephrine and norepinephrine from its medulla and steroid hormones from its cortex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fe359c6c8c814bd7edb9cf8717017a6188abed274556a5c83a100829e5994e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Adrenal Gland” (C12666).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## suprasegmental
<a id="suprasegmental"></a>

Suprasegmental refers to speech-related cues that extend beyond individual speech sounds, especially pitch, loudness, and timing. These cues help people judge features such as stress, intonation, who is speaking, and vocal emotion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 96f25601dbc1dd85ea8a97d5d93de5e87d53fc60f929fea6b6c1160df9524dfc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tamati Terrin N; Ingvalson Erin M. Individual variation in suprasegmental perception: insights from adults with typical hearing and cochlear implants. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1652000; article XML SHA-256 5c5f9c63601961bac7865645e103406c37fd6ddaf5b88e4685cf2618039c3827. “Individual variation in suprasegmental perception: insights from adults with typical hearing and cochlear implants” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1652000).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1652000). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## surface color
<a id="surface-color"></a>

Surface color is the appearance of a patch as the color of a material surface seen under illumination, rather than as light emitted by the patch itself. In this research context, it contrasts with aperture-color or self-luminous appearance, which occurs when the patch is seen as glowing light instead of a surface.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ab6cde35d4c9ca550cce1dfc82f5c455ca1c1b3f8f77dbda656166b0af63879c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Duay Killian; Nagai Takehiro. Optimal colors can predict luminosity thresholds in natural scenes. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343984; article XML SHA-256 8961fd4d0f9aa873d5fe3a54de860e1f00a6d7ead4eb1c533d7d7b3dc30d7498. “Optimal colors can predict luminosity thresholds in natural scenes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343984).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343984). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## surface dyslexia
<a id="surface-dyslexia"></a>

Surface dyslexia is a reading difficulty in which a person has trouble reading aloud words whose spellings do not follow usual sound rules, especially exception words. In the packet, it is described as a reading impairment that can appear in semantic dementia and is linked to reduced support from meaning-based processing for such words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34a4e042c87e1626c968f3f71949fa5175e9b60db3211949de62dd83166d4e9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Woollams Anna M.; Lambon Ralph Matthew A.; Madrid Gaston; Patterson Karalyn E.. Do You Read How I Read? Systematic Individual Differences in Semantic Reliance amongst Normal Readers. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01757; article XML SHA-256 596c21a2425fe6fe0056be183d374dc0ad46b407eb4284ad54a87fb3ab4a9955. “Do You Read How I Read? Systematic Individual Differences in Semantic Reliance amongst Normal Readers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01757).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01757). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## surface structure
<a id="surface-structure"></a>

Surface structure refers to the physical features on a leaf’s outer surface, such as cuticular waxes and trichomes, that shape its optical and topological properties. These features can affect how reflected light is polarized and may be altered by changes in gene expression during viral infection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cd853b060c438bea7448995cf3d158fc9bc7af43b25a8e519b061267bcc4018b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Maxwell D. J.; Partridge J. C.; Roberts N. W.; Boonham N.; Foster G. D.. The effects of surface structure mutations in Arabidopsis thaliana on the polarization of reflections from virus-infected leaves. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0174014; article XML SHA-256 041b384048347504d758ae2755ef60c93b289ab5edbce60985185d4694d416bb. “The effects of surface structure mutations in Arabidopsis thaliana on the polarization of reflections from virus-infected leaves” (10.1371/journal.pone.0174014).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174014). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## surgency
<a id="surgency"></a>

Surgency is a temperament dimension, also described as surgency/extraversion, involving strong positive reactivity to stimulation. It refers to a tendency to become easily excited and active, seek novelty and excitement, and show high activity and impulsive behavior in response to the environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7b59d4b39267e709f3fa651f4a90d5450107234424911910ad76e4e78a6a251

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mascheroni Eleonora; Butti Niccolò; Mambretti Fabiana; Cordolcini Laura; Castagna Annalisa; Maucci Vittoria; Citterio Andrea; Bettinelli Alessandra; Montirosso Rosario. Exploring the relationship between OXTR DNA methylation and temperament in children with neurodevelopmental disabilities. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763938; article XML SHA-256 8a2ce88def05a6afd789e937e14bdde02eb194ee31d1d349fd49ef0d2d9f53b1. “Exploring the relationship between OXTR DNA methylation and temperament in children with neurodevelopmental disabilities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763938).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763938). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## surplus energy theory
<a id="surplus-energy-theory"></a>

Surplus energy theory is the view, associated here with Spencer, that play happens when an organism uses up energy that has built up beyond immediate needs. On this account, play often expresses life-functions in a freer, commonly imitative form than the serious activity required under environmental pressure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b04df6bea8debf09621faf36e3c2978687be8570bbc69e3d3ecae291e8195f48

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1722000-1734000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## survey
<a id="survey"></a>

A survey is a structured way of collecting information from a group of people so the data can be used for research and population-level inference. In this context, survey data can also be linked with administrative records, though the usefulness of the results depends on the design and limits of the original survey source.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 44a9807f9e2e54f2c0614c158193e59ea1b9d1ded8f7fb185500e8bbdd29a34b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zeng Irene Suilan; Hao Junxiang; Foster Mandie; Jones Kelly Marie. Path and Bayesian network analyses in the complex design of a well-being survey via New Zealand’s Integrated Data Infrastructure. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1826907; article XML SHA-256 0587fb8aa40a6dd321819cd03165c86150a6ca156815bc5cb78fa4eda74739aa. “Path and Bayesian network analyses in the complex design of a well-being survey via New Zealand’s Integrated Data Infrastructure” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1826907).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1826907). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## survival analysis
<a id="survival-analysis"></a>

Survival analysis is a group of statistical methods used to estimate how the proportion of a population that remains well changes over time. It is also used to examine how treatments, risk or prognostic factors, exposures, and other variables affect that time pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 91b12a5eaeea083d242fb713a5a050a32fc2ce5857176ddb7c62da7349f2e357

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Survival Analysis” (D016019).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016019). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## survival of the fittest
<a id="survival-of-the-fittest"></a>

In this historical usage, “survival of the fittest” means the outcome of natural selection: those judged less fit are more often prevented, by the struggle for existence, from leaving offspring, so the fitter remain. The source presents this survival as the result of elimination of the unfit.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7092fab63474f3264ce755f4f8337ba49d7bce3bc866a218ecd28a23a18aadbf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Elimination” (Elimination).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Elimination). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## survival value
<a id="survival-value"></a>

Survival value is the importance of a mental ability or behavior for helping a person stay safe and alive. In this context, it refers to the benefit of quickly noticing threatening intentions in other people’s body actions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 54fcaeb065bed390617f7747626f3b7141591e1a7ca2f4376c7381186d35d858

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Guan; Wang Pei; Luo Junlong; Nan Wenya. Perception of Threatening Intention Modulates Brain Processes to Body Actions: Evidence From Event-Related Potentials. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02149; article XML SHA-256 45fda50833d5d9e43ddedc29d778fd0034043a73d47d2d0fa5d7a4abe34e7aca. “Perception of Threatening Intention Modulates Brain Processes to Body Actions: Evidence From Event-Related Potentials” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02149).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02149). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## survivor guilt
<a id="survivor-guilt"></a>

Survivor guilt is a form of self-directed distress in which a person has negative thoughts and feelings about having survived when others did not, or about not being seriously injured when others were. In the PTSD literature in this packet, it is described as an associated feature rather than a core diagnostic criterion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 68811bc848489a5f13ce73776fcef2978ccbfda85a19e04a6ca8d2fcad8bab08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Esquillo Mika Allyssa; Kumar Riya; Morris Elizabeth Ellen; Bass Christina; Turner Mary; Tillman Gail; Hart Jr John; Motes Michael A.. Action-guilt, survivor-guilt, and depression in combat-related PTSD. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351689; article XML SHA-256 a6e7925bbc4ea73865d3277346b989265b7eed522fbdbfda3bf279dd69ac2eba. “Action-guilt, survivor-guilt, and depression in combat-related PTSD” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351689).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351689). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## survivorship
<a id="survivorship"></a>

Survivorship refers to the functional, psychosocial, emotional, and spiritual aspects and needs experienced by patients and their families after a life-threatening disease or event.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2386e5b70a43ea128e1174b4377d957693df6073e2e1bc3a86e7ffd18ec260a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Survivorship” (D000073859).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000073859). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## suspensory ligament
<a id="suspensory-ligament"></a>

In this historical passage, the suspensory ligament is the structure that keeps the lens under tension. When the ciliary muscle acts, it slackens this ligament, allowing the lens to become more rounded for accommodation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75a45921dd5822a7fe646bc7e8acaba488a92b9dc5512d3ece0e38eea499c208

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4357500-4369500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sustained attention
<a id="sustained-attention"></a>

Sustained attention, also called vigilant attention, is the ability to keep attention focused and stay engaged with a task over time. It is an aspect of executive function that helps a person organize behavior to meet current demands and future goals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 36726fe38b070a6bc1c9e42ab325a7c0ec7a511d6fc8531c12db9918d5d00e25

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Efrat Barel; Orna Tzischinsky. Sex differences in the sustained attention of elementary school children. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s40359-022-01007-z; article XML SHA-256 29d4bcc45b3b4091d61458ef2d3e3ae75848bf650b86a6416920d4c811e63d20. “Sex differences in the sustained attention of elementary school children” (10.1186/s40359-022-01007-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-022-01007-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sustained operations
<a id="sustained-operations"></a>

Sustained operations are the ongoing mental processes thought to be maintained while a person prepares to retrieve information from memory. In this source, the term refers especially to a proposed common preparatory state, also called retrieval mode, used when getting ready to remember episodic information.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 78fa2f60ba5232757e79392987870c49ce0a9e333960f7e4e0d948cfba149b57

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Williams Angharad N; Evans Lisa H; Herron Jane E; Wilding Edward L. On the Antecedents of an Electrophysiological Signature of Retrieval Mode. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0167574; article XML SHA-256 0a266b989b9dafd3234ac4eb131d8aa6be2106028b34282e532f3c47fb34e09c. “On the Antecedents of an Electrophysiological Signature of Retrieval Mode” (10.1371/journal.pone.0167574).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167574). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## swarm intelligence
<a id="swarm-intelligence"></a>

Swarm intelligence is a computing concept based on the self-organized group behavior seen in swarming animals. In this context, it is used in heuristic search methods such as particle swarm optimization to help find optimal solutions in random search spaces.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 33843a19e0ac880329504d3e336c1eedc0bc1475e33d4500fddcbbd43c44bc92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Particle Swarm Optimization” (D000098413).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000098413). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SWB
<a id="swb"></a>

SWB refers to subjective wellbeing: how a person judges and feels about their life overall. It includes both life satisfaction and emotional experience, especially having relatively little negative affect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7fcf1840b2a5022dbbdb17c5e54cd35d9369cf475c7f867c6c782dee33d7560d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiang Libin; Yi Luying. Behavioral and computational perspectives on emotion regulation and subjective wellbeing: an integrative review with a focus on adolescents. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778913; article XML SHA-256 76d1e918fccf8799d448c5135255cb44e38fd9f493be4f382212c164f702bb94. “Behavioral and computational perspectives on emotion regulation and subjective wellbeing: an integrative review with a focus on adolescents” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778913).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778913). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## switch cost
<a id="switch-cost"></a>

Switch cost is the drop in performance seen when a person changes from one task to another, compared with repeating the same task within a mixed set of tasks. It reflects the extra time or effort needed to set up the new task and deal with interference from the previous one.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee157db743a55e8072d3e611287876a3e8112dba599c4a5be5fca02bacac0774

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Whitson Lisa R.; Karayanidis Frini; Fulham Ross; Provost Alexander; Michie Patricia T.; Heathcote Andrew; Hsieh Shulan. Reactive control processes contributing to residual switch cost and mixing cost across the adult lifespan. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00383; article XML SHA-256 0a647cf6cf54500e30511a1794dfafb5f17064824c38d0514d2aa38baa69df5f. “Reactive control processes contributing to residual switch cost and mixing cost across the adult lifespan” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00383).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00383). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## switching
<a id="switching"></a>

Switching, in this context, is the cognitive process of flexibly changing from one task to another as demands change. In task-switching research, it refers to shifting between competing task sets and is often studied by the extra time or effort needed after a change in task.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9c5361fe9f51ed0e413220129e48ea7c5366bd3ea58468eb850f1331e7097ea3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mecheri Sami; Gouasmi Wendie; Dozias Baptiste; Lobjois Régis. The Random Soldier Kinematogram: a novel tool for task-switching research in military context. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1678090; article XML SHA-256 d30a8faae30598677567ba81c4ff8e6662926101960e58ad17a841ca43f3ea9f. “The Random Soldier Kinematogram: a novel tool for task-switching research in military context” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1678090).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1678090). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## SWLS
<a id="swls"></a>

SWLS stands for the Satisfaction With Life Scale, a standardized questionnaire used to assess a person’s overall cognitive judgment about how satisfied they are with their life. It has five items.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 15aab6715472a73db6725e0ced717b17251169b0f645173b817943a694ad83db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Satisfaction With Life Scale Questionnaire” (C115799).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sydenham’s chorea
<a id="sydenhams-chorea"></a>

Sydenham’s chorea is a neurological disorder marked by smooth, involuntary, uncoordinated movements, especially involving the hands, feet, and face.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 321ff32c5a2c46095058aa3d140ec464f52ad157dda6d4003cd9da2e10d569b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sydenham Chorea” (C168445).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sylvian aqueduct
<a id="sylvian-aqueduct"></a>

The Sylvian aqueduct is a small canal in the midbrain region of the brain. It joins the third and fourth ventricles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5053655b041b2360dda8ad2f3017ddb22a9b6684cc66942f43c0a0fbbeb27a9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebral Aqueduct” (D002535).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002535). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Sylvian fissure
<a id="sylvian-fissure"></a>

The Sylvian fissure, also called the lateral cerebral sulcus, is a major groove on the outer side of the brain. It extends backward with a slight upward course and marks the boundary between the frontal and parietal lobes above and the temporal lobe below.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69cde5a0c20ea33f5cb1abcc6858b380c05f712952972aa0faa64ddcd1bef4fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fissure of Sylvius” (C32615).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symbiosis
<a id="symbiosis"></a>

Symbiosis is a close relationship between different living organisms in which a host and a symbiont interact closely, such as jellyfish and algae living together. In the source, this relationship is important because changes like heat stress can disrupt how the partners function and develop together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d23e1fe5de00ddaab2960ff9de7de18548e800db6a459543cad0d818343abd29

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Robinson Celeste; Li Jingchun; Li Ruiqi; Avila-Magaña Viridiana. Heat stress disrupts early development and photosymbiosis in Cassiopea jellyfish. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323922; article XML SHA-256 c0f204a4cbe9fab01a74bcbcd0f84a99ef7598f803cf1c02dd3afa3266b46273. “Heat stress disrupts early development and photosymbiosis in Cassiopea jellyfish” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323922).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323922). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symbiotic relationship
<a id="symbiotic-relationship"></a>

In cognition, a symbiotic relationship is a mutually shaping link between structural brain connectivity and brain activity, where each influences the other. In the source context, this two-way interaction is described as important for the development and self-organization of complex brain networks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 27155ed6ff830b2d3cbd5f330d77819f74d46b048dd531ac16c499d464a4d038

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rubinov Mikail; Sporns Olaf; van Leeuwen Cees; Breakspear Michael. Symbiotic relationship between brain structure and dynamics. 2009; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-10-55; article XML SHA-256 58e2c3e14977b076ffaadf204e73e68bd74cdccd181c09bf6e0dc4aabe5970ad. “Symbiotic relationship between brain structure and dynamics” (10.1186/1471-2202-10-55).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-10-55). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symbol
<a id="symbol"></a>

A symbol is a cue, such as an icon, that carries socially shared or culturally meaningful significance rather than functioning only as a neutral object. In this context, symbols can evoke responses linked to the meaning people attach to them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d17c0bf247d729f0c587820f5d2d3eef31b989901d6fff51e109da83bd447745

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Zhiqiang. Neural time course of processing socially meaningful symbolic cues: ERP differences between national-symbol and neutral-object icons. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1838401; article XML SHA-256 a1c970900bac0c55bb89f1cd5eb8c4d521bcda643ba860184061a35947226fd7. “Neural time course of processing socially meaningful symbolic cues: ERP differences between national-symbol and neutral-object icons” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1838401).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1838401). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symbol grounding
<a id="symbol-grounding"></a>

Symbol grounding is the problem of how a symbol comes to have meaning, especially how numerical symbols gain their numerical meaning. In this context, proposed explanations include linking symbols to nonverbal quantity representations or building meaning through relations among symbols themselves.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee6385321b1c7ceed6725dae9ff85c2288fa3b16ab61a879ca98b721a665831f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reynvoet Bert; Sasanguie Delphine. The Symbol Grounding Problem Revisited: A Thorough Evaluation of the ANS Mapping Account and the Proposal of an Alternative Account Based on Symbol–Symbol Associations. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01581; article XML SHA-256 cf8afc1f5065468df533cbd68388ddcf20dc4f08a3663fe75f9512a6e1cf06a6. “The Symbol Grounding Problem Revisited: A Thorough Evaluation of the ANS Mapping Account and the Proposal of an Alternative Account Based on Symbol–Symbol Associations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01581).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01581). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Symbolic
<a id="symbolic"></a>

Symbolic refers to cues or objects that carry socially or culturally shared meaning beyond their basic visual form. In this packet, it describes icons such as national symbols that are meaningful within a culture and are processed differently from neutral objects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 331fb97f5b63fe8795c30bcf6f3630ff0a31c5562d1ebe01518eef7cbf6d3333

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Zhiqiang. Neural time course of processing socially meaningful symbolic cues: ERP differences between national-symbol and neutral-object icons. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1838401; article XML SHA-256 a1c970900bac0c55bb89f1cd5eb8c4d521bcda643ba860184061a35947226fd7. “Neural time course of processing socially meaningful symbolic cues: ERP differences between national-symbol and neutral-object icons” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1838401).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1838401). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symbolic function
<a id="symbolic-function"></a>

Symbolic function is an emerging early-childhood ability to use representations, reflected in pretend play. It supports a child’s understanding of social signals, language, and emotions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 918a991dca2d424605986560744c37559f4b166d754bf39d2b98a355fc16839d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Smith-Nielsen Johanne; Stuart Anne Christine; Wendelboe Katrine Isabella; Egmose Ida; Roos Camilla Overbye; Væver Mette Skovgaard. The significance of parental mentalizing for four-year-old children’s solitary pretend play. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297671; article XML SHA-256 f08a62d3c92a88dea11a4c8660c1bdbf0f2366419281182f4ca7db1a52130c9d. “The significance of parental mentalizing for four-year-old children’s solitary pretend play” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297671).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297671). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Symbolic Interactionism
<a id="symbolic-interactionism"></a>

Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical approach for understanding social processes that emphasizes power in social life. It examines culture and has been shaped by influences such as Foucault’s ideas and feminist perspectives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 627698173a92bca216bdeb8106aeb3fa13d612be298c98c2b9ff4347cea4d8cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Symbolic Interactionism” (D000073624).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000073624). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symbolic mode
<a id="symbolic-mode"></a>

Symbolic mode is a way of using a language mainly as a sign of cultural identity and belonging rather than primarily as a practical literacy skill. In the source, it describes heritage-language use in family, peer, and emotional contexts that helps maintain identity even when literacy proficiency is limited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 239756a513068c4b5d0ee145af4104ebeafbf28e9f0ec9ef0f0960109a4ae001

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Haiqiang Tu; Jun Guo; Yi Wang Jia. Identity construction among second-generation Chinese in Italy: a perspective on the symbolic function of language. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826033; article XML SHA-256 2ed395583eb73a8f5a9e170f03fdc6e668b8b0ae1bee269deb62c170abcd077f. “Identity construction among second-generation Chinese in Italy: a perspective on the symbolic function of language” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826033).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symbolic play
<a id="symbolic-play"></a>

Symbolic play is play in which a child uses things, actions, or roles to stand for other objects, events, or people. It reflects developing representational thinking, including understanding that a symbol can have a meaning that is different from the symbol itself, and it is an important part of early development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fdeddd16589821c047d54b840533a5800de4a5c0552411b83deb43383bea3334

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sherman Sharon; Havron Naomi. Toddlers’ symbolic play in dyadic mother–child and triadic mother–child-older-sibling interactions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1858906; article XML SHA-256 46bf3221d70882b9d93037d719f76bf979c803137fdb57073789ce4926049cc9. “Toddlers’ symbolic play in dyadic mother–child and triadic mother–child-older-sibling interactions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1858906).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1858906). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symbolic representation
<a id="symbolic-representation"></a>

In this historical logical-psychology context, symbolic representation means an abstract way of treating a term as the same with itself, apart from the changing context of actual experience. It expresses an ideal demand of thought for sameness of content, even though such complete sameness is not fully found psychologically.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5a1c62c3539e6d581357d91b5e6e6a18eaa72b01462d805cdba3bccc49ca7d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Identity (logical)” (Identityl).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Identityl). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symbolic reward
<a id="symbolic-reward"></a>

A symbolic reward is positive feedback delivered through signs or words rather than money or other material gain, such as being told a response is correct. In learning tasks, it functions as a less-salient motivational signal that can reinforce a choice or action.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b47a8dbff70b6b07dacda3f3e4352928b579a51e7b5e4c9b92bb209c5e16cbe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Jinhee; Kim Hackjin; Kang Eunjoo. Impaired Feedback Processing for Symbolic Reward in Individuals with Internet Game Overuse. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00195; article XML SHA-256 34395ca7e06d701af12aac5626d59a89891f25450e045ce9f3abb4b0c87d1246. “Impaired Feedback Processing for Symbolic Reward in Individuals with Internet Game Overuse” (10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00195).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00195). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symbolic thinking
<a id="symbolic-thinking"></a>

Symbolic thinking is the ability to represent and reason about ideas using symbols, such as equations rather than only direct observation. In this learning context, it means recognizing which symbolic equation best matches how key variables change in a situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73644ac45524598166add9cfec171a7ecee78ce3133cf59091d90e8a41cc440e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Narwal Ambar; Fyfe Emily R.; Motz Benjamin. Simulation and symbolic thinking in equations representing change. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339004; article XML SHA-256 4a89677810e299b5f603d0fb4cc60bdf2c44a09fab0499cb2c9946dc7dc2e78f. “Simulation and symbolic thinking in equations representing change” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339004).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339004). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symbolism
<a id="symbolism"></a>

Symbolism is the use of a mental image or visible sign to represent or suggest something else because of a connection, resemblance, or shared convention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a9b6813772dc110c155f42b8fed258eaadc921f5164700e6c448f1bfb1a56dc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Symbolism” (D013561).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013561). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Symmetrel
<a id="symmetrel"></a>

Symmetrel is a brand name for amantadine hydrochloride, a drug with antiviral and antiparkinsonian effects. In brain-related use, it is described as affecting dopamine activity and also having some influence on NMDA- and acetylcholine-related signaling.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 28950546ecc17910203695d5783d2cf5da2780843b6446c0b6a60dbbc184de52

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Amantadine Hydrochloride” (C28818).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symmetry
<a id="symmetry"></a>

Symmetry is a physical quality in which opposite parts are visually balanced and proportionate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d68fa24685b71055cec3e7b789a1f91b21c777079c811afc81303f1cbba875e7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Physical Symmetry” (C81316).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sympathetic division
<a id="sympathetic-division"></a>

The sympathetic division is the part of the autonomic nervous system whose preganglionic nerve fibers arise mainly from the spinal cord between the upper thoracic and lower lumbar levels. These fibers leave the central nervous system and travel to autonomic ganglia, especially the paravertebral ganglia, where they may form connections or continue onward to prevertebral ganglia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c2ecfd7e5abb27a0f785978a513376bb7e2eeb9dd1f51e0746baee1d6f045266

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Autonomic Fibers, Preganglionic” (D001339).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001339). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sympathetic ganglion
<a id="sympathetic-ganglion"></a>

A sympathetic ganglion is a cluster of nerve cell bodies in the sympathetic nervous system, found along the paired chains running from the base of the skull to the tailbone or in related side locations. These ganglia help drive fight-or-flight and other stress-related body responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b105ef9a5cf07211f7f43b5ca55e037f81bbe03c652a8e5429da9330912bff23

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sympathetic Ganglion” (C12467).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sympathetic nervous system
<a id="sympathetic-nervous-system"></a>

The sympathetic nervous system is the thoracolumbar part of the autonomic nervous system that helps prepare the body to respond to stress, commonly described as fight-or-flight reactions. It sends signals from the spinal cord through sympathetic ganglia to body organs and often works in an opposing balance with the parasympathetic system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5136abd202803d211e5a66e8b6b2a3ddbccc7d802f0689e13cc8eddf6ac5093c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sympathetic Nervous System” (D013564).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013564). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## sympathetic–adrenal–medullary axis
<a id="sympatheticadrenalmedullary-axis"></a>

The sympathetic–adrenal–medullary axis is a body stress-response system described as one of the physiological pathways activated by academic stress. In this packet, it is presented as helping mediate stress-related biological changes, including release of measurable biomarkers such as cortisol.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 9ee62051568970897e9f6dc8830dacb77cc3772922f251819c4c7874b1ed5a1c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Castillo-Klagges Rodrigo; Pezo-Sáez Camila; Aguila Luis; Pantoja Verónica; Treulen Favián. Academic stress through salivary biomarkers: A multivariate exploration of cortisol, IL-1β, CRP, and IgA levels with sex-specific insights. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340316; article XML SHA-256 95e69f2e80b15e2ed89e1d0c21da693961435fc7e967e3e0ec22cf1c26dc5069. “Academic stress through salivary biomarkers: A multivariate exploration of cortisol, IL-1β, CRP, and IgA levels with sex-specific insights” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340316).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340316). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symptom
<a id="symptom"></a>

In this context, a symptom is a feature or experience linked with a mental disorder. Symptoms help describe a condition and can help distinguish one disorder from another when some features overlap.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b83d7d63ab93318a56e5805000850e0b844e5c28251708593161d80abf502490

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Borderline Personality Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d784450c62eaafb925736033f3defd9be6ae044c6aaea46d988da9b9a8e8383d. “Borderline Personality Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/borderline-personality-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/borderline-personality-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Symptom Checklist-90–Revised
<a id="symptom-checklist-90revised"></a>

The Symptom Checklist-90–Revised is a self-report questionnaire used to measure symptomatic distress. It covers 90 symptoms across nine problem areas and is widely used in general population and clinical research, with shorter versions available for briefer screening.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d79f99824fdb24a136db36d8b643553ef794675440eb92f861b8e37a96442f45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sereda Yuliia; Dembitskyi Serhii. Validity assessment of the symptom checklist SCL-90-R and shortened versions for the general population in Ukraine. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12888-016-1014-3; article XML SHA-256 9551e16e939d8cb23e418f5b950ab5d72a9f1ee8f6395adad48cf49b72f2b799. “Validity assessment of the symptom checklist SCL-90-R and shortened versions for the general population in Ukraine” (10.1186/s12888-016-1014-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-1014-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symptomatic treatment
<a id="symptomatic-treatment"></a>

Symptomatic treatment is care aimed at reducing a condition’s visible symptoms rather than addressing the underlying disease process or biological mechanism. In this context, it is contrasted with mechanism-based approaches that target the causes of the disorder itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 376672ab94f5f53033fe22ebd3846d49bd5a8a0b0063fd1f6516d18de77a3e49

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Arias-Carrión Oscar; Ortega-Robles Emmanuel; Romano Patricia; Pineda Carlos. Narcolepsy as an immune-associated hypothalamic encephalopathy: orexin dysfunction and implications for precision sleep medicine. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1799520; article XML SHA-256 68abc71b59e113374a6f8add90a5b42d8fb87ae13ac0c5196df2aa0ee17907a1. “Narcolepsy as an immune-associated hypothalamic encephalopathy: orexin dysfunction and implications for precision sleep medicine” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1799520).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1799520). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## symptomatology
<a id="symptomatology"></a>

Symptomatology is the set or pattern of symptoms associated with a condition. In assessment contexts, it refers to the symptoms being considered when judging the nature or severity of a person’s difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be69e00fd4e75b7ba5455d6cbf57e469505c8175e39912c3b9de0c0847250f1b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Watson Luke S; Toubouti Youssef; Gray Sarah M; Guillén Núria; Pérez-Millan Agnès; Rami Lorena; Sanchez-Valle Raquel; Johannesen Jason K. Evaluating contributions of neuropsychological, psychiatric, and inflammatory processes to the expression of cognitive symptoms in post-acute COVID-19 syndrome. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1668380; article XML SHA-256 527c8f4629583731e125585a8a2f2adf6daab516d602ca1161695b15c95fbe78. “Evaluating contributions of neuropsychological, psychiatric, and inflammatory processes to the expression of cognitive symptoms in post-acute COVID-19 syndrome” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1668380).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1668380). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## synapse
<a id="synapse"></a>

A synapse is the junction where a neuron connects with another neuron or with a target cell in an organ. It is the point where the sending neuron passes chemical or electrical signals to the receiving cell.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5520b0f152e492cbd4c49ebe4ae8cb6e735bed149cd3855a3d6659529a3659a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Synapse” (C13281).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## synaptic bouton
<a id="synaptic-bouton"></a>

A synaptic bouton is the structure at the end of an axon that holds neurotransmitters inside synaptic vesicles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 538b20b814629626770ee445d321cf5484c345b1e3620ad42447a5b3e29bffc5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Presynaptic Knob” (C33398).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## synaptic cleft
<a id="synaptic-cleft"></a>

The synaptic cleft is the tiny gap between the end of one nerve cell that sends a signal and the membrane of the next cell that receives it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 756546122b178cb7b1173f12be370349b5251d8fe73f65da792e953f7db4ce33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Synaptic Cleft” (C33715).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## synaptic pruning
<a id="synaptic-pruning"></a>

Synaptic pruning is a normal neurodevelopmental process in which connections between nerve cells are selectively eliminated to refine the brain’s wiring. It typically occurs during juvenile and adolescent periods, and excessive pruning has been linked with schizophrenia-related brain changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b29510eda89b067b33a5cf018f6429257a272122699f517e884197581fc32f9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Uzuneser Taygun C.; Speidel Jil; Kogias Georgios; Wang An-Li; de Souza Silva Maria A.; Huston Joseph P.; Zoicas Iulia; von Hörsten Stephan; Kornhuber Johannes; Korth Carsten; Müller Christian P.. Disrupted-in-Schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) Overexpression and Juvenile Immune Activation Cause Sex-Specific Schizophrenia-Related Psychopathology in Rats. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00222; article XML SHA-256 fb27cafebfcac58abe7d3ec752e9da8944dd59061bba64d71d278fed0fe15b39. “Disrupted-in-Schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) Overexpression and Juvenile Immune Activation Cause Sex-Specific Schizophrenia-Related Psychopathology in Rats” (10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00222).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00222). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## synaptic transmission
<a id="synaptic-transmission"></a>

Synaptic transmission is the way a nerve cell sends signals to another neuron, a muscle cell, or a gland cell at a synapse. It may occur chemically through neurotransmitter release and receptor activation in the receiving cell, or electrically through direct ionic current flow across an electrical synapse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cd94c15f9c86cb1d30bc56143ed8bb078d4605ba48361284c4dfef64a603c04f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Synaptic Transmission” (D009435).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009435). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## synaptic transmitter
<a id="synaptic-transmitter"></a>

A synaptic transmitter is a chemical signal used at a synapse to activate communication between cells. In this source, it is something that must be packaged and supplied to support repeated high-frequency synaptic activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 93806f9f6b2d1dc7636c4f1434aedc2ba7d275ed5b3b67d07b734d6b8480ce34

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Joos Bela; Markham Michael R.; Lewis John E.; Morris Catherine E.. A model for studying the energetics of sustained high frequency firing. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0196508; article XML SHA-256 964c3547f25da5aec9d0ce74c38d2bd3d77922a6c14b6a2959b123c611ff9d49. “A model for studying the energetics of sustained high frequency firing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0196508).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196508). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## synchronization
<a id="synchronization"></a>

Synchronization is the matching of a person’s movements in time with a regular external signal, such as tapping in step with repeated tones. In sensorimotor tasks, it refers to keeping limb movements aligned to the rhythm and, in some cases, continuing at that same pace after the signal stops.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e4d483dfa77d2a44fdba1e4d8488c103eec53e57d6f412ae64a13292a48277bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Numata Atsuki; Terao Yasuo; Sugawara Kenichi; Ugawa Yoshikazu; Furubayashi Toshiaki. Differences in the movement phase condition and sensory inputs on temporal synchronization and continuation during bilateral foot-tapping tasks. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1518230; article XML SHA-256 ac8f62cd20ca2e1a57f8416e0717890f1f36a96d63bfc5a05110ec3d57544efb. “Differences in the movement phase condition and sensory inputs on temporal synchronization and continuation during bilateral foot-tapping tasks” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1518230).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1518230). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## synchrony
<a id="synchrony"></a>

Synchrony, in this social context, means two people spontaneously coordinating their movements in time with each other. It is linked with social bonding, collaboration, and rapport, and may be more likely after cooperative interaction or when initial rapport is stronger.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5c741e6fd1491a462c4b7a02218d9702c2e2cfa6485b02fc26b4db8ce5c43fe1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Scheer Clara; Bowling Daniel L; Hungerländer Niklas A; Fitch W Tecumseh; Horn Lisa. Work together, move together—Cooperation and rapport promote interpersonal synchrony. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333709; article XML SHA-256 8892e26e3836deb59fc67f1583ce5af78c45485288eb4cb9bf2f6d5bac388c7c. “Work together, move together—Cooperation and rapport promote interpersonal synchrony” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333709).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333709). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## syncope
<a id="syncope"></a>

Syncope is a temporary fainting episode in which a person loses consciousness and the ability to stay upright because blood flow to the brain drops. Presyncope is the lightheaded, weak feeling that can happen just before fainting or when the episode is incomplete.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dfe6066714cdbc8c3bdfbcd9e79f07a5c254a68890809a8684fc850e13086120

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Syncope” (D013575).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013575). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## syncretism
<a id="syncretism"></a>

Syncretism is the blending of elements from different sources so that they are fused together and influence one another. In this historical theological usage, it contrasts with eclecticism, which keeps borrowed elements side by side without letting them change each other.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aace7cef14205fe6209456d562e34ed567819f962c92db12cecfdac0a83eaff3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Eclecticism (in theology)” (Eclecticism (in theology)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Eclecticism (in theology)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## synergistic muscles
<a id="synergistic-muscles"></a>

Synergistic muscles are muscles within the same muscle group that act together to produce force or movement. The packet also indicates that even muscles working together in this way can differ in how they are activated as force or joint angle changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df055b98de7597a1ad386fe7e5eec636f263ee395ae975687ce3bfffc8fad39c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Akima Hiroshi; Maeda Hisashi; Koike Teruhiko; Ishida Koji. Effect of elbow joint angles on electromyographic activity versus force relationships of synergistic muscles of the triceps brachii. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0252644; article XML SHA-256 82b80a1d437123dc64e01624a1f7ee260042e44d5666cd8ee0cf567d3b4e6f6a. “Effect of elbow joint angles on electromyographic activity versus force relationships of synergistic muscles of the triceps brachii” (10.1371/journal.pone.0252644).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252644). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## synesthesia
<a id="synesthesia"></a>

Synesthesia is a condition in which one kind of stimulus automatically and involuntarily triggers an additional sensory or perceptual experience. A common example is experiencing colors in response to letters, numbers, words, or music, though other combinations of senses can also occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71390dad779e2b38fa04f64ac71f897adb2e113e8a4840bf9691abe9e55ec709

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Synesthesia” (D000080311).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000080311). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## synkinesis
<a id="synkinesis"></a>

Synkinesis is an involuntary movement that happens at the same time as an intentional movement. The term often refers to facial movements that occur along with facial paralysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1d3c1e161ac7f01afa940d6a52857cb00faa0944ecfc7efe37b65ede3cf0076e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Synkinesis” (D046608).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D046608). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## syntax
<a id="syntax"></a>

In this packet, syntax refers to space syntax: a way of describing and measuring how spaces are arranged to study how spatial layout relates to people’s movement, preferences, and behavior. It focuses on configuration features such as how connected or integrated places are within a larger environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: add53acdafb50dbb0b58dc01f4fb5727a93629056120ee5a4d59925df75b5afe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Bin; Hassan Mohammad Mujaheed; Han Yan; Lau Jasmine Leby. The influence of garden spatial configuration on tourist behavior: A systematic review based on Space Syntax. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339994; article XML SHA-256 94c6c191ccb0ac63991f5b61d9e4d263d23ebb6ac61cd7f321668dde6c0e3b6b. “The influence of garden spatial configuration on tourist behavior: A systematic review based on Space Syntax” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339994).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339994). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## synthesis
<a id="synthesis"></a>

Synthesis is the process of bringing together information from multiple sources to create an overall summary or higher-level understanding of a topic. In this context, it means combining findings from existing reviews to show the broader picture.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 28584679081b8217c15ae3466bf47a6c618165ab47527770143a830345643e2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baluja Anoushka; Webb Roger T. An umbrella review synthesising published systematic review evidence for self-harm and suicidality among patients diagnosed with an eating or feeding disorder. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04609-z; article XML SHA-256 2a99e6435899092ce9f627cd9a499a46dc4c1bef337a6519ce97a3df7a3e66a5. “An umbrella review synthesising published systematic review evidence for self-harm and suicidality among patients diagnosed with an eating or feeding disorder” (10.1186/s40359-026-04609-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04609-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## synthetic validity
<a id="synthetic-validity"></a>

Synthetic validity refers to checking whether a computational modeling approach can correctly recover the model that generated simulated data. It is assessed with simulations that vary factors such as measurement error, amount of data, and similarity among models to see when model identification is valid or misleading.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 241190dd66e19143b2de98540f94c66d2c04b23f37f672481d0243c69329fbfc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kolossa Antonio; Kopp Bruno. Mind the Noise When Identifying Computational Models of Cognition from Brain Activity. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2016.00573; article XML SHA-256 80157c238e283688dd0f3487805a29d58665b1e37023afb0aeee039d2d73e0ba. “Mind the Noise When Identifying Computational Models of Cognition from Brain Activity” (10.3389/fnins.2016.00573).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00573). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## syringomyelia
<a id="syringomyelia"></a>

Syringomyelia is a condition in which long cavities form within the spinal cord, usually in the neck region and sometimes across several spinal levels. It can be linked with spinal cord tumors, injuries, or vascular malformations, and may cause pain, unusual sensations, wasting of the hand muscles, loss of pain and temperature sensation with touch preserved, and sometimes leg stiffness or incontinence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5381f07fae37653e53976ceef7fd10293959a284ba98743fbccfe308ce5d3436

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Syringomyelia” (D013595).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013595). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## system
<a id="system"></a>

In this context, a moral orienting system is the relatively steady pattern through which a person’s values, beliefs, actions, relationships, and experiences work together to shape how they see the world and make choices. If this system cannot absorb moral stress, the person may become morally disoriented.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0cb8b03bdc0eac1c0f3ec842f72a7379743caa1cc74dd29698c8f1c84eabc8d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moon Zachary; Keefe-Perry L Callid. Moral orienting systems: reconceptualizing moral injury as moral disorientation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1733645; article XML SHA-256 b01117294a147ddd81842b3e398b2cd3292d19364ecbfd45e6273ad99f330673. “Moral orienting systems: reconceptualizing moral injury as moral disorientation” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1733645).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1733645). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## System 1
<a id="system-1"></a>

System 1 is the fast mode of thinking in dual-process theory. It is described as operating in parallel and delaying firm commitment longer than System 2, which is slower and more sequential.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18e6030ddf61dc345ff7709aa536d99d0431b9e7a0b2cdbef0f75cc4a51d3c00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Roeloffs Josh; Tuszynski Jack A. Self-referential processing as the biological switch between classical and quantum functioning of the brain. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1783138; article XML SHA-256 95ba4d82852ac5f96817c62963ed496f848f31e4b0f401d5de826892749858f2. “Self-referential processing as the biological switch between classical and quantum functioning of the brain” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1783138).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1783138). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## systematic approach
<a id="systematic-approach"></a>

A systematic approach is an organized, step-by-step way of handling a task so that methods are applied in a planned sequence and the results are checked for reliability. In the source, it means combining several analytical methods, comparing their performance, and using the best-supported model for the final decision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03209aaeeeddff5005347fe06d5ef35679a793182f74ca472514f2e1d6e7ef0d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiang Yuansheng; Guo Ying; Cheung Vien; Wang Pohsun; Westland Stephen. Chrysoprase color grading with machine learning: A systematic approach. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349205; article XML SHA-256 91e6ce7f875b29dce44089e247e208f4abcda1bc8736da2c20d5db96a1d4d8f6. “Chrysoprase color grading with machine learning: A systematic approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349205).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349205). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## systematic desensitization
<a id="systematic-desensitization"></a>

Systematic desensitization is a training approach used to lower anxiety, including anxiety linked to competition. In this context, it is described as helping athletes strengthen psychological resilience and support performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11a11390af01e2ff21ca426b2bbf0cd8e1c50ed6b905836b162e1ff102525c9d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Jie; Zhou Duoqi; Gong Dan; Wu Shunli; Chen Weikai. A study on the impact of systematic desensitization training on competitive anxiety among Latin dance athletes. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1371501; article XML SHA-256 09eaf7992ffefc340fb667d0680e6791617e5128172405b6c789b6e671c6eae5. “A study on the impact of systematic desensitization training on competitive anxiety among Latin dance athletes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1371501).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1371501). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## systematic error
<a id="systematic-error"></a>

Systematic error is a consistent difference between a measurement and the true value, leading results or conclusions away from the truth. It is one form of bias and refers to regular, one-sided error rather than prejudice or personal opinion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f0ea237158ad9e50ab9ea247ea13aaf6c17b163fab89af17691ade56e4a9d27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bias” (D015982).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015982). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## systematic replication
<a id="systematic-replication"></a>

Systematic replication is a repeated attempt to reproduce earlier research findings in a planned way, often across several experiments or conditions, to see whether the original effect holds consistently. In the packet, it refers to replication efforts that produced a mix of successful, partial, and failed repeats, used to test whether differences between conditions might explain that pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 119ebefc940dfa4b23b18764c9668b57a04943adc2725431db315992bbb7da2e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kulke Louisa; Johannsen Josefin; Rakoczy Hannes. Why can some implicit Theory of Mind tasks be replicated and others cannot? A test of mentalizing versus submentalizing accounts. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0213772; article XML SHA-256 b0b1375c17bb7a9b8ae745210f10a66db9f966854363c7281efd83fd013350c2. “Why can some implicit Theory of Mind tasks be replicated and others cannot? A test of mentalizing versus submentalizing accounts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0213772).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213772). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## systematic sampling
<a id="systematic-sampling"></a>

Systematic sampling is a simple, commonly used way to choose a random sample from a finite population by following a fixed selection pattern. Variants of this approach, such as diagonal systematic sampling, are designed to improve precision in some situations, including when the population shows a linear trend.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 143aaee273e766b56538cc218960b56606eaff996505010a6c964960f9fa2c3a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Azeem Muhammad. A modified version of diagonal systematic sampling in the presence of linear trend. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0265179; article XML SHA-256 195543a7e32097824de23ab8646c35a31d14538967869893dd867b910d29e177. “A modified version of diagonal systematic sampling in the presence of linear trend” (10.1371/journal.pone.0265179).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265179). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## systemic lupus erythematosus
<a id="systemic-lupus-erythematosus"></a>

Systemic lupus erythematosus is a long-lasting inflammatory connective tissue disorder that tends to flare and recur, often with fever, and can affect multiple body systems, especially the skin, joints, kidneys, and linings around internal organs. Its cause is unknown, but it is thought to involve a breakdown in the body’s normal autoimmune regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2177ebb1bf3568e3474b2aaa48d9c06b2e206439eb46c4adb1b71b74edc1db26

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic” (D008180).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008180). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## T cell
<a id="t-cell"></a>

In this context, a T cell is one of a patient’s own cells that can be genetically engineered in CAR-T therapy so it targets and attacks cancer cells. These modified cells are used as part of an advanced cancer treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7968efd5dbd4c04d4017b19050ee106efca2de6b2fa499edb702ecd880327390

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Girleanu Isabela; Brady Anne-Marie; Boland Vanessa. Mapping the experiences of adult cancer patients receiving chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy: A scoping review protocol. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338210; article XML SHA-256 a9cf8ba38bddb29123d3e1d58be5aa852e8f16134c9f87e6a7c5e94ca671510c. “Mapping the experiences of adult cancer patients receiving chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy: A scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338210).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338210). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## t distribution
<a id="t-distribution"></a>

The t distribution is a probability distribution for a value from a normal distribution after it is divided by an estimated standard deviation. In research, it is commonly used for statistics such as a mean or the difference between means when the standard error is estimated, and it has a more peaked shape with heavier tails than a normal distribution.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ada728770d16281159991eec012d5fb9015298141586c324d2206f828afc3994

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “t distribution” (t_distribution.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/t_distribution.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## t test
<a id="t-test"></a>

A t test is a statistical significance test that commonly evaluates whether means differ, using the t distribution. It can also be used to compare a sample mean with a hypothesized mean or to test a specific contrast among means.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 546e90e09d04231baded7946ba31cf0a54fc566f595625c18085503d74223a94

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “t test” (t_test.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/t_test.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tabes dorsalis
<a id="tabes-dorsalis"></a>

Tabes dorsalis is a form of neurosyphilis in which the back portions of the spinal cord and related nerve roots gradually degenerate. It usually appears many years after the original infection and can cause sharp leg pains, poor coordination and gait, loss of position and vibration sense, urinary incontinence, and visual or pupil abnormalities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e2488db53a58502e12666632022ff24975379a1be702ac10681789edf1dc60c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tabes Dorsalis” (D013606).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013606). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## table-tilting
<a id="table-tilting"></a>

In this historical psychology source, table-tilting refers to using a tilting table as a way to register an alleged telepathic effect. The movement of the table was taken as a sign that the impression showed itself in action before reaching the percipient’s ordinary conscious awareness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2591db42620a9d35cc57536b2027a671a760fc5c4801aa331ef180377b444f16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3790500-3802500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## taboo
<a id="taboo"></a>

A taboo is a culturally or socially forbidden tradition or behavior that a group generally sees as harmful to social welfare.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9f0afc488445c3383c5bebe7f8897c9af7d2c1549df0980895ebc833d22d970

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Taboo” (D013609).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013609). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tabula rasa
<a id="tabula-rasa"></a>

Tabula rasa means the view that the mind begins as a blank tablet on which experience is gradually written. In this historical discussion, it is contrasted with the idea that the child brings native mental tendencies or forms of mental action to experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0f78c6db74c469aeb24e083314f3d48041806a0a3cf8c21206491ddfd5acb28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Innate Ideas” (Innatei).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Innatei). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tachycardia
<a id="tachycardia"></a>

Tachycardia is an abnormally fast heart rate. In the supplied source, it refers to the compensatory speeding of the heart that can occur during postural change when reduced cerebral blood flow, low blood volume, impaired vascular elasticity, and autonomic dysregulation are involved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4b6994ba5922bc32ad42d87fa0c0b68576e551af3465192455f12d0612b11c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wei Liuchuang; Cheng Heming; Chen Suihai; Dai Jifeng; Li Gen; Ding Dongfang; Zhang Xue; Zhang Ke; Li Jianyun; Hou Jie. Pathophysiological mechanisms of Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome analyzed by means of hemodynamics. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327236; article XML SHA-256 53e974b92d64b96f2de98d76fbacf9b3a1ea4e9cf051f3680c936456ca080f57. “Pathophysiological mechanisms of Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome analyzed by means of hemodynamics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327236).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327236). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tacrine
<a id="tacrine"></a>

Tacrine is a drug that blocks cholinesterase and can enter the brain. It has been used for Alzheimer’s disease and other central nervous system disorders, and also to reverse the effects of muscle relaxants and to stimulate breathing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 95bb472f032f241ad924ed4aac4df822fdcfeebaff7293a3a34e9c18370409f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tacrine” (D013619).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013619). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tactile agnosia
<a id="tactile-agnosia"></a>

Tactile agnosia is a type of agnosia in which a person cannot identify an object's shape or what it is by touch alone, even though basic sensation such as light touch and position sense remains intact. More broadly, it reflects difficulty understanding the meaning or significance of sensory input that is not caused by a problem in the primary sensory system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c1680cc50f12b7b03e53832b391edb96c59f452576c3d5953eff0575ab285c60

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Agnosia” (D000377).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000377). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tactile encoding
<a id="tactile-encoding"></a>

Tactile encoding is the initial processing of a touch stimulus so it can be represented in space. In this source, it refers to the stage before later events such as an eye movement can update that tactile location into a gaze-dependent frame of reference.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 10e308bd2d84a33e566b843e79a12055086a28959101a851a1f91eae5963c1ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mueller Stefanie; Fiehler Katja. Gaze-dependent spatial updating of tactile targets in a localization task. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00066; article XML SHA-256 798520bd85ec6eee1a01a2510ccdfb0a806a1107e4f106c0f30d4e789c8b6123. “Gaze-dependent spatial updating of tactile targets in a localization task” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00066).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00066). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tactile extinction
<a id="tactile-extinction"></a>

Tactile extinction is a problem seen after unilateral brain damage in which a person may miss a touch on the side opposite the lesion, especially when a touch is given at the same time on the same-side limb. It reflects a higher-order disturbance of spatial attention or representation rather than simply loss of basic touch sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 372236a2dbbe52eea0a11a20d6b5e2cfa9c6d0c6f9d60d619b811e59be1df418

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sambo Chiara F.; Vallar Giuseppe; Fortis Paola; Ronchi Roberta; Posteraro Lucio; Forster Bettina; Maravita Angelo. Visual and spatial modulation of tactile extinction: behavioural and electrophysiological evidence. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00217; article XML SHA-256 2e714e313572d6ded86691b485583ab24bf11d87ab80fe9085ae17afedeaaaea. “Visual and spatial modulation of tactile extinction: behavioural and electrophysiological evidence” (10.3389/fnhum.2012.00217).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00217). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tactile hallucination
<a id="tactile-hallucination"></a>

A tactile hallucination is feeling touch or pressure when nothing is actually causing that sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84f9a56bd404c46eb2db850f37ad98144c930080cfb98e952cd5b9852fee4249

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tactile Hallucination” (C118176).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tactile illusion
<a id="tactile-illusion"></a>

A tactile illusion is a false impression arising in touch, usually during active touching and often mixed with sensations of movement. It can make motion over the skin seem greater or wrongly directed, or make a touched body part seem to move when something passes across it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80b0ee45f94b931164bb7a4d1a32a9cd3a5569bc1976f791695966036ee8c584

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Illusions of Motion and Movement” (Illusions).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Illusions). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tactile perception
<a id="tactile-perception"></a>

Tactile perception is the brain’s process of recognizing and making sense of information gained through touch, such as identifying an object’s qualities or what it is by feeling it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed41b581bfa413a805384d3c0aaed36c4913fecc56bb64fb8c92d198cde53ae6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Touch Perception” (D055698).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D055698). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tactile sense
<a id="tactile-sense"></a>

Tactile sense is the sense of touch: awareness of physical contact with objects, whether living or nonliving. It depends on touch-sensitive receptors in the skin and mucous membranes detecting this contact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40a1a458ce9d8ac79a820f7d3c9006565474ba6cb00bc840eed37038b1d88dfc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Touch” (D014110).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014110). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tactile stimulation
<a id="tactile-stimulation"></a>

Tactile stimulation is sensory input produced by touch, including contact with different textures and levels of pressure on the skin. In psychology, it is described as a strong sensory experience that can shape emotional responses and well-being, with soft or smooth touch often linked to comfort, relaxation, and reduced stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7ae4b1520a1c87f003d7481ccc3a10470cf9c50fd299da1724c8530dadb68b4c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Seo-Hyun; Park Sin-Ae. Psychophysiological and psychological responses of touching plant behavior by tactile stimulation according to the foliage type. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316660; article XML SHA-256 dee9d0bd9e8519e87317828962a4769efdfbd5756339f19fbe1cd23ef505b1d6. “Psychophysiological and psychological responses of touching plant behavior by tactile stimulation according to the foliage type” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316660).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316660). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tactual localization
<a id="tactual-localization"></a>

Tactual localization is the ability to identify where on the body a touch is felt. In this historical account, it is explained as depending on a distinct sensory “local sign,” and in some cases as being helped by learned association with vision.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7babad92c18cc5595bdd54abd664a8826d8ab2eebab6dc878bd841e8bd86108d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Local Sign” (Local Sign).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Local Sign). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TAE
<a id="tae"></a>

TAE refers to third-party or externally assessed expressive performance: how expressive a performer is judged to be by independent raters rather than by self-report. In the source, it is used as an external measure of vocal performance expressiveness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b24ec91ae5c83cc60fb2274559718bf4fb241b687c9447cc46c3dbe124b885bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ouyang Danna. Voice, vulnerability, and expressive growth: investigating AI anxiety and performance appraisal in voice arts education. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1653502; article XML SHA-256 bfa2111b3a521b58fcb52e0d96f1be68e64db0d6f4be319517c0393b1ed65343. “Voice, vulnerability, and expressive growth: investigating AI anxiety and performance appraisal in voice arts education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1653502).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1653502). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## taijin kyofusho
<a id="taijin-kyofusho"></a>

Taijin kyofusho is an interpersonal fear centered on offending or upsetting other people. In the supplied source, it is described as a culturally bound syndrome identified in Japan and Korea, though similar cases have also been recognized in other cultures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a1b318956b26eade77db5d8bc61e825dcf64ad1ee04e4883a77eaf4ca9841b5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vriends N.; Pfaltz M. C.; Novianti P.; Hadiyono J.. Taijin Kyofusho and Social Anxiety and Their Clinical Relevance in Indonesia and Switzerland. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00003; article XML SHA-256 6c9aa4ab345c62ec7746013ad34a806bc13940c7f0d595ee16a64faddd03c8f6. “Taijin Kyofusho and Social Anxiety and Their Clinical Relevance in Indonesia and Switzerland” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00003).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00003). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Talbot–Plateau law
<a id="talbotplateau-law"></a>

Talbot–Plateau law is the principle that the effect of light depends on intensity and duration together, so a weaker light acting for a longer time can produce the same result as a stronger light acting for a shorter time. In the source, it is presented as a special case of a more general law governing the action of light.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 79e0cf48b5d9933fd015769ae326ebaa79d3597a11197f520d22f7bb159feb08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3748500-3760500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## talk therapy
<a id="talk-therapy"></a>

Talk therapy is a way of treating psychological problems through mental and conversational methods rather than medication. It includes approaches such as suggestion, re-education, hypnosis, and psychoanalysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 13b65ceabfddb1614f2e1966ada9bab92941133e95a57a36345fb115c4e386bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Psychotherapy” (C15308).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## talking cure
<a id="talking-cure"></a>

The talking cure is a common way of describing psychotherapy as a form of help that works through speaking and interaction. In this sense, it refers to approaches that focus on how language use in therapy can contribute to psychological change and relief of problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d2869cc3870933324bd6280f808847b5e4a234ee0c9f900c7dbb7b4031c88f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Marx Christopher; Benecke Cord; Gumz Antje. Talking Cure Models: A Framework of Analysis. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01589; article XML SHA-256 d1a414f5cacf48a3d647a03eb24c9d8d3d025d88086c072362b046936adfd59c. “Talking Cure Models: A Framework of Analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01589).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01589). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tangent screen
<a id="tangent-screen"></a>

A tangent screen is a perimetry method used to assess a person’s visual field. In this source, it is described as an alternative to conventional perimeter-based visual field testing when standard assessment may not be feasible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66aa62887c4d60bf626e6f224ec2518d9077c6cb90d6fc469a8c491f679652c8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Thakur Monika; Gattu Abhinay Kumar; Murthy Jagarlapudi M K; Satgunam PremNandhini. Alternative perimetric tests for patients with drug-resistant epilepsy. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318025; article XML SHA-256 adc419f5cbac628998460cb068dd12c2d211c34f6cc44e6bc2be1e4b2f507e42. “Alternative perimetric tests for patients with drug-resistant epilepsy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318025).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318025). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tangible support
<a id="tangible-support"></a>

Tangible support is a form of psychosocial support that provides practical help, such as money or goods. It is one part of a broader support system people receive through their social networks and interactions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e13a3f0f4233b4cfa307556f1e5215e95a9dd639695db72228289b0b868d10b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Miao; Liu Min; Zhan Kuijun; Chen Yutong; Liu Xide. Dynamic analysis of the relationship between systemic lupus erythematosus disease activity and psychosocial support. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1433868; article XML SHA-256 57a76db8570704a1796d70af41bc10bfccd24b31facc0088cd55ad4002353373. “Dynamic analysis of the relationship between systemic lupus erythematosus disease activity and psychosocial support” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1433868).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1433868). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tangible user interface
<a id="tangible-user-interface"></a>

A tangible user interface is a touch-based interface technology in which physical form and haptic qualities are used to support interaction. In this approach, the feel of controls can help users orient themselves, distinguish functions, and make the interface more intuitive.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7f8baac2527ec301a83536c26b33ddcee2449a17fde17d72cb4767571a57daf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Breitschaft Stefan Josef; Carbon Claus-Christian. Function Follows Form: Using the Aesthetic Association Principle to Enhance Haptic Interface Design. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.646986; article XML SHA-256 c8c2e98048fc5cf77b1161e42ac15f99e1908ccc15995f71c395aae5ad18c726. “Function Follows Form: Using the Aesthetic Association Principle to Enhance Haptic Interface Design” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.646986).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.646986). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Taoism
<a id="taoism"></a>

Taoism is a Chinese religious and philosophical tradition named for the Tao, a term meaning the way or course, used for both the order of nature and the path of right conduct. In the passage, its older idea is linked with Lao Tsze and presented as a profound but unsystematic body of insight, distinct from later popular forms mixed with divination and magic.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e143afcf10f94b2ee7d7ad248fd72bca05a7d9264f32bcc370a4052964a91a55

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1365000-1377000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tapering
<a id="tapering"></a>

Tapering is the gradual reduction of a medication dose as part of treatment. In this mental health context, it refers specifically to slowly lowering benzodiazepine doses in treating benzodiazepine addiction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a837f2ba3166fa5996781b951fe3606ebb8876759e6e98605486be67217e3797

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Burmester Sofia; Krüger Cecilia; Franck Johan; Westman Jeanette. Patient experiences of benzodiazepine tapering: a qualitative study of treatment in addiction care. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08745-z; article XML SHA-256 55adf5280044d4baaf00d2e2e6c8debbe8483a19f046d806f745cac42521d8b2. “Patient experiences of benzodiazepine tapering: a qualitative study of treatment in addiction care” (10.1186/s12888-026-08745-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08745-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tapetum
<a id="tapetum"></a>

Tapetum refers here to a white reflective layer in the retina of some fishes. Its reflected light makes the colouring matter of the rods, including visual purple, easier to observe as it changes after darkness and exposure to light.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 802656e672f255a7a46064c7e078b5baeb5850bb38330359af1f4ef0fd214d05

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4389000-4401000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tardive dyskinesia
<a id="tardive-dyskinesia"></a>

Tardive dyskinesia is a drug-related movement disorder involving involuntary muscle movements. It is linked to long-term exposure to certain neuroleptic medicines, including metoclopramide.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8b19442ad3684bf55ce3049ab2bd98586442ce779173fbe2f090c35d4b562b3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tardive Dyskinesia” (D000071057).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000071057). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## target
<a id="target"></a>

In this context, a target is the fast-moving clay object that a shooter must visually track and respond to almost immediately after it is launched. It is the focus of dynamic visual attention during the sequence of aiming and firing actions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 68e120509d2c68bc6aeec66ed0bb31340caf63556c472bd3db0acd463f814761

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jin Kai; Gao Pingze; Zhang Xupeng. Performance of clay pigeon shooters in multiple object tracking under different target loads: skill level and gender differences. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1879857; article XML SHA-256 cbf0beee263f2bf6c5579c55b4f45b3a4cc3e4f14f457fe556f247c8c3f8afc5. “Performance of clay pigeon shooters in multiple object tracking under different target loads: skill level and gender differences” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1879857).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1879857). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## target behavior
<a id="target-behavior"></a>

Target behavior is the specific behavior chosen as the direct focus of a behavioral intervention or study. In this context, it is the behavior intentionally addressed, as distinct from later behaviors that may change indirectly as spillover effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 857ceb38e6aa821ed2a18536d138b0b7f526ddba2c57abf45b451cc38e63d244

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Galizzi Matteo M.; Whitmarsh Lorraine. How to Measure Behavioral Spillovers: A Methodological Review and Checklist. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00342; article XML SHA-256 20a6d67781abe2bae4944462ddf1e194f5ee7d99a4b4f71fc1cbb65f410e6977. “How to Measure Behavioral Spillovers: A Methodological Review and Checklist” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00342).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00342). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Tartini’s tone
<a id="tartinis-tone"></a>

Tartini’s tone is the difference tone, described as the stronger of the two combination tones. It is usually understood as a tone whose vibration rate matches the difference between the vibration rates of the two primary tones, though historical accounts also note that more than one such difference tone may be heard under different conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 894875351cf272bf408339602b583fca579103c84167ab20c483300786b9d09a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Difference Tone” (Difference Tone).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Difference Tone). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TAS
<a id="tas"></a>

TAS stands for Technology Attitude Scale, a brief self-report measure of a person’s views about using technology. It looks at confidence with technology, the value the person places on it, and how useful they think it is in particular settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f1bf6d436411ae8677ce9d212485e65f3bf829e6d1e3a858b9a475c0f4a2a7e4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Technology Attitude Scale” (C177742).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## task
<a id="task"></a>

A task is a cognitive or motor activity a person performs. In dual-task situations, two tasks are carried out at the same time, which can compete for limited cognitive resources and affect performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 25f59ca72c63abc92f85094a25518a0fa9e51ed883b217bf6f48589683811c03

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Xinyu; Li Shurui; Tan Sijie; Wang Mei; Li Qingwen; Guo Zhen. Cortical activation and functional connectivity during dual-task walking under different cognitive loads: an fNIRS study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1906359; article XML SHA-256 dd40ac511cdeb804e1c7d0f629d8b0525bf61d1fcd8d9af917ce1b4f1e6b9872. “Cortical activation and functional connectivity during dual-task walking under different cognitive loads: an fNIRS study” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1906359).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1906359). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## task cohesion
<a id="task-cohesion"></a>

Task cohesion is the extent to which a team comes together around carrying out its performance tasks and pursuing immediate shared outcomes. In the source, it refers to a form of team unity based more on confidence in a coach’s competence and tactical reliability than on emotional closeness between team members.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6a04293bd3904b517789226da3396fa1a159868f57087b01c6c08677923cd87c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Sujin; Kim Inwoo. The mediating effect of trust in the relationship between transformational leadership of university sports coach and team task cohesion. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736310; article XML SHA-256 0653dbd589ec452058539e7b934848bcb42070b9dc27f69cd6b3f9812e854348. “The mediating effect of trust in the relationship between transformational leadership of university sports coach and team task cohesion” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736310).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736310). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## task complexity
<a id="task-complexity"></a>

Task complexity is the degree of cognitive demand built into a task, based on how its design or conditions require attention and mental resources during performance. In this context, tasks can vary in complexity level, which can influence both how efficiently a person works and the quality of the final outcome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0fb68c4cb69d6c7326d6f4a61bbe898469f19f0f5e0da30ba4b70a2aab19d8c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Xiangyan; Liu Xiaodong. Exploring the effects of task complexity and translation anxiety on EFL learners’ translation performance: Evidence from a mixed-design study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346731; article XML SHA-256 bb6415500d690b9baf08989c5cafe5af1ef850627882ae89371d5fd6ce5de4d3. “Exploring the effects of task complexity and translation anxiety on EFL learners’ translation performance: Evidence from a mixed-design study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346731).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346731). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## task demands
<a id="task-demands"></a>

Task demands are the specific requirements of an activity that shape how a person controls perception and action while doing it. In this source, they refer to differences such as only tracking a moving target versus tracking it while also intercepting it, which changed how visual feedback and prediction were used during eye movement control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d0b57b9a65f876befde06bf9589c8849d3576ad340af7f65f023ef915765f6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Delle Monache Sergio; Nastasi Pietro; Paolocci Gianluca; Scalici Francesco; Ingrosso Riccardo; Lacquaniti Francesco; Indovina Iole; Bosco Gianfranco. Task demands and visual context naturalness modulate gravitational expectation during ocular tracking of temporarily occluded ballistic trajectories. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328432; article XML SHA-256 2928159df07eadb32056905b5ea3f8ce085198a1746e0bb8edf0d36c6d36da5e. “Task demands and visual context naturalness modulate gravitational expectation during ocular tracking of temporarily occluded ballistic trajectories” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328432).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328432). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## task structure
<a id="task-structure"></a>

Task structure is the way a task is set up, including the rules and relationships that organize what people must do and how choices are determined. In this study, having prior information about the task structure meant being told more about how the color-matching task worked.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: efd369c5062769e48445823f2680da8ea786e8bb13c5f5fc78f5c70ff231ccad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mohan Oviya; Biro Dora. Experimental emergence of conventions in human dyads. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341532; article XML SHA-256 4b1f1d2b4a68b740bc81dcf8a4c9efa087abad9d88283417d79709450dc1d849. “Experimental emergence of conventions in human dyads” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341532).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341532). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## task switching
<a id="task-switching"></a>

Task switching is a task paradigm in which a person changes from one task to another. Research described here treats it as involving control of the current task set, such as reconfiguring the active rules or overcoming carryover from the previous task, although some versions may instead be completed through learned cue-target associations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 12b26aedee008123cbcbf85c5c062b8e12ab69f37740722d2da8897437bf0e08

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Fangyuan; Tian Zhongjin; Li Xiangqian. Exploring the ERP trace of task-set control in the composite design task-switching paradigm. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1536926; article XML SHA-256 af99912297dee1583e13f077b3abd1e1bad1d51f6fc3f40a5f5a40c1f0f24ac1. “Exploring the ERP trace of task-set control in the composite design task-switching paradigm” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1536926).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1536926). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## task-unrelated thoughts
<a id="task-unrelated-thoughts"></a>

Task-unrelated thoughts are thoughts or mental images that are not focused on the activity a person is currently doing. In the source material, they are treated as part of daydreaming, especially when they are independent of immediate external stimulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2cac91974d239c5ebeaaa194064b6d9042df760b7430a480b6d99671ef070c84

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zedelius Claire M.; Schooler Jonathan W.. The Richness of Inner Experience: Relating Styles of Daydreaming to Creative Processes. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02063; article XML SHA-256 2844ec0d15b4e6d8a7db5b56e061cb5b919590fea96c2bf984e3133ab06fe09b. “The Richness of Inner Experience: Relating Styles of Daydreaming to Creative Processes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02063).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02063). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tastant
<a id="tastant"></a>

A tastant is a substance used as a taste stimulus, such as monosodium glutamate, to produce and study a particular taste experience. In this context, it refers to a component that is ingested so researchers can examine taste perception and related brain responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 32d610b914924319219ff4c5f8e7ac4dbf603c1099f0e8b8ca75e0134ff5bd2a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Setsu Rikukage; Hirano Yoshiyuki; Tokunaga Miki; Takahashi Toru; Numata Noriko; Matsumoto Koji; Masuda Yoshitada; Matsuzawa Daisuke; Iyo Masaomi; Shimizu Eiji; Nakazato Michiko. Increased Subjective Distaste and Altered Insula Activity to Umami Tastant in Patients with Bulimia Nervosa. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00172; article XML SHA-256 d6f63e0d8bb4ac8d1c2039d917eab74e2d07eaab4b43330cdeaa694eb3b9c9ae. “Increased Subjective Distaste and Altered Insula Activity to Umami Tastant in Patients with Bulimia Nervosa” (10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00172).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00172). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## taste
<a id="taste"></a>

Taste is the ability to sense chemicals through gustatory receptors in the mouth, including receptors on the tongue, palate, pharynx, and epiglottis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c05909f64befdffd89f390ef26eb259fd7b4ad98dc06a84ad7ed2d0487131eae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Taste” (D013649).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013649). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## taste aversion
<a id="taste-aversion"></a>

Taste aversion is a conditioned form of memory linked to taste, in which training produces lasting changes in how feeding-related neural circuits respond. In the source packet, it is described as a long-term memory in snails.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b1fccb8e0af57c3916ad6f3fedb71d798892a9bab1afcfc342996810991a77e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ito Etsuro; Otsuka Emi; Hama Noriyuki; Aonuma Hitoshi; Okada Ryuichi; Hatakeyama Dai; Fujito Yutaka; Kobayashi Suguru. Memory Trace in Feeding Neural Circuitry Underlying Conditioned Taste Aversion in Lymnaea. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0043151; article XML SHA-256 2201c914ea94f84223294ab69a66a6a6562067e683216b0aa68b3033ab009ae4. “Memory Trace in Feeding Neural Circuitry Underlying Conditioned Taste Aversion in Lymnaea” (10.1371/journal.pone.0043151).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0043151). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## taste-aversion learning
<a id="taste-aversion-learning"></a>

Taste-aversion learning is a form of learning in which an animal comes to avoid a taste after that taste has been associated with an unpleasant bodily consequence such as illness. In this packet, it is discussed as conditioned taste aversion and as involving learning and memory related to the gustatory cortex.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e91f825caf0c580be33236af4e97ddacb91482d488f42977f5b25ed6ddf35cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Blonde Ginger D.; Bales Michelle B.; Spector Alan C.. Extensive Lesions in Rat Insular Cortex Significantly Disrupt Taste Sensitivity to NaCl and KCl and Slow Salt Discrimination Learning. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0117515; article XML SHA-256 13b54de6fcf22754fbb63efce8842760231342a5302fe4ae9ccb619ad4c378e9. “Extensive Lesions in Rat Insular Cortex Significantly Disrupt Taste Sensitivity to NaCl and KCl and Slow Salt Discrimination Learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0117515).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117515). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## taste bud
<a id="taste-bud"></a>

A taste bud is a small oval sensory structure in a papilla of the tongue that extends through the full thickness of the epithelium. It contains sensory, supporting, and basal cells, and opens at the surface through a taste pore.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8ba003e7e22b8503f6a584572fb7937b7acd62459094c94c8e4bd2681672d8c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Taste Bud” (C96518).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## taste cell
<a id="taste-cell"></a>

A taste cell is a sensory cell within a taste bud that helps detect taste stimuli. Different types of taste cells have been described, including cells involved in sensing bitter, sweet, and umami tastes, cells that form synapses with incoming nerve fibers, and cells thought to have a mainly supportive role.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf3fcd4ac9ad8caa68af66c2a3554844a69e87d9cdfc57c483498acea3c75c48

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vandenbeuch Aurelie; Clapp Tod R; Kinnamon Sue C. Amiloride-sensitive channels in type I fungiform taste cells in mouse. 2008; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-9-1; article XML SHA-256 fca5fc8f672ba2f6f5d4436ce0385dce5cd2c19e311d388c85a684f53cabc7a1. “Amiloride-sensitive channels in type I fungiform taste cells in mouse” (10.1186/1471-2202-9-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-9-1). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## taste cortex
<a id="taste-cortex"></a>

The taste cortex is a brain area involved in telling tastes apart. In this packet, it is linked to the right insular cortex and to the idea that taste qualities may be laid out across cortical space in an ordered pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53311c4783c91988f4a537f7989424f4ba26e15af69b5d3757ea36a65e63ee6c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Prinster Anna; Cantone Elena; Verlezza Viviana; Magliulo Mario; Sarnelli Giovanni; Iengo Maurizio; Cuomo Rosario; Di Salle Francesco; Esposito Fabrizio. Cortical representation of different taste modalities on the gustatory cortex: A pilot study. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0190164; article XML SHA-256 a3627e5fb3823ac55549f81917e6918a3561731f6b7dbc56f0e5b1cb23e68ecf. “Cortical representation of different taste modalities on the gustatory cortex: A pilot study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0190164).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190164). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## taste pore
<a id="taste-pore"></a>

A taste pore is the opening at the top of a taste bud where the taste cell microvilli face the saliva and detect chemicals in food. It is the apical region where taste receptors are located, kept separate from the parts of the cells that send signals to nerve fibers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7eb8b2112776b220fe63bc70966fb5885f2e8253d07927615f057b85ad597966

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Na; Lu Min; Echeverri Fernando; Laita Bianca; Kalabat Dalia; Williams Mark E; Hevezi Peter; Zlotnik Albert; Moyer Bryan D. Voltage-gated sodium channels in taste bud cells. 2009; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-10-20; article XML SHA-256 5215368966db0e3db013cf994b4d068029d23c8751ac62a995e0899830494074. “Voltage-gated sodium channels in taste bud cells” (10.1186/1471-2202-10-20).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-10-20). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## taste stimulus
<a id="taste-stimulus"></a>

A taste stimulus is a substance applied to evoke a gustatory response, such as sweet, salty, sour, or bitter compounds. In this context, different taste stimuli can produce different time courses and patterns of neural activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9301f5a82c47bd4c6a29854f9da0337ba421e3ba1aa54f1f3e99b03b7e07ea6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Geran Laura; Travers Susan. Temporal Characteristics of Gustatory Responses in Rat Parabrachial Neurons Vary by Stimulus and Chemosensitive Neuron Type. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0076828; article XML SHA-256 7267d68b68c2e140f2361692aa71b8b9e171aaabdb0f98f78a6de03404c53001. “Temporal Characteristics of Gustatory Responses in Rat Parabrachial Neurons Vary by Stimulus and Chemosensitive Neuron Type” (10.1371/journal.pone.0076828).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076828). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## taste system
<a id="taste-system"></a>

The taste system is the sensory system for gustation, including peripheral structures such as taste epithelium, gustatory papillae, taste buds, and the neurons and axons that connect them to the brain. It is characterized by specialized anatomy and function and develops through coordinated molecular signals that guide the formation, growth, and targeting of these cells and connections.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 465f0320922ad36067f3487d2c3c961b52ec3b15062ad708f8458d3c9f445ae3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Krimm Robin F. Factors that regulate embryonic gustatory development. 2007; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-8-s3-s4; article XML SHA-256 18e884cdbfe79fbdd13f397d45f81afed96375ffa6f75d5ab540cb9b0dcc6e17. “Factors that regulate embryonic gustatory development” (10.1186/1471-2202-8-s3-s4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-8-s3-s4). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TAT
<a id="tat"></a>

TAT refers here to alpha-tubulin N-acetyltransferase 1, a human enzyme made from the ATAT1 gene. It helps add acetyl groups to proteins and may be linked to neuronal development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5939baca491279c0df58e8f996d50eea4ee3d6817242dc635a3e4144d4c2bf72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alpha-Tubulin N-Acetyltransferase 1” (C94843).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## taurine
<a id="taurine"></a>

Taurine is a beta-amino acid involved in energy metabolism, inhibitory neurotransmission, calcium balance, and antioxidant protection. In autism research, low taurine levels have been proposed as a possible finding in some individuals, although study results are mixed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ecaae5ac833b17b86480ec0b8b2a3ba882619991422aa40f3d66c3e824674a7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Minami Akihiro; Matsuoka Kiwamu; Takahashi Masato; Ueda Kazuya; Ohnishi Hiroki; Fujimoto Yuka; Yoshikawa Hiroaki; Ishida Rio; Takado Yuhei; Near Jamie; Yamatani Yuya; Miyasaka Toshiteru; Tai Yumi; Ochi Tomoko; Tanaka Toshihiro; Okada Takashi; Iwata Nakao; Makinodan Manabu. Association between decreased taurine levels in the anterior cingulate cortex and restricted and repetitive behaviors in autism spectrum disorder: a cross-sectional study. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1700059; article XML SHA-256 2949116e9939126e28641c0e45cd6d1edaf9d963f2a1abc88074e698962c69c9. “Association between decreased taurine levels in the anterior cingulate cortex and restricted and repetitive behaviors in autism spectrum disorder: a cross-sectional study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1700059).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1700059). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tautology
<a id="tautology"></a>

In this historical source, a tautology is a statement that is true only because it restates the same relation in different words, without adding any concrete information. It is used to criticize formulas like “identity in difference” when they do not specify what the actual likenesses or differences are.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d605eb3736b5b185630776b2c12bc72a48efc193771de0afc2ad7890d782dd76

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Identity (in metaphysics)” (Identitym).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Identitym). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## taxis
<a id="taxis"></a>

Taxis is a directed movement response of a living cell or organism caused by stimulation coming more from one side than another. In this historical usage, it includes orientation toward or away from influences such as chemicals, light, heat, moisture, pressure, currents, gravity, density, or electricity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 244b18b3d153a1bd1dac894bb0dc528d41364646fcd00593f12825dac01ac846

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-84000-96000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## taxonomy
<a id="taxonomy"></a>

In this context, a taxonomy is an organized way of classifying the factors involved in access to mental healthcare during a public health crisis. It groups related challenges and experiences to help describe how economically marginalized perinatal women and obstetric professionals are affected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 77dc91b05d62291e34326c99850ea04997dca877e1344188bba187bad0d341d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Thompson Azure B.; Schaefer Ana J.; Julce Clevanne; Zimmermann Martha; Ramella Leah; Rochani Dienta; Moore Simas Tiffany A.; Davis Wendy; Byatt Nancy; Mackie Thomas I.. Taxonomy of access to mental healthcare for economically marginalized women during a public health crisis: a qualitative study of obstetric professionals and perinatal women during the COVID-19 pandemic. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1783084; article XML SHA-256 5c26e5db07cccb1add3ce887bbd8f98b6f648876673b23fe69d752a3f6b7149a. “Taxonomy of access to mental healthcare for economically marginalized women during a public health crisis: a qualitative study of obstetric professionals and perinatal women during the COVID-19 pandemic” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1783084).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1783084). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Tay–Sachs disease
<a id="taysachs-disease"></a>

Tay–Sachs disease is an inherited neurodegenerative disorder passed in an autosomal recessive pattern that begins in infancy, often with an unusually strong startle response and later progresses to paralysis, dementia, and blindness. It results from mutation affecting hexosaminidase A, leading to lipid buildup in ganglion cells, and has a strong association with Ashkenazic Jewish ancestry.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1fb5264b2fe00f5b376af13ee8abbcaf6fd24cc066bb7f5f5afdc50652f2c02c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tay-Sachs Disease” (D013661).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013661). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TBI
<a id="tbi"></a>

TBI stands for traumatic brain injury, an injury to the brain that is common in older adults and often happens after falls. Most cases in this age group are mild, but TBI is linked with higher risks of neurodegenerative, neuropsychiatric, and sleep problems, as well as disability and increased mortality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7ee0c6f3d006f45a774164697a9f9da6b79efc2e1b2fad232c4d94d754e73f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Albrecht Jennifer S; Addison Odessa; Badjatia Neeraj; Bahr-Robertson Mary K; Grattan Lynn M; Gruber-Baldini Ann L; Kozar Rosemary; Magaziner Jay; Orwig Denise L; Newman Michelle; Stevens Deborah; Wickwire Emerson M; Liang Yuanyuan. Protocol for RETRO-TBI: A prospective cohort study of mild traumatic brain injury in older adults. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350552; article XML SHA-256 aa9aea91bee63cb12e71452320726e06b8e433256c25b153be8b22dabf3e7ee4. “Protocol for RETRO-TBI: A prospective cohort study of mild traumatic brain injury in older adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350552).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350552). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TBR items
<a id="tbr-items"></a>

TBR items are “to-be-remembered” items in directed forgetting research. They are the study items participants are explicitly told to remember, and they are typically remembered better than to-be-forgotten items.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e9d97897fb15ad63534fb40e9ae1f40d9e32b4748e88bae3e632d39787043301

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mao Xinrui; Tian Mengxi; Liu Yi; Li Bingcan; Jin Yan; Wu Yanhong; Guo Chunyan. Can We Retrieve the Information Which Was Intentionally Forgotten? Electrophysiological Correlates of Strategic Retrieval in Directed Forgetting. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01480; article XML SHA-256 e388f12767629d9bf5efb3a93bfede7948a79775651c32d28a822b8a91e5b5d0. “Can We Retrieve the Information Which Was Intentionally Forgotten? Electrophysiological Correlates of Strategic Retrieval in Directed Forgetting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01480).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01480). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TCD
<a id="tcd"></a>

TCD, or transcranial Doppler ultrasonography, is a diagnostic test that uses pulsed Doppler ultrasound to measure how fast blood flows through the brain’s major blood vessels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf69d18d9d6fee6644f54255384e65c1a7e66d23de648af593d2d46b95be919e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography” (C122930).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TDD
<a id="tdd"></a>

TDD stands for tomato-disease detection, meaning the task of identifying diseases in tomato plants from images, often in complex field conditions with varying backgrounds and lighting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9535118cb776bd4118af8c0b42c837d60a7112633b05fd4d18cd0add09ff573f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Zijian; Bian Zhihua; Li Li; Dai Chenxu; Ji Zhanlin; Ganchev Ivan. TDD-YOLO: A novel model for precise detection of tomato diseases. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334989; article XML SHA-256 c27a36ad8d233f9f0040e6f8873bceddc85973f35462b72c3f4286dc4f357520. “TDD-YOLO: A novel model for precise detection of tomato diseases” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334989).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334989). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## teaching model
<a id="teaching-model"></a>

A teaching model is a structured way of organizing instruction. In this packet, it refers to a small-group approach that uses planned group tasks, assigned roles, peer feedback, and shared responsibility to support learning, rather than simply putting students into groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 153d8d44bec9ac1965f8bcd5710401100bc314de0eb3c1b747cf1d89d7fa855a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Deke; Lu Quanhong; Shao Jiawei; Axi Jinluo; Qiu Jiangang; Li Dongchen. Selective psychological benefits of small-group teaching model in junior high school physical education: a randomized pretest–posttest controlled study of physical self-esteem and self-efficacy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873632; article XML SHA-256 fd1a40954c9f666b99eaa7505bd38b4172b0c54338870d5cb1a7aeacc68cebad. “Selective psychological benefits of small-group teaching model in junior high school physical education: a randomized pretest–posttest controlled study of physical self-esteem and self-efficacy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873632).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873632). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## teaching style
<a id="teaching-style"></a>

Teaching style is the way students experience a teacher’s instructional behavior, which can be more supportive and motivating or more controlling and demotivating. In this context, it is linked to students’ motivation partly through how it affects their feelings of autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 13ddbd16e9b466a4d07f76a3375b95fca2b0053189cb8d5da873ba1aff4a79ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Ying; Fu Naiming. Motivational and demotivational teaching styles in physical education: the role of basic psychological needs. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1839188; article XML SHA-256 40c693b72d98f29366c4acc6ab1d3fa4a79449e1a8f2cd44b6d182072397da53. “Motivational and demotivational teaching styles in physical education: the role of basic psychological needs” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1839188).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1839188). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## team building
<a id="team-building"></a>

Team building is the use of planned group strategies or activities to strengthen how a team functions and works together. In this source, it refers to an intervention aimed at improving group dynamics such as role clarity, team identification, communication, cohesion, commitment, collective efficacy, and perceived performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d281b764bd62bf5481f4f4292b4332185dc2259a1d19ab89546fd5efee9c15da

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tassi Juan M.; López-Gajardo Miguel A.; Leo Francisco M.; Díaz-García Jesús; García-Calvo Tomás. An intervention program based on team building during tactical training tasks to improve team functioning. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1065323; article XML SHA-256 be307762513f8ac56b1ff1841f6940dc249bafd630b67bba7bbd02d69ba43f64. “An intervention program based on team building during tactical training tasks to improve team functioning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1065323).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1065323). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## technical
<a id="technical"></a>

In this source, technical refers to measurable aspects of performance in a match, such as actions involved in attacking, passing, defending, or discipline. It is used to distinguish these skill-based indicators from tactical, contextual, and player-related factors in outcome analysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45d8da27b7bce41897b8098bfe55c83004eb3e5fb085b0a901c8a30446d456fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Shihuan; Li Xuewei; Ouyang Yan; Hong Wei; Jiang Weilang; Li Fangqing; Zhao Ying; Liu Ying; Zhao Yanyi; Zhou Tong. An explainable machine learning analysis of technical and tactical indicators associated with CSL match outcomes. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1854812; article XML SHA-256 a188dd81214713acb7afd8c2aecaeadda36527e26835fb2cfbb8b0005d6abfb8. “An explainable machine learning analysis of technical and tactical indicators associated with CSL match outcomes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1854812).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1854812). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## technostress
<a id="technostress"></a>

Technostress is stress related to digital technology use that is linked to feeling less self-control, more emotional strain, distraction, and distorted thinking. In this context, it may lead people to use virtual environments to escape discomfort and, when paired with low perceived control, to show maladaptive online behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3dfaf1dafe534ebff127f3c13696d26c04f5e93905713c7d86b10a731120aaa0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hu Ruyan; Gao Qian; Hu Rufei; Liu Guofeng; Zhang Liyuan. The relationship between digital technostress and cyber moral disengagement among college students: a moderated mediation model of psychological resilience, self-efficacy, and online self-control. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1706794; article XML SHA-256 684683791d90163b2ab424b480f207f06a59e8298db1ec88c970458aab247c80. “The relationship between digital technostress and cyber moral disengagement among college students: a moderated mediation model of psychological resilience, self-efficacy, and online self-control” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1706794).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1706794). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## teenage pregnancy
<a id="teenage-pregnancy"></a>

Teenage pregnancy is pregnancy in a girl during her teenage years. In the source packet, it is described as often unexpected and unwanted, and as a stigmatized experience that can involve hiding the pregnancy, social isolation, strained family or partner relationships, and too little material or emotional support.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5184c25540421c2ffd794638d756fb4a552505cfbf4abe9ff05cf40ec51f4295

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alanyo Linda Grace; Masereka Enos Mirembe; Pebolo Pebalo Francis; Kimera Emmanuel. Photo-voicing experiences of teenage mothers with teenage pregnancy and motherhood in Western Uganda. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335413; article XML SHA-256 7b63caf8817a088aba3287a1e18392bbdf953a4a00e24efcfeb3c99d5e59fec5. “Photo-voicing experiences of teenage mothers with teenage pregnancy and motherhood in Western Uganda” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335413).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335413). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Tegretol
<a id="tegretol"></a>

Tegretol is carbamazepine, a tricyclic chemical related to tricyclic antidepressants. It has anticonvulsant and pain-relieving properties and works as an anticonvulsant by reducing polysynaptic responses and blocking post-tetanic potentiation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d5e10ef9c8b72bb66749a678845a077b6a75a2885844aad06f0909caf32cea2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Carbamazepine” (C341).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tele-
<a id="tele"></a>

In healthcare terminology, tele- refers to services provided at a distance through digital and telecommunications technology. In this packet, it indicates remote delivery of care rather than in-person contact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 631ac4e71a9050606c96838096b9724d9ff9ca6fa325dfcbc0bb97317d60fbe5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ozcan-Kucuk Ayse; Mentes Ali; Celebi Adalet; Atıl Fethi. Knowledge, awareness and attitude among practicing oral and maxillofacial surgeons towards tele-dentistry: A cross-sectional survey. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346591; article XML SHA-256 5efb5cd553eb43f2a5135e9cd3d479bd47fcef7fcadb4fe04a9532b856ef174a. “Knowledge, awareness and attitude among practicing oral and maxillofacial surgeons towards tele-dentistry: A cross-sectional survey” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346591).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346591). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## telecommuting
<a id="telecommuting"></a>

Telecommuting is a way of working outside the usual workplace by using information and communication technology. In the source, it is described as increasing work flexibility, while also raising concerns about reduced supervision, work engagement, and productivity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a8357fc0476a155c459660810df6f57b9c3b99bc0256b1369b3fb0d1980f270c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ma Lu; Zheng Yunjian; Wei Ye. The double-edged sword effect of telecommuting on employees’ work engagement: evidence from China during COVID-19. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1110108; article XML SHA-256 3fff06e461a88b50a47feae4723e7638e56dc91ab4ad1b5f4b84df57f9143c6c. “The double-edged sword effect of telecommuting on employees’ work engagement: evidence from China during COVID-19” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1110108).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1110108). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## telehealth
<a id="telehealth"></a>

In this mental health context, telehealth means mental health services provided through a telehealth format. Discussions of telehealth may include its possible benefits, possible drawbacks, and things to consider when choosing a provider.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f0e4ef73a8b8005803a07bffa10a5560ee0e6f5b031b7e6f7d9e758c86fe13b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Publications about Treatments. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 05991d2cd6b84f45a31830b4ab3e782a8b9bbc1e5115c0a5e2f84c4a11fed39f. “Publications about Treatments” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/treatments-listing).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/treatments-listing). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## telemedicine
<a id="telemedicine"></a>

Telemedicine is a way of receiving care by communicating with a health professional remotely rather than meeting in person. In the mental health context, this can involve video calls, phone calls, text messages, or email through online platforms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b67a711c108ec219b688653ea9a189445d059d70b5b90564684b8931ac28d183

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Getting Mental Health Support Virtually. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 9d3fbfd17fa7d62d856857afc0c7c21567a08f3145bed4e0db6e3bfa2187db30. “Getting Mental Health Support Virtually” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/what-is-telemental-health).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/what-is-telemental-health). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## telencephalon
<a id="telencephalon"></a>

The telencephalon is the front division of the developing forebrain, or the matching part of the adult forebrain. It includes the cerebrum and related structures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ff3fa07003a31a4b5d8510e73e461ff12f07e68354dfd01b56104f462cbdf72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Telencephalon” (D013687).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013687). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## teleology
<a id="teleology"></a>

Teleology is a way of understanding behavior as purposeful and shaped by a person’s goals and psychological motives, rather than as a purely passive response to outside influences. In this Adlerian sense, it highlights people as active agents whose choices are guided by aims such as belonging, control, self-consistency, superiority, goal pursuit, and avoiding failure or negative feelings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5876d5beeb9576dc3c059468bb44ab766cd6d430c4489b8b823a4e613e1f8c92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Huiyuan; Zou Yuhan; Zou Yuxi. The psychological motivation of users actively constructing information cocoons from the perspective of Adler’s teleology: an empirical study based on a sample of Chinese university students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1742055; article XML SHA-256 68b9d276649966de807402c53d5b50a0ea04df10e3e42c022e9a8a693dcf8862. “The psychological motivation of users actively constructing information cocoons from the perspective of Adler’s teleology: an empirical study based on a sample of Chinese university students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1742055).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1742055). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## telepathy
<a id="telepathy"></a>

Telepathy is the supposed gaining of knowledge about, or communication with, another person’s mental processes without using known physical or perceptual means.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca731a566ea9abbfb2c03c009858885fb0ab988f30c40367cd24ab7d780072a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Telepathy” (D013688).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013688). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## telephone counseling
<a id="telephone-counseling"></a>

Telephone counseling is a minimal-contact form of help given to an individual by phone, in a way that does not involve a health care provider.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8cd3a74ebaf43465d53d7ef598affc0019ea8a3379a095170bd932ebc72a3d49

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Minimal Contact Treatment” (C15998).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## telephone theory
<a id="telephone-theory"></a>

Telephone theory is a historical theory of hearing, associated here with Rutherford, holding that the organ of Corti vibrates as a single unit and sends the auditory nerve a matching number of impulses for each movement of the eardrum and stapes. On this view, the brain’s auditory centres perform the analysis of these signals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61afe5aa7686c2ceac6672916278020e193abb4decb090ff1852de102c672b88

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hearing” (Hearing).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Hearing). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## telepresence
<a id="telepresence"></a>

Telepresence is the ability to be spatially and socially present in a distant setting through technology such as a telepresence robot. In this context, it means taking part in navigation and social interaction in a remote environment rather than being there in person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7956d2c2501fcb987e3a32beb899eb4b3500b4b165cb414e9513ded598ea2e97

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Batmaz Anil Ufuk; Maiero Jens; Kruijff Ernst; Riecke Bernhard E; Neustaedter Carman; Stuerzlinger Wolfgang. How automatic speed control based on distance affects user behaviours in telepresence robot navigation within dense conference-like environments. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0242078; article XML SHA-256 5675e919588c09faa05f6c32c6d4729fc1e5164cefbacf62f054fa55d63fc045. “How automatic speed control based on distance affects user behaviours in telepresence robot navigation within dense conference-like environments” (10.1371/journal.pone.0242078).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242078). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## telepsychotherapy
<a id="telepsychotherapy"></a>

Telepsychotherapy is psychotherapy carried out through communication technology rather than meeting in person. In this study, patients described it as a qualitatively different form of therapy that can feel safer or freer for some people, while also reducing rituals, emotional openness, and sense of rapport for others.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2f93bb35090728e0a1cb612767624dd0356c1872865eec5a7960c154b4aa5aa1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Werbart Andrzej; Byléhn Linda; Jansson Tuva Maja; Philips Björn. Loss of Rituals, Boundaries, and Relationship: Patient Experiences of Transition to Telepsychotherapy Following the Onset of COVID-19 Pandemic. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835214; article XML SHA-256 ba31f4439419e78214b5c544adf40bb6bfb6b456a687f1b75309dafd420cfce1. “Loss of Rituals, Boundaries, and Relationship: Patient Experiences of Transition to Telepsychotherapy Following the Onset of COVID-19 Pandemic” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835214).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835214). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## telesupervision
<a id="telesupervision"></a>

Telesupervision is clinical supervision provided at a distance using telecommunications such as telephone contact rather than relying only on in-person meetings. In this source, it is described as working best when combined with some face-to-face contact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d7875c836f851239e2c75a3933e65d99f66e92a14dfb53b44077a3b3513605af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Martin Priya; Kumar Saravana; Lizarondo Lucylynn; VanErp Ans. Enablers of and barriers to high quality clinical supervision among occupational therapists across Queensland in Australia: findings from a qualitative study. 2015; DOI 10.1186/s12913-015-1085-8; article XML SHA-256 26d3d286862fe010af70e1b0d0d1da6a076947765c4fbfeb7c95a2c97ed186aa. “Enablers of and barriers to high quality clinical supervision among occupational therapists across Queensland in Australia: findings from a qualitative study” (10.1186/s12913-015-1085-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-015-1085-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## telomere
<a id="telomere"></a>

A telomere is a structure that protects the ends of chromosomes. In mental health research, telomere length is studied because psychological stress, including stress during pregnancy, may be linked to telomere shortening.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f300920eb32c31cc5b8624a4ef41c5dfbcfc374055a99c3e8d944f9d592aa29

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moshfeghinia Reza; Torabi Ali; Mostafavi Sara; Rahbar Shiva; Moradi Mohammad Sanyar; Sadeghi Erfan; Mootz Jennifer; Vardanjani Hossein Molavi. Maternal psychological stress during pregnancy and newborn telomere length: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05387-3; article XML SHA-256 7598f5f099cc9fa115884d6fc0664b04ab58e10abffcfd3a7a28613b69095c2b. “Maternal psychological stress during pregnancy and newborn telomere length: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1186/s12888-023-05387-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05387-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temazepam
<a id="temazepam"></a>

Temazepam is a benzodiazepine drug that affects the brain’s gamma-aminobutyric acid system and is used for its anti-anxiety effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c624054ada57f410afe2e8b3dc3bffece455fe3321c3c7633206da80f15c339d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Temazepam” (D013693).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013693). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temper
<a id="temper"></a>

Temper, in this source, refers to the overall spirit or outlook of a person or group in relation to the tasks or roles expected of them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a34c1d6b46f1e85dab46a4bf482fa8fc76f3235f1305ed040be4f8bb9dcc7ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Morale” (D009013).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009013). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temperament
<a id="temperament"></a>

Temperament is a person’s built-in tendency to respond to their environment in a particular way. The term often refers to patterns of mood change.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54a9d37e679d2e4169a849e4a72b35a2bfdb844f35daaffa83a2b403fc372040

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Temperament” (D013694).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013694). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Temperament and Character Inventory
<a id="temperament-and-character-inventory"></a>

The Temperament and Character Inventory is a psychological assessment used to measure personality traits. Research described in the source also suggests it may help predict treatment response in people with major depressive disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d664919a4ae671fa1a0a142be4f14a32f267e4e06ca25637c03645b3cff6aadb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tomita Tetsu; Yasui-Furukori Norio; Kaneda Ayako; Ishioka Masamichi; Sugawara Norio; Nakagami Taku; Nakamura Kazuhiko. An attempt to construct a 7-item short version of the temperament and character inventory to predict the treatment response of patients with depression; a validation study. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12888-016-0997-0; article XML SHA-256 341102d1b28402f250d585052de4d06bd244043fdb6c86b8ba4d988710e7ac85. “An attempt to construct a 7-item short version of the temperament and character inventory to predict the treatment response of patients with depression; a validation study” (10.1186/s12888-016-0997-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0997-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temperance
<a id="temperance"></a>

Temperance is the habitual practice of moderation in satisfying natural appetites, especially, though not only, in alcohol use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22bd467d9ab6dd1fb045ea170d672eab8eb45819df8afdf1dfb678bc8f7cbcd6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Temperance” (D013695).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013695). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temperature sense
<a id="temperature-sense"></a>

Temperature sense is the ability to perceive heat, warmth, coolness, and cold through receptors that detect temperature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 700dedb44f4ab27f47a0b41446cdb39014aad0812d561a178fa750bfd6cdb58f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Thermosensing” (D013697).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013697). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal
<a id="temporal"></a>

Temporal refers to anatomical locations associated with the head region, especially the cranium, brain, and eye.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 245632657a3b1b631f746f05adfb532df1e37356fee0083f2a0ce0b56862bd3b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Temporal Anatomic Qualifier” (C117754).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal bone
<a id="temporal-bone"></a>

The temporal bone is a large, unevenly shaped bone on the side and base of the skull that connects with the lower jaw at the temporomandibular joint. It has squamous, tympanic, and petrous parts, and its petrous part contains the inner ear’s vestibulocochlear organ.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a382d769115f7b2fc802050a2d0e3aa659a488130836d543109a8b3fc585af27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Temporal Bone” (C12797).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal coding
<a id="temporal-coding"></a>

Temporal coding is a way the auditory system represents sound by timing neural firing so that activity stays synchronized with changing features of the stimulus. In the early auditory pathway, this timing-based representation can be preserved or converted into a firing-rate pattern that reflects temporal modulation without phase locking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a7af56ddd93267b1e4c33eaee08327f1f0aff51ca2d0d0e16cdd79f487602956

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rabang Cal F.; Bartlett Edward L.. A Computational Model of Cellular Mechanisms of Temporal Coding in the Medial Geniculate Body (MGB). 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0029375; article XML SHA-256 97841b7c9831ac44e6bd241bda533c7fffe6a25729146ba2f097e0b6c574856d. “A Computational Model of Cellular Mechanisms of Temporal Coding in the Medial Geniculate Body (MGB)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0029375).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029375). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal coherence
<a id="temporal-coherence"></a>

Temporal coherence is the tendency for different parts of a sound from the same source to change in strength together over time. In hearing, the brain uses these shared timing patterns to group related sounds into one stream and to separate them from other sounds with different patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2a134807dea9554e73c0874bac44c0479551304a85830a0815d2de6d0d325d01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Polver Silvia; Kovács Petra; Háden Gábor P.; Sziller István; Winkler István; Tóth Brigitta. Evidence for temporal-coherence-based segregation of complex auditory scenes in the newborn human brain. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1719515; article XML SHA-256 d351e3b9d87d32ea4dec3975760d6848b5f47608d680c49fb8f436fff103c823. “Evidence for temporal-coherence-based segregation of complex auditory scenes in the newborn human brain” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1719515).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1719515). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal conditioning
<a id="temporal-conditioning"></a>

Temporal conditioning is a form of learning in which behavior comes under the control of time, so an organism begins to respond in anticipation of an event that occurs at regular intervals even without external cues. In the supplied example, mice learned to increase licking near the expected time of reward delivery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a92d59156bc167a57632804fef6a540a5ee867794164e6017ae49f4cd24605f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kaneko Shohei; Niki Yasuyuki; Yamada Kota; Nasukawa Daiki; Ujihara Yusuke; Toda Koji. Systemic injection of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist mecamylamine affects licking, eyelid size, and locomotor and autonomic activities but not temporal prediction in male mice. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s13041-022-00959-y; article XML SHA-256 27354f74f9374aaec576ce0ad01afc3952ae5a751cc4e9a11d59e55983196da1. “Systemic injection of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist mecamylamine affects licking, eyelid size, and locomotor and autonomic activities but not temporal prediction in male mice” (10.1186/s13041-022-00959-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13041-022-00959-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal consistency
<a id="temporal-consistency"></a>

Temporal consistency is the extent to which a behaviour or trait shows similar patterns when measured again over time. In this context, it refers to how repeatable an individual's behaviour is across repeated assessments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2bb78d777059ae5b2d1fbe68f3d61c149811861da7236371522bf2749144152c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tchabovsky Andrey V.; Surkova Elena N.; Savinetskaya Ludmila E.. Multi-assay approach shows species-associated personality patterns in two socially distinct gerbil species. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296214; article XML SHA-256 713cf8f0a8dee28da0f3cea53048fbd49317d853c489c3495d70063c6aff8250. “Multi-assay approach shows species-associated personality patterns in two socially distinct gerbil species” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296214).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296214). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal construal theory
<a id="temporal-construal-theory"></a>

Temporal construal theory is the idea that how people think about a choice changes with its psychological distance in time. Decisions about the distant future are framed more abstractly and in terms of broad, central features, while decisions about the near future rely more on concrete, immediate details.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c39887fbf178a5039ae2dbaa7faffd92109ab458833d0693f8985ea9e809c042

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qin Wen; Li Weilong; Peng Yanli; Su Juan. Rigid versus flexible: The effect of destination revitalization policy on tourists’ travel behavioral intention. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348289; article XML SHA-256 e5f5ac0720f3ca10b5e06e3aa774c97d7705157b772444ea6f634884ad87ec88. “Rigid versus flexible: The effect of destination revitalization policy on tourists’ travel behavioral intention” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348289).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348289). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal discounting
<a id="temporal-discounting"></a>

Temporal discounting is the tendency to value an outcome less when it is delayed in time or less certain to occur. It is often studied through choices between a smaller reward now and a larger reward later, and can be used as an indicator of impulsive behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d2d46a146985f2054ed06e4266b04eb1b935c0d1c0c7bb568291aca039b40298

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Delay Discounting” (D065786).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065786). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal frequency
<a id="temporal-frequency"></a>

Temporal frequency is the rate at which a visual stimulus changes over time, such as a drifting grating. In this context, it refers to the speed of the stimulus’s time-based modulation that can shape how strongly visual neurons fire or oscillate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2061e932dcc57e4602957da98c9bd49ed307578a9dbbd7b961d7a1f3fb2d34f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wypych Marek; Nagy Attila; Mochol Gabriela; Foik Andrzej; Benedek György; Waleszczyk Wioletta J.. Spectral Characteristics of Phase Sensitivity and Discharge Rate of Neurons in the Ascending Tectofugal Visual System. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0103557; article XML SHA-256 fbaa881c457d67b0f8d1be17196476dbf0b682aaf4c9a90a6bdb82c02d27afdb. “Spectral Characteristics of Phase Sensitivity and Discharge Rate of Neurons in the Ascending Tectofugal Visual System” (10.1371/journal.pone.0103557).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103557). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal gradient
<a id="temporal-gradient"></a>

A temporal gradient is a pattern in which timing-related values change systematically across locations. In this source, it refers to lag values that varied from frontal to temporal brain regions during speech processing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2cd69311235fae16b63f268a3983664210e8c6de96346688359c050abc32af79

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Osorio Sergio; Assaneo María Florencia. Anatomically distinct cortical tracking of music and speech by slow (1–8Hz) and fast (70–120Hz) oscillatory activity. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320519; article XML SHA-256 e82c3e8f76e71766c2a52edfedd2fb9ec8dfad5ee5df261371692cb5d1888416. “Anatomically distinct cortical tracking of music and speech by slow (1–8Hz) and fast (70–120Hz) oscillatory activity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320519).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320519). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal lobe
<a id="temporal-lobe"></a>

The temporal lobe is the lower side part of each cerebral hemisphere. It helps process sound, smell, and meaning, and sits below the lateral fissure and in front of the occipital lobe.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3a2f19d1039bfb7f65aa65b1bc34cc108defa152c15220ac054fb965851782ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Temporal Lobe” (D013702).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013702). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal lobe epilepsy
<a id="temporal-lobe-epilepsy"></a>

Temporal lobe epilepsy is a common form of epilepsy in which seizures begin in mesial temporal brain structures. In the cognition context, it is linked with broader brain network abnormalities beyond the temporal lobes that can affect cognitive performance, including working memory and other memory functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 087d59b3f97e9c762003faa00deaac45510179ee8050355048dcefcccbd0a421

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fajardo-Valdez Alfonso; Camacho-Téllez Vicente; Rodríguez-Cruces Raúl; García-Gomar María Luisa; Pasaye Erick Humberto; Concha Luis. Functional correlates of cognitive performance and working memory in temporal lobe epilepsy: Insights from task-based and resting-state fMRI. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0295142; article XML SHA-256 39dbb1ccf5cd0f8b0b1123386bd402ee204bd55dd4f8aff1852cb88d4e8a4bc4. “Functional correlates of cognitive performance and working memory in temporal lobe epilepsy: Insights from task-based and resting-state fMRI” (10.1371/journal.pone.0295142).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295142). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal lobectomy
<a id="temporal-lobectomy"></a>

Temporal lobectomy, especially anterior temporal lobectomy, is a brain surgery commonly used for drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy. In this context, it is relevant to learning and memory because it can be followed by problems with facial memory and face identification.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6726a94167ae438ef72609fdfb7ac673e9e07f1ff67cc0239e907b29463f8c37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hosokawa Hiroaki; Kanno Shigenori; Nishio Yoshiyuki; Kawasaki Iori; Hirayama Kazumi; Sunaga Atsuko; Shoji Naotake; Iwasaki Masaki; Nakasato Nobukazu; Tominaga Teiji; Suzuki Kyoko. Facial memory ability and self-awareness in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy after anterior temporal lobectomy. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248785; article XML SHA-256 24169d1ff8021f7474576a6a6d05ebed663ea1b1f92c70609a00cd90c290d855. “Facial memory ability and self-awareness in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy after anterior temporal lobectomy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248785).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248785). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal precedence
<a id="temporal-precedence"></a>

Temporal precedence means that one factor or process happens earlier in time than another, so its timing can be examined as potentially coming before later outcomes. In mental health research, longitudinal studies are used to clarify whether a variable precedes later symptoms or related experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7f14abdee3deaa6e2cd6a934aab4c70494722850cd79c5675f13c553081b47ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim Bin-Na; Kang Hyo Shin; Park Jungkyu. The transdiagnostic role of event-related rumination on internalizing and externalizing symptoms during the pandemic: a two-wave longitudinal study. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1421958; article XML SHA-256 dc0df04be99f9d52327be46d5e53229719db04fa6d4491be6742c03e41b5a103. “The transdiagnostic role of event-related rumination on internalizing and externalizing symptoms during the pandemic: a two-wave longitudinal study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1421958).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1421958). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal stability
<a id="temporal-stability"></a>

Temporal stability is the extent to which a psychological measure or trait shows similar results when assessed again over time. In this context, it refers to consistency across repeated time points, often examined through test–retest reliability and stability coefficients.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ba6815146532ab05d8bcbce6c645ef2e56d4ebe9a8910f2854eb5ca35649f980

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dagnall Neil; Denovan Andrew; Drinkwater Kenneth Graham. Longitudinal assessment of the temporal stability and predictive validity of the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1094701; article XML SHA-256 4d95477e653a9219225fb1a6b43533049d0c7cd67e5aef49f17457193ac148a6. “Longitudinal assessment of the temporal stability and predictive validity of the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1094701).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1094701). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporal summation
<a id="temporal-summation"></a>

Temporal summation is a biological process in which repeated synaptic signals arriving in close succession add together over time until the postsynaptic cell reaches threshold and may fire an action potential. The combined signals may be excitatory or inhibitory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 255b7e125b82c3d964f0b471dc7fc8935ad2e1de5ad6fd95c064e4c99199493c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Postsynaptic Potential Summation” (D059227).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D059227). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temporary threshold shift
<a id="temporary-threshold-shift"></a>

Temporary threshold shift is a temporary reduction in sensitivity to sound caused by auditory stimulation, shown as a short-term rise in the level needed to hear sounds. It is measured in decibels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02d9103698ade04c5187943964bca3a0f418b9fbf795fe0c7c5d235cf3f46726

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Auditory Fatigue” (D001305).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001305). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## temptation
<a id="temptation"></a>

In this psychology context, temptation is a situation that draws a person to do a prohibited or restricted act, such as peeking despite being told not to. It is often studied by seeing whether someone resists or gives in to that pull.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d6e336e30c7c3f83b34cd040f1df5d2061b282746b02af5cb4fc203acd2c06fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Białecka-Pikul Marta; Białek Arkadiusz; Stępień-Nycz Małgorzata; Talwar Victoria; Bosacki Sandra. Peeking and lying in the temptation resistance paradigm in 2.5-year-olds: The role of inhibitory control. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0278099; article XML SHA-256 6e58d7db7e85233ba148c5f7a4f5bf3113dccd4ad68e4e6a1166e980be495951. “Peeking and lying in the temptation resistance paradigm in 2.5-year-olds: The role of inhibitory control” (10.1371/journal.pone.0278099).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278099). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tendon reflex
<a id="tendon-reflex"></a>

A tendon reflex is a deep reflex checked during a neurological examination. It is used clinically to assess how well the reflex arc is functioning, including whether reflex activity is normal or increased.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3bd1c9237ce6b20dc4b4d966ae51d2b1432639662df04f806d265e8418f4236

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tham Lai Kuan; Abu Osman Noor Azuan; Wan Abas Wan Abu Bakar; Lim Kheng Seang. The Validity and Reliability of Motion Analysis in Patellar Tendon Reflex Assessment. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0055702; article XML SHA-256 7a4b9af9dd0d53484e28eb7def94c4d94c979bf8702fe768a6cc05ed6baf4325. “The Validity and Reliability of Motion Analysis in Patellar Tendon Reflex Assessment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0055702).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055702). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TENS
<a id="tens"></a>

TENS is a noninvasive procedure that sends electrical stimulation from an external device through gel pads on the skin to peripheral nerves. It is commonly used for peripheral neuropathic pain, though it can be used for other purposes as well.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dce6677496f66c2d2bafc4276a9571b581fcc0bc350c651dd64bfabe4fc66026

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation” (C21032).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tension headache
<a id="tension-headache"></a>

A tension headache is a common primary headache that usually feels like a mild to moderate, dull, steady pressure spread across the head, scalp, or neck, often described as a tight band or vise. Its exact cause is unclear, although it has been linked with stress and muscle contraction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c500d63f458f1f0941bd5bf8d5d9382a6ed7f38a61622ee5dd70f1613f04d04

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tension-Type Headache” (D018781).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018781). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tenth cranial nerve
<a id="tenth-cranial-nerve"></a>

The tenth cranial nerve is the vagus nerve. It carries both sensory and motor fibers, including signals from parts of the ear, throat, chest, and abdomen, and it also provides parasympathetic output to organs in the chest and abdomen and motor supply to muscles of the pharynx and larynx.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea8e386c50eb39befabf12a333678dae6c9ec62405dac2c14eb838facf1d4636

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vagus Nerve” (D014630).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014630). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tentorium cerebelli
<a id="tentorium-cerebelli"></a>

The tentorium cerebelli is a fold of dura mater that separates the occipital parts of the cerebrum from the cerebellum. It also divides the cranial cavity into upper and lower compartments and helps support brain stability within the skull.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a0c86332af1555845b465652aa66b0d999d19a5a21d55d90a6386597947ac73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tentorium Cerebelli” (C33749).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tenure
<a id="tenure"></a>

In this context, tenure means reaching a stable, secure stage in an academic career. The packet describes it as a form of job stability that can shape decisions and timing around becoming a parent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f994a64a62c85940ab9835bd58a5dddf09734871ff8c71d651b92f39fd17d2c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gorodetskaya Olga; Vitali Agnese; Tocchioni Valentina; Minello Alessandra. The best time to become a parent: The relationship between tenure and fertility among academics. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353232; article XML SHA-256 e0d20a578102e7ed0a8f4179d6a095234c782e49ee2c982cc57d90f851cfa9fc. “The best time to become a parent: The relationship between tenure and fertility among academics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353232).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353232). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## terminal assessment
<a id="terminal-assessment"></a>

Terminal assessment is the final evaluation carried out at the end of a study or observation period. In this context, it refers to end-point measurement of outcomes such as pathology, spatial learning, and brain glucose metabolism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a8169560ef51e1d5b540f9dfbb660f72c2cc4bbc64014a213a60a92d864fd962

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eckenweber Florian; Medina-Luque Jose; Blume Tanja; Sacher Christian; Biechele Gloria; Wind Karin; Deussing Maximilian; Briel Nils; Lindner Simon; Boening Guido; von Ungern-Sternberg Barbara; Unterrainer Marcus; Albert Nathalie L; Zwergal Andreas; Levin Johannes; Bartenstein Peter; Cumming Paul; Rominger Axel; Höglinger Günter U; Herms Jochen; Brendel Matthias. Longitudinal TSPO expression in tau transgenic P301S mice predicts increased tau accumulation and deteriorated spatial learning. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12974-020-01883-5; article XML SHA-256 7d4dff1331a3ed00820d916657b4a5fab7cbebd61f8ad30e12faa956a246c6d7. “Longitudinal TSPO expression in tau transgenic P301S mice predicts increased tau accumulation and deteriorated spatial learning” (10.1186/s12974-020-01883-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-020-01883-5). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## terminal care
<a id="terminal-care"></a>

Terminal care is care provided to people who are terminally ill or dying, especially in the final stage of illness. In this context, it involves efforts such as reducing non-beneficial interventions, addressing poor prognosis openly, offering palliative care, and providing compassionate care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0640286877e34232e2b6133e5e4dc70bde25a562bd2c143583ca4aa0c2e949a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kang Jiyeon; Choi Eun Kyung; Seo Minjeong; Ahn Grace S.; Park Hye Youn; Hong Jinui; Kim Min Sun; Keam Bhumsuk; Park Hye Yoon. Care for critically and terminally ill patients and moral distress of physicians and nurses in tertiary hospitals in South Korea: A qualitative study. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0260343; article XML SHA-256 5dfa84f8ab5120df499b4bb0f6ea931cebb4e81d2285c7d5b052102da32e8253. “Care for critically and terminally ill patients and moral distress of physicians and nurses in tertiary hospitals in South Korea: A qualitative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0260343).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260343). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## territoriality
<a id="territoriality"></a>

Territoriality is behavior aimed at protecting an area from other individuals, mainly members of the same species.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e74e4ed792d9291d729d931323585b1c190fef1cc86708656f3c7d7e8e9677f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Territoriality” (D013731).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013731). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## terror management theory
<a id="terror-management-theory"></a>

Terror management theory is a social psychology framework for understanding how awareness of death and other existential threats can shape attitudes and relationships between groups. It proposes that reminders of mortality can increase preference for one’s own group and negative reactions toward outsiders or criticism of one’s country.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f5875acbe81b85b2464c87989df496301cf5b7b0b6eba3c8a296cd77ddf3b081

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Heller Ido; Halabi Samer. The Underlying Process of Prosocial Behavior Among Soldiers: A Terror Management Theory Perspective. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.770723; article XML SHA-256 7285e35c85d2f549c4e9b91713d75c6f02076f84d0a23e8085d067becce13e59. “The Underlying Process of Prosocial Behavior Among Soldiers: A Terror Management Theory Perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.770723).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.770723). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## terrorism
<a id="terrorism"></a>

Terrorism is the use or threat of force or violence against people or property, in ways that break criminal law, to intimidate, coerce, or obtain ransom. It is carried out to advance political or social goals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d09d0d2fdd628c3ebe3555f1afa759eac008352669e13e01d28c808fcb8b629e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Terrorism” (D023481).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D023481). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## test anxiety
<a id="test-anxiety"></a>

Test anxiety is anxiety that occurs in situations where a person’s abilities or knowledge are being evaluated.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 258bef77a1bd954ba24e176ad6e033a48a381afa4325e9f11bd673a5dbfe1859

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Test Anxiety” (D000083563).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000083563). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## test battery
<a id="test-battery"></a>

A test battery is a set of multiple tests or tasks used together to assess a range of related abilities or processes. In this context, it refers to a comprehensive group of neuropsychological tasks designed to measure different aspects of hot cognition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fab3f398247043946dd5003cfbd89e736a8d131b26aab8237cd4f7c881ef7d8f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dam Vibeke H.; Thystrup Christa K.; Jensen Peter S.; Bland Amy R.; Mortensen Erik L.; Elliott Rebecca; Sahakian Barbara J.; Knudsen Gitte M.; Frokjaer Vibe G.; Stenbæk Dea S.. Psychometric Properties and Validation of the EMOTICOM Test Battery in a Healthy Danish Population. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02660; article XML SHA-256 2612c135609fdb9ca6b0182830b5917b86a27e65137a0015b8c432309a8fbc31. “Psychometric Properties and Validation of the EMOTICOM Test Battery in a Healthy Danish Population” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02660).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02660). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## test for independence
<a id="test-for-independence"></a>

A test for independence is a statistical method used to examine whether two variables are unrelated rather than dependent on each other. Such tests are used to detect relationships, including cases where a simple linear correlation may miss more complex patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 74cf0fe303643de2a085047d7fb587b1387494667b40a6d02dbd80ccbd0a653e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dümcke Sebastian; Mansmann Ulrich; Tresch Achim. A Novel Test for Independence Derived from an Exact Distribution of i th Nearest Neighbours. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0107955; article XML SHA-256 c303b956630f1e61f5b403ee63d17226af1f0f271a988ad8efa71f46161c825c. “A Novel Test for Independence Derived from an Exact Distribution of i th Nearest Neighbours” (10.1371/journal.pone.0107955).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107955). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Test of Nonverbal Intelligence
<a id="test-of-nonverbal-intelligence"></a>

The Test of Nonverbal Intelligence is a nonverbal assessment used to measure intelligence, especially fluid reasoning, through tasks such as geometric patterns, visual relationships, and problem solving without spoken or written language. It is intended to reduce the influence of language, schooling, and cultural background on test performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b43aaef6d7e2beb49ddcf07181fef48a3ec52cfd2b3a1e8d47d010b9e0e8aef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bildiren Ahmet; Kavruk Sevinç Zeynep. Psychometric properties of the test of nonverbal intelligence–third edition (TONI-3) in Turkish middle school students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497; article XML SHA-256 a4a096a40e0edce8af562b432fc016fa30766ad5e78fb72ab4200f955ac5df50. “Psychometric properties of the test of nonverbal intelligence–third edition (TONI-3) in Turkish middle school students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Test of Variables of Attention
<a id="test-of-variables-of-attention"></a>

The Test of Variables of Attention is a test used to examine aspects of attention. In the source, it was used to study how schooling relates to attention in children.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 788a1ef0a80254e888aae90d2e440f18f68a2db81f90d83cb21ee3c2b703eaaf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sanou Anselme Simeon; Diallo Abdoulaye Hama; Holding Penny; Nankabirwa Victoria; Engebretsen Ingunn Marie S; Ndeezi Grace; Tumwine James K; Meda Nicolas; Tylleskar Thorkild; Kashala-Abotnes Esperance. Effects of schooling on aspects of attention in rural Burkina Faso, West Africa. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0203436; article XML SHA-256 231d8d89b25dc5148250700be7c351224916b2629a6a6aac0be6312ce0293487. “Effects of schooling on aspects of attention in rural Burkina Faso, West Africa” (10.1371/journal.pone.0203436).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203436). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## test selection
<a id="test-selection"></a>

Test selection is the process of choosing which assessment or performance tests to use. In this source, it means basing that choice on the available evidence about a test’s validity and reliability, especially when there is no widely accepted gold-standard test.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 537c9d011e0aa2e9d8070f3322ccd5d53563cc54b1eb4a365e628642eb6c37ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Altmann Stefan; Ringhof Steffen; Neumann Rainer; Woll Alexander; Rumpf Michael C.. Validity and reliability of speed tests used in soccer: A systematic review. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0220982; article XML SHA-256 ccd6226df4014f0b6e797d2982d5889b0fb4dd74627bb546cd2cc391b7883f7c. “Validity and reliability of speed tests used in soccer: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0220982).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220982). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## test theory
<a id="test-theory"></a>

In assessment, test theory refers to psychometric approaches used to build and evaluate tests or scales. In the source, it includes Classical Test Theory and Item Response Theory, which are used to select items and examine a measure rigorously.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dae1679a25ee57eb09929ac0cb6b03c56fac1ce4331614c5b010faa7b5be04f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Yating; Wu Ying; Ji Meihua; Deng Ying; Zhang Lixin; Chen Yuling; Guo Yiqiang. Development and validation of a motivation scale for health behavior change in patients with coronary heart disease: a cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05114-z; article XML SHA-256 3442273b4e494d9199d50c67b9d4b83fb1b48bf2c89d430de4fe5247b713ab80. “Development and validation of a motivation scale for health behavior change in patients with coronary heart disease: a cross-sectional study” (10.1186/s40359-026-05114-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05114-z). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## testability
<a id="testability"></a>

Testability is the extent to which a theory can be examined through experiments or observations that can distinguish its predictions from competing explanations. In this context, it means moving beyond verbal claims to specific, mechanistic ideas that can be checked empirically.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05ea5bea915ec57c627eddbe84d67d6fd1c6d541f75e7c44895175d8fb8e4f7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ma Xun; Wang Aoping. Quantum theories of consciousness: a critical review of feasibility, philosophical sufficiency, and empirical testability. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1730965; article XML SHA-256 05d4c113f5a35f9b3274b30bac4f5030f3bd119eda7cb11fd01727da089c0b4b. “Quantum theories of consciousness: a critical review of feasibility, philosophical sufficiency, and empirical testability” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1730965).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1730965). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## testamentary capacity
<a id="testamentary-capacity"></a>

Testamentary capacity is the legal ability to make a will, judged in relation to that specific act. A person may still have this capacity despite mental unsoundness in other respects, unless a delusion or disturbance bears directly on what is involved in the will.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1c45f41c2b00ab1bef4dec84c3d6d32349c194001fcbad0b664a8a9e18d27a7d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Insanity (in law)” (Insanityl).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Insanityl). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## testosterone
<a id="testosterone"></a>

Testosterone is a gonadal hormone that can be measured in saliva and studied in relation to behavior. In this packet, it is described as showing a context-dependent association with a regulatory aspect of impulsivity, being linked with perseverance when anxiety levels are higher.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d12ddd77071b2c746e486fe50d97869286c9318b6ca4d660ddaf99eedc5f571a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Barel Efrat; Cohen Ami; Mahagna Lila. Gonadal hormones and impulsivity facets: moderating roles of cortisol and anxiety. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871253; article XML SHA-256 1ec56736999979f4f1fc036fde389605c43f8816701a80ca617e935f510476b9. “Gonadal hormones and impulsivity facets: moderating roles of cortisol and anxiety” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871253).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871253). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## test–retest reliability
<a id="testretest-reliability"></a>

Test–retest reliability is the consistency of a measure when the same people are assessed again in a separate session. In this context, it refers to how stable brain connectivity findings are across repeated testing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e963a6380bc5bfefc3e09403aa2a4a68cd0ca4be58abcf1927a520ef3fc66e5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kröll Jean-Philippe; Friedrich Patrick; Li Xuan; Nurislamova Yulia; Kraljevic Nevena; Geiger Anna; Mans Julia; Waite Laura; Caspers Julian; Qian Xing; Chee Michael W. L.; Zhou Juan Helen; Eickhoff Simon; Weis Susanne. Test–retest reliability of meta analytic networks during naturalistic viewing. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346967; article XML SHA-256 ff0270475331a84e4f90fcee4faf4f1ff9646f8a5bff2ed03c87c9d5567db681. “Test–retest reliability of meta analytic networks during naturalistic viewing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346967).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346967). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tetany
<a id="tetany"></a>

Tetany is a disorder marked by involuntary muscle twitching, cramps, and spasms of the hands and feet, and in more severe cases can include throat spasm and seizures. It is linked to unstable nerve membrane activity, usually because calcium levels are low or magnesium levels are reduced.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 936a8c90eb7b7a0be26a60a7d62e14a99e53eaa6c1592f1f1dc10c87b7acb975

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tetany” (D013746).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013746). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tetrabenazine
<a id="tetrabenazine"></a>

Tetrabenazine is a drug that was formerly used as an antipsychotic and to treat several movement disorders. It works by blocking the uptake of neurotransmitters into adrenergic storage vesicles and has also been used as a high-affinity marker for the vesicle transport system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2a81eb9b6e9fe878f12596d2228e2b019842a08df2bb56da577ee69fa8575e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tetrabenazine” (D013747).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013747). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tetrahydrocannabinol
<a id="tetrahydrocannabinol"></a>

Tetrahydrocannabinol is a psychoactive substance obtained from the resin of Cannabis sativa. The delta-9 form, often called THC, is the most active type and is known for causing changes in mood and perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06338c07fa982954ab4fe9f381e121851678278afdccaaa5d3babd3a90f6c76a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dronabinol” (D013759).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013759). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tetraplegia
<a id="tetraplegia"></a>

Tetraplegia is a profound or total inability to move both arms and both legs. It can arise from disorders of the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, neuromuscular system, and less commonly the muscles themselves.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4481dfa5792eae97fdd52e23de15aa658a9ba975eecd5c0e137de6e8e38981b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Quadriplegia” (D011782).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011782). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tetrodotoxin
<a id="tetrodotoxin"></a>

Tetrodotoxin is a poison found mainly in the liver and ovaries of certain fishes that are eaten. It disrupts neuromuscular conduction, leading to abnormal sensations such as tingling and to paralysis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 20f00c4c0c7cceccacac8b6469ab63c8175d18f36d9acf5dbe5005a15e84500a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tetrodotoxin” (D013779).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013779). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## textual narrative
<a id="textual-narrative"></a>

Textual narrative is a way of summarising research findings in written descriptive form by organising studies into meaningful groups or themes. In this source, it refers to presenting the review results by grouping studies according to different contributors to suicide capability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6c85cf66a097c22966a8df8172b67b03bb47cf182a88af5a8c1c796649f9f783

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bayliss Luke T.; Christensen Steven; Lamont-Mills Andrea; du Plessis Carol. Suicide capability within the ideation-to-action framework: A systematic scoping review. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0276070; article XML SHA-256 f995c10fa2a055763c5de9bb4c1f25639757a1894f1f4cc61e03bef55df9a83f. “Suicide capability within the ideation-to-action framework: A systematic scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0276070).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276070). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## texture gradient
<a id="texture-gradient"></a>

Texture gradient is a pattern of change in a surface’s texture across an image that provides information about 3D shape. In visual processing models, changes in the orientation and spatial frequency of texture can be integrated to estimate local surface tilt, slant, and relative depth.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 58352b311f02dd6fa1ac79dab1de9c544b032aabdf325f788a7560926dc0c981

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gomez Olman; Neumann Heiko. Biologically Inspired Model for Inference of 3D Shape from Texture. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0160868; article XML SHA-256 5d067e85e834afe4a701de72bdcb05cc50acfe3bb16b50768ef0a4407092345e. “Biologically Inspired Model for Inference of 3D Shape from Texture” (10.1371/journal.pone.0160868).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0160868). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## texture perception
<a id="texture-perception"></a>

Texture perception is the haptic sensing of a surface’s textured pattern through touch. In the supplied source, it is described as depending on active finger movement, with more accurate perception of oriented, grooved textures when movements run more nearly across the grooves rather than along them because this provides stronger temporal cues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 57af01e75b738b4398d0e4433fa13099c9e04c18ae828f0653efe4380b04478b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lezkan Alexandra; Drewing Knut. Interdependences between finger movement direction and haptic perception of oriented textures. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0208988; article XML SHA-256 700352279b21f6205040a0f44efb714bbc032a9e853e4a70e30849450845f19b. “Interdependences between finger movement direction and haptic perception of oriented textures” (10.1371/journal.pone.0208988).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208988). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## texture segregation task
<a id="texture-segregation-task"></a>

A texture segregation task is a visual test in which a person responds to differences in patterned surfaces while brain activity is recorded. In the source, it is used to examine early visual-cortex input and the functioning of recurrent connections in the visual cortical system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c910a27868b747c5831fa74ea1350ee3f40220dd96b2f7cb84bcc468ad543e6c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Magnée Maurice J. C. M.; Lamme Victor A. F.; de Sain-van der Velden Monique G. M.; Vorstman Jacob A. S.; Kemner Chantal. Proline and COMT Status Affect Visual Connectivity in Children with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0025882; article XML SHA-256 08133cf517be47dd1578b9afe1c7b528f02713e3d4c762183130c78a0aac6280. “Proline and COMT Status Affect Visual Connectivity in Children with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome” (10.1371/journal.pone.0025882).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0025882). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thalamic lesion
<a id="thalamic-lesion"></a>

A thalamic lesion is damage to the thalamus, such as from a stroke affecting this deep brain structure. In the supplied source, bilateral thalamic injury was linked with cognitive impairment marked by executive dysfunction, reduced self-awareness, and mood changes such as apathy and depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6420dd828b4d9f8c4e12f2c960963d0915d4c3faa8b029b92c905f31f0ae6db3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bartoli Massimo; Palermo Sara; Stanziano Mario; Cipriani Giuseppina E.; Leotta Daniela; Valentini Maria C.; Amanzio Martina. Reduced Self-Awareness Following a Combined Polar and Paramedian Bilateral Thalamic Infarction. A Possible Relationship With SARS-CoV-2 Risk of Contagion?. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.570160; article XML SHA-256 4c62108e427b9750baed1e53bfd93553f4fe73db463ae66cb57f3b48bf9d64f8. “Reduced Self-Awareness Following a Combined Polar and Paramedian Bilateral Thalamic Infarction. A Possible Relationship With SARS-CoV-2 Risk of Contagion?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.570160).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.570160). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thalamocortical system
<a id="thalamocortical-system"></a>

The thalamocortical system is the network linking the thalamus and the cerebral cortex that helps support consciousness. It carries sensory input upward and combines it with reciprocal signaling between the cortex and thalamus, making it important in shifts between conscious and unconscious states.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2de6d27884a033268c631dc3afbd005f5e877410f4fa303f5e2a72c54bfa4b62

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hwang Eunjin; Kim Seunghwan; Han Kyungreem; Choi Jee Hyun. Characterization of Phase Transition in the Thalamocortical System during Anesthesia-Induced Loss of Consciousness. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0050580; article XML SHA-256 30238de316c9f3e33c3512932896d9ef298393b106afb93acc56278777a33e13. “Characterization of Phase Transition in the Thalamocortical System during Anesthesia-Induced Loss of Consciousness” (10.1371/journal.pone.0050580).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050580). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thalamotomy
<a id="thalamotomy"></a>

Thalamotomy is a surgery that targets the thalamus to reduce major symptoms such as tremor, other unwanted movements, seizures, and related poor quality of life. Its benefits are understood as coming partly from changes in brain activity and connectivity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 19f307ad0fda014a976208d56a79d996e470d8bda1841e33aedf477b7201d3b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nili Mohammad-Hossein H. K.; Esfahan Shahrzad M.; Bagheri Yamin; Vahabie Abdol-Hossein; Sanayei Mehdi; Ertiaei Abolhassan; Shirani Mohammad; Dehaqani Mohammad-Reza A.; Rezayat Ehsan. The variation of functional connectivity and activity before and after thalamotomy surgery (review). 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1108888; article XML SHA-256 573b39585530fc12dde0c09ea3aecc383f9ceb4326f03d9f7bcf4fb3949453de. “The variation of functional connectivity and activity before and after thalamotomy surgery (review)” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1108888).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1108888). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thalamus
<a id="thalamus"></a>

The thalamus is a pair of brain structures made mostly of gray matter. They form part of the side walls of the brain’s third ventricle.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: feda484a6e3d06d74bb7ef0da0da43110545436889f699ea8674f06215398ee1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Thalamus” (D013788).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013788). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thalidomide
<a id="thalidomide"></a>

Thalidomide is a drug that inhibits tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and has anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic, and anti-tumor effects. In the supplied source, it is discussed as a possible way to reduce Alzheimer-like brain changes and related learning and memory deficits in a mouse model when given over a long period.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5f4908acb2682b60468150ebddcbb61f4304472d3e12ff7a5f6ba3bcb8e24625

Sources:
- Drafting source: [He Ping; Cheng Xin; Staufenbiel Matthias; Li Rena; Shen Yong. Long-Term Treatment of Thalidomide Ameliorates Amyloid-Like Pathology through Inhibition of β-Secretase in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer’s Disease. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0055091; article XML SHA-256 02a47a40c3c4fa78865cbb247559665149ab2763c594e1d1442aba3bbe7af903. “Long-Term Treatment of Thalidomide Ameliorates Amyloid-Like Pathology through Inhibition of β-Secretase in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer’s Disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0055091).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055091). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## THC
<a id="thc"></a>

THC is a psychoactive substance obtained from the resin of Cannabis sativa. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol is described as the most active form and is linked with characteristic changes in mood and perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03b7cf3f0f6b7418f4f47ae905c958a9ed20cdaf00e237111e86746cb514ddff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dronabinol” (D013759).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013759). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thebaine
<a id="thebaine"></a>

Thebaine is an opium-derived drug present in small amounts in opium. Unlike narcotic opiates, it is associated with strychnine-like convulsions rather than sedation and may lead to habit formation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 413b568f2fd34ce04e31dae41e461d5fcf1d77129dc40ec03886e82ee3602740

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Thebaine” (D013797).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013797). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thema
<a id="thema"></a>

In this social-psychological context, a thema is a basic oppositional pattern of meaning that organizes how people understand an issue through communication, such as a Self/Other distinction. It shapes social representations and identity by linking concerns like risk to particular groups, often supporting stigma and blame toward marginalized out-groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6cbb4ee9a035bb56eff604354c183948b6b70745cf07b525a6b17d3ee18bada4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Walsh Daniel; Foster Juliet. Understanding the public stigma of mental illness: a mixed-methods, multi-level, exploratory triangulation study. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s40359-024-01887-3; article XML SHA-256 babb28ace8a58db78dc638b86a43d3836bec4af2bbd5ace34f52d2969df6e0f1. “Understanding the public stigma of mental illness: a mixed-methods, multi-level, exploratory triangulation study” (10.1186/s40359-024-01887-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01887-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Thematic Apperception Test
<a id="thematic-apperception-test"></a>

Thematic Apperception Test is a projective assessment in which a person is shown selected pictures of social and interpersonal situations and asked to make up a story about each one. The stories are used to explore patterns in interpersonal relationships, reactions to authority and peers, and how inner needs relate to outside demands.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf2a9aba01a15fd58371a4167525cb8cb3d0ab0f6297192898c1343ad4c56e22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Thematic Apperception Test” (D013803).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013803). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## theobromine
<a id="theobromine"></a>

Theobromine is a methylxanthine found in high amounts in cocoa and chocolate. In mental health writing, it is discussed as a dietary substance that may be related to depression, although the packet describes that link as difficult to assess and uncertain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6d686d20cd9b2aa4e0473aa9602d0bb8fff7818b6d4d9ed16735ff188216803b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Franco Rafael; Martínez-Pinilla Eva. One-way or two-way sweet link between theobromine and depression?. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-04662-7; article XML SHA-256 3bfac31f95b6168e09bc03e9cbc92aa6a3c074408680236717a39533802f553d. “One-way or two-way sweet link between theobromine and depression?” (10.1186/s12888-023-04662-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04662-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## theophylline
<a id="theophylline"></a>

Theophylline is a naturally occurring xanthine-derived alkaloid found in tea and coffee plants. It acts on several body systems, including blocking adenosine and affecting phosphodiesterase activity, and is known for relaxing bronchial smooth muscle while also stimulating the central nervous system and heart.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5f48e45bd8f577d9cc5bb3cef5e1ed89be8ade3a7477b7c42d5e6f76085e92f3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Theophylline” (C872).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## theorem
<a id="theorem"></a>

Bayes theorem is a probability rule used to estimate how likely a condition or diagnosis is by combining its overall rate with how often a given symptom, test result, or other characteristic appears in people with and without the condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0c2ac9da3bc28f511bc1285f55db6f4429847d70d906ed8108bd376906e7ac38

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bayes Theorem” (D001499).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001499). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## theoretical orientation
<a id="theoretical-orientation"></a>

Theoretical orientation is the broad conceptual approach or perspective a framework is based on. In process evaluation, it helps classify frameworks and influences which aspects of implementation are emphasized, what questions are asked, and how findings are interpreted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ccbc8ec7322cc1d0654cc4d8ea18e85f1c3bb9c5ba50fc44ca33258e3cf11302

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mere Rainer; Sisask Merike; Värnik Peeter; Van Audenhove Chantal. From participation to systematization: A scoping review of theoretical frameworks guiding process evaluations in community mental health interventions. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354732; article XML SHA-256 41c6a855c2367ef91fa8d347233b9dae842c38047b45eb0d04bbd4ae7d164eda. “From participation to systematization: A scoping review of theoretical frameworks guiding process evaluations in community mental health interventions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354732).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354732). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## theoretical sampling
<a id="theoretical-sampling"></a>

Theoretical sampling is an iterative qualitative research process, especially linked to grounded theory, in which data collection, analysis, and theory development proceed together. What is sampled next is guided by the emerging theory rather than by preset population characteristics.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97409d02cb7c8dd2f43f12f16d7f16f3f6967a6d8d4be7552c317ef1792a4a64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [BMC: Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies. Version of record 2018-11-21; DOI 10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7. “Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency” (05ea0554db4e6d0f11b4).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## theoretical statistics
<a id="theoretical-statistics"></a>

Theoretical statistics is the branch of statistics concerned with the general scope of the subject and with the principles, methods, and techniques used in statistical investigation. It deals with statistics in the abstract rather than with particular bodies of data such as population, trade, or education.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: afc2e56042beb7bfc637586ca254f8b725404fe999dcfa13d34aec7876b800b8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3402000-3414000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## theory
<a id="theory"></a>

A theory is a possible explanation for why something happens when the exact cause is not yet known. In this context, it refers to the idea that an immune reaction may trigger brain inflammation and sudden severe symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d077cb0de9ef6604b436209f00f62cfe52fa586e6380b7a218f2e173a41a80d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. PANS and PANDAS: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 492b8d282e63ff7c47c9c126c6ee286e5bcb517442c5e4a8f3a668f35e391832. “PANS and PANDAS: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## theory of evolution
<a id="theory-of-evolution"></a>

The theory of evolution is a biological framework used to explain the diversity of species on Earth. In this source, it is described as a central idea in biology that is strongly supported by evidence, though people may differ in how well they understand or accept it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1827ff3e5e165335da08e0159d1cf00f53859590dd34df471aaf6150ba520d00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Salazar-Enriquez Guadalupe; Guzman-Sepulveda Jose Rafael; Peñaloza Gonzalo. Understanding and acceptance of the theory of evolution in high school students in Mexico. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0278555; article XML SHA-256 3ba081ebc972d6a46a7d11f75f15861936ff3d3ff62dcad8bfa46408e6ef6ac9. “Understanding and acceptance of the theory of evolution in high school students in Mexico” (10.1371/journal.pone.0278555).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278555). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## theory of mind
<a id="theory-of-mind"></a>

Theory of mind is the ability to recognize that you and other people have mental states such as beliefs, desires, feelings, intentions, and thoughts, and to use that understanding to make sense of behavior. Differences or deficits in this ability are associated with conditions such as Asperger syndrome, autistic disorder, and schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ffba0fb0de326f68cc54e9f47f5eeb4a38ab22f9b6a522f18c1c42365f637d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Theory of Mind” (D056345).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D056345). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## theory of planned behavior
<a id="theory-of-planned-behavior"></a>

The theory of planned behavior is a model that explains behavior by proposing that a person’s intention to act is shaped by their attitudes about the behavior, perceived social expectations, and sense of control over doing it. It also holds that intentions, along with perceived control, help predict what people actually do.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bb2f70353e961d6eef6dc9c829375efcde92a9f30443339f6db08b77cf02b154

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Theory of Planned Behavior” (D000092963).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000092963). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## therapeutic
<a id="therapeutic"></a>

Therapeutic refers to care or actions meant to treat a condition, help cure it, or reduce its symptoms. In a counselling context, this can include psychotherapy as one form of therapeutic care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ffd866ffd6000ce8e75430c97930ea1c92bca3c2f5042267e602d588c1cf31ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Therapeutic Procedure” (C49236).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## therapeutic alliance
<a id="therapeutic-alliance"></a>

Therapeutic alliance is the working relationship between a counselor or therapist and a client, built on shared goals, cooperation on the work of counseling, and an emotional bond. A stronger alliance is closely linked with better client outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9b492a1e51cb8c6d637409e50dc92df35ea18213aed478937e945df8e0394d73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Therapeutic Alliance” (D000078462).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000078462). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## therapeutic atmosphere
<a id="therapeutic-atmosphere"></a>

Therapeutic atmosphere refers to a care setting or climate that supports treatment in acute psychiatric care while also maintaining safety for patients and staff. In the source, it is presented as an important treatment ideal that can be harder to achieve when resources are inadequate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ab0bfabd5a5575f89a521da050e59223e7dcf1266d5fce4440a859dae44bdb9c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jansen Trine-Lise; Danbolt Lars Johan; Hanssen Ingrid; Hem Marit Helene. How may cultural and political ideals cause moral distress in acute psychiatry? A qualitative study. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-03832-3; article XML SHA-256 cca5896fe16908212558b08b942ab64e7852083bf59914b7f565db3f4ba69018. “How may cultural and political ideals cause moral distress in acute psychiatry? A qualitative study” (10.1186/s12888-022-03832-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-03832-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## therapeutic communication
<a id="therapeutic-communication"></a>

Therapeutic communication is a communication competency emphasized in nursing education and regarded as a central part of person-centred care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f15f04d496dd2a4b4356d893af8d5da01f99a55e29080c79c70b6f463f493383

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Carballedo-Pulido Jaime; Farrés-Tarafa Mariona; Roldán-Merino Juan; Hurtado-Pardos Bárbara; Berenguer-Poblet Marta; Tomás-Jiménez Manuel; Otero-Arús Carla; Domínguez-del-Campo Marta; Fernández-Gibert Ivette; Santos-Ruiz Susana. Therapeutic communication in nursing students: A cross-sectional study of personal, educational, and contextual factors. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345109; article XML SHA-256 6f41d9ef81e7aa0579e883e87bb52c80f1035d6da33568a8b6e0b94d934cb871. “Therapeutic communication in nursing students: A cross-sectional study of personal, educational, and contextual factors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345109).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345109). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## therapeutic community
<a id="therapeutic-community"></a>

A therapeutic community is a psychotherapeutic approach that uses the social environment and relationships between people to support a person’s resocialization and rehabilitation. It is usually based in a hospital ward or unit where both professional and nonprofessional staff interact with patients as part of the therapeutic setting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3a86cb91918e72cdd16986f1f95d7b001205e6158769385ed5322f1dcb3c1515

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Therapeutic Community” (D013808).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013808). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## therapeutic exercise
<a id="therapeutic-exercise"></a>

A therapeutic exercise in which a practitioner helps a person enter a semi-hypnotic state by using calming, positive mental images. It is used as a distraction and attention-based method for problems such as pain, hyperventilation, panic, and other conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de1c8faf11bdd11c6b3a2ab74e2c3411be85b7d496f1da0090d06288efbd90e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Imagery Therapy” (C15375).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## therapeutic factors
<a id="therapeutic-factors"></a>

Therapeutic factors are the elements or processes within therapy that help produce positive change in a person’s psychological or physical outcomes. In the creative arts therapies, the term refers to both general helpful features shared with other psychotherapies and some factors that are more specific to arts-based work, such as embodiment, concretization, and the use of symbolism and metaphor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e21e578f455380dd3976059a854ea5a4feb7fb569ad0a5c5b90f4c9e4cf6abdd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [de Witte Martina; Orkibi Hod; Zarate Rebecca; Karkou Vicky; Sajnani Nisha; Malhotra Bani; Ho Rainbow Tin Hung; Kaimal Girija; Baker Felicity A.; Koch Sabine C.. From Therapeutic Factors to Mechanisms of Change in the Creative Arts Therapies: A Scoping Review. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.678397; article XML SHA-256 57897a96b9cec570bfa36b646b3f73b1f4e371d2a4cb835473dd54eebb0c6a9d. “From Therapeutic Factors to Mechanisms of Change in the Creative Arts Therapies: A Scoping Review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.678397).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.678397). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## therapeutic jurisprudence
<a id="therapeutic-jurisprudence"></a>

Therapeutic jurisprudence is a framework for thinking about law in terms of its effects on psychological well-being. It holds that legal rules and practices should aim to support mental health and avoid causing harmful psychological consequences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a1765d54e4468a8d3f620c0a32f5fd543fc718b5808b6f38f94a278e790d8b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alexander Apryl; Falligant John Michael; Marchi Cory; Floding Erica; Jennings Marissa. Sex offender registration and notification act with adolescents adjudicated for illegal sexual behavior: a therapeutic jurisprudence perspective. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1160922; article XML SHA-256 1de8d7c3ca8fc990502ba011465cbf83ae7c2e635874251f8cd0e4d3e9769c88. “Sex offender registration and notification act with adolescents adjudicated for illegal sexual behavior: a therapeutic jurisprudence perspective” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1160922).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1160922). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## therapeutic process
<a id="therapeutic-process"></a>

The therapeutic process is the unfolding course of therapy as therapist and patient communicate over time. In this process, interaction may include periods of progress and periods in which the work becomes stuck.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a56356f2b654138336ea5ca9e6d5edb7a001796a36fada34cba4eff6101106bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Masías Víctor H.; Krause Mariane; Valdés Nelson; Pérez J. C.; Laengle Sigifredo. Using decision trees to characterize verbal communication during change and stuck episodes in the therapeutic process. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00379; article XML SHA-256 005f67414ba99db6e6e7c7802e4d6ebc074471289b0d4dc52837d8efdb8ca083. “Using decision trees to characterize verbal communication during change and stuck episodes in the therapeutic process” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00379).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00379). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## therapeutic relaxation
<a id="therapeutic-relaxation"></a>

Therapeutic relaxation is a treatment approach that uses relaxation techniques to improve health by lowering physical stress, psychological stress, or both.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf2584668799859c02aa2e884f04c7498d7005e4017446f1b6c9a9f44077a570

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Relaxation Therapy” (D012064).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012064). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## therapeutic window
<a id="therapeutic-window"></a>

A therapeutic window is the range of treatment conditions, such as dose or timing, in which an intervention produces the desired protective effect while preserving normal function. In this source, it refers to the magnesium concentration and intervention timing that reduce harmful calcium buildup without causing loss of retinal ganglion cell spike output.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a9e2215e326ace675ccc70d0329bb19dab0ed24c1916d14f1a8b3b9c5d578c4a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Borjkhani Mehdi; Borjkhani Hadi; Sharif Morteza A. Magnesium neuroprotection in retinal ganglion cells: A computational study of frequency-dependent therapeutic windows and intervention timing. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348068; article XML SHA-256 41a252b3cd0457cdaaf84bd75b4f378dcabb3f2f923e8e48856a0088c74eb61c. “Magnesium neuroprotection in retinal ganglion cells: A computational study of frequency-dependent therapeutic windows and intervention timing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348068).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348068). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## therapist
<a id="therapist"></a>

A therapist is a mental health professional who works with clients in a helping or treatment role. In this source, the term includes practitioners such as psychologists, social workers, psychotherapists, and educational counselors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9dc1dfe87d9a3a07af040e86b3f8fd9e6c5e88e9544a5f0eb552239ed6c78aee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Leshem Becky. Therapists on the front lines: constructing continuous traumatic stress as a dynamic axis of exposure. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1888244; article XML SHA-256 1e25815f58c43b0d7d5228f35c56ea3ef04092fff28bbedbc1be6afc8bee5558. “Therapists on the front lines: constructing continuous traumatic stress as a dynamic axis of exposure” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1888244).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1888244). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## therapy
<a id="therapy"></a>

Therapy is care given to treat or cure a condition or to reduce its symptoms. It can include approaches such as medication, surgery, physical treatment, psychotherapy, or therapeutic devices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f051a7d12fce2d604feca984e45245e9fdb26c8423454a1ec8752d1a49cd9435

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Therapeutic Procedure” (C49236).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thermal comfort
<a id="thermal-comfort"></a>

Thermal comfort is how acceptable or comfortable a person feels in a given temperature environment. In this context, it refers to older adults’ subjective comfort outdoors in winter and how that feeling relates to measured microclimate conditions and personal factors such as frailty and adaptation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2c0bab5903dc18b4e94f15481fd647f89292716e8cad1b2a6130c453f4426bc5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yan Dong; Zhang Peng; Liu Zhiyuan; Chen Ran; Wang Biao. Winter outdoor thermal comfort of older people with different degrees of frailty: A study in Nanyang city, China’s hot-summer and cold-winter region. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350730; article XML SHA-256 9472ed221e1ff79c8f6fbf07d06e1aeecb61601ebd87ef6cd43d74d3f9056aef. “Winter outdoor thermal comfort of older people with different degrees of frailty: A study in Nanyang city, China’s hot-summer and cold-winter region” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350730).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350730). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thermal sensitivity
<a id="thermal-sensitivity"></a>

Thermal sensitivity is sensitivity to temperature-based stimulation, such as heat, and can be described by the threshold at which thermal input is detected. In this source, it refers specifically to intranasal heat sensitivity as a trigeminal sensory function that varies by nasal location and is related to some measures of trigeminal and olfactory function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8760aeb297205a2912475b60645307256fb525f4161d8012d6acc48b98ea4e36

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Weise Susanne; Hanslik Pauline; Mignot Coralie; Glushkov Evgenii; Bertsch Arnaud; Dubreuil Romain; Bensafi Moustafa; Fuessel Susanne; Hummel Thomas. Hot topic: Mapping of the human intranasal mucosal thermal sensitivity: A clinical study on thermal threshold and trigeminal receptors. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304874; article XML SHA-256 01f095cb0ce5ba63cfaea0f53db9994d468e0352a90fad1e4b3c2dbd4c66f9e3. “Hot topic: Mapping of the human intranasal mucosal thermal sensitivity: A clinical study on thermal threshold and trigeminal receptors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304874).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304874). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thermal stimulation
<a id="thermal-stimulation"></a>

Thermal stimulation is the activation of sensory nerves by temperature, such as heat, as distinct from mechanical or chemical stimulation. In this context, it refers to temperature-based stimulation of the intranasal trigeminal system to assess heat sensitivity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 419342d1e1f228531c7ff76edbfecec503915f1b2e02c582a3652dbef1f00f1e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Weise Susanne; Hanslik Pauline; Mignot Coralie; Glushkov Evgenii; Bertsch Arnaud; Dubreuil Romain; Bensafi Moustafa; Fuessel Susanne; Hummel Thomas. Hot topic: Mapping of the human intranasal mucosal thermal sensitivity: A clinical study on thermal threshold and trigeminal receptors. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304874; article XML SHA-256 01f095cb0ce5ba63cfaea0f53db9994d468e0352a90fad1e4b3c2dbd4c66f9e3. “Hot topic: Mapping of the human intranasal mucosal thermal sensitivity: A clinical study on thermal threshold and trigeminal receptors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304874).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304874). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thermoanesthesia
<a id="thermoanesthesia"></a>

Thermoanesthesia is a loss of temperature sensation. In the source packet, it appears as reduced ability to feel heat or cold in the hands and arms while touch sensation remains intact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc5c8ce85f9046b0ed109786a6e35fe2807c2dec3ca398c17204a120148eb91d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Syringomyelia” (D013595).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013595). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thermoesthesia
<a id="thermoesthesia"></a>

Thermoesthesia is the capacity to sense changes in temperature at the skin, including tactile-like feelings triggered by rapid thermal shifts. In the described illusion, quick warming can feel like upward pressure or motion, whereas quick cooling can feel like a downward or pulling sensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 756c19708d13fdf17b30bd5d5086df4c79ab50b4a19554bf5ada20ee014e8b93

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Watanabe Ryo; Kajimoto Hiroyuki. Effect of Dynamic Temperature Stimulus to Plantar Surface of the Foot in the Standing Position. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fbioe.2016.00088; article XML SHA-256 09696695db924d7a7677910cbb914898cd69564750589f04d496bb09fd7279b7. “Effect of Dynamic Temperature Stimulus to Plantar Surface of the Foot in the Standing Position” (10.3389/fbioe.2016.00088).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2016.00088). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## theta wave
<a id="theta-wave"></a>

A theta wave is an electroencephalographic brain-wave activity pattern discussed here in the roughly 6–9 Hz range as part of a theta/alpha component. In this source, increased theta activity in anterior brain regions was reported in chronic schizophrenia, making it relevant as a possible diagnostic biomarker.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9dc158a230f26705fb5ee195e02b4824ed214b8854038c45f78237966e6a5519

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Łoś Kacper; Waszkiewicz Napoleon. Quantitative electroencephalography as a potential neurophysiological diagnostic biomarker of schizophrenia and first-episode psychosis: a systematic review of clinical implications. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1823040; article XML SHA-256 226eae8e0901e883529eafc9c2c9210a9c54b1d18865aa793a973dfcc3bcd1b0. “Quantitative electroencephalography as a potential neurophysiological diagnostic biomarker of schizophrenia and first-episode psychosis: a systematic review of clinical implications” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1823040).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1823040). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thiazide diuretic
<a id="thiazide-diuretic"></a>

A thiazide diuretic is a type of antihypertensive medication. In this source, it is mentioned only as one of the drug groups compared when examining schizophrenia risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0c3dd119f78df193bd99d66bcbe596b39e93cf57448cd775318c5a5bf6720ad2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lee Dong Yun; Kim Chungsoo; Kim Jiwoo; Yun Jeongwon; Lee Yujin; Chui Celine Sze Ling; Son Sang Joon; Park Rae Woong; You Seng Chan. Comparative estimation of the effects of antihypertensive medications on schizophrenia occurrence: a multinational observational cohort study. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05578-6; article XML SHA-256 f4624879a937f3fa8e1c0b08e895183692e9ff5fd031810d536b406a779b7ed9. “Comparative estimation of the effects of antihypertensive medications on schizophrenia occurrence: a multinational observational cohort study” (10.1186/s12888-024-05578-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05578-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thick description
<a id="thick-description"></a>

Thick description is a detailed, context-rich way of studying practices so that technical choices and materials can be understood as part of a group’s broader way of life and cultural traditions. In this context, it means integrating multiple kinds of evidence to capture continuity and change in social practices over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 81f14770a0af4933bfc5067f4f88da5c245a1ad7a631ff4772469552e29703d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Carter Tristan; Kilikoglou Vassilis. Raw material choices and technical practices as indices of cultural change: Characterizing obsidian consumption at ‘Mycenaean’ Quartier Nu , Malia (Crete). 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0273093; article XML SHA-256 2bcded21d19ad5644da0b0fa0a63460f69d936d3809cf34c31203545268098b1. “Raw material choices and technical practices as indices of cultural change: Characterizing obsidian consumption at ‘Mycenaean’ Quartier Nu , Malia (Crete)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0273093).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273093). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thin slices of behavior
<a id="thin-slices-of-behavior"></a>

Thin slices of behavior are brief samples of a person’s observable actions or manner that observers use to make quick judgments about that person, such as whether they are likely to cooperate or defect. In this source, the term refers to short stretches of behavior examined for clues that might reveal social tendencies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 88251bf4b092c95e9597bc9eb4659f1d55b7b786ff38c3dc825009cf01f93621

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Manson Joseph H.; Gervais Matthew M.; Kline Michelle A.. Defectors Cannot Be Detected during“Small Talk” with Strangers. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0082531; article XML SHA-256 d648f6c014d259176096ac60425808655de5819127eee2afb9f452f014c020bb. “Defectors Cannot Be Detected during“Small Talk” with Strangers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0082531).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082531). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thin stripes
<a id="thin-stripes"></a>

Thin stripes are subdivisions of visual cortical area V2 involved in surface-based processing within the V1 blob–V2 thin stripe–V4 pathway. In the source model, surface representations in V2 thin stripes send feedback that helps boundary representations support figure-ground separation and the conscious perception of 3D surfaces.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef3a3546cf82e6514f117e60d5bb8f6e3629d7ebd042ee22284d843bfdbf2022

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Grossberg Stephen. Cortical Dynamics of Figure-Ground Separation in Response to 2D Pictures and 3D Scenes: How V2 Combines Border Ownership, Stereoscopic Cues, and Gestalt Grouping Rules. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02054; article XML SHA-256 334f456beccf90c2c5505a239367360730071a2a9ade9991e3aace7a96ee1229. “Cortical Dynamics of Figure-Ground Separation in Response to 2D Pictures and 3D Scenes: How V2 Combines Border Ownership, Stereoscopic Cues, and Gestalt Grouping Rules” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02054).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02054). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## think-aloud protocol
<a id="think-aloud-protocol"></a>

A think-aloud protocol is a method in which people verbalize their thinking as close as possible to real time while doing or considering a task. It is used to capture a more faithful account of what they are thinking and to reduce problems linked to memory, estimation, and ambiguous self-report.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 27c76d205a347f15daec8123537d4d41a79041e3e91f67071057a141b1cd2295

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Anjara Sabrina G; Janik Adrianna; Dunford-Stenger Amy; Mc Kenzie Kenneth; Collazo-Lorduy Ana; Torrente Maria; Costabello Luca; Provencio Mariano. Examining explainable clinical decision support systems with think aloud protocols. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0291443; article XML SHA-256 3503373058d819495f26bc62bb1e44ee09869dc7f2538ee499e4f472c56c76d5. “Examining explainable clinical decision support systems with think aloud protocols” (10.1371/journal.pone.0291443).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291443). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thinking
<a id="thinking"></a>

Thinking is mental activity that goes beyond mainly taking in sensory information, allowing a person to understand some part of an object or situation using past learning and experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f79c1ee7ad026e360417d75c10cec1f840e79daeea85640d3089036e928156bd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Thinking” (D013850).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013850). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thinking style
<a id="thinking-style"></a>

Thinking style is a person’s characteristic way of approaching information, such as a more holistic or more analytic mode of thought. In this research context, it refers to differences in how people handle contradictory information, with holistic thinkers tending to reconcile contradictions more readily than analytic thinkers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 500e84e18d3f4c74710dbaa86d8e28827071a82c91a6a219a34313282cacf560

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Santos David; Requero Blanca; Martín-Fernández Manuel. Individual differences in thinking style and dealing with contradiction: The mediating role of mixed emotions. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0257864; article XML SHA-256 cbe17bfcaf02b7dd47a76cbc02313c336cc595941cb9e3d17d86905593eb3efb. “Individual differences in thinking style and dealing with contradiction: The mediating role of mixed emotions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0257864).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257864). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thioridazine
<a id="thioridazine"></a>

Thioridazine is an antipsychotic medication in the phenothiazine group used to manage psychotic disorders, including schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da5fe876ddfc7b5d49aad1d10b710612ee66c7a6cc44499cd63931093b792b95

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Thioridazine” (D013881).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013881). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## third cranial nerve
<a id="third-cranial-nerve"></a>

The third cranial nerve, also called the oculomotor nerve, carries motor signals to several eye muscles and the muscle that lifts the eyelid. It also carries parasympathetic signals involved in narrowing the pupil and adjusting the eye for focusing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 45409f62ac1f01041626f8af01756f8642518b9f222a189a5cae76462976f47b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Oculomotor Nerve” (D009802).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009802). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## third-person effect
<a id="third-person-effect"></a>

The third-person effect is the tendency for people to judge media as having more influence on other people than on themselves. In this framework, the key feature is a self–other gap in perceived media impact.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 004a9d827e0d7803e256d330845bcf9ed0572498f36f1d8cbd9328076ec2558b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Noh Habin; Li Xiaojing. Mukbang viewership and body image among youngsters: a third-person effect perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776473; article XML SHA-256 6fe45db010c01c4c25889561a04d70198fd41720ad79d7a49381fcef3b890c47. “Mukbang viewership and body image among youngsters: a third-person effect perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776473).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776473). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## third variable
<a id="third-variable"></a>

A third variable is an outside factor that creates a misleading impression that one variable causes another when it actually influences both. In research, this is a form of confounding that can make a relationship look causal when it is not.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 194f352b518404af806e929d1e7961c90cc2b1371c9410ab9abb676bf24d8270

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Third Variable Problem” (third_variable_problem.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/third_variable_problem.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## third-variable problem
<a id="third-variable-problem"></a>

The third-variable problem is a confounding issue in which an outside factor creates the appearance that one variable causes another when both are actually influenced by that third factor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a56e0c6a4f8ca686b247d4e710285eee93750fcc561dc1feb2626786041b72a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Third Variable Problem” (third_variable_problem.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/third_variable_problem.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## third ventricle
<a id="third-ventricle"></a>

The third ventricle is a narrow cavity in the diencephalon located between the two thalami and below the corpus callosum. Its floor is formed by the hypothalamus, and it connects with the lateral ventricles through the interventricular foramina and with the fourth ventricle through the cerebral aqueduct.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5ed25c4f7e5a791ac79711f54335d7e10ab35e3f131446ce04f2398704a48ae0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Third Ventricle” (D020542).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020542). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thirst
<a id="thirst"></a>

Thirst is a motivational drive that arises from the body's physiological need for water.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e43e84361cc9028cd229f6543148b705ff5868dc60ae0637db55283d79718383

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Thirst” (D013894).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013894). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Thorazine
<a id="thorazine"></a>

Thorazine is chlorpromazine, a traditional antipsychotic in the phenothiazine group. It works mainly by blocking dopamine receptors in parts of the brain involved in psychosis, which can lessen symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions, and it also has anti-nausea effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1e341303ef53f5db71c30c09208d1940c23e2191f37dd9493cb964577465638

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Chlorpromazine” (C367).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thought
<a id="thought"></a>

Thought is mental activity that is mainly not about direct perception, through which a person understands some part of an object or situation using past learning and experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ba6ffc7e76f64f522266cde6e910577053b87a8faadf3f72eef74be1d10793a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Thinking” (C54226).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thought broadcasting
<a id="thought-broadcasting"></a>

Thought broadcasting is the perceived experience that one’s thoughts are leaking out or becoming known to other people. In this source, it is described as part of a broader self-leakage phenomenon involving personal internal information seeming to escape.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4a4f1c8dbe514204c8a8fc6bf51171c8d0995b6f83826f567db1b2b9b041c226

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sasaki Jun; Wada Kaori; Tanno Yoshihiko. Understanding egorrhea from cultural-clinical psychology. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00894; article XML SHA-256 3f4836bad90957852ff7617eaa161bfedc0577c2f7ebf44a4b79080efec381f3. “Understanding egorrhea from cultural-clinical psychology” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00894).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00894). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thought disorder
<a id="thought-disorder"></a>

Thought disorder is a marked disturbance in thinking that can involve delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech, often along with disturbed emotions or behavior. It may also be associated with a decline from a person’s previous level of functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6930d288b48d6f2d6183c15893c688f33be39d74ad19662e2f839e70e649b453

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders” (D019967).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019967). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thought experiment
<a id="thought-experiment"></a>

A thought experiment is an imagined situation used to explore a question or test the implications of an idea. In this context, it refers to picturing a society with different preferences about welfare distribution in order to examine fairness and coordination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0879271570a54de5b7689feede18f9284c588467258c5d3ea4761c05a5a63eaf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baek Seung Ki; Choi Jung-Kyoo; Kim Beom Jun. Dworkin’s Paradox. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0038529; article XML SHA-256 b28395fb181edc9d98867a4468640d986b57c430334f08a0c3a6f20778afb437. “Dworkin’s Paradox” (10.1371/journal.pone.0038529).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038529). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thought insertion
<a id="thought-insertion"></a>

Thought insertion is a self-disturbance in which a person experiences thoughts as not arising from themselves, but as if they have appeared from elsewhere and may be attributed to an outside agent. It has been described as involving a break in the usual inner continuity of thinking, so that thoughts can feel unusually sensory or oddly salient.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be82be3019b4a48f386d7490dcad9886688a4182dbe40de9d914b7e4ba28f927

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sterzer Philipp; Mishara Aaron L.; Voss Martin; Heinz Andreas. Thought Insertion as a Self-Disturbance: An Integration of Predictive Coding and Phenomenological Approaches. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00502; article XML SHA-256 461e43c438e448e397ae6a22d427474bf7d9a7561780def166dc6f714d5d45b7. “Thought Insertion as a Self-Disturbance: An Integration of Predictive Coding and Phenomenological Approaches” (10.3389/fnhum.2016.00502).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00502). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thought process
<a id="thought-process"></a>

Thought process is the mental activity through which people process and make sense of the world. In the source material, it is described as being shaped by conceptual patterns such as metaphors, not just by words alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 02a8eb5f68acacbe4563cc1cc8a0464810a9b294cf100de175948de360944f22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rana Arooj; Ayoub Tahir; Ghilzai Shazia Akbar; Shehzad Wasima. Metaphorical framing of the COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan: A corpus driven critical analysis of war metaphors in news media. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297115; article XML SHA-256 c5c8168255a53a7334ddfdcfdf1aa31b0ab9e1edfd237cca2d9a44948062901c. “Metaphorical framing of the COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan: A corpus driven critical analysis of war metaphors in news media” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297115).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297115). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thought sampling
<a id="thought-sampling"></a>

Thought sampling is a method used during a task to capture a person’s subjective report of what they are thinking, such as whether their mind is wandering. In this context, it helps distinguish self-reported mental states from states inferred only from behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bbce38c5b3ac18f9c9d612f00f3407749d01cc32b60a60d9d6f6d46f97f41e75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qin Jungang; Perdoni Christopher; He Bin. Dissociation of Subjectively Reported and Behaviorally Indexed Mind Wandering by EEG Rhythmic Activity. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0023124; article XML SHA-256 fdca08b8b9e34c22f094f53ac737df385d400c4d07246bc702b3ecc24d46a378. “Dissociation of Subjectively Reported and Behaviorally Indexed Mind Wandering by EEG Rhythmic Activity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0023124).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0023124). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thought suppression
<a id="thought-suppression"></a>

Thought suppression is the deliberate effort to push away unwanted thoughts, especially ones that trigger negative feelings. Research described in the source links it with greater accessibility of the unwanted thought afterward, along with increased emotional and physical arousal, and with higher depression rates particularly under high stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ba5d94926d317f7c464e4f36981aaf896dba98aa515d7e84fd1244115335da45

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Murray Clara V; Jacobs Juno Irma-Louise; Rock Adam J; Clark Gavin I. Attachment style, thought suppression, self-compassion and depression: Testing a serial mediation model. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0245056; article XML SHA-256 fe45e44309dac81757cc6c5822d0622bcc65ef87ce70c291f77800938b5c990b. “Attachment style, thought suppression, self-compassion and depression: Testing a serial mediation model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0245056).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245056). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## threat display
<a id="threat-display"></a>

A threat display is a negative emotional expression, described here in non-human primates as an open-mouth facial display. In the study context, people recognized it as negative and tended to mirror it automatically.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c178202aa57eb4fdf6fa53c376c2307b5e8b7246ec75076bc5b69d626b351057

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hess Ursula; Kastendieck Till; Erkol M Gizem; Mauersberger Heidi; Davila-Ross Marina; Liebal Katja; Palagi Elisabetta. Evolutionary echoes of emotion: Humans mimic other primate expressions. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342196; article XML SHA-256 8d0dbf4a213fff5e043e37019218f68ee0140b2ddd5e4a0db2d6b9d3b50ffb22. “Evolutionary echoes of emotion: Humans mimic other primate expressions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342196).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342196). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## three-stage model
<a id="three-stage-model"></a>

The three-stage model is a dynamic-equilibrium framework used to understand how paradoxical tensions develop and are managed over time. In this source, it is applied to corporate sustainability to organize how tensions arise, how organizations respond, and how equilibrium is understood across stages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6025101e24dad4f0a6380c2172468d428330fe9b676451462d94293a13f0a8a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Ben Nanfeng; Tang Ying; Chen Erica Wen; Li Shiqi; Luo Dongying. Corporate Sustainability Paradox Management: A Systematic Review and Future Agenda. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579272; article XML SHA-256 91d32dd8dbe7eef76f747bae7859a707eea470b2c069aaa3db15910c52abc1c9. “Corporate Sustainability Paradox Management: A Systematic Review and Future Agenda” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579272).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579272). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## three-way analysis of variance
<a id="three-way-analysis-of-variance"></a>

Three-way analysis of variance is a statistical method used to test how three different factors, and their interactions, are related to variation in an outcome. In this study, it was used to examine how shade, geographical origin, and genotype were linked to differences in plant traits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e6ba587ed8ed9d8fe2a9fc3b0d216287ce78e774ccf3255e6608db58d9f80397

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Du Leshan; Liu Haiyan; Yan Ming; Li Junmin; Li Junsheng. Individual Plasticity of the Shade Response of the Invasive Solidago canadensis in China. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0170049; article XML SHA-256 ef0e1f10584efcdd5dd63ca5865962dbc60bb899491c6f73973bb1fca82e288d. “Individual Plasticity of the Shade Response of the Invasive Solidago canadensis in China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0170049).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170049). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## three-way interaction
<a id="three-way-interaction"></a>

A three-way interaction is a combined effect in which the relationship between two factors changes depending on a third factor. In the packet’s example, the impact of a leader’s emotional expression and a member’s positive mood differed depending on the quality of the leader-member relationship.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0bced8bebdbb91434526717ca3d09559df44069dca71fdd5b20d87f9b86959cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hong Sung Hyoun; Kim Min Soo. When Does the Leader’s Positive Expression Get a Positive Response From Members? The Three-Way Interaction Effects of Perceived Deep/Surface Acting, Positive Affect, and Quality of Leader-Member Exchange on Work Engagement. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.655047; article XML SHA-256 3ed6baff2532faad0cd60becc41e76015d22b83c1c6f6b807bec0cb425ab7cf5. “When Does the Leader’s Positive Expression Get a Positive Response From Members? The Three-Way Interaction Effects of Perceived Deep/Surface Acting, Positive Affect, and Quality of Leader-Member Exchange on Work Engagement” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.655047).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.655047). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## threshold effect
<a id="threshold-effect"></a>

A threshold effect is a pattern in assessment where a measure becomes especially informative once it reaches a particular level, so that point has practical meaning for estimating risk or outcome. In this sense, the measure’s link to prognosis is not simply gradual across all values but shows an important change around a threshold.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ded299639c991f430b5bcd7aeadef6527dfa1a05acf3e70a002dd7c2cb170bb8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Huang; Ke Da; Zheng Xiuqin; Song Haiyang; Lin Shirong. Logarithmically transformed lactate-to-hemoglobin ratio demonstrates a threshold effect on 28-day mortality in sepsis: Analysis of the MIMIC-IV database. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342994; article XML SHA-256 ff577150c7d8347e52352e1bd4872ae6e785d3a13509450b77c589d8784803df. “Logarithmically transformed lactate-to-hemoglobin ratio demonstrates a threshold effect on 28-day mortality in sepsis: Analysis of the MIMIC-IV database” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342994).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342994). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## threshold of consciousness
<a id="threshold-of-consciousness"></a>

In Herbartian psychology, the threshold of consciousness is the dividing line between mental presentations that are currently conscious and those that are not. Presentations may rise toward or above this threshold as opposing influences are removed, and sink below it as their conscious strength is reduced.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de567081a25cf2e7d04c483ca66a71187b29a07448ce72264335f1ecb7372cd8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Herbartianism” (Herbartianism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H2defs.htm#Herbartianism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## threshold shift
<a id="threshold-shift"></a>

Threshold shift is a temporary reduction in sensitivity to sound that happens after auditory stimulation, shown by a rise in the hearing threshold. It is a form of auditory fatigue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ece8fbd031e389b17b8c9059e0928f2a35c39461e670130934ebd9f8d56b8a6e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Auditory Fatigue” (D001305).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001305). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thrombotic stroke
<a id="thrombotic-stroke"></a>

Thrombotic stroke is an ischemic stroke caused when a blood clot forms inside an artery in the brain and blocks blood flow. It is often linked with atherosclerosis and does not include strokes caused by clots in brain veins.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 28cc41fa3c3c45740e57d8f2d8fdc14f783f1a4ab4428a8214b9f800ae918fa0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Thrombotic Stroke” (D000083244).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000083244). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thyro-
<a id="thyro"></a>

In this historical source, thyro- appears as a combining form in anatomical names connected with the thyroid cartilage of the larynx, as in thyro-hyoid and sterno-thyroideus. It indicates relation to the thyroid part of the voice box.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2da672b6140f24dc8ff5fd2efee7ace9eff176674f2e51fda104279489de1a65

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4515000-4527000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thyrotropin-releasing hormone
<a id="thyrotropin-releasing-hormone"></a>

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone is a three-amino-acid hormone made by neurons in the hypothalamus. After entering the pituitary portal circulation, it triggers the anterior pituitary gland to release thyrotropin and prolactin.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 30c3adaef572052af3252a147f83ec6c1afaa686b26c82ed4e89b611fa68e6c3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone” (D013973).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013973). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## thyroxine
<a id="thyroxine"></a>

Thyroxine, specifically free thyroxine (FT4) measured in blood, is an important indicator of thyroid function. It is made by the thyroid gland and is involved in metabolism, brain and nervous system development, and the regulation of mood and behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da2a76a42bafb9b95f46e1fdddba825d05b9df035692093401ef598f9de9fc99

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yalan; Wang Ting; Yu Weixia; Cai Jianzheng; Zhang Yingying; Ying Yajie. Association between free thyroxine and aggression: the chain mediating role of hostile attribution bias and psychological resilience. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1822609; article XML SHA-256 dee6470e94ab21c652ca007a0e678014fbb50b9115f9d752fb1eb7122da6493a. “Association between free thyroxine and aggression: the chain mediating role of hostile attribution bias and psychological resilience” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1822609).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1822609). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TIA
<a id="tia"></a>

TIA, or transient ischemic attack, is a short episode of brain dysfunction caused by a problem with blood flow from the blood vessels. It lasts from minutes up to about an hour and does not leave lasting neurological problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa9dd8ccd5149fb8e45f74b75c3ec94a4aa9fce9255cdea5962ab4ba9a149198

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Transient Ischemic Attack” (C50781).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tic
<a id="tic"></a>

A tic is a sudden, involuntary movement or sound that happens repeatedly. It is typically rapid, nonrhythmic, and tends to appear in a similar pattern each time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e92213231dee35c389e5157deeb087402739cabb9212da30a8d08ce3ac8a129e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tic” (C116758).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tic disorder
<a id="tic-disorder"></a>

A tic disorder involves repeated movements or sounds. These tics can be sudden and brief, such as eye blinking, facial grimacing, shoulder shrugging, throat-clearing, sniffing, or grunting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b12c23880319203bafd66d45208a363e618e149cad7ae3fff292c3025b4132ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: When Unwanted Thoughts or Repetitive Behaviors Take Over. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 55e1a877f9b3c1e5dfa4238ba211333dd27035fe9365df5859e35bec980907c0. “Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: When Unwanted Thoughts or Repetitive Behaviors Take Over” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-when-unwanted-thoughts-or-repetitive-behaviors-take-over).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-when-unwanted-thoughts-or-repetitive-behaviors-take-over). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tic douloureux
<a id="tic-douloureux"></a>

Tic douloureux is trigeminal neuralgia, a condition marked by repeated attacks of extreme facial pain in the area supplied by the trigeminal nerve. The pain lasts for seconds or longer and can be triggered by touching certain spots on the face, lips, or gums, or by facial movement or chewing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fdf8cb55a282b878c8f2971956d8742dfb4fd9a57d56aa6e005ea04f5e3e36d0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Trigeminal Neuralgia” (D014277).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014277). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tight culture
<a id="tight-culture"></a>

A tight culture is a culture with strong expectations for how people should behave, where members are more likely to disapprove of or punish behavior that breaks those norms. It refers to the high end of cultural tightness-looseness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ced8d8cb32392248d5baaf1a3f660e6efc99aecb64c5e424d6a3020ad7013d33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jolly Phillip M; Van Hoof Hubert; Chen Feier; Kim Bora; Duran Mateo Estrella; Navas Ana Cueva; Valle Julio Gavilanes; Pérez Gabriela Maldonado. Quantifying cultural tightness-looseness in Ecuador. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0246064; article XML SHA-256 06527f8f877b376763a3696218f2c104967f26ee82e8b1331157c009bebd227d. “Quantifying cultural tightness-looseness in Ecuador” (10.1371/journal.pone.0246064).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246064). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tilt aftereffect
<a id="tilt-aftereffect"></a>

The tilt aftereffect is a visual perception phenomenon in which looking at a tilted or otherwise oriented pattern for a while makes a later stimulus seem tilted the other way. It is generally described as a low-level perceptual effect, although attention and possibly working memory load can influence its strength.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1654386a9917e4063331a8715d1c7d8125f51081b218021e82538ffdc0ee73b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mei Gaoxing; Cen Mofen; Luo Xu; Qiu Shiming; Pan Yun. Working Memory Load Effects on the Tilt Aftereffect. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.618712; article XML SHA-256 01e930f0696b916e845f9afc2ab4c1cd2eacc4f485752a4fba9be1f31508ed98. “Working Memory Load Effects on the Tilt Aftereffect” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.618712).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.618712). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## time estimation
<a id="time-estimation"></a>

Time estimation is the mental process of judging how much time has passed or how long an interval lasts. In the source material, it is described as a form of subjective timing that is often treated as scaling with objective clock time, with variability tending to increase as the duration being judged gets longer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da69bf7afc5518da533b44e3d4c18fbfc28472b26c0e16a7e72bdf108a0b5083

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ghaderi Amir Hossein; Moradkhani Shadi; Haghighatfard Arvin; Akrami Fatemeh; Khayyer Zahra; Balcı Fuat. Time estimation and beta segregation: An EEG study and graph theoretical approach. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0195380; article XML SHA-256 9a350bb29c781755307b1197c87bd2ff13005ba106a163f46335d16dc75981e2. “Time estimation and beta segregation: An EEG study and graph theoretical approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0195380).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195380). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## time out
<a id="time-out"></a>

In a learning or behavior-setting context, time out is a disciplinary method used to encourage more appropriate behavior or actions. It is grouped with other behavior-management measures such as setting limits and controls.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3c3f14e1d31350208356b6dd9bda86fda99a0a7fd342cb590da4578b44e22af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Discipline” (C17716).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## time score
<a id="time-score"></a>

In the b Test, a time score is one of the performance scores recorded for a person and used to compare groups. In this study, it was less useful than error scores for separating patients from malingerers because those two groups performed similarly on it, while both performed worse than controls.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cdf875b7e0b2a94ca96acf02e7e3920948d9addc895163265ea63bce3fdd1628

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pace Giorgia; Orrù Graziella; Monaro Merylin; Gnoato Francesca; Vitaliani Roberta; Boone Kyle B.; Gemignani Angelo; Sartori Giuseppe. Malingering Detection of Cognitive Impairment With the b Test Is Boosted Using Machine Learning. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01650; article XML SHA-256 55b4c6f4174baf60437f9b1693350c39cfe178bab723d262ec3c69e52dbe34b5. “Malingering Detection of Cognitive Impairment With the b Test Is Boosted Using Machine Learning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01650).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01650). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## time series
<a id="time-series"></a>

A time series is data observed across time so that temporal patterns can be studied and used to make forecasts. In multivariate time series, several variables are tracked over time together so their changing relationships can also be analyzed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e5742b3b236f053c4523b319a37bd75d853239f720e9d78ccbeda4a7d937ab1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Xinhan; Zhao Bowen. MixNet: A scale-adaptive method for multivariate time series forecasting. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349573; article XML SHA-256 14610307ef3cea21df74bced6bad55e6b568e9c7af14fcd43675fa08eaf75fc1. “MixNet: A scale-adaptive method for multivariate time series forecasting” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349573).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349573). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## time–location sampling
<a id="timelocation-sampling"></a>

Time–location sampling is a way of recruiting a study sample by selecting particular sites and then sampling people at those places during set time periods. In the example provided, it used a stratified, multistage probability design in which WIC sites were chosen first and newly enrolled participants were then sampled within selected sites during planned recruitment windows.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: df9e97c04993ad335f928066fa1f8f237067295fae7724c767c1e27b0de87cb5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Siegfried Yumiko; DeMatteis Jill M.; Gollapudi Bibi. Implementation of a sample design for a survey of program participants using time-location sampling. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285877; article XML SHA-256 4816dc76d415302df21c9f9caa482f9ec4d7a6160e176db65ef241eca72e9f2d. “Implementation of a sample design for a survey of program participants using time-location sampling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285877).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285877). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tinnitus
<a id="tinnitus"></a>

Tinnitus is a symptom in which a person hears sounds such as ringing, buzzing, clicking, or pulsating noise in the ear without an external source. It may be heard only by the affected person or, in some cases, come from within the ear or nearby structures and also be audible to others, and it can occur with a range of hearing and neurological conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d79ed073be6887987a5cc45a7f54641ed02f3772a5fef7d8d75e2887d69f3765

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tinnitus” (D014012).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014012). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
<a id="tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenon"></a>

The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is a temporary word-finding problem in which a person knows the word they want but cannot retrieve it at that moment. In the supplied source, it is described as a language-related experience that becomes more common in older adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b273575e8b0357d389e886b9b8a5f62bdeddeda458ae66f3d996b43bd8710021

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mullin Hollie A C; Norkey Evan A; Kodwani Anisha; Vitevitch Michael S; Castro Nichol. Does age affect perception of the Speech-to-Song Illusion?. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0250042; article XML SHA-256 13f7d84926492882b92dff688237c445379de281a7e705b5982280962fa2949f. “Does age affect perception of the Speech-to-Song Illusion?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0250042).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250042). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tissue
<a id="tissue"></a>

Tissue is a body structure made of similarly specialized cells and the material between them, arranged in genetically determined patterns. Examples include epithelium, muscle, connective, neural, and lymphoid tissue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6e4a21e25aec3e1e1955dfcb23a7c7b0dec468f4ef4f48cea25a4384dea24ea7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tissue” (C33177).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TM
<a id="tm"></a>

TM commonly stands for the tympanic membrane, the thin tissue that divides the outer ear canal from the middle ear. When air pressure changes in the outer ear, it moves and sets the middle-ear bones vibrating, helping carry sound.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 91dd997a2761bb41172f898f6cca7fc75102c0204ac1b638b3f9c73f1e43d50d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tympanic Membrane” (C12502).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TMA
<a id="tma"></a>

TMA stands for transmetatarsal amputation, a surgical removal of the front part of the foot through the distal metatarsals. It is used to help preserve weight-bearing and walking while removing infected or gangrenous tissue, especially in diabetic foot infection or ischemic necrosis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f00df1189d2f7e6b9b6a9c453cf9af63eab01d22aefeb72f4cacf16aa3092e0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aljarrah Qusai; Allouh Mohammed Z.; Husein Anas; Al-Jarrah Hussam; Hallak Amer; Bakkar Sohail; Domaidat Hamzeh; Malkawi Rahmeh. Transmetatarsal amputations in patients with diabetes mellitus: A contemporary analysis from an academic tertiary referral centre in a developing community. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0277117; article XML SHA-256 600f58f8b301e4536300273b760e2a4ea4dd395dc094244715de063b2afaa4de. “Transmetatarsal amputations in patients with diabetes mellitus: A contemporary analysis from an academic tertiary referral centre in a developing community” (10.1371/journal.pone.0277117).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277117). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TMS
<a id="tms"></a>

TMS, or transcranial magnetic stimulation, is a procedure that uses electromagnets to stimulate activity in brain nerve cells. It is used to help image the brain and study how it functions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fd0dbeedb037132fd326548079197bbe9ced1ceb06256ab17f31de039bac97f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation” (C116655).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## to-be-remembered items
<a id="to-be-remembered-items"></a>

To-be-remembered items are the actual units or pieces of information a person must keep in short-term memory, as distinct from remembering the sequence in which they appeared. In verbal memory tasks, this refers to the words or other verbal material themselves rather than their presentation order.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 77de81f175d873a0a6c512f3e7ca2e32a631284820ac0643b5cccf1a00eb3a11

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Xiaoli; Xuan Yifu; Jarrold Christopher. Using a Process Dissociation Approach to Assess Verbal Short-Term Memory for Item and Order Information in a Sample of Individuals with a Self-Reported Diagnosis of Dyslexia. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00208; article XML SHA-256 a428a764f6a738b17e1465de2a89116be07afe46b3d07609010e1d77e47dfc16. “Using a Process Dissociation Approach to Assess Verbal Short-Term Memory for Item and Order Information in a Sample of Individuals with a Self-Reported Diagnosis of Dyslexia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00208).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00208). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tobacco
<a id="tobacco"></a>

Tobacco contains nicotine, an addictive substance that enters the body quickly through the lungs and mucous membranes and reaches the brain very rapidly when smoked. In the liver, most nicotine is changed into cotinine, a longer-lasting compound commonly used as a biological indicator of tobacco exposure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c720d6c14bd517e01b7bbfd116f87f083beddbe5a4999d2ec10d6eb58e417d6f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alansari Alaa Abdulelah; Aljohar Haya I.; Alotaibi Ghadeer; AL-Tuwayr Nouf; Alsuwaidan Muneerah Essa; Alotaibi Khetam Mosfer; Shaibah Hayat; Alghadeer Sultan M.; Aldahshan Hala; Bakhsh Afnan; Alghanem Bandar; Alanazi Samyah; Alqarni Sana Saeed. Biomarker-based assessment of tobacco smoke exposure in Saudi females via analysis of urinary cotinine level. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355166; article XML SHA-256 b8c8567287218c2d7139ed7e56034935a5cddd6c3200a40576e81f1aa7a0c113. “Biomarker-based assessment of tobacco smoke exposure in Saudi females via analysis of urinary cotinine level” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355166).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355166). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tobacco dependence
<a id="tobacco-dependence"></a>

Tobacco dependence is a form of tobacco use disorder in which tobacco use is harmful to a person’s health or social functioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0132e46786ccd2017efee279b76fc7996cc3d7ebe15a7d18e730b383b062912d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tobacco Use Disorder” (D014029).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014029). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tobacco use disorder
<a id="tobacco-use-disorder"></a>

Tobacco use disorder is a pattern of using tobacco in a way that harms a person’s health or interferes with social functioning. It includes tobacco dependence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 91336d0bd24dc0be84b4d0157eada853764bdef9da5167381d775b8837449231

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tobacco Use Disorder” (D014029).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014029). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## toilet training
<a id="toilet-training"></a>

Toilet training is the learning process in which a person is conditioned to urinate and defecate in places that their culture considers appropriate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 377d15b6d63f3c4c29cdaa82597501e0c1b388a6f4a15ae5ad35d28d97dcb217

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Toilet Training” (D014039).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014039). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## token economy
<a id="token-economy"></a>

A token economy is a behavior-management system in which tokens that stand for valued rewards are given after desired actions or performance. The tokens serve as secondary reinforcers to encourage those behaviors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7cfebb144fd798d74b78ddb97bd022554afbe9e3eb7bbabf71cd6633585b07ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Token Economy” (D014040).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014040). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Token Test
<a id="token-test"></a>

Token Test is a language assessment used to measure changes in language function, including in people with aphasia after stroke. In the source, it was used alongside other language measures before and after rehabilitation training.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc534355eac40485eed89ef354283ba7f8cd2bc4075298b7a2d480ddbc2831ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chen Wenli; Ye Qian; Ji Xiangtong; Zhang Sicong; Yang Xi; Zhou Qiumin; Cong Fang; Chen Wei; Zhang Xin; Zhang Bing; Xia Yang; Yuan Ti-Fei; Shan Chunlei. Mirror neuron system based therapy for aphasia rehabilitation. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01665; article XML SHA-256 2e356256eed919e9d46cab52fa17993647d8e0528980de95d02b3f9ed3d86908. “Mirror neuron system based therapy for aphasia rehabilitation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01665).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01665). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tolerance
<a id="tolerance"></a>

Tolerance is a decreased response to a drug after repeated use, so larger amounts are needed to get the same effect that a smaller amount once produced. This can happen because the body changes how it processes the drug or because the person adapts at cellular, physiological, or behavioral levels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f783d5db479fdaf2075b01e77473fb2798df994817c71aa9f67c39ddaa7b1a9f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Drug Tolerance” (C21130).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## toluene
<a id="toluene"></a>

Toluene is an aromatic hydrocarbon used as a solvent and as a chemical intermediate in industry. Breathing in high concentrations quickly can cause serious neurological problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53f7eb04c041b66fb5977cac6a35a3e2755b0259f0ba8a9d502ad5392bb73377

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Toluene” (C77930).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tonal fusion
<a id="tonal-fusion"></a>

In historical psychology, tonal fusion means the combining of tone sensations into a more nearly unitary whole rather than a mere sum of separate tones. The more the tones resist being picked apart in experience, the greater their fusion.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e7bcd79eb633d8d97e085b83ce329cffb937a9038830129e04a100c7abb3fda8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fusion” (Fusion).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Fusion). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tonality
<a id="tonality"></a>

Tonality is the way tones in a piece of music are organized around a shared main tone, often called the tonic. In psychology of music, it refers to a complex perceptual skill in which listeners gradually internalize the tonal rules of their musical culture during childhood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c76df5c489eb1f3497257ab3e717e8709f1e411b0fec63d62b5bd6bda0622bd3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Will Johanna Karoline; Roeske Christina; Degé Franziska. Development of tonality and consonance categorization ability and preferences in 4- to 6-year-old children. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1270114; article XML SHA-256 62de1d180efc9d49cd15dd78ba717ae27ed17b4f41ab5f8e115e60491fad06f4. “Development of tonality and consonance categorization ability and preferences in 4- to 6-year-old children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1270114).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1270114). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tone
<a id="tone"></a>

In psychology, tone can mean the feeling quality that accompanies an idea or mental image. It is described as a direct mental expression of instinct and of the bodily changes through which instinct shows itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a2ec574297fad8e5030cba4e31e7c437a8304cc7d1c5b37887959fded3243ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Affect” (D000339).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000339). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tone deafness
<a id="tone-deafness"></a>

Tone deafness is a form of mental or psychic deafness in which a person can still hear sounds but cannot properly understand or appreciate their musical meaning. In this historical usage, it is grouped with musical deafness or amusia as a problem of interpreting sounds rather than a loss of hearing itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75e36a65d1d52c54e2732211f2276de2d5de61636ad898320a5fa7ec12342466

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Deafness (mental or psychic)” (Deafness (mental or psychic)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Deafness (mental or psychic)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TONI
<a id="toni"></a>

TONI refers to the Test of Nonverbal Intelligence; in this source, it specifically means the third edition (TONI-3). It is a nonverbal intelligence assessment whose psychometric properties were examined in Turkish middle school students.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86d5e3ae5f2d30a34baef5319150e3c30d510891604dc7869ff0dc115b360f40

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bildiren Ahmet; Kavruk Sevinç Zeynep. Psychometric properties of the test of nonverbal intelligence–third edition (TONI-3) in Turkish middle school students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497; article XML SHA-256 a4a096a40e0edce8af562b432fc016fa30766ad5e78fb72ab4200f955ac5df50. “Psychometric properties of the test of nonverbal intelligence–third edition (TONI-3) in Turkish middle school students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tonic activation
<a id="tonic-activation"></a>

Tonic activation is a sustained increase in neural activity that persists across task performance, rather than appearing only at brief event moments. In this context, it refers to ongoing activation seen in particular brain regions during an incentive condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fbf209552b8027d16a1c0902212d1086a0c149e31bad4967b6021235e4b2484e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Beck Stefanie M.; Locke Hannah S.; Savine Adam C.; Jimura Koji; Braver Todd S.. Primary and Secondary Rewards Differentially Modulate Neural Activity Dynamics during Working Memory. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0009251; article XML SHA-256 c1fd8dd3349e6ba13ed11f60b2ab2d5edb320373a468b520784596869a44dfed. “Primary and Secondary Rewards Differentially Modulate Neural Activity Dynamics during Working Memory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0009251).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0009251). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tonic contraction
<a id="tonic-contraction"></a>

Tonic contraction is a continued, steady state of muscular tightening rather than a brief shortening. In this historical passage, it refers especially to the normal maintained narrowing of the small arteries produced by vaso-constrictor nerve activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: de64345b199e89726852f6cc6fe66b701d57de4e9a3c37753f52bdd963e29b7a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4294500-4306500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tonic immobility
<a id="tonic-immobility"></a>

Tonic immobility is an inborn, last-resort defensive response to a predator in which an animal becomes immobile. It is often linked with death-feigning but is described here as the final part of that broader set of behaviors rather than the whole pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cac406885c9fcc1a34c6f75fc56fcdce468a3c7b421135808e1fd820719bcd74

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Woodruff Michael L.. Tonic immobility and phenomenal consciousness in animals: a review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1509999; article XML SHA-256 e524f5fdba18e7caf84930b2ebcd53f32894afca2703501918fca593e30109a4. “Tonic immobility and phenomenal consciousness in animals: a review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1509999).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1509999). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tonic spasm
<a id="tonic-spasm"></a>

A tonic spasm is an involuntary muscle contraction that remains more or less continuous rather than coming and going. In this older usage, it is contrasted with clonic spasm, which is intermittent.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 52da2f88585b1cdb82913bf375ddfd7769a5e2c7936b4b42e0a5a1f320fdc896

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3213000-3225000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tonic–clonic seizure
<a id="tonicclonic-seizure"></a>

A tonic–clonic seizure is a seizure affecting the whole brain that causes the person to lose awareness and have intense muscle jerking or stiffening. It may begin with an aura and is often followed by a period of confusion and marked tiredness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 15a1f122d84959e541e3eb8d89d36f3a2ef175c6dc406e4064d2651dbd9d7264

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tonic-Clonic Seizure” (C50574).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tonometry
<a id="tonometry"></a>

Tonometry is a method used to measure pressure inside the eye. In this context, it was used to monitor intraocular pressure during ocular inflammation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee55ccefad6f783c433c914777f3e99ab8716de9d3581cdc522e2556689a64d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dobos Andras; Meresz Balazs; Bosnyak Inez; Molitor Dorottya; Kocsis Bela; Szabo Edina; Reglodi Dora; Vajda Ildiko; Atlasz Tamas; Vaczy Alexandra. PAC1 receptor agonist maxadilan alleviates corneal inflammation in a murine model of LPS-induced ocular inflammation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353866; article XML SHA-256 6189780a607be0c5af3ff99448172806516f230d495b030c82e9060eb52e2d5a. “PAC1 receptor agonist maxadilan alleviates corneal inflammation in a murine model of LPS-induced ocular inflammation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353866).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353866). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tonotopic organization
<a id="tonotopic-organization"></a>

Tonotopic organization is the orderly mapping of sound frequency across a hearing structure, so different pitches are represented at different physical locations. In the packet, this refers to frequency being arranged along the cochlea or basilar papilla, and possibly similarly within the fish saccule.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 22ea2034607c0761f294ba0f7a95571a3eb99a86c40753534e074556cebc6631

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Smith Michael E; Schuck Julie B; Gilley Ronald R; Rogers Brian D. Structural and functional effects of acoustic exposure in goldfish: evidence for tonotopy in the teleost saccule. 2011; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-12-19; article XML SHA-256 b76df1866debb585868e529f38d3e954ce5ee98a969f1fe824257c07de6c03ca. “Structural and functional effects of acoustic exposure in goldfish: evidence for tonotopy in the teleost saccule” (10.1186/1471-2202-12-19).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-12-19). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## top-down processing
<a id="top-down-processing"></a>

Top-down processing is the influence of higher-level information, such as social meaning or expectations, on how speech is recognized and remembered. In this context, it refers to spoken word recognition being shaped not only by the sound itself but also by socially and linguistically relevant cues linked to the talker or speech variant.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 987de5fe171cbdf070025140954d8480c2422aac4ec944faf4a99520ee77ce14

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Swain Angela; Fricke Melinda. When control words lose control: emergence of top-down processing effects in Spanish spoken word recognition. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1832323; article XML SHA-256 3bd384f7b606720eaa65b5ed4c1d4e07808c085f436629a88e1a5a77514ff195. “When control words lose control: emergence of top-down processing effects in Spanish spoken word recognition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1832323).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1832323). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Topamax
<a id="topamax"></a>

Topamax is a medication called topiramate, an anticonvulsant. It affects glutamate receptors and GABA-related activity in the central nervous system, which helps stabilize overactive nerve signaling and reduce seizures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 834440f60aa3096c893502b6f8819a655041ca99a3d65955269b49385fae8e57

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Topiramate” (C47764).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## topiramate
<a id="topiramate"></a>

Topiramate is a pharmacologic substance with anticonvulsant effects. It appears to reduce seizures by blocking certain glutamate receptor activity, increasing GABA-related activity, and helping stabilize overexcited nerve cell signaling in the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90b545c61c15697bfed8168a3a9d944366b89d2152750c32dc3306752cac6772

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Topiramate” (C47764).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## topographic
<a id="topographic"></a>

Topographic means relating to the spatial location and distribution of structures within a body region. In this source, it refers to mapping where facial arterial perforators are positioned relative to anatomical reference lines and planes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e956fb94e54808282a17fd37378cc5a0ee5d2c1fd3169bf47fdee4782e34b00f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Son Ji–Young; Han Seung–Ho. Topographical analysis of arterial perforators in the face: A cadaveric study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349023; article XML SHA-256 3522e34b322ca18ecdece37f9f767002c9d92e2a2db3ffc65e75bd7be36f88e5. “Topographical analysis of arterial perforators in the face: A cadaveric study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349023).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349023). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## topographic organization
<a id="topographic-organization"></a>

Topographic organization is the orderly layout of sensory cortex so that nearby brain areas correspond to nearby parts of the sensory surface, such as neighboring points on the retina or neighboring whiskers. This arrangement can also include finer maps in which nearby neurons respond to similar stimulus features, like movement direction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bcbf618b5bde33679605a35d1368aaff54e03bcc78fdad2b90d6a7089d4d3388

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wilson Stuart P.; Law Judith S.; Mitchinson Ben; Prescott Tony J.; Bednar James A.. Modeling the Emergence of Whisker Direction Maps in Rat Barrel Cortex. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0008778; article XML SHA-256 14b2a26714ca119e3df2c3c72a2c2d085db257b5e76489700e5db7408fb3adef. “Modeling the Emergence of Whisker Direction Maps in Rat Barrel Cortex” (10.1371/journal.pone.0008778).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008778). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## topographical disorientation
<a id="topographical-disorientation"></a>

Topographical disorientation is a problem with spatial navigation, in which a person has marked difficulty finding their way in the environment. In the source, it is described as occurring after brain damage and being associated with impaired topographical skills.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 91e27b123c783d1214be8ad4f963d8cb7e4c92dd8c8212ba8d8fb8eb41981b87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Boccia Maddalena; Bonavita Alessia; Diana Sofia; Di Vita Antonella; Ciurli Maria Paola; Guariglia Cecilia. Topographical Disorientation: Clinical and Theoretical Significance of Long-Lasting Improvements Following Imagery-Based Training. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00322; article XML SHA-256 b58bd76ef617371c911aca2921e97ab4ea010dfeb312fd589736619701638336. “Topographical Disorientation: Clinical and Theoretical Significance of Long-Lasting Improvements Following Imagery-Based Training” (10.3389/fnhum.2019.00322).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00322). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tort
<a id="tort"></a>

In this historical legal sense, a tort is a wrong done to an individual rather than an offense against the state. It refers to a personal wrong for which the affected person seeks a private legal remedy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6f01a91ca91cfb4c85c8f1b68fc3ca4e0bc397f18acb3f75aa607c2b04e5748d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Crime (in law)” (Crime (in law)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Crime (in law)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## torticollis
<a id="torticollis"></a>

Torticollis is a symptom in which the neck is twisted, usually with the head tilted to one side and the chin turned to the other. It involves involuntary neck muscle contractions and can result from congenital problems, injury, inflammation, tumors, or neurological and other causes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7dfef4dd42585586f13f3950de50e5cef0854618f6c97973e90063d218daaedb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Torticollis” (D014103).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014103). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## torture
<a id="torture"></a>

Torture is the deliberate causing of physical or mental suffering to one or more individuals. The term can also include the torture of animals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c703248187fcdbdeef3c32439cb8058a6a7769c7d74c181a3cf96da548719ea9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Torture” (D014104).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014104). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TOT phenomenon
<a id="tot-phenomenon"></a>

The TOT phenomenon, or tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, is a common word-finding problem in which a person strongly feels they know a word, especially a name, but cannot retrieve it at that moment. It is described as a failure to access the word’s sound form rather than a loss of its meaning, and it tends to occur more often with increasing age.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34bb208e800390dc31ca56837c6303e2e4615f0113d37dc1e77e13d6c7b83a22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim JungWan; Kim Minyoung; Yoon Ji Hye. The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon in older adults with subjective memory complaints. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0239327; article XML SHA-256 f640688ba0678d807db42e582bbdd1cbc6235a3d63cfbc23d528f2f7d7ab845c. “The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon in older adults with subjective memory complaints” (10.1371/journal.pone.0239327).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239327). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## total effect
<a id="total-effect"></a>

In this historical psychology source, total effect means the overall unified impression or outcome that a constructive imaginative work is organized to produce. It refers to how selected ideas are kept only if they support the general plan and strengthen the whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3f11f44be95197e7c08cab31d73238b7b446d3ff2fe7bbcf4191d3f33c3c711d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Imagination” (Imagination).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Imagination). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## total immersion
<a id="total-immersion"></a>

Total immersion is a state of being completely absorbed and strongly focused in an activity. In the psychology of flow, it refers to engaging in the activity with enjoyment as part of an optimal state for performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 837f1ad0f3d92534adc457b3139c32e7e7b510a439cd9d1f84a14a4db1727ab9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Garcia William Fernando; Codonhato Renan; Mizoguchi Marcus Vinicius; do Nascimento Junior José Roberto Andrade; Aizava Paulo Vitor Suto; Ribas Marcelen Lopes; Caruzzo Aryelle Malheiros; Vissoci João Ricardo Nickenig; Fiorese Lenamar. Dispositional Flow and Performance in Brazilian Triathletes. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02136; article XML SHA-256 4ce69732f36e76c3a073e75e516a1cbceca421c79a1b08520bc90ff2c8f71e85. “Dispositional Flow and Performance in Brazilian Triathletes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02136).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02136). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## total sum of squares
<a id="total-sum-of-squares"></a>

Total sum of squares is the overall amount of variation in a set of scores. In effect size reporting, it serves as the full variability term used when calculating eta squared, where the effect sum of squares is divided by the total sum of squares to show the proportion of variance associated with group membership.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 665d1b710c2b0b4378f2da4fad8e15626dfc6bf68e07bae899f0849af0410144

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## total variance
<a id="total-variance"></a>

Total variance is the overall amount of variability in the outcome being studied. In effect-size reporting, it is the full variation used as the reference point, so a value such as eta squared can express how much of that overall variability is explained by group membership or another effect.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3fbe4bb59bbe9b4b2cd0c0665237dbc4c1fad63f77ec5e9efe8cc3610bc594a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TOTE model
<a id="tote-model"></a>

The TOTE model is a way of describing self-regulation as a cycle of checking progress against a goal, acting to reduce any mismatch, checking again, and stopping when the goal has been reached. In this framework, self-control is treated as part of the action phase rather than as the whole of self-regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b528438712a9821a6b13c74cfc9fe56a44960070d65cd85006175d12fe9cae3c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gillebaart Marleen. The ‘Operational’ Definition of Self-Control. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01231; article XML SHA-256 21cc589b4887ab810e91a1960fed866f47061584ec18dc1683ddc87abb6fcae9. “The ‘Operational’ Definition of Self-Control” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01231).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01231). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## totem
<a id="totem"></a>

Totem, here given as the North American (Algonkin) term otem, refers to a clan or kinship group. In this usage, it means a body of relatives larger than a household and smaller than a tribe, tracing descent through either the mother’s line or the father’s line, but not both.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fceb2723ab9706f28d9a3f5b206b37723d2630c720ae869da35dd6867e6059dd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Clan” (Clan).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Clan). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Touch
<a id="touch"></a>

Touch is the sense of physical contact with living or nonliving things. It depends on tactile signals being picked up by mechanoreceptors in the skin and mucous membranes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a3fed1de3683fb19ff88478d5c0eac09274f0063ab29a34cf657ca8dd95ddb1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Touch” (D014110).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014110). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Tourette’s disorder
<a id="tourettes-disorder"></a>

Tourette’s disorder is a neuropsychological condition linked to dopamine-related changes in frontal-subcortical brain circuits. It involves several movement tics and at least one vocal tic that happen very frequently for longer than a year, start before age 18, cause substantial distress or problems in important areas of life, and are not better explained by a substance or another medical condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 98a2d895a3a5a6894c96c086f0e6c036c9e082477b3dc797307c7f95ef9f94b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tourette Syndrome” (D005879).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005879). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## toxin
<a id="toxin"></a>

In this context, toxin refers specifically to botulinum toxin type A, a substance used on the upper face for dynamic wrinkles. The packet describes it as having possible effects beyond appearance, including influences on emotional processing through skin-brain pathways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a7cf4fef199dac4b485dfbc9e417f70a7fcf57db0ac1348f03f70eb70d638042

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Loewen Álvaro; Aranda-Guerrero Sabina; Tajima-Pozo Kazuhiro. Beyond aesthetic outcomes: psychodermatological benefits of botulinum toxin treatment in the upper facial third. A narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1822916; article XML SHA-256 81ff9b48ae9dc70f306b12e4024079eb85108a9ac9bd2f0d86e7bcb9380d8057. “Beyond aesthetic outcomes: psychodermatological benefits of botulinum toxin treatment in the upper facial third. A narrative review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1822916).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1822916). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TPA
<a id="tpa"></a>

TPA refers to T-Pattern and T-String analysis, a software-supported method for comparing and studying behavioral patterns. In applied behavioral science research, it is used to examine temporal, spatial, and other organized patterns in human and non-human behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7d1daabd82f8ffd0893b4bf8708e0b5ae679d3d770954a5920a1cff92f557034

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sáiz-Manzanares María Consuelo; Alonso-Martínez Laura; Marticorena-Sánchez Raúl. A Systematic Review of the Use of T-Pattern and T-String Analysis (TPA) With Theme: An Analysis Using Mixed Methods and Data Mining Techniques. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.943907; article XML SHA-256 eb9ef44f7ad875cb3bbe164544bb4df1a90a55c2bcf9f64b792b04d983029ec2. “A Systematic Review of the Use of T-Pattern and T-String Analysis (TPA) With Theme: An Analysis Using Mixed Methods and Data Mining Techniques” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.943907).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.943907). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TPD
<a id="tpd"></a>

TPD stands for tapping panel dryness, a problem in rubber trees during latex extraction in which latex-producing tissues degenerate and latex yield drops markedly. It is described as a major disease-related challenge affecting tree health and rubber production.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb60cd0294139f4422989d204f3bfd6b30aa01af9c6e29e5fc90d69f10eac599

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xie Zhenjing; Wu Jinran; Tang Weirui; Liu Yongna. Advancing image segmentation with DBO-Otsu: Addressing rubber tree diseases through enhanced threshold techniques. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297284; article XML SHA-256 15bd5a3846d6c4e065b1158349d7e643f20fe34c78d85930e03afdd7b2965689. “Advancing image segmentation with DBO-Otsu: Addressing rubber tree diseases through enhanced threshold techniques” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297284).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297284). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TPQ
<a id="tpq"></a>

TPQ, or the theory of psychic quanta, is a proposed model of consciousness that treats subjective experience as built from basic units called informational quanta within a universal psychic field. It aims to offer a new account of subjectivity that connects ideas from psychology, neuroscience, physics, and philosophy of mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4ec59f380769e92b34824d0e778d4b55a9d74d3357448e4b17545986bb6e16bf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tallarico Andrea. The theory of psychic quanta: a quantum model for the unity of individual consciousness. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792921; article XML SHA-256 37f17ed976d39e922be25b8bd51886dd65968576f5f6263e8bef7107f1077081. “The theory of psychic quanta: a quantum model for the unity of individual consciousness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792921).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792921). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TQM
<a id="tqm"></a>

TQM stands for total quality management, a strategic approach used in universities to improve the quality of higher education. In the source, it is described as helping strengthen outcomes such as graduate quality, scientific research, and community service.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9ad44f66ec29ff9f5df8628257c4896248352ea0e3cc649fbbe61a8515314c68

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yahiaoui Fethia; Chergui Khalil; Aissaoui Nesreddine; Brika Said Khalfa Mokhtar; Lamari Imane Ahmed; Musa Adam Ahmed; Almezher Mohmmad. The impacts of total quality management practices in Algerian higher education institutions. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.874209; article XML SHA-256 d75f8846fd86b87055fdfe65dccdd3597a8481f0c3fa1adcdd894927da7e112f. “The impacts of total quality management practices in Algerian higher education institutions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.874209).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.874209). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trace
<a id="trace"></a>

In this psycholinguistic context, trace means to move a finger along a sentence on a touchscreen while reading so that the movement can be used to capture real-time reading behaviour.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b00ba314f74a137214364b54b58be4b8e628df832fd6836088aa1ef79a7fee88

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Polo Eva; Marzi Claudia. Finger-tracking captures distinct cognitive signatures in L1 vs. L2 reading. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792437; article XML SHA-256 593307b7d7eb5ea56a84ee193d1ca5e7c7300a09528fd0aacc5bb75fedfc656b. “Finger-tracking captures distinct cognitive signatures in L1 vs. L2 reading” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792437).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792437). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trace conditioning
<a id="trace-conditioning"></a>

Trace conditioning is a form of associative learning in which one stimulus is presented and the reinforcing stimulus comes later, separated by a time gap rather than overlapping. In the source example, an odor or visual cue is followed after a delay by shock, and the earlier cue is then linked to the later outcome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2c0eaa2e476283f26386afaff373b1bd990cb04a5838b3e29f3f507fd608f6e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vogt Katrin; Yarali Ayse; Tanimoto Hiromu. Reversing Stimulus Timing in Visual Conditioning Leads to Memories with Opposite Valence in Drosophila. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0139797; article XML SHA-256 aa8e6b6bb930933d53087a8dbe9459e679d7f9d77905d925ff0b611cbd6e7637. “Reversing Stimulus Timing in Visual Conditioning Leads to Memories with Opposite Valence in Drosophila” (10.1371/journal.pone.0139797).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0139797). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tract
<a id="tract"></a>

In this context, a tract is a structural pathway in the central nervous system made up of nerve fibers that carry signals, such as the corticospinal tract involved in descending motor output. The article uses the term to refer to the size or volume of this pathway as a neurostructural feature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b611ecc2cc9de7c0bb42a536ebcb48bd9e477d12be1bda5b256c2df4516d93e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kim HoWon; Geschwender Cole; Lepley Adam S. Corticospinal tract structure and descending motor output following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: an exploratory multimodal neuroimaging assessment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1888579; article XML SHA-256 a9aceb4e9aaa9d8025cfadb5c46e45ddd0f130a166d556c0808160ce039a3b16. “Corticospinal tract structure and descending motor output following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: an exploratory multimodal neuroimaging assessment” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1888579).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1888579). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trade union
<a id="trade-union"></a>

A trade union is an association of workers in the same line of work formed for mutual aid. Its support may take the form of shared insurance or, more importantly, joint bargaining in place of workers competing separately.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac3d5e5c33980ba51521236e29e1c5bf05f87fb54d060fc1e7aa60c7e712f336

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4011000-4023000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tradition-directed
<a id="tradition-directed"></a>

Tradition-directed refers to a social orientation in which choices are guided mainly by practical considerations and collectivist values. In this source, it describes one of the logics people use to produce social honor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5869095ec358ea6f73e7cac7508bf813eb4739d791cfef5980d80c076fb9218

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Du Shasha; Ohsfeldt Michael. Producing social honor through the hierarchy of study abroad: evidence from Chinese middle class. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fsoc.2026.1780881; article XML SHA-256 8881e07288be8c241641ea0843c442861d1bb2be1d66eaf3ceee0e88f70e6ca7. “Producing social honor through the hierarchy of study abroad: evidence from Chinese middle class” (10.3389/fsoc.2026.1780881).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2026.1780881). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## traditional medicine
<a id="traditional-medicine"></a>

Traditional medicine refers to culturally rooted knowledge, skills, and practices shaped by a community’s beliefs, theories, and experience. It is used to maintain health and to help prevent, identify, improve, or treat physical or mental illness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 266b1c946833fd19b798f83f6b95237508ffe40c397dc6df8ea49ee8f58e9448

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Traditional Medicine” (C180905).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## traditionalism
<a id="traditionalism"></a>

Traditionalism is a theological view that a person needs supernatural revelation in order to come to know that God exists. In the source, it is presented historically as a position opposed to the claim that human reason alone can reach that knowledge.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa7e234bd36c55d16793835b8d2e54c722a48b70ce242cb1b0fb1fae48589fbb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Agnosticism (in theology)” (Agnosticism (in theology)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Agnosticism (in theology)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trafficking
<a id="trafficking"></a>

In this healthcare and mental health context, trafficking refers to ongoing human exploitation, including labor or sex trafficking, that is linked with repeated trauma and high rates of psychiatric, substance-use, and medical problems. It is often not recognized in healthcare settings even when the person is still being exploited.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5d6636332f5b49e66d4285469a7c141aaf980cbe739c41cec1ebcd09fa95392c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wicken Cassie; Frazier Luke; Brooks Marquita; Eaton Ellen; Lake Hammond; Huls Kara S; Rampe Rebecca; Moultrie Lindsey Baird; Macaluso Matthew; Malhotra Aniket; Fargason Rachel; Li Li. An Alabama-tailored human trafficking response protocol within the Community, Advocacy, Law, and Medicine framework: a state-adaptable model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1885986; article XML SHA-256 1b067bafb8f100dd627778a387abedfd57a612815ff5e6e07e6be5d2e628f3ae. “An Alabama-tailored human trafficking response protocol within the Community, Advocacy, Law, and Medicine framework: a state-adaptable model” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1885986).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1885986). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tragedy of the commons
<a id="tragedy-of-the-commons"></a>

Tragedy of the commons is a social outcome in which cheating on a shared cooperative system benefits noncontributors in the short term but ultimately harms the whole group. In the source packet, it refers to a well-mixed population where individuals avoid the cost of producing a shared benefit, leading to population-level collapse.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf7ef81d54aceeb755281640648913658ef939df6bff3536d02110c99cf99b85

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lynn Bryan K; De Leenheer Patrick; Schuster Martin. Putting theory to the test: An integrated computational/experimental chemostat model of the tragedy of the commons. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300887; article XML SHA-256 c97bd3bf59297b7cbfc86d2867824fcd87b44bccd6545fe67feac923af6921cc. “Putting theory to the test: An integrated computational/experimental chemostat model of the tragedy of the commons” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300887).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300887). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Trail Making Test
<a id="trail-making-test"></a>

The Trail Making Test is an assessment of how well a person can connect 25 numbered and lettered circles in the correct sequence within a set time. In this source, a score of 12 or below is described as suggestive of organic brain damage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0edb57e287e2b0489eae2d07391d47a28d93d286024a64c8b4cbc9245c4ed1c5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Trail Making Test” (D014145).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014145). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## train
<a id="train"></a>

In this context, train means to help learners build skills by practicing tasks such as hazard identification and safety responses. The packet describes training as learning in a realistic but risk-free environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44cb7a75bb811ba00ccfe6f15e466b4087bb2ca0e5b00e8d6e7f6ebd537c9295

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chiang Yen-Ting; Hong Jon-Chao; Tu Yu-Ting. Comparing the predictive roles of intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load on learning performance: the mediating effect of IVR self-efficacy in warehouse training. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838395; article XML SHA-256 e8b21c90852d94b7dd2707cdfba192ba09375755b1eebd28c256aeb8a63a3c5e. “Comparing the predictive roles of intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load on learning performance: the mediating effect of IVR self-efficacy in warehouse training” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838395).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838395). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trainer
<a id="trainer"></a>

In this historical source, a trainer is the person who educates and disciplines a feeble-minded child or patient. The term emphasizes that the trainer’s personal character and relationship with the learner were seen as central to moral and practical training.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8851e355de96885643b35cfbbe05c391278024e6784f69b307133caa0d072172

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3874500-3886500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## training
<a id="training"></a>

In this context, training refers to cognitive practice aimed at improving specific mental skills such as memory, attention, inhibition, planning, and cognitive flexibility. It may help people perform better on the practiced tasks, but these gains do not usually carry over to the core symptoms of ADHD like impulsivity and hyperactivity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ad0d687cc422c9a20e325b2af2ab19d8bdc39691195ab7955fa17c47776827e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0b516be887dc405542437e91764765e37c105ae98c1d697b1789447654440453. “Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-what-you-need-to-know).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-what-you-need-to-know). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## training evaluation
<a id="training-evaluation"></a>

Training evaluation is the process of assessing what a training program achieved after it is delivered, including participants’ reactions, what they learned, changes in behavior, and resulting outcomes. In this context, it is used to judge training effectiveness and identify how different aspects of learning and performance relate to one another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 49a6032fd4e0656b936c2182af1e4bab94758e0f03dbe92681ee3d4697ad41f8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Islam Md Zohurul; Abdul Kader Jilani Munshi Muhammad; Karim Mohammad Rezaul. Enhancing post-training evaluation of annual performance agreement training: A fusion of fsQCA and artificial neural network approach. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305916; article XML SHA-256 4108fb514810a44a748186e0e89e2ca858af8b1e2e192522a14636becb48f8a5. “Enhancing post-training evaluation of annual performance agreement training: A fusion of fsQCA and artificial neural network approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305916).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305916). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trait anxiety
<a id="trait-anxiety"></a>

Trait anxiety is a person’s general, long-lasting tendency to experience anxiety, as opposed to temporary anxiety tied to a particular moment or situation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca08978542361282e005c1a99d2998bd64ed8abef980d92a247dd2e1395096cd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “State-Trait Anxiety Inventory” (C95491).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trait rating
<a id="trait-rating"></a>

Trait rating is a research task in which participants judge how strongly a person or group is seen as having particular characteristics or traits. In this study, it was used to measure evaluations such as perceived warmth when comparing people with different levels of power.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 454f2f497cf7517a491ddaa6385b78239b88cd9306effbdd8a471f28099f9dc7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Minyan; Yang Feng; Han Yang. More Power, More Warmth: The Enhancing Effect of Power on the Perceived Warmth About High-Power Individuals Under Chinese Culture. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.874861; article XML SHA-256 c07d23bc0e8ae45cfc5d7b1c5b895a21f22d14ecc92a8808703ffc6d72168f6f. “More Power, More Warmth: The Enhancing Effect of Power on the Perceived Warmth About High-Power Individuals Under Chinese Culture” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.874861).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.874861). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trait rumination
<a id="trait-rumination"></a>

Trait rumination refers to individual differences in how much a person tends to ruminate. In this source, it is linked to stronger resting-state functional connectivity within parts of the default mode network and is related to depressive symptom severity in late adolescents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80e96ef8f7de9d986e8d8d9c924267a6f48f5a30e2392aed28234aa16755139c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guo Yinghui; Wei Dongtao. The functional connectivity between dorsal-medial prefrontal cortex and middle cingulate cortex links trait rumination and depressive symptoms. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328895; article XML SHA-256 7ed0954c29a21acb1f09c3eafe5abf105ef4f113088b2e0a91635efabccea93d. “The functional connectivity between dorsal-medial prefrontal cortex and middle cingulate cortex links trait rumination and depressive symptoms” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328895).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328895). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trait theory
<a id="trait-theory"></a>

Trait theory is the view that personality can be understood in terms of relatively stable traits, which are consistent patterns in how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. In this context, traits are used to explain enduring individual differences, including vulnerability to psychological difficulties.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 163c1d1f74471bf55914928b2b29ae5bbfaf77b06fd9a56da32a27cd5d2be115

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nordahl Henrik; Anyan Frederick; Hjemdal Odin; Wells Adrian. Partial and directional relationships between negative metacognitive beliefs and the big five personality traits. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897206; article XML SHA-256 54b9156befbeb3cdc250ad43ec8581edd82ca9227d9af08842787b1c2879f745. “Partial and directional relationships between negative metacognitive beliefs and the big five personality traits” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897206).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897206). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trajectories of dying
<a id="trajectories-of-dying"></a>

Trajectories of dying are the patterns or course of decline as a person approaches death. In this packet, the term refers to the often complex ways this process unfolds, which can make end-of-life care harder to manage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: efb9b0a994f80152d7c3aad4429f39c43b2fe35f85ecad67f6efbd5d0c4c720a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [O’Brien Mary; Kirton Jennifer; Knighting Katherine; Roe Brenda; Jack Barbara. Improving end of life care in care homes; an evaluation of the six steps to success programme. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12904-016-0123-6; article XML SHA-256 69452b7a30762100b27d8650c5863da5fa4099a6b0e9203a2949a2e3f22326b2. “Improving end of life care in care homes; an evaluation of the six steps to success programme” (10.1186/s12904-016-0123-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12904-016-0123-6). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trajectory
<a id="trajectory"></a>

In psychology, a trajectory is the pattern or course of how a behavior or development changes over time. In this context, it refers to the developmental course of school refusal behavior in adolescents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a0b3f66f66d3f7654a13c6e98f6d01cd474017eaae09d03d445cf14195fd51ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yuan Rong-Man; Fu Na. The developmental trajectory and influencing factors of school refusal behavior among Chinese adolescents. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04859-x; article XML SHA-256 4c28829f2c3ccbfacc8687a743a585c8d784096bc2fed797e88394af053f53c7. “The developmental trajectory and influencing factors of school refusal behavior among Chinese adolescents” (10.1186/s40359-026-04859-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04859-x). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trance
<a id="trance"></a>

Trance is an altered state of consciousness. In the supplied source, mediumistic trance is described as a dissociative but non-pathological state that can occur while complex language production remains preserved.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 53843cf9d95c1a8364c2376854c0f0fd2715bbe6de07c13b0d0c96b902f19a27

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pinto Kleber Monteiro; Toutain Thaise G L de O; Saba Hugo; Bastos Jr Marco Aurélio Vinhosa; do Rosário Raphael Silva; Plácido Jéssica; Loureiro Naíma; Fernandes Valéria C; Vivas Miranda José Garcia. Brain activity and the production of written text during mediumistic trance: A controlled EEG study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343216; article XML SHA-256 2d214526f45ca859d4a50adc7d4eb85046c735a850b36355090d47af31ef2058. “Brain activity and the production of written text during mediumistic trance: A controlled EEG study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343216).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343216). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transactional analysis
<a id="transactional-analysis"></a>

Transactional analysis is a psychoanalytic therapy that examines social interactions by identifying the ego state involved, such as parent-like, child-like, or adult-like. This is used to help make sense of behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce88560467af6417d35a40b4ab1539267bd73494d42ecb4454e1f92a5e710a9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Transactional Analysis” (D014152).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014152). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transactional leadership
<a id="transactional-leadership"></a>

Transactional leadership is a leadership style in which leaders influence people by linking rewards or other benefits to meeting defined goals and performing well. It also involves active monitoring and control when problems occur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a67c1313c43eaef59daed772dc88187d7bb60ba9e28bbea0bd96535ab6c55154

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Saravo Barbara; Netzel Janine; Kiesewetter Jan. The need for strong clinical leaders – Transformational and transactional leadership as a framework for resident leadership training. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0183019; article XML SHA-256 392ab5fe68f1963e66ea90bd1f5b87277deef6cb9dd19abd7f13f19f10135ad3. “The need for strong clinical leaders – Transformational and transactional leadership as a framework for resident leadership training” (10.1371/journal.pone.0183019).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0183019). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transcendence
<a id="transcendence"></a>

Transcendence is the view that the Creator stands apart from the universe rather than being essentially or substantially identical with it. In this historical usage, it is contrasted with complete immanence, where the divine is fully identified with the world.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17b81c02bcd3a8ca91e4de50a5462c4656679fe99525592a3045f0eb61ca357e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Creationism” (Creationism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Creationism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transcendental meditation
<a id="transcendental-meditation"></a>

Transcendental meditation is a mental practice used to help a person relax, lower stress, and improve quality of life. It refers to a trademarked form of meditation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 61b931a97004a87b959b40d040913cfcdd570c920b793ef6fe16a6f31a38f327

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Transcendental Meditation Therapy” (C15376).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transcortical motor aphasia
<a id="transcortical-motor-aphasia"></a>

Transcortical motor aphasia is a historically described speech disorder in which a person can hear and understand spoken words and can also recognize and understand written words, but cannot speak voluntarily, write voluntarily, or copy. In this description, repetition, reading aloud, and writing from dictation remain possible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a5b7356e772b43818e433fcb6922946c20ac969051bca479fa13196869bda1e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3286500-3298500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transcranial Doppler ultrasonography
<a id="transcranial-doppler-ultrasonography"></a>

Transcranial Doppler ultrasonography is a diagnostic test that uses pulsed ultrasound to measure how fast blood flows through the brain’s major blood vessels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5b1fdd6ea7a0a3533e53d0ef6b79a713e01bf491ac9e7695e94d2dcb534f566e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography” (C122930).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transcranial magnetic stimulation
<a id="transcranial-magnetic-stimulation"></a>

Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a biological technique that uses coils placed on the head to create brief magnetic fields reaching the cerebral cortex. It is used to measure cortical excitability, map brain function, study neurophysiology, and has also been used as an alternative to electroconvulsive therapy for depression, although the risk of triggering seizures limits its use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cad2d3b639d74c8fe98cbf6703a08b26d533dc465f65a1f4d44f2ac81908cc89

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation” (D050781).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D050781). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transcultural psychotherapy
<a id="transcultural-psychotherapy"></a>

Transcultural psychotherapy is a therapeutic approach developed to help with mental health care in migrant contexts when social, economic, or cultural barriers make care harder to access or less effective. It is used to address intercultural issues that affect engagement with treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39502e0f3cd5b978894f7f9d66ff42c61b585af7c4415edd5250834252cfe232

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lachal Jonathan; Simon Amalini; Hassler Christine; Barry Caroline; Camara Hawa; Massari Nelly; Franchitti Roberta; Mao Sann-Fou; Roy Edward Tony; Carballeira Carrera Laura; Rouchon Jeanne-Flore; Moro Marie Rose. Epidemiological description of 529 families referred for French transcultural psychotherapy: A decade of experience. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0236990; article XML SHA-256 4570a3273952d169ddbf0e45813012d06e6a0b5639bf96c06fafb18df8084f70. “Epidemiological description of 529 families referred for French transcultural psychotherapy: A decade of experience” (10.1371/journal.pone.0236990).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236990). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation
<a id="transcutaneous-electrical-nerve-stimulation"></a>

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation is a noninvasive procedure that delivers electrical current from an outside device through skin pads to stimulate peripheral nerves. It is most often used for peripheral nerve pain, but it may be used for other purposes as well.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8c1d8622c1fe9c4d59f5c8eba9c26b6edf086168eb3831d7aa8e2813c80b8d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation” (C21032).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Transderm-Scop
<a id="transderm-scop"></a>

Transderm-Scop refers to scopolamine, a plant-derived tropane alkaloid with anticholinergic effects that blocks acetylcholine activity at muscarinic receptors. It is used for effects such as preventing vomiting and reducing vertigo, and it can also decrease secretions and slow gut movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 479ac8d0ad8cb96040c4120607e13f082b4e71243ec05d04cb9f5682cfdcc945

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Scopolamine” (C47712).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transdermal patch
<a id="transdermal-patch"></a>

In this study, a transdermal patch was a patch presented as containing Ginkgo and applied as a placebo. It was used to create expectations and examine possible effects on mood, cognitive performance, and stress-related psychophysiological responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d5699d023d965054f70829b3afcfa053c9b264b4b3f729638f94f0435d33c229

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Watolla Daniel; Mazurak Nazar; Gruss Sascha; Gulewitsch Marco D.; Schwille-Kiuntke Juliane; Sauer Helene; Enck Paul; Weimer Katja. Effects of Expectancy on Cognitive Performance, Mood, and Psychophysiology in Healthy Adolescents and Their Parents in an Experimental Study. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00213; article XML SHA-256 a40abeaeb29a22b32b3a11e8d5ad7063b2492da801c46a5fff23a1b023f44646. “Effects of Expectancy on Cognitive Performance, Mood, and Psychophysiology in Healthy Adolescents and Their Parents in an Experimental Study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00213).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00213). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transection
<a id="transection"></a>

Transection is the cutting or severing of an axon, which causes loss of its nerve connection. It is often used in research to study how neurons function and how they die or survive in nervous system disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a656978b6855c1061317667a6223b0d2cc1ee428f176b32d21f715e4494bc59c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Axotomy” (D019771).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019771). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transfer
<a id="transfer"></a>

Transfer is the use of what has been learned in a new situation, showing that learning extends beyond simply finishing the original task. Near transfer refers to applying the same basic principle to new but similar problems, while far transfer refers to applying learning to more different situations, abilities, or points in time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 896bb084710465b104aac7447d8749a2cd5bfd39e3ce10752824d1565bf87983

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Jian. The causal effects of artificial intelligence use on metacognition, engagement, and knowledge transfer in educational contexts. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811065; article XML SHA-256 a4c192755de62eec4f194f1762455ce24757cf98cb43351066403a1998102f01. “The causal effects of artificial intelligence use on metacognition, engagement, and knowledge transfer in educational contexts” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811065).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811065). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transfer function model
<a id="transfer-function-model"></a>

A transfer function model is a time-series analysis approach used to estimate how changes in one measure over time are associated with changes in another measure over time, such as daily mobility patterns and search activity. In this source, it is used to study concurrent relationships between population movement indicators and mental health-, suicide-, and economic-stress-related searches.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 57bc43254490e16436391c78c26c3639ea344b649b8e0edbd06c260c5112163f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gimbrone Catherine; Rutherford Caroline; Kandula Sasikiran; Martínez-Alés Gonzalo; Shaman Jeffrey; Olfson Mark; Gould Madelyn S.; Pei Sen; Galanti Marta; Keyes Katherine M.. Associations between COVID-19 mobility restrictions and economic, mental health, and suicide-related concerns in the US using cellular phone GPS and Google search volume data. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0260931; article XML SHA-256 90763dc1ea7d30143e4534a681a98cd6f8ee4e06a86554758be3faac3658a441. “Associations between COVID-19 mobility restrictions and economic, mental health, and suicide-related concerns in the US using cellular phone GPS and Google search volume data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0260931).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260931). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transfer of training
<a id="transfer-of-training"></a>

Transfer of training is the effect that earlier learning in one situation has on learning in a different situation. It may help later learning or interfere with it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e1c7e7708c85ed0ccb58b607a9aac24ad00c9487546bf0f80512c4890e039733

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Transfer, Psychology” (D014163).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014163). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transference
<a id="transference"></a>

Transference is a shift of activity or thought content from one area to another. In plain terms, something being done or thought about is redirected elsewhere.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 705e3b64c1973f096fb878455f98ffc0ae302c73540c8b7ca822ffb37c0e72d6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Transference” (C79893).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Transference, Psychology
<a id="transference-psychology"></a>

Transference is when a person unconsciously redirects feelings and attitudes first linked to important people in early life, such as parents or siblings, onto someone else. In therapy, this can include experiencing the psychotherapist through the lens of those earlier relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c70d6429e80cceb2ec7c4c5a21d919af74c72e7ec2905d822b836c728899ee9d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Transference, Psychology” (D014167).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014167). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transformation
<a id="transformation"></a>

In this context, transformation means a substantial organisational change in how work is organised and managed, especially when digital and AI systems reshape tasks, decisions, and performance oversight. Psychologically, it refers to a change process that affects employees’ trust, sense of safety, readiness to adapt, and behaviour at work.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00b3722053dc6f48c6f65336f8182dd909e5750d5af052f48187acb451cbf3d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Nodipha Ongeziwe Gift; Maphala Betty Portia. Inclusive algorithmic work design: the moderating role of DEI interventions and diversity-supportive culture in AI-driven workplace transformation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1833850; article XML SHA-256 51f6439db7c5cacd83ebc267dbfb4a9c23f83a06661936f3c509435c6cafa297. “Inclusive algorithmic work design: the moderating role of DEI interventions and diversity-supportive culture in AI-driven workplace transformation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1833850).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1833850). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transformational leadership
<a id="transformational-leadership"></a>

Transformational leadership is a leadership style in which leaders inspire and influence followers by earning trust and respect, giving work a strong sense of meaning, encouraging new ways of thinking, and supporting each person’s development. It emphasizes motivation, creativity, shared values, and individualized guidance to help people grow and perform well.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e38950220af2b464f12082838782d4db5cbbaabd42743d157b8d9635699b5390

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zha Ning; Hu Haojun; Zhang Kai; Chen Changchang; Xu Huan; Wu Chao; Lang Hongjuan. The internal structure of transformational leadership as perceived by clinical nurses: a network analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878851; article XML SHA-256 0ba126b8214d1bed0795d6ffc07a2774169d79d187e2c5e26d12190222a4cdbb. “The internal structure of transformational leadership as perceived by clinical nurses: a network analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878851).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878851). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transgenic
<a id="transgenic"></a>

Transgenic describes an organism, such as a plant, that has had a gene transferred into it so the gene is expressed in that organism. In the packet, transgenic tobacco plants are tobacco plants altered by introducing the DlERF10 gene.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f0805e1fb8b813142f37444b38d54b367f08f42f1cf0a47c6ca20d8c13bd810c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhou Ruijin; Li Shuda; Zhang Xiaona; Wang Yingying; Hu Huiling. Cloning of the DlERF10 gene from Diospyros lotus L. and cold tolerance analysis of the DlERF10 gene in transgenic tobacco plants. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314135; article XML SHA-256 9ba1cfb1ea35750ad7b469d03a958bf788d02657f24d28612ed4a46db5750635. “Cloning of the DlERF10 gene from Diospyros lotus L. and cold tolerance analysis of the DlERF10 gene in transgenic tobacco plants” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314135).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314135). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transient global amnesia
<a id="transient-global-amnesia"></a>

Transient global amnesia is a sudden, temporary episode of memory loss that is usually brief and typically happens as a single event. It mainly affects memory for recent events and reduces the ability to form new memories, without being linked to a neurologic disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1a8cf993baa8ca531a83f04ac8d8b624e5a626bcae73735eb11e62170b78e39

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Transient Global Amnesia” (C85198).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transient ischemic attack
<a id="transient-ischemic-attack"></a>

A transient ischemic attack is a short episode, usually lasting minutes to about an hour, in which blood-vessel-related problems briefly disrupt brain function. It does not leave a lasting neurological deficit.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2235b39a292aa20904a46c5537357ac8236e6a87f02560722937332397456eb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Transient Ischemic Attack” (C50781).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transient monocular blindness
<a id="transient-monocular-blindness"></a>

Transient monocular blindness is a sudden, painless, temporary loss of vision in one eye. It is most commonly linked to carotid atherothromboembolism, although some cases may involve impaired venous outflow and resulting ocular venous hypertension.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 13cb56694722fb56bb5db5a5a2596bb753fabf3dd159daf45dc0e5b285701074

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cheng Chun-Yu; Chang Feng-Chi; Chao A-Ching; Chung Chih-Ping; Hu Han-Hwa. Internal jugular venous abnormalities in transient monocular blindness. 2013; DOI 10.1186/1471-2377-13-94; article XML SHA-256 a125baa39106c3928db0afc970424f12e7d78ebdf65ad4883df28886d50bd9bf. “Internal jugular venous abnormalities in transient monocular blindness” (10.1186/1471-2377-13-94).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2377-13-94). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transient tic disorder
<a id="transient-tic-disorder"></a>

Transient tic disorder is a childhood neurological condition involving motor and/or vocal tics that happen daily or almost daily for between one and twelve months, without an identifiable cause.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ed3e03daf5ac5e49952a5dd4558bd7c510375092324437c74d8b1649c7debb8f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Transient Tic Disorder” (C116767).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transition probability
<a id="transition-probability"></a>

Transition probability is the likelihood that one pattern in a sequence will be followed by another pattern, describing how states change over time rather than just how often each pattern appears. In this source, it refers specifically to the probabilities of moving between paired dispersion patterns in an ordered sequence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 57587eb61514d89ece6c9603b915a96981b21b5e410caebbfeb4668aa79cc578

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Hong; Zhang Yin; Liu Jingna; Dong Keqiang. Fault diagnosis of aero-engines using transfer dispersion entropy and dispersion patterns. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348356; article XML SHA-256 accdd3965881e552a893b5cae1d6a702295d1dc2874636ab4783547c465e2775. “Fault diagnosis of aero-engines using transfer dispersion entropy and dispersion patterns” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348356).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348356). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transitional object
<a id="transitional-object"></a>

In Winnicott’s account, a transitional object is an object an infant engages with in a way that involves self-touch. In this source, it is linked to transitional states and to a basic felt sense of self or “mine-ness.”

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 00dd3641a004c3503eda8ef7f1ee0da4eb098d55a9f145345f078cabd5aeaad2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fischman Lawrence. Touching and being touched: where knowing and feeling meet. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1097402; article XML SHA-256 98c12e02fcd25812b2b01a98556cf58e291cd3030f4fd7fc7e2fcabdebfadddc. “Touching and being touched: where knowing and feeling meet” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1097402).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1097402). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transitive inference task
<a id="transitive-inference-task"></a>

A transitive inference task is a reasoning task used to test whether learning or practice transfers to an unpracticed form of reasoning performance. In this source, it is treated as a measure of reasoning during which behavior and brain activation can be assessed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 17e89e5f54a41a06c8587849c268f4c0af93bec9c8a561e47a29184b67bcb8d7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mackey Allyson P.; Miller Singley Alison T.; Wendelken Carter; Bunge Silvia A.. Characterizing Behavioral and Brain Changes Associated with Practicing Reasoning Skills. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0137627; article XML SHA-256 9d52bcc3ab2e1bd9293eef5a65baf0dcd556d27c590d232881bd835b99b07bac. “Characterizing Behavioral and Brain Changes Associated with Practicing Reasoning Skills” (10.1371/journal.pone.0137627).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137627). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transitivity
<a id="transitivity"></a>

In this context, transitivity is a discourse-analysis framework used to examine how language assigns roles in actions, such as who is presented as acting and who is acted upon. By analyzing patterns like Actor and Goal in clauses, it helps show how a person, group, or place is represented as having more or less agency over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5c2a4c6aeacca113d329cab492f2dfa6df54f7822a6c108faadcdf006f8f7db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Manyu. A diachronic corpus-based study on the construction of regional image in Western mainstream media—a case analysis of Henan province in China. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1645226; article XML SHA-256 4a0490adcbc66f7cf8d44f4d6701a2add3d5ad0f4718e78f6428f60171ad3779. “A diachronic corpus-based study on the construction of regional image in Western mainstream media—a case analysis of Henan province in China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1645226).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1645226). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transmission
<a id="transmission"></a>

In this context, transmission means the passing of effects from one generation to the next, especially when a pregnant person’s unprocessed psychological material and stress-related bodily changes shape fetal development. It refers to both a psychoanalytic transfer of unresolved mental experience and its possible biological inscription through prenatal stress pathways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c6352a7e5b28da323933244a5a8d3311687904ae20217e9cd14c69d5e602213

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sağlam Betul. Beyond diagnostic categories: sensory processing as a transdiagnostic mechanism in autism, ADHD, and PTSD – a neuropsychoanalytic conceptual analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871344; article XML SHA-256 708ebc0289d9fd70b7f3803995cc9f3b3f236c095ccb500e2b11512dd2705b41. “Beyond diagnostic categories: sensory processing as a transdiagnostic mechanism in autism, ADHD, and PTSD – a neuropsychoanalytic conceptual analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871344).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871344). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transmitter
<a id="transmitter"></a>

In this context, a transmitter is a chemical in the brain that helps carry signals. Serotonin is an example of a transmitter involved in depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 768c22a268e377631826c63a24d5612cb2a92cec670e069047d8ec9b746978c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: When Unwanted Thoughts or Repetitive Behaviors Take Over. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 55e1a877f9b3c1e5dfa4238ba211333dd27035fe9365df5859e35bec980907c0. “Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: When Unwanted Thoughts or Repetitive Behaviors Take Over” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-when-unwanted-thoughts-or-repetitive-behaviors-take-over).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-when-unwanted-thoughts-or-repetitive-behaviors-take-over). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transparency
<a id="transparency"></a>

In this psychology-related context, transparency refers to how clearly an algorithm or platform explains the logic behind its recommendations to users. Greater transparency is described as an important influence on whether people trust and accept AI-generated outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1d8bb6e74889cea5dba715c8b461c01a21c2e23df9ed5ca453ffde9e51622d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chang Wei; Yu Jingjing. Does transparency matter? The moderating effect of algorithm transparency on social influence in investment decisions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777758; article XML SHA-256 8da846ae8e9403608e025d3ba2b67ee5fdb0b04f8fcc4fa04615698b92b015d4. “Does transparency matter? The moderating effect of algorithm transparency on social influence in investment decisions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777758).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777758). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transplacental transmission
<a id="transplacental-transmission"></a>

Transplacental transmission is the passage of an infectious agent from a pregnant mother across the placenta to the fetus, resulting in fetal infection. In the source material, it refers to virus reaching developing offspring before birth and sometimes causing pathological changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 66ceb8917bd9af10a94353e1deea663a1435255fdb1a9154bac95d7593b3c76f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van der Sluijs Mirjam T. W.; Schroer-Joosten Dianne P. H.; Fid-Fourkour Aicha; Vrijenhoek Mieke P.; Debyser Isolde; Moulin Véronique; Moormann Rob J. M.; de Smit Abraham J.. Transplacental Transmission of Bluetongue Virus Serotype 1 and Serotype 8 in Sheep: Virological and Pathological Findings. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0081429; article XML SHA-256 94e2cb3907fd7b44597522c1ab324ac16f70658e47439ec2c2ba57d2ce47c55f. “Transplacental Transmission of Bluetongue Virus Serotype 1 and Serotype 8 in Sheep: Virological and Pathological Findings” (10.1371/journal.pone.0081429).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081429). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transplantation
<a id="transplantation"></a>

In this source, transplantation refers to moving stage performance language into film with relatively little change, so visible theatrical conventions are kept on screen. This direct carryover may preserve the stage feel, but it can reduce narrative flow and emotional coherence for audiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb4765836cd4a7690c28b4f638419cdd89a3de7b15f9ce7362d3111848200c33

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lin Qin. From stage to screen: performance language mediation and audience engagement in Chinese and Anglo-American musical theater film adaptations. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828417; article XML SHA-256 2ed25427411283fff7a15d29a6d411cd54b868f86b77f8ca9e685ede8f54d2ab. “From stage to screen: performance language mediation and audience engagement in Chinese and Anglo-American musical theater film adaptations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828417).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828417). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transsexualism
<a id="transsexualism"></a>

Transsexualism is a term for a gender identity that does not match, or is not culturally linked with, the gender assigned at birth, together with a wish to permanently live as the gender with which the person identifies.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6ec95a454f8eb33c54f4247d7114562d81d65b51be4057e9a03121cc1ceac866

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Transsexualism” (D014189).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014189). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transtheoretical model
<a id="transtheoretical-model"></a>

The transtheoretical model is a framework for understanding behavior change as a gradual process that moves through stages from not intending to change, to considering change, preparing, taking action, and maintaining the new behavior. It also describes related factors such as weighing pros and cons, confidence in changing, and processes that tend to vary with a person’s stage of readiness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0fa1f6f532b555443a7d5997b5e9d7aec6137f81d07518faa781ce312c67c998

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Cai; Chen Junting; Tan Jin; Xiao Ye; Deng Renli; Huang Hao. Effects of the transtheoretical model-based self-management program on behavioral change in persons with epilepsy: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305547; article XML SHA-256 c5dccf0985df699930b2ba1fbba4088d6f992a3e575c0ba5e8bde9dcc21ade06. “Effects of the transtheoretical model-based self-management program on behavioral change in persons with epilepsy: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305547).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305547). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transvestic fetishism
<a id="transvestic-fetishism"></a>

Transvestic fetishism is a mental or behavioral disorder in which a heterosexual male has repeated sexual urges, fantasies, or behaviors involving cross-dressing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40553131c41aa67613a8fe2106039f3909949e94535c5a127bc1807a52c7c3b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Transvestic Fetishism” (C94359).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## transvestism
<a id="transvestism"></a>

Transvestism is a diagnosis in which a heterosexual male has repeated, strong sexual arousal, urges, or behaviors linked to wearing clothes typically associated with another gender. It is considered a disorder when these experiences lead to significant distress or problems in social, work, or other important areas of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0d67376017356f828f383a03613db0d31e7241fffa13b9e09df4964f9d5804fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Transvestism” (D014190).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014190). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Tranxene
<a id="tranxene"></a>

Tranxene is a benzodiazepine drug with anxiety-reducing, calming, sleep-inducing, and anticonvulsant effects. It works by strengthening the inhibitory action of GABA at GABA-A receptors, which reduces nervous system activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4cfe863128eacc66029d185953ee22aae154c6edde6107c3214ca0606865ab2c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Clorazepate Dipotassium” (C47459).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tranylcypromine
<a id="tranylcypromine"></a>

Tranylcypromine is an orally active drug with antidepressant and anti-anxiety effects. It works mainly by irreversibly blocking monoamine oxidase, which raises levels of serotonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine; it also inhibits LSD1, a target being studied for possible anticancer effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 77bc852a54d39d48c06b1b98ce0c5726f21688115731edfa3218087e68c5bcd5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tranylcypromine” (C61979).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trapezoid body
<a id="trapezoid-body"></a>

The trapezoid body is an area in the pontine tegmentum that contains nerve fibers and nuclei involved in the brain’s auditory pathways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c0497447380411e2daf0af6da73781d2770a6de1bd4121038ad0a95abbda12ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Trapezoid Body” (D065833).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065833). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trauma
<a id="trauma"></a>

Trauma is a distressing or dangerous event or situation that can trigger fear and the body’s fight-or-flight response. After trauma, people can have a range of reactions, and many recover over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ce396c24c8b0dc43d1de687fba0ba90a1fbdda5929cc9a6b74476612c4d45f01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 26e67ff4f086c205fb75853bb73fb562d4a3adcbc6d53b78fdbc83f945b4f1ba. “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## traumatic brain injury
<a id="traumatic-brain-injury"></a>

Traumatic brain injury is an acquired brain injury caused by a sudden trauma that damages the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 509db3090efdf19f54da451b257b85d72511a0efcdd9e00040559542f0caacda

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brain Injuries, Traumatic” (D000070642).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000070642). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## traumatic encephalopathy
<a id="traumatic-encephalopathy"></a>

Traumatic encephalopathy is an acquired brain injury caused by a sudden trauma that damages the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 27f325351b75240b718c5e3b1228e7de2fe1332a69eb3ab25015bdec666ef514

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brain Injuries, Traumatic” (D000070642).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000070642). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## traumatic hemorrhage
<a id="traumatic-hemorrhage"></a>

Traumatic hemorrhage is bleeding that happens when a blood vessel is torn or ruptured because of a physical injury. It refers to the resulting loss of blood from that injury.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f896a65b5087c6fc457192b5adc9b79f586de4444d8e66aad14db92b8e93167d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Traumatic Hemorrhage” (C35577).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trazodone
<a id="trazodone"></a>

Trazodone is a serotonin uptake inhibitor used as an antidepressant. It has been found helpful for major depressive disorder and other depressive conditions, and may be especially useful when depression occurs with insomnia or anxiety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 42e818da947790a1d8c313101ea7233552e8250024f2092bfc0eb0f4d50e7dfe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Trazodone” (D014196).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014196). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## treatment
<a id="treatment"></a>

Treatment is care given to cure a condition or reduce its symptoms. It can include medicines, surgery, physical therapy, psychotherapy, or therapeutic devices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7efb6602acdb58f489a4dd21f584febf5c93dc54d20b1c9d1f46d36c6e4e3a86

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Therapeutic Procedure” (C49236).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## treatment bias
<a id="treatment-bias"></a>

Treatment bias is prejudice or skewed judgment in care that can arise from treatment providers’ attitudes and beliefs about clients. In this context, it refers especially to stigmatising views about people who use drugs that can interfere with supportive treatment relationships.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6520ad5aee8788e8f9dbcea918e07c0fac49cd6a19b8c78c68fe34f7a1702986

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ciesluk Beata; Inglis Greig; Parke Adrian; Troup Lucy J.. Exploring Scottish addiction services: provider-based stigma, addiction aetiology beliefs, treatment bias, and burnout among addiction treatment providers. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s13011-026-00701-0; article XML SHA-256 18712243b9be86ca0f205b73ab48baf5dc5dee08ca4be1fa9fa8cd49c7feed5b. “Exploring Scottish addiction services: provider-based stigma, addiction aetiology beliefs, treatment bias, and burnout among addiction treatment providers” (10.1186/s13011-026-00701-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13011-026-00701-0). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## treatment effect
<a id="treatment-effect"></a>

Treatment effect is the change in an outcome that is linked to an intervention or treatment. In this context, it refers to how private tutoring affects children’s personality traits, and that impact may vary across students and across family or school settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc96dd75de0d9b07dca49165da3ae9a0bd32ae1a5188fd6cdbcac5aae3f4dab9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Abbasi Babar Nawaz; Yanna Hu; Xu Ronghua. Heterogeneous treatment effect of private tutoring on personality traits from the perspective of individual, family, and school factors among Chinese children. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1710453; article XML SHA-256 a9292d1c35b2d1df11f0dfe86fd2804403a973af62535a0a53731ff6c05d4327. “Heterogeneous treatment effect of private tutoring on personality traits from the perspective of individual, family, and school factors among Chinese children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1710453).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1710453). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## treatment effectiveness evaluation
<a id="treatment-effectiveness-evaluation"></a>

Treatment effectiveness evaluation is the assessment of how well a treatment works by measuring changes caused by the condition and its response over time. In this source, it refers to using quantifiable retinal structural changes together with functional testing to judge therapeutic benefit.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 1accf3387cce435f4f238095b9577989005ae56b11867d807cf0313ef8d64731

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Xiaowei; Li Xun; Tang Qingqing; Zhang Yi; Zhang Li; Zhang Meixia. Exploring laser-induced acute and chronic retinal vein occlusion mouse models: Development, temporal in vivo imaging, and application perspectives. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305741; article XML SHA-256 cc4918798fbb1cc5e48015714acac803f593c98718c07db8bf34897dfd4a7d78. “Exploring laser-induced acute and chronic retinal vein occlusion mouse models: Development, temporal in vivo imaging, and application perspectives” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305741).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305741). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## treatment level
<a id="treatment-level"></a>

Treatment level means an amount or concentration used in therapeutic use, such as the doses commonly used in preclinical or clinical studies, rather than unusually high amounts. In this source, it refers to concentrations intended for treatment and contrasts with extreme concentrations that produced different effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d707f573f4f1a27cb3e7bd00d1d68b63ce2549b44681f6f060473125b50be49b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Meng-Chih; Wang Eric Yuhsiang; Lai Ted Weita. TAT peptide at treatment-level concentrations crossed brain endothelial cell monolayer independent of receptor-mediated endocytosis or peptide-inflicted barrier disruption. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0292681; article XML SHA-256 9c55528275a6a91d3bbbad930b88d8becb590bd4f555e5265cd92841266974ad. “TAT peptide at treatment-level concentrations crossed brain endothelial cell monolayer independent of receptor-mediated endocytosis or peptide-inflicted barrier disruption” (10.1371/journal.pone.0292681).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292681). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## treatment plan
<a id="treatment-plan"></a>

A treatment plan is the choice of care used for a person’s condition, such as psychotherapy, medication, or both. It is selected to fit the person’s needs, preferences, and medical situation, in consultation with a mental health professional or other health care provider.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 37dc271775ee9935d426c54bd671ec2a459064344367653e33eb79a73152cd07

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 77e8e3f9797bdd3e545d836e3c7a022d849dbcb9046d75b9663fada09c613399. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## treatment protocol
<a id="treatment-protocol"></a>

A treatment protocol is a planned approach used to treat a condition. In this packet, pharmacotherapy is described as one important treatment protocol for ADHD, meaning medication use is one recognized method of treatment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d6b5db5525a80afa91fabb0656195c846c7a3b81f62ddf72fcf7400588cca0b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Suzuki Ryutaro; Kumazawa Ryosuke; Miyoshi Takumi; Tanaka Junsei; Nishikawa Taiyo; Muraoka Hiroyuki; Akazawa Manabu; Inada Ken. Prescribing medications for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children: a retrospective analysis of a Japanese health insurance claims database. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08147-1; article XML SHA-256 70c78b4976b0621e19c7c438e29091de69150d93ee52e3559071aec0e94b42eb. “Prescribing medications for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children: a retrospective analysis of a Japanese health insurance claims database” (10.1186/s12888-026-08147-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08147-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## treatment refusal
<a id="treatment-refusal"></a>

Treatment refusal is when a patient or client declines or resists medical, psychological, or psychiatric care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7645903564f97741c1edb91bb80114c87da196333b7eb002931af754ff1ea8ea

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Treatment Refusal” (D016312).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016312). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## treatment-seeking behavior
<a id="treatment-seeking-behavior"></a>

Treatment-seeking behavior is the way people pursue care when they are ill, including use of professional health services as well as traditional or indigenous remedies. In this source, it refers to how those choices can affect whether illness is effectively controlled or may persist or recur.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 034749a0d5d2f05bb2c74d61ec1fe0bd3fe238e35ec84fcb3ccf3ed0066ee620

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jaleta Sisay Fikadu; Duressa Gemechis File; Deressa Chernet Tuge. A novel ABC fractional-order mathematical model for malaria transmission dynamics incorporating treatment-seeking behavior. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319166; article XML SHA-256 48d8e5094d59184604a3a070fed76990e49142127b314b5c2baf89d02a9dc5c6. “A novel ABC fractional-order mathematical model for malaria transmission dynamics incorporating treatment-seeking behavior” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319166).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319166). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## treatment variable
<a id="treatment-variable"></a>

A treatment variable is a variable that marks which treatment group a participant or case belongs to, often as a two-category grouping. In this source, it is used to examine whether group membership changes the relationship between a continuous predictor and an outcome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2cc939a82d64089d7d7102febba804bd497c70470eb28fc196133c8290cc7fa1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shieh Gwowen. Power and sample size calculations for comparison of two regression lines with heterogeneous variances. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0207745; article XML SHA-256 e84cd1e724ac43d79736ef5a830c813925a2621063e53f0aba4e0fdf2d4cfde4. “Power and sample size calculations for comparison of two regression lines with heterogeneous variances” (10.1371/journal.pone.0207745).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207745). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## treatment withholding
<a id="treatment-withholding"></a>

Treatment withholding means not starting or stopping a specific treatment for a patient or, in research, for a study participant under the study plan. It can involve life-prolonging care but is broader than that, and it differs from refusal to treat, which focuses on a clinician or facility declining requested care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c785a745b809d3650bbd949d667d50b2538adc85e03b276c740e07892714b0eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Withholding Treatment” (D028761).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D028761). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tremor
<a id="tremor"></a>

Tremor is a rhythmic, repeating movement of a body part that may be a normal bodily process or a sign of disease. Some tremors worsen during movement, while others are strongest when the person is at rest and not trying to move voluntarily.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0261be05ab6bb3fd78bd1def8521fcf576050f598765cbd79faab3348554900

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tremor” (D014202).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014202). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## triad
<a id="triad"></a>

In this psychology context, the triad refers to the Dark Triad: three related but distinct personality traits—psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism. They overlap in tendencies such as manipulativeness and low empathy, but differ in style, with psychopathy described as more reckless, Machiavellianism more calculated, and narcissism more centered on grandiosity and admiration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c3d49821631b180864db9b3a83fce1131ea15a697ca3a8ee17e2d823e5e26cd4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ecker Angelika; Preece David A.; Schleicher Daniel; Jacob Ricarda; Kandsperger Stephanie; Brunner Romuald; Jarvers Irina. Emotional blind spots and dark minds: how alexithymia and mindfulness shape the link between Dark Triad personality traits and psychopathology. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1677305; article XML SHA-256 ac0b7ea347d22cbdb62187ae370807b297a2dfeaba61c848758b8935c68c9dd8. “Emotional blind spots and dark minds: how alexithymia and mindfulness shape the link between Dark Triad personality traits and psychopathology” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1677305).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1677305). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## triage
<a id="triage"></a>

Triage is the process of sorting referral information so a person is directed into the most appropriate care pathway, such as acute, urgent, or specialist care. In this context, it is a decision step that helps set priority and route cases for further care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 987beed8edb3a40d9719b75a2b598815d1ed6dbd262814a8a5a9fc56990364ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Foley James; Hession Enda; Umana Etimbuk; Boland Fiona. The use of artificial intelligence models for interpretation and triage of clinical referral letters to acute and specialist care pathways: Protocol for a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355476; article XML SHA-256 c4f594205ac6bc770c8389e27072b64739d83a572076fc9e857858b927c1f3bc. “The use of artificial intelligence models for interpretation and triage of clinical referral letters to acute and specialist care pathways: Protocol for a systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355476).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355476). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trial
<a id="trial"></a>

A trial is a research study involving people that is used to test new or improved ways to prevent, detect, or treat health conditions. It may examine whether a test, treatment, or preventive approach is safe and effective.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5979f4af271b0454a0ed68c6b30b3fefabb65e4a6a55d953a368486bf39bcfb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 ff7a7468286526ac17a328be4c934d7799aad584950f0a10e9047534a7dd859b. “Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trial-and-error learning
<a id="trial-and-error-learning"></a>

Trial-and-error learning is the gradual acquisition of a correct association through repeated attempts, such as learning which action goes with a novel sound cue. In the source, it refers to learning pseudoword–movement links over repeated trials until the association becomes reliable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a318595c66711211943ec565f4da6d3fe25a04d34c912214429ce4d3e955dfd8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tretyakova Vera; Pavlova Anna; Arapov Vasily; Rytikova Anna; Vorobiova Alicia; Prokofyev Andrey; Chernyshev Boris; Stroganova Tatiana. Newly acquired word-action associations trigger auditory cortex activation during movement preparation: Implications for Hebbian plasticity in action word learning. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325977; article XML SHA-256 499993ba5e7cd78822b3d82b3937270b33dac6c26865e4cb463d973c92dd6dc0. “Newly acquired word-action associations trigger auditory cortex activation during movement preparation: Implications for Hebbian plasticity in action word learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325977).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325977). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## triangular test
<a id="triangular-test"></a>

A triangular test is a sequential boundaries method used in clinical trials to evaluate results at interim stages rather than only at the end. It is used because it can reduce the expected number of participants while preserving planned statistical standards, which gives it ethical and practical advantages in trial monitoring.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 710b7691b38ceb9530103a1f4a099ad06bd110aa23b697d8b6a75d5ee03b1a72

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jafari Peyman; Ayatollahi Seyyed Mohammad Taghi; Behboodian Javad. Sequential boundaries approach in clinical trials with unequal allocation ratios. 2006; DOI 10.1186/1471-2288-6-1; article XML SHA-256 97045bcf872b2f3f2c42845f5bc4dac2aac2e13de611920be0aa0a19c6aa2c4c. “Sequential boundaries approach in clinical trials with unequal allocation ratios” (10.1186/1471-2288-6-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-6-1). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## triangulation
<a id="triangulation"></a>

In this historical psychology usage, triangulation means the mind’s act of placing an object in an independent position outside any one thought. James uses it for how, by noticing the same object across present and past thoughts, a person comes to regard it as a reality that can appear to multiple thoughts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b22d6254220c5a1b9e001130bde888f3f2dd348b894c3e01c5b1014894ff02fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## triazolam
<a id="triazolam"></a>

Triazolam is a triazolobenzodiazepine with sedative-hypnotic effects. It acts at a site on the GABA-A receptor complex on nerve cell membranes, increasing GABA’s inhibitory action and reducing neuronal excitability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26d12cf08576e6a8a82284fcd6e7a3744e9192ac639e07ad0729c40b05b0c54d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Triazolam” (C29520).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tricyclic antidepressant
<a id="tricyclic-antidepressant"></a>

A tricyclic antidepressant is a mood-lifting drug with a three-ring chemical structure, used mainly to treat affective disorders and related conditions. It appears to work through catecholamine systems in the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a1ec4c9f6183d80ad0bc9ab4b312d78f21387f813308c20e4457142f6d8fc96a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tricyclic Antidepressant” (C94727).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trifluoperazine
<a id="trifluoperazine"></a>

Trifluoperazine is a phenothiazine drug that blocks dopamine receptors in the brain, giving it antipsychotic effects and helping reduce symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations linked to excess dopamine. It also has antiemetic activity and can inhibit calmodulin, which raises calcium levels within cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73014f421475d0d84bc5340990819c6e22db597bd06dc4265497bca6bd403137

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Trifluoperazine” (C62084).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trigeminal nerve
<a id="trigeminal-nerve"></a>

The trigeminal nerve is the fifth and largest cranial nerve. It has a large sensory division that carries input from the face, mouth, teeth, and related muscles and joints through its ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular branches, and a smaller motor division that supplies the muscles used for chewing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b33ac0249c7d6cf1bb5325eb6c7e511082fd9d0f4b7197eaa3406d0b399642ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Trigeminal Nerve” (D014276).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014276). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trigeminal neuralgia
<a id="trigeminal-neuralgia"></a>

Trigeminal neuralgia is a syndrome with repeated bursts of very intense pain in parts of the face supplied by the trigeminal nerve, lasting from seconds to longer. Attacks can be set off by touching sensitive areas of the face, lips, or gums, or by actions such as facial movement or chewing, and it can occur alongside conditions such as multiple sclerosis, blood vessel abnormalities, aneurysms, or tumors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d906e58333eee77a1560cf250dbad9dfcdc10b93a67d246071466994fade591e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Trigeminal Neuralgia” (D014277).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014277). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trigeminal nucleus
<a id="trigeminal-nucleus"></a>

The trigeminal nucleus is any of four brainstem nerve-cell groups associated with the fifth cranial nerve. These include the principal sensory nucleus, mesencephalic nucleus, spinal trigeminal tract, and motor nucleus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b49831c5835788ce30a9d75d73240fd46842131b5ee24c2e23cf62b01d13253a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Trigeminal Nucleus” (C12807).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trigger zone
<a id="trigger-zone"></a>

A trigger zone is the axonal region formed by the axon hillock together with the axon initial segment. It lies where the first part of the axon meets the cell body.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2554dff7b5c5a081a3f7466e20e511a05353385b33620357105a310ade3dfb21

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Axon Initial Segment” (D000071040).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000071040). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## triggering cause
<a id="triggering-cause"></a>

A triggering cause is the factor believed to set off a biological change or process. In this source, mechanical stress is described as the main factor initiating the increase and stabilization of filopodia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a1130fe25f7ffd462be815a9426a9de4c1ada62cf04a95221125790457afc631

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sergi Pier Nicola; Morana Roccasalvo Iolanda; Tonazzini Ilaria; Cecchini Marco; Micera Silvestro. Cell Guidance on Nanogratings: A Computational Model of the Interplay between PC12 Growth Cones and Nanostructures. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0070304; article XML SHA-256 730611e669b74927840f2f406136972aa351a88f68307afcf3d6f143433f04ec. “Cell Guidance on Nanogratings: A Computational Model of the Interplay between PC12 Growth Cones and Nanostructures” (10.1371/journal.pone.0070304).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0070304). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trimmed mean
<a id="trimmed-mean"></a>

A trimmed mean is a measure of central tendency found by ordering the data, removing an equal percentage of the lowest and highest values, and then averaging what remains. It is considered a robust average and typically falls between the mean and the median.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c537964f3e00e5797db4f602ef75c94fd24f312ddfb70a1949194c40f208be3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Trimmed Mean” (trimmed_mean.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/trimmed_mean.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trinucleotide repeat
<a id="trinucleotide-repeat"></a>

A trinucleotide repeat is a stretch of DNA in which a sequence of three nucleotides is repeated multiple times, such as CAG repeats. Changes in the stability of these repeat tracts are linked in the source to human neurodegenerative diseases and cancer.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5dba23efe322b755bfa3896dc974207ef41785e43eaf79c5194ee5b49a45430

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Beaver Jill M.; Lai Yanhao; Rolle Shantell J.; Weng Liwei; Greenberg Marc M.; Liu Yuan. An oxidized abasic lesion inhibits base excision repair leading to DNA strand breaks in a trinucleotide repeat tract. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0192148; article XML SHA-256 c63cd324469f9126cb8cb7712a1e65dc8b11ca9ffea7c82f4cd108bc986829c0. “An oxidized abasic lesion inhibits base excision repair leading to DNA strand breaks in a trinucleotide repeat tract” (10.1371/journal.pone.0192148).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192148). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## triptan
<a id="triptan"></a>

A triptan is a medication used to relieve migraine pain and related symptoms. It acts on serotonin 5-HT1B/1D receptors, which can narrow blood vessels inside the skull and reduce release of pro-inflammatory neuropeptides in the trigeminal system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0e9cb0231126185e92f4a5b3a6353988551d6deb2b49d43799039c3cc15da13

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Eletriptan Hydrobromide” (C47508).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trisomy 13
<a id="trisomy-13"></a>

Trisomy 13 is a chromosomal abnormality in which there are three copies of chromosome 13 genetic material instead of the usual two. It is associated with multiple developmental and physical abnormalities, including intellectual impairment, microcephaly, low-set ears, eye structure defects, extra fingers or toes, and limb abnormalities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d67c13cc9d3520f9ee3723c8736b2f69ac86ef8b58e53ce6b90cc8bcb2b38fb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Trisomy 13” (C36529).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trisomy 18
<a id="trisomy-18"></a>

Trisomy 18 is a genetic syndrome caused by an extra full copy of chromosome 18. It is marked by severe physical abnormalities, major intellectual impairment, and a life expectancy that usually does not extend beyond infancy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 846dd4def3b5675b7bc7684fa38bd27ea6a1056fb50062c5fa6ca3e6e8778bcd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Complete Trisomy 18 Syndrome” (C101362).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trisomy 21
<a id="trisomy-21"></a>

Trisomy 21 is a genetic condition in which chromosome 21 is present in extra full or partial form. It is linked with a recognizable pattern of physical differences, moderate to severe intellectual disability, and higher rates of heart and digestive abnormalities, leukemia, and unusually early Alzheimer-type brain disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1e5792902da0e8e59b78e6ca7491f0f0c7f287edaf993e9b8cd669fd9bca4654

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Down Syndrome” (D004314).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004314). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trisomy X
<a id="trisomy-x"></a>

Trisomy X is a genetic condition in which a female has an extra X chromosome, giving a 47,XXX chromosome pattern. It is often associated with tall stature and a higher chance of learning difficulties and delayed speech and language development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b16a02c17e9b6b60933c6ff0bb2f9721e80ad2d56dcd060eabf6af96253ef380

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “47,XXX Syndrome” (C129718).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trochlear nerve
<a id="trochlear-nerve"></a>

The trochlear nerve is the fourth cranial nerve. It supplies motor control to the superior oblique muscle of the eye.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 315d334958b5d8ab887fb20dd013ddd8e33ab0f864ee4f481e8437fcf32a3931

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Trochlear Nerve” (D014321).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014321). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trophic
<a id="trophic"></a>

In this biological context, trophic refers to the support and maintenance a nerve cell of origin provides to its axon and terminal branches. If that connection is destroyed or interrupted, the nerve fibers can lose function and undergo trophic degeneration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06c8827126220b7a5d5d4fe354106dbd6c1c12fa25ab2dd8f47e53c146dfa037

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nerve Degeneration” (D009410).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009410). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tropism
<a id="tropism"></a>

Tropism is the tendency of a virus vector to preferentially target and enter particular cell types or tissues. In this context, improved endothelial tropism means the vector more effectively reaches and transduces vascular endothelial cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8348e60dd8b42ab1fff0c42ab8ab32b23f6fcc9d1841e6f7b01dc8c9c7f1c140

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Periasamy Ramesh; Patel Dwani D; Boye Sanford L; Boye Shannon E; Lipinski Daniel M. Improving retinal vascular endothelial cell tropism through rational rAAV capsid design. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285370; article XML SHA-256 5414b6493e3fe8e14d02a2bbdd1f0820a377e94c1c2c8df8fd7cf4a4629f73a3. “Improving retinal vascular endothelial cell tropism through rational rAAV capsid design” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285370).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285370). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## truancy
<a id="truancy"></a>

Truancy is a school-related problem in which a student's attendance is poor enough to be identified as a serious concern. In this packet, it is described as an adolescent issue connected with factors such as alcohol use, sexual behaviour, planned suicide, and problems in parent-child privacy and communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46eb7832ebaa987edc2273c40b36b11ea61541ea63e2c106d7dfb665271ae9ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Osborne Augustus; Labor Carol; Bangura Camilla; Kangbai Jia B.. Prevalence and predictors of school truancy among adolescents in Sierra Leone: evidence from the 2017 Global School-based Health Survey. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05888-9; article XML SHA-256 6a8e774c9078fc823abd2cd8a80a759d7e158a67b8606f14f6c1dc64ac297ea4. “Prevalence and predictors of school truancy among adolescents in Sierra Leone: evidence from the 2017 Global School-based Health Survey” (10.1186/s12888-024-05888-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05888-9). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## true experiment
<a id="true-experiment"></a>

A true experiment is a research design that tests an effect by comparing an experimental condition with a control condition and assigning participants by randomization. Its aim is to isolate whether differences between groups are due to the manipulated condition rather than other factors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2aeee3e982ab9305322c176fb3d757520fc07a1335992250f823d5444f90f32d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Ryan; Jecmen Steven; Conitzer Vincent; Fang Fei; Shah Nihar B. Testing for reviewer anchoring in peer review: A randomized controlled trial. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0301111; article XML SHA-256 82a2723110909e88c1c42af5d9b99ebf5b8040c7a7c6503fd796ceaa356ba0e5. “Testing for reviewer anchoring in peer review: A randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0301111).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301111). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## true score
<a id="true-score"></a>

In classical test theory, a true score is the theoretical score a person would have if measurement error were removed. It can be thought of as the average score they would obtain over many equivalent versions of the same test, assuming no effects from practice or fatigue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 577afb7fe842f5f8cbcc9f0eb3799cd719cf879de3a6238a9284febd608310eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “True Score” (true.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/true.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## true self
<a id="true-self"></a>

In this historical ethical sense, the true self is the rational or moral self rather than the side of a person driven by sense and desire. It is the self that gives itself its own moral law and acts through practical reason and will.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 160140441eb548650be4f4f1c4d088f3f7dad7c80df56f715ec3945b08190b34

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Autonomy (ethical)” (Autonomy (ethical)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Autonomy (ethical)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## trust
<a id="trust"></a>

Trust is confidence in, or reliance on, a person or thing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d0c950f51351958dd3d2f24d76b20ac78866389f8c5976f5398cfe9af7b89790

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Trust” (D035502).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D035502). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## truth bias
<a id="truth-bias"></a>

Truth bias is the common tendency to judge other people’s messages as true rather than deceptive, even in settings where deception is possible. It reflects a greater reluctance to wrongly label a truthful message as a lie than to miss a lie.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 517b475c32ccf0d267ffc30968e8163f49df8610b0c68e4c71e511bdb26b6557

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schindler Simon; Reinhard Marc-André. Increasing skepticism toward potential liars: effects of existential threat on veracity judgments and the moderating role of honesty norm activation. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01312; article XML SHA-256 256024cc8e3106590688c4070a8fa6ee95ff7eba3f865c79c6e8e78a891d7708. “Increasing skepticism toward potential liars: effects of existential threat on veracity judgments and the moderating role of honesty norm activation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01312).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01312). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## truth value
<a id="truth-value"></a>

Truth value is the true-or-false status that a declarative statement is taken to have. In this source, that binary quality is described as arising from both natural cognition and social processes, especially disagreements linked to conflicting interests.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 22d9c1bfc52697f653c1531ff7e0f6167b1a971e02349ebe9678fb89ced5a6b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [von Heiseler Till Nikolaus. The Social Origin of the Concept of Truth – How Statements Are Built on Disagreements. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00733; article XML SHA-256 1a27cc905f2dbf79ce6b27fdfc1d8a5085be58bcd094a824f23caf01beb6a3b3. “The Social Origin of the Concept of Truth – How Statements Are Built on Disagreements” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00733).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00733). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tryptophan
<a id="tryptophan"></a>

Tryptophan is an essential amino acid needed for normal infant growth and for nitrogen balance in adults. In mammals it can be converted into serotonin and, less efficiently, into niacin.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b99e7173248faafef2841be5ac0f7a4917d9faf30737f649203df802857ad0cc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tryptophan” (D014364).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014364). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tryptophan hydroxylase
<a id="tryptophan-hydroxylase"></a>

Tryptophan hydroxylase is an enzyme that helps convert tryptophan into 5-hydroxytryptophan using oxygen and NADPH. It has an important role in the body’s production of serotonin.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f5e196205d8666b02ba5a295c845808423abc72f6c6ff81b319d0049abf991c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tryptophan Hydroxylase” (D014365).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014365). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TSA
<a id="tsa"></a>

TSA stands for two-stage attention, a learning approach used with an LSTM time-series model. It first focuses the model on the most relevant input features, then adjusts attention based on performance over time to improve prediction quality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8c67c6e5cdb8b914530933906076120341f190ffb782f3d5ce13d0de6799bba5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Khan Rabnawaz; Jie Wang. Using the TSA-LSTM two-stage model to predict cancer incidence and mortality. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317148; article XML SHA-256 caf55ee4ce1b4ecfb19d620c687b7e6b5b0b0491b7fb869f689c92a93d8f3871. “Using the TSA-LSTM two-stage model to predict cancer incidence and mortality” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317148).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317148). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TSCS
<a id="tscs"></a>

TSCS stands for transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation, a non-invasive therapy that uses electrical stimulation over the skin to modulate spinal cord networks. It is used mainly to address motor deficits, especially after spinal cord injury, and is also being studied in other conditions that affect movement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 830cbaa1159e07a122ce11b5e7f4aa78bf97a05a3c43c443568c49005b0bc744

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Veit Nicole C; Yang Chen; Aalla Shreya; Kishta Ameen; McKenzie Kelly; Roth Elliot J; Jayaraman Arun. Spinal motor evoked responses elicited by transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation in chronic stroke: Correlation between spinal cord excitability, demographic characteristics, and functional outcomes. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312183; article XML SHA-256 899b0497f034059cedee02686b56dd4ae1e12a27d59a495e359b6e6c3b9da329. “Spinal motor evoked responses elicited by transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation in chronic stroke: Correlation between spinal cord excitability, demographic characteristics, and functional outcomes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312183).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312183). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TSD
<a id="tsd"></a>

TSD stands for total sleep deprivation, meaning staying awake for a full night without sleep. In depression research, one night of TSD has been noted to produce a rapid but short-lived improvement in mood in many patients, making it useful for studying fast antidepressant effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0ae4e168d729e634c9412997103c3e0eab8289b359ad85f0a2903cd9c0cb3f1d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Taraku Brandon; Zavaliangos-Petropulu Artemis; Loureiro Joana R.; Al-Sharif Noor B.; Kubicki Antoni; Joshi Shantanu H.; Woods Roger P.; Espinoza Randall; Narr Katherine L.; Sahib Ashish K.. White matter microstructural perturbations after total sleep deprivation in depression. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1195763; article XML SHA-256 aaebc27e719dd0562c77a7fb138ad4cf685c933c0f7e17273b5bd20fe8466ca4. “White matter microstructural perturbations after total sleep deprivation in depression” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1195763).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1195763). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TSH
<a id="tsh"></a>

TSH, or thyroid-stimulating hormone, is a key hormone in the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis and is highly sensitive to changes in thyroid balance. Because it often shifts before FT3 or FT4 do, it is commonly used as a primary screening marker of thyroid dysfunction in clinical and research settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75a3342f6bbb42d2ba3d25b585ba02bffdfacc0663682d5330c13f20c4728d57

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ma Yutai; Wei Chunyan; Pan Qiao; Wang Yali. The impact of transcranial magnetic stimulation on serum thyroid-stimulating hormone levels in depressive patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1716377; article XML SHA-256 a7acf52242e56381cf235e72d1a6e903e66e76025c7be871b2c88ef3089843e6. “The impact of transcranial magnetic stimulation on serum thyroid-stimulating hormone levels in depressive patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1716377).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1716377). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TSS
<a id="tss"></a>

TSS stands for transcutaneous spinal stimulation, a method that delivers stimulation through the skin over the spine. In the source, it is described as a way to help activate leg extensor muscles and support self-assisted standing in people with paralysis, sometimes used together with neuromuscular electrical stimulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b48d26c351732808fc61dbaedaeea434452ec72249c97ef32f47a6a7c410438c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Steele Alexander G; Vette Albert H; Martin Catherine; Masani Kei; Sayenko Dimitry G. Synergistic effects of transcutaneous spinal stimulation and neuromuscular electrical stimulation on lower limb force production: Time to deliver. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296613; article XML SHA-256 ede6b4d0d00d710f4b400d82ef0275e53dafddf9d18dd878da962e6f2f97bb29. “Synergistic effects of transcutaneous spinal stimulation and neuromuscular electrical stimulation on lower limb force production: Time to deliver” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296613).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296613). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TTA
<a id="tta"></a>

TTA stands for Technology Transfer and Application, the later stage in a university innovation process where research outputs are moved toward practical use or commercialization. In the source, this stage is evaluated separately from the R&D stage and is described as a common area of lower efficiency.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e0c0ab654151cf23eb5b156d75aa88979274df3c2bf8b76efaa80283a042a1ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cheng Bo. Efficiency analysis of 67 Chinese research universities considering inter-university heterogeneity: Evidence from a meta-frontier network SBM DEA model. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331923; article XML SHA-256 fb990f2b5052dbca884398c8d9ecdd8068c7e770edff0accff3d1c8037e1947d. “Efficiency analysis of 67 Chinese research universities considering inter-university heterogeneity: Evidence from a meta-frontier network SBM DEA model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331923).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331923). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TTI
<a id="tti"></a>

TTI refers to tourist-to-tourist interaction, meaning the contact and exchanges that travelers have with one another during travel. In this tourism context, the quality of these interactions is described as linked with better travel experiences, greater satisfaction, and stronger loyalty toward destinations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 33bbe82855a6eb90f9640be77cd8e84e448a686c6b877b8b96c4976260a8ee76

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gao Junli; Meng Fang; Guo Weifeng; Lin Baomin. Achieving destination sustainability: How tourist-to-tourist interaction quality affects tourist loyalty?. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296944; article XML SHA-256 11e61e58f93ef4849ae209783e9740a774ec2ddfbd9e2cdf2e52d34e629aa543. “Achieving destination sustainability: How tourist-to-tourist interaction quality affects tourist loyalty?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296944).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296944). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TTM
<a id="ttm"></a>

TTM stands for the Transtheoretical Model, a psychological framework that matches support or self-management plans to a person’s current stage of behavioral change. It is used to make interventions more relevant to individual needs and may help reduce information overload while improving effectiveness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 045c3baf26b680b69f37f5f57f74b6370370a0f6dbee61a8c092e791a800de36

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Cai; Chen Junting; Tan Jin; Xiao Ye; Deng Renli; Huang Hao. Effects of the transtheoretical model-based self-management program on behavioral change in persons with epilepsy: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305547; article XML SHA-256 c5dccf0985df699930b2ba1fbba4088d6f992a3e575c0ba5e8bde9dcc21ade06. “Effects of the transtheoretical model-based self-management program on behavioral change in persons with epilepsy: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305547).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305547). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TTS
<a id="tts"></a>

TTS stands for targeted teacher support, a form of teacher support directed to a student's particular needs rather than the whole class. It refers to individualized help from educators, such as emotional, cognitive, or resource-based support, intended to strengthen learning and development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4de7cffa53c1982fca806f815dbfebcd64180de3dfeaa8ea891fbbeaf9591494

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yongzhao; Zhou Lijun; Xie Bingqing; Wang Lisha; Su Qiantong; Jin Hua. The relationship between intellectual curiosity and learning engagement in mathematics among adolescents: an analysis of chain multiple mediating effects. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1737254; article XML SHA-256 3286e4fde6e1a52b6e8cacac2f12847b9898f8822565eae9fcf4d4781bb19ff0. “The relationship between intellectual curiosity and learning engagement in mathematics among adolescents: an analysis of chain multiple mediating effects” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1737254).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1737254). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TTX
<a id="ttx"></a>

TTX, or tetrodotoxin, is a neurotoxin that blocks fast voltage-gated sodium channels in nerve cell membranes, preventing nerve signals from being transmitted. It has potential pain-relieving activity and is produced by certain bacteria, although it is also found in animals such as pufferfish.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 617456792d2c518ddc5a98164895881e343fa3340e9971bdd08b6bf73d537459

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tetrodotoxin” (C78845).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tubal ligation
<a id="tubal-ligation"></a>

Tubal ligation is a permanent contraceptive method that provides highly effective, long-term pregnancy prevention with little ongoing user involvement. In this context, it is intended for people who do not want additional children and differs from reversible long-acting methods because it is an irreversible choice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a60f74b9724f96ddcf3161a35802009fef3c1eb5a679ca811c4cab5510dacc41

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shoma Sharmin Sultana; Barden-O’Fallon Janine. Understanding the low uptake of long-acting reversible and permanent contraceptive methods in rural Bangladesh: A qualitative socio-ecological approach. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356493; article XML SHA-256 00e3e16196e498c2d4cf4e8a0a381471acd1d55963028b72476cd8ecc9c3a69d. “Understanding the low uptake of long-acting reversible and permanent contraceptive methods in rural Bangladesh: A qualitative socio-ecological approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356493).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356493). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tuberculous meningitis
<a id="tuberculous-meningitis"></a>

Tuberculous meningitis is the most severe form of human infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is a worldwide public health concern and is identified by testing cerebrospinal fluid.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9ac5cd4562411895e99b4a418e40152a9867069d2ef0f25af9ed30d20a88278

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Krishnakumariamma Krishnapriya; Ellappan Kalaiarasan; Muthuraj Muthaiah; Tamilarasu Kadhiravan; Kumar Saka Vinod; Joseph Noyal Mariya. Molecular diagnosis, genetic diversity and drug sensitivity patterns of Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains isolated from tuberculous meningitis patients at a tertiary care hospital in South India. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0240257; article XML SHA-256 2d0c3893f5a3a60768711784e0d6f04e36f89964a3037e48cfc884e213e7d9e1. “Molecular diagnosis, genetic diversity and drug sensitivity patterns of Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains isolated from tuberculous meningitis patients at a tertiary care hospital in South India” (10.1371/journal.pone.0240257).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240257). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tuberomammillary nucleus
<a id="tuberomammillary-nucleus"></a>

The tuberomammillary nucleus is a brain nucleus located in the lateral area of the hypothalamus. In the source packet, it is identified as one of the structures contained within that hypothalamic region.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4becb2423337b4471c46289575d9200900ee2214ddf125fde56d0050cfde2cd2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hypothalamic Area, Lateral” (D007026).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007026). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tuning curve
<a id="tuning-curve"></a>

A tuning curve is a function that shows how a sensory neuron’s response changes across values of a continuous stimulus dimension, such as sound frequency or visual orientation. It is used to describe which stimulus values produce stronger or weaker neural responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f2a612a9da0301489d9d4645dd1013aaa16b0b64b40af6ee71c81e6c1925e313

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Helmer Markus; Kozyrev Vladislav; Stephan Valeska; Treue Stefan; Geisel Theo; Battaglia Demian. Model-Free Estimation of Tuning Curves and Their Attentional Modulation, Based on Sparse and Noisy Data. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0146500; article XML SHA-256 ca134211a39bb6c2b3b59de13462cc8b3b527b811514fe831843e83905c7e0b5. “Model-Free Estimation of Tuning Curves and Their Attentional Modulation, Based on Sparse and Noisy Data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0146500).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146500). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tunnel vision
<a id="tunnel-vision"></a>

Tunnel vision is severe loss of the peripheral visual field, so vision is largely limited to a narrower central area. In the supplied source, it is described as occurring in degenerative retinal disease and as reducing peripheral information needed for scanning and mobility.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5be61dade97e6e167befafefb5fea529d0e220edf86543a13cf3a879580a5e91

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ivanov Iliya V; Mackeben Manfred; Vollmer Annika; Martus Peter; Nguyen Nhung X; Trauzettel-Klosinski Susanne. Eye Movement Training and Suggested Gaze Strategies in Tunnel Vision - A Randomized and Controlled Pilot Study. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0157825; article XML SHA-256 8667419ebbeff025916677a85a21a829996204441415c717c4292631657d0c64. “Eye Movement Training and Suggested Gaze Strategies in Tunnel Vision - A Randomized and Controlled Pilot Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0157825).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157825). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Turing test
<a id="turing-test"></a>

The Turing test is a way of judging whether a machine’s replies are hard to tell apart from a human’s. In this kind of task, people try to identify which responses were generated by the machine rather than written by a person.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9c769daf452f8e2243aa56d9c891ef87d33d070c97521bca78092b3b37d356ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hulman Adam; Dollerup Ole Lindgård; Mortensen Jesper Friis; Fenech Matthew E.; Norman Kasper; Støvring Henrik; Hansen Troels Krarup. ChatGPT- versus human-generated answers to frequently asked questions about diabetes: A Turing test-inspired survey among employees of a Danish diabetes center. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290773; article XML SHA-256 1b8a6511e05360b8f0e4fcce60d8019afdaf10c043e59cc4ab9302eaad8fbe6a. “ChatGPT- versus human-generated answers to frequently asked questions about diabetes: A Turing test-inspired survey among employees of a Danish diabetes center” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290773).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290773). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Turner syndrome
<a id="turner-syndrome"></a>

Turner syndrome, also called Ullrich-Turner syndrome, is an endocrine disorder. In the supplied source, it is described as a condition that can negatively affect bone metabolism during puberty and adolescence, which may reduce the development of peak bone mass and increase later osteoporosis risk.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8ce1c656b405f2854c49ae5c664d29b72eff7951e606cb0bbad24d28cbe1a84f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gippert Sebastian; Bettendorf Markus; Hoos Johannes; Choukair Daniela. Bone Health Index (BoneXpert) and parameters of peripheral quantitative computed tomography indicate overall adequate bone health in adolescents with chronic endocrine diseases at time of transition. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337842; article XML SHA-256 e6a7b8a73338c845505d7e09a8ebae3ef392119fdf9fb706e15bf59875e7cc02. “Bone Health Index (BoneXpert) and parameters of peripheral quantitative computed tomography indicate overall adequate bone health in adolescents with chronic endocrine diseases at time of transition” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337842).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337842). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## TUTs
<a id="tuts"></a>

TUTs are task-unrelated thoughts: moments when a person’s thinking drifts away from what the current task or environment requires. In this study, more TUTs in children were linked with poorer performance on the tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4b241250185f8d9bad1ed6ae66ba686ef53d0f344c215881531ac3d91a6897a9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ye Qun; Song Xiaolan; Zhang Yi; Wang Qinqin. Children’s mental time travel during mind wandering. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00927; article XML SHA-256 421036d3b5f5eceeba0c5f72738216bc48ee17293b8c4cc27e1a7ba042768887. “Children’s mental time travel during mind wandering” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00927).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00927). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## twelfth cranial nerve
<a id="twelfth-cranial-nerve"></a>

The twelfth cranial nerve is the hypoglossal nerve, which arises from the medulla and controls movement in nearly all of the tongue muscles. It also carries position-sense signals from the tongue muscles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aed7e0b137c61ff78a3e080d8ea450ef183b745d391bd5d20e70a2a018e1cfc3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hypoglossal Nerve” (D007002).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007002). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## twelve-step program
<a id="twelve-step-program"></a>

A twelve-step program is a structured recovery approach used to help people with substance abuse, addictions, or emotional disorders. It is based on the twelve steps first developed in Alcoholics Anonymous and adapted for different conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 17b2fd3a412561503b44264562464c1274f6c6d89d4edc7b00ddcce62391e1ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Twelve-Step Program” (C93224).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## twilight vision
<a id="twilight-vision"></a>

Twilight vision is seeing in very low light, such as at dusk, under scotopic conditions. It depends mainly on retinal rod cells, which are highly light-sensitive and do not provide color discrimination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14bc47ad1bedd26a585256a0a04aaa1db151395ae1b58eab35a0a4b6f995e4ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinal Rod Photoreceptor Cells” (D017948).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017948). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## twin control
<a id="twin-control"></a>

Twin control is a research design that compares twins who differ on a trait or exposure so researchers can examine its links with outcomes while accounting for factors the twins share. In a co-twin control design, those shared factors include genetic background and aspects of the environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a2e1f80ba2070ae5f2cd4f7721997c221ed7b76b590fd14691b3ac80a76d8384

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kupila Sakris K. E.; Berntzen Bram J.; Muniandy Maheswary; Ahola Aila J.; Kaprio Jaakko; Rissanen Aila; Pietiläinen Kirsi H.. Mental, physical, and social well-being and quality of life in healthy young adult twin pairs discordant and concordant for body mass index. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0294162; article XML SHA-256 3199334f04a6bf95edf8a8537f19f87c19039b2d1ace939b9962514171137d8f. “Mental, physical, and social well-being and quality of life in healthy young adult twin pairs discordant and concordant for body mass index” (10.1371/journal.pone.0294162).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294162). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## twin study
<a id="twin-study"></a>

A twin study is a research method that uses pairs or sets of twins to examine genetic influences on human traits and behavior. It is used to help detect possible genetic causes of differences among people.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4598b856b204ac66ea5e8b3d529ad9ac473764f1fdb93ebd7f97c16b01aaffb6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Twin Study” (D018486).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018486). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## twins
<a id="twins"></a>

In mental health research, identical twins are studied to help show how genes relate to bipolar disorder. Findings that one identical twin can develop bipolar disorder while the other does not suggest that genetics are important but not the only influence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cdc5ed07d91c27d09817ca47ff14159d499ece502c59e3570b9098bdde8c3a1c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 340e646cd122c31f2ae7dd7aa7041a63efb2312a91d487d37080bcfec38efea9. “Bipolar Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## twitching
<a id="twitching"></a>

Twitching is a form of bacterial movement discussed here as one of the motility behaviors of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In this source, it is linked to type IV pili function and was reduced when the bacteria were exposed to increasing concentrations of 5-fluorouracil.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1d1097c865d7963379c92cd19635a0732d1897962293476efc391a13088e5267

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Niazy Amani A.; Alrashed May M.; Lambarte Rhodanne Nicole A.; Sumague Terrence S.; Niazy Abdurahman A.. 5-Fluorouracil modulates motility and biofilm-associated gene expression in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354473; article XML SHA-256 46332370d544225802899da6d6208b526fe54ac8197a7b79a400aa38d0508828. “5-Fluorouracil modulates motility and biofilm-associated gene expression in Pseudomonas aeruginosa” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354473).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354473). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## two-factor analysis of variance
<a id="two-factor-analysis-of-variance"></a>

Two-factor analysis of variance is a statistical method used to test whether outcomes differ across two separate factors in the same study, such as magnification device and distance. It examines how each factor is related to the measured results when both are analyzed together.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 63b4c765c39e87bf856d74b03b8629d52133bc26fe2fa5640b04d06f2def066e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wajngarten Danielle; Garcia Patrícia Petromilli Nordi Sasso. Effect of magnification devices on dental students’ visual acuity. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0212793; article XML SHA-256 225baee9e86ff1be8d8274bab2dacc3d4b9d02a8cf0139bc6a640b6a06f6a8bd. “Effect of magnification devices on dental students’ visual acuity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0212793).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212793). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## two-person psychology
<a id="two-person-psychology"></a>

Two-person psychology is a psychoanalytic perspective that understands therapy as shaped not only by the patient and analyst separately, but also by their shared dyadic process. In this view, meaning and new ways of relating emerge through the interaction between them, sometimes described as an analytic third or unlocalized shared subjectivity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26d31f6c8fcb5c79e463292083d7e7fe0ce0a466161512717a3e6494b510ef7f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reghintovschi Anatol Eduard. Exploring the analytic process, the analytic third, and the emergence of meaning from a dyadic perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1779078; article XML SHA-256 04c5397a593464b70ddf368403772c62bcb364490a59788cb7d46c51bd83c012. “Exploring the analytic process, the analytic third, and the emergence of meaning from a dyadic perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1779078).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1779078). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## two-sample test
<a id="two-sample-test"></a>

A two-sample test is a statistical method used to examine whether two groups differ from each other. In this source, it refers to a non-parametric multivariate approach that compares groups across many features at once rather than one variable at a time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4a1f80e1e3a3ac96805c1b529562838a30b1fc94cd8de971aa90895da48bebaf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bargiotas Ioannis; Kalogeratos Argyris; Limnios Myrto; Vidal Pierre-Paul; Ricard Damien; Vayatis Nicolas. Revealing posturographic profile of patients with Parkinsonian syndromes through a novel hypothesis testing framework based on machine learning. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0246790; article XML SHA-256 429a0852c49157a0a7ed01e21c6fe3ad31d36497510c4cf9a8afbbf419c78367. “Revealing posturographic profile of patients with Parkinsonian syndromes through a novel hypothesis testing framework based on machine learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0246790).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246790). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## two-spirit
<a id="two-spirit"></a>

Two-spirit is a culturally specific Indigenous gender identity term used as a broad category that can include distinct nation-specific identities within Indigenous systems of sex and gender.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fb17b0151ad71b30078fb24ce33f6a8bde57eacc566568b2448deb8ecbb82cde

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gagen Ryn; Marsalis Scott; Dinh Chi; Applejohn Milo; Shah Rosa; Tong Ophelia Xiner; Marshall Zack; Everhart Avery. Development and validation of search hedges for Transgender and Gender Diverse (TGD) populations in Ovid MEDLINE and Ovid APA PsycInfo. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351303; article XML SHA-256 e3d169a0064bba7742e73c7beddd93356a17bb50db1503cef89de444e3263698. “Development and validation of search hedges for Transgender and Gender Diverse (TGD) populations in Ovid MEDLINE and Ovid APA PsycInfo” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351303).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351303). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## two-stage sampling
<a id="two-stage-sampling"></a>

Two-stage sampling is a sampling method in which researchers first randomly choose groups or clusters from a larger set, then randomly select individual elements from within each chosen group. In the source packet, the groups are first-stage units and the selected elements within them are second-stage units.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: caa9c133b777d3f91ce15aa2dafccee2b4a1ea4e960f711eeee1acee8bfdc2b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Minhas Kanwal Shafiq; Semary Hatem E.; Jabeen Riffat; Zaka Azam. Multiscale study of memory type simple ratio estimators in two stage sampling under exponentially weighted moving averages. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335586; article XML SHA-256 d391b486280e96c3b1af2e3c2cd6891d7d6d39d780cb86af1502f8bfe4a95dd6. “Multiscale study of memory type simple ratio estimators in two stage sampling under exponentially weighted moving averages” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335586).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335586). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## two-tailed test
<a id="two-tailed-test"></a>

A two-tailed test is a significance test that looks at outcomes in both directions from the value expected under the null hypothesis. It asks how likely it is to obtain a result at least as far from that value as the observed one, whether the statistic is higher or lower.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6c520680dafdfee5cded43625f6f71a556f95f146fa0873eaa7c51cc02f1762

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Two Tailed” (two_tailed.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/two_tailed.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## two-way analysis of variance
<a id="two-way-analysis-of-variance"></a>

Two-way analysis of variance is an ANOVA-based statistical method used to analyze experimental data. The packet indicates that, when it is implemented in software, the reported p-values can depend on the options chosen, so results may vary and may be less reliable in some small or mixed-effects analyses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 74b43d3a611b9e61d7358fa9f3e2a4f5aecd943d5fea94d9e33648a1d5188520

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Al-Sarraj Razaw; Forkman Johannes. Notes on correctness of p -values when analyzing experiments using SAS and R. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0295066; article XML SHA-256 319995747a7043e33ea0eda01ebf6a93af08cad68c433fd2ef0d723446ba54bd. “Notes on correctness of p -values when analyzing experiments using SAS and R” (10.1371/journal.pone.0295066).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295066). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Tylenol
<a id="tylenol"></a>

Tylenol is another name for acetaminophen, a p-aminophenol compound that helps relieve pain and reduce fever. Its exact effects are not fully understood, but it appears to act in the central nervous system in ways that increase pain tolerance and lower body temperature.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 787f580f26128cd65b0ead7f8db34efc7203ed6cf74755c8ad61e1f1bceca40e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Acetaminophen” (C198).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tympanic cavity
<a id="tympanic-cavity"></a>

The tympanic cavity is the middle-ear space located just inside the eardrum and outside the inner ear. It contains key structures such as the auditory ossicles and the Eustachian tube, which links this space to the upper throat.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76f073fb27df703f5e2126bb04122133faf7c4088afe31fc07e7e9e951abd1a2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ear, Middle” (D004432).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004432). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tympanic membrane
<a id="tympanic-membrane"></a>

The tympanic membrane is a thin membrane that separates the outer ear canal from the middle ear. It moves with air pressure changes in the outer ear and helps pass sound energy along by making the small ear bones vibrate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e520923092438a6d87170cdab070c8845803b33a9da56a21ea5ac2b6b7513990

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tympanic Membrane” (C12502).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tympanometry
<a id="tympanometry"></a>

Tympanometry is a physiological measurement used to assess the middle ear. In the source packet, it is described as a conventional 226 Hz measure that can be combined with otoscopy to improve diagnosis of middle ear disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83873ec85ea279c3f844dfc1bfe637693c04337576e64322f47da9aff459e38c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lu Hao; Langefeld Carl D; Zinnia Amy; Demir Muhammet Fatih; Chavan Shalaka; Elmaraghy Charles A; Wilson Margaret; Niazi Muhammad Khalid Khan; Moberly Aaron C; Gurcan Metin N. Confidence-guided integration of otoscopy videos and tympanometry for middle ear disease diagnosis: A multi-center otoscopy study with external paired-cohort evaluation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357492; article XML SHA-256 599c7fce8fa099cba6637d7a09ac30b5e85fc2c0e5d5ee7150ab75a31ec616e4. “Confidence-guided integration of otoscopy videos and tympanometry for middle ear disease diagnosis: A multi-center otoscopy study with external paired-cohort evaluation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357492).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357492). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Type 1 diabetes
<a id="type-1-diabetes"></a>

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease in which the body destroys the pancreas’s insulin-producing beta cells. This leads to too little insulin and high blood sugar, and it can cause serious short-term and long-term health complications.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ccface1e1fb4e431889c6f3342e9db07e82b2b4227a63683641019c18832d6b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mittal Rahul; McKenna Keelin; Lemos Joana R N; Juneja Shreya; Mittal Mannat; Hirani Khemraj. Therapeutic potential of anti-thymocyte globulin in type 1 diabetes: A systematic review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323642; article XML SHA-256 71494ff33d9a175e010167e2a7e05d35452ff97c669eafd33ef35b86c7a9a4fd. “Therapeutic potential of anti-thymocyte globulin in type 1 diabetes: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323642).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323642). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Type 2 diabetes
<a id="type-2-diabetes"></a>

Type 2 diabetes is a metabolic disease that is linked with small- and large-blood-vessel complications and, in this source, with mildly restricted breathing capacity. The review describes it as being associated with lower lung function measures even without a separate lung disorder, possibly because diabetes-related changes in the lung’s tiny blood vessels and air sacs can reduce oxygen uptake.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 509312ce0b318fb04d7fd5defd6a1443f79500f5be2fb8eb9c131120d0b83e41

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lecky Roanne; Grogan Svitlana; Shukla Priyank; Atkinson Sarah; McClean Paula L; Kelly Catriona. The role of obesity and Type 2 diabetes in lung health: A systematic review (2024). 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340692; article XML SHA-256 a1e423f3ab97dc2f24f5fe02cfde938f35b266f83db424c5ad42bc26a6137047. “The role of obesity and Type 2 diabetes in lung health: A systematic review (2024)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340692).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340692). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Type A personality
<a id="type-a-personality"></a>

Type A personality is a behavior pattern marked by strong drive and ambition, impatience, competitiveness, a constant sense of time pressure, and aggression that is not well controlled.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 19e351af55eb07703393e80981eeda7a7afb12a6e8f720e61aeaeb03fd55c51a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Type A Personality” (D014434).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014434). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Type B personality
<a id="type-b-personality"></a>

Type B personality is a behavior pattern marked by a calm, even-tempered style. Compared with Type A personality, it involves less frequent irritation, anger, hostility, and aggression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3434f2e2f7a8c6e18a70a3970d328fbdff20e1d39c1d5ce0a3c1f78516c053af

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Type B Personality” (D064414).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D064414). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Type D personality
<a id="type-d-personality"></a>

Type D personality is a behavior pattern marked by frequent negative emotions, difficulty expressing feelings, and social withdrawal or isolation. It has been associated with higher rates of cardiovascular disease and greater risk of death.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f03eeb6f8beaae322251bfb1f255e94876d2f60db887518813c44375ae73949a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Type D Personality” (D064415).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D064415). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Type I error
<a id="type-i-error"></a>

A Type I error is a mistake in significance testing where a true null hypothesis is rejected.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 917494b68a98d66c0b986b6156dc8104254a479c9b52c2a04c25793724fe0398

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Type I Error” (type_I_error.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/type_I_error.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Type II error
<a id="type-ii-error"></a>

A Type II error is a mistake in significance testing where a false null hypothesis is not rejected. In plain terms, it means missing a real effect or difference when one actually exists.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 522417aa83537647e6f339c2204a32ff233ccf6216c4d9e7b2deef1dee94ae21

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Type II Error” (type_II_error.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/type_II_error.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Type III cell
<a id="type-iii-cell"></a>

A Type III cell is a light cell in a taste bud that forms afferent synaptic contacts with nerve endings. It is identified by clusters of synaptic vesicles, dense-cored vesicles about 80–150 nm across, and immunoreactivity for 5-hydroxytryptamine, neural cell adhesion molecule, and PGP 9.5.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 679c5c8fef2e3738ab99dcfbe0a12df43a8f9a9109c56467f271b4c9beb8a30c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Type III Epithelial Receptor Cell” (C13149).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## type theory
<a id="type-theory"></a>

Type theory is the view that differences in people’s sensory and motor reaction times reflect stable habitual attitudes, or reaction types, that correspond to broader mental types. In this historical usage, it refers to classifying individuals by characteristic patterns in how they respond.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ef9c54a68d5953d7d438b64d0bfb65311756b8efad69a3619774b92a8dc79c6a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2362500-2374500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## typical antipsychotic
<a id="typical-antipsychotic"></a>

A typical antipsychotic is a type of antipsychotic medication described in contrast to atypical, newer antipsychotic drugs. In this source, typical antipsychotics are noted for potentially causing marked reduced saliva and related oral discomfort.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 62da31a5bdc1e2301e14a69567795a0640966816b425e56c1ecdd82ac1b65200

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Meurman Jukka H.; Murtomaa Heikki; Koski Marja. Oral discomfort and health behavior of patients with typical vs. atypical antipsychotic drugs. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1420010; article XML SHA-256 c7a760a23dd1a5580d3ac43ee5ee92311ac89fdac518d360653776bc124c9cdb. “Oral discomfort and health behavior of patients with typical vs. atypical antipsychotic drugs” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1420010).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1420010). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## typicality effect
<a id="typicality-effect"></a>

The typicality effect is a pattern in which memory or recognition differs depending on how well an object fits its usual context. In the supplied study, objects that were typical for a setting were recognized less well than context-atypical objects, showing that contextual fit can shape how objects are perceived and remembered.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc89816644ab8e90e437d8fc5e2d724322d17749a0ed9a814c82da2bd1206d3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Qin Xiaoyan; Bochsler Tiana M.; Aizpurua Alaitz; Cheong Allen M. Y.; Koutstaal Wilma; Legge Gordon E.. Incidental Memory of Younger and Older Adults for Objects Encountered in a Real World Context. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0099051; article XML SHA-256 05fcc877d7aa7f7bf31bb8c1a52bd670918980c989c45f301d6da7ed5423f011. “Incidental Memory of Younger and Older Adults for Objects Encountered in a Real World Context” (10.1371/journal.pone.0099051).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099051). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## typing
<a id="typing"></a>

In this learning context, typing means the keyboard actions a person makes while writing on a computer. These actions can be logged as keystroke data to study the writing process, such as patterns in how text is produced over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9865d5e364a3d6bd7a1c42d60e860e07322032ad8d2a039012582bbfc16352c3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Tingxuan; An Shengwei. A Bayesian hierarchical mixture model for extracting process features in a newly developed cloud-based writing platform. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792834; article XML SHA-256 2cf4b1a1321c079f293d22372cfc53bd609bb3fb9ef4b7b597b41c9689f979bb. “A Bayesian hierarchical mixture model for extracting process features in a newly developed cloud-based writing platform” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792834).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792834). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## typology
<a id="typology"></a>

In historical usage, typology is a system of interpreting earlier figures or events as symbols that foreshadow later ones. In this source, it specifically means the Old Testament pattern of prefiguring things in the Christian dispensation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d5d6727137ffa5b574dad8f4499eed0c680c4c1189f1cd38879a0191d9ea67aa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4084500-4096500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tyramine
<a id="tyramine"></a>

Tyramine is a naturally occurring substance found in foods such as cheese that indirectly boosts adrenergic signaling rather than directly stimulating adrenergic receptors. It can enter adrenergic uptake pathways, interact with monoamine oxidase, and trigger release of adrenergic transmitters, which can extend their effects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2af05bff4a81f2836e72a653dbf40388c6bd04f2089e5a941652301ce292164b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tyramine” (D014439).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014439). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## tyrosine hydroxylase
<a id="tyrosine-hydroxylase"></a>

Tyrosine hydroxylase is an enzyme that controls the rate-limiting step in making catecholamines. In the supplied source, its protein levels and activity-related phosphorylation are described as being regulated in the short term by the ubiquitin-proteasome system, with impaired proteasome activity linked to higher tyrosine hydroxylase levels in hypertension-related neurons.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b2e82181e15dbba923439a36f6611684c6e38162a7e5ea1f2ed95d4cc113214b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Carbajosa Nadia A. Longo; Corradi Gerardo; Verrilli María A. Lopez; Guil María J.; Vatta Marcelo S.; Gironacci Mariela M.. Tyrosine Hydroxylase Is Short-Term Regulated by the Ubiquitin-Proteasome System in PC12 Cells and Hypothalamic and Brainstem Neurons from Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats: Possible Implications in Hypertension. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0116597; article XML SHA-256 7fd0d4dede0cd3d4f2c99d228557f539f01eeb0ef6448f026ad8e86a409f8b83. “Tyrosine Hydroxylase Is Short-Term Regulated by the Ubiquitin-Proteasome System in PC12 Cells and Hypothalamic and Brainstem Neurons from Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats: Possible Implications in Hypertension” (10.1371/journal.pone.0116597).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116597). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## U fiber
<a id="u-fiber"></a>

A U fiber is a short-range white matter fiber that links neighboring areas of the cerebral cortex. It lies just beneath the cortex and is part of the cortico-cortical connections between nearby regions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5bf158f05050991f13cb2d704c36f0d6bd66d17916473a9265bb1d57b7c9ebf5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yoshino Mayuko; Saito Kengo; Kawasaki Kanji; Horiike Toshihide; Shinmyo Yohei; Kawasaki Hiroshi. The origin and development of subcortical U-fibers in gyrencephalic ferrets. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s13041-020-00575-8; article XML SHA-256 2c7980b645e2c79994074b4f48a428b32dec6c958de855e6fa2ffbce6be571d7. “The origin and development of subcortical U-fibers in gyrencephalic ferrets” (10.1186/s13041-020-00575-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13041-020-00575-8). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
<a id="u-s-department-of-veterans-affairs"></a>

The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs is the healthcare system from which the study drew de-identified records of more than 250,000 patients receiving care over five years.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e4014b54e7d1dcd74384b96af1917f7c787ab6ec08396342229a8da2d4eaf051

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Faruqui Syed Hasib Akhter; Alaeddini Adel; Jaramillo Carlos A; Potter Jennifer S; Pugh Mary Jo. Mining patterns of comorbidity evolution in patients with multiple chronic conditions using unsupervised multi-level temporal Bayesian network. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0199768; article XML SHA-256 363644d5f1c19f2f906336435935e49d836d98e4f773109cd3cbf87f84613011. “Mining patterns of comorbidity evolution in patients with multiple chronic conditions using unsupervised multi-level temporal Bayesian network” (10.1371/journal.pone.0199768).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199768). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## U.S. Food and Drug Administration
<a id="u-s-food-and-drug-administration"></a>

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration is the United States body described here as approving medications for clinical use, such as esketamine for treatment-resistant depression. In this context, its approval indicates that a drug has been authorized for that treatment use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2f3c5a2155c1a52368404134c981abdd3b4274da9d78128df1b104be9fc4c8a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Di Vincenzo Matteo; Martiadis Vassilis; Della Rocca Bianca; Arsenio Eleonora; D’Arpa Andrea; Volpicelli Antonio; Luciano Mario; Sampogna Gaia; Fiorillo Andrea. Facts and myths about use of esketamine for treatment-resistant depression: a narrative clinical review. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1394787; article XML SHA-256 985b5d8dd00aa23678dbe0f374483804490bbc24581a5225ee0702e33d9e7cfe. “Facts and myths about use of esketamine for treatment-resistant depression: a narrative clinical review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1394787).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1394787). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## U test
<a id="u-test"></a>

U test refers here to the Mann-Whitney U test, a statistical method used in quantitative analysis to examine differences between groups or sectors. In the source, it was used to compare orientations and sector-based differences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69f348ceca3f2f11f9b80b89a50123c5f3b4cdb77cb30a004d8747a46271cea3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kure Tekalign Gidi. The strategic role of human resource managers in shaping decision-making in Ethiopia. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327296; article XML SHA-256 5954b423e47eeec2f8499c3c8a7a989126c6f5e526a012f8c427d20e07c818a4. “The strategic role of human resource managers in shaping decision-making in Ethiopia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327296).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327296). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## UCLA Loneliness Scale
<a id="ucla-loneliness-scale"></a>

The UCLA Loneliness Scale is a standardized measure used to assess loneliness, meaning a person’s subjective sense of social isolation. In the source, Version 3 was used to evaluate loneliness in older adults.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0095c81506bed976b2523efed4626687f9d88294a18bc84617cf687d4440aeb3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yuan Guangjie; Cheng Zihan; Wang Jiaojian; Wang Lin. The buffering effect of spousal support in later life: mediated and moderated pathways from negative life events to loneliness among older adults. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1698354; article XML SHA-256 7b560f9d448cd425e25eeccc886457103926b8a54f3f37c950433c95d8e60e3f. “The buffering effect of spousal support in later life: mediated and moderated pathways from negative life events to loneliness among older adults” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1698354).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1698354). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## UG
<a id="ug"></a>

UG stands for the Ultimatum Game, an interactive decision-making task used to study fairness and inequity aversion. In it, people respond to offers that can be fair or unfair, and their acceptance or rejection behavior is used to examine how fairness preferences shape later cooperation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d03d96cf1bd82fda04acd5f108afe2b0c5b1b64fd5239eeaababfb1f3c39199f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yu-Jie; Liu Yao-Zhong. The impact of unfairness experience on cooperative behavior revealed by ultimatum game-public goods game integration: an ERPs study. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1602181; article XML SHA-256 bcefaa2a8f5b24f1924f321a8e68a7c88877071192878bf5f17190795af52c68. “The impact of unfairness experience on cooperative behavior revealed by ultimatum game-public goods game integration: an ERPs study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1602181).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1602181). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Ullrich–Noonan syndrome
<a id="ullrichnoonan-syndrome"></a>

Ullrich–Noonan syndrome is a genetically varied biological disorder that affects growth and physical development and can include heart problems, hormonal differences, and characteristic facial and skeletal features. It occurs in males and females with a normal karyotype and may be associated with some degree of intellectual disability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a64f708df0a79043a939d074056b0269254f1c59a29526131a4d8c0ee326ebe0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Noonan Syndrome” (D009634).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009634). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ulnar nerve
<a id="ulnar-nerve"></a>

The ulnar nerve is a major nerve of the upper limb. In humans, it arises from the lower cervical and upper thoracic spinal cord through the brachial plexus and carries sensation and movement signals to parts of the forearm and hand.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 12fc4afbf4b408aa772acd11a919742917610293e673a51f901255f8a5553bb2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ulnar Nerve” (D014459).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014459). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ultimate explanation
<a id="ultimate-explanation"></a>

In this historical usage, ultimate explanation means the most final level to which an account can reduce what is being explained. The dispute is about what those last explanatory terms are, such as axioms, self-evident truths, regular sequences, or descriptive and analytical judgments.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 27470d357541b80a5ea295015ea6df932f4f49de0d4a55676c39ae01a7fdb835

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Explanation” (Explanation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Explanation). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ultimatum game
<a id="ultimatum-game"></a>

The ultimatum game is a commonly used bargaining task for studying conflict resolution and decision-making. Researchers use it to examine how responses are shaped by factors such as emotions, personality, cognitive abilities, social norms, power, and perceptions of fairness, reciprocity, and self-interest.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b16ca18a2adda4e7d874436c5248e4ea933009ffd98d9a9d4cead9f3e7dd1e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chowdhury Adhiraj; Rangaswamy Madhavi; Kolte Akash. Characterizing Ultimatum Game responders: a scoping review of factors that influence decision-making through an evolutionary lens. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1713778; article XML SHA-256 fde288ae6e76019b806e4b7b7e56ba5e8b16b6fa63b5c1cded518a9f36f8e7e0. “Characterizing Ultimatum Game responders: a scoping review of factors that influence decision-making through an evolutionary lens” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1713778).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1713778). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ultrasonic communication
<a id="ultrasonic-communication"></a>

Ultrasonic communication is the exchange of signals through very high-frequency vocal sounds, studied in animals such as mice by recording and analyzing ultrasonic vocalizations. In behavioral research, these calls can be grouped into different types to help examine communication patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea5bdccc910926010e97e4610de29bc051fb66ad38e36c1715f33c7f2511db98

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Premoli Marika; Baggi Daniele; Bianchetti Marco; Gnutti Alessandro; Bondaschi Marco; Mastinu Andrea; Migliorati Pierangelo; Signoroni Alberto; Leonardi Riccardo; Memo Maurizio; Bonini Sara Anna. Automatic classification of mice vocalizations using Machine Learning techniques and Convolutional Neural Networks. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0244636; article XML SHA-256 7f065cf26f7817be03ae5fb4933f1b1e28c23e26d0f7cbacc0176c0844257575. “Automatic classification of mice vocalizations using Machine Learning techniques and Convolutional Neural Networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0244636).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244636). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ultrasound
<a id="ultrasound"></a>

Ultrasound is a non-invasive imaging method that produces real-time, repeatable views of body structures. In the supplied source, musculoskeletal ultrasound is described as useful for visualizing tendons and muscles, tracking changes over time, and assessing biomechanical properties through elastography.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d9dcf62efb81f99bee36c9756dded658f757ba86f9464bc476c6ae2a27cf48b6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shi Ying; Bao Yi; Li Chuanxiong. Application of musculoskeletal ultrasound in postoperative rehabilitation assessment and monitoring after rotator cuff repair: A systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357622; article XML SHA-256 84b29e956866be967198b0b83515a5b0b42c29df0c4e97506090cc295e5d3a5f. “Application of musculoskeletal ultrasound in postoperative rehabilitation assessment and monitoring after rotator cuff repair: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357622).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357622). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ultraviolet
<a id="ultraviolet"></a>

Ultraviolet refers to the part of the measured light spectrum below 400 nm, used here as one region in ultraviolet–visible–near-infrared spectroscopy. In this study, that region showed measurable absorbance changes linked to glucose concentration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7e3ac148beb7869259a3e128d3c68edaa7ea884aa26ec85b5bf6ae4813ef75ed

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fadhil Abd Hawraa; Norouzi Yaser; Safavihamami S. Mostafa. Ultraviolet–visible spectral characterization and ANN modeling of aqueous sugar solutions: Clinical and environmental perspectives. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335807; article XML SHA-256 0df87aa7aaa20edf5d784985ed9a4f45d53a62ac6016b3d31ff5039844b2bd21. “Ultraviolet–visible spectral characterization and ANN modeling of aqueous sugar solutions: Clinical and environmental perspectives” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335807).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335807). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## umami
<a id="umami"></a>

Umami is one of the five basic taste qualities. In humans, it is mainly produced by free L-glutamic acid and is thought to help signal the presence of protein in food; its taste can also be strengthened by certain purine nucleotides such as IMP and GMP.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0c912780f92e207841dc146b3b29b8ca06bc5199b147d106108385dbe674c00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Belloir Christine; Savistchenko Jimmy; Neiers Fabrice; Taylor Andrew J; McGrane Scott; Briand Loïc. Biophysical and functional characterization of the N-terminal domain of the cat T1R1 umami taste receptor expressed in Escherichia coli. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0187051; article XML SHA-256 8d8786bf58f2a206ae364360889809fc78ca861c6b3d44e0f4f552a182616cf5. “Biophysical and functional characterization of the N-terminal domain of the cat T1R1 umami taste receptor expressed in Escherichia coli” (10.1371/journal.pone.0187051).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0187051). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Umwelt
<a id="umwelt"></a>

In this historical source, Umwelt is a German term for environment: the total set of outside conditions and circumstances that affect an organism through its life. The term also reflects the idea that organism and environment continuously influence one another, and it can be extended figuratively to social or moral conditions shaping mental life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 563f2b635ab0c3f4e147043a51a0ba6b0c51306de65d0d0b8d15a903161aee2f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Environment” (Environment).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Environment). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unbiased
<a id="unbiased"></a>

In research methods, unbiased means free from a systematic tendency to favor some outcomes over others. A sample is unbiased when each member of the population has the same chance of selection, and an estimator is unbiased when it does not consistently overestimate or underestimate the value it is meant to estimate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5687ece4aa8996d454479e365cb0e709688203d25b9b10c1e182e6d42bae9715

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Unbiased” (unbiased.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/unbiased.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Uncertainty
<a id="uncertainty"></a>

Uncertainty is a condition in which reasonable knowledge about risks, benefits, or the future is not available.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7499225884227d7f4237e3e2fe99454a083557f1578cb1dde4bbc3a25e12b38e

Wording review pending: The eight-word risks/benefits/future clause follows source organisation and can be rewritten independently.

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Uncertainty” (D035501).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D035501). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## uncertainty analysis
<a id="uncertainty-analysis"></a>

Uncertainty analysis is the study and modeling of how much uncertainty is present in beliefs, estimates, or risk assessments. It is used to examine uncertain outcomes and may include numerical methods to quantify that uncertainty, such as estimating confidence intervals when exact mathematical solutions are unavailable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 540936c36a68bb52ecce663cfd0fa3bfffb14314abaf819fa0d0f7b9a8ef68ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Shuai; Cao Bo; Bai Runcai; Liu Guangwei. Determination of production capacity for open-pit coal mines under uncertainty: A model based on economies of scale. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312130; article XML SHA-256 237d2f75a75f82404c3b7646c87da5f52d378a4352fac16a379fe7db7f5e5aca. “Determination of production capacity for open-pit coal mines under uncertainty: A model based on economies of scale” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312130).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312130). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## uncertainty avoidance
<a id="uncertainty-avoidance"></a>

Uncertainty avoidance is a cultural tendency at the group or national level to be uncomfortable with ambiguity and uncertain situations. In this sense, it describes a shared aversion to ambiguity that can shape behavior and reinforce preference for familiar options or the status quo.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7b27527e959a2306e45d59d02159b3ada328617cfb450d297d2228000a177a11

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tang Xinmeng; Zhou Xiaoguang. Uncertainty avoidance and investment underdiversification. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0272222; article XML SHA-256 85cf745ddf3e7785b15303c8858c3e964fba296e52d9516f379b04e55cc6fcbf. “Uncertainty avoidance and investment underdiversification” (10.1371/journal.pone.0272222).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272222). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## uncertainty principle
<a id="uncertainty-principle"></a>

The uncertainty principle here refers to a basic limit on how precisely information in a signal can be resolved at the same time in both the time domain and the frequency domain. In learning-related time-series analysis, it means methods must balance detail about when changes happen with detail about their rhythmic or frequency pattern.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf53ffc716bd69b5da2d1b0db651b47e1d0650e48f49894b836c3eb3aab93d9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Abdul-Rahman Anmar. A comparison of mental arithmetic performance in time and frequency domains. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.921433; article XML SHA-256 2e57f2828ba77dfc3a6413eca0744ab4398cead78f3575de8b3f03b96ee9ec82. “A comparison of mental arithmetic performance in time and frequency domains” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.921433).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.921433). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## uncertainty reduction theory
<a id="uncertainty-reduction-theory"></a>

Uncertainty reduction theory is the idea that reducing uncertainty is a major motive behind human behavior. It proposes that when people face uncertainty, they tend to engage in actions aimed at making the situation more predictable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 094b00d0a785c0dea3c852e3176f590d263503f79b552b3df6151f266ee8aefa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Deng Xiao; Wang Ying; Sun Xiuli. How Turbulence Brings Benefit: The Influence of Dynamic Team Environment on Entrepreneurial Team Innovation. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00759; article XML SHA-256 2347c970c135f292f6eb8c8caa8e2ea38de3f8926b07e62a9ee98524f26f141a. “How Turbulence Brings Benefit: The Influence of Dynamic Team Environment on Entrepreneurial Team Innovation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00759).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00759). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## uncinate fasciculus
<a id="uncinate-fasciculus"></a>

The uncinate fasciculus is a hook-shaped bundle of white matter fibers that links parts of the temporal lobe, including the uncus and temporal pole, with the limbic system and frontal lobe. It also connects with the amygdala proper.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 125a37bfdf5094889320aab95444c3b7443457d0197eefcef202d673dff2c730

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Uncinate Fasciculus” (D000083382).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000083382). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unconditional positive regard
<a id="unconditional-positive-regard"></a>

Unconditional positive regard is one of the Rogerian core conditions and a basic principle of person-centered therapy. It refers to a therapist’s accepting, responsive stance toward the client within the therapeutic relationship, as part of a relational framework that emphasizes presence and attunement rather than fixed techniques.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ce840716cb97163e69705b540aab35ef199b1e7931aa3e32b7c56f3beaab2b28

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jeffery Danielle. Therapist self-disclosure: a systematic review and brief person-centered framework for clinical practice and training. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1869955; article XML SHA-256 da0c5b76face12dfb8c0abd154558431c69472555f7750b6a366baa8067cd1af. “Therapist self-disclosure: a systematic review and brief person-centered framework for clinical practice and training” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1869955).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1869955). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unconditioned response
<a id="unconditioned-response"></a>

An unconditioned response is an innate, reflex-like reaction that is directly triggered by a relevant stimulus without prior learning. In the source example, a honeybee’s proboscis extension to sucrose is described as an unconditioned response that is naturally elicited, though its expression can still be modified by experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f63d414f32c05f820047b1e7da6b99226f609d29aade49f8b5f4e1115a437d30

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gil Mariana; Menzel Randolf; De Marco Rodrigo J.. Does an Insect's Unconditioned Response to Sucrose Reveal Expectations of Reward?. 2008; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0002810; article XML SHA-256 765191989b84d977366e50fa6b16bfc1f2fad05f0691fec7f99dbdb3753a1f4c. “Does an Insect's Unconditioned Response to Sucrose Reveal Expectations of Reward?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0002810).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002810). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unconscious
<a id="unconscious"></a>

Unconscious refers to a state of awareness in which a person is consistently unresponsive to stimuli.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e0b9a3d09f7ef28d9eef62e14c95cd447f196a6824cd6b3f327ddf1dce09be0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Unconscious State” (C88435).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unconscious cognition
<a id="unconscious-cognition"></a>

Unconscious cognition is mental processing that happens without a person being aware of the information driving it. In the supplied source, it refers to unseen conflict-related information still shaping later behavior and cognitive control.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 20ee4f2dda6afd1b4cc7555ec8a8790f8b32b6b6ddac42f7eb0a244288159008

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van Gaal Simon; Lamme Victor A. F.; Ridderinkhof K. Richard. Unconsciously Triggered Conflict Adaptation. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0011508; article XML SHA-256 b8ce2c0c5310c29fa020822dcfe0a9e74aa8d0582b38adf930b0349862f48b6f. “Unconsciously Triggered Conflict Adaptation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0011508).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0011508). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unconscious knowledge
<a id="unconscious-knowledge"></a>

Unconscious knowledge is knowledge outside immediate awareness that can be brought into awareness through reflection and storytelling about experience. In the source context, it is linked with past memories and with understanding one’s own decisions and practices.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a7e1b85bed9d5ab9434f726254c69a8577e12695ba7c400f4a47324faec255c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kipling Brown Ann; Penniston Gray Anne. Side by Side: Reflections on Two Lifetimes of Dance. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.587379; article XML SHA-256 87b65661c274778ec2b819df576508ed46b3d76e9a087c6c2e1bb589376a20de. “Side by Side: Reflections on Two Lifetimes of Dance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.587379).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.587379). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unconscious learning
<a id="unconscious-learning"></a>

Unconscious learning is the acquisition of knowledge without awareness of what has been learned. In the source context, it refers to implicit learning shown in performance, where people can pick up patterns or sequences even before that knowledge becomes conscious or explicit.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bec3b43c801304a4074dd5f297f43ab6648410b45ac277d860c7d94cb08bde2d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Esser Sarah; Haider Hilde. The Emergence of Explicit Knowledge in a Serial Reaction Time Task: The Role of Experienced Fluency and Strength of Representation. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00502; article XML SHA-256 7521e6fc1c15d202944585b4c06b320f3cb06be712f4780bc121823eef3b62ca. “The Emergence of Explicit Knowledge in a Serial Reaction Time Task: The Role of Experienced Fluency and Strength of Representation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00502).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00502). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unconscious motivation
<a id="unconscious-motivation"></a>

Unconscious motivation is motivation that operates outside awareness but can still influence behavior and give rise to consciously felt emotions. In the source packet, it is discussed mainly in relation to Freudian drives and brain systems involved in emotion and seeking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 144977080ce510445690e5fade2ba21c2b3cec37bf6e01f645365b1858135d94

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kirsch Michael. On the Abilities of Unconscious Freudian Motivational Drives to Evoke Conscious Emotions. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00470; article XML SHA-256 ddde2e85607e0f219a3698a617f999edb424d3160945069676c0f2681806981d. “On the Abilities of Unconscious Freudian Motivational Drives to Evoke Conscious Emotions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00470).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00470). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unconscious perception
<a id="unconscious-perception"></a>

Unconscious perception is the idea that a stimulus can influence a person’s response even when they do not report being aware of it. In this context, evidence for it comes from tasks where a masked prime affects performance, though such effects may sometimes reflect very weak conscious experience rather than a complete lack of awareness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 194acd87502f2d215cc1018e87a08a9c035a7897f0edbb6bbc8b7d898b23ceee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sandberg Kristian; Del Pin Simon H.; Bibby Bo M.; Overgaard Morten. Evidence of weak conscious experiences in the exclusion task. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01080; article XML SHA-256 f43ea7a6e86299cf25d9860d2b8365c5f927228aec35a4b8cc7280cc702856f6. “Evidence of weak conscious experiences in the exclusion task” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01080).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01080). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unconscious process
<a id="unconscious-process"></a>

An unconscious process is a mental way a person or group uses, outside awareness, to cope with impulses, feelings, or ideas that are not acceptable at the conscious level. It refers to defensive mental activity such as projection, reaction formation, or self-reversal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ffbb9f0631a5a1481601cbdb6728b74f6ded8f68e4868cdbb7adf4ccc41b8385

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Defense Mechanisms” (D003674).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003674). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unconscious resistance
<a id="unconscious-resistance"></a>

In this historical source, unconscious resistance means an unrecognized effort by a person to hold back, doubt, or conceal developing morbid ideas rather than fully surrender to them. It refers to resistance that operates without deliberate awareness, even though the illness is described as continuing despite it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c33b7e25727768baadf5545fdbc3fa6eaef12678901e4a2935bf839fc96371e3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-1165500-1177500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unconscious transfer
<a id="unconscious-transfer"></a>

Unconscious transfer is the automatic carrying over of feelings and attitudes from important people in early life onto other people in the present, including a psychotherapist. In counselling or psychotherapy, this means old emotional patterns are directed toward the therapist without the person being aware of it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4e07ce89f5aae54408d0a4ae9bedeb25b94c666d30185ba43d9eb9b9f1124e5c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Transference, Psychology” (D014167).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014167). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## uncovering
<a id="uncovering"></a>

In this historical source, uncovering means exposing one canine tooth as part of a snarl. It is described as an asymmetrical facial expression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 39a23bf0bab04edd0701753cfc0b5ff75ebb0a99d9764f67c5a66ac93f9a92f7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2793000-2805000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## uncrossed disparity
<a id="uncrossed-disparity"></a>

Uncrossed disparity is one of the two signs of binocular disparity, the small difference between the two eyes’ views that helps the visual system judge depth in a stereoscopic scene.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6e8476523b553ea9fecc198fe78297df890de2e9ef14b37dacf0ced55dbe11e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yuan; Zhang Chuncheng; Hou Chunping; Yao Li; Zhang Jiacai; Long Zhiying. Stereoscopic processing of crossed and uncrossed disparities in the human visual cortex. 2017; DOI 10.1186/s12868-017-0395-7; article XML SHA-256 1fd33eec567fdbc286a010184749c995286097264ca0fdf4235629eb3ad684e9. “Stereoscopic processing of crossed and uncrossed disparities in the human visual cortex” (10.1186/s12868-017-0395-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-017-0395-7). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## uncus
<a id="uncus"></a>

The uncus is the frontmost part of the parahippocampal gyrus. It belongs to the piriform cortex within the brain’s olfactory system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a305e630e82f32c335207582aca8c0640121735a9a2e5c47181b21aa50e966f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Uncus” (C33831).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## underage
<a id="underage"></a>

In this source, underage refers to being below the legal drinking age in the United States. It is used specifically for emerging adults ages 18 to 19.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0748f41021162eebb3536c477640572158f383e63870ab23b245c5bd31b4db4d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Feldstein Ewing Sarah W; Dash Genevieve F; Hudson Karen A; Hyun Benedict; Yang Manshu; Stahl Linnea; Thomsen Kristine Rømer; Filbey Francesca M. The Protocol for: Do peers enhance behavior change in group motivational interviewing? A translational clinical trial investigating brain synchrony in underage emerging adults during an fMRI hyperscanning task and association with alcohol use reductions. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349575; article XML SHA-256 d3ec592b1e5da2f2c71fdb71be90dd6860958e4d8794352e09171a8138ff7c5c. “The Protocol for: Do peers enhance behavior change in group motivational interviewing? A translational clinical trial investigating brain synchrony in underage emerging adults during an fMRI hyperscanning task and association with alcohol use reductions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349575).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349575). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## underclass
<a id="underclass"></a>

In this source, underclass refers to a social-class group marked by extreme deprivation together with low social support. It is presented as a group-level class profile associated with poverty and social isolation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7134d0d0775cc22ef6b97d3310e15ff9598df67fecda881fda532ab002a62ca1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fendinger Nicholas J; Lou Siyi; Knowles Eric D. Looking for social class in all the wrong places: differences in social support emerge reliably between—but not within—class contexts. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1688178; article XML SHA-256 04468b5e103a8a8f9f84ea6540b9c930c439ddb56978c6cf1d583b2afa28e576. “Looking for social class in all the wrong places: differences in social support emerge reliably between—but not within—class contexts” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1688178).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1688178). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## underconfidence
<a id="underconfidence"></a>

Underconfidence is a metacognitive bias in which people judge their own ability as worse than it actually is. In this source, it refers specifically to being less confident than warranted in one’s unaided memory, which can contribute to relying too much on external reminders.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2b0a386279eae169c8251335fa241346422181c5f3cc4c6188733df31e2ea0ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Engeler Nicole C.; Gilbert Sam J.. The effect of metacognitive training on confidence and strategic reminder setting. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0240858; article XML SHA-256 e16cb4cca92ddd2061302322e9fb4b78e58dae12b8ffe51b5194a377301bd605. “The effect of metacognitive training on confidence and strategic reminder setting” (10.1371/journal.pone.0240858).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240858). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## underdog
<a id="underdog"></a>

An underdog is a person or group seen as being at a disadvantage in a competition while still making strong, persistent efforts. In psychology-related discussion, underdog status is linked with greater sympathy from others than an advantaged “top dog.”

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c2fed56fabc613d867735bbdd03afde66cfa17bc0ee62734cf23a314811a3382

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Yalin; Zhao Min. Underdog or Top Dog Brand Story? The Role of Self-Construal and Need of Uniqueness. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.765802; article XML SHA-256 1236942d9b27184a08e393ac5b7176cf92435f8ff1477624cdee530f72561516. “Underdog or Top Dog Brand Story? The Role of Self-Construal and Need of Uniqueness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.765802).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.765802). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## undershoot
<a id="undershoot"></a>

Undershoot is a problem in coordinating voluntary movement in which a limb falls short of an intended target. In the packet, it is described as a feature seen in cerebellar disease as part of dysmetria.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 56d54791127f78e082d3b1e783f63f5f7458abc847a610e127e6ddb513f9e1a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebellar Ataxia” (D002524).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002524). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## understanding
<a id="understanding"></a>

Understanding is the ability or act of grasping the meaning, nature, or importance of something. It can also refer to a patient’s or research participant’s comprehension of information given verbally or in writing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 430f6fa8e2960609c9ff43a464f884e619b7f2d196271520596ae80ad81ce8fc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Comprehension” (D032882).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D032882). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## undifferentiated schizophrenia
<a id="undifferentiated-schizophrenia"></a>

Undifferentiated schizophrenia is a subtype of schizophrenia in which the person shows the typical symptoms of schizophrenia, but the overall pattern does not fit the catatonic, paranoid, or disorganized subtypes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa4e0e4d30cf13602121ff8084458a29ced01067bd3e0fd25b8a6cf06e94b0a4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Undifferentiated Type Schizophrenia” (C94370).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unexplained variance
<a id="unexplained-variance"></a>

Unexplained variance is the remaining differences in an outcome that are not accounted for by factors already included in an analysis. In this study, it refers to variation left after demographic variables were considered, which deviation from balanced time perspective helped explain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6d2efe34c8b0cbbb8c7cb771c51b04c1d054f54d897e6eedf6b6ebaa53b02219

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mooney Anna; Earl Joanne K.; Mooney Carl H.; Bateman Hazel. Using Balanced Time Perspective to Explain Well-Being and Planning in Retirement. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01781; article XML SHA-256 dab070ba89be36b13e7093ba2b6b2d5697eb5fabbcf24abcf98a19c49013d9a0. “Using Balanced Time Perspective to Explain Well-Being and Planning in Retirement” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01781).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01781). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unfitness
<a id="unfitness"></a>

In this historical source, unfitness means a lack of suitability or adaptation to ordinary social life. It refers especially to how altered feelings, weak response to usual motives, and disordered conduct can make a person socially maladapted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 773614f027c60b5d9173c8ed4535cb32f7561223bbf5c57786896ee440254fa3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Insanity (and Sanity)” (Insanity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I3defs.htm#Insanity). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unfolding
<a id="unfolding"></a>

In this context, unfolding means the way a speech pattern develops moment by moment over the course of an utterance. It refers to how problems in contextual coherence can progressively emerge and intensify as discourse continues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: afc646f1a422a23eab454e47024b3da23967be4d44348b20617df0dce7b6009a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ryu Seunghyong; Kim Ju-Wan; Jhon Min; Chung Young-Chul; Kim Seok Jun; Lee Suehyun; Kim Jae-Min; Kim Sung-Wan. Tracking the dynamic breakdown of contextual coherence in schizophrenia using language models. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848956; article XML SHA-256 23cb84b0bcc5a5c15564a03e8cb7da131983a90153ea29b77fce0fe454b51cad. “Tracking the dynamic breakdown of contextual coherence in schizophrenia using language models” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848956).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1848956). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## uniform distribution
<a id="uniform-distribution"></a>

A uniform distribution is an arrangement of points that aims to spread them as evenly as possible across a surface, such as a sphere. In this source, how uniform the arrangement is can be assessed by looking at the distribution of distances between the points.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c5b1ae00b67b1555ee1fbf132aa2b782bc735fa7b05ffd565775670d6963287a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Del Bono Luca Maria; Nicoletti Flavio; Ricci-Tersenghi Federico. The most uniform distribution of points on the sphere. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313863; article XML SHA-256 b3cc974f7dd7ae7ca300128dd3026532220567a80cc0ae9b581093277553cb48. “The most uniform distribution of points on the sphere” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313863).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313863). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unilateral
<a id="unilateral"></a>

Unilateral means involving only one side of the body or one limb rather than both. In this study, it refers to practice or performance using a single hand, such as the left hand alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 80c45c069dc38119252dac9862dac0519aa17845b88887b99d706fc4e802d3a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Umeno Kazuya; Itaguchi Yoshihiro. Effects of bilateral and unilateral mental practice on actual motor performance and event-related desynchronization. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325860; article XML SHA-256 3a91342b4b4757faaa65d2c30fbcf4725f0ade55c1d77f683425da285793f96d. “Effects of bilateral and unilateral mental practice on actual motor performance and event-related desynchronization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325860).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325860). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unilateral neglect
<a id="unilateral-neglect"></a>

Unilateral neglect is a condition in which a person does not respond normally to things on one side, described here as the left side. It is discussed in the context of stroke patients and spatial attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 651431029205208c0426df248d16cbddef71baaf3875691caf0d4b9a2d90251f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chung Seok Jong; Park Eunjeong; Ye Byoung Seok; Lee Hye Sun; Chang Hyuk-Jae; Song Dongbeom; Kim Young Dae; Heo Ji Hoe; Nam Hyo Suk. The Computerized Table Setting Test for Detecting Unilateral Neglect. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0147030; article XML SHA-256 ee45e769ea4e0730f356b42a247186e1a4275818c1c98c1c85bcab11e34c8e85. “The Computerized Table Setting Test for Detecting Unilateral Neglect” (10.1371/journal.pone.0147030).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147030). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## uniocular
<a id="uniocular"></a>

Uniocular means limited to a single eye. In this historical passage, it refers to cases in which partial colour-blindness is present in one eye only.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0dcc13543267f30bb89a2a4e53ecffe43e53ed6485aa4408534891283c188d15

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4441500-4453500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unipolar disorder
<a id="unipolar-disorder"></a>

In this source, unipolar disorder refers to a condition marked by depressive symptoms that can be mistaken for bipolar disorder in clinical practice. It is described as being associated with cognitive deficits, including poorer working memory, and these difficulties may still be present even when symptoms are remitted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 806a135ab67ddfb95b0e9e373241d71645499cd1ab1d82248bff319d108d2779

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Zhinan; Chen Junhao; Feng Yigang; Zhong Shuming; Tian Shui; Dai Zhongpeng; Lu Qing; Guan Yufang; Shan Yanyan; Jia Yanbin. Differences in verbal and spatial working memory in patients with bipolar II and unipolar depression: an MSI study. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12888-021-03595-3; article XML SHA-256 69869e467b7296625993242101522126ddd649bb072aa7ab4c994711ab191651. “Differences in verbal and spatial working memory in patients with bipolar II and unipolar depression: an MSI study” (10.1186/s12888-021-03595-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03595-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unipolar neuron
<a id="unipolar-neuron"></a>

A unipolar neuron is a nerve cell with a single projection coming from its cell body. In the supplied source, this type of neuron is described as sensory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: afb96c71317a03a1e67000203f0e28617d1e6c38790025dedb7ae501ba571871

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Unipolar Neuron” (C33834).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unipolar stimulation
<a id="unipolar-stimulation"></a>

Unipolar stimulation refers to bottom-up sensorimotor input delivered through a single modality, such as visual, auditory, or physical exercise stimulation. In this context, it is described as influencing mood and depressive symptoms by engaging central affective brain circuitry, with effects that can either improve or worsen mood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 02927e426363310687f347eb8be5561396f0fc614d18fef5e2b5237c57da04c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Canbeyli Resit. Sensorimotor Modulation of Mood and Depression: In Search of an Optimal Mode of Stimulation. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00428; article XML SHA-256 9a4a287de246268bcfd3fb71a8545063c6118aae3fc06b88b7e79d52857da1a3. “Sensorimotor Modulation of Mood and Depression: In Search of an Optimal Mode of Stimulation” (10.3389/fnhum.2013.00428).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00428). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unique trait
<a id="unique-trait"></a>

A unique trait is a characteristic that distinguishes one organism or strain from related ones because it has not been observed in the others. In this source, it refers to the ability of a diatom strain to both grow and accumulate large amounts of lipids at the same time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4333e1fd4ba1f7e1480b276bfde213661cacbcf4ef0e3f8c24190c7d2ab88d3c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wong Pui Shan; Tanaka Michihiro; Sunaga Yoshihiko; Tanaka Masayoshi; Taniguchi Takeaki; Yoshino Tomoko; Tanaka Tsuyoshi; Fujibuchi Wataru; Aburatani Sachiyo. Tracking Difference in Gene Expression in a Time-Course Experiment Using Gene Set Enrichment Analysis. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0107629; article XML SHA-256 1057e4a23e2c5f8c9ec585c9b9efa3b8aea57584859a2e18616093bc61e92958. “Tracking Difference in Gene Expression in a Time-Course Experiment Using Gene Set Enrichment Analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0107629).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107629). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unit of analysis
<a id="unit-of-analysis"></a>

In this historical source, a unit of analysis is the selected element treated as the basic item for studying a phenomenon. The passage emphasizes that such a unit is often an abstract and arbitrary choice rather than a single natural or final element, and it argues that no general social unit had been established.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06cca5dd731d28ebb2859ad3ff64f86d2d7fa45e1d6876ee3fe8e848a2ee67b3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3066000-3078000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unity
<a id="unity"></a>

A state in which a group of people acts in ways that make them seem to share the same attitudes, feelings, and motives.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2c8d5f2d64fa6353b348a7e3dd4c1e5c3bc88e51e5fe069094396e2f3e82ca5e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mass Behavior” (D008399).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008399). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unity in variety
<a id="unity-in-variety"></a>

In aesthetics, unity in variety is the value found when different things or parts of experience are perceived as having an underlying oneness. It refers to a pleasing sense of coherence within diversity, such as when an analogy links varied elements into a single whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7b329ed17f3b35f8ca4cc25c2ffb7ed84e4c11147e6f407736009f5f13fe7bae

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Figure (and Figurative)” (Figure).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Figure). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## universal
<a id="universal"></a>

In this assessment context, universal means designed for use across different respondent groups rather than only one, such as patients, practitioners, students, and observers. It describes a measure intended to work in a comparable way for all of these groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 57cf1f94dcf701d2d1ab48851e6acf6aea1e8152fe592d49f828417ddfdd3bc3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bennett-Weston Amber; Maltby John; Khunti Kamlesh; Leung Char; Narwal Daya; Otoo Patience; Iyadi-Wilson Benita; Howick Jeremy. Rapid Assessment of Therapeutic Empathy (RATE): Development of a universal single-item empathy scale and validation of the patient-reported version. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346994; article XML SHA-256 f1cca4f5ffcbac3a4bed51ff924f47bed76ab2ffd4f032587a6b5581537e9df3. “Rapid Assessment of Therapeutic Empathy (RATE): Development of a universal single-item empathy scale and validation of the patient-reported version” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346994).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346994). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## universal grammar
<a id="universal-grammar"></a>

Universal grammar is grammar considered in the aspects that would apply to every possible language. In medieval thought, it referred to the view that the main structure, and even much of the detail, was shared by all languages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1b89e6b721ca68ff00ea91027821a06adb0b7552df9767210aa2a7550630cdef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4189500-4201500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## universality
<a id="universality"></a>

In this historical philosophical usage, universality is the general form of the moral law: a principle is to be acted on only if one could will it to hold as a universal law. Here it refers to the unconditional, exceptionless character expressed in Kant’s categorical imperative.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0773f512845f2bfe135d574f206346f393a3b56b94a19b6c87352775e1098b35

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Categorical Imperative” (Categorical Imperative).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Categorical Imperative). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## universals
<a id="universals"></a>

Universals are features of human nature or behavior that are thought to be widespread across people because they address problems humans have commonly faced. In this context, examples include tendencies such as sexual jealousy or incest avoidance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f4620de002c50b4b14916bf1fe05f19dff7d02c990d475d7c87b998bea822309

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Salmon Catherine; Hehman Jessica. Adaptive calibration in a world of human universals. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1899620; article XML SHA-256 4fd6b39c09761b3517134c72a903004f877b6aae65e97584442d8eab6e853ed6. “Adaptive calibration in a world of human universals” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1899620).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1899620). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test
<a id="university-of-pennsylvania-smell-identification-test"></a>

The University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test is a test of olfactory function, meaning how well a person can identify smells. In this source, lower UPSIT scores indicate poorer smell identification and were associated with dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson’s disease dementia compared with Alzheimer’s disease dementia and normal controls.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bbd1591b3232010d99d90ad8a954d897ed2dda958419619af9c2f5a8e69fb63b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Beach Thomas G; Adler Charles H; Zhang Nan; Serrano Geidy E; Sue Lucia I; Driver-Dunckley Erika; Mehta Shayamal H; Zamrini Edouard E; Sabbagh Marwan N; Shill Holly A; Belden Christine M; Shprecher David R; Caselli Richard J; Reiman Eric M; Davis Kathryn J; Long Kathy E; Nicholson Lisa R; Intorcia Anthony J; Glass Michael J; Walker Jessica E; Callan Michael M; Oliver Javon C; Arce Richard; Gerkin Richard C. Severe hyposmia distinguishes neuropathologically confirmed dementia with Lewy bodies from Alzheimer’s disease dementia. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0231720; article XML SHA-256 1397000532d172099ce0d0917952a9580633f47706f4fc1443de1d90a8b50e77. “Severe hyposmia distinguishes neuropathologically confirmed dementia with Lewy bodies from Alzheimer’s disease dementia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0231720).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231720). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unmyelinated
<a id="unmyelinated"></a>

Unmyelinated refers to a type of nerve fiber identified by how its sheath is arranged. These fibers have small axons, carry signals relatively slowly, and make up most peripheral sensory and autonomic fibers, though they are also present in the brain and spinal cord.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2034bcad3419c6502b5085589eb5294eed230fbf59a53afe5f68823c0a2caea4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nerve Fibers, Unmyelinated” (D036421).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D036421). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unobtrusive measure
<a id="unobtrusive-measure"></a>

An unobtrusive measure is an indirect way of assessing a person during an activity by using behavior that occurs as part of the task itself, such as the steps taken while navigating. In this context, it is used to estimate things like disorientation or learning-related performance without interrupting the activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f47c35331f27033fc6511cfafe2acebfbc7a374bb610419497582bd1d95b71fa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ferguson Chris; van Oostendorp Herre. Lost in Learning: Hypertext Navigational Efficiency Measures Are Valid for Predicting Learning in Virtual Reality Educational Games. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.578154; article XML SHA-256 2fae6bcc4a08b24f87cc7e0024c22dfe35e9e993529d3df5428a17b45cab9bc2. “Lost in Learning: Hypertext Navigational Efficiency Measures Are Valid for Predicting Learning in Virtual Reality Educational Games” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.578154).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.578154). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unplanned comparison
<a id="unplanned-comparison"></a>

An unplanned comparison is a test comparing means that is selected only after the results have been looked at. It is also called a post hoc comparison and is distinguished from a planned comparison.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e41aad091fd853dcd2e26e1c3c4675613a867bd86ce4a82d0724a408909e7b06

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Unplanned Comparison” (unplanned.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/unplanned.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unpleasure
<a id="unpleasure"></a>

Unpleasure is the felt state that arises when drives remain unsatisfied. In this account, it contrasts with pleasure, which is supported by a favorable human environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e542cb4b7a9dfb705e1ac9f56f5ada76e3181958714d4abda510faa6f164cea6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Johnson Brian; Brand David; Zimmerman Edward; Kirsch Michael. Drive, instinct, reflex—Applications to treatment of anxiety, depressive and addictive disorders. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.870415; article XML SHA-256 7a3c39a14ecb53262323678e2ea5b60a89c568458cf4f82f5ccd5141a300efc4. “Drive, instinct, reflex—Applications to treatment of anxiety, depressive and addictive disorders” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.870415).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.870415). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## unresolved
<a id="unresolved"></a>

In this context, unresolved means a question or problem that has not yet been satisfactorily answered. Here it refers to the still-open issue of whether AI can turn passive digital sensing data into clinically valid measures while addressing concerns such as bias, privacy, and unclear model decision-making.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 477a0938819c89c0e3b0063315019911459eea6f96d42148b71a18b3316c211e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shu Yanping; Li Qing; Liang Lifan; Liu Jiaoying; Zheng Zuli; Li Tong; Huang Sha; Chen Jiajing; Wen Juanrong; Tan Jiang. AI-enabled passive digital phenotyping of experiential negative symptoms in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders: a narrative review on the path from sensing to clinical endpoints. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1898444; article XML SHA-256 9af2530dac4b9922b5a0008760f3e256537ce95af2fa28ba9d03b4e1974dbafd. “AI-enabled passive digital phenotyping of experiential negative symptoms in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders: a narrative review on the path from sensing to clinical endpoints” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1898444).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1898444). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Unsafe Sex
<a id="unsafe-sex"></a>

Unsafe sex refers to sexual behavior that carries a high chance of leading to sexually transmitted diseases or pregnancy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b44c99b8c712fc9c59166aa2c98af8caa2f9a0035ca19fa29d0b9229e3480ff8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Unsafe Sex” (D047568).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D047568). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## up-and-down method
<a id="up-and-down-method"></a>

The up-and-down method is a dose-finding approach used to estimate the drug concentration needed to produce a target effect in a proportion of patients, such as the concentration that prevents coughing in 50% or 95% of people during emergence from anesthesia. In the source, it was used with isotonic regression to estimate effective remifentanil concentrations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b3c3c256ef45d7ea0f9ae4f209cf0bc3aa9d610563f2eb73475635926883a4f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kwon Ji-Hye; Shin Young Hee; Gil Nam-Su; Park Jungchan; Chung Yoon Joo; Hahm Tae Soo; Jeong Ji Seon. Effect-site concentration of remifentanil for smooth emergence from sevoflurane anesthesia in patients undergoing endovascular neurointervention. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0218074; article XML SHA-256 b80d829f3a907a3105b03ae42f3d9181f442f8855396ff30f82272a5e13524dd. “Effect-site concentration of remifentanil for smooth emergence from sevoflurane anesthesia in patients undergoing endovascular neurointervention” (10.1371/journal.pone.0218074).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0218074). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## upper hinge
<a id="upper-hinge"></a>

The upper hinge is the part of a box plot that marks the 75th percentile of the data.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 54a88a0524033d3cb59af1431c761eae84347220cff078acdbd66a0bfaf0f45d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Upper Hinge” (upper_hinge.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/upper_hinge.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## UPSIT
<a id="upsit"></a>

UPSIT is the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test, a measure used to assess olfactory function, meaning a person’s ability to identify odors. In this source, it was used to compare smell performance between people with multiple sclerosis and healthy controls.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d019b0715e842e568df0f63340ef670062b13cab92e15397d4c9848edd3d28ef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Danzhen Zhuoma; Yang Zhang; Chu Lan; Gao Zidan. Disease-modifying therapies are associated with improved olfactory function via NK cell- microbiota interactions in multiple sclerosis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fimmu.2026.1889149; article XML SHA-256 9bc7fdecb517ef1662bac0bf1a3fca995a8506d4923f5dcbfdab985c15e5d6de. “Disease-modifying therapies are associated with improved olfactory function via NK cell- microbiota interactions in multiple sclerosis” (10.3389/fimmu.2026.1889149).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2026.1889149). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## upward social comparison
<a id="upward-social-comparison"></a>

Upward social comparison is the tendency to judge oneself against people seen as better off or more advantaged. It often highlights one’s own perceived shortcomings and is linked with lower self-esteem and negative feelings such as self-doubt, anxiety, depression, or relative deprivation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f508abfeae26a769190b5dd3b2f03161084ced6d87c925ecc0357433328312b7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lin Huiru; Hu Yue; Li Jinliang; Yang Zhiwei. Relationship between upward social comparison and financial gambling motives among Chinese lottery gamblers: the roles of relative deprivation and socioeconomic status. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809867; article XML SHA-256 34b64984603191b24953c8a0dd317c0be1afa949b969b004e60b698a90f8930f. “Relationship between upward social comparison and financial gambling motives among Chinese lottery gamblers: the roles of relative deprivation and socioeconomic status” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809867).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809867). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## urban ecology
<a id="urban-ecology"></a>

Urban ecology is the study of ecological patterns and processes in cities as complex systems shaped by both environmental conditions and human social factors. It examines how urban features and social conditions influence living communities and their interactions across urban landscapes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 24b3f02d1507350bc5b0d50c66f2c5fad93dc49a3b227cde2107ddc8726b454e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fitch Gordon; Adler Lynn S; Irwin Rebecca E; Warren Paige S. Socioecological drivers of mutualistic and antagonistic plant-insect interactions and interaction outcomes in suburban landscapes. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312143; article XML SHA-256 f67561424d4cebb243fa175d029d4a43b7e937b5eb0299a0bb9f7230af6f97d7. “Socioecological drivers of mutualistic and antagonistic plant-insect interactions and interaction outcomes in suburban landscapes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312143).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312143). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## urbanism
<a id="urbanism"></a>

Urbanism here refers to a pattern of settlement centered on small fortified towns within interconnected walled oases, with organized residential, decision-making, and burial areas linked by streets. In this source, it is described as a low or slow form of urbanization that reflects modest but growing social complexity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee1c98ff8fff3ad00d971c2f1c14719cc39f6d6549732239a4f09720d0ec6a60

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Charloux Guillaume; Shabo Shadi; Depreux Bruno; Colin Sylvain; Guadagnini Kévin; Guermont François; Dupuy Sabine; Bussy Mylène; Bec Drelon Noisette; Poulmarc’h Modwene; Albukaai Diaa; Alshilali Saifi; Crassard Rémy; AlMushawh Munirah. A Bronze Age town in the Khaybar walled oasis: Debating early urbanization in Northwestern Arabia. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0309963; article XML SHA-256 20fcbbf3246464285801ba1dabc66837ef8952513e63dbb35f4172f55af6568f. “A Bronze Age town in the Khaybar walled oasis: Debating early urbanization in Northwestern Arabia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0309963).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309963). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## urinary incontinence
<a id="urinary-incontinence"></a>

Urinary incontinence is the involuntary loss of urine, such as urine leakage. It is a symptom that can result from different underlying disease processes, with major types including urge incontinence and stress incontinence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 744a344b88e2a492c1fd261cfc0b563b45948b73c5356a22f9e7c0d19366b79b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Urinary Incontinence” (D014549).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014549). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## urination
<a id="urination"></a>

Urination is the passing of urine. In the source context, visible urination during handling or procedures is described as a sign associated with stress in mice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 8066d9e37f590841efb3262129e1f7fa3210bdc05b43ba1e56ca62ef52d8ec50

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Schlutt Anne; Riesner Katarina; Kochan Merle; Meß Ann-Kathrin; Jahn Denise; Lurje Isabella; Werner Wiebke; Heymann Felix; Kershaw Olivia; Tacke Frank; Hiebl Bernhard; Hammerich Linda. A novel application tunnel in combination with medical training reduces stress induced by frequent intraperitoneal injections and blood draws in mice. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341404; article XML SHA-256 2430d4bcbc862a5b6356b5680a19e1a8f81b8b7d220d5c464de85473eb0abca7. “A novel application tunnel in combination with medical training reduces stress induced by frequent intraperitoneal injections and blood draws in mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341404).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341404). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## urogenital
<a id="urogenital"></a>

Urogenital refers to the body structures involved in the urinary and reproductive systems. In this packet, it describes the lower tract including organs such as the urinary bladder, prostate, seminal vesicles, and ductus deferens.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e46c7e1d4fd033c15087de7a1f6b8781debf348800ee4f909ec330d0c611b6a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Limkar Ajinkya R; Sharma Simran M; Ricke William A. High-resolution ex vivo nanoCT reveals 3D architecture of the adult male mouse lower urogenital tract. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326004; article XML SHA-256 7025b1a325e19cd46af60d98d349cd56d97b99196a8c88d0a7257593d030e9f3. “High-resolution ex vivo nanoCT reveals 3D architecture of the adult male mouse lower urogenital tract” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326004).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326004). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## urticaria
<a id="urticaria"></a>

Urticaria is a skin reaction in which areas become red and raised because small blood vessels become more permeable. It can be linked to allergy, infection, or stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c90cc44248ec8b137a022f80ea331447dd24dd193c0b0b7880c5e62ca8135fb8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Urticaria” (D014581).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014581). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## US devaluation
<a id="us-devaluation"></a>

US devaluation is a procedure in Pavlovian conditioning that reduces the current value of the unconditioned stimulus, such as making water less valuable by giving it until satiation. It is used to test whether a conditioned response depends on the present value of that outcome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 563ff137210f7cb48298363c71962801b1379209bfd95123c6fefe45c9b9df5d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mizunami Makoto. What Is Learned in Pavlovian Conditioning in Crickets? Revisiting the S-S and S-R Learning Theories. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.661225; article XML SHA-256 ffa69cbfc77f8ffd9dc0cadba6cd7b32e828fe2c7aac0ac949d25d69a07a4d13. “What Is Learned in Pavlovian Conditioning in Crickets? Revisiting the S-S and S-R Learning Theories” (10.3389/fnbeh.2021.661225).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2021.661225). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## usable
<a id="usable"></a>

In this context, usable means that a protection or support process can be practically accessed and carried through by disabled people in real conditions, not just offered in theory. A usable response works across steps such as disclosure, evidence, movement, and care so that barriers do not stop access to safety.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09f9aaa037646a05e76a68378a7a4336264c682b891646239d301e644f6d68b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Feng Zehua; Li Yilin; Xia Wenzong; Hu Yu. Invisible harm and constrained response: a conceptual analysis of psychological domestic abuse against disabled people in China. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1928590; article XML SHA-256 c1a410e542045e37d301c2d3ffd043bf588163dac7d2d79a32e6148e541e56e0. “Invisible harm and constrained response: a conceptual analysis of psychological domestic abuse against disabled people in China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1928590).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1928590). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## useful field of view
<a id="useful-field-of-view"></a>

Useful field of view is the area of the visual field from which a person can take in information in a single glance without moving the eyes or head. In psychology and vision research, it refers to how efficiently someone can quickly pick out relevant visual information, a skill linked to everyday activities such as driving, visual search, and mobility.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4f84f4514034e870862df4932d027134e4fa4738dc03bd00d0cd243e0ecb7ea5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Woutersen Karlijn; van den Berg Albert V; Boonstra F Nienke; Theelen Thomas; Goossens Jeroen. Useful field of view test performance throughout adulthood in subjects without ocular disorders. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0196534; article XML SHA-256 c04daf779cc3295819b15064ebb19eebdfcdebaea63a6a5bc3a856bb6205efbb. “Useful field of view test performance throughout adulthood in subjects without ocular disorders” (10.1371/journal.pone.0196534).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196534). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## user-centered design
<a id="user-centered-design"></a>

User-centered design is an iterative way of developing a product or intervention in close collaboration with the people who will use it, so the end result fits their needs. It typically involves analyzing the problem and users’ needs, creating and revising a prototype, and evaluating it in real-life use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 40e4aac4b93ba95a5e7caae17f46b0925af4825cf333ae9df144bf947673bde6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [van der Meer Lisette; Jonker Tessa; Wadman Heleen; Wunderink Charlotte; van Weeghel Jaap; Pijnenborg Gerdina Hendrika Maria; van Setten Ellie R. H.. Targeting Personal Recovery of People With Complex Mental Health Needs: The Development of a Psychosocial Intervention Through User-Centered Design. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.635514; article XML SHA-256 2b0e10430d7d164cd8865d5d50dc71ab91d102f84b6f8181d9010d3f1dc036e8. “Targeting Personal Recovery of People With Complex Mental Health Needs: The Development of a Psychosocial Intervention Through User-Centered Design” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.635514).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.635514). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## user-friendly
<a id="user-friendly"></a>

User-friendly describes a tool or system that is easy for people to use, with features that make tasks understandable and manageable without requiring technical expertise such as coding. In this context, it also implies a clear, accessible workflow that helps users complete a process from start to finish.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eb44345134a88b8c9f01f1fd2e0dd5718a5dd761b57c576a39abec34a831390c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guastadisegni Lucia; Greco Fedele; Trivisano Carlo. ShinyDataMatcher: A user-friendly application for integrating survey data. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353530; article XML SHA-256 43bc20c5740ec2d56470d33116beb39a5ab73b256777416b4ab2d31a5064988e. “ShinyDataMatcher: A user-friendly application for integrating survey data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353530).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353530). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Usher syndrome
<a id="usher-syndrome"></a>

Usher syndrome is a group of inherited autosomal recessive disorders marked by hearing loss present from birth and retinitis pigmentosa. The condition is genetically and clinically varied, with types I, II, and III differing in severity, timing of vision changes, and amount of balance-system dysfunction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 510f48bc2a5c5dd0c8727bc0aa2a7dc8a049c43a7cf72bef53fe2852e494bfc0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Usher Syndromes” (D052245).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D052245). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## utilitarianism
<a id="utilitarianism"></a>

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory: a coherent set of ideas meant to offer general standards for guiding and judging moral conduct.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a20ab47cfc3aecc915f6ec0a11cd849338e7cb3da514e414dd827a2c2e8304b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ethical Theory” (D028663).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D028663). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## utility theory
<a id="utility-theory"></a>

Utility theory here is a framework for describing subjective happiness, especially how current happiness is shaped by recent monetary conditions. It proposes that happiness is influenced through social comparison with other people and through self-adaptation to one’s own past conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ea526d2c4b688f7c53ff2d0d84929deb5a00ddbf2e48551031eea6218cc87d4e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chai Junyi. Measuring happiness under interpersonal comparison: An advanced theoretical framework and implications. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0261407; article XML SHA-256 2109480fd9cd72bc2034aa8d5d038c1b3b916143013a4be2b5fa3e5597c7b75c. “Measuring happiness under interpersonal comparison: An advanced theoretical framework and implications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0261407).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261407). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## utricle
<a id="utricle"></a>

The utricle is a sac in the inner ear’s vestibular system and the larger of the two otolith organs. It has sensory receptors that detect horizontal linear acceleration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d1c1845182adecf05aa02f6f22d15ef3573d2733a64c7cd15e6ed6711a3eed8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Utricle” (C33844).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## UV
<a id="uv"></a>

UV refers to ultraviolet light. In this context, it is the potentially harmful part of light that is filtered out of a light box used for light therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9177981e461be2f03f10b9363b7f4cc0d883de60890fe32cfb60265b4b299f6a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Seasonal Affective Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d89120086a5f01bf70f21f43fbf64f1a5b58f4c35f5185f5dac0c769f3d6317c. “Seasonal Affective Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## uveal tract
<a id="uveal-tract"></a>

The uveal tract is the pigmented middle layer of the eyeball. It lies between the eye’s tough white outer coat and the retina.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3ecc4e7db9f10b27f32a33885a35f565d5795694c4970989e22962cd5fb44d70

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Uveal Tract” (C12811).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## V
<a id="v"></a>

In this source, V refers to the label for a specific arm of the MATCH phase II clinical trial. It identifies the study group testing sunitinib in patients whose tumors have KIT gene mutations, excluding gastrointestinal stromal tumors, renal cell cancers, and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 290c1c3f7a7c294149e2ef44df69ed405dab9336cd5f957e7c9c447760bf9f48

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “MATCH Arm EAY131-V” (C173028).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## V1
<a id="v1"></a>

V1 is an early visual brain area involved in the first stages of encoding basic visual features. In this context, it is described as part of the lower level of the visual processing hierarchy that communicates with higher-order visual regions to help turn visual input into meaningful representations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9a9fcc8efba5aec04bde3ad261336492ea35b8bf6833f4c3a42ebb563534581c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tian Jiawen; Zhang Hui; Wang Xinyu; Zhang Hongyu; Ma Longyao; Mei Bohui; Zhang Mengzhe; Lang Yan; Wei Yarui; Han Shaoqiang; Lv Qingqing; Zhang Yong. Altered long-range visual hierarchical connectivity in internet gaming disorder: reduced V1–LOC connectivity and its association with addiction severity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883842; article XML SHA-256 7910fcc8b522d8e073c4d4b0d664fb8c25a7724a89c7063d3c981449d22ccd28. “Altered long-range visual hierarchical connectivity in internet gaming disorder: reduced V1–LOC connectivity and its association with addiction severity” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883842).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1883842). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## V2
<a id="v2"></a>

V2 is the second version of the traditional game Elbow Tag, created by changing a rule from V1. In this study, that rule change substantially altered how player roles changed and shaped the game's timing, interactions, and subjective experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 77336b35e85410116971901080faf660386cb6b2a7787e3aa3bcb4fff9d90bd0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Lavega-Burgués Pere; Luchoro-Parrilla Rafael; Pla-Pla Paula; Pic Miguel. The development of social sustainability through traditional sporting games. A temporal approach with the Elbow Tag. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312092; article XML SHA-256 8b156205cdb08cb1b84fe2fd68712ff5e72f730b5fbb11c19ae7207f6f0358f4. “The development of social sustainability through traditional sporting games. A temporal approach with the Elbow Tag” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312092).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312092). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## V3
<a id="v3"></a>

In this source, V3 refers to DeepSeek-V3, a large language model examined for the pattern of values it appeared to reflect. It was compared with other AI models and with university students, with the AI models showing strongest emphasis on theoretical values and the lowest emphasis on religious values.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ff21afc83b786faf27c7fdb5446f681f1acbd7b50e0b421ea64752377b7e5268

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sufyan Nabil Saleh; Alshehri Sami M.; Teleb Ahmed Ali; Abbady Adel; Awad Asiri Ahmed Ali Al; Elamrousy Nilly H.; Khasawneh Mohamad A. S.. Value systems of artificial intelligence and university students: theoretical dominance in large language models and religious priority in humans. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755145; article XML SHA-256 5ae22cd28506c475eb69b20fcccec07ebdd23cc8ed41fb48e7f67c021774e4ed. “Value systems of artificial intelligence and university students: theoretical dominance in large language models and religious priority in humans” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755145).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755145). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## V5
<a id="v5"></a>

In this source, V5 refers to YOLO v5, a deep learning image-detection model. It was used to find intrasinus calcifications on paranasal sinus CT scans as part of distinguishing fungal from non-fungal sinusitis.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 900f8bc692a0978c7f2c0c036f52724dd3c1c63c2adef2d57eb8ed07d1aa6d25

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yang Zepa; Choi Insung; Yun Hoo; Kim Siwoo; Jung Hye Na; Suh Sangil; Kim Bo Kyu; Kim Byungjun; You Sung-Hye; Ryoo Inseon. Deep learning detection and classification of fungal and non-fungal calcifications on paranasal sinus CT imaging. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340832; article XML SHA-256 16d74e088f2645f55f85b2f8852ea4e3b89170b925761085ed3d6aaa704cd905. “Deep learning detection and classification of fungal and non-fungal calcifications on paranasal sinus CT imaging” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340832).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340832). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## VA
<a id="va"></a>

VA usually means visual acuity: how sharp a person’s vision is and how well they can make out fine detail.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db860824002727b22c3bfe6603140e3a258182dac513e3b0286fab49babeca14

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Visual Acuity” (C87149).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## VABS
<a id="vabs"></a>

VABS stands for the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, a tool used to assess social functioning and adaptive behaviors in children and adolescents from preschool through age 18. Its results are used to help support the diagnosis of intellectual and developmental disabilities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 71756f1d5d4ba16aedf2ebaaa6fbeaccef0b988cd19ba0dc51056e1e42768e64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales” (C88048).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vagal tone
<a id="vagal-tone"></a>

Vagal tone, in this psychology context, refers to the level of vagal influence on the heart, commonly reflected by heart rate variability. It is used as a sign of how well neural systems involved in emotion and thinking are functioning, with higher resting levels linked to more adaptive processing of emotional information and better emotion regulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6101e873b1cfd735f06c816bb6280359b1534d5db46d9ccb3a987549cfbaccd3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Park Gewnhi; Thayer Julian F.. From the heart to the mind: cardiac vagal tone modulates top-down and bottom-up visual perception and attention to emotional stimuli. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00278; article XML SHA-256 64625c0138c1354b15c25b9ecfde27bb89e77c2054b79560f0ebaa9b3a1cc76e. “From the heart to the mind: cardiac vagal tone modulates top-down and bottom-up visual perception and attention to emotional stimuli” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00278).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00278). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vaginismus
<a id="vaginismus"></a>

Vaginismus is a condition in which the outer vaginal muscles repeatedly or persistently tighten involuntarily during vaginal penetration.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cef06b61c6221c32793de442f37380d5b2e406d7310366e4e666aa7d7ae47314

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vaginismus” (D052065).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D052065). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vagus nerve
<a id="vagus-nerve"></a>

The vagus nerve is the tenth cranial nerve. It carries incoming sensory information from part of the outer ear and from organs in the throat, chest, and abdomen, and it also sends parasympathetic and voluntary motor signals to structures in the throat, chest, and abdomen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8485d8916ab0ce8a4de206bee4e32fb56091e4a0c5b63969b67f195ecd46e341

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vagus Nerve” (D014630).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014630). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## validation
<a id="validation"></a>

In assessment, validation is the process of testing whether a scale or measure works appropriately in a particular population or setting. It involves examining its validity, reliability, and other psychometric properties to understand how well it performs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 969632364fd82722baf8a15ddd285d1345015e07d6a23b64a5f746473a790d5d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Wei; Qiao Yi-Yuan; Zhong Jie. Validation and reliability of the Athens Insomnia Scale-8 in Chinese psychiatric inpatients. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1651778; article XML SHA-256 65735b9869457852d2f5b8258997cffd31bbf8a102a9fa490e37d69f30ac8180. “Validation and reliability of the Athens Insomnia Scale-8 in Chinese psychiatric inpatients” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1651778).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1651778). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## validity check
<a id="validity-check"></a>

A validity check is an outside test or measurement used to judge whether a report, impression, or conclusion matches what is actually true. In this context, it contrasts with relying only on subjective judgments without independent confirmation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 53cc384a249a298f028225b8efb4e1788f92b56a7dbb3ff0619b9226fe6bab6b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rosenzweig Gal. Scientific Thinking About Legal Truth. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.918282; article XML SHA-256 32fb47595ff3ca77d80503fbbceec810a05cf7b7cd32398957c57b83a605ef4b. “Scientific Thinking About Legal Truth” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.918282).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.918282). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Valium
<a id="valium"></a>

Valium is diazepam, a benzodiazepine with anxiety-reducing, calming, sleep-inducing, and anticonvulsant effects. It works by strengthening the brain’s inhibitory GABA signaling, which lowers nerve cell excitability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3c6f08b9a791ad0c1b3b385a45160662f01b30f9cad666e3f067d93ceec48dd7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Diazepam” (C28982).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## valproic acid
<a id="valproic-acid"></a>

Valproic acid is a fatty acid medication with anticonvulsant and anti-manic effects, used to treat epilepsy and bipolar disorder. Its therapeutic action is not fully understood, but it may work by raising gamma-aminobutyric acid levels in the brain or changing voltage-gated sodium channel function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d372f8586948785de1892fb6006286853b7c8202e77efd6ed592d6a6e395fae6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Valproic Acid” (D014635).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014635). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## value system
<a id="value-system"></a>

A value system is a person’s organized set of values, including how those values are arranged and what they consist of. In this source, it is discussed as a personal framework that can become disrupted in schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: personality
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ac69bc491a59d867a3a4fc0f0af86432593d83bad424113ba809ebe67de25f3f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Dvoinin Alexey M.; Kopeyko Grigoriy I.; Borisova Olga A.; Gedevani Ekaterina V.. Does religious faith contribute to the preservation of personal value system in patients with schizophrenia? an empirical research. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1553990; article XML SHA-256 42d28ea42278f7df1db084d8b04cf0a4dd597f05ad5eba782c46d78f059322b1. “Does religious faith contribute to the preservation of personal value system in patients with schizophrenia? an empirical research” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1553990).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1553990). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## values education
<a id="values-education"></a>

Values education is the educational process of helping people acquire, internalize, and act on shared values that shape behavior, attitudes, and character. It is intended to support affective as well as cognitive development and is carried out through schools together with teachers, families, and the wider community.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: efc55b39b9b84f98e44ca815c7fd188bc73d9f26bb763ca7825eedea6e5590c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Erbaş Ahmet Akif; Kiraz Karabulut Elif Sena. The effect of values education on students' attitudes toward values: A meta-analysis of graduate theses conducted in Türkiye. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1897199; article XML SHA-256 8cb1498e60f1e15a6fab0032c093aa356b7401d9edd288f740e64355936eac70. “The effect of values education on students' attitudes toward values: A meta-analysis of graduate theses conducted in Türkiye” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1897199).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1897199). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## variability
<a id="variability"></a>

Variability is the degree to which values differ from each other, or how spread out a set of scores or a distribution is.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6bbda3dd38297ad6ba76f1ae816e4923db1352bf77a0a7c65b6af09974b7396f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Variability” (variability.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/variability.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## variable
<a id="variable"></a>

A variable is anything that can have different values across people, situations, or conditions in a study. Variables may be classified in different ways, such as dependent or independent, qualitative or quantitative, and continuous or discrete.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b01b6c4aae8db3341723c83ec81132ff63d4b748d396623b239143edd75933a7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Variable” (variable.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/variable.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## variable error
<a id="variable-error"></a>

Variable error is a measure of how much a person’s responses vary across repeated judgments or tasks, used as an index of precision. Smaller variable error means more consistent, more precise performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 51e5b15d3fdc5653469c9cd6e7280398e09ef77aeeb44bb403480aa3047a241b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Martinez-Cascales Isidro; de la Fuente Juanma; Santiago Julio; Santiago Julio. Space and time bisection in schizophrenia. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00823; article XML SHA-256 ac6ea06fda72148a70caf83ce87e2afc5af5d58811f48e147777a40ca54675e5. “Space and time bisection in schizophrenia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00823).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00823). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## variable stimulus
<a id="variable-stimulus"></a>

In psychophysics, a variable stimulus is a comparison stimulus that is presented alongside a standard stimulus and varied across different values along a sensory dimension such as loudness, roughness, or brightness. The observer judges whether this changing stimulus is greater, less, or equal to the standard.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c0aba420aea5660764ca6846d7d437af17cad6960b1b568c19275904c9a77be3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vidotto Giulio; Anselmi Pasquale; Robusto Egidio. New Perspectives in Computing the Point of Subjective Equality Using Rasch Models. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02793; article XML SHA-256 994f2419d0ffacdbec8b55637272a766581e5ab7968061fd6021ab22b34a6888. “New Perspectives in Computing the Point of Subjective Equality Using Rasch Models” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02793).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02793). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## variable-time schedule
<a id="variable-time-schedule"></a>

A variable-time schedule is a time-based, non-contingent schedule in which an event such as water delivery occurs at changing time intervals rather than at one constant interval. In learning research, it is used to study how varying the timing of deliveries affects behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c0dbf6f2c53a7e4cabccca726eb99c0657df6d7f576004c97c50bba883a25c96

Sources:
- Drafting source: [León Alejandro; Hernández Varsovia; Huerta Ursula; Hernández-Linares Carlos Alberto; Toledo Porfirio; Avendaño Garrido Martha Lorena; Escamilla Navarro Esteban; Guzmán Isiris. Ecological Location of a Water Source and Spatial Dynamics of Behavior Under Temporally Scheduled Water Deliveries in a Modified Open-Field System: An Integrative Approach. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577903; article XML SHA-256 d24817bd9d6ef18af79476cb86b2703d1d9a57f87824c3344ca096df2cadc8cd. “Ecological Location of a Water Source and Spatial Dynamics of Behavior Under Temporally Scheduled Water Deliveries in a Modified Open-Field System: An Integrative Approach” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577903).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577903). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## variance
<a id="variance"></a>

Variance is a common statistical measure of how spread out a set of scores is. It is calculated as the average of the squared differences between the scores and their mean.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0437aa7116da309395bccc44dc309979e85885d9416a9955ac8982483ce28891

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Variance” (variance.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/variance.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## varicella
<a id="varicella"></a>

Varicella, also called chickenpox, is the illness caused when a person is first infected with varicella-zoster virus. This virus can later become active again in life and cause herpes zoster.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 68d8caa1da8b611042abd56d9d4c3a812ae8f5843e4da6d0eaccd20f9402844f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Hongye; Lv Peiyao; Ma Runmeng; Guo Shuping; Zhang Ping; Guo Jiane; Gao Ruihong; Wang Jitao. Analysis of the genotyping of circulating strains and characteristics of Glycoprotein E of Varicella-Zoster Virus in Shanxi Province, China. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355368; article XML SHA-256 ed37b04a70d15b9f94653a082bf7393e286f9335acb6bc026ab20a7a61057213. “Analysis of the genotyping of circulating strains and characteristics of Glycoprotein E of Varicella-Zoster Virus in Shanxi Province, China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355368).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355368). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## variety
<a id="variety"></a>

In this mental health context, variety means the range of different foods a person eats. A low variety of food intake means eating only a limited selection of foods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ccbec811731b8a8875ebe73cafde7c146dcc2a6e78c41b2d3dd18ac2f090520a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. What Are Common Types of Eating Disorders?. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 a4b5d10e4b84fc68edab0c0391024f6901f27492e7220d464960e26249f46066. “What Are Common Types of Eating Disorders?” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/what-are-common-types-of-eating-disorders).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/what-are-common-types-of-eating-disorders). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vas-
<a id="vas"></a>

A visual analog scale is a psychometric rating tool used to measure a person’s subjective symptoms or experiences. It uses a continuous range of values between two fixed endpoints.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cf99821178bb8c7c5efbb1a812ddb2b47766adda51c0faed1736fd236fccfc58

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Visual Analog Scale” (C121547).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vascular dementia
<a id="vascular-dementia"></a>

Vascular dementia is a brain disorder caused by blocked blood flow in the brain that leads to worsening memory and other thinking abilities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 12647393e4aeaa749b83f5f61e50b0f61ca90c190ed2f3343bd0232599184e1d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Vascular Dementia” (C34525).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vascular depression
<a id="vascular-depression"></a>

Vascular depression is depression in later life that occurs in association with cerebrovascular disease shown by clinical findings or MRI.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c8c7e6d824e8289ef95d08367277af56ca907c43bee0523fd39c1b0dd3e2f66d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vascular Depression” (D000088323).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000088323). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vasectomy
<a id="vasectomy"></a>

Vasectomy is described here as a permanent birth-control option. It is meant for people who do not want more children and is grouped with other provider-dependent contraceptive methods that involve issues such as informed choice, stigma, and future fertility plans.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1a60a2973c77a394834aba3d46cbe40b262eb045038d0a94524d5bebdf2fbeb0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shoma Sharmin Sultana; Barden-O’Fallon Janine. Understanding the low uptake of long-acting reversible and permanent contraceptive methods in rural Bangladesh: A qualitative socio-ecological approach. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356493; article XML SHA-256 00e3e16196e498c2d4cf4e8a0a381471acd1d55963028b72476cd8ecc9c3a69d. “Understanding the low uptake of long-acting reversible and permanent contraceptive methods in rural Bangladesh: A qualitative socio-ecological approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356493).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356493). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vasopressin
<a id="vasopressin"></a>

Vasopressin is a neuropeptide discussed in autism research as a circulating body chemical related to social behavior. In young autistic children, its levels may differ from typical patterns, and giving vasopressin from outside the body has been reported to improve social symptoms, but its role in language development was not established in this source.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14dddc66c16ffd37609ee6bed35628e8ad54a0fb332e125cf05c7d1c30502e00

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Qin; Zhao Weihua; Xu Dan; Le Jiao; Kou Juan; Lan Chunmei; Xu Xinjie; Meng Fanchao; Li Xi; Shou Xiaojing; Zhang Rong; Kendrick Keith M.. Peripheral oxytocin but not vasopressin concentrations are associated with language skills in young autistic children. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1854532; article XML SHA-256 853e5ace3c3746abdad235750bd788fa89df9f3a174898efe6881be0fadbcf05. “Peripheral oxytocin but not vasopressin concentrations are associated with language skills in young autistic children” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1854532).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1854532). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vasopressor
<a id="vasopressor"></a>

A vasopressor is a medication used in shock or other hemodynamically unstable states to help stabilize a critically ill patient. In the source, it is discussed as a treatment that may be started through a peripheral line early, as a temporary measure before transfer or before central venous access is available.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5f2613e6c29e46cbe43e67721fce6185bdd2ecb015a4ebc332dba95f743962e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alkeridy Walid A; Alayed Khalid M; AlMuhaidib Shadan; Alageel Mohammed Khalid; Alqahtani Sarah Ahmed; Dher Shatha Bin; Almotairi Abdulaziz M; Lim Claire Ann; Alzahrani Musa F. Goals of care discussions among critically Ill patients on vasopressor treatment. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324482; article XML SHA-256 a46775dc2d5af1601d9d691dc66f643e5a4915576f84ebd400df14d439bee86e. “Goals of care discussions among critically Ill patients on vasopressor treatment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324482).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324482). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vasovagal syncope
<a id="vasovagal-syncope"></a>

Vasovagal syncope is an automatic body reflex triggered by emotional stress or stress from standing upright. It involves an unexpected drop in blood pressure along with a slowed heart rate.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e348231c5c9337cfe92ec1a829ac0f2e4a3561037f9b210fb5f1634e87e92542

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Vasovagal Syncope” (C35120).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## VCP
<a id="vcp"></a>

VCP stands for valosin-containing protein, a widely present cellular ATPase that helps separate ubiquitinated proteins from other structures so they can be recycled or broken down, and it also supports related processes in the endoplasmic reticulum, chromatin, mitochondria, and lysosomes. Changes in VCP have been linked in the packet to some neurodegenerative diseases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a46b77e61ad43c7e4f939bc33393ed0c1b770fe1ddcf0d0280669945f0c0d593

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yoshimoto Koichi; Ikeguchi Ryosuke; Noguchi Takashi; Ando Maki; Sakamoto Daichi; Iwai Terunobu; Nishitani Kohei; Ikeda Hanako Ohashi; Kakizuka Akira; Matsuda Shuichi. The effect of KUS121, a novel VCP modulator, against ischemic injury in random pattern flaps. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299882; article XML SHA-256 50b3093b029e19c10cbf282c5e9d45a1571cae5944a248dc0cb65e93672b5b44. “The effect of KUS121, a novel VCP modulator, against ischemic injury in random pattern flaps” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299882).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299882). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vection
<a id="vection"></a>

Vection is the felt perception that you are moving yourself, produced by visual motion in the surrounding scene. In this context, it refers to a conscious sense of self-motion evoked by optical flow or other moving visual patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fbdde51bf5f18cc62759557dfdaeac8824652d24f989f87ab5c03410936ae40c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Horiuchi Kentaro; Imanaka Kuniyasu; Ishihara Masami. Postural sway in the moving room scenario: New evidence for functional dissociation between self-motion perception and postural control. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0257212; article XML SHA-256 82f8454f004ccbb172d7975143f7672e667d492ff056811e69cd583655f665bf. “Postural sway in the moving room scenario: New evidence for functional dissociation between self-motion perception and postural control” (10.1371/journal.pone.0257212).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257212). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vector
<a id="vector"></a>

A vector is a DNA carrier that can replicate inside a host cell and can have other DNA added to it so those sequences can be copied. It is typically based on plasmids, bacteriophages, or viruses and is used to move foreign genes into cells, with marker features that help identify it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2830a9991b4a0a4cc9ca4b66c6733eb096941f880ead2d586af27842306152a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cloning Vector” (C1329).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Vedanta
<a id="vedanta"></a>

Vedanta, as described here in the form of Advaita Vedanta, is an Indian philosophical tradition that questions the idea of a fixed, enduring self-identity. In this psychology context, it is used as a perspective for understanding self-related experience, meta-awareness, and changes in self-experience linked to meditation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09d595429559df25f7628d74ea7c032e34c071f977f031d48d670dd263fb0d64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sharma Sonu; Kumar Pradeep; Chaudhary Vishva; Kumar Anuranjan; Yadav Anupam; Kumar Ravinder; Yadav Annu; Girdhar Anshul; Kalonia Nidhi; Singh Pavitra. A spectrum of self-processing modes: Indian philosophical insights and contemporary science on wellbeing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884131; article XML SHA-256 32c6342b618ec357af64cee5639672a249292ab6ad4d9889dad664447718eca3. “A spectrum of self-processing modes: Indian philosophical insights and contemporary science on wellbeing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884131).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884131). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vegetative
<a id="vegetative"></a>

In this context, vegetative refers to a cluster of symptoms that can form part of a depressive episode. These symptoms are described as especially prominent in melancholia and are discussed alongside psychomotor retardation as a distinct symptom profile that may relate to altered GABA function.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b125a50c6f517df4c64ff2930907e284618c42b117b5782fc104c21453b159ec

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Steinholtz Linda; Persson Jonas; Thörnblom Elin; Wall Anders; Lubberink Mark; Fällmar David; Bodén Robert. Inhibitory neurotransmission in frontostriatal circuitry: implications for psychomotor and vegetative symptoms in depressive episodes. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08573-1; article XML SHA-256 1ad56be6a97246f9b8aea2962cea0d5c496c37871e297f9512464f4261586468. “Inhibitory neurotransmission in frontostriatal circuitry: implications for psychomotor and vegetative symptoms in depressive episodes” (10.1186/s12888-026-08573-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08573-1). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## velocity of conduction
<a id="velocity-of-conduction"></a>

Velocity of conduction is the speed at which action potentials travel along a nerve fiber. In the source, it is one of the features used to distinguish types of cutaneous small nerve fibers, along with fiber diameter and myelination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 84cb637aa4edbfe6e0c2f6096325e895aa41c891bbb510aa561b29f85ff7f573

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Glatte Patrick; Buchmann Sylvia J.; Hijazi Mido Max; Illigens Ben Min-Woo; Siepmann Timo. Architecture of the Cutaneous Autonomic Nervous System. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fneur.2019.00970; article XML SHA-256 be4f8694358b39de79edeb6e71c6e0d99ea6f8eda477a2dfc57cd0f6261732ff. “Architecture of the Cutaneous Autonomic Nervous System” (10.3389/fneur.2019.00970).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.00970). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## venlafaxine
<a id="venlafaxine"></a>

Venlafaxine is a synthetic drug with antidepressant effects. It and its active metabolite mainly work by blocking the neuronal reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, with weaker effects on dopamine reuptake, and it may also lessen hormone-related hot-flash-type vasomotor symptoms.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 50138e40b185492170e73190cb99fa14e8388430dc9c6e364efa8ee0f315993d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Venlafaxine” (C1278).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Venn diagram
<a id="venn-diagram"></a>

A Venn diagram is a logical diagram, historically associated with John Venn, that shows possible class combinations by overlapping figures such as circles or ellipses. The parts that conflict with the stated premises are shaded or otherwise removed, leaving the combinations that remain possible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e904eedab4a42995b69e220abb41e12226034db1f7a380b208b3a4c871d9629

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-178500-190500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ventilation
<a id="ventilation"></a>

In this psychology context, ventilation refers to increased breathing, often done in a group breathwork setting and sometimes sustained long enough to change body chemistry. Prolonged increased breathing can lower carbon dioxide, alter nervous system activity, and affect perception, cognition, and mental well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be6cf60689b299e49d4145e7bfb70dd49c8f23d4ba0557357616b0dd27bd59d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Erdmann Lena; Breitenstein Barbara; Badanova Maria; Telschow Lennard; Havenith Martha; Dziobek Isabel. Exploring the benefits of altered states of consciousness and reduced experiential avoidance for mental well-being: insights from a global study on high ventilation breathwork. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777341; article XML SHA-256 d7aa4114951bfc0e37ebfa5acece030d622fcfe87f609c83478a7178eae5c661. “Exploring the benefits of altered states of consciousness and reduced experiential avoidance for mental well-being: insights from a global study on high ventilation breathwork” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777341).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777341). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ventral horn
<a id="ventral-horn"></a>

The ventral horn is the front part of the spinal cord that contains motor nerve cells. These cells send signals from the spinal cord to skeletal muscles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eaa1a8c8a8f26c900c1c07a6fb287200cd9ddaf2ee3e13397baea57c413e4946

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Anterior Horn Cells” (D000870).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000870). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ventral posterior cingulate cortex
<a id="ventral-posterior-cingulate-cortex"></a>

The ventral posterior cingulate cortex is a lower part of the posterior cingulate cortex, a brain region. In this source, it is identified as one of the areas whose functional connectivity with the amygdala changes immediately after acute stress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75215d20c4dd6cc9acfb1e206c6eb99b6f59d5c2268abcaa291554ffc2fe3e79

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Quaedflieg C. W. E. M.; van de Ven V.; Meyer T.; Siep N.; Merckelbach H.; Smeets T.. Temporal Dynamics of Stress-Induced Alternations of Intrinsic Amygdala Connectivity and Neuroendocrine Levels. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0124141; article XML SHA-256 9077229c40d501f6627245ba12b8f7f99dd642cc50956df67feb54d38cabd0ca. “Temporal Dynamics of Stress-Induced Alternations of Intrinsic Amygdala Connectivity and Neuroendocrine Levels” (10.1371/journal.pone.0124141).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0124141). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ventral root
<a id="ventral-root"></a>

In this historical source, the ventral roots are the roots of the spinal cord through which motor impulses leave the cord. They are described as the pathway by which signals arising in the cerebral cortex emerge to the muscles, after crossing to the opposite side within the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01ee4cd3f68f7a4117b3c92ea65928840ac9c41d2fd49d191ff0dfe6033e70f4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3297000-3309000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ventral tegmental area
<a id="ventral-tegmental-area"></a>

The ventral tegmental area is a part of the midbrain located near the substantia nigra and below the red nucleus. It is a major source of dopamine pathways that project to areas including the nucleus accumbens, and increased activity here has been suspected to play a role in the positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc7ea97938709e15e8a1a91db7436716e62427d76dfbe93be92de28088b40e01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ventral Tegmental Area” (D017557).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017557). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ventricle
<a id="ventricle"></a>

A ventricle is one of four connected hollow spaces located deep within the brain. These spaces are continuous toward the back with the central canal of the spinal cord.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: da3db851bdd18637e04fe130bcb0c4c9e9e537e912a0539ce5434b015cc0f785

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Brain Ventricle” (C12356).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ventricular zone
<a id="ventricular-zone"></a>

The ventricular zone is a developmental region in the forming brain where progenitor cells are found. In the cerebellar anlage, these cells sit at a branching point between GABA-ergic neuronal and glial cell lineages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2e3fd2eeab5815041c992e19eca0c70ca1fcfbdeb379a72a02f83bf5c1dcb26c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Younes Subhi Talal; Herrington Betty. In silico analysis identifies a putative cell-of-origin for BRAF fusion-positive cerebellar pilocytic astrocytoma. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0242521; article XML SHA-256 fdfa747b72589c2f9b3bc1337dcc25cdf149387e4689c3dbaf85084c7c87e161. “In silico analysis identifies a putative cell-of-origin for BRAF fusion-positive cerebellar pilocytic astrocytoma” (10.1371/journal.pone.0242521).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242521). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ventriculostomy
<a id="ventriculostomy"></a>

Ventriculostomy is a surgical procedure that makes an opening into one of the brain’s ventricles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 90f347d54331e5ebd1e4587beb5eb212811ad84f44e65d6e840e928fe11c26ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Ventriculostomy” (D014696).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014696). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ventro-
<a id="ventro"></a>

Ventro- is a prefix meaning related to the ventral, or underside/bellyward, aspect of a body or brain structure. In this historical anatomical usage, it marks a position or direction toward the lower or front-facing surface.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bf69bdb06cfb2add68ccb05c036c8eeaee56b7a1693f1d9788d0afe3a636f0d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Brain” (Brain).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B3defs.htm#Brain). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ventromedial hypothalamus
<a id="ventromedial-hypothalamus"></a>

The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is a region of the hypothalamus, a part of the brain. In this source, it is identified as one of the brain areas that showed activation after female sexual behavior, as part of the sociosexual circuitry studied with manganese-enhanced MRI.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ee0c961fe0be59a1c0a81010b44cac8fbfbda202452dd1c3504ff2dc6aba4461

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Aguilar-Moreno Alejandro; Ortiz Juan; Concha Luis; Alcauter Sarael; Paredes Raúl G. Brain circuits activated by female sexual behavior evaluated by manganese enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0272271; article XML SHA-256 ebd81ef9d6e7f1592a3bfe224c5dbc0826dc218ad4f25dde80359f49e520adaa. “Brain circuits activated by female sexual behavior evaluated by manganese enhanced magnetic resonance imaging” (10.1371/journal.pone.0272271).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272271). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ventromedial nucleus
<a id="ventromedial-nucleus"></a>

The ventromedial nucleus is a region of the hypothalamus. In this source, it is described as one of the brain areas examined for stress-related corticotropin-releasing factor receptor gene expression, including sex-dependent effects after early life pain and later fear conditioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 430f6aba842cae5a881340f78f9039f4071a1c54738d9fe608b794b20f5d602c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Burman Michael A.; Zuke Jared T.. The effects of early life pain and juvenile fear conditioning on CRF-receptor expression in the amygdala and hypothalamus of the juvenile rat. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326300; article XML SHA-256 8bb895ceee8c7c47b9b8a3a4786c32f82398c33011a438d64abdedc4f25bcb70. “The effects of early life pain and juvenile fear conditioning on CRF-receptor expression in the amygdala and hypothalamus of the juvenile rat” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326300).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326300). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ventromedial pathway
<a id="ventromedial-pathway"></a>

The ventromedial pathway is one of the main routes taken by trunk neural crest cells during migration in amniote embryos. It runs through the front part of the somites.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44e4d2f1bcf781db3df48cc429001b8fb329761669f3539c428fc807592f8b64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Reyes Michelle; Zandberg Katrina; Desmawati Iska; de Bellard Maria E. Emergence and migration of trunk neural crest cells in a snake, the California Kingsnake ( Lampropeltis getula californiae ). 2010; DOI 10.1186/1471-213x-10-52; article XML SHA-256 7e88301b8882933531e017dfbfa33680870bf73807014857c8d84cd992905bbd. “Emergence and migration of trunk neural crest cells in a snake, the California Kingsnake ( Lampropeltis getula californiae )” (10.1186/1471-213x-10-52).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-213x-10-52). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verbal abuse
<a id="verbal-abuse"></a>

Verbal abuse is harmful or aggressive speech directed at a person. In the packet, it refers to patient verbal abuse toward newly graduated nurses, which is often treated as part of the job but can unsettle emotions and influence how people interpret and cope with their work experiences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38977b42b96a3950674e9b22222ce706dc6ae28aefa2f59321f05025b5c56885

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Luo Hui; Sunzi Kejimu; Lv Xia; Liao Yu; Huang Jie. From silenced shock to strategic resilience: a longitudinal qualitative study of nurse residents’ trajectory in coping with patient verbal abuse. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1780789; article XML SHA-256 88aced69072fa04768726cfc6d365475167eaf8301a1f35dfbe2cc350f9c0886. “From silenced shock to strategic resilience: a longitudinal qualitative study of nurse residents’ trajectory in coping with patient verbal abuse” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1780789).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1780789). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verbal amnesia
<a id="verbal-amnesia"></a>

Verbal amnesia is an inability to bring to mind the sound of a word even though the person has the idea clearly in mind. In this historical account, it is described as the opposite of word-deafness: the idea fails to call up the word sound.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e03006b35f1cecdd561fb17369af4065a75c1df93c62a1df0377ac73331a58ff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3265500-3277500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verbal aphasia
<a id="verbal-aphasia"></a>

In this historical source, verbal aphasia means aphemia, or ordinary aphasia of Broca’s type. It is described as a loss of the motor memory for articulation, so the person has no paralysis of the speech organs but cannot form spoken words because the learned movements of speech are lost or badly impaired.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6fcdb3abad2bcaff2c8322e77507cbf8d5a9b38621e2cf0c01f7d9c5a6e104f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-430500-442500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verbal behavior
<a id="verbal-behavior"></a>

Verbal behavior is behavior that involves language, including both using words and responding to them in spoken or written form.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1cab07bdf52b70dff1d27f8ab6085d6f88ea38f3f02ce360997ef6602308b691

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Verbal Behavior” (D014705).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014705). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verbal communication
<a id="verbal-communication"></a>

Verbal communication is the spoken part of interpersonal communication. It can be one-way, such as a speech or lecture, or interactive and two-way, such as everyday conversation or meetings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1b30fb8bf3dfdf843b561754335835cc39db0cceb226b77b220935be4411882

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kwon Jinhwan; Kotani Hiromi. Head motion synchrony in unidirectional and bidirectional verbal communication. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0286098; article XML SHA-256 5c1904e86cd42ba862db948c6506245a29dde3146d55585f2915bb0c1bbf7ab2. “Head motion synchrony in unidirectional and bidirectional verbal communication” (10.1371/journal.pone.0286098).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286098). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verbal comprehension
<a id="verbal-comprehension"></a>

Verbal comprehension is an assessment index in the WISC-IV. In the supplied source, it refers to the verbal comprehension measure that was adapted for visually impaired children and evaluated for reliability and validity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11ae6f7b32e574516dd86cc953a13d3f9a14f9aa5572ef92bc19507755ec49d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alhaj Salih Mohamed Abdalazeem; Khalil Abeer Abdelrahman; Bakhiet Salaheldin Farah Attallah. The psychometric properties of the WISC-IV verbal comprehension and working memory indices among visually impaired students in Sudan. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1451418; article XML SHA-256 8ac27139a7718704c455ecf762b96abec2e7b3aa4799ff16d536518a2db29ab5. “The psychometric properties of the WISC-IV verbal comprehension and working memory indices among visually impaired students in Sudan” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1451418).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1451418). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verbal conditioning
<a id="verbal-conditioning"></a>

Verbal conditioning is the idea that a word’s sound pattern can become directly linked to an emotional response through experience. In this view, hearing or saying a particular word form can trigger affect even when another expression with a similar meaning does not.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 167fad0957ab8a595393be531356d28a109397393287fb440730216157f26741

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bowers Jeffrey S.; Pleydell-Pearce Christopher W.. Swearing, Euphemisms, and Linguistic Relativity. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0022341; article XML SHA-256 257137d0d65ff62bc7cb380efa89c50332da22748aca79f66044b57eedd73d5f. “Swearing, Euphemisms, and Linguistic Relativity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0022341).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022341). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verbal fluency test
<a id="verbal-fluency-test"></a>

A verbal fluency test is a neuropsychological assessment in which performance is used to evaluate executive control and the ability to retrieve words from the mental lexicon. In phonemic verbal fluency, interpretation has traditionally focused on the total number of words produced, although newer work suggests that patterns in responses can also reflect complex cognitive-linguistic processes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ecd814c2d5593c943a39098dcb7730aa2b1f659c0c852ce44517382d7972e5b9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Morkovina Olga; Ziberova Anastasia; Sapunova Olga; Manukyan Piruza; Sharapkova Anastasia. The evolution of phonemic verbal fluency test: bridging tradition with contemporary insights. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774256; article XML SHA-256 dfe636e5d69a0cd9b40f60c147f07b71e461e4438ac5959e7119935a800aa0c5. “The evolution of phonemic verbal fluency test: bridging tradition with contemporary insights” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774256).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774256). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Verbal Learning
<a id="verbal-learning"></a>

Verbal learning is learning to make a verbal response when given a verbal cue. It involves forming a response in words to a stimulus presented in words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d133c97754bb1682e2edaecf16df9182f1d368dde3e11b3daf44b8b123e400ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Verbal Learning” (D014706).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014706). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verbal memory
<a id="verbal-memory"></a>

Verbal memory is the mental ability to keep and later retrieve language-based information, such as words or other linguistic material.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c139b8eadf12cf306185c960226e76866eb7d1b0404cc3b94bcd5c3ee638761c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Verbal Memory” (C88416).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verbal narrative
<a id="verbal-narrative"></a>

Verbal narrative is a story conveyed through language, such as by reading or hearing it, rather than through moving images. In the source, it is described as engaging verbal processing and often also mental imagery and personal memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3948601e8c2de49954ab6a8b626684785d99f9a1d4774d671bc1d352a37ca1de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jajdelska Elspeth; Anderson Miranda; Butler Christopher; Fabb Nigel; Finnigan Elizabeth; Garwood Ian; Kelly Stephen; Kirk Wendy; Kukkonen Karin; Mullally Sinead; Schwan Stephan. Picture This: A Review of Research Relating to Narrative Processing by Moving Image Versus Language. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01161; article XML SHA-256 86211a0c2fc6190f1b41aff5246b1a3953cfac19fb6acc81c01c3f8fc111c4f5. “Picture This: A Review of Research Relating to Narrative Processing by Moving Image Versus Language” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01161).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01161). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verbal paraphasia
<a id="verbal-paraphasia"></a>

Verbal paraphasia is a speaking error in which a person says one word instead of the word they intended. The substituted word may be related in meaning or not, and this kind of error can be a sign of a neurological disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f8ed561e7fed681ee981898f49d26a7a8079fa652360579f11111c557cbab851

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Verbal Paraphasia” (C220224).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verbal thought
<a id="verbal-thought"></a>

Verbal thought is thinking in which words and meaning form one continuous mental process rather than separate events. At any moment, one word may stand out most clearly, but it is experienced as carrying the wider idea, with the rest of the thought still present in the background to different degrees.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bfc0da2cace2a8e2c9926bd856f7a1e1411c676c3b2a24cc8a2b093b0343da16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verbatim recall
<a id="verbatim-recall"></a>

Verbatim recall is remembering information in its exact or highly specific form rather than only its general meaning. In this source, it refers to recalling details from a narrative with precise detail, contrasted with gist recall of the overall content.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bae501bba30a5e7f6d114ae63c2db818e9e918b970654c47c9b7a2065b14632b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Scheurich Rebecca; Palmer Caroline; Kaya Batu; Agostino Caterina; Sheldon Signy. Evidence for a visual bias when recalling complex narratives. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0249950; article XML SHA-256 337e2cc5f887cac6d84e4fb01f5233d123fec7af01b538669e02d0dbe43fe7e9. “Evidence for a visual bias when recalling complex narratives” (10.1371/journal.pone.0249950).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249950). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verbigeration
<a id="verbigeration"></a>

Verbigeration is the repeated uttering of senseless sounds or confused, silly speech. In this historical source, it is used for continual verbal repetition seen in certain disturbed mental states.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f832dd4bf15c0a049898d80276763d1bc2926948dc38a10d047beb2226968dce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Melancholia” (Melancholia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Melancholia). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## veridical
<a id="veridical"></a>

In this psychology context, veridical means corresponding to reality or being accurate. It is used for reports of perception that appear to provide correct information, even when that information is said to have been obtained without ordinary sensory input.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9464191cfaebdc746703ef67aa1c6f757d034835913f25140b9aee0b7736626f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Weiler Marina; Pehlivanova Marieta; Cozzolino Philip J.. From laboratory targets to experiential authenticity: reframing the study of veridicality in OBEs. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1720998; article XML SHA-256 d348433596659944266e98c341dc94c2e23034a2eec406439f430b69be384d1e. “From laboratory targets to experiential authenticity: reframing the study of veridicality in OBEs” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1720998).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1720998). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## veridical perception
<a id="veridical-perception"></a>

Veridical perception is the claimed accurate acquisition of information in a way that appears to occur without ordinary sensory input, such as reports during out-of-body experiences of perceiving from a location outside the body. In this context, it refers to information that can be independently confirmed as correct.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b1cf1211ff97139a67c6a1a5d9fa8105fc471f7c4bab279c48ef5e868af0b2db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Weiler Marina; Pehlivanova Marieta; Cozzolino Philip J.. From laboratory targets to experiential authenticity: reframing the study of veridicality in OBEs. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1720998; article XML SHA-256 d348433596659944266e98c341dc94c2e23034a2eec406439f430b69be384d1e. “From laboratory targets to experiential authenticity: reframing the study of veridicality in OBEs” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1720998).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1720998). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## verisimilitude
<a id="verisimilitude"></a>

In psychological assessment, verisimilitude is the degree to which a test or task resembles the kinds of thinking demands people face in everyday life. It is one part of ecological validity, alongside veridicality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8dac94d455db2c8677714925c2a2e0c94964360a1b7b09a50f7e3f5f620d5552

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Neveu Erika; Salles Julia; Roy Isabelle; Estay Evelyn Vera; Dooley Julian J.; Beauchamp Miriam H.. Development of an ecological, immersive approach to socio-moral reasoning assessment in virtual reality. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1648238; article XML SHA-256 3cab9168f2fe7496c67487a03e566fe1cf1cf7e6c4fd20d4c0f80c59e876fdb4. “Development of an ecological, immersive approach to socio-moral reasoning assessment in virtual reality” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1648238).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1648238). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vernacular
<a id="vernacular"></a>

In this social context, vernacular refers to local, culturally rooted ways of building that rely mainly on materials available in the surrounding environment. It reflects community practices and the local significance attached to those materials.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f6d9170c3c148602f4049b97335a07ed9ca6600591361cf85ca138b8081f3c41

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Boakye Maxwell Kwame. Quantitative ethnobotany of plants used for vernacular building construction in Ghana. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313778; article XML SHA-256 b77902da97a175bb7cadbf1604634a540fd0318285541aa81615ff821e1357f8. “Quantitative ethnobotany of plants used for vernacular building construction in Ghana” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313778).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313778). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Versed
<a id="versed"></a>

Versed is midazolam hydrochloride, a short-acting benzodiazepine with calming, memory-impairing, sleep-inducing, anticonvulsant, and sedating effects. It acts in the central nervous system by increasing GABA-related inhibition at benzodiazepine receptor sites.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f4e3213b210ceae557056d9cdc308d9a49ff7945605740f9d5118d0f6f18d0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Midazolam Hydrochloride” (C654).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vertebral artery
<a id="vertebral-artery"></a>

The vertebral artery is the first branch of the subclavian artery. It supplies blood to structures including the neck muscles, vertebrae, spinal cord, cerebellum, and inner parts of the cerebrum.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0a5aad93289e79a5a975eed316b13abcbee33e789651e425e694c3b843b81c16

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vertebral Artery” (D014711).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014711). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vertical–horizontal illusion
<a id="verticalhorizontal-illusion"></a>

The vertical–horizontal illusion is a visual perception effect in which two lines of equal length look different in length, usually with the vertical line appearing longer than the horizontal line in an inverted T-shaped figure. Evidence in the packet links this effect to framing by the shape of the visual field, and it becomes stronger when gaze fixation makes the retinal image more stable.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18fa2fdeb89727490a854e1fc45d8467d34d684bfe18015519e585a21bbde0c1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Chouinard Philippe A.; Peel Hayden J.; Landry Oriane. Eye-Tracking Reveals that the Strength of the Vertical-Horizontal Illusion Increases as the Retinal Image Becomes More Stable with Fixation. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00143; article XML SHA-256 568267896927ce344751deec03419646371a392be48455d4fb0ef1e0f915bb72. “Eye-Tracking Reveals that the Strength of the Vertical-Horizontal Illusion Increases as the Retinal Image Becomes More Stable with Fixation” (10.3389/fnhum.2017.00143).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00143). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vertigo
<a id="vertigo"></a>

Vertigo is a false sense of movement, such as feeling that you are spinning or that the surroundings are spinning around you. It can occur in connection with problems affecting the inner ear, vestibular nerve, brainstem, or cerebral cortex, and may also appear during some focal seizures.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 12dc74d0ec8facde7126c2d1c5a327d2c983324d54b1f06a9cf6ddbeb2940171

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vertigo” (D014717).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014717). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## very low birth weight
<a id="very-low-birth-weight"></a>

Very low birth weight refers to an infant birth weight of 1500 grams or less. In this source, it is used as a category for infants studied in relation to neonatal and later neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f0b21eb604ca86adf7b1f76346ad8688374936f92c4f181dc953ebb90b2e3d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bronnert Anja; Bloomfield Peter M.; Páramo Lilia Delgado; Lin Luling; Bloomfield Frank H.; Cormack Barbara E.. The effect of vitamin supplementation on neurodevelopmental and clinical outcomes in very low birth weight and very preterm infants: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327628; article XML SHA-256 c8555b946f2638880b1b43e1b89fd227ceeb5df8cb9f9d74f2b27cb28e5a076b. “The effect of vitamin supplementation on neurodevelopmental and clinical outcomes in very low birth weight and very preterm infants: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327628).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327628). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vested interest
<a id="vested-interest"></a>

Vested interest is a personal stake in an issue or object, meaning it matters to someone because they expect important consequences for themselves. In psychology, when an attitude has this kind of personal relevance, it is more likely to be reflected in behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc2edcb35c34a9303947b366941d2fca3e12018c2d653bb2b548d1e9c55f59a0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Steindl Christina; Jonas Eva. The Dynamic Reactance Interaction – How Vested Interests Affect People’s Experience, Behavior, and Cognition in Social Interactions. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01752; article XML SHA-256 1a95f7e1063395c4fada00c940cfa6880b034a49a23a697d51464afcd96a1a12. “The Dynamic Reactance Interaction – How Vested Interests Affect People’s Experience, Behavior, and Cognition in Social Interactions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01752).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01752). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vestibular apparatus
<a id="vestibular-apparatus"></a>

The vestibular apparatus is the inner-ear balancing structure located in the bony vestibule, between the cochlea and the semicircular canals. It includes the communicating sacs called the utricle and saccule.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 412b2afb0eb98e6d1cf5e142e177e2a3210527a576d303b3209b1c16820842b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vestibule, Labyrinth” (D014722).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014722). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vestibular illusion
<a id="vestibular-illusion"></a>

A vestibular illusion is a false or altered sense of body motion or orientation that occurs when vestibular signals, often together with visual or other motion cues, are interpreted in a conflicting way. In the example described here, low-frequency linear movement can make inertial acceleration feel like a tilt relative to gravity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1ca9b36ea0422e6d5cc2a94eb5afbb59a24d939276f9fd2b3358a356f00ca25f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vollette Carole-Anne; Bockisch Christopher J.; Bertolini Giovanni. Riding the hilltop: practical implementation and assessment of an implicit hilltop illusion. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fneur.2025.1623749; article XML SHA-256 2c002d12e1d3e9a994b1636265ee3ac96ff6089598f570acbdbecb1b9ac218c9. “Riding the hilltop: practical implementation and assessment of an implicit hilltop illusion” (10.3389/fneur.2025.1623749).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2025.1623749). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vestibular membrane
<a id="vestibular-membrane"></a>

The vestibular membrane is a thin tissue layer in the inner ear that makes up the front wall of the cochlear duct and separates it from the vestibular canal. It is also known as Reissner's membrane.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1f4bb714d322e0d6dd513213614520599d52cd2a7af715919bc5feec2894b029

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Membrane of Reissner” (C33083).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vestibular nerve
<a id="vestibular-nerve"></a>

The vestibular nerve is the balance-related part of the eighth cranial nerve. It carries signals from vestibular hair cells to brain stem vestibular nuclei, supporting the sense of balance and head position.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 158a00fde0ca91f7dd2a4fbc652e542641a6fe2d52349e754649cc7a00eb1696

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vestibular Nerve” (D014725).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014725). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vestibular nuclei
<a id="vestibular-nuclei"></a>

The vestibular nuclei are four groups of nerve cells on the floor of the fourth ventricle that give rise to a widely distributed special sensory system. They include the superior, medial, inferior, and lateral vestibular nuclei.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bcf234418cc5451d1673771909157c08a23c5c31abbde2e9b53bc61a2b4d0295

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vestibular Nuclei” (D014726).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014726). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vestibular system
<a id="vestibular-system"></a>

The vestibular system is the set of inner-ear structures, eye-related components, parts of the central nervous system, and the nerves and pathways linking them that help the body sense position and maintain spatial orientation. Problems in this system are linked with disorders such as vertigo and motion sickness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9f3c0fb68e06c4bc1874231f28721681f162abb4c80bb23535527c3c89c4fef9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vestibular System” (D000091282).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000091282). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vestibulo-ocular reflex
<a id="vestibulo-ocular-reflex"></a>

The vestibulo-ocular reflex is a brainstem-based reflex in which balance signals from the inner ear trigger compensatory eye movements during head movement. Its role is to keep the image on the retina stable when the head rotates.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5e10638d222abad0860e102b310dd52aded9caa974c55d16ac117249791f17de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reflex, Vestibulo-Ocular” (D012027).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012027). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vestibulocochlear nerve
<a id="vestibulocochlear-nerve"></a>

The vestibulocochlear nerve is the eighth cranial nerve. It has a cochlear branch for hearing and a vestibular branch for balance and sensing head position.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a7093567bf2a8e180e7c875ce3cbecbb52e772379bb6679cc4447bce9be6c8df

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vestibulocochlear Nerve” (D000159).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000159). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vestibulospinal tract
<a id="vestibulospinal-tract"></a>

The vestibulospinal tract is a nerve pathway that carries balance-related signals from the vestibular organs of the inner ear, through the vestibular nucleus, to the spinal cord. It works through lateral and medial pathways to help control posture, antigravity muscles, and balance during standing and walking.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cfc2b2dd0a5d5a626c64bd760a4ea18e674ad61ad89352da42b7bab7ed85172e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Shiozaki Tomoyuki; Okada Yohei; Nakamura Junji; Ueta Kozo; Tanaka Hiroaki; Moritani Mako; Kitahara Tadashi. Relationships between changes in lateral vestibulospinal tract excitability and postural control by dynamic balance intervention in healthy individuals: A preliminary study. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1109690; article XML SHA-256 9d39cf328cad5bde2e6243ea128eec22ed8175578fd93900c1b09e0750fdda00. “Relationships between changes in lateral vestibulospinal tract excitability and postural control by dynamic balance intervention in healthy individuals: A preliminary study” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1109690).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1109690). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## VI
<a id="vi"></a>

VI stands for vision impairment. In this context, it refers to reduced vision in adults and is described as affecting mental health and well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 01cdb84ff6017795d4718005fb9590c2c83d480132e140d0f4786592df91fbb8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Somani Nurbanu; Street Alexander; Beukes Eldre Wiida; Zhang Jufen; Allen Peter M.. Music listening for psychological well-being in adults with acquired vision impairment: a feasibility randomised controlled trial. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1505283; article XML SHA-256 5b78094a908b80170ce9254d1c6dbd3ba7145395ebfef1d02e8b47b528821472. “Music listening for psychological well-being in adults with acquired vision impairment: a feasibility randomised controlled trial” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1505283).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1505283). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vibration
<a id="vibration"></a>

The packet uses vibration to mean the dynamic motion or oscillation of a physical structure, measured as signals that can be analysed for changes over time and across frequency bands. In this context, patterns in vibration are used as input for automated detection of structural damage, not for a psychological or counselling concept.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e540280d3624200eb49655e6b4f3f48e30dd1e0f8c2e274fcf6c6cf48f8f960c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pham Hong Quan; Vu Manh Trung; Nguyen Thach Bich; Nguyen Dan Le; Tran Ngoc Hoa. SpectralTCN: A multi-resolution wavelet gating network for vibration-based structural damage detection. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358224; article XML SHA-256 d7da63a91156271fb543c268db01120e42792890d2dc99edc222af3dbf5538c8. “SpectralTCN: A multi-resolution wavelet gating network for vibration-based structural damage detection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358224).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358224). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vicarious function
<a id="vicarious-function"></a>

Vicarious function is the idea that after part of the brain is damaged, surviving centers may partly take over the lost work and learn to carry out functions they did not perform before. In this historical usage, it is presented as one possible source of recovered function, alongside recovery that comes from the lifting of inhibition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 55ad5b7e98ff655b159bbc325bd2be4f6576235224195b837c5fa892e2c1f46f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vicarious learning
<a id="vicarious-learning"></a>

Vicarious learning is learning by gaining know-how and experience from other, more experienced people or organizations through their connections rather than only through direct personal experience. In this source, it refers to entrepreneurs using linked partners’ prior foreign experience to reduce uncertainty and support later action in similar settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e0209569b1caa60b7f5cde6345102c518c894a61b0334fac177cf655f818c1bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xie Zaiyang; Lin Runhui; Wang Jie; Hu Weiwei; Miao Ling. Vicarious Learning: How Entrepreneurs Enhance a Firm’s International Competitiveness Through Learning From Interlocking Director Network Partners. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00689; article XML SHA-256 30517e6c58ce27958c139db07c4d4ec74feaf98a490196a9fece7a90cfb0fdca. “Vicarious Learning: How Entrepreneurs Enhance a Firm’s International Competitiveness Through Learning From Interlocking Director Network Partners” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00689).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00689). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vicarious traumatization
<a id="vicarious-traumatization"></a>

Vicarious traumatization is emotional distress that develops from repeatedly or over a long time responding with compassion or empathy to others’ suffering. It can occur in people who work in caregiving roles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d34cfb0b30e9a5873893680ab5ac27e6c52702cb708ac2148a7df4812ac6e8a3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Compassion Fatigue” (D000068376).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000068376). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vicious circle
<a id="vicious-circle"></a>

In this historical logical sense, a vicious circle is a fault in definition where the thing being defined is brought back into its own explanation. Baldwin uses the term to deny that a proposed formulation is circular because it can be defined without relying on the very negative term at issue.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16be3d43e238954631c133e192617991f7148f638a08bf03bd8c8e3a22e85148

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Laws of Thought” (Laws of Thought).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L2defs.htm#Laws of Thought). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## victim
<a id="victim"></a>

A victim is a person who is physically harmed or emotionally distressed by aggressive behavior from a more powerful party.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e74e16800919188be028c91c2627c9585777363ac90908f59d8da6a459a57f01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bullying” (D058445).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D058445). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## victim blaming
<a id="victim-blaming"></a>

Victim blaming is the act of shifting responsibility for wrongdoing onto the person who was harmed instead of the perpetrator. In this context, it appears as part of a defensive response that deflects blame and distorts the events in the wrongdoer’s favor.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 5e6fd0644b62d14eaa93035eb5896710fde448ff16b6b96640d0e4f1db286abd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Harsey Sarah J.; Adams-Clark Alexis A.; Freyd Jennifer J.. Associations between defensive victim-blaming responses (DARVO), rape myth acceptance, and sexual harassment. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313642; article XML SHA-256 ba8e494e84dbb6df6643b7ef01b2f14a94979676af8b1cc8f8e57cea9002fa67. “Associations between defensive victim-blaming responses (DARVO), rape myth acceptance, and sexual harassment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313642).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313642). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## victimization
<a id="victimization"></a>

In this source, victimization refers to being harmed by fraud or scams, involving deception, emotional manipulation, and a sense of betrayal, not just financial loss. It is linked to lasting psychosocial and mental health effects such as anxiety, depression, shame, self-blame, reduced trust, and lower quality of life.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de433f77e46b3791c304d1891f8e588527a602b7f7aace8d1f7354e803af886f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bai Jie; Ho Mei-Hsin; Sung Hsiang-Te; Hung Chuan-Sheng; Tsai Jui-Hsiu. Mental health and psychosocial sequelae of fraud victimization: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805536; article XML SHA-256 8e7c689155d17773c82d79721bc5e1e28bb177ae6706741d1a401f3c54f539d0. “Mental health and psychosocial sequelae of fraud victimization: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805536).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805536). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## view invariance
<a id="view-invariance"></a>

View invariance is the property of a visual representation that still identifies the same object or face despite changes in the angle or perspective from which it is seen. In the primate ventral visual system, it refers to neurons responding selectively to an object across different views rather than only one specific appearance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: b031bf05c6bcdbe78d11dbdc0b500922c303d00ee61774628dd0c029a905b621

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Evans Benjamin D.; Stringer Simon M.. How Lateral Connections and Spiking Dynamics May Separate Multiple Objects Moving Together. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0069952; article XML SHA-256 f584dc4743ff6bb56cc328f4acc1842a791b25274aaf9a49875adf203845f0d0. “How Lateral Connections and Spiking Dynamics May Separate Multiple Objects Moving Together” (10.1371/journal.pone.0069952).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069952). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vigilance
<a id="vigilance"></a>

Vigilance is a state of cortical alertness or readiness, thought to arise in response to sensory input through the reticular activating system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c0c6abcd144405cd895ad90efafae3fd11c3e987afd823aa645292eb1ecbdd2a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Arousal” (D001143).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001143). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vigilance decrement
<a id="vigilance-decrement"></a>

Vigilance decrement is the drop in sustained-attention performance that happens as time on task increases, especially during long, repetitive monitoring tasks. It usually means people become less likely to notice infrequent important signals over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 073f81564603e58d23a5dad0b8509ed25227ee8f9d8dafc26a8ada3ba0f9a925

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gartenberg Daniel; Gunzelmann Glenn; Hassanzadeh-Behbaha Shiva; Trafton J. Gregory. Examining the Role of Task Requirements in the Magnitude of the Vigilance Decrement. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01504; article XML SHA-256 05ed172343812f2df0dd97fb89134b2b0c87ed736fc1373e5aa544e0a706ee9b. “Examining the Role of Task Requirements in the Magnitude of the Vigilance Decrement” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01504).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01504). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales
<a id="vineland-adaptive-behavior-scales"></a>

The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales are a tool used to assess social functioning and everyday adaptive behaviors in people from preschool through age 18. The information is used to help support diagnosis of intellectual and developmental disabilities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 190d1d9370dd17824c6f6c8fef7bd895966eb0222257ad07cc20e371449f5702

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales” (C88048).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## violation-of-expectation method
<a id="violation-of-expectation-method"></a>

The violation-of-expectation method is a research approach that tests understanding by comparing how long infants or toddlers look at an expected event versus one that breaks an expected relationship or rule. Longer looking at the unexpected event is taken as a sign that the child noticed the violation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be824f48abf1a04a12f52f7b2cfc076369c233364101168f5afccfa1e19cc7c7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ikeda Ayaka; Kobayashi Tessei; Itakura Shoji. Sensitivity to linguistic register in 20-month-olds: Understanding the register-listener relationship and its abstract rules. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0195214; article XML SHA-256 997d0de089a07a661a73274d1961327f9ede0acdc126172cf47fb7ab6a51ab2f. “Sensitivity to linguistic register in 20-month-olds: Understanding the register-listener relationship and its abstract rules” (10.1371/journal.pone.0195214).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195214). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## violence
<a id="violence"></a>

Violence is the use of physical force that causes harm, injury, or abuse, or is meant to do so.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 495b3edcd9605dd9510ae9dce8c3c91176b94f33cb8486f1c28a27f4e944b761

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Violence” (D014754).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014754). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## viral meningitis
<a id="viral-meningitis"></a>

Viral meningitis is swelling of the protective tissues around the brain and spinal cord that is caused by a virus.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d5530f2b715258b87c84e28d273be38493db3bea223b1d7966f1e4364869d73a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Viral Meningitis” (C118298).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## virility
<a id="virility"></a>

Virility is a historical term for a man’s sexual power or potency. In this source, it appears as something a young man may fear he is losing as part of sexual hypochondriacal distress.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75a4ce30acc1deff1f9f45c6d761924015a5347d9fa57801872129962c0c3430

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3549000-3561000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## virtual reality therapy
<a id="virtual-reality-therapy"></a>

Virtual reality therapy is a treatment method that places a person in an immersive, interactive computer-generated three-dimensional setting. The virtual environment is used to increase a sense of presence, reduce avoidance, and support emotional engagement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 46024cd5e379407e8c6b814d191fe854757dec1665035a7538f41c07579b7fe4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy” (D063367).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D063367). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visceral learning
<a id="visceral-learning"></a>

Visceral learning is aversive learning in which internal bodily pain, such as rectal pain, acts as the unconditioned stimulus so that previously neutral cues come to predict and acquire unpleasant meaning. It also includes related memory processes such as extinction of the learned response and possible reactivation of the earlier pain-associated memory trace.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 929e0cd4a76a9b6a5ec2cd85244faa19338a5751ffae360a95906b5f64bcee87

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kattoor Joswin; Gizewski Elke R.; Kotsis Vassilios; Benson Sven; Gramsch Carolin; Theysohn Nina; Maderwald Stefan; Forsting Michael; Schedlowski Manfred; Elsenbruch Sigrid. Fear Conditioning in an Abdominal Pain Model: Neural Responses during Associative Learning and Extinction in Healthy Subjects. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0051149; article XML SHA-256 66012501e8959a8b3199ca36e6f0bf5dba365dd3d286c505f6dd00165bd328c4. “Fear Conditioning in an Abdominal Pain Model: Neural Responses during Associative Learning and Extinction in Healthy Subjects” (10.1371/journal.pone.0051149).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051149). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visceral sensation
<a id="visceral-sensation"></a>

Visceral sensation is a felt bodily experience arising in the internal organs. In this historical passage, it is mentioned as the kind of inward physical feeling that a suggested idea may be experienced as producing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 88e7a7bffc2dfeacbb1132e38f0f1cd2fad4297fe28832a2ac88856b0dd2ce8a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-2803500-2815500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vision
<a id="vision"></a>

Vision is the process by which light is converted by the eye’s photoreceptor cells into electrical signals that are then sent to the brain.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 341e06deec1f4e2ea19ce8e6f907a6d3e122a8ee4c970a4ac35b8930fa496f93

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vision, Ocular” (D014785).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014785). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vision rehabilitation
<a id="vision-rehabilitation"></a>

Vision rehabilitation is support that uses low-vision aids to improve visual functioning, especially reading ability and reading speed as vision worsens over time. Besides visual function, it may also help psychological well-being by reducing the impact of vision loss on independence, quality of life, and depression.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ee355a1cbb4bd6c4998eaab4fdcfb8ed9a372eeb2f9108fa5591e0301a2f97a1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hamade Noura; Hodge William G; Rakibuz-Zaman Muhammad; Malvankar-Mehta Monali S. The Effects of Low-Vision Rehabilitation on Reading Speed and Depression in Age Related Macular Degeneration: A Meta-Analysis. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0159254; article XML SHA-256 f68be8f1470886e2051eabcc66032cd5d620f348e52456c311b7b49ca3fb3210. “The Effects of Low-Vision Rehabilitation on Reading Speed and Depression in Age Related Macular Degeneration: A Meta-Analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0159254).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159254). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visitation rights
<a id="visitation-rights"></a>

Visitation rights are the legal arrangements about a child’s contact or visits, usually considered alongside custody and residence in family law proceedings. In psychology-related forensic evaluations, questions about visitation rights are examined with the child’s best interests and possible effects on the child’s well-being in mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eee77a55a5366f671afffc13ecab70a59d46918a775bd11ce62535c504a29895

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zumbach Jelena; Volbert Renate. What Judges Want to Know From Forensic Evaluators in Child Custody and Child Protection Cases: Analyzing Forensic Assignments With Latent Dirichlet Allocation. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.603597; article XML SHA-256 bac1f142d5e1e3044792741a542fe77c7d05a50c5b7be0883be5a7954124b334. “What Judges Want to Know From Forensic Evaluators in Child Custody and Child Protection Cases: Analyzing Forensic Assignments With Latent Dirichlet Allocation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.603597).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.603597). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual acuity
<a id="visual-acuity"></a>

Visual acuity is the sharpness or clarity of vision, especially the eye’s ability to see fine detail. It depends on how well the retina, nerve signaling, and the brain’s interpretation of visual information are working, and it can be affected by factors such as brightness, color, and contrast.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d08f56447238be805aaadd0d811459fda2f1d4beb5ca1cf02fd578518becdb37

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Visual Acuity” (D014792).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014792). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual adaptation
<a id="visual-adaptation"></a>

Visual adaptation is the set of changes in visual function that happen after exposure to an environment, helping the nervous system process visual information more efficiently or improving what a person can perceive. A common example is dark adaptation, in which low light exposure enables better seeing in dim conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8d6c7e9ca0a3e67c741ce4a31b9f24e6f38d63b335eb264b55287c22284a1d78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vergeer Mark; Engel Stephen A. Control of visual adaptation depends upon task. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0229343; article XML SHA-256 e681642e539d4efc9d567d70d05d72113575dd878a3c7509bb1356a8279c4884. “Control of visual adaptation depends upon task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0229343).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229343). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual agnosia
<a id="visual-agnosia"></a>

Visual agnosia is a condition in which a person cannot recognize or make sense of objects through sight.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 86b7537b7885ce186eb12aece8196806b380ea0c36a70f6f2a025e2f1b6f286c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Visual Agnosia” (C35276).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual angle
<a id="visual-angle"></a>

Visual angle is the angle that an object, or the space between objects, makes at the eye. In the passage, distinct vision is described in terms of whether the separation of two objects subtends a visual angle of one minute.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 60ead5371827ab86964cf4932b937dfe4ed0885938824b03b1be0bd20e5d392d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3885000-3897000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual area MT
<a id="visual-area-mt"></a>

Visual area MT is a visual brain area involved in computing pattern motion from motion signals coming from area V1. Research described in the packet treats it as a site where motion information is combined or selected to support motion selectivity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14799f0c943f5ca745cfbb2980563eade9b31149a9e84dc3e84a4b47f745b724

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Beck Cornelia; Neumann Heiko. Combining Feature Selection and Integration—A Neural Model for MT Motion Selectivity. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0021254; article XML SHA-256 f3f4b663c7626a771507c3551170c86e73994326d567752e47870df2b9ec69a4. “Combining Feature Selection and Integration—A Neural Model for MT Motion Selectivity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0021254).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0021254). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual attention
<a id="visual-attention"></a>

Visual attention is the mental process that helps determine which parts of a visual scene are selected, given priority, and processed. It is shaped both by top-down factors such as goals, expectations, prior knowledge, and working memory, and by bottom-up factors such as contrast, color, brightness, and motion that automatically draw attention.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5f8b0dd7bc77976245928cffd209231945c7921ab3024750014b5364461fba75

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Xiaoyu; Meng Jianmin; Chen Zixin; Chen Hailin. Pre-viewing context and visual attention in museum scenes: an exploratory eye-tracking study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783603; article XML SHA-256 93aa324fd6147f43c1c7e05aa43829464e4248463bbc997d0e655d00dac5f2b6. “Pre-viewing context and visual attention in museum scenes: an exploratory eye-tracking study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783603).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1783603). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual aura
<a id="visual-aura"></a>

A visual aura is a visual disturbance; in this packet, it refers specifically to one with a clear flickering quality.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3ec44e12d6e6f33c49806869fc80b09aff9211b9fa5d68376ddbf620872aeb82

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Scintillating Scotoma” (C220138).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual communication
<a id="visual-communication"></a>

Visual communication is the use of visual media to convey information or messages. In the supplied source, digital poster design is described as a major form of visual communication.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 20761b35de1df4ab0518e97dd0325db83919fa1ffe919aa6394ba71c6a42bd5a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Yilin; Ji Ping. Environmental footprint quantification and optimization methods for digital poster design based on life cycle assessment. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344298; article XML SHA-256 eae239de4432858cfb95131363f20dce78ac21360a4e4fa925e73e8857dc3278. “Environmental footprint quantification and optimization methods for digital poster design based on life cycle assessment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344298).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344298). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual consciousness
<a id="visual-consciousness"></a>

In this historical usage, visual consciousness means a state of awareness marked by visual experience alone. In the passage, it is contrasted with states of consciousness that also include hearing and touch.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 43090c6577aa4b399f68035acb771d4ec693bea42a340e8442c98b267c4f6b1c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual cortex
<a id="visual-cortex"></a>

The visual cortex is the part of the occipital lobe that processes visual information sent along the visual pathways.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 232ca80bc81886886fd20e0b87c1c3d379cb36ff9837f6a2acfa0afe32109108

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Visual Cortex” (D014793).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014793). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual encoding
<a id="visual-encoding"></a>

Visual encoding is the perceptual process of taking in and extracting relevant information from what is seen in a situation. It is an early step that can shape later social understanding and reasoning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ef4e8a42babc62853bc517d6894c4d1b95a1c181e2cf4b9a4b2016a9ffd9e9fe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Garon Mathieu; Lavallée Marie Maxime; Vera Estay Evelyn; Beauchamp Miriam H.. Visual encoding of social cues predicts sociomoral reasoning. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0201099; article XML SHA-256 00e59a73c2bde766e2ed905a45b5011eea32746e894f895dbd5db8db6484be65. “Visual encoding of social cues predicts sociomoral reasoning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0201099).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201099). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual environment
<a id="visual-environment"></a>

Visual environment refers to the visible features of a place and how they are experienced by people, such as landscape characteristics that shape judgments of attractiveness and distinctiveness. In this source, it means the look of urban coastal roads and waterfront settings as influenced by features like openness and greenery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 192b944b2a5ae95e4db59cb62e3195e0816d9e26bc49f78c6f9eecf80c57cad8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Yu; Xiong Xing; Yang Shanrui; Zhang Qinghai; Chi Minghong; Wen Xiaoyu; Zhang Xinyu; Wang Junwei. Enhancing the visual environment of urban coastal roads through deep learning analysis of street-view images: A perspective of aesthetic and distinctiveness. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317585; article XML SHA-256 afa055708b71287e00de1926b7cc66d0b8a17e123916f4af0a0795ef0de032f1. “Enhancing the visual environment of urban coastal roads through deep learning analysis of street-view images: A perspective of aesthetic and distinctiveness” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317585).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317585). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual evoked potential
<a id="visual-evoked-potential"></a>

A visual evoked potential is the recorded time-based electrical response in the visual cortex after a visual stimulus. Its waveform features, such as the timing and size of peaks, can change with disease, and it may also contain more complex irregular patterns of uncertain significance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14b2e6347b33e4260799f578893fecaf42c5cc063ae06a71fc56a3b058bf7469

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Boon Mei Ying; Henry Bruce Ian; Chu Byoung Sun; Basahi Nour; Suttle Catherine May; Luu Chi; Leung Harry; Hing Stephen. Fractal Dimension Analysis of Transient Visual Evoked Potentials: Optimisation and Applications. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0161565; article XML SHA-256 1cc88a9eb5217ec53f9eaa1dfa9547ec21bdc0a8a07ddbaedcafafdb4c88c7d9. “Fractal Dimension Analysis of Transient Visual Evoked Potentials: Optimisation and Applications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0161565).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161565). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual field
<a id="visual-field"></a>

Visual field is a measure of visual function that reflects how much vision is preserved or impaired. In this packet, changes in visual field are tracked over time and summarized with values such as mean deviation and the visual field index to judge recovery.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 864bfe001e880ba2e3158719c3d008797aa6564c83b4d5695cf67003929114a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yoon Heejin; Kim Su-Jin; Lee Seung Min; Moon Sangwoo; Ahn JungHyo; Choi Jae Hwan; Lee Ji Eun. Prognostic factors associated with visual field recovery in non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351219; article XML SHA-256 607232c0dff8e06b199ab79f6a9b47b60f8185af1f531cb71d723e34e6d197d9. “Prognostic factors associated with visual field recovery in non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351219).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351219). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual field defect
<a id="visual-field-defect"></a>

A visual field defect is a partial or complete loss of part of the normal area a person can see.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 06b6623ecf6dba5ed99a10e66007192e376bb33a24550fe898daec1a971a0343

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Visual Field Defect” (C118727).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Visual Fields
<a id="visual-fields"></a>

Visual fields are the total area of peripheral space a person can see while looking straight ahead.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cb389863ae2994206898214d5677d089d3ed5ab8bcc4b2fc1ac1dc13755e7ddf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Visual Fields” (D014794).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014794). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual fixation
<a id="visual-fixation"></a>

In this historical source, visual fixation means keeping the gaze steadily directed for some time. It is mentioned as one of the methods used to bring on artificially induced catalepsy during hypnotism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 737373f4d0697370ae6879c368c84252be338414c8b64cda230a0b1425b83185

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1039500-1051500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual form discrimination
<a id="visual-form-discrimination"></a>

Visual form discrimination is the perceptual ability or task of telling different overall shapes or patterns apart from visual input, often when those forms are embedded in clutter or noise. It depends on extracting relevant features and combining them into a global form, and it can improve with training.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e75483451eaa1c29cf817908f6735bd1df4b46ed86f8ea5aa8205f0ffb1bc759

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mayhew Stephen D.; Kourtzi Zoe. Dissociable circuits for visual shape learning in the young and aging human brain. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00075; article XML SHA-256 914db7365b808b403495bc9c18d41ec1beccff6cc242c661f04de723b26724f4. “Dissociable circuits for visual shape learning in the young and aging human brain” (10.3389/fnhum.2013.00075).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00075). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual function
<a id="visual-function"></a>

Visual function is how well the visual system works to support seeing and visually guided actions. In this source, it is described in terms of abilities such as visual acuity and contrast sensitivity, which can decline with vision disorders and reduce functional vision and related motor performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ac730585d57be9fa3dd11280238b16be5a23b5976d5dd23998784f469ea7fe1b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sanz Diez Pablo; Gisbert Sandra; Bosco Annalisa; Arias Augusto; Fattori Patrizia; Wahl Siegfried. Exploring the impact of visual function degradation on manual prehension movements in normal-sighted individuals. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330223; article XML SHA-256 74ff892f67759844909933598ac61cf83b88e6b0ecffe1a75c16de945dacc5aa. “Exploring the impact of visual function degradation on manual prehension movements in normal-sighted individuals” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330223).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330223). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual hallucination
<a id="visual-hallucination"></a>

A visual hallucination is seeing an object, person, or event when no matching external visual stimulus is present.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: eea7350515bf966f115397e0b93eb6b5afa63c9400f6035e6175692a62d5f62b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Visual Hallucination” (C118179).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual illusion
<a id="visual-illusion"></a>

A visual illusion is a false interpretation of what is seen, so that motion, direction, speed, or the source of movement is perceived incorrectly. In this historical usage, the error often depends on relative visual conditions, such as where the eyes are fixed or how surrounding objects are seen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9a84b406f887a268026442e42939195f4d46e47d08c57fcec8b2b960cb0b98b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Illusions of Motion and Movement” (Illusions).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Illusions). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual imagery
<a id="visual-imagery"></a>

Visual imagery is the mind’s use of picture-like sensory images to represent things, such as recalling how a table or breakfast setting looks. The passage also indicates that people can differ greatly in this ability, and that thought may still proceed effectively through words or other mental material even when visual imagery is weak.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7da743725e593c03b6d55267f7f35cfda881a33d3d014a644c12823e119c5c2b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual impairment
<a id="visual-impairment"></a>

Visual impairment is reduced sharpness of vision or loss of part of the visual field that limits a person’s ability to take in visual information. It can affect development and everyday functioning, including communication, learning, and social interaction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c0c953f2c859811fc5973ec063794673d2c4658ba9d1e8cfcd56eed6ca4fc710

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Correia Kemily; Bara Tiago S; Furlin Vanessa; Prando Carolina; Iankilevich Perola G; Cordeiro Mara L. Impact of visual impairment severity on working memory and executive function in children and adolescents. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1827656; article XML SHA-256 52a5d09b3cd53df9bfa5190016b48c7d01e12bf2fd7c309255123c82a3c67659. “Impact of visual impairment severity on working memory and executive function in children and adolescents” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1827656).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1827656). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual memory
<a id="visual-memory"></a>

Visual memory is the mental ability to keep visual information in mind and later bring it back to memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 209efb10052873222987b2973c53df4556e96618f3d46f4bb1aa056748158056

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Visual Memory” (C88417).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual narrative
<a id="visual-narrative"></a>

Visual narrative is the way images communicate a story or rhetorical message. In this source, it refers to how AI-generated images portray science and scientific identities across narrative, action, and emotional resonance dimensions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 640ef03357c02cc098edfa9d0f3aebf21df74ecbc31444bb28bbdc8f71653e76

Sources:
- Drafting source: [He Yi; Jian Xiaoxia; Zhang Weifeng; Jin Xin. Identity interweaving, act boundaries, illusion and reality interweaving: A study of visual narratives of scientists and citizen scientists through AI. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341626; article XML SHA-256 b5effb841a929b916cc89d729728a886ba025a696d2ccbf621870c76b6760f87. “Identity interweaving, act boundaries, illusion and reality interweaving: A study of visual narratives of scientists and citizen scientists through AI” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341626).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341626). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual neglect
<a id="visual-neglect"></a>

Visual neglect is a disabling problem that can follow damage to the right hemisphere of the brain, in which a person shows a spatial bias in noticing visual information. It may be subtle or partly compensated, so it can be missed on simple paper-and-pencil testing, especially when attention demands are low.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8473ccfcc68a1dc6ca651aa1c887677ee604100cc9ed41e2e24ab1a5687b40e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vasyura Elizaveta; Kovyazina Maria; Stepanov Georgiy; Russkikh Olga; Terentiy Daria; Propustina Victoria; Skvortsov Anatoliy; Varako Nataliya; Vasilyeva Svetlana; Daminov Vadim; Zinchenko Yuri. Validation of the Keen Eye computer-based method for diagnosing visual neglect using a dual-task paradigm. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323832; article XML SHA-256 9e6ae1c4ce58d3b882989f67391a578d41a1d56ed46c6b8d7ea95b5ec0b4e11c. “Validation of the Keen Eye computer-based method for diagnosing visual neglect using a dual-task paradigm” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323832).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323832). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual organization
<a id="visual-organization"></a>

Visual organization is the process of arranging or combining what is seen into meaningful grouped patterns that can guide action. In the source task, it meant perceiving circles as paired when line connectors linked them, which could either help or interfere with the planned movement sequence.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: aa69022841c22b2042dfbb5e259de8137a31c542cd9c7eea75536bbf6d9baae2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Giersch Anne; Wilquin Hélène; Capa Rémi L.; Delevoye-Turrell Yvonne N.. Combined visual and motor disorganization in patients with schizophrenia. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00620; article XML SHA-256 1f2824a1c9609d725ef4a132da9b92814e226a41bf5c3b990a190c10f72eb34a. “Combined visual and motor disorganization in patients with schizophrenia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00620).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00620). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual perception
<a id="visual-perception"></a>

Visual perception is the process of choosing and arranging what is seen, shaped by a person's past experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7d27978261fe7c35e328de30cfc07d620d63afa2786b66466f6a17e12a6d694a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Visual Perception” (D014796).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014796). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual pigment
<a id="visual-pigment"></a>

Visual pigment is a light-sensitive protein complex found in photoreceptor cells. It consists of an opsin linked to a vitamin A–based chromophore, which absorbs light and starts the biochemical process that activates the photoreceptor cell.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 72df1aa7df2446e45e76b1d4e8e3cd877dd15dba44a21dbe1b1ee9c846f14811

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinal Pigments” (D012168).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012168). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual processing
<a id="visual-processing"></a>

Visual processing is the mental activity of selecting and organizing what a person sees, shaped by past experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0e64218744f93e12810008a4bbf6ccfd44389aac52d74eed681b6c6aa32ed73c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Visual Perception” (D014796).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014796). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual purple
<a id="visual-purple"></a>

Visual purple, also called rhodopsin, is a purplish-red pigment in the rod cells of the retina that is sensitive to light. It is made of rod opsin joined with 11-cis retinal and absorbs light most strongly at about 500 nm.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 89cccfbe7cd8f98de959ac6929a7736e0ff5c3b0d87a1cb76c7371d9ce551627

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Rhodopsin” (D012243).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012243). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual pursuit
<a id="visual-pursuit"></a>

Visual pursuit is a visual response whose presence in people with severe disorders of consciousness is associated with a better prognosis. In this context, it is considered an important sign of change from the vegetative or unresponsive wakefulness state toward the minimally conscious state.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d505f10f481f81f2689fb2a38fe51af482e08f0fd86ff6522e2501f0ae17f9bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Riganello Francesco; Cortese Maria D; Dolce Giuliano; Sannita Walter G. Visual pursuit response in the severe disorder of consciousness: modulation by the central autonomic system and a predictive model. 2013; DOI 10.1186/1471-2377-13-164; article XML SHA-256 727da936a375ef98dd84dfc7e02197bdf43cfd66322b79bfafd89cea72f4a056. “Visual pursuit response in the severe disorder of consciousness: modulation by the central autonomic system and a predictive model” (10.1186/1471-2377-13-164).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2377-13-164). Licence: [CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual receptive field
<a id="visual-receptive-field"></a>

A visual receptive field is the part of visual space that a visual neuron, or a measured population of neurons, responds to. Its apparent location and size can shift under some viewing conditions, such as when part of the visual field is artificially masked.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: db2fe42407813e17c2c1dadf292fff5e01e43b5e3f90304eb0774c6039b40e9e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Haak Koen V.; Cornelissen Frans W.; Morland Antony B.. Population Receptive Field Dynamics in Human Visual Cortex. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0037686; article XML SHA-256 fe59455c841169ce0e380cd8768a8694e53adc9b10e3d3e6c456237006099972. “Population Receptive Field Dynamics in Human Visual Cortex” (10.1371/journal.pone.0037686).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0037686). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual reproduction
<a id="visual-reproduction"></a>

Visual reproduction is a cognitive testing area that looks at how well a person can remember and reproduce visual material. In the source, it includes immediate and delayed forms and is used to assess abilities such as visual-perceptual-motor functioning and nonverbal reasoning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 11794eba354d0e0919b743eb8399935ddc6865d0669c9a34a5caffc28c8dfaf4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Haiqin; Gao Weijia; Cao Weifang; Meng Qingmin; Xu Longchun; Kuang Liangfeng; Guo Yongxin; Cui Dong; Qiu Jianfeng; Jiao Qing; Su Linyan; Lu Guangming. Immediate visual reproduction negatively correlates with brain entropy of parahippocampal gyrus and inferior occipital gyrus in bipolar II disorder adolescents. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05012-3; article XML SHA-256 677116523861b00744dcdb4fa899814ea9acb1de92e3d2e217c66926df81d7b4. “Immediate visual reproduction negatively correlates with brain entropy of parahippocampal gyrus and inferior occipital gyrus in bipolar II disorder adolescents” (10.1186/s12888-023-05012-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05012-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual screening
<a id="visual-screening"></a>

Visual screening is the use of graphical displays to quickly inspect regression results during model selection. In this context, it means reviewing many models in a single plot so patterns and comparisons are easier to interpret than in large tables.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: edfc6be062d95cce65d9368198c052fa163939ba7bd9b38bdda1cf4f3688b608

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Fries Jonathan; Oberleiter Sandra; Pietschnig Jakob. Say farewell to bland regression reporting: Three forest plot variations for visualizing linear models. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297033; article XML SHA-256 931c86ce5b0e9896fe2c9a8ba94d0a2ecaf6b188b18be9193cc8c4732956e0c5. “Say farewell to bland regression reporting: Three forest plot variations for visualizing linear models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297033).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297033). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual search
<a id="visual-search"></a>

Visual search is the act of looking for a target object in the environment. In active visual search, people do not just scan with their eyes; they also move their head and body to choose useful viewpoints, especially when objects may be hidden, out of sight, or seen from unusual angles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 431e9fa6e6a315ad4b3128e1be6760578c1b007724399b2aed187305244461ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Tiffany C; Tsotsos John K. Real-world visual search goes beyond eye movements: Active searchers select 3D scene viewpoints too. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319719; article XML SHA-256 15e15909e65823778522165872a3463eb48bf225a01e7032a32b3c4444bafa41. “Real-world visual search goes beyond eye movements: Active searchers select 3D scene viewpoints too” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319719).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319719). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual sensory memory
<a id="visual-sensory-memory"></a>

Visual sensory memory is the first, very brief stage of visual memory that holds incoming visual information. In the traditional view this visual component, called iconic memory, has high capacity but fades quickly and is represented in retina-based spatial coordinates; the source also describes a newer view that adds a motion-grouping-based component.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e3b07b6b7fe6b743e6be6bf0276b7d37509940da5747f9bac6cc0c9c899969a8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Öğmen Haluk; Herzog Michael H.. A New Conceptualization of Human Visual Sensory-Memory. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00830; article XML SHA-256 21be189329ff6dc06f964762c94523ab4759883d6137bed626a00f2a8acddc99. “A New Conceptualization of Human Visual Sensory-Memory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00830).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00830). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual stimulation
<a id="visual-stimulation"></a>

Visual stimulation is a technique, often used during electroencephalography, in which repeated bright flashes or visual patterns are presented to trigger brain activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76480d9d578707e7dcbb868ff9e60e14d091768279273eb3bc937023a734bf46

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Photic Stimulation” (D010775).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010775). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual system
<a id="visual-system"></a>

The visual system is the part of the central nervous system that includes the eye and the neural pathways and brain areas used to process visual information. It also supports some visual functions that do not involve forming images, such as helping regulate circadian timing in response to light.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f7094a4f2624357330d510beb00f01c6e4cedf43281ce2940d3cb0f256961dd0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Visual System” (C12888).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual texture
<a id="visual-texture"></a>

Visual texture is the texture-like quality of a visual experience, such as seeing a voice as having a smoke-like or dry, cracked appearance. In the packet, it refers to texture perceptions that can accompany sounds in voice-induced synesthesia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f9b1e980c5a66910486917480314c3acd7ee44a751cebd1a0393729508755218

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moos Anja; Simmons David; Simner Julia; Smith Rachel. Color and texture associations in voice-induced synesthesia. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00568; article XML SHA-256 75e1ee38f04c2561cb9614b1d13240789bfe29e061771a4e5fb8eff420c313d6. “Color and texture associations in voice-induced synesthesia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00568).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00568). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual tracking
<a id="visual-tracking"></a>

Visual tracking is the ability to keep track of moving people or objects over time using vision. In the source context, it refers especially to following multiple players and their positions and movements in space during play.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: cc1304c4635e3b6cbb0a0035151f5bddd76185c256e7c42abba70aae7bb9c77e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vu Alexandre; Sorel Anthony; Faure Charles; Aurousseau Antoine; Bideau Benoit; Kulpa Richard. Visual tracking assessment in a soccer-specific virtual environment: A web-based study. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0269643; article XML SHA-256 2c0267a7de73e9387ec84f75c4dec7bd869685a481ec27e2c9962f3a9e2136e4. “Visual tracking assessment in a soccer-specific virtual environment: A web-based study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0269643).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269643). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual yellow
<a id="visual-yellow"></a>

Visual yellow is the yellow stage seen in the human retina during the light-bleaching of visual purple. It refers to an intermediate product in the sequence of colour changes as the retinal pigment loses its purplish-red colour under illumination.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 03a246cf0667c7d5c94a4da68d3fd905af7729eadec7aad8443a9f133b9d129b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4389000-4401000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visually guided reaching
<a id="visually-guided-reaching"></a>

Visually guided reaching is reaching toward a target while using visual information about the target and one’s hand position, such as a cursor representing the hand on a screen. It is a goal-directed action that depends on coordination among sensory, cognitive, and motor systems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 38cd0d3d2c46237cffeb5eec8ba9307f8b7b7bb048feeed4f79b052b8031b7b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wijeyaratnam Darrin O; Edwards Thomas; Pilutti Lara A; Cressman Erin K. Assessing visually guided reaching in people with multiple sclerosis with and without self-reported upper limb impairment. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0262480; article XML SHA-256 59e5b767ad79f2779415cab2fffae4c68f86580aa8ae21413855b395e4d737a1. “Assessing visually guided reaching in people with multiple sclerosis with and without self-reported upper limb impairment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0262480).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262480). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual–motor coordination
<a id="visualmotor-coordination"></a>

Visual–motor coordination is the ability to control movement using visual information. It is an essential part of movement control and depends on interactions among multiple brain regions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 44d41a46671da32306518a62a28a39793abb57b5b45c9c20e5ec180dcb0190d3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Xinzhe; Mota Bruno; Kondo Toshiyuki; Nasuto Slawomir; Hayashi Yoshikatsu. EEG dynamical network analysis method reveals the neural signature of visual-motor coordination. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0231767; article XML SHA-256 8916a08a402d41af7f1116e026a84212a1510cd3b21de7690d7ccafe501ba8d0. “EEG dynamical network analysis method reveals the neural signature of visual-motor coordination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0231767).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231767). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visual–spatial ability
<a id="visualspatial-ability"></a>

Visual–spatial ability is a set of cognitive skills for understanding and mentally working with spatial features such as distance and direction. It includes abilities like perceiving spatial relationships, visualizing spatial arrangements, and mentally rotating objects.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c3ef9bf578fdae9e2a99ce730ddb05612c1fa1febdb9712f39d43e7c681b970b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Liu Saifang; Wei Wenjun; Chen Yuan; Hugo Peyre; Zhao Jingjing. Visual–Spatial Ability Predicts Academic Achievement Through Arithmetic and Reading Abilities. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.591308; article XML SHA-256 1bf9666570c313f35fbe0b2329eeb8da96d45f479b44be8d1b7ca33ea3289590. “Visual–Spatial Ability Predicts Academic Achievement Through Arithmetic and Reading Abilities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.591308).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.591308). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## visuospatial function
<a id="visuospatial-function"></a>

Visuospatial function is the brain’s processing of visual information about space and spatial relationships in the environment. In this source, it refers to a network involving fronto-parieto-occipital areas and the thalamus that helps interpret visual stimuli, direct attention to their significance, and shape emotional and behavioral responses to what is seen.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2e6c8bf3c6772806537be066cc614ee0321c058a7c079388b39832c76ce3f3cf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [An Iseul; Choi Tai Kiu; Bang Minji; Lee Sang-Hyuk. White Matter Correlates of Hostility and Aggression in the Visuospatial Function Network in Patients With Schizophrenia. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.734488; article XML SHA-256 f928685a7654ec78eeda8ff836fcb02cd458de4a7e6eb51dea9fbed271271c01. “White Matter Correlates of Hostility and Aggression in the Visuospatial Function Network in Patients With Schizophrenia” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.734488).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.734488). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

No scene is provided for this risk term.

## visuospatial sketchpad
<a id="visuospatial-sketchpad"></a>

The visuospatial sketchpad is a part of working memory that briefly holds and works with visual and spatial information. It supports tasks such as forming mental images, understanding where things are in relation to each other, and keeping or changing visual information during activities like navigation or visual search.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 11a8b000254f861ccd9f91ed6d17c77a152d8479f30ace09adbfbc097b059c68

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ren Yanna; Gao Binyue; Xue Heyuan; Yang Mengmeng; Gao Yulin. Adaptive visuospatial n-back training improves audiovisual integration and executive control in older adults. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1801385; article XML SHA-256 7c740414280ad348dc369a3aadc1d32600fcd38d4fc94b062f8a02a10620ff56. “Adaptive visuospatial n-back training improves audiovisual integration and executive control in older adults” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1801385).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1801385). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vitalism
<a id="vitalism"></a>

Vitalism is the metaphysical view that living processes depend on a special vital force separate from ordinary physical and chemical forces, so life cannot be fully explained by physics and chemistry alone. It stands in contrast to mechanistic materialism.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5dbbc99caac236117abe4c2af54d190a9b9193afecaf21d79f0bfde17de12f92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vitalism” (D014799).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014799). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vitality
<a id="vitality"></a>

Vitality refers to a person’s available psychological energy or sense of being energized. In this context, it can be weakened when ongoing stress and effortful defensive or emotion-regulation processes keep using up mental resources.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ab4b1be44e100d03fe8efe0e4edec98458913f7bfe5a2495ecd961e46eda32d5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vandersmissen Anja; Fissler Plischke Patrick; Filippi Marco; Wenzel Maya; Bernhardt Maren; Krähenmann Rainer. The effort of maintaining the defensive wall: is there a link between defense mechanisms and vitality?. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08146-2; article XML SHA-256 8354185bb6c0c142f02887aaedac6ba5646d9c7d6f01d8d0746ff13c7beff545. “The effort of maintaining the defensive wall: is there a link between defense mechanisms and vitality?” (10.1186/s12888-026-08146-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08146-2). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vitamin
<a id="vitamin"></a>

In this mental health context, a vitamin refers to a natural product such as vitamin D that some people use in hopes of easing depression symptoms. The source notes that such products are not FDA-approved for treating depression, research findings are mixed, and they may have risks including interactions with prescription medicines.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 34e859beb8750ba8112f5180804836345eb46aad5edef67efe1108ae970c4fdf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 5e865d35b1103be91b52db38911aadcdf861e23a0de4e1b3e1eeb01399b987b8. “Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vitamin A
<a id="vitamin-a"></a>

Vitamin A refers to retinol and related compounds that are necessary for normal retinal metabolism, epithelial tissue growth and differentiation, bone growth, reproduction, and immune function. In the diet it comes from plant carotenoids and is especially concentrated in liver, egg yolks, and the fat in dairy products.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 68e2fd1e60ca88ccf68ff3b1583d4e86631c9a94f6143d7503e80feef68fa606

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vitamin A” (D014801).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014801). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vitex agnus castus
<a id="vitex-agnus-castus"></a>

Vitex agnus castus is the chaste tree, a medicinal plant whose fruit extract is used as an ingredient in some herbal and homeopathic medicines. In the source, it is described as the main plant-based component of the compared products.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 08c904383b3572c7d1cdbb0e0e863f792e646c4f2cef29fa02de93580f28fda8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Csupor Dezső; Boros Klára; Hohmann Judit. Low Potency Homeopathic Remedies and Allopathic Herbal Medicines: Is There an Overlap?. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0074181; article XML SHA-256 8b63d96600b16bbd876487f68feb0579b23a9a9d3e055e6075fe58063c9cdce2. “Low Potency Homeopathic Remedies and Allopathic Herbal Medicines: Is There an Overlap?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0074181).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0074181). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vitreous humor
<a id="vitreous-humor"></a>

The vitreous humor is the clear, gel-like material that fills the space inside the eye between the lens and the retina. It is enclosed by a thin membrane and makes up most of the eyeball’s interior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f6c97819601d928a31c6a0dcf9ba33c590c875b6ee07a4ff0a2b48896274004e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vitreous Body” (D014822).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014822). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## VMH
<a id="vmh"></a>

VMH stands for the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus, a brain region examined in research on stress, pain, and fear-related biological responses. In the supplied source, it is one of the hypothalamic areas where changes in CRF receptor gene expression were studied after early-life pain and later fear conditioning.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4184570598617fb4d0cd45e5e43b2969bea4802bfe822aca4f6b1676e5328eff

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Burman Michael A.; Zuke Jared T.. The effects of early life pain and juvenile fear conditioning on CRF-receptor expression in the amygdala and hypothalamus of the juvenile rat. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326300; article XML SHA-256 8bb895ceee8c7c47b9b8a3a4786c32f82398c33011a438d64abdedc4f25bcb70. “The effects of early life pain and juvenile fear conditioning on CRF-receptor expression in the amygdala and hypothalamus of the juvenile rat” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326300).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326300). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## VMI
<a id="vmi"></a>

VMI stands for visual motor integration, a fine motor skill that combines visual-spatial input and attention with precise hand movements. It is used in tasks such as writing, drawing, cutting, and folding and involves stronger hand-eye coordination than fine motor coordination alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e8ebdb34be3620eb357dabacdd3e6c52f7fd6f1631fe62ca4edd0feb5737d938

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Baifa; Lin Zhicheng; Li Chao. Fine motor skills assessment instruments for preschool children with typical development: a scoping review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1620235; article XML SHA-256 e07de07558e9125cec55d3ea44de4b362e303bc5b12ea1fd4fa1dd0683a1bb42. “Fine motor skills assessment instruments for preschool children with typical development: a scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1620235).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1620235). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vocabulary test
<a id="vocabulary-test"></a>

A vocabulary test is a type of language test used to assess language abilities, especially vocabulary. In this context, such tests may also examine understanding, grammar, and practical language use.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1701efa8ea3d2fa09313823d335f2b761dc0b601852a8af50def8c88a914b82f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Language Tests” (D007807).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007807). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vocal communication
<a id="vocal-communication"></a>

Vocal communication is the use of sounds or calls to exchange information with others. In the source packet, it is described as serving functions such as avoiding conflict, supporting survival, mating, and parental care, and it can range from simple to complex repertoires with distinctive call patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5a31328d480eb1ed178d50948b08ad9b8bfe91ab504ddab131cc6db446cdeb35

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bettoni Sabrina; Stoeger Angela; Rodriguez Camilo; Fitch W Tecumseh. Airborne vocal communication in adult neotropical otters ( Lontra longicaudis ). 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0251974; article XML SHA-256 dc0b8ddf08b424af77bd55e17f5593f7121e7b279e89cab6f84808bcb80de9f1. “Airborne vocal communication in adult neotropical otters ( Lontra longicaudis )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0251974).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251974). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vocalization
<a id="vocalization"></a>

Vocalization is the production of voiced sounds, such as in singing or toning. In this context, toning is a vocalization practice in which a person sustains a sound during exhalation, and such practices have been linked with relaxation, emotion regulation, and social closeness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9fb3ae1dd6c7f50bcaeba60e52cad10ad2beccf19b6e823445b41ef071904a23

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ruiz-Blais Sebastian; Bernardi Nicolò Francesco; Intartaglia Bastien; Snow Shelley; Lehmann Alexandre. Neural and cardiorespiratory responses in vocalization and slow breathing: Contrasting brain and autonomic responses. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345719; article XML SHA-256 3023ee789ea4cca9c44c961b17d79ea05b377a17ff66fb24ffe7000d25d8601d. “Neural and cardiorespiratory responses in vocalization and slow breathing: Contrasting brain and autonomic responses” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345719).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345719). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vocation
<a id="vocation"></a>

In this learning context, vocation means the profession or work role a person is oriented toward, such as becoming a teacher. It is reflected in their experiences with that role, their choice to pursue it, and their plans for the future.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2ab741132f860980842bf5e2d7623227f682cd5cb3fe638a5c032f914e5ca798

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Lin. The system and characteristics of teacher beliefs of preservice physical education teachers in China: a qualitative approach. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1666929; article XML SHA-256 160bdfd17627dbeb59b98504e84c17c571d8d1596b1702f05982b020d6382f9a. “The system and characteristics of teacher beliefs of preservice physical education teachers in China: a qualitative approach” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1666929).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1666929). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vocational counseling
<a id="vocational-counseling"></a>

Vocational counseling is guidance focused on a person’s work or employment, such as help with getting a job. In the packet, it appears as one form of practical support that may be offered within supportive therapy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8dbb6261c565c182f13d6f3c909af9f95cb16c773ee48fd5bfa92966139df73e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Supportive Therapy” (C21109).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vocational education
<a id="vocational-education"></a>

Vocational education is instruction designed to prepare a person for a particular skilled trade or occupation, such as plumbing, masonry, or carpentry.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc296846c850649620a100fda2ac275b6786e275775efe9ea9a0cc91e0ff92f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vocational Education” (D014829).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014829). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vocational guidance
<a id="vocational-guidance"></a>

Vocational guidance is a structured process of helping a person choose an occupation or suitable work by considering factors such as their abilities and education.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 024321a41fd9d0d8e0e4578a86d5d4fb010cbfce86ddef325a4c3199bfb74501

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vocational Guidance” (D014830).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014830). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vocational rehabilitation
<a id="vocational-rehabilitation"></a>

Vocational rehabilitation is a coordinated or integrated set of interventions that supports clients who need help from both the mental health care and social security sectors. It depends on collaboration between the stakeholders involved across these fields.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3e6961c0827a655dd41bee012c147765d5ae7ef07caedb347711964474e202d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Noteboom Yvonne; Montanus Alexandra W A; van Nassau Femke; Burchell George; Anema Johannes R; Huysmans Maaike A. Barriers and facilitators of collaboration during the implementation of vocational rehabilitation interventions: a systematic review. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-06223-y; article XML SHA-256 90d53710c0cd4aa9cbe38daca2af1f7003d33d1b11db717c776e32e7c1299b47. “Barriers and facilitators of collaboration during the implementation of vocational rehabilitation interventions: a systematic review” (10.1186/s12888-024-06223-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-06223-y). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vocational services
<a id="vocational-services"></a>

Vocational services are supports aimed at helping people get and keep employment. In this context, they refer to employment-related help that some people with mental illness may be excluded from despite work being linked with better mental health and social connection.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 05ce242171266369a988143ab5d3f6617d3c6c5626bc3bef44641fef1b0507ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hamilton Ian S; Schneider Justine; Kane Eddie; Jordan Melanie. Employment of ex-prisoners with mental health problems, a realistic evaluation protocol. 2015; DOI 10.1186/s12888-015-0553-3; article XML SHA-256 20ba5ec7b987504d15a376236ad24476b6dc4c393d2f7eb1b80b2f2104502cb3. “Employment of ex-prisoners with mental health problems, a realistic evaluation protocol” (10.1186/s12888-015-0553-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-015-0553-3). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vocational training
<a id="vocational-training"></a>

Vocational training is skills training aimed at improving ability for work. In this packet, it refers to structured practice of job-related tasks within psychiatric rehabilitation, with activities designed to help people apply what they learn to real work settings.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 2d041a04806d15c20995789bf819e859c3bdd6938048ecda6856b254f7432e4a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tan Bhing-Leet; Guan Frank Yunqing; Leung Ivy Mun Wah; Kee Sharon Yi-May; Devilly Oran Zane; Medalia Alice. A gamified augmented reality vocational training program for adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities: A pilot study on acceptability and effectiveness. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.966080; article XML SHA-256 8d4eab534cfd7b4d6a88816fe476f860d32db37b5d0e6dad7498d65a3e792eac. “A gamified augmented reality vocational training program for adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities: A pilot study on acceptability and effectiveness” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.966080).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.966080). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## voice disorder
<a id="voice-disorder"></a>

A voice disorder is a problem with the voice that is not captured fully by objective measures alone, because it also involves how much difficulty or disability the person experiences. In practice, it is understood partly by how well someone can speak with their voice in everyday work and social situations.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be04659457b573a385c9d02f496e137437177fc1fb475fa0721016b3df5ff6ba

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Moy Foong Ming; Hoe Victor Chee Wai; Hairi Noran Naqiah; Chu Anne Hin Yee; Bulgiba Awang; Koh David. Determinants and Effects of Voice Disorders among Secondary School Teachers in Peninsular Malaysia Using a Validated Malay Version of VHI-10. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0141963; article XML SHA-256 5876844560e0470883083f3ece27b33bfb755193fd4930bfde29318eb30910be. “Determinants and Effects of Voice Disorders among Secondary School Teachers in Peninsular Malaysia Using a Validated Malay Version of VHI-10” (10.1371/journal.pone.0141963).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141963). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## voice key
<a id="voice-key"></a>

A voice key is a reaction-time device in which the subject’s spoken response serves as the signal that completes or interrupts the timing circuit. In historical laboratory work it was used for complex reactions when different spoken words were needed as different responses.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83bfd6fd9478b50dfb505d1e9c594d2fd1358d324fc4904eb96c4eead6a478e9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2373000-2385000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## voiced
<a id="voiced"></a>

In this historical linguistic sense, voiced means having the sound quality exemplified by d rather than a voiceless sound such as s. The term appears in describing assimilation, where one neighboring sound takes on the voiced character of another.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c4a8164f0fbbd7111cda0a9d48ef94cf1ba9335a52f82a7f9f6364b24b1d00c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Assimilaton (linguistic)” (Assimilation (linguistic)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Assimilation (linguistic)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## voicing
<a id="voicing"></a>

Voicing is the use of voice in producing articulated speech sounds. In this historical source, the term appears in discussing speech defects, where a person may have difficulty adding voice to articulation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7551a87d988c54ee33e28b5d7afc5847a211d5f7eab0c5d814b7305311d954f0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3244500-3256500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## voltage-gated ion channel
<a id="voltage-gated-ion-channel"></a>

A voltage-gated ion channel is a membrane channel whose activity changes with membrane voltage and helps control a cell’s electrical behavior. In the packet, these channels include sodium, calcium, and potassium channels involved in generating action potentials and regulating excitability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 096fbdd05714fe4bc3f83ac7caccb53cd7f0b994c8d032182b8aff8fb99a1b0a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Frolova Sheyda R; Gaiko Olga; Tsvelaya Valeriya A; Pimenov Oleg Y; Agladze Konstantin I. Photocontrol of Voltage-Gated Ion Channel Activity by Azobenzene Trimethylammonium Bromide in Neonatal Rat Cardiomyocytes. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0152018; article XML SHA-256 69f825c7c7aa5ea232062e1be1cf81dd6de162f9a685ffbc5a56ec1bcf7929f8. “Photocontrol of Voltage-Gated Ion Channel Activity by Azobenzene Trimethylammonium Bromide in Neonatal Rat Cardiomyocytes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0152018).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152018). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## voluntarism
<a id="voluntarism"></a>

Voluntarism is the view, contrasted with intellectualism, that will is the most basic principle for explaining mind or reality. In this historical usage, it treats willing rather than thought as fundamental.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f05d740ba59e07e72beab9f9a51546b01f9d042d31aef41e520e26eb38a31841

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Intellectualism” (Intellectualism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Intellectualism). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## voluntary
<a id="voluntary"></a>

In research ethics, voluntary means taking part by personal choice rather than obligation. A person can decide whether to participate and can leave the study at any time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f19c673759a66646f0138d62c13c820a9cc7e906014c8c60bf09fa4ea58e871a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 ff7a7468286526ac17a328be4c934d7799aad584950f0a10e9047534a7dd859b. “Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## voluntary admission
<a id="voluntary-admission"></a>

In this historical context, voluntary admission meant entry to an asylum at the request of the patient’s family rather than by public authority order. It required supporting documents, including a request for admission, a recent medical certificate on the person’s mental state and need for asylum care, and proof of identity, with official oversight to guard against improper confinement.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1cca31ccc1b199f29e9066a250f7eeb58a658e28f0dd3344e35e7cead013d920

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2992500-3004500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## voluntary attention
<a id="voluntary-attention"></a>

Voluntary attention is the deliberate ability to direct and hold one’s mental activity on a chosen object or line of thought. In this historical source, a deficiency of voluntary attention means reduced power to concentrate intentionally in a desired direction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d81fe75ab2d731cf235c67f5719f6f90f349bba5e05dcc0d4ae1ce0fe0bdea43

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Attention (defects of)” (Attention (defects of)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Attention (defects of)). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## voluntary behavior
<a id="voluntary-behavior"></a>

Voluntary behavior is action a person performs actively by choice rather than because of compulsion or pressure. In this source, it is contrasted with behavior that may appear initiative-based but is actually driven by compulsory workplace forces.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 33620fadfab9207e273b973ca3247ad6f37699a875094f87e2d48e6fa87b1bbd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Jing; Shi Wei; Liu Guoqin; Zhou Li. Moving Beyond Initiative: The Reconceptualization and Measurement of Unethical Pro-organizational Behavior. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.640107; article XML SHA-256 124d0ee29ab504e2196be2dc8028eb62c6e396dfeb32b8754255dcfcda547daf. “Moving Beyond Initiative: The Reconceptualization and Measurement of Unethical Pro-organizational Behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.640107).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.640107). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## voluntary dehydration
<a id="voluntary-dehydration"></a>

Voluntary dehydration means a person becomes low in body water simply by not drinking enough, rather than through causes such as exercise, heat stress, or diuretics. In this context, it is used as a naturalistic model for studying how insufficient fluid intake may affect cognition and mood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dfdf31fa8f80e475316ece08d120465d10b1fff0d34aa01b4da53f020f2f785d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mündel Toby; Hill Stephen; Legg Stephen. Hypohydration per se affects mood states and executive cognitive processing: results from a face-valid model for studying some consequences of 'voluntary dehydration'. 2015; DOI 10.1186/2046-7648-4-s1-a97; article XML SHA-256 e62ef95e6629d3485da23bf12f9f49f6690d8d4db71ab9a29370d7e51e584ecc. “Hypohydration per se affects mood states and executive cognitive processing: results from a face-valid model for studying some consequences of 'voluntary dehydration'” (10.1186/2046-7648-4-s1-a97).](https://doi.org/10.1186/2046-7648-4-s1-a97). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## voluntary response
<a id="voluntary-response"></a>

A voluntary response is an intentional action, such as a keypress, made to produce a chosen effect or goal. In this research context, such responses can take on the positive or negative meaning of their intended effects through repeated pairing.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c8ae11a9ef382c6fb123d2e0fa072be3dc07b455e59315a6fa2cbf9fbe8579d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Eder Andreas B.; Rothermund Klaus; De Houwer Jan. Affective Compatibility between Stimuli and Response Goals: A Primer for a New Implicit Measure of Attitudes. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0079210; article XML SHA-256 f97d40ab20eeabade1f0f1755140e32d7293f611aefc1d3d03e54c04c377a22e. “Affective Compatibility between Stimuli and Response Goals: A Primer for a New Implicit Measure of Attitudes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0079210).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079210). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## voluntary retrieval
<a id="voluntary-retrieval"></a>

Voluntary retrieval is the intentional recall of a memory through goal-directed memory search. In this source, it is described as reactivating temporally compressed, item-specific memory representations rather than the sensory-feature-based patterns seen in involuntary retrieval.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 80e34993c7a8dcd443d439338e2612a2a998173c029c5e4749da9bc167fe8fdd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kobelt Malte; Waldhauser Gerd T; Fellner Marie-Christin; Axmacher Nikolai. Involuntary and voluntary memory retrieval relies on distinct neural representations and oscillatory processes. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pbio.3003258; article XML SHA-256 71fe7feaa4ade58228c6a3d8fd921ba5c4b601e092922657ed6d8d7934cc722a. “Involuntary and voluntary memory retrieval relies on distinct neural representations and oscillatory processes” (10.1371/journal.pbio.3003258).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3003258). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## volunteer
<a id="volunteer"></a>

In clinical research, a volunteer is a person who takes part in a trial. A healthy volunteer has no known health problems related to the study and may be included to provide a baseline for comparing results, rather than to receive direct personal benefit.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 4ba78f7cfc36092c39bf526aea886540343bd255f114dabc6cb07fe2ae4dfdb2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 ff7a7468286526ac17a328be4c934d7799aad584950f0a10e9047534a7dd859b. “Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vomiting
<a id="vomiting"></a>

In this context, vomiting means making oneself throw up as an unhealthy way to try to prevent weight gain after binge eating. It is described as a behavior seen in bulimia nervosa.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6b379de16afb8ba982c31b21f30a618fef44d63f92d805c169b0c3b6081f98c6

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. What Are Common Types of Eating Disorders?. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 a4b5d10e4b84fc68edab0c0391024f6901f27492e7220d464960e26249f46066. “What Are Common Types of Eating Disorders?” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/what-are-common-types-of-eating-disorders).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/what-are-common-types-of-eating-disorders). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## von Recklinghausen’s disease
<a id="von-recklinghausens-disease"></a>

Von Recklinghausen’s disease is neurofibromatosis 1, an inherited condition in which changes mainly affect neural crest–derived tissues, including the nervous system, skin, bones, and muscles. It is marked by multiple darkened skin patches and tumors under the skin, and it can also involve nervous system tumors and a higher rate of learning disabilities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a4628f7db82299154d63479818b002382832a5003d3b703a0b48b28559b45770

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurofibromatosis 1” (D009456).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009456). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## voyeurism
<a id="voyeurism"></a>

Voyeurism is a paraphilia in which a person repeatedly becomes sexually excited by watching unsuspecting people, usually strangers, who are naked, undressing, or engaged in sexual activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 16dc6455117d7afdbbc56ebe85ff416c0adb58c63b067ede1907828bc92d80b2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Voyeurism” (D014843).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014843). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## VR
<a id="vr"></a>

VR, or virtual reality, refers to an intervention that places a person in a controlled multisensory environment. In psychology-related use, it can shape how people interpret upcoming events, regulate emotions, and feel a greater sense of control, not just distract them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 624e36f1ac29e42f32d37768caf7a1f07cf878a5e161aa2af2f6e902965fef78

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ran Xu; Wei Yanlin; Huang Rong; Tang Chengxi; Hu Yanhua; Wang Diqiao. VR preoperative education with sensory information alleviates perioperative anxiety and enhances delivery experience in primiparas undergoing cesarean section: a randomized controlled trial. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1648706; article XML SHA-256 e03ab11ba480ff040fbf17139b00af5dd516b6391d82428e0f555fe253dbc3ba. “VR preoperative education with sensory information alleviates perioperative anxiety and enhances delivery experience in primiparas undergoing cesarean section: a randomized controlled trial” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1648706).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1648706). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## VT
<a id="vt"></a>

VT refers to vision training, a set of repeated activities designed to strengthen visual abilities such as eye movements, visual attention, and visuospatial processing. In psychology-related use, it aims to improve how visual information is processed and how quickly and effectively attention can be directed or shifted.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 73c63fa78df4d5670b9e150a222dc2b35dd661407facb3e8731b80986f45b255

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sudo Daisuke; Toyoda Daisuke. Effect of vision training on visual function in older adults: A pilot randomized trial. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356206; article XML SHA-256 66aea631c01a8f1822ffb973d5e7e65e982693ede6b9b35cb1006c7679922720. “Effect of vision training on visual function in older adults: A pilot randomized trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356206).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356206). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vulnerability
<a id="vulnerability"></a>

Vulnerability is the potential for loss or harm from environmental hazards. In social and disaster research, it is understood as depending on exposure to harm, how susceptible people or systems are, and their adaptive capacity—the social, economic, institutional, and material conditions that affect how well they can anticipate, withstand, respond to, and recover from adverse impacts.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c05e3dc9b03173d605f26bf916b08074c429d8aa72b04b77f9af988e2bfe1a22

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Saba Jawata A; Ash Kevin D. Quantifying uncertainty due to sampling error in a social vulnerability index: A Monte Carlo approach. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354333; article XML SHA-256 1bdaf065b9ca12ffd86d7596d88be75f936af72db3a88c09973f2cd6b279d6ee. “Quantifying uncertainty due to sampling error in a social vulnerability index: A Monte Carlo approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354333).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354333). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vulnerability factor
<a id="vulnerability-factor"></a>

A vulnerability factor is a pre-existing characteristic that makes someone more likely to show stronger psychological distress after a stressful event. In this source, it refers to a feature present before the disaster that is distinguished from later changes that reflect distress acquired afterward.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e5426f7aafae49099fd1524284ecbcb50844202c8c9d2d2dc86f1b974e53c8e8

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sekiguchi Atsushi; Sugiura Motoaki; Taki Yasuyuki; Kotozaki Yuka; Nouchi Rui; Takeuchi Hikaru; Araki Tsuyoshi; Hanawa Sugiko; Nakagawa Seishu; Miyauchi Carlos Makoto; Sakuma Atsushi; Kawashima Ryuta. White Matter Microstructural Changes as Vulnerability Factors and Acquired Signs of Post-Earthquake Distress. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0083967; article XML SHA-256 419ccf34a2ea98a1fe2d914602132ea8f3321a0dfdb217ec475a7c2fa2d1ba9f. “White Matter Microstructural Changes as Vulnerability Factors and Acquired Signs of Post-Earthquake Distress” (10.1371/journal.pone.0083967).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083967). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## vulva
<a id="vulva"></a>

The vulva is the external female genital area. It includes the clitoris, the labia, the vestibule, and the glands of the vestibule.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b4118ce780dd9970146eeda6545a1f29d6b6b420cc3936c2890d7940b43e1ce1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vulva” (D014844).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014844). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Waardenburg’s syndrome
<a id="waardenburgs-syndrome"></a>

Waardenburg’s syndrome is a rare inherited condition, usually passed in an autosomal dominant pattern, with several forms and variable expression. It can involve changes in pigmentation of the hair, skin, or eyes, congenital deafness, and distinctive facial features, and it may result from abnormal development of neural crest cells.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 60d23d2c4daa475daeb27e031b1ff5253126488b85fbe6ca689a9cc1db76a746

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Waardenburg Syndrome” (D014849).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014849). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## waggle dance
<a id="waggle-dance"></a>

A waggle dance is the signal honey bee foragers use to tell other bees the direction and distance of an attractive food source. It includes sound and airflow produced by body vibrations that nestmates can detect with the antenna and Johnston’s organ.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: bdf533c8415144c7558ff68a2aa5b9e55b046290a6aa7a1d591fa4cb6cc1ecb4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tsujiuchi Seiya; Sivan-Loukianova Elena; Eberl Daniel F.; Kitagawa Yasuo; Kadowaki Tatsuhiko. Dynamic Range Compression in the Honey Bee Auditory System toward Waggle Dance Sounds. 2007; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0000234; article XML SHA-256 caa62b3bc0686135a5803ad8d6f1d21663e8c141fe70c231cc18feecac5e4191. “Dynamic Range Compression in the Honey Bee Auditory System toward Waggle Dance Sounds” (10.1371/journal.pone.0000234).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000234). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## WAIS
<a id="wais"></a>

WAIS, or the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, is a test used to assess intelligence in adults and older adolescents. The source describes it as containing 60 questions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7611d2e865337aafdeae572740ff2f73f9c6cd5ad44c63e2fbec219bf4d069d2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale” (C115128).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## wait-list control group
<a id="wait-list-control-group"></a>

A wait-list control group is a comparison group in a randomized study that is assigned after the baseline assessment and measured alongside the experimental group instead of taking part in the intervention being evaluated at that stage.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 613cc2213e9cba2f7390a0d029e18b419a4ef683b479bf1980c02230790d2e3e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [García-Merino Sonia; Ruiz-Bravo Patricia; Díaz Ureña Germán. Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial of a self-determination theory–based psychoeducational intervention to enhance autonomous motivation for exercise in female university students. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355374; article XML SHA-256 9835c72c3d4d1350c27c3fd90f349760e1ad9b56701f04ad7159001ce40b2fb4. “Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial of a self-determination theory–based psychoeducational intervention to enhance autonomous motivation for exercise in female university students” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355374).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355374). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## wakefulness
<a id="wakefulness"></a>

Wakefulness is the state of being awake, marked by greater sensitivity and effective response to things happening in the environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c35295884d5a42c84efcca8dd2c639fe0245d6088f5680ab3f3d6b690a5a5abf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Wakefulness” (D014851).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014851). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wallerian degeneration
<a id="wallerian-degeneration"></a>

Wallerian degeneration is the breakdown of the part of a nerve fiber beyond the site of damage after the nerve cell body or the nearby part of the axon is injured. It involves fragmentation of the axon and its myelin covering.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7979248aae9676b8d4bb25975e94d9335c6f3dd895c59f72e47f20f569288bcb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Wallerian Degeneration” (D014855).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014855). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## walleye
<a id="walleye"></a>

Walleye is a fish species mentioned in this source as part of U.S. recreational fishing culture, especially among major fishes of the North Central Region. In the social-media context studied here, it appeared in online discussions that were usually general rather than specifically about wild-caught or farmed origin.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 84ca630f3f89cb5206bb6f77ddf125e31b890d717851c7e16a7c3ff6f1731a30

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Smith Michael L.; Quagrainie Kwamena; Widmar Nicole Olynk. Measuring nationwide US online media mentions of fish found in the North Central Region. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356559; article XML SHA-256 ba18bc06d756feda825309ecc8762d74d519afb5128a2e57b44b11881e1a4f87. “Measuring nationwide US online media mentions of fish found in the North Central Region” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356559).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356559). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## wandering
<a id="wandering"></a>

Wandering, in this packet’s sense of mind wandering, is a shift in thought away from the demands of a current purposeful activity. The thoughts involved are separate from ongoing task-related processing and may be unrelated to the task or independent of the current sensory input.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f1d6f6bb99582308197eb293f5f437789c80f3cb1489bf4954bbdd91b9dcef0c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Du Qiuyu; Tolmie Andrew; Gordon Rebecca. Mind-wandering in China and the UK: evidence of cross-cultural consistency. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1715597; article XML SHA-256 71628ef083ed30e945f39f1e8634179d00b5de48fe5a1ae36166755964431687. “Mind-wandering in China and the UK: evidence of cross-cultural consistency” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1715597).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1715597). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## wandering attention
<a id="wandering-attention"></a>

Wandering attention is attention that shifts among ideas or objects without a coherent connection, so the mind does not stay steadily on one topic. In this historical usage, it contrasts with sustained attention, where thoughts link together in an orderly way and keep the same subject before the mind.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 093afe208adc1594cdf9ced81f84daef1405f287eda718141f46f90940daf2f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## warm spot
<a id="warm-spot"></a>

A warm spot is an area of skin that is especially sensitive to warmth, rather than a precise mathematical point. In this historical usage, such spots were described as more sparsely distributed than cold, pressure, or pain spots.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 279e970ecc48386814a0d04b5ff6c6b6fb8d179b539d347087711d9b6953ddad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3811500-3823500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## warmth
<a id="warmth"></a>

In this packet, warmth refers to parental emotional warmth: a parenting style marked by affectionate acceptance and supportive behavior toward a child. It is contrasted with rejecting or overprotective parenting and is described as generally beneficial for children’s psychological and social development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a0a123c492bee773479296167a24c62450038235b0424747ac6c0ce541cbb38b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hua Junli; Mao Leiyan; Liao Huiyun; Li Yihui; Zhang Haoyao; Liu Wanqi; Tang Hong. The influence of childhood socioeconomic status on Chinese female university students’ fertility intentions: the chain mediating effect of parental emotional warmth and subjective well-being. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1620780; article XML SHA-256 1db8282511d9bd7f4013d78f11a2445e756eefbb7da37d6f059b31b055b79257. “The influence of childhood socioeconomic status on Chinese female university students’ fertility intentions: the chain mediating effect of parental emotional warmth and subjective well-being” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1620780).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1620780). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## warning coloration
<a id="warning-coloration"></a>

Warning coloration is a biological trait in which an organism becomes more conspicuous, serving as a visual warning to predators. In this source, it is described as evolving because greater conspicuousness can lengthen a predator’s assessment time and reduce mistaken attacks, especially alongside strong chemical defense signals.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 155a8f7703b9c366fa76d28e0cb219b89942a0b0eab9f3449209f344105412db

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gohli Jostein; Högstedt Göran. Explaining the Evolution of Warning Coloration: Secreted Secondary Defence Chemicals May Facilitate the Evolution of Visual Aposematic Signals. 2009; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0005779; article XML SHA-256 edc7fb655b1e6ffbdf2a50feac11b2c5d1cb5dfea3d492a4c1b3c2465a95193b. “Explaining the Evolution of Warning Coloration: Secreted Secondary Defence Chemicals May Facilitate the Evolution of Visual Aposematic Signals” (10.1371/journal.pone.0005779).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005779). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Warrington Recognition Memory Test
<a id="warrington-recognition-memory-test"></a>

The Warrington Recognition Memory Test is a memory test that includes word and face recognition tasks. In research on temporal lobe epilepsy, its Faces section is commonly used to assess visual or facial memory, and poorer scores have been linked especially to right anterior temporal lobectomy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 970481d4f2e9e0a01f9fbfdc8ea0063bb60824aa0fe986ac1a910616b4a0e591

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hosokawa Hiroaki; Kanno Shigenori; Nishio Yoshiyuki; Kawasaki Iori; Hirayama Kazumi; Sunaga Atsuko; Shoji Naotake; Iwasaki Masaki; Nakasato Nobukazu; Tominaga Teiji; Suzuki Kyoko. Facial memory ability and self-awareness in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy after anterior temporal lobectomy. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248785; article XML SHA-256 24169d1ff8021f7474576a6a6d05ebed663ea1b1f92c70609a00cd90c290d855. “Facial memory ability and self-awareness in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy after anterior temporal lobectomy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248785).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248785). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wason selection task
<a id="wason-selection-task"></a>

The Wason selection task is a logical reasoning task used to study how people evaluate conditional statements such as “if p, then q.” In this paradigm, people solve inference problems so researchers can examine factors that influence reasoning performance, including emotion and problem content.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 14aee5c565a2154bda73b9266c2118b1c32e65e7f495178adb0750c17fb1e8d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jung Nadine; Wranke Christina; Hamburger Kai; Knauff Markus. How emotions affect logical reasoning: evidence from experiments with mood-manipulated participants, spider phobics, and people with exam anxiety. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00570; article XML SHA-256 6b41718c4c351784e6c66b125a97732978ea75076f75c6cb55222b7bae360678. “How emotions affect logical reasoning: evidence from experiments with mood-manipulated participants, spider phobics, and people with exam anxiety” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00570).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00570). Licence: [CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Water Deprivation
<a id="water-deprivation"></a>

Water deprivation is the deliberate withholding of water in a structured experimental setting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6a7e4e0427b7c799ad76928619a1821e6f1d6859be670d6c9b3b869b7e6074ee

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Water Deprivation” (D014868).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014868). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## water on the brain
<a id="water-on-the-brain"></a>

Water on the brain is an older popular name for hydrocephalus, an abnormal buildup of fluid inside the skull. In developed cases it was described as often beginning at birth or in early infancy, causing an enlarged head and being associated with mental dullness, reduced mental activity, and weakness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b97df986bb721c63b6688f4f636f24eb211d0f98e1afcfc43c21eff8d98f221e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hydrocephalus” (Hydrocephalus).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Hydrocephalus). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Watson–Glaser critical thinking appraisal
<a id="watsonglaser-critical-thinking-appraisal"></a>

The Watson–Glaser critical thinking appraisal is a named assessment used to evaluate critical thinking. In the source packet, it is mentioned as one of the tools adapted to build a student self-report measure for educational research.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bc4615a95069fd884a2152f50d842e654aa2ba915f27116d1323271d3cdc58bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xu Jiyuan; Mou Yurui; Yuan Lei. From conceptual understanding to interdisciplinary innovation: the mediating mechanism of IESR among high school students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739020; article XML SHA-256 3ae66498003a6213d3336a59072b1faba0d02be9a6dbb92054d6d09d94a3c814. “From conceptual understanding to interdisciplinary innovation: the mediating mechanism of IESR among high school students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739020).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739020). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## wave of excitation
<a id="wave-of-excitation"></a>

In this historical account, a wave of excitation is the spread of nervous activity from one brain centre to others after a stimulus. As it moves outward, more centres take part, so conscious experience is understood as changing with the overall balance of cortical activity rather than coming from one isolated spot alone.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 18d048a586a152dcf891b4eb7f6555ac70afa97bfe53f8bcf771e55462800e92

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Brain” (Brain).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B3defs.htm#Brain). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## waxy flexibility
<a id="waxy-flexibility"></a>

Waxy flexibility is a state in which a person shows very little movement or response and keeps an unmoving posture, with the limbs staying in whatever position they are placed. It is described as a feature of catalepsy and can occur in psychotic disorders, drug toxicity affecting the nervous system, and other conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8947c165f4f716c2a14f7267eb9945bdffc9cecf86c4f33e46dfaa18138ced01

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Catalepsy” (D002375).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002375). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## way finding
<a id="way-finding"></a>

Way finding is the ability to orient and move accurately through an environment toward a route or target. In this source, it refers to precise navigation shown by penguins that repeatedly followed straight seafloor paths with little deviation.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 801a7bbf184e6ac19045936af330f05e32b877af05940ab2d5ee3938015308ac

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mattern Thomas; Ellenberg Ursula; Houston David M.; Lamare Miles; Davis Lloyd S.; van Heezik Yolanda; Seddon Philip J.. Straight Line Foraging in Yellow-Eyed Penguins: New Insights into Cascading Fisheries Effects and Orientation Capabilities of Marine Predators. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0084381; article XML SHA-256 445f203ecc9e1772dd847c7b4f77a8e3cb39eaf9fb042e59f94674984f814836. “Straight Line Foraging in Yellow-Eyed Penguins: New Insights into Cascading Fisheries Effects and Orientation Capabilities of Marine Predators” (10.1371/journal.pone.0084381).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0084381). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## WCST
<a id="wcst"></a>

WCST stands for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, a psychological test used to detect executive functioning problems, especially difficulties with cognitive flexibility and planning. It can highlight patterns such as perseverative responding, where a person keeps using the same approach despite changing demands.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2a6993d29ace447f101ada2378a4c854ba3b0f17c93aaf75bd0881a3342056ad

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Pudło Monika; Rymarczyk Krystyna; Starowicz Anna; Pisula Ewa. Intelligence and executive functioning in adolescence: comparing autism spectrum disorder and typical development. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1733356; article XML SHA-256 264240cb3491dcedbce7f110c25ab6487a69316cc67c0d39c44e92f216096448. “Intelligence and executive functioning in adolescence: comparing autism spectrum disorder and typical development” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1733356).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1733356). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## weak central coherence
<a id="weak-central-coherence"></a>

Weak central coherence is a style of information processing in which a person focuses more on small details than on the overall meaning or whole pattern. In the supplied source, it is described in relation to autism spectrum disorder, where attention may be drawn more to parts of objects than to the object as a whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2b94e6f3398782533c6453ac672674a0d2885fe06921ca5b6797b32d32e4baaa

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Gambra Leyre; Magallon Sara; Crespo-Eguílaz Nerea. Weak central coherence in neurodevelopmental disorders: a comparative study. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1348074; article XML SHA-256 d529daf1018f5a83a120de81c8f037122db8daf957d39aa87b94098ed5a035e4. “Weak central coherence in neurodevelopmental disorders: a comparative study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1348074).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1348074). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## weaning
<a id="weaning"></a>

Weaning is the point at which milk feeding ends and the young animal becomes fully reliant on solid food and water. It is a transition that can also involve changes in social contact, housing, and daily routines, making it a potentially stressful period.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a7f7a6e8e6da280cb0ae0f533a1513a8963912e1a388f54cbee6a85a2b466485

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sfulcini Marta; Trevisi Erminio; Piccioli-Cappelli Fiorenzo; Minuti Andrea. Circulating leukocyte gene expression responses to weaning and their association with growth in holstein calves. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349643; article XML SHA-256 aacc69ee472627e10644491ca63c113dea18159885aecc7c80fe0d3c8d8ed0b4. “Circulating leukocyte gene expression responses to weaning and their association with growth in holstein calves” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349643).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349643). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## weapon-focus effect
<a id="weapon-focus-effect"></a>

The weapon-focus effect is the finding that a person seen in a scene with a gun is remembered less accurately. It is understood as attention being drawn to the weapon because it is unusual or threatening, which reduces encoding of other parts of the scene.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f3926690a2c0551efb1a48992c009081cb5536c2e4b1a67e8e56cd2131de4fe0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Flowe Heather D.; Hope Lorraine; Hillstrom Anne P.. Oculomotor Examination of the Weapon Focus Effect: Does a Gun Automatically Engage Visual Attention?. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0081011; article XML SHA-256 9de58fe3b89cbb6b6463396b0f78ac30b5113140cecb8757c99cb63d413e8beb. “Oculomotor Examination of the Weapon Focus Effect: Does a Gun Automatically Engage Visual Attention?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0081011).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081011). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Weber fraction
<a id="weber-fraction"></a>

The Weber fraction is a measure of sensitivity to differences in magnitude, meaning the smallest change needed to notice that two amounts differ. In research on approximate number perception, its value can vary a lot depending on the task and method used, so it should not be treated as a context-free measure.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 09600fafcdc798814beeacf286696f5798003b11f884ec7a4fb1e104d0553e64

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Guillaume Mathieu; Van Rinsveld Amandine. Comparing Numerical Comparison Tasks: A Meta-Analysis of the Variability of the Weber Fraction Relative to the Generation Algorithm. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01694; article XML SHA-256 6fbfdb1f1977078557259447df97f3554e2d831c6fb1a91f96d49ee444e8f587. “Comparing Numerical Comparison Tasks: A Meta-Analysis of the Variability of the Weber Fraction Relative to the Generation Algorithm” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01694).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01694). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
<a id="wechsler-adult-intelligence-scale"></a>

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is an assessment made up of 60 questions that is used to measure intelligence in adults and older adolescents.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dc0e0096745ce9df0def6ea3ac096cb8211e2a26dc07867c3a4b27560c1e51a5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale” (C115128).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
<a id="wechsler-intelligence-scale-for-children"></a>

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children is an individually given psychological test used to measure the cognitive abilities of children ages 6 through 16 years 11 months. It evaluates current verbal and nonverbal functioning, including verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 21a232625f38b41eced30780abfc80da73407ee1a8a1eebe3b8d838911db7473

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children” (C62715).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wechsler Memory Scale
<a id="wechsler-memory-scale"></a>

The Wechsler Memory Scale is a neuropsychological assessment used to measure different aspects of memory. It can also include an optional brief cognitive exam to help evaluate cognitive functioning related to memory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e2e383d7fb0ba69f953262f12f6cfe4a7235bd25f623a91e64c31e3a6db982e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Wechsler Memory Scale” (D000073220).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000073220). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
<a id="wechsler-preschool-and-primary-scale-of-intelligence"></a>

The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence is an intelligence assessment for children aged 2 years 6 months to 7 years 3 months. It yields subtest and combined scores for verbal and performance thinking abilities, along with an overall score of general intellectual ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3b7691dabbe8c36f3b42dbbfdad776efd3aecd47bb8629ca52cd83e21d04485b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence” (C86974).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## weight
<a id="weight"></a>

In this context, weight means a person’s body weight. Excessive focus or obsession with body weight can be a sign of an eating disorder.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 26d1c4bdecf28384dad7ff154ecdb2ed9d1de3f88e59c4a50712e539b32a83b0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Eating Disorders: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 e40c48a5f178998aaa79fc2ab724a26603b1db52ed9159db2eb4cfca780bea9a. “Eating Disorders: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/eating-disorders).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/eating-disorders). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## weight discrimination
<a id="weight-discrimination"></a>

Weight discrimination is unfair or unjust treatment of people based on their body weight. In this packet, it is described as a social justice issue that can lead to unequal outcomes, such as in employment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fd3b1fd760cff6c1db1b8207999796bd9c38855106f54a917ec4cfc15d7da233

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Brochu Paula M.; Banfield Jillian C.; Dovidio John F.. Does a Common Ingroup Identity Reduce Weight Bias? Only When Weight Discrimination Is Salient. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03020; article XML SHA-256 258af39d9c40badf8ef382968ffa6d7a86be818fe7db6c04f0b36348f92c5df4. “Does a Common Ingroup Identity Reduce Weight Bias? Only When Weight Discrimination Is Salient” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03020).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03020). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Weight Perception
<a id="weight-perception"></a>

Weight perception is the ability to notice and tell apart how heavy a lifted object feels.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0f845cdb33031d83e70cf82212e53d67feb1090e5e0f29fb4d2e3825faf36731

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Weight Perception” (D014892).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014892). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## weighted average
<a id="weighted-average"></a>

A weighted average is an average that gives different importance to different items according to their relative amounts or use, rather than treating all items equally. In the source, it is described as an improved way of calculating price index numbers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0dfaec3109ddcbebd3bfe725d5304325520d4b5da3eb856cf452a5d9956fea76

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Index Number” (Indexn).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Indexn). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## weighting
<a id="weighting"></a>

Weighting is the process of giving different degrees of influence to prior beliefs and new evidence when forming or updating a judgment. In this account, weighting changes with factors such as attention, mental effort, learned reliability, and perceived uncertainty in the environment.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 928de2743d2cd59dcd286b67a4f0e3f96b150b637f68931bcc0705b202f11fd7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kopp Bruno. Weighting Bayesian information in human judgment under uncertainty: a hierarchical theory of cognitive biases. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861515; article XML SHA-256 03c04497f76531cf8ec4091301fac013d87cee63e2fd5b83da75da084ce9fdcf. “Weighting Bayesian information in human judgment under uncertainty: a hierarchical theory of cognitive biases” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861515).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861515). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Weismannism
<a id="weismannism"></a>

Weismannism is the name for the characteristic biological views associated with August Weismann. These include the idea that hereditary material continues through generations, that bodily changes acquired during an individual life are not inherited, and that natural selection fully explains organic diversity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cc05ceba1c0c64ed6a749dae210f289e8aa5788b56cfa9ca629df0f2a3ffa853

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4557000-4569000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## well-being
<a id="well-being"></a>

Well-being is a person’s overall state of physical, mental, and social health. It means more than simply not having disease or infirmity and includes a subjective sense of feeling well.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 8f023cfde5e9056584da48f26146ededae6b3e3e9e94f5c463e3b14f928c0e4b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Health” (C25178).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## wellness
<a id="wellness"></a>

Wellness is a pattern of lifestyle choices aimed at supporting the best possible health. It includes habits that maintain physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being and steps taken to help prevent communicable disease.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: fc734cbbef50ee47e3acbc9958e919363294c57edbc4f291f1be989cf1c98e96

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Healthy Lifestyle” (D000070497).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000070497). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## wellness program
<a id="wellness-program"></a>

A wellness program is a structured workplace health-promotion approach designed to support healthier behaviors such as better diet and exercise. In this source, it refers to a sustained workplace framework used to address employee wellness and related health risks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 23772820dae1f8ece0d720410d9a79c0245406024f45de3156e65abc3f1b7a42

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bezzina Aaron; Austin Emma K; Watson Trent; Ashton Lee; James Carole L. Health and wellness in the Australian coal mining industry: A cross sectional analysis of baseline findings from the RESHAPE workplace wellness program. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0252802; article XML SHA-256 373706044100eafc3acc0a2674288ba44728c3fa11e125ff6bbc293bd312adf2. “Health and wellness in the Australian coal mining industry: A cross sectional analysis of baseline findings from the RESHAPE workplace wellness program” (10.1371/journal.pone.0252802).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252802). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Weltanschauung
<a id="weltanschauung"></a>

Weltanschauung means a view of the world as a whole. In this historical philosophical usage, it names the broad world-picture that metaphysics aims to develop beyond the partial findings of the individual sciences.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9e4041229a7905f5accbfee29f4982702d31b926bd3dadda4a22b622ea6e256a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-430500-442500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Werdnig–Hoffmann disease
<a id="werdnighoffmann-disease"></a>

Werdnig–Hoffmann disease is the most severe form of spinal muscular atrophy. It begins in the first year of life and causes muscle weakness, low muscle tone, and failure to develop normal movement; loss of motor neurons especially affects breathing, and many affected children die before age two, often from pneumonia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 585cfec08dc3eddf9f64c6bea472466de935be6e3abce96d47c785307cd45be9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Werdnig-Hoffmann Disease” (C98670).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome
<a id="wernickekorsakoff-syndrome"></a>

Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome is a disorder caused by thiamine deficiency. It most often occurs in people with alcoholism and involves confusion, problems with coordination, and paralysis or weakness of the eye muscles.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 69b662fc9c3a7a1cd9a77522ccb885220cad1af1cbce47a958277a40f8fbc066

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome” (C35764).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wernicke’s area
<a id="wernickes-area"></a>

Wernicke’s area is a functional brain region in the dominant hemisphere, located in the back part of the superior temporal gyrus and often extending into parts of the parietal lobe. Together with Broca’s area, it plays an important role in speech and language, and damage to it is linked with Wernicke aphasia and conduction aphasia.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 608a9cd223de7050986912dee0d43b125b03d9f37e106963003a8c83437999bc

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Wernicke Area” (D065813).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065813). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wernicke’s encephalopathy
<a id="wernickes-encephalopathy"></a>

Wernicke’s encephalopathy is an acute brain disorder marked by eye-movement problems, poor coordination, and changes in thinking or level of consciousness. It is associated with thiamine deficiency and chronic alcoholism, and prolonged thiamine deficiency may progress to Korsakoff syndrome.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cbc636801c76306f9d3f2e4b2937074f64d867decf6d6066b3f67609e6ee3f9a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Wernicke Encephalopathy” (D014899).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014899). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Western blot
<a id="western-blot"></a>

Western blot is a laboratory analysis used to examine the levels of specific proteins. In this study, it was used to detect phosphorylated JAK2 and STAT3, helping show whether the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway was activated or reduced.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7b477020be2ad344c06b01bc956b0fe3f15c5c5b7d75e4e006e199f5c5338682

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wu Hai-hong; Chen Shang-yue; Yuan Dong-liang; Zhao Ting. Luteolin alleviates CUMS-induced depressive-like behavioral deficits in mice through blocking the JAK2/STAT3 pathway. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335057; article XML SHA-256 43bd9aaf749768f50ef079759fd4655e22c3e81699143f87cb94c68da844bcb9. “Luteolin alleviates CUMS-induced depressive-like behavioral deficits in mice through blocking the JAK2/STAT3 pathway” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335057).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335057). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## wet nurse
<a id="wet-nurse"></a>

A wet nurse is a woman who breastfeeds and nourishes an infant who is not her own. In this historical passage, the term is used as an alternative source of feeding for a child when the mother is not considered fit to suckle it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a6c0f5e0c756f61548a17408a1314fb1ad16c445930d6dc7c35fd8dc34d8d04a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-1564500-1576500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## WF
<a id="wf"></a>

WF stands for walking football, a form of football used as a physical activity for older adults. In this context, it is described as a way to support healthy aging and reduce sedentary behavior.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0baba767b7c37be5fb903d4731922560de2f231822d23767b53a2e0d32c47d73

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Costa Júlio A; Pereira Catarina; Barbosa Ana; Seabra André; Brito João; Pinto Ana; Martins Catarina; Moreira Rafaela; Gonçalves Bruno. External and internal intensity profiles of older male and female participants during a walking football game. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318286; article XML SHA-256 d769b9a43344a98e54a1b803ed78c0ef5d240c7f04a413c6eafd9af0d1562e3f. “External and internal intensity profiles of older male and female participants during a walking football game” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318286).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318286). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wh- question
<a id="wh-question"></a>

A wh-question is a question built around an interrogative word such as who or what that signals the specific information being asked for, in contrast to a yes/no question. In some languages these words move to the front of the sentence, while in wh-in-situ languages they remain in their original position and are interpreted through their relation to the sentence as a whole.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4c62b9c393d9eb706f63305c0cde6925a7cd49922719deda02f937322c61fab4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Park Haeil; Baik Jiseon; Park Hae-Jeong. Involvement of the anterior insula and frontal operculum during wh -question comprehension of wh -in-situ Korean language. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298740; article XML SHA-256 5b19798870f979d2f4e26784c068b00e7dc0b1c3e03f06e33b93447058344421. “Involvement of the anterior insula and frontal operculum during wh -question comprehension of wh -in-situ Korean language” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298740).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298740). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## wheelchair
<a id="wheelchair"></a>

In this packet, a wheelchair refers specifically to an autonomous personal mobility system that carries users through self-directed navigation. It is described as a device for mobility that can be used by people with physical impairments as well as able-bodied users, and whose motion settings can affect perceived safety, convenience, and trust.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: be58b0f89e31af3f9c50d27d454030024895f2ea23946bf0d537691833b80b65

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jeong Yihun; Lee Joon Ho; Lee Sun Ho; Park Dahae; Hwang Nahyeon; Choi Woo Young; Hwang Dongwook. Effects of deceleration profiles and driving speed on usability and user perception in autonomous wheelchairs. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850976; article XML SHA-256 d10a818233af54cc1b19152354b4e2bff6742e090a78dc451ee3103f9db9c49a. “Effects of deceleration profiles and driving speed on usability and user perception in autonomous wheelchairs” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850976).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850976). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## white matter
<a id="white-matter"></a>

White matter is the lighter-colored tissue of the central nervous system. It is made mostly of myelinated nerve fibers and has relatively few nerve cell bodies or dendrites compared with gray matter.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1160682adb5e3fbde7dbb154044b830f0dd4a8a878624fb6c113197d24987b3d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “White Matter” (D066127).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066127). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## white noise
<a id="white-noise"></a>

In this psychology context, white noise refers to an external auditory stimulation that has been proposed to raise phasic dopamine and arousal. It may improve performance when stimulation is at an optimal level, but can worsen performance if it pushes arousal too high.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d480d8609555fb16ca352ff6be2d30e1a8adac9a8c594f62cc406a00abdd436

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Egeland Jens; Lund Olaf; Kowalik-Gran Iwona; Aarlien Anne Kristine; Söderlund Göran B. W.. Effects of auditory white noise stimulation on sustained attention and response time variability. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1301771; article XML SHA-256 f0a71f30a9c50364b81e1eece443fa3fd7575af390c13336fa2991079ec79b64. “Effects of auditory white noise stimulation on sustained attention and response time variability” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1301771).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1301771). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## WHO
<a id="who"></a>

WHO stands for the World Health Organization, an international body cited as a source of global public health estimates. In this context, it provides estimates on how common sexual violence is among women worldwide.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0426e71772fe9eb8fda6b3116b9a62317f2a366dc9cae1043ef6629ff961097d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Alhassan Amidu; Salifu Yula; Nortey Abraham Norman; Amoadu Mustapha; Doe Patience Fakornam; Osborne Augustus; Lasong Joseph. A comparative analysis of inequalities in sexual violence before age 18 among women in Ghana using the WHO health equity assessment toolkit, 2008 and 2022. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1816366; article XML SHA-256 2537ede94f84d0a360dc5bac67b5eb9fd80fcfb91a6961bce39254574cd57d19. “A comparative analysis of inequalities in sexual violence before age 18 among women in Ghana using the WHO health equity assessment toolkit, 2008 and 2022” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1816366).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1816366). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## whole-channel
<a id="whole-channel"></a>

Whole-channel information refers to information drawn across all channels or feature streams in a model, rather than from one channel alone. In the source, a multi-head self-attention mechanism is used to capture this across-channel information because it is described as important for improving prediction performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7d40ff1b466ff56475bdb037fe72647c06a3d1b36db7589bbd40e06e96c2ff76

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Li Dengao; Fu Jian; Zhao Jumin; Qin Junnan; Zhang Lihui. A deep learning system for heart failure mortality prediction. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0276835; article XML SHA-256 3f2226768211d15e0df7a5448954a2919b05dcfd8318ed49df9c129fd40784df. “A deep learning system for heart failure mortality prediction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0276835).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276835). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wide Range Achievement Test
<a id="wide-range-achievement-test"></a>

The Wide Range Achievement Test is an assessment used to measure general literacy and numeracy. In the supplied source, version 3 is described as a tool that was adapted and studied for use in a Portuguese-speaking population in Mozambique.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1d610e1b44c6c19cf96b59e902e97ceceb5070ed33208c402ac47b17337a2dfe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ciampa Philip J.; Vaz Lara M.E.; Blevins Meridith; Sidat Moshin; Rothman Russell L.; Vermund Sten H.; Vergara Alfredo E.. The Association among Literacy, Numeracy, HIV Knowledge and Health-Seeking Behavior: A Population-Based Survey of Women in Rural Mozambique. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0039391; article XML SHA-256 e34b37a0afeab1fa5c1cea53f2fe67017b200ef355b015e7bd6fb135fdba9c1f. “The Association among Literacy, Numeracy, HIV Knowledge and Health-Seeking Behavior: A Population-Based Survey of Women in Rural Mozambique” (10.1371/journal.pone.0039391).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039391). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Williams syndrome
<a id="williams-syndrome"></a>

Williams syndrome is a genetic disorder present at birth or in early infancy, caused by deletion of about 28 genes on chromosome 7q11.23, including the ELASTIN gene. It is associated with supravalvular aortic stenosis, characteristic facial features, impaired visuospatial construction, intellectual disability, and sometimes temporary high calcium levels in infancy.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 618e836cd0503a77a44bb94d04bff55a5254d4bad001b4f8c53a6da93d700da0

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Williams Syndrome” (D018980).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D018980). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## willpower
<a id="willpower"></a>

Willpower is the belief that one has the determination and motivational strength to keep pursuing a goal despite obstacles. In psychology, it refers to the inner drive, persistence, and sense of personal capability that help sustain effort toward valued aims even when setbacks or uncertainty arise.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 83e20ba2d4025dd9234457b6c2fe6ccc589992f28c0efa0895ee40261017198d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mansouri Mohammed; Lorenz Timo. It takes a community to hope: development and validation of the HOPE-4 scale in an Arab-Islamic context. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798552; article XML SHA-256 4c1ec83a374da47797fb7a7157767ac8de6573593a15522ae646e9bafeaeea00. “It takes a community to hope: development and validation of the HOPE-4 scale in an Arab-Islamic context” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798552).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798552). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## wind tunnel
<a id="wind-tunnel"></a>

A wind tunnel is an experimental setup used to study air flow, such as the wind fields around buildings, and to check whether simulation results match measured conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 7d32b858e3504adf4380007cba42fda7aa527d8352a38e007836b0984539e541

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhong Wenzhou; Li Ke; Pan Yongjie; Yao Yuan; Wu Haoran; Xiao Wei; Zhang Tong. Energy diagram: Investigation and application of a design-thinking-driven wind environment simulation tool for sustainable architecture. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342247; article XML SHA-256 5608667dcee06a5efc001b814199143a94befc3df1b0bb3bf291c3134c033928. “Energy diagram: Investigation and application of a design-thinking-driven wind environment simulation tool for sustainable architecture” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342247).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342247). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## winner effect
<a id="winner-effect"></a>

The winner effect is a short-lived increase in aggressive motivation or behavior after an individual wins a fight or other competitive encounter. In the supplied source, repeated recent wins made later fights more intense and longer, suggesting that the experience of winning can temporarily heighten aggressiveness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: e970d7e814789f989455b22930542771a4d857030e0d0ac17865d690c9eeaab7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Rillich Jan; Stevenson Paul Anthony. Winning Fights Induces Hyperaggression via the Action of the Biogenic Amine Octopamine in Crickets. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0028891; article XML SHA-256 6d7b4ffb624763e51e0eb7331f25d84b95d23f99d6652d5a6f5aec27f0345928. “Winning Fights Induces Hyperaggression via the Action of the Biogenic Amine Octopamine in Crickets” (10.1371/journal.pone.0028891).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0028891). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## wireless
<a id="wireless"></a>

In this assessment context, wireless refers to portable, unobtrusive pressure insole systems used to measure walking. These devices use embedded sensors, and sometimes inertial measurement units, to collect gait data such as timing, force-related measures, and foot movement patterns.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 431f1e4569e1a212d279f58c27b9b70a1c6bcdcaf8842cead8c0cc9f6e2098f1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cudejko Tomasz; Al-Amri Mohammad; Szotek Sylwia; Żuk Magdalena; Kobielarz Magdalena; D’Août Kristiaan. Validity and reliability of wireless pressure insoles for measuring gait biomechanics in healthy adults: A protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336692; article XML SHA-256 b673eac13dfee0bcb275af9d60be4b576cd651b716ca6c6db63ab04defd658b6. “Validity and reliability of wireless pressure insoles for measuring gait biomechanics in healthy adults: A protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336692).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336692). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## WISC
<a id="wisc"></a>

WISC is an individually given psychological test used to assess the cognitive abilities of children from age 6 through 16 years 11 months. It measures current functioning in verbal and nonverbal areas such as verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4fab7f503adb82ed8aed4bda510456e5fe24fb0e9138994d0cedb1b5f50c57eb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children” (C62715).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
<a id="wisconsin-card-sorting-test"></a>

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test is a neuropsychological assessment used to evaluate executive function, especially abilities linked with the frontal lobe such as abstract thinking and planning. In it, the person sorts response cards by changing rules and must shift strategy as the task changes.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 64123a59afaaa8180a1b4eb08f5431d061546b23b3495171ce9cc035d60229fd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Wisconsin Card Sorting Test” (D000073218).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000073218). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## wisdom
<a id="wisdom"></a>

In this context, wisdom is a psychological quality that includes the ability to regulate emotions. It is associated with fewer psychotic-like experiences and less distress related to them.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d68b939a909af908aac394b25b9195e1ede0fc66898d29dbc016d6af6a943358

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Han; Zhu Yupu; Gao Yan; Xu Fangfang; Su Wei; Zhao Weiyan; Zong Yayi; Zhang Aoxue; Wang Yan; Chen Min. The mediating role of college student psychological resilience in the relationship between wisdom and psychotic-like experiences. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814754; article XML SHA-256 9a8c3a472d8a7d9dc764c93eb5f1b03e70e9b4f7428dbcebd8bfe0d52379baf1. “The mediating role of college student psychological resilience in the relationship between wisdom and psychotic-like experiences” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814754).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814754). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## witch doctor
<a id="witch-doctor"></a>

A witch doctor is a shaman or medicine man in certain traditional religious systems who is understood to oversee illness and its healing. In this context, healing is described as working through spiritual beliefs and psychologically influenced methods aimed at driving away disease-causing spirits.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: counselling skills
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 394d91731e3f6ea47db2f1a89e1e0d5058371664096550e750f67a1115d9ebf7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Shamanism” (D019423).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019423). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## withdrawal
<a id="withdrawal"></a>

Withdrawal is a pattern of social or emotional detachment, with reduced contact and involvement with other people. It can also mean a pathological retreat from objective reality seen in some mental health conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: cde67b0edeed56e73ae583405b72513903f1a52951592a40214994035fee6783

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Withdrawal” (C41341).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## withdrawal design
<a id="withdrawal-design"></a>

A withdrawal design is a study approach that alternates periods when a program or intervention is given with periods when it is not given, often in an ABAB sequence. This pattern is used to compare changes across the on and off phases.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3ca638597aa7122342eba265f5e9ab627737f9d6a951263e78d13e9028648fa7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Cheng Lijuan; Cortese Daniela; Monti Martin M.; Wang Fuyan; Riganello Francesco; Arcuri Francesco; Di Haibo; Schnakers Caroline. Do Sensory Stimulation Programs Have an Impact on Consciousness Recovery?. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fneur.2018.00826; article XML SHA-256 d7a8b14c01f5e879912cf5aa7857edd5f585fc285148b2808610a4f57503b3b3. “Do Sensory Stimulation Programs Have an Impact on Consciousness Recovery?” (10.3389/fneur.2018.00826).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2018.00826). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## within-subjects design
<a id="within-subjects-design"></a>

A within-subjects design is an experimental design in which the independent variable varies within the same participants rather than only between different groups.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 25a22a44a0735eca81e326ae540d0bd4b58a3f27ef72f3efaa0f4d7d41058d7c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Within-Subjects Design” (within_design.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/within_design.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## within-subjects factor
<a id="within-subjects-factor"></a>

A within-subjects factor is a variable in a study for which the same participants are tested under each of its conditions. In the example given, map orientation is a within-subjects factor because each orienteer experienced both the normal and rotated map conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f2ea7864d877baa2fb2aed918c125cd3a91655a3ae37767092e6ec78e14d24c9

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Long; Ou Shi Jia; Liu Yang. Neural correlates of map representation and spatial orientation in orienteering experts: an fNIRS study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1769082; article XML SHA-256 6ac891a410f0508323c7bb129bf85ee1615ee09c2575496d292491969893ab7c. “Neural correlates of map representation and spatial orientation in orienteering experts: an fNIRS study” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1769082).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1769082). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wittmaack–Ekbom syndrome
<a id="wittmaackekbom-syndrome"></a>

Wittmaack–Ekbom syndrome is a disorder involving aching or burning feelings in the legs, and less often the arms, that happen before sleep or wake a person from sleep.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: de010a27a382b66b0f4e095e5d3476e851fe36b7b49f29f7de6807b7dd671ef4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Restless Legs Syndrome” (D012148).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012148). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## WMDS
<a id="wmds"></a>

WMDS refers to weighted mean differences, a statistical effect-size measure used in meta-analyses to compare the average difference between groups while giving more influence to studies with greater weight.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: f9b33554bfc7443f3d4981fdb987183bafe61e24542fb5bd144053601634babd

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Xiang Jinjin; Fan Jingjing; Wang Jiahui. Risk factors for proliferative vitreoretinopathy after retinal detachment surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0292698; article XML SHA-256 82bb1dbb342390e959d40e784eebfbe6571d83209853a30e581dc939a15f597d. “Risk factors for proliferative vitreoretinopathy after retinal detachment surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0292698).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292698). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## WMS
<a id="wms"></a>

WMS, or Wyburn-Mason syndrome, is a rare condition present from birth that is not inherited. It involves multiple, often large abnormal connections between arteries and veins, mainly affecting the retina, brain, eye socket, and facial tissues.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b7587e025f8442aa54668b05a25fa92bc192fdb7efba7aaf2ece74d9f6faadd7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Wyburn-Mason Syndrome” (C206708).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome
<a id="wolfhirschhorn-syndrome"></a>

Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by a large deletion at the end of the short arm of chromosome 4. It commonly involves intellectual disability and developmental delay, along with seizures and a characteristic facial appearance, and may also include midline, heart, and skeletal abnormalities.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7505e0e603896fb7f2350d6f2cf1ab42760eb63ff8b7a99e75bf3861d5df0c83

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Wolf-Hirschhorn Syndrome” (D054877).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D054877). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## word-association test
<a id="word-association-test"></a>

A word-association test is a method that presents a list of words and asks a person to respond to each one. The pattern of responses is used to understand the meanings or concepts the person connects with those words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 92a6e443c6eb66448952c9fb52d4074b73a068de117a9f2052d3110b60e2e088

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Word Association Tests” (D014936).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014936). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## word blindness
<a id="word-blindness"></a>

Word blindness is a cognitive disorder in which a person has difficulty understanding written or printed words even though vision is intact. It can be present from development or acquired later, and in developmental forms it can interfere substantially with reading performance and daily activities that depend on reading.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: diagnosis
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 52d89c187db4fa14e72b5eac4aee922812c9ee8f451f9e724310003c8b52071f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dyslexia” (D004410).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004410). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## word count
<a id="word-count"></a>

Word count is the total number of words in a text. In text-based psychological analysis, it can be used as the overall reference for calculating what proportion of the text falls into particular linguistic or psychological categories.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0be42431b0eed8e30b262eeaeff77c2e18ebaaa082a91c04d6989e172d65e1d4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Igarashi Tasuku; Okuda Shimpei; Sasahara Kazutoshi. Development of the Japanese Version of the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count Dictionary 2015. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.841534; article XML SHA-256 e46c972c2c900bd0537806e4aaf0ff3901acfeb83be55cca7b74c2d73bada35c. “Development of the Japanese Version of the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count Dictionary 2015” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.841534).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.841534). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## word fluency
<a id="word-fluency"></a>

Word fluency is a part of language performance that refers to how well a person can produce words. In this source, reduced word fluency is described as one type of language difficulty that can occur in aphasia after subcortical stroke.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a8300986c086061be50adf2847322bdde9345e2e23288f1ee08aa9856d044f88

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Sharif Massoud S.; Goldberg Emily B.; Walker Alexandra; Hillis Argye E.; Meier Erin L.. The contribution of white matter pathology, hypoperfusion, lesion load, and stroke recurrence to language deficits following acute subcortical left hemisphere stroke. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0275664; article XML SHA-256 66ba51191a71b78f69c8677e0919f95abb992e41042c77024cdc42ae1955b377. “The contribution of white matter pathology, hypoperfusion, lesion load, and stroke recurrence to language deficits following acute subcortical left hemisphere stroke” (10.1371/journal.pone.0275664).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275664). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## word-fragment completion task
<a id="word-fragment-completion-task"></a>

A word-fragment completion task is a verbal task in which a person completes incomplete word forms. In this source, it is used as a cognitively demanding, error-prone measure of verbal performance and accuracy without external feedback.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 3653fa467e07fd03b2d9b4797858f5bc8f7070f2f785742b98ab1672439d7234

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Visalli Antonino; Maldonado Natasha; Dadak Mete; Lanfermann Heinrich; Weißenborn Karin; Kopp Bruno. Post-stroke lesion correlates of errors in verbal and spatial production tasks. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517876; article XML SHA-256 b4ac6c665963f7060094ffb7ac8fb56c3f2fff169469c00cc0a4291da6d4c3dd. “Post-stroke lesion correlates of errors in verbal and spatial production tasks” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517876).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517876). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## word-length effect
<a id="word-length-effect"></a>

The word-length effect is the finding that reading performance changes with the number of letters in a word, so longer words are read more slowly or with greater difficulty than shorter ones. In the packet, it is described as a marked feature of pure alexia and is linked to a serial, letter-by-letter reading style.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 2a5eb092eedd78d4351fcb6a3921342f9972460f6f29a26dd9a3481c6e943ccf

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bormann Tobias; Wolfer Sascha A.; Hachmann Wibke; Lagrèze Wolf A.; Konieczny Lars. An Eye Movement Study on the Role of the Visual Field Defect in Pure Alexia. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0100898; article XML SHA-256 87ad99c67cd2df8fbe7fe8a1ab527c1ee7e72127f3a4d965debc3512317f9ebb. “An Eye Movement Study on the Role of the Visual Field Defect in Pure Alexia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0100898).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0100898). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## word-span test
<a id="word-span-test"></a>

A word-span test is an assessment used to measure phonological working memory capacity. In this source, it is described as a working memory measure that can be compared with other cognitive tests.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 94a038c00b2c2652da56e768c87dd89d554e7ea8b25be899db961a349234427e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ünal Gülten; Özge Duygu; Marinis Theodoros. Assessing Complex Working Memory in Turkish-Speaking Children: The Listening Span Task Adaptation Into Turkish. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01688; article XML SHA-256 b367b97163e9df8c5631edd774fffd99a8dc3abba61200ac18b9d166585d5433. “Assessing Complex Working Memory in Turkish-Speaking Children: The Listening Span Task Adaptation Into Turkish” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01688).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01688). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## word-stem completion
<a id="word-stem-completion"></a>

Word-stem completion is an implicit memory measure in which memory is assessed through completing the beginning of a word rather than by directly asking a person to recall it. In the source packet, it is used to test implicit memory after people studied words.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a876ff7b7577e0d65dc9acbe144b1c9f77539709208dd0cec6abf488b1664566

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ilenikhena George O.; Narmawala Haajra; Sklenar Allison M.; McCurdy Matthew P.; Gutchess Angela H.; Leshikar Eric D.. STOP SHOUTING AT ME: The Influence of Case and Self-Referencing on Explicit and Implicit Memory. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.685756; article XML SHA-256 12e1bbba2bd1c23eb0e9d9631bde5de9f5f5d094cf1814baa0fb7ffdd2cc8333. “STOP SHOUTING AT ME: The Influence of Case and Self-Referencing on Explicit and Implicit Memory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.685756).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.685756). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## word-superiority effect
<a id="word-superiority-effect"></a>

The word-superiority effect is the finding that when visual material is shown very briefly, real words are recognized or perceived more accurately than nonwords. It is generally taken to show that the visual system processes familiar words especially efficiently.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c9095cd467aa931652d3583ed0c4e1c23f7df8dbd97d515030a98e5b5b53c322

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jordan Timothy R.; Kalan Aleynanur. Revealing a word superiority effect using a unique variant of the Latin alphabet: the evidence from Turkish. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1367891; article XML SHA-256 1cf9bfbd1dc7ced801534d466554dfe779d4b2ed8eabb85bccfe1208690eda6d. “Revealing a word superiority effect using a unique variant of the Latin alphabet: the evidence from Turkish” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1367891).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1367891). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## work ethic
<a id="work-ethic"></a>

Work ethic is a set of values and attitudes about work, in the classical Weberian sense, that treats work as central and important and emphasizes hard work, duty, self-reliance, avoiding wasted time, postponing immediate rewards, and a negative view of excessive leisure. In the source, these values are linked with both internally driven motivation to work and motivation tied to success, rewards, and social approval.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: ethics
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 85a784b442db379f359e716566dc8759383d70e6e251e40b89b6745c786a4ef2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Grabowski Damian; Chudzicka-Czupała Agata; Stapor Katarzyna. Relationships between work ethic and motivation to work from the point of view of the self-determination theory. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0253145; article XML SHA-256 b00cc3f3fe311c12b8aec102579885a3e648a6f2b99c2271641e4acc3760c4ea. “Relationships between work ethic and motivation to work from the point of view of the self-determination theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0253145).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253145). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## work psychology
<a id="work-psychology"></a>

Work psychology is an area of psychology that brings together understanding of individual people and how they relate to the organizational environment at work. In this context, it helps explain behavior in workplaces by linking individuality with the wider culture and setting of the organization.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: bd2e70b91d39b3055b33b61b4b305c0cec4cacef0a51f72f5a6056c81bd58af5

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bella Ricardo Luiz Fernandes; Quelhas Osvaldo Luiz Gonçalves; Ferraz Fernando Toledo; Barboza Douglas Vieira; França Sergio Luiz Braga. An Initial Approach to Increase Job Satisfaction Through Workplace Spirituality. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.768290; article XML SHA-256 8a2da0a0e67d6855ed4e6d1cc3c35643580908846ea6b48aec9335a1b6cbdf78. “An Initial Approach to Increase Job Satisfaction Through Workplace Spirituality” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.768290).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.768290). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## work satisfaction
<a id="work-satisfaction"></a>

Work satisfaction is an employee’s emotional attitude toward their work. It includes intrinsic satisfaction, which comes from the work itself, and extrinsic satisfaction, which relates to outside aspects of the job.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: emotion and motivation
Version: 2 · SHA-256: d73df9e9c8de516d62a3fe21ebab9a96037fa27e8937ce1d9947364d99e7940d

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Zhang Weiyu; Zheng Zhen; Pylypchuk Romana; Zhao Jinfeng; Sznajder Kristin K.; Cui Can; Yang Xiaoshi. Effects of Optimism on Work Satisfaction Among Nurses: A Mediation Model Through Work-Family Conflict. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.779396; article XML SHA-256 17b62b9077f667a46de23c06082e1fd27e32ba70cbf889ab32d22621d67ebd7f. “Effects of Optimism on Work Satisfaction Among Nurses: A Mediation Model Through Work-Family Conflict” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.779396).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.779396). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Work Simplification
<a id="work-simplification"></a>

Work simplification is designing or organizing a task so it can be performed as efficiently as possible.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 0dfe7b7eaf0759f29876a20e27ad496de1e54c3e45f4907a0ab6ddd1448bad31

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026. “Work Simplification” (D014941).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014941). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## working hypothesis
<a id="working-hypothesis"></a>

A working hypothesis is a provisional guiding idea that researchers use to organize facts and apply a broader theory in a productive way. In this historical example, natural selection served as such a practical framework for applying evolutionary theory.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: a303edae1e714eed8ead14cc96a5533b85c15991951c83b4684e95dc2752100e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Evolution (in biology)” (Evolution).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Evolution). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## working knowledge
<a id="working-knowledge"></a>

Working knowledge means enough practical understanding of a subject or tool to use it, even without advanced expertise. In this source, it refers to the level of familiarity needed to work with command-line computing methods.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 2 · SHA-256: a3524c37512ef26bb6adcdb39e70b05439ccc08a569e8af3e4d071a364d15418

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Azam Sarwar; Rathore Abhishek; Shah Trushar M.; Telluri Mohan; Amindala BhanuPrakash; Ruperao Pradeep; Katta Mohan A. V. S. K.; Varshney Rajeev K.. An Integrated SNP Mining and Utilization (ISMU) Pipeline for Next Generation Sequencing Data. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0101754; article XML SHA-256 245fa685c2689bcfcfb4a529e50f50bd347b665c991d56e272f265c198c6dfc1. “An Integrated SNP Mining and Utilization (ISMU) Pipeline for Next Generation Sequencing Data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0101754).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0101754). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## working memory
<a id="working-memory"></a>

Working memory is a form of short-term memory that temporarily holds, works with, and retrieves information needed for immediate mental tasks.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d1ab295fb5e5b671a88a3d386eb731245c58d2bde9afd2ae93a729156fbe006

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Working Memory” (C88418).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## working through
<a id="working-through"></a>

In this packet, "working through" means having an effect by way of one or more intermediate psychological processes rather than only directly. Here, peer support influences physical exercise through indirect pathways involving control beliefs and subjective exercise experience.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 9bd61f662021bab3609fe63da2864784e5d6d0c2dc802722a37c4481194ac6ce

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Jiang Feng-Qing; Ni Ke; Zhang Ting; Wang Jian-Ping. The influence of peer support on college students’ physical exercise: the mediator of control beliefs and subjective experience, and the moderator of intrinsic value. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1711318; article XML SHA-256 35fd1c3c02cb9f019ba39c32e1d1f77127b9460736c18475ed848fec256fa9b1. “The influence of peer support on college students’ physical exercise: the mediator of control beliefs and subjective experience, and the moderator of intrinsic value” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1711318).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1711318). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## work–life balance
<a id="worklife-balance"></a>

Work–life balance is a person’s ability to manage and combine work responsibilities with personal life so that neither regularly crowds out the other. It describes a changing state in which job demands and personal needs stay in reasonable balance without undue harm to time, relationships, or well-being.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 7c1b93e88066407d20cc18909f6162b05fac581f11a74300f03859dab72876de

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Abuhammad Sawsan; Alzoubi Karem H.; Al-Azzam Sayer; Karasneh Reema; Masadeh Majed M.; Alameddine Mohamad. Work-life balance, job satisfaction, and burnout among nurses in Jordan: A cross-sectional study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334603; article XML SHA-256 c765c5f49c724eff4e1adfec7dea0203eab7f323803af8f4e061ff723820f544. “Work-life balance, job satisfaction, and burnout among nurses in Jordan: A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334603).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334603). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## workplace violence
<a id="workplace-violence"></a>

Workplace violence is abuse, threats, harm, or harassment that happen in a work setting. In this source, it includes physical, sexual, verbal, and psychological abuse, as well as bullying or mobbing among healthcare workers.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 433b57f7686362a84ef65bbcaeec6f0109a18cd1cb7694456cd98100c10abcef

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Bhusal Anupama; Adhikari Apekshya; Singh Pradhan Pranil Man. Workplace violence and its associated factors among health care workers of a tertiary hospital in Kathmandu, Nepal. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288680; article XML SHA-256 520a0ffb3a40a880dff5e6785ddeb23dcb657b097da2c0025f4ebb294e046849. “Workplace violence and its associated factors among health care workers of a tertiary hospital in Kathmandu, Nepal” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288680).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288680). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## World Federation for Mental Health
<a id="world-federation-for-mental-health"></a>

The World Federation for Mental Health is an organization named in this source as part of an international coalition working for major change in mental health. In this context, it is presented as supporting action on social determinants, equity, participation, and social justice in mental health care.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: mental health
Version: 2 · SHA-256: c788c312132583b7db08388c0e7dfad1eee71f1800ed3cf42d2dd897ee042696

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mezzina Roberto; Gopikumar Vandana; Jenkins John; Saraceno Benedetto; Sashidharan S. P.. Social Vulnerability and Mental Health Inequalities in the “Syndemic”: Call for Action. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.894370; article XML SHA-256 d3af5be97aebdae01f3a3f5795891c549c676939c6130ba07d842c9a550aee90. “Social Vulnerability and Mental Health Inequalities in the “Syndemic”: Call for Action” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.894370).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.894370). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## world regions
<a id="world-regions"></a>

In this context, world regions are broad geographic areas used to compare mental health research with health, social, developmental, and scientific indicators across different parts of the world.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 75803941e2c623fd414ab980ec078d160ced62136ef89b4b95cd52a519a78614

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Hernández-Paez David A.; Acuña-Rodríguez Mónica; Pertuz-López Nacira Maria; Visconti-Lopez Fabriccio J.; Martinez-Royert Judith Cristina; Lozada-Martinez Ivan David. Limited scientific coherence between global mental health research and indicators of science, health, mental health, and society: a longitudinal analysis across world regions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1649735; article XML SHA-256 43e8c5fa29ce3b2a5d2c90f79f8b05734b522d3540de02ade86f756ef7b93641. “Limited scientific coherence between global mental health research and indicators of science, health, mental health, and society: a longitudinal analysis across world regions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1649735).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1649735). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## worm
<a id="worm"></a>

A worm is an animal whose movement leaves characteristic trails or paths that can differ by species. In the source context, worms are described as moving in meandering ways and avoiding already traveled routes, which can help them search unevenly distributed nutrient patches more effectively.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: be3f1941e0458b525ff436fedfe6ee121215fcb68be19317c75c7a6aabeeda85

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Vaughan Neil. Mathematical model for worm path simulation in 3D. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358065; article XML SHA-256 eaaadddff638ca747f28188d27ebc6cd6c837072e88feefab19319b8a546991c. “Mathematical model for worm path simulation in 3D” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358065).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358065). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## worry
<a id="worry"></a>

Worry is mental distress that comes from concern about something expected or impending.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 12cf399dcf57f7576bdae2e45797f6a97b12422acb569ee815daab3f0aa10da3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Worry” (C86941).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## WPPSI
<a id="wppsi"></a>

WPPSI is an intelligence test for young children, used from age 2 years 6 months to 7 years 3 months. It gives subtest and overall scores for verbal and performance thinking skills, along with a general score of a child’s intellectual ability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: assessment
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1517358297ea89d6b99298e7c336eea2e3490e38b28e57d03a299e2d5552477c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence” (C86974).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## writer’s cramp
<a id="writers-cramp"></a>

Writer’s cramp is a focal dystonic disorder, meaning a condition in which dystonia mainly affects one specific body area rather than the whole body. It is an example of a dystonic disorder in which dystonia is the main feature of the condition.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b5d696b6805fb476171015aaa9dfd9658544a870dce28185cc5c20419dadc95f

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dystonic Disorders” (D020821).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020821). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## WSE
<a id="wse"></a>

WSE stands for the Warsaw Stock Exchange, the stock market on which the companies in this study were listed. In this context, it identifies the setting from which the company sample was drawn.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 2 · SHA-256: e0c09d6672a8ac8ed3ebbb81a1233de7bedc7e05db3493d77f8f2737d82d8c8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Miązek Amadeusz Jacek; Światowiec-Szczepańska Justyna. Promote or prevent? A regulatory focus perspective on managerial risk taking. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352905; article XML SHA-256 902b0e0c285cf016b20d698f74e524652a146ed6a8ca5246a2f12967742c6b3d. “Promote or prevent? A regulatory focus perspective on managerial risk taking” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352905).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352905). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Wundt curve
<a id="wundt-curve"></a>

The Wundt curve is an inverted U-shaped relation in which moderate arousal potential is linked to the most positive hedonic response, while very low or very high arousal is less pleasant. In this context, arousal potential can come from factors such as novelty, complexity, and uncertainty.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d3a9c44ce0b210dc3004a52dd837ad2025781e98314903e75441b001044cc58a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yanagisawa Hideyoshi; Honda Shimon. Modeling the arousal potential of epistemic emotions using Bayesian information gain: a framework for inquiry cycles driven by free energy fluctuations. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1438080; article XML SHA-256 75f465d58376f48fc1888b8a7b6d981496321cb0eb72e86dc9a8a21f7c59e523. “Modeling the arousal potential of epistemic emotions using Bayesian information gain: a framework for inquiry cycles driven by free energy fluctuations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1438080).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1438080). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Würzburg school
<a id="wurzburg-school"></a>

The Würzburg school was a historical approach in psychology associated with studying thought and will through systematic experimental introspection. In this account, its distinctive practice was to have trained observers examine their own thought processes under experimental conditions, even though the method’s rules were not yet as settled or exact as in simpler areas like sensation or perception.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3cf703e05b5eb2e8472730e4a24b94b991d2ed77ccbf3b3beebaf68339e8671c

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Titchener, The Schema of Introspection, 1912. 1912 American Journal of Psychology 23, 485–508. “Titchener, The Schema of Introspection, 1912” (3df3e717981e5484759c).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/introspection.htm). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/introspection.htm). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Xanax
<a id="xanax"></a>

Xanax is alprazolam, a triazolobenzodiazepine drug with anxiety-reducing, sedative-hypnotic, and anticonvulsant effects. It acts in the central nervous system by binding to a benzodiazepine site on the GABA-A receptor complex, which strengthens GABA’s inhibitory action and lowers neuronal excitability.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 188460673b163c1d8764039afa27d3bf081850d19f0a7b9c6f65b004a485c2b1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alprazolam” (C227).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## xanthopsia
<a id="xanthopsia"></a>

Xanthopsia is a visual disturbance in which things appear yellow. In this source, it is described as a subjective change in vision linked especially to the use of certain drugs and only rarely noted in jaundice.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b840b1155652d3feeffec05fefe52e58426fbe00fe7b9fb4d38d6d3bea85b31a

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3738000-3750000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## xenophobia
<a id="xenophobia"></a>

Xenophobia is an intense or unreasonable fear or dislike of what is perceived as strange or foreign, especially people seen as outsiders or foreigners. It is a hostile attitude that can involve prejudice and rejecting, excluding, or vilifying people because they are viewed as not belonging to the community or national group.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 1995398ef5b5670a740f7f51a6e67f6e34cc4572bd52c08a70d4ef9b60cbc5e2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Xenophobia” (D065806).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D065806). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## xeroderma pigmentosum
<a id="xeroderma-pigmentosum"></a>

Xeroderma pigmentosum is an inherited disorder in which the body cannot properly repair ultraviolet-related DNA damage. It causes extreme sensitivity to sunlight, early skin changes such as freckle-like spots and lesions, and a high risk of skin cancers, sometimes along with eye and nervous system problems.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5da46e62fc44c25badc472f60cef9013f742e3256822e7c7d8411e637f3832ab

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Xeroderma Pigmentosum” (C3452).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## XYY syndrome
<a id="xyy-syndrome"></a>

XYY syndrome is a genetic condition in a male with an extra Y chromosome, producing a 47,XYY chromosome pattern. It is often linked with tall stature, a higher chance of learning disabilities, and delays in speech and language development.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 48bbb80bc63e9939dc79717097b435105e1d3aaeb97d303989f264d03fe9b302

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “47,XYY Syndrome” (C85237).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Y chromosome
<a id="y-chromosome"></a>

The Y chromosome is a genetic marker with uniparental inheritance that is studied in males. Differences in Y-chromosome markers are used in forensic work and in population research to compare groups, examine migration patterns, and identify regional or social structuring.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: social
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d6e117a6502646481dac7e7ba2501370affc5d31aeb4fc6132cf62097b0565c2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Almohammed Eida Khalaf; Hadi Abdullah; Al-Asmakh Maha; Lazim Hayder. The Qatari population’s genetic structure and gene flow as revealed by the Y chromosome. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290844; article XML SHA-256 8a35ddee22838876558945edeba2256f5653f31f9bb84c4dbfe246843564343d. “The Qatari population’s genetic structure and gene flow as revealed by the Y chromosome” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290844).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290844). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## y-intercept
<a id="y-intercept"></a>

The y-intercept is the y-value where a line crosses the y-axis. It is the value of y when x is 0.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 4d3b9dbe881a5d74fc37a243e7d26484e69969d36265454c3b9ad9c1716aa5f2

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Y Intercept” (y_intercept.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/y_intercept.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Y maze
<a id="y-maze"></a>

A Y maze is a behavioral task used in mice to assess declarative memory. In the supplied study, performance on this task was indexed by exploration rate and was examined in relation to motor learning performance.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c82e11a10bda42b48518779bc85106cb376b794a953c2a69c5c3976696a0b660

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Karlsson Isak; Malfatti Thawann; Kullander Klas; Siwani Samer; Ciralli Barbara. Y-maze performance predicts refined motor learning in mice. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352676; article XML SHA-256 2493bf1b15d9001f45ac2c377b87043157f5c90557b8d2a32b2b0e6669a3d481. “Y-maze performance predicts refined motor learning in mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352676).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352676). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## yawning
<a id="yawning"></a>

Yawning is a behavioral pattern marked by episodes that can vary in frequency. In the supplied source, it is discussed as a potentially informative behavior in neurobehavioral assessment because its rate may change with states such as hunger, vigilance, stress, and sleep-related conditions.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 905de1878d038cb3514ff2e5e3c9ecef75a55f13b488239c9ba891deb7f82b77

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Menin Damiano; Ballardini Elisa; Panebianco Roberta; Garani Giampaolo; Borgna-Pignatti Caterina; Oster Harriet; Dondi Marco. Factors affecting yawning frequencies in preterm neonates. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0268083; article XML SHA-256 2b31179923abc408ca8ed2ab083c5ee42b66a9405c2076d688824ddd111fd606. “Factors affecting yawning frequencies in preterm neonates” (10.1371/journal.pone.0268083).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268083). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Yerkes–Dodson law
<a id="yerkesdodson-law"></a>

The Yerkes–Dodson law is the idea that performance tends to be best at a moderate level of stress or arousal. In this pattern, too little or too much stress is linked with poorer productivity and a more negative mood.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6c46b36db62417ca8586b90e50b5ef8aaa693672e83b63bec3f48f542a659fd4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Awada Mohamad; Becerik Gerber Burcin; Lucas Gale M.; Roll Shawn C.. Stress appraisal in the workplace and its associations with productivity and mood: Insights from a multimodal machine learning analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296468; article XML SHA-256 6b90a8a9c3f6765572c2e7869d10ba18a875b9b0f73ae7a8b5cf519904414b59. “Stress appraisal in the workplace and its associations with productivity and mood: Insights from a multimodal machine learning analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296468).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296468). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## yin and yang
<a id="yin-and-yang"></a>

Yin and yang is a Chinese philosophical idea that describes reality as arising from the interaction of two opposite yet connected forces, such as dark and light, feminine and masculine, or cold and hot. In this view, health depends on a balanced relationship between these paired qualities, and imbalance is linked with illness.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: ca4c78a2aa936c255e85ee428e591face0d1ff42c5c5664896365fc308753a57

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Yin-Yang” (D016709).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016709). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## yoga
<a id="yoga"></a>

Yoga is a Hindu philosophical system that teaches practical methods, including exercises, to develop bodily and mental control and support well-being. It is also aimed at liberation of the self and union with a universal spirit.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 160b2f2f5e00d24fe21c0ea3362a6d7d87540f675e0b5ee57eb9fcab90694a8e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Yoga” (D015013).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015013). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## yohimbine
<a id="yohimbine"></a>

Yohimbine is a biological agent described here as an alpha-2 adrenoceptor blocker, especially acting at presynaptic alpha-2A receptors. In endotoxemic mice, it increased cardiac norepinephrine release and was associated with reduced inflammatory signaling and less cardiac dysfunction.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: c6506c7c47aa9f1548335d577439838ded8b64e3b045d65cffa2b2518d5fecb4

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Wang Yiyang; Yu Xiaohui; Wang Faqiang; Wang Yuan; Wang Yanping; Li Hongmei; Lv Xiuxiu; Lu Daxiang; Wang Huadong. Yohimbine Promotes Cardiac NE Release and Prevents LPS-Induced Cardiac Dysfunction via Blockade of Presynaptic α 2A -Adrenergic Receptor. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0063622; article XML SHA-256 a0b097a70fe093c05c52f450793bc60d48be4cb8b39dbffad0d6b858b68728d0. “Yohimbine Promotes Cardiac NE Release and Prevents LPS-Induced Cardiac Dysfunction via Blockade of Presynaptic α 2A -Adrenergic Receptor” (10.1371/journal.pone.0063622).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0063622). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## yoked-control group
<a id="yoked-control-group"></a>

A yoked-control group is a comparison group used to match the non-treatment parts of an experiment. In this study, it meant animals that experienced the same handling stress as the anesthetized animals, allowing the researchers to separate effects of handling from effects of isoflurane itself.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 2 · SHA-256: fb5a90cced6b6510579812f180b25e5a79d8342acd016fa21f3a20c3eec8031e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yonezaki Kumiko; Uchimoto Kazuhiro; Miyazaki Tomoyuki; Asakura Ayako; Kobayashi Ayako; Takase Kenkichi; Goto Takahisa. Postanesthetic Effects of Isoflurane on Behavioral Phenotypes of Adult Male C57BL/6J Mice. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0122118; article XML SHA-256 9acd33b45321063ac5b1952d7f0ae1ec54592ff1f50210040e527a3ee4c1953b. “Postanesthetic Effects of Isoflurane on Behavioral Phenotypes of Adult Male C57BL/6J Mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0122118).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0122118). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## young-old
<a id="young-old"></a>

Young-old refers to the younger segment of the older adult population, typically people aged 60 to 79. It is used to distinguish this group from the old-old because older adults are not a uniform group and can differ in health profile and care needs.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: development
Version: 1 · SHA-256: f103aa77d67dd641df8d09bd53495f605d545caf43684bd7bd2bc7f16a663b69

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Ansah John P.; Malhotra Rahul; Lew Nicola; Chiu Chi-Tsun; Chan Angelique; Bayer Steffen; Matchar David B.. Projection of Young-Old and Old-Old with Functional Disability: Does Accounting for the Changing Educational Composition of the Elderly Population Make a Difference?. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0126471; article XML SHA-256 9c1d7b73bfa55b09b978f9683e03afc332fad1dc740e524ef5f2091ee240ac9c. “Projection of Young-Old and Old-Old with Functional Disability: Does Accounting for the Changing Educational Composition of the Elderly Population Make a Difference?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0126471).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0126471). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## z score
<a id="z-score"></a>

A z score is a standardized value showing how many standard deviations a score lies above or below the mean of its population. Converting a raw score to a z score is called standardizing, and this does not make the values normally distributed if the original data were not normal.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: research methods
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 6de7063e8c178f9867be014a142b8cc30620ac3769e2ae08a3e252c2ba0ddcc3

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Z score” (z_score.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/z_score.html). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## zaleplon
<a id="zaleplon"></a>

Zaleplon is a nonbenzodiazepine drug in the pyrazolopyrimidine class with sleep-inducing, calming, anxiety-reducing, and muscle-relaxing effects. It acts on GABA-A receptor systems in the brain, influencing the chloride channel complex and strengthening GABA’s inhibitory activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: b97969ac83e309a07b8d878264ec46aa537b688f875c6fef5313d9fdea641678

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Zaleplon” (C29551).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Zarontin
<a id="zarontin"></a>

Zarontin is an anticonvulsant succinimide drug used to help prevent seizures. Its action is not fully understood, but it is thought to partly block T-type calcium channels in thalamic neurons, reducing abnormal burst firing and helping stabilize brain nerve activity.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3afd9754e931b5d4473b9dd486e5f8e613525b59279111e8296fd67ea4ed9356

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ethosuximide” (C47523).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Zen Buddhism
<a id="zen-buddhism"></a>

Zen Buddhism is described here as an Eastern philosophical tradition that uses nonverbal practices such as koans and silence to suspend ordinary language. In this account, it is presented as a way of going beyond the cognitive limits that linguistic habits can impose.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 58507c71c3dbc7f15a47e941ee07537e1be3ece810b21441cc56795563ade606

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Kuang Xue; He Chao; Chen Qiang; Song Youxing; Song Tianjiao. Language, silence, and logic: Zen, Nishida, and fthe Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in cognitive and cultural perspectives. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1638010; article XML SHA-256 5abe2bb165b1c87a966222e0151f9223ec7ac3247b4b8f6e195e60847ddd25ba. “Language, silence, and logic: Zen, Nishida, and fthe Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in cognitive and cultural perspectives” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1638010).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1638010). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## zest
<a id="zest"></a>

In this passage, zest means a heightened sense of interest, freshness, or enjoyment in an activity or aspect of life. It refers to something feeling more vivid and engaging than before, especially as a person’s state of mind changes over time.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 76c8a328594db6a39e6a1daf3d43dc7ee5f40b400258fc7474558da887279fe7

Sources:
- Drafting source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## zinc
<a id="zinc"></a>

Zinc is an essential dietary micronutrient involved in normal body functioning. In a psychology or learning context, too little zinc can impair learning ability, so regular intake from food is important because the body cannot store it.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: learning
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 97aaddff0294ae1362bea3f2779bb72c4b470d370b026d81d59830ec78bb1588

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mohrazi Ava; Ghasemi-Fasaei Reza. Optimization of synthesis constituents of slow-release zinc fertilizers using response surface methodology. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345863; article XML SHA-256 dc47ab1f1fdff2f53887b3b37944f031a8e267d4f105b59c04d01e121d71f03f. “Optimization of synthesis constituents of slow-release zinc fertilizers using response surface methodology” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345863).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345863). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## ziprasidone
<a id="ziprasidone"></a>

Ziprasidone is an atypical antipsychotic drug with antischizophrenic effects. It acts on dopamine and serotonin receptor systems and also affects serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake, although the exact way it produces its antischizophrenic effect is not fully known.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: ee60e6638d5fef91235746daed7c47a4198a7cb09a6975b53034e9a4138f9c17

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ziprasidone” (C47788).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Zofran
<a id="zofran"></a>

Zofran is ondansetron hydrochloride, a drug that blocks serotonin 5-HT3 receptors. It is used to reduce nausea and vomiting, including those caused by chemotherapy or radiotherapy, by acting in the gut and in brain areas involved in triggering vomiting.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5f89252ae851c3a4383f767088db86fe8344540a812210a74648e4a70aa4eb0e

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ondansetron Hydrochloride” (C48007).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Zoloft
<a id="zoloft"></a>

Zoloft is sertraline hydrochloride, the hydrochloride salt form of sertraline. It is a synthetic drug described as having antidepressant and anti-serotoninergic properties and appears to work by selectively blocking neuronal serotonin uptake, which increases serotonin levels in the central nervous system.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d35d5e1937006a84ee98adbc6768bd27b0ef2ae258c59da5ccae6ebd60df80bb

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sertraline Hydrochloride” (C29451).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## zolpidem
<a id="zolpidem"></a>

Zolpidem is a short-acting drug that activates GABA-A receptors and is used to treat insomnia. It is an imidazopyridine derivative.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 3776718ee412afe3f4b419f9af33fd8b2aeb50d0e518c8fce72df445f6fcc25b

Sources:
- Drafting source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Zolpidem” (D000077334).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000077334). Licence: [public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## zone of optimal functioning
<a id="zone-of-optimal-functioning"></a>

Zone of optimal functioning is an individual range of anxiety-related states in which a person tends to perform best. In the packet’s context, it refers to each performer’s own pattern of cognitive anxiety, physical anxiety, and self-confidence that can be used to estimate how well they may perform.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: dbe6e97d98affc928c8a617779b95ff1ff8d009b90782235b001b555b67d2e60

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Yao Zijin; Li Yue. Preliminary Assessment of Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning Model Applied to Music Performance Anxiety in College Piano Majors. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.764147; article XML SHA-256 a635209260f3c2784aa3cbcfb47f75766b4cc473c084525b23eda37f32484f30. “Preliminary Assessment of Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning Model Applied to Music Performance Anxiety in College Piano Majors” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.764147).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.764147). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## zoo-
<a id="zoo"></a>

A timed subtest in the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence that assesses visual and spatial skills. The child looks at pictures of animals on a zoo layout and places each animal in its correct location.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: cognition
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 0be0a56450002e27a1ec574326a408e46704d6163a107a3b9f2fbe99372058e1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Zoo Locations Subtest” (C126882).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## zoomorphism
<a id="zoomorphism"></a>

In historical psychological writing, zoomorphism refers to a belief or condition in which a person is associated with animal form or character. In the cited passage, it is described as resembling the lycanthropy reported in the Middle Ages.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: history
Version: 1 · SHA-256: d13b2cd947d6588d9e5862a981bf9d782d406b4c4b1e919008b707742b6b89d1

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2541000-2553000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Licence: [public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Zugunruhe
<a id="zugunruhe"></a>

Zugunruhe is migratory restlessness: increased restless activity shown by birds in association with migration, especially noted in captive birds during autumn migration research. In this packet, it is treated as a migratory behavior linked to variation in a candidate gene.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 2 · SHA-256: 6a6109be3065dc4d3889daf6de908cf6a952631108d6a51a2f7bc02769067bbe

Sources:
- Drafting source: [Mettler Raeann; Segelbacher Gernot; Schaefer H. Martin. Interactions between a Candidate Gene for Migration ( ADCYAP1 ), Morphology and Sex Predict Spring Arrival in Blackcap Populations. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0144587; article XML SHA-256 5cec834213fefc3f3c504e5763a04624f7e8e60427a30cf2790de9d851b85523. “Interactions between a Candidate Gene for Migration ( ADCYAP1 ), Morphology and Sex Predict Spring Arrival in Blackcap Populations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0144587).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0144587). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Zyban
<a id="zyban"></a>

Zyban is a controlled-release form of bupropion hydrochloride, a medication with antidepressant effects that may be used to help with smoking cessation. It works in the central nervous system by weakly blocking the reuptake of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine and by antagonizing nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

Status: Judged: passed two readers who did not draft it; copy check clear.
Field: biological
Version: 1 · SHA-256: 5d60fa71441d312ca929f9c438468cba23796ece61b1b21abd8f002e50c45635

Sources:
- Drafting source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Bupropion Hydrochloride Controlled-release” (C148267).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip). Licence: [CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Definition uses new wording; original source retains its stated licence.

## Dropped entries

- A-delta fiber [redraft]: The definition adds that an A-delta fiber is a “small fiber,” but the packet only says that small fiber conduction is impaired and that PREP can measure A-delta fiber conduction; it does not explicitly define A-delta fiber as a small fiber.; The first sentence of the definition (“considered in neurophysiology in terms of how well it conducts signals”) is not directly supported by the packet text provided; the packet mentions impaired conduction and measurement, not the framing/definition of A-delta fibers.; The packet does not define or explicitly identify “A-delta fiber” as “a small fiber” or as a specific fiber category; it only discusses “small fiber conduction” and then states PREP can measure “A-delta fiber conduction.”; The wording about neurophysiology and signal conduction is broader than the packet’s wording and is not fully supported as a definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Üçeyler Nurcan; Kahn Ann-Kathrin; Kramer Daniela; Zeller Daniel; Casanova-Molla Jordi; Wanner Christoph; Weidemann Frank; Katsarava Zaza; Sommer Claudia. Impaired small fiber conduction in patients with Fabry disease: a neurophysiological case–control study. 2013; DOI 10.1186/1471-2377-13-47; article XML SHA-256 92a2ad52922fbbbe41de4109b2741ae4e8164e7285d5f22f968d7c6f33f65476. “Impaired small fiber conduction in patients with Fabry disease: a neurophysiological case–control study” (10.1186/1471-2377-13-47).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2377-13-47) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- AA [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hemoglobin Alpha cis-Deletion Genotype” (C185512).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- AAAS [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “AAAS Gene” (C190640).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- AACS [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Squeezed Red Blood Cells Expressing HPV16 Epitopes SQZ-AAC-HPV” (C184978).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- AAMR [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alacrima, Achalasia, and Impaired Intellectual Development Syndrome” (C202544).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- AAP [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alanine Aminopeptidase Measurement” (C100430).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ab- [redraft]: Headword is the prefix ab-; definition instead defines the abbreviation AB for academic burnout, a different word. New packet required. Source: [Zhan Jie; Xiang Jiagen; Zhang Yiming; Zhao Xingang; Zhang Ke; Ou Haining; Zhan Lechang; He Aiyun. Prevalence and determinants of academic burnout among undergraduates in a traditional Chinese medicine university: a cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1799611; article XML SHA-256 282f44dac48e5581539be0e9996bbd81d9e22614c905b0e3d2ba9709e5d92142. “Prevalence and determinants of academic burnout among undergraduates in a traditional Chinese medicine university: a cross-sectional study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1799611).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1799611) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- abandonment [redraft]: Adds the unsupported detail that abandonment means leaving an older person without needed care or support; the packet only says ‘abandonment of the older person’ as part of elder abuse.; The definition narrows the agents to family members or institutional staff, while the packet says ‘generally by family members or by institutional personnel’ and does not require that framing as part of the definition.; The packet does not define abandonment as “leaving an older person without needed care or support”; it only lists “abandonment” as one of several forms of elder abuse alongside maltreatment and exploitation without providing a separate meaning.; While the packet supports that elder abuse (including abandonment) is generally by “family members or … institutional personnel,” the definition’s specific phrasing about leaving without needed care/support is not directly supported by the provided packet text. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Elder Abuse” (D004552).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004552) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- abatement [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Remission” (C18246).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- abdominal migraine [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Abdominal Migraine” (C113482).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- abduction [redraft]: The claim that “it refers specifically to shoulder movement performed against gravity” is supported by the packet, but the unsupported general anatomical characterization prevents the definition from passing the requirement that every substantive claim be supported by the packet.; The definition’s first sentence gives a general anatomical description of abduction (limb moved in a single plane through its range of motion away from its starting position). This is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text; the packet only mentions “shoulder abduction as a uniplanar movement” and studies it “against gravity.”; The packet supports shoulder abduction as a uniplanar movement against gravity, but it does not explicitly support the broader generic definition that abduction is a body movement in which a limb moves through its range of motion away from its starting position.; The phrase “through its range of motion away from its starting position” is an unsupported elaboration beyond the packet text. New packet required. Source: [Thomas Christina; Johnson Brianna; Baillargeon Emma M.; Heckman Rosalind L.. Motor planning, initiation and execution of shoulder abduction against gravity: Evidence from startReact. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346615; article XML SHA-256 9be1576d2704e86ea0c4e087680e04b3a78a4188fceed73d515aa473515a00e8. “Motor planning, initiation and execution of shoulder abduction against gravity: Evidence from startReact” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346615).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346615) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- aberration [redraft]: The claim that higher aberration values “can be associated with poorer objective visual quality” is not directly established as a general rule in the packet; it reports specific longitudinal changes (e.g., OSI increased, SR decreased) and changes in aberration RMS values, but does not support the causal/interpretive linkage as stated.; The claim that “Higher aberration values indicate a departure from normal light focusing” is not explicitly supported in the packet.; The definition is written as a general interpretation rather than something the packet explicitly defines for this term.; The packet does not provide a definition stating that “aberration” refers to an “optical irregularity of the cornea measured as a wavefront distortion.” It only reports that “corneal wavefront aberrations” were measured using the Pentacam system.; The packet supports an association between increased aberration values and worse objective visual quality, but not the broader definitional claims as written.; The packet supports corneal wavefront aberrations and their association with objective visual quality, but it does not explicitly support defining aberration as a corneal optical irregularity measured as a wavefront distortion.; The phrase "departure from normal light focusing" is an added explanatory gloss not stated in the source packet. New packet required. Source: [Chen YueXin; Zhang NingNa; Zhu YanYing; Xie HaiYan; Liu YuKun; Zhang Ke; Xu XiaoChen; Wang Jing. One-year effects of orthokeratology lens wear on objective visual quality and corneal densitometry in adolescents with myopia. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355390; article XML SHA-256 a766f3068daf504c0e779fc350b6663321dd620a8f5394dd4e8116506f28dec3. “One-year effects of orthokeratology lens wear on objective visual quality and corneal densitometry in adolescents with myopia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355390).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355390) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Abilify [redraft]: Because the definition’s requested sense/identification (“Abilify” = brand name for aripiprazole) is not supported verbatim by the packet, the definition contains an unsupported claim.; The definition presents a brand-name relationship that is not established in the supplied source packet, so the requested sense is not fully supported.; The packet supports aripiprazole as an atypical antipsychotic and its use for schizophrenia and acute manic or mixed episodes in bipolar I disorder, but it does not support the claim that Abilify is the brand name for aripiprazole.; The packet text does not explicitly state that “Abilify” is the brand name for aripiprazole; it only describes aripiprazole directly (“Aripiprazole has partial agonistic activity…”). New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Aripiprazole” (C47403).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- abiotic [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Environmental Science” (D000079265).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000079265) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- ablation [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ablation Therapy” (C20985).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- abnormality [redraft]: The definition frames the term as specifically used in psychology or counselling, but the supplied source only supports the general descriptor and does not establish that narrower field sense.; The definition’s second sentence (“In psychology or counselling…outside what is typical for that individual.”) is not supported anywhere in the provided packet.; The packet only defines abnormality as “A condition that differs from the usual physical or mental state.”; The second sentence adds an unsupported individual-level gloss (“outside what is typical for that individual”); the packet only supports a general difference from the usual physical or mental state. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Abnormality” (C9440).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- abortifacient [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Carboprost” (D002260).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002260) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- abortion [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Abortion Finding” (C35221).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- abscess [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Abscess” (D000038).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000038) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- absenteeism [redraft]: The definition adds “repeated” absence, but the packet only supports absenteeism as unscheduled colleague absence; it does not mention repetition as part of the term’s meaning.; The definition’s phrase “repeated or unscheduled absence” is not fully supported by the packet text, which describes “unscheduled colleague absenteeism” and “persistent challenge,” but does not explicitly define absenteeism as “repeated” in those terms.; The first sentence is acceptable in part, but the requested sense in the packet is specifically absenteeism among health workers/colleagues in a workplace context, so the definition should not broaden beyond that supported usage.; The provided packet frames the psychology issue as emotional strain and burnout among frontline health workers (affective/occupational outcomes), but the field requested is “cognition”; the packet does not support that this is specifically a cognition sense. New packet required. Source: [Eze Onochie C.; Ojiakor Iheomimichineke; Odii Aloysius; Ogbozor Pamela Adaobi; Ndukaihe Izuchukwu; McKee Martin; Balabanova Dina; Onwujekwe Obinna. The hidden toll of colleague absenteeism: exploring its impact on emotional strain and burnout among frontline health workers in Nigeria. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768286; article XML SHA-256 ba9ccf579a09dfc30b427c892630db6caee91df5e9892dd6617f9f132ddf258d. “The hidden toll of colleague absenteeism: exploring its impact on emotional strain and burnout among frontline health workers in Nigeria” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768286).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768286) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- absolute impression [redraft]: The definition’s specific phrasing about “earlier stage in the formation of judgment” is not explicitly supported in the supplied packet text.; The packet only contains a brief reference to “absolute impression” as a starting stage “from 'absolute impression' to true 'comparison'.” It does not state that it is “an initial, direct experience taken as it first appears,” nor that it occurs “before the mind has developed a true act of comparing one thing with another.”; The packet only supports that ‘absolute impression’ is contrasted with ‘true comparison’ in the development of judgment; it does not define it as an ‘initial, direct experience’ or as a specific stage in which the mind has not yet developed comparison.; The wording ‘earlier stage in the formation of judgment’ goes beyond the source’s limited mention of tracing development from ‘absolute impression’ to true ‘comparison’; the source does not explicitly supply this fuller developmental definition. New packet required. Source: [Titchener, The Schema of Introspection, 1912. 1912 American Journal of Psychology 23, 485–508. “Titchener, The Schema of Introspection, 1912” (3df3e717981e5484759c).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/introspection.htm) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/introspection.htm))

- absolute judgment [redraft]: The added contrast with stimuli presented "at the same time or in sequence" is not stated in the source and is an unsupported generalization.; The definition claims “a person judges a single stimulus on its own, rather than comparing it directly with another stimulus,” but the packet does not provide an explanation or operational distinction of absolute judgment in those terms.; The packet supports that the term is used for a temporal bisection/partition task with no anchor durations, but it does not define "absolute judgment" generally as judging a single stimulus on its own rather than comparing it with another stimulus.; While the packet clearly discusses an absolute judgment task involving judgments of temporal intervals/duration and reports carryover influences from prior response and prior interval, the “rather than comparing … presented at the same time or in sequence” component is not supported by the supplied text. New packet required. Source: [Wiener Martin; Thompson James C.; Coslett H. Branch. Continuous Carryover of Temporal Context Dissociates Response Bias from Perceptual Influence for Duration. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0100803; article XML SHA-256 b9370e5ccae378f1474c4d57efeb1ab7b952766cc9ee31c9602a647d4bdaa42c. “Continuous Carryover of Temporal Context Dissociates Response Bias from Perceptual Influence for Duration” (10.1371/journal.pone.0100803).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0100803) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- absolute [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Absolute” (C45829).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- absorption [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Absorption” (D000042).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000042) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- abstinence [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Natural Family Planning Methods” (D012252).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012252) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- abstract intelligence [redraft]: The definition adds a gloss about “nous” that is not explicitly given in the packet (the packet uses vovs), so that identification is not securely supported from the supplied source alone.; The packet does not support the claim that “abstract intelligence means reason considered in its pure or general form.” It only mentions “abstract intelligence or reason” in a comparison with Logos, without defining it as “pure or general form.”; The packet’s Greek reference is fragmentary (“In Greek thought the term vovs stood for …”), and it does not clearly establish the full “linked with the Greek idea of nous” framing as written in the definition.; The phrase “reason considered in its pure or general form” is not supported by the packet; the source only says that in Greek thought vovs stood for “abstract intelligence or reason.”; While the packet does contrast it with Logos (“abstract intelligence or reason” vs “Logos represented reason manifesting itself”), the provided definition adds extra characterization (“reason as it is expressed or active”) that is not explicitly stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4588500-4600500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- abstract thinking [redraft]: Claims about “supporting deeper conceptual understanding” and “connect knowledge across areas” are not explicitly stated as definitional attributes of abstract thinking in the packet; the packet instead reports statistical relationships among ATCU, IESR, and IIPI.; The claims about “deeper conceptual understanding” and about students connecting knowledge across areas are broader than the packet’s specific findings and wording.; The definition adds a general psychopedagogical meaning for abstract thinking (“ability to work with concepts and general ideas rather than only concrete facts”) that is not stated in the packet.; The definition’s claim that abstract thinking helps “turn understanding into innovative practice” is only indirectly supported via the reported finding that ATCU predicts interdisciplinary integration and practical innovation (IIPI), but the packet does not substantively define abstract thinking in these terms.; The packet does not define “abstract thinking” as an ability to work with concepts/general ideas rather than concrete facts; it only references an “abstract thinking and conceptual understanding” construct (ATCU) in relation to other variables.; The phrase “especially when paired with inquiry skills and self-regulation” is only broadly supported by the mediating role of inquiry execution and strategic regulation (IESR); however, the packet does not present this as a general conditional statement about abstract thinking being “paired” with these skills.; The phrase “especially when paired with inquiry skills and self-regulation” overgeneralizes a study finding about one mediating model into a general definition. New packet required. Source: [Xu Jiyuan; Mou Yurui; Yuan Lei. From conceptual understanding to interdisciplinary innovation: the mediating mechanism of IESR among high school students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739020; article XML SHA-256 3ae66498003a6213d3336a59072b1faba0d02be9a6dbb92054d6d09d94a3c814. “From conceptual understanding to interdisciplinary innovation: the mediating mechanism of IESR among high school students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739020).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739020) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- abuse potential [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported meaning—that the category indicates how likely a drug is to be misused or abused; the packet only says the category is assigned to an active ingredient or combination of active ingredients.; The definition’s characterization of “misused or abused” likelihood is an unsupported elaboration relative to the provided packet.; The packet text describes an “abuse potential category” to which an active ingredient (or combination) is assigned, regulated by DEA and FDA, but it does not state that the category indicates “how likely” the ingredient is to be misused or abused.; The phrase about U.S. oversight by the DEA and FDA is close, but the packet states it is regulated by both agencies, not that they assign it under oversight in the way stated. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Schedule of Controlled Substances” (C48670).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- abuse [redraft]: The definition adds a broad generalization (“actions that are generally understood to cause harm”) that is not needed to match the source text and is less precise than the packet wording.; The definition uses “actions” and “generally understood to cause harm,” which are not verbatim or clearly constrained by the packet’s phrasing (the packet says “generally considered harmful”).; The packet defines abuse as “Improper use or treatment that is generally considered harmful” and does not specify that the “harmful treatment” is necessarily of a person; the definition’s added focus on “a person” is not directly supported.; The supplied field “ethics” is not supported by the packet; the source is an NCI Thesaurus descriptor for “Abuse,” not an ethics-specific entry. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Abuse” (C176713).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- academic freedom [redraft]: Because “research” is a substantive element of the definition that is not supported by the supplied packet excerpt, the definition is not fully defensible from the provided source material.; The definition includes “teach, research, and express views,” but the provided packet text only explicitly discusses teaching/curriculum and academics’ views (e.g., ideological curriculum, cracking down on academics, and Ohio climate-science teaching), not research freedom.; The definition is framed as a general definition, while the supplied text only provides contextual examples of limits on academic freedom rather than a direct source-backed definition.; The packet supports restrictions on teaching, university autonomy, and scholars’ views, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that academic freedom includes freedom to conduct research. New packet required. Source: [Fernandez Frank; Chykina Volha; Lin Yin Chun. Science at risk? Considering the importance of academic freedom for STEM research production across 17 OECD countries. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298370; article XML SHA-256 cb482630e3a9d1a6e9a5fa2ef16141d30d2ec18309139bbee9656cf6403eb88c. “Science at risk? Considering the importance of academic freedom for STEM research production across 17 OECD countries” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298370).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298370) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- academic problem [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“difficulty related to school or learning”) is not explicitly supported in the provided packet; the packet mentions “academic problems” and gives “academic boredom” as a typical academic problem, but it does not define what counts as an “academic problem.”; The first sentence gives a broad dictionary-style definition (“a difficulty related to school or learning”) that is not stated or directly supported by the source packet.; The packet supports only that academic boredom is described as a typical academic problem in adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic; it does not establish a general definition of the term.; While the second sentence is supported (academic boredom is described as a “typical academic problem … during the COVID-19 pandemic” in the packet), the overall definition still contains an unsupported general characterization. New packet required. Source: [Shen Lingyan; Wu Xinyue; Zhen Rui; Zhou Xiao. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Mobile Phone Dependence, and Academic Boredom in Adolescents During the COVID-19 Pandemic. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.724732; article XML SHA-256 956c82d0d42d4f7409f1ab1b1fbd008c6b0f4bfecac7fe96aa38b5956d75af65. “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Mobile Phone Dependence, and Academic Boredom in Adolescents During the COVID-19 Pandemic” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.724732).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.724732) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- academic underachievement [redraft]: The definition’s phrase “poorer-than-desired school performance” is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text.; The packet supports that the study used a “Perceived Academic Underachievement Scale (PAUS)” and that perceived academic underachievement was associated with lower GPAs, but it does not support the broader “poorer-than-desired” characterization or the “often understood here as … perceived sense of not doing well” wording beyond the scale naming.; The packet supports the GPA association (“both smartphone addiction and perceived academic underachievement were associated with lower GPAs”), but the definition includes additional general framing not directly supported.; The packet supports the research construct “perceived academic underachievement,” but it does not explicitly define “academic underachievement” as poorer-than-desired school performance or as a person’s perceived sense of not doing well academically.; The statement that this source links perceived academic underachievement with lower grade point averages is supported, but it should not be used to substantiate the broader definitional claim about what the term means. New packet required. Source: [Khatun Shakira; Ridoy Md Mehedi Hassan; Noman Abu Hanif; Sharon Md Muazzem Hosen; Mia Md Rahim; Islam Jahedul; Himel Sajedul Hasan; Shahrier Mohd Ashik. Bangla validation of the smartphone addiction scale and the academic underachievement scale: The associative role of classroom mindful attention in the relationship between smartphone addiction and underachievement among adolescents and young adults. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353865; article XML SHA-256 1d9d625744f38f739767df7f6efdc5d4e0d902f8766efb0e6ad8e78e9e773e37. “Bangla validation of the smartphone addiction scale and the academic underachievement scale: The associative role of classroom mindful attention in the relationship between smartphone addiction and underachievement among adolescents and young adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353865).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353865) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ACC [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “ACACA wt Allele” (C103886).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- accelerated longitudinal design [redraft]: Because these parts of the definition are not directly supported by the provided excerpt, the definition contains at least two substantive claims beyond what the packet clearly states.; The definition goes beyond the source by presenting a general methodological advantage as if it were established by the packet; the packet only describes one study's design and results.; The packet confirms use of a “cohort-sequential, accelerated-longitudinal design” with kindergarten, first, and second grade students assessed repeatedly over 3 years, but it does not explicitly state that the design “follows several age or grade groups over time at the same time.”; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that the method allows development to be “examined across a wider span more quickly than by tracking one group alone.”; The packet supports that the study used a cohort-sequential, accelerated-longitudinal design with kindergarten, first-, and second-grade students, but it does not state the added claim that this design lets development be examined across a wider span more quickly than tracking one group alone. New packet required. Source: [Santi Kristi L.; Kulesz Paulina A.; Khalaf Shiva; Francis David J.. Developmental changes in reading do not alter the development of visual processing skills: an application of explanatory item response models in grades K-2. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00116; article XML SHA-256 319953c8abc49d8823c544ead016b47a9a5244730cb07abd57409f7b27d5486a. “Developmental changes in reading do not alter the development of visual processing skills: an application of explanatory item response models in grades K-2” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00116).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00116) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- acceptance [redraft]: The packet does not provide any basis for contrasting acceptance with “a clinical technique or diagnosis,” which is not mentioned in the provided text.; The packet does not support the claim that the sense is “conceptual or philosophical” or that it specifically means “acknowledging or granting regard”; it only states that the term was recommended to replace “recognition” and is sometimes used to translate the German “Anerkennen(-ung).”; The packet does not support the contrast with a “clinical technique or diagnosis,” so that part of the definition goes beyond the supplied source.; The packet supports only that “Acceptance” was recommended as a replacement for “recognition” as a translation of German Anerkennen/Anerkennung, with a philosophical reference to Hegel and Eisler; it does not support the added gloss about “acknowledging or granting regard.” New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Acceptance” (Acceptance).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Acceptance) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- access [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Access” (C25396).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- accessibility [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported specifics such as “road layout” and “ease of movement across a highway system” as if these are the source’s meaning; the packet discusses accessibility metrics, trip demand, node centrality, travel time, and network connectivity rather than that broader phrasing.; The definition’s framing as affecting “ease of movement” is not directly supported by the packet’s wording or stated constructs (it describes accessibility measurement and correlations rather than “ease of movement”).; The field is not defensible from the packet: the source is about transport geography and highway network accessibility, not a biological sense of the term.; The packet does not explicitly mention “road layout” as an evaluated factor; it discusses highway network accessibility, network efficiency, land use/transport relationships, trip demand, node centrality, connectivity, and shortest paths.; The wording overgeneralizes the source’s method into a generic definition of accessibility; the packet describes a specific highway-network accessibility measure (closeness-accessibility), not the general concept as defined here. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Yuanyuan; Song Weidong; Sun Jinguang; Dai Peng. Accessibility measurement of highway transportation networks based on closeness-accessibility. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336928; article XML SHA-256 12d2a0e010acba1ad842b11221b2d9cae8f7aaa823a5d047b172410817b1cf96. “Accessibility measurement of highway transportation networks based on closeness-accessibility” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336928).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336928) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- accessory structure [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Adnexa” (C137974).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- accessory [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Accessory” (C112918).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- accident prevention [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Accident Prevention” (D000056).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000056) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- accident [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Accident” (C34340).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- acclimatization [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Acclimatization” (D000064).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000064) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- accommodation time [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory generalization about settling in after handling or condition changes that is not stated in the source; the packet only supports a 5-minute accommodation time before the test.; The packet does not define “accommodation time” as a settling-in period or explain that it is intended to allow disturbance from handling or condition changes to pass before observation. It only mentions “a 5-minute accommodation time” in the context of recommended experimental timing.; The requested field is not supported by the packet: this source uses “accommodation time” in an experimental zebrafish movement test, not in an ethics/counselling sense. New packet required. Source: [Szep David; Dittrich Bianka; Gorbe Aniko; Szentpeteri Jozsef L.; Aly Nour; Jin Meng; Budan Ferenc; Sik Attila. A comparative study to optimize experimental conditions of pentylenetetrazol and pilocarpine-induced epilepsy in zebrafish larvae. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288904; article XML SHA-256 c64bc14a1e4ba57a3365b082169b2cf122abe9ae20fa2ac05642b3dd65017fc1. “A comparative study to optimize experimental conditions of pentylenetetrazol and pilocarpine-induced epilepsy in zebrafish larvae” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288904).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288904) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- accountability [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Liability, Legal” (D016365).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016365) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- accreditation [dropped]: The pinned source packet does not establish a psychology, counselling, neural, educational, ethical or research-method context. Scope read pending. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Accreditation” (D000068).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000068) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- accumbens [redraft]: The added statement about the shell being important in behaviors related to seeking and consuming rewarding foods is more specific than the packet’s wording and is presented too broadly for the source provided.; The definition says the packet supports that the shell is important in “behaviors related to seeking and consuming rewarding foods”; the packet explicitly links the nucleus accumbens shell to “motivation and reinforcement behavior associated with the consumption of palatable foods,” but it does not directly support the specific word “seeking.”; The definition states that “accumbens usually refers to the nucleus accumbens”; the packet does not support this general “usually”/terminology claim, only discusses the nucleus accumbens shell in this particular study.; The packet supports only the nucleus accumbens shell as a region involved in motivation and reinforcement; it does not support the broader claim that “accumbens” usually refers to the nucleus accumbens in general. New packet required. Source: [Tejas-Juárez Juan Gabriel; Suárez-Ortiz Josué Omar; Escartín-Pérez Rodrigo Erick; Mancilla-Diaz Juan Manuel; Espinosa-Juárez Josué Vidal; Briones-Aranda Alfredo; Rodríguez-Cruz Fanny; Martínez-Abundis Eduardo; Gómez-Crisóstomo Nancy Patricia; Cruz-Trujillo Refugio. Activation of dopamine D4 receptors in the nucleus accumbens shell increases motivation for palatable food and homeostatic feeding, whereas systemic blockade reduces feeding behavior in rats. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1788044; article XML SHA-256 de2b525401f84f439ea5388da89ad4387562099052b423d31af7dc4c735bfff9. “Activation of dopamine D4 receptors in the nucleus accumbens shell increases motivation for palatable food and homeostatic feeding, whereas systemic blockade reduces feeding behavior in rats” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1788044).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1788044) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- accumulated advantage [redraft]: Because the defining “build over time” mechanism is not directly supported in the provided text, the definition adds an unsupported substantive claim about the term’s mechanism.; The first sentence adds an abstract definition not stated in the source packet; it reads like a broader sociological gloss rather than a supported dictionary sense.; The packet supports that Internet use can reinforce social inequality and accumulated advantage (Matthew effect), and that it may help maintain/accrue/mobilize social capital, but it does not explicitly define “accumulated advantage” as “the process by which existing benefits build over time.”; The packet supports that Internet use may help maintain, accrue, or mobilize social capital and may reinforce social inequality/accumulated advantage, but it does not explicitly define the term as the general process by which existing benefits build over time. New packet required. Source: [Barbosa Neves Barbara; Fonseca Jaime R S; Amaro Fausto; Pasqualotti Adriano. Social capital and Internet use in an age-comparative perspective with a focus on later life. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0192119; article XML SHA-256 ccae4a2237258716e720c0a2b4cfc65fa9d26d338df58789944ffe3131d795bd. “Social capital and Internet use in an age-comparative perspective with a focus on later life” (10.1371/journal.pone.0192119).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192119) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ACh [redraft]: The claim that “the packet does not support a psychology or counselling-specific meaning beyond identifying it as this medical condition” is a speculative, meta-level conclusion that is not directly supported by the packet’s content.; The definition includes unnecessary commentary beyond the term’s meaning, rather than staying to a concise dictionary sense.; The second sentence is an unsupported meta-claim about what the packet does or does not support; the packet only supports that ACH/ACh refers to achondroplasia, a skeletal dysplasia with disproportionately short stature.; The term is “Achondroplasia (ACH)” in the packet; the definition uses “ACh,” and the packet does not support that this specific capitalization variant corresponds to the same acronym. New packet required. Source: [Matsushita Masaki; Kitoh Hiroshi; Mishima Kenichi; Kamiya Yasunari; Kato Daisaku; Takemoto Genta; Sawamura Kenta; Ueno Shinji; Yasuhiro Nakai; Nishida Kazuki; Imagama Shiro. Phase 1b study on the repurposing of meclizine hydrochloride for children with achondroplasia. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0283425; article XML SHA-256 04951c34adb333201033cc44a255671d1cc07e7e51c54c0aefce0a2b6000fd90. “Phase 1b study on the repurposing of meclizine hydrochloride for children with achondroplasia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0283425).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283425) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- achievement goal theory [redraft]: The definition claims achievement goal theory is “a framework for understanding how the kind of goals people pursue… shape their attitudes and behavior,” but the provided packet does not state this general characterization; it only describes using achievement goal theory to examine relationships among perfectionism, achievement goals, and sports ethics.; The definition’s ethical-conduct-in-sport application is supported in the packet (achievement goals relate to sports ethics), but the broader framework/attitudes-and-behavior wording is not clearly supported by the supplied text.; The first sentence makes a general definitional claim about achievement goal theory as a framework for understanding how goals in achievement settings shape attitudes and behavior, but the packet only shows the theory being used in one study; it does not support that broad description.; The sentence mentions mastery/performance goals and approach/avoidance aims as if they are standard components of the theory, but the packet only reports these as study variables and findings, not as a definition of the theory itself. New packet required. Source: [Sun Kaihong; Ji Tai. The Relationship Between Perfectionism and Sports Ethics Among Young Athletes Based on Achievement Goal Theory. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.771332; article XML SHA-256 cab0f0c4d48a3a61f19b3a52ebeab46bf5732f3af4071ba28b8796ef4ecfbeb5. “The Relationship Between Perfectionism and Sports Ethics Among Young Athletes Based on Achievement Goal Theory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.771332).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.771332) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- achievement level [redraft]: The definition’s claim that achievement level “is treated as an individual difference” is not explicitly stated in the provided packet; the packet reports it as having a moderating effect but does not describe it as an individual-differences construct.; The packet does not explicitly define “achievement level” as a student’s “degree of academic success or performance”; it only mentions an “Academic Achievement Level Questionnaire” and a “moderating role” of academic achievement level without giving a definitional description.; The packet supports that academic achievement level moderated the link between perceived social support and career adaptability, but it does not state that this variable is an “individual difference” in the definitional sense used here.; The packet uses the term as “academic achievement level” and reports it as a moderator, but it does not explicitly define achievement level as a student’s degree of academic success or performance.; While the packet does support that academic achievement level moderates the relationship between perceived social support and career adaptability, the definition also adds additional framing (“change how strongly social support relates to career adaptability”) that is only partially supported via the moderation claim and is not stated in that exact interpretive wording. New packet required. Source: [Wang Huiyan; Lu Feng; Liu Shaoying. The relationship between group attachment and career adaptability of college students: a moderated mediation model. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1473147; article XML SHA-256 0462d093c3b0b362a4119680e42e942d72222e946ee53faa145fe877b442d6eb. “The relationship between group attachment and career adaptability of college students: a moderated mediation model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1473147).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1473147) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- achievement potential [redraft]: Although the second sentence is supported (the packet states that both under-confident and over-confident individuals had lower achievement potential), the unsupported first sentence prevents a pass.; The definition’s first sentence (“Achievement potential refers to a person’s apparent capacity to do well or succeed”) is not explicitly stated or directly supported in the provided packet text. The packet only reports that under-confident and over-confident individuals had “lower achievement potential,” without defining the construct as a capacity to do well/succeed. ; The first sentence adds an unsupported general definition (“a person’s apparent capacity to do well or succeed”); the packet only supports a comparative finding that under-confident and over-confident individuals had lower achievement potential in this sample.; The wording treats the study result as if it defines the term itself, which is broader than what the source supports. New packet required. Source: [Douglas Heather E.; Cunningham Mitchell L.; Tisdell Jessika; Arneson Justin. The problem with confidence: too much and too little results in poorer achievement, inner conflict, and social inhibition. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.960013; article XML SHA-256 8c2fef26a2a8792dddf9a226c34cee9a84d4911165c39114488bbd055fec7edb. “The problem with confidence: too much and too little results in poorer achievement, inner conflict, and social inhibition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.960013).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.960013) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- achievement test [redraft]: The contextual clause about use “under different learning conditions” is broader than the packet’s wording, which concerns pandemic-related learning changes and performance on achievement tests.; The definition adds unsupported details about achievement tests “typically” comparing scores or results; the packet only shows use of test results/scores in one study, not a general comparison feature.; The packet does not define what an “achievement test” is or state that it is “used to measure how well students have performed academically” in general terms; it only describes that the study examined students’ “achievement test performance based on the test results.”; The packet supports that achievement test scores were compared across groups/conditions (e.g., learning format preference and years), but it does not explicitly support the wording that the test was “typically” used to compare academic performance or that it was used “to examine students’ knowledge,” since it refers to “achievement test performance” rather than knowledge assessment in general.; “Students’ knowledge” is not stated in the packet as what the achievement test measured; the packet refers to achievement test performance and test results. New packet required. Source: [Sekine Miwa; Watanabe Makino; Nojiri Shuko; Suzuki Tsutomu; Nishizaki Yuji; Tomiki Yuichi; Okada Takao. Effects of COVID-19 on Japanese medical students’ knowledge and attitudes toward e-learning in relation to performance on achievement tests. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0265356; article XML SHA-256 ce03b7feb000ad3cbc236ef784503955150aeaf3442e46c28be5095802e92b91. “Effects of COVID-19 on Japanese medical students’ knowledge and attitudes toward e-learning in relation to performance on achievement tests” (10.1371/journal.pone.0265356).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265356) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- achiever [redraft]: Because of that unsupported “progress” element, the first sentence contains a substantive claim not supported by the packet.; The definition adds an unsupported generalization beyond the source by describing the type in broader gamer-typology terms without packet support for that fuller characterization.; The definition states that success is measured by “progress,” but the packet only describes Achiever games as those “in which users strive to pursue the highest score” and does not mention progress as a measure.; The packet supports Achiever as a game preference type tied to striving for the highest score, but it does not support the added claim that success is measured by progress. New packet required. Source: [Vera Cruz Germano; Barrault-Méthy Anne-Marie; Bove Marion Del; Nauge Michael. Relationship between gamer profiles, gaming behavior, sociodemographic characteristics, and big five personality traits among French law students. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s40359-023-01329-6; article XML SHA-256 f1164587b404f1d695fc8a4341e86fc2610e8f462ed284abe698aab6d7a3e100. “Relationship between gamer profiles, gaming behavior, sociodemographic characteristics, and big five personality traits among French law students” (10.1186/s40359-023-01329-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01329-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- achromatic [redraft]: Achromatic means without colour; definition redefines the adjective as a kind of flicker, the packet's narrow usage. New packet required. Source: [Hallum Luke E.; Cloherty Shaun L.. Liquid-Crystal Display (LCD) of achromatic, mean-modulated flicker in clinical assessment and experimental studies of visual systems. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248180; article XML SHA-256 d41c1a2653df73f33169b18f0835731144e8ba059cb90e81adae92e64cdeba99. “Liquid-Crystal Display (LCD) of achromatic, mean-modulated flicker in clinical assessment and experimental studies of visual systems” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248180).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248180) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- acoustic environments [redraft]: The definition claims acoustic environments are “studied…in relation to how people appraise these surroundings along broad emotional dimensions,” which is broadly consistent with the packet, but the specific “pleasantness” wording is not supported by the provided text.; The definition slightly overstates the source by presenting a settled description of acoustic environments as environmental stimuli that ‘can shape’ emotional responses; the packet says this area is under discussion and that the relation between soundscapes, emotions, and affective appraisal is still not conclusively answered.; The definition specifies that appraisal is along “pleasantness and arousal,” but the packet describes “valence and arousal” rather than “pleasantness” explicitly.; The packet supports soundscape research, acoustic environments, emotions, affective appraisal, and the dimensions of valence and arousal, but it does not explicitly support the added label ‘pleasantness.’ New packet required. Source: [Fiebig André; Jordan Pamela; Moshona Cleopatra Christina. Assessments of Acoustic Environments by Emotions – The Application of Emotion Theory in Soundscape. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573041; article XML SHA-256 31ed76844acaf04f9fb09e35cc1ad54ba940f3f8b9cc2b9acf38487ee152c0a1. “Assessments of Acoustic Environments by Emotions – The Application of Emotion Theory in Soundscape” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573041).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573041) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- acoustic nerve [redraft]: Packet is the cochlear nerve descriptor and never mentions acoustic nerve; the synonymy is an added fact. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cochlear Nerve” (D003056).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003056) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- acquired [redraft]: Defines acquired as a reading disorder; the headword is an adjective meaning developed after birth or injury, not a disorder. New packet required. Source: [Veronelli Laura; Daini Roberta; Primativo Silvia; Toneatto Carlo; Ghielmi Lucia; Pino Silvia; Gilardone Giulia; Martelli Marialuisa; Arduino Lisa S. The spacing words and pseudowords reading test: normative data to measure peripheral acquired dyslexia in the Italian adult population. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911950; article XML SHA-256 05285a07bdfbc5a555edb6e6d8e032198d3caeb93579e6eaaaa8ad19344f3b94. “The spacing words and pseudowords reading test: normative data to measure peripheral acquired dyslexia in the Italian adult population” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911950).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911950) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- actin [redraft]: Uses here to equate actin with F-actin, a narrower sense, and the second sentence describes the study rather than defining. New packet required. Source: [Revittser Alla; Selin Ivan; Negulyaev Yuri; Chubinskiy-Nadezhdin Vladislav. The analysis of F-actin structure of mesenchymal stem cells by quantification of fractal dimension. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0260727; article XML SHA-256 e477b64374e600ed74819d2457509b6047db5e3ebf787d52c8e80af12a2fdc90. “The analysis of F-actin structure of mesenchymal stem cells by quantification of fractal dimension” (10.1371/journal.pone.0260727).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260727) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- action potential [redraft]: Only the claim that overlapping action-potential signals/waveforms can occur when two nearby neurons fire at the same time (and thus overlap in the recorded signal) is supported by the packet.; The definition’s first clause (“the brief electrical spike a neuron produces when it fires”) is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet supports overlap of waveforms when two nearby neurons fire an action potential at the same time, but it does not explicitly support defining an action potential itself as a “brief electrical spike” or saying that a neuron “produces” it when it fires. New packet required. Source: [van der Molen Tjitse; Lim Max; Bartram Julian; Cheng Zhuowei; Robbins Ash; Parks David F; Petzold Linda R; Hierlemann Andreas; Haussler David; Hansma Paul K; Tovar Kenneth R; Kosik Kenneth S. RT-Sort: An action potential propagation-based algorithm for real time spike detection and sorting with millisecond latencies. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312438; article XML SHA-256 252d16af49769c45b1bd3f600724d236073bf9b317817f54adf802fb0e29d1bf. “RT-Sort: An action potential propagation-based algorithm for real time spike detection and sorting with millisecond latencies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312438).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312438) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- action research [redraft]: Claims action research is usually qualitative, an added general fact the packet does not support. New packet required. Source: [Erbaş Ahmet Akif; Topcubaşı Tolga. Tracing the development of primary students' expressed sustainability conceptions through SDG-based classroom action research. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1944639; article XML SHA-256 f0c6791c737475b3ab507faa6023d9e972e92477687591246c254c98ec7f3574. “Tracing the development of primary students' expressed sustainability conceptions through SDG-based classroom action research” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1944639).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1944639) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- action stream [redraft]: The definition adds a specific functional claim about the dorsal stream processing object information for goal-directed actions such as grasping, which goes beyond what the supplied text explicitly supports.; The packet discusses a specific fMRI study about size computation for grasping versus perception, but the provided definition presents broad, general claims about stream functions that are not explicitly supported in the packet text given.; The packet does not substantiate the definition’s claim that the action stream is contrasted with a ventral perception stream that “supports perceptual judgments rather than action performance”; instead, it states that evidence for this dorsal/ventral dissociation is based largely on neuropsychological case studies and that there is “no unequivocal evidence” for separate visual computations for actions versus perceptual tasks.; The packet does not support the definition’s characterization that the “action stream” is the dorsal visual pathway in the cerebral cortex that is “understood to” process object information for carrying out goal-directed actions.; The packet does support the contrast between a dorsal action stream and a ventral perception stream, but it does not support presenting this as established consensus; it explicitly says evidence is still largely based on case studies and that there is no unequivocal evidence for separate computations in the intact human brain. New packet required. Source: [Cavina-Pratesi Cristiana; Goodale Melvyn A.; Culham Jody C.. FMRI Reveals a Dissociation between Grasping and Perceiving the Size of Real 3D Objects. 2007; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0000424; article XML SHA-256 e1d4b116d8d8b797054eec7b4b77b6e27e0d19a391f1996b7132e91c3860b4c0. “FMRI Reveals a Dissociation between Grasping and Perceiving the Size of Real 3D Objects” (10.1371/journal.pone.0000424).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000424) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- action unit [redraft]: The added claims that students work to “understand, practice, and improve” that unit go beyond the packet’s wording and are not directly supported as the definition of the term.; The definition is framed as a broad sense “in this learning context,” but the packet supports only the study’s specific phrase about action-unit learning, not a general dictionary sense.; The definition’s claim that the packet “only supports this broad sense” is not directly supported because the packet excerpt provided does not include any explicit definitional content for “action unit.”; The packet does not define an action unit as a distinct part or element of a movement; it only mentions “action-unit learning” in a university dance course.; The packet does not define what an “action unit” is (e.g., as a distinct part/element of a movement). It only mentions “action-unit learning” and “action-analysis materials” in the context of university dance training, without specifying the term’s meaning. New packet required. Source: [Qi Tianhang. Teacher-reviewed generative AI action-analysis materials for university dance training: action understanding, body awareness, feedback uptake, and revised performance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1929537; article XML SHA-256 2654fedbc07639567a830a755ab06072ac5b95d746d3b844e23c4eacce8c1243. “Teacher-reviewed generative AI action-analysis materials for university dance training: action understanding, body awareness, feedback uptake, and revised performance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1929537).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1929537) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- activation [redraft]: The definition presents the mechanism as aligning “incoming information” with internal state via matching meaning, emotional force, and valence. The packet mentions matching “semantic topic,” “energetic impact,” and “valence stance,” but couches this within a “hypothetical” quantum-like mechanism; the definition omits that hypothetical/idealized framing and therefore overstates support.; The definition states activation “can support shared, amplified social responses across a group.” While the packet links the framework to “collective phenomena like emotional contagion and rapid narrative amplification,” it does so in a quantum-like/theoretical sense rather than as general “shared, amplified social responses” in the plain-arousal framing of the definition.; The packet does not describe activation as a “rise in … cognitive-social arousal.” It discusses “collective social activation dynamics,” “mental marker coherence,” and a “Triple-Resonance Mechanism,” but does not explicitly use or support the specific notion of a rise in arousal.; The packet mentions collective social activation dynamics and narrative amplification, but it does not clearly define activation as an individual-state alignment process in the general way stated in the definition.; The packet supports a theoretical model of social activation via matching semantic topic, energetic impact, and valence stance, but it does not support the added claim that activation is a rise in cognitive-social arousal. New packet required. Source: [Khrennikov Andrei; Aspalter Christian; Zhan Likan. Quantum-like architecture of the social atom: mental marker coherence and the triple-resonance mechanism of cognitive activation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1882642; article XML SHA-256 15adcf95ace371f90da4ed553fb3853e1e201dd85cb7976f9d27eb28952720e3. “Quantum-like architecture of the social atom: mental marker coherence and the triple-resonance mechanism of cognitive activation” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1882642).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1882642) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- active avoidance [redraft]: Adds unsupported details not present in the packet, including that the task involves a person or animal and that it is used to assess how experience with the negative stimulus affects later performance.; The definition’s claim that it is specifically “a learning and memory task” is not explicitly supported by the packet text beyond the reference to learning (training) and memory (testing) phases.; The packet describes an active avoidance task as presenting a negative stimulus during a learning (training) phase and also applying it during a memory (testing) phase, but it does not state that the task is “used to assess how experience with that negative stimulus affects later performance.”; The packet supports only that it is a task with a negative stimulus in both the learning and memory/testing phases; the broader learning-and-memory explanation is not fully supported as written. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Active Avoidance Task” (C226107).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- active coping [redraft]: Although the packet supports that Social Media Use positively influences Active Coping Strategies and that these relate to Exercise Habits via Perceived Social Support, the definition also makes an additional, broader descriptive claim about what active coping is (beyond the packet’s described study relationships) that is not evidenced in the supplied text.; The definition’s core meaning (“tendency to deal with challenges in a constructive, engaged way rather than passively”) is not supported by the provided packet, which only discusses “Active Coping Strategies” in the context of a study model (mediating roles) and does not define it in those terms.; The packet does not define active coping as a general tendency to handle challenges constructively or actively; it only mentions “Active Coping Strategies” as a measured variable and mediator in this study.; The requested field “learning” is not supported by the source material, which is about older adults’ social media use, coping, social support, and exercise habits rather than learning.; The statement that social media use can strengthen active coping and that this, together with perceived social support, supports exercise habits is broadly consistent, but the definition adds unsupported general psychological characterization beyond the packet. New packet required. Source: [Jie Qiu; Liu Mengfen; Chen Jiawei; Zhang Jianhua; Tang Shaokai; Zhou Zeng. The influence of Social Media Use of older adults on the Exercise Habits: The chain mediating effects of active coping strategies and perceived social support. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348566; article XML SHA-256 5737e6d3902e30b2c0b22dfa9bd4074f6bf43ee6443bdfc5c179bb60808b83c1. “The influence of Social Media Use of older adults on the Exercise Habits: The chain mediating effects of active coping strategies and perceived social support” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348566).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348566) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- active deception [redraft]: The definition claims active deception is used “to draw a threat away from a vulnerable site like a nest,” but the packet does not describe it in terms of diverting (“drawing away”) a predator from the nest; it only states that injury-feigning is a nest-defence behaviour that reduces nest predation.; The definition is framed as a general animal-defense concept; the packet only supports it in the specific context of ground-nesting birds and nest predation, so the broader wording goes beyond the source.; The definition says active deception involves “deliberately” using misleading actions; the packet labels the behavior as deception but does not explicitly state intentional deliberateness in those terms.; The packet supports the nest-defense sense of “active deception,” but the requested field “learning” is not defensible from the source material, which is about bird nest defense in ecology/behavioral biology rather than learning psychology. New packet required. Source: [Smith Paul A; Edwards Darryl B. Deceptive nest defence in ground-nesting birds and the risk of intermediate strategies. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0205236; article XML SHA-256 905127537d737291765ea7bb6416866e93d134c1f02b3d14ca9be7f909f8c773. “Deceptive nest defence in ground-nesting birds and the risk of intermediate strategies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0205236).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205236) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- active learning [redraft]: The claim that active learning is often well received and sometimes more effective than traditional lectures is only qualified in the packet for studies in dental education; the definition presents it as a general descriptive fact without that scope.; The definition frames support as general “approach to teaching” language beyond what the packet provides, so the requested sense/meaning is only partially supported.; The definition’s first sentence (“Active learning is an approach to teaching in which learners take an active role… rather than mainly receiving lecture-based instruction”) is not stated or clearly supported anywhere in the provided packet text; the packet discusses findings about active learning in dental education but does not give this general teaching-mechanism description.; The packet supports active learning in dental education and mentions problem-based learning and flipped learning as examples, but it does not define active learning as an approach in which learners take an active role rather than mainly receiving lecture-based instruction.; The rest of the definition (problem-based and flipped learning as examples; well received; may be more effective than traditional lecture-based teaching) is supported by the packet’s statements, but the unsupported first-sentence characterization prevents passing. New packet required. Source: [Perez Arnaldo; Green Jacqueline; Moharrami Mohammad; Gianoni-Capenakas Silvia; Kebbe Maryam; Ganatra Seema; Ball Geoff; Sharmin Nazlee. Active learning in undergraduate classroom dental education- a scoping review. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293206; article XML SHA-256 661a52265136932d9e44e4e8688192793ec39723066f26ca56301491d947db28. “Active learning in undergraduate classroom dental education- a scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293206).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293206) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- active therapy [redraft]: Active therapy has an established psychotherapy sense; definition redefines it as currently on treatment and describes the study. New packet required. Source: [Jevic Filip; Andel Ross; Kraus Josef; Kobesova Alena. Electrophysiological asymmetry in vincristine-exposed children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: Evidence from bilateral nerve conduction studies. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352440; article XML SHA-256 be263f4fdda71e383e55a3bebfd163c0f560ff8fa2030c2daf588f62c4b15595. “Electrophysiological asymmetry in vincristine-exposed children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: Evidence from bilateral nerve conduction studies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352440).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352440) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- active touch [redraft]: The packet supports a distinction where “contact sense” and “pselaphesia” correspond roughly to passive and active touch, but it does not define “active touch” as “touch that involves active exploration.”; The wording should not present the older historical account as a general or current clinical/psychological definition beyond the packet’s historical terminology.; “Active exploration” is not supported by the source packet; the packet only says Dessoir’s subdivision corresponded roughly to passive and active touch. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Haptics” (Haptics).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H1defs.htm#Haptics) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- actual [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory contrast that goes beyond the source text and risks overstating the term’s sense in context.; The packet does not explicitly define the term “actual” in the way the definition states (i.e., as what a person “really does” during physical performance versus imagining).; The packet supports “actual motor performance” as performance during the task, contrasted with motor imagery, but it does not support defining “actual” as meaning “rather than measuring related brain activity.”; While the packet contrasts mental practice/imagery with “actual motor performance” and also discusses ERD (a brain-related measure), it does not explicitly state that “actual” means “observed movement performance during the task itself,” nor does it directly define it as physical execution as opposed to brain-activity measurement. New packet required. Source: [Umeno Kazuya; Itaguchi Yoshihiro. Effects of bilateral and unilateral mental practice on actual motor performance and event-related desynchronization. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325860; article XML SHA-256 3a91342b4b4757faaa65d2c30fbcf4725f0ade55c1d77f683425da285793f96d. “Effects of bilateral and unilateral mental practice on actual motor performance and event-related desynchronization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325860).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325860) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- acupuncture [redraft]: The definition narrows the setting to children with autism spectrum disorder and says it is used alongside behavioral, educational, or drug-based care; the packet does support these treatment contexts, but the field mismatch makes the entry incorrect for this request.; The provided field is “diagnosis,” but the definition describes acupuncture as a complementary/alternative treatment approach (and discusses use alongside other treatments and symptom improvement), not a diagnostic concept or procedure.; The requested field is diagnosis, but the packet supports acupuncture as a complementary and alternative treatment, not a diagnostic term. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Qinliang; Li Mo; Zhou Zhenwei; Tian Liyan; Liu Lianju; Zhang Jun. Effect of acupuncture on rehabilitation treatment of children with different degrees of autism spectrum disorder: a randomized controlled trial. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1849124; article XML SHA-256 2d108f9da55316cca0f126db7944d567be70bd5edc94fe20bf2080d0d96686ac. “Effect of acupuncture on rehabilitation treatment of children with different degrees of autism spectrum disorder: a randomized controlled trial” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1849124).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1849124) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- acute depression [redraft]: The comparison to “elevated MMPI scores across several distress-related and psychopathology-related scales” is supported in substance, but the wording is a broad paraphrase that adds interpretive grouping not stated in the source.; The packet does not provide a definition of “acute depression” as a “current, active state” or explicitly contrast it with “remitted depression” in those terms; it only uses “acute depression” as a study group label.; The packet supports that patients with acute depression showed similarly high MMPI scores on multiple scales, but it does not support the categorization of those scales as specifically “distress-related and psychopathology-related.”; The packet uses “acute depression” as a study group label, but it does not explicitly define the term as a current, active state of depression or contrast it as a clinical sense with remitted depression. New packet required. Source: [Suzuki Masatoshi; Takahashi Michio; Muneoka Katsumasa; Sato Koichi; Hashimoto Kenji; Shirayama Yukihiko. A Study of Remitted and Treatment-Resistant Depression Using MMPI and Including Pessimism and Optimism Scales. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0109137; article XML SHA-256 bab352bcc032f7e5878ed880e680ec9d4b30bb98b7388e167ab396521de8c567. “A Study of Remitted and Treatment-Resistant Depression Using MMPI and Including Pessimism and Optimism Scales” (10.1371/journal.pone.0109137).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109137) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ad litem [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“acting for the purposes of a particular legal case”) is not stated in the supplied packet; the packet only shows examples of appointment “to act as guardian ad litem,” without explicitly defining the general purpose as “for the purposes of a particular legal case.”; The definition’s second sentence says the guardian ad litem represents someone “who is insane in proceedings when that person cannot act for himself or herself”; while the packet supports appointment of a “guardian ad litem” in connection with a party who is “still insane” (e.g., “sui juris, but still insane, though not found lunatic”) and an example where a person was appointed due to alleged insanity, it does not explicitly state the condition that the person “cannot act for himself or herself.”; The opening gloss generalizes beyond the source text; the packet does not explicitly define ad litem, only gives examples of a guardian ad litem in insanity-related proceedings.; The packet supports only the phrase in context, “curator or guardian ad litem,” not a standalone definition of ad litem as “acting for the purposes of a particular legal case.” New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-315000-327000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- adaptability [redraft]: The packet content describes an “Adaptability Scale” (a rating scale) that measures adaptability, but the definition does not mention this scale and instead generalizes that adaptability “can be assessed as a characteristic.”; The provided packet supports measuring “the ability of the subject to adapt readily to changes in the environment,” but it does not support the specific framing that adaptability is assessed “as a characteristic of how well a person responds to changing situations.”; The second sentence is unsupported: the packet only says adaptability is measured by a rating scale in the Behavior Assessment System for Children, not that it is generally assessed in psychology as a characteristic of how well a person responds to changing situations. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Adaptability Scale” (C121295).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- adaptation stage [redraft]: Describes the study's procedure (In this study, participants...) rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Mei Gaoxing; Cen Mofen; Luo Xu; Qiu Shiming; Pan Yun. Working Memory Load Effects on the Tilt Aftereffect. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.618712; article XML SHA-256 01e930f0696b916e845f9afc2ab4c1cd2eacc4f485752a4fba9be1f31508ed98. “Working Memory Load Effects on the Tilt Aftereffect” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.618712).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.618712) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- adaptive behavior scale [redraft]: The added generalization to “autism research and clinical outcome tracking” is broader than what the packet states and is not supported as a definition of the term.; The definition claims the scale is used in “clinical outcome tracking,” but the packet only describes using VABS-3 as input for a cost-effectiveness model (baseline VABS-3 and monthly VABS-3 changes), not outcome tracking in a clinical sense.; The definition is placed under the field “diagnosis,” but the packet describes VABS-3 as an input reflecting adaptive behavior outcomes in an autism model, not as a diagnostic concept or diagnostic criterion.; The packet supports use of the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale (VABS-3) as an input for baseline functioning and monthly change in an autism-spectrum-disorder outcomes model, but it does not define “adaptive behavior scale” as a general assessment measure. New packet required. Source: [Borre Ethan D; Myers Evan; Hamilton Lopez Marianne; Kurtzberg Joanne; Shaz Beth; Troy Jesse; Sanders Schmidler Gillian D. The potential cost-effectiveness of novel cord blood therapies in children with autism spectrum disorder. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0282906; article XML SHA-256 4bcd28154bb2d5e9630e0f367430fe7f56487bbcb2ee7bf9b7bf59aac2cf7ea1. “The potential cost-effectiveness of novel cord blood therapies in children with autism spectrum disorder” (10.1371/journal.pone.0282906).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282906) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- adaptive intelligence [redraft]: Other elements are broadly supported by the packet (improves speech perception in noise; subjective listening effort; sound quality), but because the definition contains unsupported claims, the definition cannot be accepted as written.; The definition says adaptive intelligence is used “alongside other noise-reduction features” to help listening in noise; the packet supports that the study evaluated “using these features” (ANR, TNR, and AI) for speech perception in noise, but it does not explicitly describe AI as being used alongside those features in that specific way or as an intended goal/functional mechanism beyond the study aims.; The packet does not support the claim that “adaptive intelligence is an automatic sound-management feature.” It only states that the SONNET 2 audio processor has “ambient noise reduction (ANR), transient-noise reduction (TNR), and adaptive intelligence (AI).”; The packet supports that SONNET 2 has an adaptive intelligence feature, but it does not explicitly support describing adaptive intelligence itself as an automatic sound-management feature.; The statement that it is used alongside other noise-reduction features to improve speech perception, reduce listening effort, and improve sound quality goes beyond the packet, which only says the study aimed to evaluate whether using ANR, TNR, and adaptive intelligence together improved those outcomes. New packet required. Source: [Kurz Anja; Rak Kristen; Hagen Rudolf. Improved performance with automatic sound management 3 in the MED-EL SONNET 2 cochlear implant audio processor. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0274446; article XML SHA-256 69752062d05bf2fdcc5c400445012fc036c715fee697b414537ee06b96a29102. “Improved performance with automatic sound management 3 in the MED-EL SONNET 2 cochlear implant audio processor” (10.1371/journal.pone.0274446).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0274446) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ADC [redraft]: Packet never uses ADC as an abbreviation; higher-level cognitive tests misreads summary-level tests. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive CDISC Version Functional Test” (C100762).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Adderall [redraft]: Packet never names Adderall; the brand identity and the higher or prolonged effects claim are added facts. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dextroamphetamine-Amphetamine” (C26643).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- additive [redraft]: The packet does not state the general cognitive meaning of “additive” as “contributing an extra effect on top of other influences rather than replacing them”; it only describes “an additive protective role” in the context of cognitive reserve.; The packet supports only the phrase “additive protective role” in healthy aging; it does not support the broader general definition that additive means “contributing an extra effect on top of other influences rather than replacing them.”; The second sentence goes beyond the packet by paraphrasing cognitive reserve as “providing additional protection during healthy aging,” which is a contextual interpretation rather than a supported dictionary sense.; While the packet supports that cognitive reserve can have an “additive protective role in healthy aging,” it does not explicitly define additive in the broader way used in the first sentence of the provided definition. New packet required. Source: [Serra Laura; Bonarota Sabrina; Caruso Giulia; Mancini Matteo; Sperati Sofia; Di Domenico Carlotta; Tamigi Federico Maria; Di Lorenzo Francesco; Ricci Francesco; Caltagirone Carlo; Koch Giacomo; Giove Federico; Bozzali Marco; Petrosini Laura. Stage-dependent effects of cognitive reserve on memory and brain structural integrity across the spectrum from healthy aging to Alzheimer’s disease. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830181; article XML SHA-256 7e3d4c3a6904e1fc8c4c9c9c8ba6831410812f694db80106c8fbcb313255bbe9. “Stage-dependent effects of cognitive reserve on memory and brain structural integrity across the spectrum from healthy aging to Alzheimer’s disease” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830181).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830181) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- adequate sample [redraft]: Because the packet does not present the underlying content, the requested sense of “adequate sample” cannot be verified against the packet.; The claim that adequacy in qualitative work is commonly judged by whether additional interviews stop adding important new information or meaning is not stated in the supplied text; the passage only lists related references, so this support is insufficient.; The definition’s claims (e.g., that adequacy means being large/appropriate enough to answer the study question credibly, and that qualitative adequacy is judged by whether further interviews add no new information/meaning) are not supported by any substantive statements in the supplied packet text.; The packet excerpt provided contains only bibliographic references and does not include any definition or explanatory text stating what “an adequate sample” is.; The packet text shown does not define “adequate sample” as a large and appropriate-enough group to answer a study question credibly; that wording is not supported by the supplied passage. New packet required. Source: [BMC: Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies. Version of record 2018-11-21; DOI 10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7. “Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency” (05ea0554db4e6d0f11b4).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- adipose tissue [redraft]: The definition adds location-specific detail (“white adipose tissue in the abdomen”) that is not stated in the packet; the packet discusses visceral epididymal white adipose tissue in mice, not abdominal adipose tissue generally.; The definition claims adipocytes “can become enlarged in obesity,” but the packet only reports that lipectomy “reduced the number of severely hypertrophic adipocytes” in residual eWAT; it does not explicitly define adipocytes as enlarging in obesity in general terms.; The definition states that adipose tissue includes “white adipose tissue in the abdomen,” but the packet discusses “visceral epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT)” in mice, not abdominal adipose tissue in general.; The opening gloss “fat tissue” is too broad for the packet’s narrower focus on visceral white adipose tissue, and the definition blends in extra generalization beyond what is directly supported.; The packet supports that adipose tissue is described as biologically active via secretion of adipokines/pro-inflammatory factors and that visceral WAT affects hippocampal (cerebrovascular) outcomes; however, those supported parts are mixed with the unsupported abdominal and general adipocyte-enlargement claims.; The requested field/sense is not defensible here: the packet is a biomedical article about adipose tissue, not a psychology/counselling sense of “learning.” New packet required. Source: [Seidel Florine; Morrison Martine C.; Arnoldussen Ilse; Verweij Vivienne; Ebert Simon; Attema Joline; de Ruiter Christa; van Duyvenvoorde Wim; Snabel Jessica; Geenen Bram; Franco Ayla; Gart Eveline; Bernhagen Jürgen; Wiesmann Maximilian; Kleemann Robert; Kiliaan Amanda J.. Partial removal of visceral epididymal white adipose tissue in obese Ldlr-/-.Leiden mice impacts adipokine secretion, plasma free fatty acids, and improves cerebrovascular health. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333024; article XML SHA-256 b23f83bc4b5d3979cb4e8012658cc64876be904ef72e93216826ba085951810a. “Partial removal of visceral epididymal white adipose tissue in obese Ldlr-/-.Leiden mice impacts adipokine secretion, plasma free fatty acids, and improves cerebrovascular health” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333024).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333024) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- adjective checklist [redraft]: Because the first sentence contains substantive claims not supported by the packet, the definition does not meet the requirement that the requested sense be fully supported.; The definition claims an “adjective checklist” is “a list of descriptive words used to rate a person’s current psychological state,” but the packet only states that the Activation Deactivation Adjective Checklist (ADACL) is used to evaluate “arousal levels during free throws,” without supporting the “descriptive words” or “current psychological state” framing.; The definition generalizes beyond the source by presenting the instrument’s use in this study as the meaning of the term itself.; The packet supports only that ADACL evaluates arousal levels during performance (free throws) and does not support the broader general characterization given in the first sentence.; The packet supports only that the Activation Deactivation Adjective Checklist (ADACL) was used to evaluate arousal levels during free throws; it does not define an adjective checklist as a general list of descriptive words used to rate a person’s current psychological state.; The term in the packet is a specific questionnaire name (Activation Deactivation Adjective Checklist), not the generic concept described in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Ktistakis Ioannis; Zacharakis Emmanouil; Terzis Gerasimos; Kostopoulos Nikolaos; Stavrou Nektarios A M. Gaze fixation parameters in basketball: examining the link to anxiety, self-talk, and emotional responses in free-throw shooting. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1730500; article XML SHA-256 90815d46bb4d905724d66ddad6c6e13679902b4c9640afe1b302520d8bb80124. “Gaze fixation parameters in basketball: examining the link to anxiety, self-talk, and emotional responses in free-throw shooting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1730500).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1730500) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- adjustment inventory [redraft]: The claim that the definition applies specifically as a generic description of an “adjustment inventory” is not directly supported by the packet’s text.; The claim that the subscale was used to measure 'social adjustment' is supported, but the broader definition goes beyond the packet and is too general for this source alone.; The packet does not define an “adjustment inventory” as assessing “how well a person is adapting” or describe “areas of functioning” beyond mentioning the “social adjustment subscale” of the Bell Adjustment Inventory.; The packet supports only that the study used the social adjustment subscale of the Bell Adjustment Inventory; it does not define an 'adjustment inventory' as a general questionnaire for assessing adaptation.; The packet supports that the study used the “social adjustment subscale of the Bell Adjustment Inventory” and measured “social adjustment,” but it does not support the broader wording about adaptation or functioning as the definition’s requested sense for “adjustment inventory.”; The statement that the Bell Adjustment Inventory is an example of an adjustment inventory is not directly supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Asadi Mitra; Yoosefi Somayeh. Validity and reliability of the Persian version of the machiavellian personality scale and its association with social adjustment and risky behaviors in Iranian college students. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05177-x; article XML SHA-256 c3b2ff77caa5ef0450761291c4e134bbccf2ced56b13a7685b15e57d929e1262. “Validity and reliability of the Persian version of the machiavellian personality scale and its association with social adjustment and risky behaviors in Iranian college students” (10.1186/s12888-023-05177-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05177-x) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- administration [redraft]: General headword redefined as one specific agency the packet mentions; in-this-context hedge smuggles narrow sense. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression in Women: 4 Things to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d7e3878cd110511a1cab8edfc2803470cfecef390d776a8858330f68a78c0fab. “Depression in Women: 4 Things to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression-in-women).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression-in-women) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- adolescent growth spurt [redraft]: The definition adds a general descriptive claim about the growth spurt that is not supported by the supplied source packet.; The packet does not explicitly define “adolescent growth spurt” as “the period in adolescence when rapid physical growth occurs”; it only states that the “timing of adolescent growth spurt” was used to control maturity, without describing what a growth spurt is.; The packet supports only that the timing of the adolescent growth spurt was used as an indicator of maturity/puberty onset; it does not state that an adolescent growth spurt is the period in adolescence when rapid physical growth occurs.; The packet supports only the second sentence’s idea (that timing of adolescent growth spurt is used as an indicator of maturity/puberty-related timing), but not the first sentence’s substantive description of rapid physical growth. New packet required. Source: [Sember Vedrana; Jurak Gregor; Kovač Marjeta; Đurić Saša; Starc Gregor. Decline of physical activity in early adolescence: A 3-year cohort study. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0229305; article XML SHA-256 2a23a137e3221ac91b8b403c1ff5b8eef02fc91be14d395dd49624eebd554716. “Decline of physical activity in early adolescence: A 3-year cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0229305).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229305) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- adoption [redraft]: Because the key definitional characterization is not directly supported by the packet, the requested sense of “adoption” in the psychology context is not fully evidenced.; The definition generalizes beyond the packet by presenting this study’s topic as a broad sense of the term rather than a context-specific research construct.; The definition’s core meaning (“a person’s willingness or intention to take up and use a new tool or technology”) is not explicitly stated in the packet text; the packet uses the phrase “adoption intention” toward GenAI tools but does not define adoption in these terms.; The packet supports only the narrower phrase "adoption intention" regarding foreign language majors and Chinese generative AI tools; it does not establish a general psychology definition of "adoption" as willingness or intention to use a new tool or technology.; The requested field is "development," but the packet is about technology acceptance in foreign language education, not developmental psychology. New packet required. Source: [Huang Mei; Huang Ling. Modeling foreign language majors’ adoption intention of Chinese GenAI tools: an extended TAM with perceived teacher attitude and peer influence. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850558; article XML SHA-256 8e7fbbd69ac4471a3910657972b6d180f6aa13d919e076176fb39b6855540e66. “Modeling foreign language majors’ adoption intention of Chinese GenAI tools: an extended TAM with perceived teacher attitude and peer influence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850558).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850558) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- adrenergic [redraft]: Circular; does not define adrenergic in its normal sense, only points at the paper's receptor phrase. New packet required. Source: [Zhao Jia-Ning; Zhang Hui-Ying; Yang Jing-Yu; Yin Yong-Yu; Zhang Li-Ming. Therapeutic potential of propranolol in central nervous system disorders. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1752025; article XML SHA-256 708cec53a6ad6e7410bb50b5340971a8a193e0cadb1d301b23f7c26858c32717. “Therapeutic potential of propranolol in central nervous system disorders” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1752025).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1752025) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- adreno- [redraft]: Because the packet does not substantiate the requested sense of the term (“adreno-” as a prefix), the definition’s biological/general claim is not supported by the supplied text.; The definition asserts that “Adreno- is a prefix referring to the adrenal system” (including the adrenal cortex or adrenal hormone activity), but the provided packet does not explicitly define “adreno-” as a prefix or state its linguistic meaning. It only uses the phrase “adreno-cortical axis” in describing etomidate’s effects.; The packet only shows the form in the term “adreno-cortical axis” and related discussion of adrenal suppression/cortisol; it does not support the broader dictionary claim that adreno- generally means the adrenal system, adrenal cortex, or adrenal hormone activity.; The statement that this packet’s use “involves cortisol production” goes beyond the packet, which discusses cortisol suppression/levels rather than defining a prefix meaning or a production pathway. New packet required. Source: [Panahi Jafar Rahimi; Paknezhad Seyed Pouya; vahedi Amir; Shahsavarinia Kavous; Laleh Manuchehr Ruhi; Soleimanpour Hassan. Effect of vitamin C on adrenal suppression following etomidate for rapid sequence induction in trauma patients: a randomized clinical trial. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12871-023-02065-5; article XML SHA-256 dc65dcec7c49026fd8aa7ab9214ae0216823d4b28c6dd61ae6d93e2c5d392a0a. “Effect of vitamin C on adrenal suppression following etomidate for rapid sequence induction in trauma patients: a randomized clinical trial” (10.1186/s12871-023-02065-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12871-023-02065-5) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ADS model [redraft]: The field is not defensible from the source: this is a computer-vision/agricultural imaging model, not a cognition or psychology term.; The packet describes an image-analysis/computer-vision model for apple detection and instance segmentation; it does not support the definition being in the field of cognition (a mismatch between the term’s content and the requested field).; The packet names the method MS-ADS / improved Mask Scoring R-CNN, so presenting it simply as “ADS model” is not fully supported by the source wording. New packet required. Source: [Wang Dandan; He Dongjian. Apple detection and instance segmentation in natural environments using an improved Mask Scoring R-CNN Model. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpls.2022.1016470; article XML SHA-256 8744f27f15a54da3bb936a83762149feddfc062dba5432a5e05874e98218f465. “Apple detection and instance segmentation in natural environments using an improved Mask Scoring R-CNN Model” (10.3389/fpls.2022.1016470).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.1016470) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- adult stem cell [redraft]: The final clause about limited plasticity under certain conditions is broadly supported by the packet, but the definition adds a generalized framing that goes beyond the specific evidence described in the source.; The packet does not explicitly state that adult stem cells are “found in mature tissues.” It only describes them as multipotent and restricted to differentiating into a few tissue-specific cell types, plus evidence about plasticity of adult neural progenitors in a specific xenotransplantation model.; The packet supports that adult stem cells are considered multipotent and restricted to a few tissue-specific cell types, but it does not explicitly support the claim that they are found in mature tissues. New packet required. Source: [Sandquist Elizabeth J.; Essner Jeffrey J.; Sakaguchi Donald S.. Xenotransplantation of adult hippocampal neural progenitors into the developing zebrafish for assessment of stem cell plasticity. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0198025; article XML SHA-256 104ea3124e186b3efcc6423d932858d535b4c9f0b48bf6ceece9d7f562e0e3a9. “Xenotransplantation of adult hippocampal neural progenitors into the developing zebrafish for assessment of stem cell plasticity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0198025).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0198025) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- adult [redraft]: In-this-learning-context hedge smuggles a narrow later-life-learner sense onto a general headword. New packet required. Source: [Alghamdi Ali H.. Neuroplasticity in adult second language learning: a systematic scoping review of structural and functional neuroimaging evidence. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1824559; article XML SHA-256 3747f8651075eee1d59d9d617b3be4027de547ee3c260957aa5e6abc62323f51. “Neuroplasticity in adult second language learning: a systematic scoping review of structural and functional neuroimaging evidence” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1824559).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1824559) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- adulthood [redraft]: Because the first sentence is unsupported, the overall definition cannot be considered fully supported by the packet.; The definition adds a general life-stage gloss that is not supported by the supplied source packet.; The definition’s first sentence claims “Adulthood is the stage of life after the teen years,” but the packet only uses the word “adulthood” to describe where ADHD symptoms may continue; it does not define adulthood as the life stage after the teen years.; The packet does not define adulthood as the stage of life after the teen years; it only says ADHD symptoms often continue into adulthood. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0b516be887dc405542437e91764765e37c105ae98c1d697b1789447654440453. “Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-what-you-need-to-know).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-what-you-need-to-know) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- adventitious [redraft]: Defines the compound adventitious protective resemblance, not the headword adventitious in its normal sense. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2110500-2122500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- adverse impact [redraft]: Well-known psychology sense (disparate test impact) ignored; second sentence describes a stroke review. New packet required. Source: [Gong Han; Liu Dan; Wang Xiang-Zheng; Rao Jia-Sheng; Du Xiao-Xia. Central neuroendocrine dysregulation in ischaemic stroke sequelae: pathophysiological mechanisms—a narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1836343; article XML SHA-256 e82d7feec47e61b327debef2a9a82caff1cc9f4772511dec36e0e7db8eb7e327. “Central neuroendocrine dysregulation in ischaemic stroke sequelae: pathophysiological mechanisms—a narrative review” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1836343).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1836343) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- advertisement [redraft]: The definition adds that the packet “specifically describes an advertisement as exposure to a campaign message whose wording affected perceptions of a public figure and of people with criminal records more broadly,” which is broadly consistent with the packet, but the overall definition is not confined to the packet-supported characterization because of the unsupported general-purpose influence framing.; The definition makes an unsupported generalization that an advertisement is broadly any message shown to influence views; the packet only supports a specific political campaign advertisement used in a survey experiment.; The definition’s general claim that an advertisement is “a message shown to people to influence their views” is not explicitly stated in the packet text; the packet only discusses exposure to political campaign advertisements and subsequent effects on perceptions.; The packet supports “campaign message” only in this article-specific context, not a general social-psychology definition of advertisement.; The second sentence goes beyond the packet by framing the study’s findings as part of the term’s meaning rather than as a study result. New packet required. Source: [Harney Jessie. Lose the label: Messaging effects on Democrats’ perceptions of individuals with criminal records and representation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355933; article XML SHA-256 fd45329789fac46d0b3feca26348ba552ad2497cb0d3333c57831797b65cdad8. “Lose the label: Messaging effects on Democrats’ perceptions of individuals with criminal records and representation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355933).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355933) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- advice giving [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the source’s infertility context; the packet only supports that advice-giving was reported by women as an unhelpful interaction, not a broader dictionary sense.; The definition’s claim about the sense in this source (“identified as an unhelpful form of support when women discussing infertility experience such comments as upsetting rather than comforting”) is only partially supported: the packet says advice-giving is one of the categories of unsupportive interactions, but it does not directly state that “advice-giving” comments are “upsetting rather than comforting” in the quoted formulation.; The definition’s first sentence (“responds by offering suggestions or guidance”) is not explicitly supported in the provided packet; the packet labels “Advice-giving” as an unhelpful interaction category but does not define what it entails.; The packet identifies “Advice-giving” as a category of unsupportive social interactions, but it does not define the term as a general type of social interaction involving suggestions or guidance. New packet required. Source: [Balsom Ashley A; Dube Loveness; Gordon Jennifer L. What women want to hear: the helpful and unhelpful comments reported by women struggling with infertility amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318921; article XML SHA-256 e7beb72e4d68a4d1142682d815f5e47660940140116d0038d579cafb566bf2cb. “What women want to hear: the helpful and unhelpful comments reported by women struggling with infertility amidst the COVID-19 pandemic” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318921).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318921) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- aerial perspective [redraft]: The definition adds explanatory wording that goes beyond the source’s wording rather than staying close to the historical sense supplied.; The packet does not explicitly define “aerial perspective” as “a secondary monocular cue used in judging visual depth or distance” in those exact terms; it only states that it is among monocular criteria for depth/distance and that these are secondary. While the overall idea aligns, the definition includes additional mechanistic detail not present in the packet.; The packet supports that “aërial perspective” is a monocular criterion and that such criteria are “secondary” and “not very reliable,” but it does not describe “atmospheric-looking changes” as the mechanism. The definition’s wording about atmospheric changes is therefore not supported by the packet.; The phrase “atmospheric-looking changes in how things appear” is not supported by the packet; the source only lists “aërial perspective” as a secondary monocular criterion, without defining it in those terms. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Depth or Distance, Visual (perception of)” (Depth or Distance, Visual (perception of)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Depth or Distance, Visual (perception of)) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- aerobic exercise [redraft]: Does not define aerobic exercise; it describes what the meta-analysis found instead. New packet required. Source: [Wang Sitong; Chen Jiayun; Gao Chuang; Zhou Yuchen; Wei Zhen; Liang Zhiqiang. Effects of aerobic exercise on cognition, sleep, and mood in healthy adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1808755; article XML SHA-256 01a7b712d9c546fee736dd3d9f2b31c528e259f98013149b6a1f15ba85710361. “Effects of aerobic exercise on cognition, sleep, and mood in healthy adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1808755).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1808755) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- aesthetic appreciation [redraft]: Because the definition’s first substantive clause (“the kind of favorable response used in contrast with moral approbation”) is not explicitly supported in the provided text, the overall definition is not fully defensible from the packet.; The packet does not define “aesthetic appreciation” itself as a “kind of favorable response”; it only gives a definition of “moral approbation” and then states a contrast/differentia involving merit or demerit.; The packet only supplies a contrast with moral approbation; it does not directly define aesthetic appreciation as a “favorable response,” so that substantive characterization is unsupported. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Approbation” (Approbation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Approbation) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- affection [redraft]: The definition is not purely a definition of the term; it embeds characterization of how the packet describes children’s responses (“In the packet, it is described...”), which goes beyond a concise term sense.; The definition’s second sentence includes interpretive wording (“closely monitor others’ emotional cues” and “link disagreement with possible loss of closeness”) that is not stated in that form in the packet (the packet instead mentions vigilance to parental emotional cues and that emotional disagreement may threaten relational security).; The packet does not define “affection” as “the expression of caring or emotional warmth in a relationship”; it only discusses how “love withdrawal” can teach children that affection is conditional.; The packet does not define “affection” as “the expression of caring or emotional warmth in a relationship”; it only says children may come to experience affection as conditional under love withdrawal.; The second sentence goes beyond the packet by presenting a generalized definition of the term rather than limiting itself to the specific context described in the source. New packet required. Source: [Jin Lei; Jiang Xinyi; Guo Feng. From parental psychological control to hidden emotional pressure: a multimodal review of children's socio-emotional development. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900170; article XML SHA-256 f080d03c725742830e8b28b1b7444f5a684af3fe218f7f2720d81000f402df20. “From parental psychological control to hidden emotional pressure: a multimodal review of children's socio-emotional development” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900170).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900170) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- affective engineering [redraft]: Claims about “studying or designing interactions” are not explicitly supported by the packet text, which mainly describes the authors’ motivation model and experiments.; The definition overgeneralizes the source’s specific model (expectation of capability and uncertainty in virtual-assistant interaction) into a broader account of the term.; The packet does not define “affective engineering” as an approach that focuses on users’ emotional responses; it only references an “affective engineering approach” in connection with intrinsic motivation.; The packet supports a study of intrinsic motivation in human–AI interaction, but it does not define affective engineering as a general approach to studying or designing interactions.; The portion about expectation of capability and uncertainty affecting intrinsic motivation to engage for fun (intrinsic motivation) is supported, but the definition contains unsupported elements (especially the emotional-focus wording).; “Users’ emotional responses” is not supported by the packet; the source discusses motivation, not emotion. New packet required. Source: [Li Chang; Yanagisawa Hideyoshi. Intrinsic motivation in virtual assistant interaction for fostering spontaneous interactions. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0250326; article XML SHA-256 bd2bed7f558ca36037f051666c715cc22d4f0c78967cc431c827e3fba9b808ca. “Intrinsic motivation in virtual assistant interaction for fostering spontaneous interactions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0250326).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250326) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- affective forecasting [redraft]: The definition states that affective forecasting is “the mental process of predicting how one will feel in the future,” but the packet excerpt does not explicitly describe it in terms of predicting one’s future feelings.; The packet supports that affective forecasting is important for decision-making and that forecasting accuracy can differ across age groups, but it does not explicitly support defining the term as a mental process of predicting future feelings.; The packet supports that affective forecasting is “crucial for decision-making” and that “age-related differences in forecasting accuracy are documented,” but the requested sense (“predicting how one will feel in the future”) is not clearly established in the provided text.; The phrase "especially in ways that shape decisions" goes beyond the packet’s wording and adds an unsupported generalization about how the process operates. New packet required. Source: [Feng Yangdongping; Lu Di. Divergent directions of bias: affective forecasting in younger vs. older adults and the role of affective working memory. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1843889; article XML SHA-256 27cc00af24946c2cae510658fa781a30a50eeac86bd04f7ecfaf58cf754b8024. “Divergent directions of bias: affective forecasting in younger vs. older adults and the role of affective working memory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1843889).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1843889) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- affective memory [redraft]: The claim that these memories “can be expressed” is not clearly stated in the supplied packet text (the packet mentions investigating expression and extinction, but it is specifically about aversive memory and sex differences rather than a general statement about affective memory).; The claim that they “can fade over time through extinction” is only partially supported: the packet mentions an “extinction period” and “extinction” of affective memory, but the supplied text does not explicitly state fading over time beyond that phrasing.; The packet does not define “affective memory” as “memory for emotionally charged experiences” in general terms; it only uses the phrase in the context of drug taking/withdrawal (“positive affective memory” and “negative affective memory”).; The packet supports affective memory only in the specific addiction context of positive memory of drug taking and negative memory of drug withdrawal; it does not support the broader general definition as memory for emotionally charged experiences.; “Can fade over time through extinction” overgeneralizes the packet’s mention of an extinction period; it does not define the term as memory that fades over time in general. New packet required. Source: [García-Carmona Juan-Antonio; Baroja-Mazo Alberto; Milanés María-Victoria; Laorden María Luisa. Sex Differences between CRF1 Receptor Deficient Mice following Naloxone-Precipitated Morphine Withdrawal in a Conditioned Place Aversion Paradigm: Implication of HPA Axis. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0121125; article XML SHA-256 6b0b0d78fd258e36a2212c4f3c3902ca19f9cb00cc1c0a536595d97b9da7ef1a. “Sex Differences between CRF1 Receptor Deficient Mice following Naloxone-Precipitated Morphine Withdrawal in a Conditioned Place Aversion Paradigm: Implication of HPA Axis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0121125).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121125) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- affective neuroscience [redraft]: The description that it examines how brain systems are linked to emotions is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied evidence.; The packet does not explicitly state that affective neuroscience “examines how brain systems are linked to emotions and related processes”; it only indicates relevant topics/method areas via keywords (e.g., “interoception,” “functional connectivity,” “resting-state fMRI”) without making this definitional linkage claim.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that affective neuroscience is specifically “the area of cognition research”; it only lists keywords (including “affective neuroscience” and “emotion regulation”) without defining the field’s research domain as cognition.; The packet only provides a title and keywords; it does not support the definitional claim that affective neuroscience is an area of cognition research.; The phrase "often using neuroimaging and network-based methods" is an unsupported generalization from keywords rather than a supported definition. New packet required. Source: [Corbo Daniele; Asgher Umer; Sun Jintao; Hahn Lisa. Editorial: Neuroimaging in affective neuroscience. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1945667; article XML SHA-256 c87f60957ee92b17bb734a4ff7fb693d2eef476f2b256b9ac75079310962f6a5. “Editorial: Neuroimaging in affective neuroscience” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1945667).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1945667) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- affective theory [redraft]: Headword is affective theory; definition defines affective theory of mind, a different term. New packet required. Source: [Preis Mira A.; Golm Dennis; Kröner-Herwig Birgit; Barke Antonia. Examining differences in cognitive and affective theory of mind between persons with high and low extent of somatic symptoms: an experimental study. 2017; DOI 10.1186/s12888-017-1360-9; article XML SHA-256 edc3df62fa6a7d71c4135fd467772b759dceaa0e0fd58829dcb41c7924060fb0. “Examining differences in cognitive and affective theory of mind between persons with high and low extent of somatic symptoms: an experimental study” (10.1186/s12888-017-1360-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1360-9) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- affective well-being [redraft]: Because the first sentence provides a broad, general characterization not directly supported by the packet text, the overall definition is not fully supported by the supplied source packet.; The definition’s first sentence (“A person’s immediate emotional state or quality of feeling in a given setting”) is not explicitly defined in the provided packet; the packet only discusses “momentary affective well-being” and ratings after viewing scenes, without giving a general definition of the term.; The packet uses the term as an outcome measure but does not define it as a general construct meaning a person’s immediate emotional state or quality of feeling in a given setting.; The second sentence narrows the sense to this study, but the opening sentence presents a broader definitional claim that is not supported by the source text. New packet required. Source: [Zhu Weixin; Yu Yi. Nature-inspired visual interventions in metro stations and commuters’ affective well-being: the mediating roles of perceived crowding and environmental comfort. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901802; article XML SHA-256 fa15b7f61fe8b218849ead28760b868794630b86f7c88278330673d4bde99884. “Nature-inspired visual interventions in metro stations and commuters’ affective well-being: the mediating roles of perceived crowding and environmental comfort” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901802).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901802) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- affective [redraft]: The definition generalizes from two specific constructs to the term itself without the packet establishing that broader sense in this field.; The definition’s broader claims about affective processes in cognition are not directly supported by the packet’s provided text.; The packet does not define the term “affective” as a general “emotional or feeling-related side of mental life,” nor does it provide that as an explicit meaning.; The packet mentions “affective forecasting” and “affective working memory (AWM),” but it does not explicitly state that (a) cognition processes include “predicting future feelings” or (b) AWM involves “holding emotional information in mind.”; The packet supports examples of affective forecasting and affective working memory, but it does not support the broad first-sentence gloss that ‘affective’ means the emotional or feeling-related side of mental life. New packet required. Source: [Feng Yangdongping; Lu Di. Divergent directions of bias: affective forecasting in younger vs. older adults and the role of affective working memory. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1843889; article XML SHA-256 27cc00af24946c2cae510658fa781a30a50eeac86bd04f7ecfaf58cf754b8024. “Divergent directions of bias: affective forecasting in younger vs. older adults and the role of affective working memory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1843889).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1843889) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- affectivity [redraft]: The packet does not define affectivity as “the positive and negative emotional side of a person’s experience”; it only says that positive and negative affectivity are associated with cognitive function.; The packet states that PNA is “significantly associated with cognitive function,” but it does not clearly state that affectivity is definitively a “factor linked with long-term cognitive decline.” Instead, it says “their relative strength of association with long-term cognitive decline remains unclear,” which does not support the definition’s claim about linkage to long-term decline.; The packet text does not provide a general definition of “affectivity” as the “positive and negative emotional side of a person’s experience.” It only uses the construct “positive and negative affectivity (PNA)” in relation to study outcomes.; The wording “factor linked with cognitive functioning and long-term cognitive decline” is supported, but the broader definitional claim about what affectivity refers to is not. New packet required. Source: [Gu Yelin; Zong Jiaqi; Wu Yueyang; Wang Qin; Pan Lingling; Gao Jianlin. Stronger associations of affectivity than social leisure activities with cognitive impairment: a 10-year trajectory study of Chinese older adults. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1842578; article XML SHA-256 63dedf9825a090870b0d54c39461f7a7a6dad345338c7c0c89b8965735f20933. “Stronger associations of affectivity than social leisure activities with cognitive impairment: a 10-year trajectory study of Chinese older adults” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1842578).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1842578) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- afferent pathway [redraft]: The definition combines a general gloss and a packet-specific anatomical claim, but the packet supports only the specific projection relationship, not the broader term definition as written.; The definition’s first sentence (“carries incoming signals to a receiving center”) is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text; the packet discusses afferent projections but does not state this general functional definition.; The packet does not support the general definition of “afferent pathway” as a nerve route carrying incoming signals to a receiving center; it only describes afferent projections from the auricular branch of the vagus nerve to the nucleus tractus solitarius in a specific proposed pathway.; The second sentence is supported: the packet describes afferent projections from the auricular branch of the vagus nerve to the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS).; The second sentence shifts to a more specific proposed “auriculo-vagal afferent pathway” and adds contextual interpretation that is not presented as the dictionary sense of the term itself. New packet required. Source: [He Wei; Jing Xiang-Hong; Zhu Bing; Zhu Xin-Long; Li Liang; Bai Wan-Zhu; Ben Hui. The auriculo-vagal afferent pathway and its role in seizure suppression in rats. 2013; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-14-85; article XML SHA-256 09b3e42c7256029d751a1c495d42146568e404721f5c8f0dfecf9e49363e0e43. “The auriculo-vagal afferent pathway and its role in seizure suppression in rats” (10.1186/1471-2202-14-85).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-14-85) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- afferent stimulation [redraft]: The definition claims that this source “refers to stimulating visceral sensory afferents to produce spinal reflex and synaptic responses”; while the packet does describe stimulating splanchnic nerve visceral afferents and observing reflexes and dorsal root/synaptic potentials, it does not justify the broader “visceral sensory afferents” framing as a defined meaning of the term beyond the specific experimental context.; The definition generalizes beyond the packet by defining afferent stimulation as activation of afferent nerve fibers in general; the source only describes stimulation of splanchnic nerve visceral afferents in a spinal preparation. ; The definition’s first sentence gives a general description of afferent pathways (“incoming sensory pathways that carry signals toward the central nervous system”), but the provided packet does not explicitly support this meaning or explain afferents in those terms.; The field label "cognition" is not supported by the packet, which is about spinal visceral afferent modulation and autonomic/sympathetic function rather than cognition. ; The packet is about neonatal mouse thoracic spinal cord physiology (viscero-sympathetic function, afferent stimulation, monoaminergic modulation), which is not supported as belonging to the requested field “cognition.”; The phrase "to produce spinal reflex and synaptic responses" is partly supported, but the packet frames these as observed effects of visceral afferent stimulation; it does not define the term that way. New packet required. Source: [Zimmerman Amanda L.; Sawchuk Michael; Hochman Shawn. Monoaminergic Modulation of Spinal Viscero-Sympathetic Function in the Neonatal Mouse Thoracic Spinal Cord. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0047213; article XML SHA-256 a23ba951dc479a96fc18c268f1be90ebd808db7165055e106374f5c349562eb2. “Monoaminergic Modulation of Spinal Viscero-Sympathetic Function in the Neonatal Mouse Thoracic Spinal Cord” (10.1371/journal.pone.0047213).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0047213) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- affordance [redraft]: The definition’s first clause (“In learning, affordance means the action possibilities a tool or environment offers to a learner”) is not stated or supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define “affordance” as “the action possibilities a tool or environment offers to a learner”; it only uses the term in the phrase “AIGC affordance” and links it to adaptive learning behaviors.; The packet only indicates that the study examines “how AIGC affordance activates self-regulated learning… through… self-efficacy and… motivation,” which supports the general idea of a link via self-efficacy/motivation, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s framing of affordance as “features… that can promote self-regulated and adaptive learning,” nor that those features are “partly” doing so (the provided excerpt does not provide enough detail).; “Features of AIGC tools” and “supporting confidence” are interpretive additions rather than statements supported directly by the packet; the source mentions self-efficacy and motivation, not confidence as such. New packet required. Source: [Liang Shi-Zhu; Li Zhi-Cheng; Hsu Yu-Ming; Xu Jia-Lu. AIGC affordance and student self-regulation in private undergraduate education: a serial mediation model of self-efficacy and learning motivation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800950; article XML SHA-256 d793013f1d1c5f3972c344f893c47ff8bcbcaca9e72c0bccecf2291b3d7b3f72. “AIGC affordance and student self-regulation in private undergraduate education: a serial mediation model of self-efficacy and learning motivation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800950).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1800950) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- African American [redraft]: Circular definition that adds nothing, then describes the study population rather than the term. New packet required. Source: [Williams Tremaine B; Parker Pearman; Bimali Milan; Garza Maryam Y; Crump Alisha; Robins Taiquitha; Seker Emel; Storey Ava; Purvis Allison; Tolbert Mya; Drake Anthony; Swindle Taren Massey; Sexton Kevin Wayne. Registered nurse effect on long length of stay in the heart failure hospitalizations of African Americans. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329602; article XML SHA-256 b73a4e169d88af2d34a84d17f847471ce4cd428befca23a70be9478b2ba9c010. “Registered nurse effect on long length of stay in the heart failure hospitalizations of African Americans” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329602).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329602) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- aftereffect [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence gives a general characterization (“continuing change in perception that remains briefly after seeing a stimulus”) that is not explicitly stated or clearly supported in the provided packet text.; The opening generic definition of “aftereffect” as a continuing perceptual change after a stimulus is not supported by the packet, which only describes a specific motion aftereffect from viewing gaze images.; The packet discusses a motion aftereffect from brief exposure to static images depicting an agent gazing at an object, but it does not supply the specific phrasing about a “continuing change in perception” or that it “remains briefly” in the general sense claimed.; The wording adds an unsupported generalization about the term’s broader sense; the packet supports only the specific gaze-induced motion aftereffect described in the article. New packet required. Source: [Renet Christian; Löfström Ronja; Randall William; Guterstam Arvid. Motion aftereffects from viewing another’s gaze are restricted to the line of sight. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1796537; article XML SHA-256 1dcc292e62f3e4d958af1a25d7f5c997cb89f2399a15c1f717b1e72b8c430965. “Motion aftereffects from viewing another’s gaze are restricted to the line of sight” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1796537).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1796537) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- age-associated memory impairment [redraft]: The packet does not define age-associated memory impairment as a general decline in memory linked with normal aging; it only says failures to inhibit irrelevant information from memory may be an essential factor of the condition.; The packet does not explicitly state that “age-associated memory impairment” is “a decline in memory”; it discusses declining executive functions and failures to inhibit irrelevant information as factors associated with the condition.; The wording implies a broader clinical definition and current consensus that are not supported by the supplied source, which frames the issue more cautiously as a possible factor rather than a settled description. New packet required. Source: [Corlier Fabian W.; Eich Teal S.. Principal component analysis suggests multiple dimensions of memory inhibition that are differentially affected by age. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1020915; article XML SHA-256 9e195b54529a178021eae1aea12e7d3fd0224153ccac0972dc891ed68f6d7f4e. “Principal component analysis suggests multiple dimensions of memory inhibition that are differentially affected by age” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1020915).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1020915) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- age effect [redraft]: The packet discusses the “relative age effect (RAE)” specifically, but it does not support that the term “age effect” (as such) “can refer to” the relative age effect.; The packet supports relative age effect in sports selection contexts, but not the broader claim that this definition applies in learning contexts.; The rest of the definition is largely supported, but the field framing is not fully matched by the source packet. New packet required. Source: [Grund Thomas Ulrich. Cross-national and historical variation in relative age effects in professional football. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354928; article XML SHA-256 a1e96c41ebd6dfc94f0bf4b1a079a4dac4fb2bc3444752e087fda81650815c5a. “Cross-national and historical variation in relative age effects in professional football” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354928).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354928) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- age norm [redraft]: Claims in the definition about “level of performance expected” and “typical for others of the same age” are not explicitly stated in the provided packet text.; The packet uses the phrase “below age norm” but does not define what an “age norm” is (e.g., how the norm is determined or what “typical” means).; The packet uses the phrase “below age norm” but does not define “age norm” as the expected level of performance for a particular age group or explain it in terms of comparing a score with what is typical for same-age peers.; The proposed definition adds an interpretive gloss about what it means to be “below age norm” that is not supported by the source text. New packet required. Source: [Socher Michaela; Lyxell Björn; Ellis Rachel; Gärskog Malin; Hedström Ingrid; Wass Malin. Pragmatic Language Skills: A Comparison of Children With Cochlear Implants and Children Without Hearing Loss. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02243; article XML SHA-256 7cdb233ddf703cff9bc15129e48c3450cb4f4e4a48c42d67cf408c6e88b4b6b1. “Pragmatic Language Skills: A Comparison of Children With Cochlear Implants and Children Without Hearing Loss” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02243).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02243) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- age of onset [redraft]: Well-known sense is age a condition first appears; redefined as start of an activity from this paper. New packet required. Source: [Li Wenjie; Luo Jing; Zhong Xue; Ding Daoqun. Alterations in brain structure–function coupling associated with musical training. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1873065; article XML SHA-256 791fef48177950d5c685d010fd5528c94218bee9792839a1bc89005e0285a647. “Alterations in brain structure–function coupling associated with musical training” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1873065).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1873065) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- age [redraft]: Because the packet does not provide an explicit definition of “age” as position in the lifespan, at least one substantive claim of the requested definition is unsupported.; The definition stretches beyond the source by presenting general psychology framing rather than a source-grounded sense of the term.; The definition’s first sentence states a general definitional claim (“Age is a person’s position in the lifespan”) that is not explicitly supported in the supplied packet text.; The packet supports age-related differences in cognition, emotional competencies, and emotional work demands, but it does not support the broad definitional claim that age is a person’s “position in the lifespan.” New packet required. Source: [Popucza Tímea Zsuzsanna; Eriksson Lars; Skytt Bernice; Bjärtå Anna; Eriksson Mårten. The influence of age on emotion-regulatory strategies, emotional work demands, and health/work outcomes: a systematic PRISMA literature review with narrative synthesis. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05277-9; article XML SHA-256 2b2ed174b0b9fe01b8ebf2a7badd52e2bf85e5c807dfd55bd3a26848e596b108. “The influence of age on emotion-regulatory strategies, emotional work demands, and health/work outcomes: a systematic PRISMA literature review with narrative synthesis” (10.1186/s40359-026-05277-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05277-9) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- agglutinative language [redraft]: Because the key definitional claims are not directly supported by the packet, the definition contains unsupported generalization.; The definition adds a general language-type explanation that goes beyond what is stated in the packet; the packet provides an example, not a full definition.; The definition’s core description (“complex morphology” where “inflected word forms are built through systematic morphological combinations”) is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text.; The packet supports that Hungarian is an agglutinative language with complex morphology, but it does not support the broader definitional claim that agglutinative languages are characterized by inflected word forms built through systematic morphological combinations.; While the packet supports that Hungarian is “an agglutinative … language with complex morphology,” it does not provide the requested sense/definition of what makes a language “agglutinative” in terms of morphological combination mechanics. New packet required. Source: [Nemeth Dezso; Janacsek Karolina; Turi Zsolt; Lukacs Agnes; Peckham Don; Szanka Szilvia; Gazso Dorottya; Lovassy Noemi; Ullman Michael T.. The Production of Nominal and Verbal Inflection in an Agglutinative Language: Evidence from Hungarian. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0119003; article XML SHA-256 23f482eb927dfea5436f88b8542d5b2a2df965e6c05ea2a31c90c29bf5f2cb2a. “The Production of Nominal and Verbal Inflection in an Agglutinative Language: Evidence from Hungarian” (10.1371/journal.pone.0119003).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0119003) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- aggravated damages [redraft]: The definition gives a general meaning of "aggravated damages" and then explains it with an example about electromagnetic fields and thermal stress; that sense is not established as the term’s meaning in the packet.; The packet is a biology article about Drosophila, thermal stress, and electromagnetic fields, not a mental health source, so the requested field is not supported.; The packet source content describes biological effects in Drosophila (thermal stress, ELF-EMF, lifespan, oxidative stress), not mental-health phenomena; the definition is not supported as applying to the mental health field.; The source supports only that ELF-EMF aggravated thermal stress effects in flies; it does not support defining the term as "harms or harmful effects that become worse because another factor increases the damage." New packet required. Source: [Zhang Zi-Yan; Zhang Jing; Yang Chuan-Jun; Lian Hui-Yong; Yu Hui; Huang Xiao-Mei; Cai Peng. Coupling Mechanism of Electromagnetic Field and Thermal Stress on Drosophila melanogaster. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0162675; article XML SHA-256 d93adb3a2cf7c9d88f10365e8a34ce24d854ac073fd9d8b24bbe78c7adf27027. “Coupling Mechanism of Electromagnetic Field and Thermal Stress on Drosophila melanogaster” (10.1371/journal.pone.0162675).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162675) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- aggressive character [redraft]: Psychology headword redefined as tumor aggressiveness; in-this-context hedge smuggles wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [Ramachandran Rahimsan K; Sørensen Mia D; Aaberg-Jessen Charlotte; Hermansen Simon K; Kristensen Bjarne W. Expression and prognostic impact of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) in astrocytomas. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0172234; article XML SHA-256 db3c0dc9fd1f47512bedeabee50a613ea7e9ed3686bae2bb786baf608d133398. “Expression and prognostic impact of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) in astrocytomas” (10.1371/journal.pone.0172234).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172234) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- agitation [redraft]: The definition broadens the packet’s causes beyond support by saying “substance withdrawal” and “drug use”; the packet specifies only alcohol and nicotine withdrawal, and cocaine and hallucinogenic drugs use.; The definition uses broader categories (“substance withdrawal or drug use”) than what the packet explicitly lists (specifically “alcohol and nicotine withdrawal” and “cocaine and hallucinogenic drugs use”).; The definition’s cause list includes terms (“substance withdrawal” / “drug use”) that are not directly supported by the packet’s specific wording, making part of the definition an unsupported generalization.; The rest of the definition is generally supported, but the unsupported causal generalization is enough to fail under the requested standard. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Agitation” (C79530).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- agonist [redraft]: The claim that activation patterns between opposing muscles affect strength is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet’s wording.; The definition reads as a general biological definition, but the supplied source only supports a limited study context, not a standalone dictionary sense.; The definition’s phrasing (“muscle that works with its opposing antagonist as part of coordinated movement and force production” and “patterns of activation between these opposing muscles”) is not directly supported by the supplied packet excerpt.; The packet does not provide the requested 1–3 sentence definitional content as written, nor does it substantiate the specific claims about activation patterns affecting strength in a definitional way.; The packet only mentions “agonist–antagonist coordination” in a study background; it does not define agonist as a muscle or state that it works with its antagonist as part of coordinated movement and force production.; The packet text only mentions “agonist–antagonist coordination” as part of neural drive/strength decline; it does not explicitly define “agonist” as a muscle that works with its opposing antagonist. New packet required. Source: [Yao Wan X.; Mamone Bernadett; Wu Yuntao; Jiang Bo Y.; Zhang John Q.; Guan Jianmin; Yue Guang H.. Motor imagery and resistance training improve strength in older adults through distinct effects on agonist–antagonist coordination. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817866; article XML SHA-256 294425fc76f3c185bfc1997f6f64fbb3bd4f4e41eb850bfd23f36658fd75b4ef. “Motor imagery and resistance training improve strength in older adults through distinct effects on agonist–antagonist coordination” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817866).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817866) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- agonist–antagonist [redraft]: Term names opposing muscle pair, not the coordination; definition defines the paper's phrase instead. New packet required. Source: [Yao Wan X.; Mamone Bernadett; Wu Yuntao; Jiang Bo Y.; Zhang John Q.; Guan Jianmin; Yue Guang H.. Motor imagery and resistance training improve strength in older adults through distinct effects on agonist–antagonist coordination. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817866; article XML SHA-256 294425fc76f3c185bfc1997f6f64fbb3bd4f4e41eb850bfd23f36658fd75b4ef. “Motor imagery and resistance training improve strength in older adults through distinct effects on agonist–antagonist coordination” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817866).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817866) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- agoraphobia [redraft]: The definition omits the packet’s “Obsessive” qualifier, so the characterization is not fully supported by the supplied text.; The packet defines the fear as “Obsessive, persistent, intense” and specifically “from which escape might be difficult or embarrassing,” but the provided definition changes this by adding “overwhelming, recurring fear,” which is not stated in the packet.; The phrase "recurring fear" is not supported by the packet; the source describes agoraphobia as an obsessive, persistent, intense fear, but does not state that the fear is recurring. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Agoraphobia” (D000379).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000379) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- ahistorical [redraft]: The definition adds a general dictionary gloss about being 'not guided by historical context or period-specific conventions,' which is broader than what the packet supports directly.; The definition’s first sentence claims that “ahistorical describes an approach that is not guided by historical context or period-specific conventions,” but the packet does not define “ahistorical” in terms of being “not guided” by historical context or “period-specific conventions.”; The definition’s second sentence says it refers to “altering or departing from a musical score without relying on historically informed practice.” While the packet does mention “historically informed and ahistorical score deviation,” it does not explicitly support the phrasing “without relying on historically informed practice.”; The supplied source uses *ahistorical* in a music-education context about score deviation, not in the requested field of cognition, so the field is not defensible here. New packet required. Source: [Matei Raluca; Chiu Remi. Challenging score-centered norms in Western classical higher music education: an exploratory qualitative study of instructor-led initiatives in the UK and Europe. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768511; article XML SHA-256 357407b04e60b4510aef0b5b53f2741348e75aac43bd4f35cd5102b1dfd76065. “Challenging score-centered norms in Western classical higher music education: an exploratory qualitative study of instructor-led initiatives in the UK and Europe” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768511).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768511) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- air traffic control [redraft]: The definition’s phrase “In psychology and human-factors research, it is often discussed” is not directly supported by the packet; the packet provides evidence from specific studies rather than showing frequency (“often”) of discussion.; The phrase “often discussed” overgeneralizes beyond the single supplied article; the packet supports one study of task interruption and situation awareness in air traffic control, not a broader frequency claim.; “Heavy demands on attention” is only indirectly supported by the packet’s discussion of interruptions causing attention switching; the definition goes beyond what is explicitly established in the source. New packet required. Source: [Zhou Kun; Wang Chenglong; Xie Siqi; Zhou Yanan; Zhang Xuelong; Wang Yanqing; Tang Hui. Effect of task interruption on the situation awareness of air traffic controllers. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314183; article XML SHA-256 c0d1ad9536c6fc18bbbb2bc42e9ec52bb7199cc6a9aeff1a6076b81d715513b7. “Effect of task interruption on the situation awareness of air traffic controllers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314183).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314183) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- alarm call [redraft]: The definition adds a broad general characterization of alarm calls that is only partially supported by this chimpanzee-specific article, which discusses intentionality in chimpanzee alarm calls rather than defining the term in general.; The definition’s claim that an alarm call “alerts other group members” is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text; the packet describes alarm calls with criteria like being socially directed, involving visual monitoring of an audience, and stopping when recipients were safe, but does not explicitly state that the calls function to alert other group members as a general rule.; The packet specifies that “two of three alarm call types” meet the described criteria, but the definition presents the described properties as applying to “an alarm call” without that qualification.; The phrase “can be monitored against others’ reactions” is not supported by the packet; the source reports visual monitoring of the audience and gaze alternations, not comparison against others’ reactions.; The phrase “continue until others are safe from the predator” is broadly supported (calling only stopped when recipients were safe from the predator), but the definition also attributes a more general “monitored against others’ reactions” interpretation than is explicitly stated (the packet mentions visual monitoring and gaze alternations, not direct monitoring “against others’ reactions”). New packet required. Source: [Schel Anne Marijke; Townsend Simon W.; Machanda Zarin; Zuberbühler Klaus; Slocombe Katie E.. Chimpanzee Alarm Call Production Meets Key Criteria for Intentionality. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0076674; article XML SHA-256 f7675322d103b7d95acf63992a5c1a35a4b6e859b37cb6a60d0949e67963cd1e. “Chimpanzee Alarm Call Production Meets Key Criteria for Intentionality” (10.1371/journal.pone.0076674).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076674) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- alcohol rehabilitation [redraft]: Because the first sentence makes a broader definitional claim than the packet text explicitly supports, the overall definition contains unsupported generalization beyond the supplied source.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “alcohol rehabilitation” as “treatment-oriented care”; it only mentions “inpatients at an alcohol rehabilitation center” in a “treatment-seeking AUD sample” and refers to “recovering drinkers.”; The packet supports a rehabilitation center/inpatient setting for people with AUD, but it does not define alcohol rehabilitation as a general form of treatment-oriented care.; The wording “in the supplied source, it refers to …” adds an interpretive gloss that is not stated as such in the packet.; “Seeking recovery from problematic drinking” is broader than the source text, which only mentions treatment-seeking AUD inpatients and “recovering drinkers,” not a general recovery-oriented definition. New packet required. Source: [Lebiecka Zofia; Skoneczny Tomasz; Tyburski Ernest; Samochowiec Jerzy; Jędrzejewski Adam; Wirtz Janina; Kühn Simone; Nielsen Anette Søgard; Mellentin Angelina Isabella; Michelis Leonie Ascone; Kucharska-Mazur Jolanta. Personality-Related Factors and Depressive Symptomatology Predict Behavioral Control in Patients With Alcohol Use Disorders. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.866657; article XML SHA-256 626e97631ac76ee9aca293635500362db2f8cfde0b96c8f43645cbc4a0b7893a. “Personality-Related Factors and Depressive Symptomatology Predict Behavioral Control in Patients With Alcohol Use Disorders” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.866657).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.866657) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- alcoholic myopathy [redraft]: The definition characterizes the condition as affecting “voluntary muscles,” but the packet only describes “skeletal muscle” and does not support the “voluntary” framing.; The field specified is “mental health,” while the packet’s content (and the provided definition) concerns a physical disorder of skeletal muscle related to alcohol/ethanol use; nothing in the packet supports a mental-health field connection for this term.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source describes a skeletal muscle condition caused by chronic alcohol consumption, not a mental health concept. New packet required. Source: [Wen Wei; Guo Cheng; Chen Zhanglin; Yang Dong; Zhu Danting; Jing Quwen; Zheng Lan; Sun Chenchen; Tang Changfa. Regular exercise attenuates alcoholic myopathy in zebrafish by modulating mitochondrial homeostasis. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0294700; article XML SHA-256 e97482bf1dad0433c6793b5869eb3f72420a5838191bda85907b4f72c94a5269. “Regular exercise attenuates alcoholic myopathy in zebrafish by modulating mitochondrial homeostasis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0294700).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294700) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Aldomet [redraft]: The packet does not state that “Aldomet” is a brand name for methyldopa, so that part of the definition is unsupported by the provided source text.; The packet supports methyldopa’s antihypertensive action and its central metabolism to alpha-methylnorepinephrine, but it does not state that Aldomet is a brand name for methyldopa.; While the packet supports that methyldopa is metabolized in the central nervous system and that its antihypertensive action involves decreased sympathetic outflow (via conversion to alpha-methylnorepinephrine and stimulation of central alpha-2 adrenergic receptors), the overall definition is rejected because the brand-name claim is not supported. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Methyldopa” (C47616).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- alertness [redraft]: The only supported part of the definition is that, in this source, alertness was rated using the Stanford Sleepiness Scale; the other substantive claims are unsupported by the provided text.; The packet does not define alertness as a person’s current level of wakefulness, nor does it support that characterization directly.; The packet does not define alertness as “a person’s current level of wakefulness,” nor does it state that alertness is “often considered alongside sleepiness.”; The packet only states that the Stanford Sleepiness Scale was used to rate alertness; it does not support the extra claim that alertness was considered alongside sleepiness in this source. New packet required. Source: [Steinman Yuval; Groen Eric; Frings-Dresen Monique H. W.. Tactile breathing guidance increases oxygen saturation but not alertness or hypoxia symptoms. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302564; article XML SHA-256 418ea4e8deffae7794e888d464ea08e0376072d41a4dee56da38c2e489fc9e1a. “Tactile breathing guidance increases oxygen saturation but not alertness or hypoxia symptoms” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302564).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302564) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- algedonic aesthetics [redraft]: The definition’s phrase “aesthetic experience is considered in relation to feelings of pleasure and suffering” is not stated in the packet; the packet instead says “Aesthetics considered as a special branch…” and does not explicitly mention “aesthetic experience” or “feelings.”; The wording shifts from the packet’s historical definition of aesthetics as a branch of hedonics / the science of pleasure and pain to a broader claim about aesthetic experience that is not explicitly stated in the source.; While the packet supports “pleasure and pain” and “especially hedonics,” it does not support the specific framing of “pleasure and suffering” as “feelings” tied to aesthetic experience.; “Suffering” is not supported by the source packet, which refers to pleasure and pain, not suffering. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Algedonic Aesthetics” (Algedonic Aesthetics).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A2defs.htm#Algedonic Aesthetics) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- alien abduction [redraft]: The packet does not provide any diagnostic meaning or criteria for “alien abduction,” so the requested field of “diagnosis” is not defensibly supported.; The packet does not support the description that “alien abduction” involves being taken by aliens; it only mentions “alien abduction” as an example of an extraordinary human experience.; The packet only says alien abduction is an extraordinary human experience and a speculative example in discussions of altered states; it does not define it as being taken by aliens.; The packet supports that “alien abduction” is discussed as “speculative” in relation to altered states/consciousness, but the provided definition adds wording about being “speculative phenomenon in discussions of altered or unusual states of consciousness” beyond what is clearly stated.; The requested field, diagnosis, is not defensible from the packet for this term, which is treated as a speculative experience rather than a diagnostic concept. New packet required. Source: [Michael Pascal; Luke David; Robinson Oliver. An encounter with the self: A thematic and content analysis of the DMT experience from a naturalistic field study. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1083356; article XML SHA-256 dd68ee63e1837f6a05f6976ff78576fb151376dc01512c8e015ca7a1691c6cf2. “An encounter with the self: A thematic and content analysis of the DMT experience from a naturalistic field study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1083356).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1083356) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- allele [redraft]: The definition suggests a direct concept-level linkage (“whether they are linked to differences in transcripts or proteins”), but the packet text frames this as analysis evidence and prioritization/candidate evaluation rather than stating that allele-tracking fundamentally includes such linkage.; The definition’s second sentence claims alleles are compared by commonness in populations and by whether they are linked to differences in transcripts or proteins; while the packet discusses population-differentiated PTGS variation and transcript consequence/protein context analyses, it does not state this as a general characterization of how “alleles” are compared in the packet (it reports specific study methods and candidates rather than defining the term.); The definition’s second sentence is a contextual claim about what this packet does; while broadly supported, it is too packet-specific for a general dictionary definition of the term.; The field is not defensible from the packet: the source is about population genetics and protein/coding variation, not cognition.; The packet does not explicitly define what an “allele” is (e.g., as a genetic variant at a specific DNA location). New packet required. Source: [Maghembe Reuben S. Comparative evolutionary pharmacogenomics of human prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase paralogs identifies population-structured coding variation and protein-contextual candidates in N-terminal leader-sequence and catalytic-channel regions. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358222; article XML SHA-256 a36468eb38b10b4e3276e05132441c777d37541aa32ad524a90d5dc2b8050595. “Comparative evolutionary pharmacogenomics of human prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase paralogs identifies population-structured coding variation and protein-contextual candidates in N-terminal leader-sequence and catalytic-channel regions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358222).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358222) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- allophone [redraft]: Psychology sense is a phoneme variant; definition gives the different-language-speaker sense instead. New packet required. Source: [Jaiteh Maïmouna; Cormi Clément; Hannetel Louise; Mir Jean-Paul; Leaune Edouard; Sanchez Stéphane. Perception of the use of a telephone interpreting service during primary care consultations: A qualitative study with allophone migrants. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0264832; article XML SHA-256 1a764ac76338cb423e14ec0bf1e9b662b669f08bd09452cd48d26035b9ae3fc7. “Perception of the use of a telephone interpreting service during primary care consultations: A qualitative study with allophone migrants” (10.1371/journal.pone.0264832).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264832) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- alpha-mannosidosis [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly support the claim that alpha-mannosidosis is “rare.” It only describes it as “an inborn error of metabolism.”; The packet specifies “lysosomal accumulation of mannose-rich intermediate metabolites,” while the definition says “buildup of mannose-rich substances in cells,” which broadens the location beyond “lysosomal.”; The packet supports that patients have “psychomotor retardation,” but it does not specifically justify framing this as “notable because affected people are described as having psychomotor retardation” in a “psychological or cognitive context.”; The phrase “in psychological or cognitive context” is not needed to define the term itself and is not supported as a distinct sense in the packet.; “Rare” is not supported by the supplied packet. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “alpha-Mannosidosis” (D008363).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008363) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- ALT [redraft]: The acronym expansion “ALT = autonomous learning technology use” is suggested by the parenthetical in the packet, but the additional meaning claimed in the definition (“a learner’s use… that supports self-directed or independent learning”) is not supported by the provided packet text.; The definition’s explanatory gloss about technology supporting self-directed or independent learning is not supported by the packet.; The packet does not expand ALT as “autonomous learning technology use”; it only uses ALT as an acronym in the phrase “autonomous learning technology use” is not provided.; The packet only states that the study examined “autonomous learning technology use (ALT)” as a construct, but it does not define what ALT means (e.g., it does not describe it as a learner’s technology use supporting self-directed/independent learning).; The response should not present an invented expansion or sense for ALT when the source packet does not define it. New packet required. Source: [Cheng Yan; Liu Haibo. Computer self-efficacy and perceived knowledge application in generative AI-supported learning: a cross-sectional parallel mediation analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1927402; article XML SHA-256 9637855043ce687c958a9578ab1e960f5fdab97f9dae328821faa8587a5988b6. “Computer self-efficacy and perceived knowledge application in generative AI-supported learning: a cross-sectional parallel mediation analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1927402).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1927402) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- alternate-uses test [redraft]: Because the packet lacks support for the definition’s description of the task content, the claim that it measures “how well a person can generate different possible uses for something” is not supported.; The packet only states that divergent creative thinking was measured by the “Alternate Uses Test”; it does not define what the test specifically requires (e.g., “generate different possible uses for something”).; The packet supports that the Alternate Uses Test measures divergent creative thinking, but it does not state that the task asks people to generate different possible uses for an object.; The phrase “one aspect of creative thinking” is broader than the packet’s wording and is not directly supported as stated. New packet required. Source: [Drake Aaron C; Hasan Fiza; Gibson Arianna; Kam Julia W Y. The effect of nature on creativity through mental imagery. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315141; article XML SHA-256 e9631d5f4505769da9450352fe73c7fcd8729a6206a8750766d88e108df3df25. “The effect of nature on creativity through mental imagery” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315141).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315141) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- alternating perspective [redraft]: The claim that effects under alternating perspective were “comparable to strong first-person experiences” is not explicitly supported by the packet. The packet says subjective body ownership and reaction to threat were “generally stronger for first person perspective and alternating condition than for third person perspective,” but does not state comparability between alternating and first-person effects.; The definition’s phrasing “associated with a strong sense of owning the virtual body” is partly supported (the packet discusses “sense of embodying a virtual body” and illusory ownership), but the packet does not directly support the exact “owning … comparable to …” effect comparison language used in the definition.; The packet supports alternating between first- and third-person perspective at will in VR, but it does not support the added claim that the effects were “comparable to strong first-person experiences.”; “Strong first-person experiences” is not a stated comparison in the source; the source only says ownership and threat reactions were generally stronger for first-person perspective and alternating condition than for third-person perspective. New packet required. Source: [Galvan Debarba Henrique; Bovet Sidney; Salomon Roy; Blanke Olaf; Herbelin Bruno; Boulic Ronan. Characterizing first and third person viewpoints and their alternation for embodied interaction in virtual reality. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0190109; article XML SHA-256 087cdc108975788ae222714d8467affcb626840b98ad0c12df5f7f4be3270746. “Characterizing first and third person viewpoints and their alternation for embodied interaction in virtual reality” (10.1371/journal.pone.0190109).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190109) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Alzheimer’s Association [redraft]: The packet states the study measured “efficacy” of follow-up Helpline consultations after an initial call, and reports that one call benefited 80% of callers, but it does not explicitly claim that the Helpline/resources “reduce caregiver stress and burden.”; The packet supports that the Alzheimer’s Association has a Helpline and offers follow-up care consultations after an initial call, but it does not explicitly support the broader claim that the organization provides general support resources in this context.; The statement that these consultations are offered to help reduce caregiver stress and burden goes beyond the packet’s wording; the packet says caregivers experience high stress and burden and that the study evaluated efficacy, but it does not directly state this outcome as a supported description of the organization’s service. New packet required. Source: [Hodgson Nancy A; Talwar Sonia; Aryal Subhash; Finegan Kerry; Fazio Sam. Beyond single support calls: Efficacy of follow-up callbacks for dementia caregivers using the Alzheimer’s association helpline. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333535; article XML SHA-256 29f5c866ad32b981bb495fe8d94aefb0427d5924efc0810e3132e8631e9c0dad. “Beyond single support calls: Efficacy of follow-up callbacks for dementia caregivers using the Alzheimer’s association helpline” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333535).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333535) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Ambien [redraft]: The definition states that “Ambien is a brand name for zolpidem tartrate,” but the provided packet text does not mention “Ambien” or any brand-name mapping to zolpidem tartrate.; The packet supports zolpidem tartrate as a sedative-hypnotic substance, but it does not state that Ambien is a brand name for zolpidem tartrate.; The receptor mechanism is more specific in the packet than in the definition; it identifies selective binding to the alpha-1 subunit of the omega-1 (BZ1) receptor of the GABA-A complex, not the broader wording used here. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Zolpidem Tartrate” (C29553).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ambiguity tolerance [redraft]: "Capacity to deal with ambiguity in career decision-making" is an inference from the scale title and study context, not a direct definition supplied by the packet.; The claim that the source supports it as a “measurable psychological construct” is only indirectly supported via construct validity statements about the scale items; the packet does not clearly state the broader definition of the term in those words.; The definition refers generally to a “Career Decision Ambiguity Tolerance Scale,” while the packet specifically validates a “career decision ambiguity tolerance scale-Korean form” (and excludes item 4), so the scope is not matched precisely.; The packet does not explicitly define “ambiguity tolerance” as a person’s “capacity to deal with ambiguity” in career decision-making; it only discusses validating a “career decision ambiguity tolerance scale” and the psychometric validity of its items.; The packet supports the career-decision-specific construct and scale, not a general definition of "ambiguity tolerance" as such.; The statement that the source supports it as a measurable psychological construct used in research on career choices is broadly supported, but the definition overstates the packet’s scope by presenting the construct as a general term rather than the specific career decision ambiguity tolerance scale. New packet required. Source: [Park In-Jo; Hai Shenyang; Lee Seungmi; Sohn Youngwoo. Investigating Psychometrics of Career Decision Ambiguity Tolerance Scale. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02067; article XML SHA-256 2f37fbb9d80e45b4dee8b66e5b7b97b6b731b4e0589f68789c7e24d90c9b5d29. “Investigating Psychometrics of Career Decision Ambiguity Tolerance Scale” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02067).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02067) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ambiguity [redraft]: Adds ‘verbal error,’ which is not stated in the source; the packet only supports ‘a source of verbal fallacy.’; Aside from that addition, the remaining claims (historical multiple senses and context-dependent meaning) are consistent with the packet.; The packet definition states “A source of verbal fallacy,” but the provided definition adds “verbal error” (not supported by the packet). New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ambiguity” (Ambiguity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Ambiguity) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- ambivalence [redraft]: The definition should stay tightly within the source’s suicide-context sense, but the opening broadens the term beyond what is supported by the packet.; The definition’s first sentence (“uncertainty… competing pulls or reasons in different directions”) is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text, which does not describe ambivalence in those terms.; The first sentence gives a general dictionary-style definition of ambivalence as “a state of uncertainty” with “competing pulls or reasons in different directions,” but the packet does not explicitly define ambivalence that way; it only discusses ambivalence in the suicidality model.; While the packet supports that ambivalence can be “pushed aside” in a brief “transition” period characterized by imminent suicide risk and later “reinstated” depending on situational cues (and when means are not readily available), it does not support the definition’s general, non-suicide-specific framing as a cognition state of competing directional pulls. New packet required. Source: [Qaderi-Bagajan Kaveh; Asgari Zahra; Khanpayeh Matin; Freund Johanna; Teismann Tobias; Hensel Lena Marie. Exploring the ambivalence model of suicidality among Iranian patients: a qualitative study with suicide attempters. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1852185; article XML SHA-256 e888c4915ac75883e8bca391eac2e3b35b61bd8a9bcbd3d091c5d4a64615e79e. “Exploring the ambivalence model of suicidality among Iranian patients: a qualitative study with suicide attempters” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1852185).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1852185) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- American College of Sports Medicine [redraft]: The definition claims the American College of Sports Medicine “is a professional organization,” but the packet only refers to “Guidelines of American College of Sports Medicine” and does not support the “professional organization” description.; The definition stays close to the source, but the term is not defined in the packet beyond the guideline citation, so the organizational identity claim is an unsupported generalization.; The packet supports only that the article used the American College of Sports Medicine guidelines to design moderate- and high-intensity aerobic exercise; it does not support the added characterization that the American College of Sports Medicine is a professional organization.; The requested field is “diagnosis,” but the packet content concerns designing exercise programs and treatment effectiveness for substance use disorders rather than diagnosing or defining a diagnostic concept. New packet required. Source: [Wang Dongshi; Wang Yanqiu; Wang Yingying; Li Rena; Zhou Chenglin. Impact of Physical Exercise on Substance Use Disorders: A Meta-Analysis. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0110728; article XML SHA-256 46e2d98849835b9778238abb74c13391c5502b4f38f76c862d72b06b8efa6739. “Impact of Physical Exercise on Substance Use Disorders: A Meta-Analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0110728).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0110728) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- AMPA [redraft]: Abbreviation never expanded or identified as a glutamate receptor; hedged to this packet and misframes AMPA as contrasted with glutamatergic NMDA. New packet required. Source: [Cheung Ngo. DXM, CYP2D6-inhibiting antidepressants, piracetam, and glutamine: proposing a ketamine-class antidepressant regimen with existing drugs. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1751605; article XML SHA-256 fabef3beb476028f98cac3ed62d095825f2a79034844d6e7592398c442de17aa. “DXM, CYP2D6-inhibiting antidepressants, piracetam, and glutamine: proposing a ketamine-class antidepressant regimen with existing drugs” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1751605).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1751605) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- amplitude spectrum [redraft]: The claim that “changes in the amplitude spectrum away from the regular pattern typical of natural scenes were linked to greater visual unpleasantness or discomfort” is supported in the packet, but the definition also contains an unsupported general characterization (energy/contrast at spatial frequencies or orientations).; The packet does not provide a direct definition of “amplitude spectrum” as an image property describing “how much energy or contrast” at “spatial frequencies or orientations”; it only discusses that the amplitude spectrum (and related spatial-frequency/orientation spectra) can deviate from natural-scene regularities and affect unpleasantness ratings.; The packet supports amplitude spectrum as a spatial-frequency property, but not the claim that it describes energy or contrast at different orientations; orientation is treated separately in the source as an orientation spectrum.; The second sentence is supported in broad terms, but the definition overgeneralizes the first sentence beyond the packet’s wording and scope. New packet required. Source: [Ogawa Narumi; Motoyoshi Isamu. Differential Effects of Orientation and Spatial-Frequency Spectra on Visual Unpleasantness. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01342; article XML SHA-256 5f022ea6bff00ac368fed8d6e08af7e484cb5475ebc9fe637d45c0b14ba3386a. “Differential Effects of Orientation and Spatial-Frequency Spectra on Visual Unpleasantness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01342).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01342) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- amplitude [redraft]: The claim that amplitude is measured across brain voxels with fMRI is broader than the source supports; the source mentions voxel-wise analyses in resting-state fMRI but does not provide a definition of the measure itself.; The packet does not define amplitude as the magnitude or strength of resting-state neural signal activity; it only says resting-state fMRI studies reported voxel-wise alterations in measures of neural amplitude and synchronization.; The packet does not support that amplitude is measured “across brain voxels with fMRI” or that it is “one of the voxel-wise measures for detecting altered brain function.”; The packet provides a general statement that studies report “voxel-wise alterations in measures of neural amplitude,” but it does not substantiate the specific meaning and usage described in the definition.; The packet text does not define “amplitude” as a magnitude/strength measure of resting-state neural signal activity.; The statement that amplitude is used to detect altered brain function is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet’s wording about identifying convergent amplitude and synchronization dysfunction in postpartum depression. New packet required. Source: [Qiu Jingjing; Wang Hongjin; Zhao Yu; Lin Shen; Chen Shangjie. Postpartum depression-associated localized neural dysfunction: a voxel-wise meta-analysis of amplitude and synchronization alterations in resting-state fMRI. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1660550; article XML SHA-256 b8794ad05f1e49e8fcb56da94358b23fda0acd3c05cf24a63945271cc0e01566. “Postpartum depression-associated localized neural dysfunction: a voxel-wise meta-analysis of amplitude and synchronization alterations in resting-state fMRI” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1660550).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1660550) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- anabolic-androgenic steroid [redraft]: Never says what an AAS is; defines it only by dependence, and the claim about how the term often appears is unsupported meta-commentary. New packet required. Source: [Zoob Carter Barnaby N.; Boardley Ian D.. Development and validation of dependence and craving measures specific to athletes who use anabolic-androgenic steroids. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1347211; article XML SHA-256 9fd02f4c6d2ba1cc0eb9dd43b8fb99a393e0496dcf0660d04c7d30177f0ea19f. “Development and validation of dependence and craving measures specific to athletes who use anabolic-androgenic steroids” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1347211).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1347211) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- analgesia [redraft]: The definition should not present the packet as defining analgesia generally; the source is specifically about music-induced analgesia in fibromyalgia patients.; The definition’s claim that this refers specifically to pain regulation produced by music is only partially supported (the packet mentions “pain regulation through music” and “music-induced analgesia”), but the additional general definition of analgesia is unsupported by the provided packet text.; The packet does not define “analgesia” as a general state where pain is reduced or relieved; it only discusses “music-induced analgesia (MIA)” in the context of pain regulation.; The packet supports music-induced analgesia and pain regulation through music, but it does not support the broader general definition that analgesia is simply a state in which pain is reduced or relieved. New packet required. Source: [Hou Jiancheng; Liu Ying; Hosseini Thomas; Zheng Maoping; Liu Xiaolin; Sun Changan. Spatial and temporal connectivity of brain resting-state fMRI during music-induced analgesia in fibromyalgia patients. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1622082; article XML SHA-256 bf758bda3dd8efc68cbe399dfacdb39378c23b5a48724cde12ee06d1e3cae3c1. “Spatial and temporal connectivity of brain resting-state fMRI during music-induced analgesia in fibromyalgia patients” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1622082).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1622082) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- analog computer [redraft]: Hedged context redefines a well-known term as a metaphor for cognition rather than defining analog computer in its normal sense. New packet required. Source: [Byrne Aidan J.. Analog Resonance Computation: A New Model for Human Cognition. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02080; article XML SHA-256 d5265b1aacd13c42c94eeef6219b92c8ad020be1c808b62d95d917715a469b8f. “Analog Resonance Computation: A New Model for Human Cognition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02080).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02080) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- analogue [redraft]: "Usually refers to" is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet, which only describes VAS as a tool consisting of a continuous line anchored by opposite descriptors.; The definition is slightly overbroad in generalizing from stress to "perceived states"; the packet specifically mentions perceived experience and general stress levels, not a broader category of states.; The packet supports a visual analogue scale (VAS), but it does not support the standalone term "analogue" as the defined entry or show that this is the usual meaning of "analogue" in assessment.; The packet supports that a visual analogue scale (VAS) uses a continuous line (typically 100 mm) with two opposite descriptors for indicating intensity, but it does not support the claim that, in general, “analogue usually refers to” this kind of visual analogue scale. New packet required. Source: [Clinchamps Maëlys; Pereira Bruno; Mermillod Martial; Charkhabi Morteza; Zak Marek; Jiao Jiao; Cole Alistair; Bouillon-Minois Jean-Baptiste; Dutheil Frédéric. Validation of visual analogue scales to assess occupational stress compared to the Karasek questionnaire: A cross sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340209; article XML SHA-256 1167c96970e2b040b8831d13265c3d64e09ce6b7dc2987806db532aba5d3ba5a. “Validation of visual analogue scales to assess occupational stress compared to the Karasek questionnaire: A cross sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340209).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340209) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- anaplastic astrocytoma [redraft]: The definition conflates the disease term with an experimental cell line/assay context, which is not a supported sense of "anaplastic astrocytoma" in the packet.; The packet states that “Gliomas are highly malignant brain tumours,” but it does not explicitly support the specific claim that *anaplastic astrocytoma* (as a term) is “a malignant brain tumour in the glioma group.”; The packet supports that gliomas are malignant brain tumours, but it does not define anaplastic astrocytoma itself as a cell population studied for growth, migration, and treatment response; that is a study context about the SMA-560 cell line, not the term’s meaning.; The second sentence is supported: the packet describes experiments on the anaplastic astrocytoma cell line SMA-560 assessing proliferation/growth, migration, and effects of the hERG agonist NS1643 (and combination with temozolomide). New packet required. Source: [Benn Kieran W.; Yuan Patrick H.; Chong Harvey K.; Stylii Stanley S.; Luwor Rodney B.; French Christopher R.. hERG channel agonist NS1643 strongly inhibits invasive astrocytoma cell line SMA-560. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0309438; article XML SHA-256 4ec4d82b7a373f045f813f26b2f8ec6e825adc4e72131c30af671490a1098fc9. “hERG channel agonist NS1643 strongly inhibits invasive astrocytoma cell line SMA-560” (10.1371/journal.pone.0309438).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309438) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ancillary [redraft]: Hedged context narrows the general word ancillary to piano body movements; not defined in its normal sense. New packet required. Source: [Sun Yue; Wang Yilin. Ancillary body movements in piano performance: a critical narrative review of structural coupling, audience cues, and cognitive-scaffolding claims. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838025; article XML SHA-256 06ec660b8db0758ed327e47304ad7a99233caf38304eeca7d34aefdb02371be7. “Ancillary body movements in piano performance: a critical narrative review of structural coupling, audience cues, and cognitive-scaffolding claims” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838025).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838025) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Anectine [redraft]: The mechanism is supported, but the definition adds a brand-name statement that is not established by the packet text.; The packet does not state that “Anectine” is a brand name for succinylcholine chloride; it only describes succinylcholine chloride itself.; The packet supports succinylcholine chloride and its short-term muscle relaxant, depolarizing action, but it does not support the claim that Anectine is a brand name. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Succinylcholine Chloride” (C47730).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- animal psychology [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define the term as “the psychology of animals”; it only gives multilingual equivalents and cross-references.; The packet text does not explicitly state that “animal psychology” is a label for “the psychology of animals”; it only provides cross-references (“See COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY, and PSYCHOLOGY”) and translations.; The phrase “treated as a topic linked to comparative psychology and to psychology more generally” goes beyond the source’s minimal cross-reference format and adds an interpretive relationship not stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Animal Psychology” (Animal Psychology).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Animal Psychology) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- annual cycle [redraft]: Because the source is a historical index entry, the wording should not present a fuller clinical meaning as if supported by the text.; The definition’s claims (“a pattern in which a mental disorder runs through its course on a yearly rhythm,” and “especially in relation to folie circulaire”) are more specific than what the packet excerpt explicitly supports.; The packet only gives a brief index-style reference, “folie circulaire, with an annual cycle,” and does not define “annual cycle” as a general pattern of mental disorder.; The phrase “a mental disorder runs through its course on a yearly rhythm” is an interpretive expansion not stated in the source packet.; The provided packet excerpt does not define “annual cycle” as a yearly-rhythm pattern of a mental disorder’s course; it only shows an index entry: “Casimir, folie circulaire. with an annual cycle, 223.” New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3958500-3970500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- anogenital [redraft]: Narrows anogenital to the genital area and pads the meaning with patient embarrassment findings; hedged to context. New packet required. Source: [da Silva Neuza; Augustin Matthias; Langenbruch Anna; Mrowietz Ulrich; Reich Kristian; Thaçi Diamant; Boehncke Wolf-Henning; Kirsten Natalia; Danckworth Alexandra; Sommer Rachel. Sex-related impairment and patient needs/benefits in anogenital psoriasis: Difficult-to-communicate topics and their impact on patient-centred care. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0235091; article XML SHA-256 155921ae470f88149b7083421b9342e5c0f96a41cdc1df627565b9fcb56eeb11. “Sex-related impairment and patient needs/benefits in anogenital psoriasis: Difficult-to-communicate topics and their impact on patient-centred care” (10.1371/journal.pone.0235091).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235091) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- anorthopia [redraft]: Because these two substantive interpretations are not directly supported by the provided text, the definition is not fully defensible against the packet.; The packet does not explicitly state that anorthopia is a “defect in how the eyes are aligned when looking,” only that it is an “Obliquity of vision” (with a reference to “VISION (defects of)”).; The packet supports “Obliquity of vision” and “squinting,” but does not explicitly define “misdirected vision.”; The phrase “misdirected vision” is an unsupported paraphrase; the packet only gives “obliquity of vision” and “squinting.”; “A defect in how the eyes are aligned when looking” goes beyond the packet and adds an anatomical explanation not stated in the source. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anorthopia” (Anorthopia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anorthopia) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- anosognosia [redraft]: The added phrase “while not recognizing or reporting them” is not supported by the packet; the packet only says anosognosia is a lack of awareness or denial of a cognitive deficit.; The definition narrows the sense to mild cognitive impairment, but the packet presents that as an example/context rather than the full definition of the term.; The definition’s second sentence adds that the person has “cognitive deficits while not recognizing or reporting them,” but the packet only states that in MCI, anosognosia is “lack of awareness or denial of a cognitive deficit” and discusses subjective cognitive complaints; it does not explicitly support the specific phrasing “not recognizing or reporting them.” New packet required. Source: [Galvin James E.; Almonte Katherine C.; Buehler Andrea; Caicedo Yolene M.; Galvin Conor B.; Jimenez Willman; Joshi Mahesh S.; Mendez Nicole; Riccio Mary Lou A.; Walker Marcia I.; Kleiman Michael J.. The Healthy Brain 9 (HB9): A new instrument to characterize subjective cognitive decline, and detect anosognosia in mild cognitive impairment. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322351; article XML SHA-256 604ad7f1b8173a53ae4499c830288fe001d091725c83b15632ac15dec69b3aa8. “The Healthy Brain 9 (HB9): A new instrument to characterize subjective cognitive decline, and detect anosognosia in mild cognitive impairment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322351).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322351) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- antagonist [redraft]: The added claim that agonist–antagonist coordination affects strength and control of movement is broader than the packet’s support; the packet only says the study evaluates effects on maximal force production and neuromuscular activation patterns in older adults.; The claim that the term “is often used” to describe effects of agonist–antagonist coordination on strength and control is not supported by any explicit definitional or explanatory statement in the provided packet.; The packet does not provide a definition of “antagonist” as a muscle/muscle group acting in opposition to an agonist; it only mentions the phrase “agonist–antagonist coordination.”; The packet only mentions “agonist–antagonist coordination” and does not define an antagonist as a muscle or muscle group acting in opposition to the main muscle producing an action. New packet required. Source: [Yao Wan X.; Mamone Bernadett; Wu Yuntao; Jiang Bo Y.; Zhang John Q.; Guan Jianmin; Yue Guang H.. Motor imagery and resistance training improve strength in older adults through distinct effects on agonist–antagonist coordination. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817866; article XML SHA-256 294425fc76f3c185bfc1997f6f64fbb3bd4f4e41eb850bfd23f36658fd75b4ef. “Motor imagery and resistance training improve strength in older adults through distinct effects on agonist–antagonist coordination” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817866).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817866) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ante- [redraft]: Packet only contains termini ante quos with no gloss; the meaning before is added from outside the packet. New packet required. Source: [He Xiaoli; Fu Changqing; Niu Jiaming; Wangdue Shargan; Cao Zhijian; Zhang Jianlin. Dating the key structures of the Guge ancient city through integrated 14 C and literary research. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353853; article XML SHA-256 6da4768e946762cf112ac5bf5ecc4c612c76f676342aad701936f99a2379621e. “Dating the key structures of the Guge ancient city through integrated 14 C and literary research” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353853).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353853) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- anterior horn [redraft]: The definition’s first claim (“front region of the spinal cord where α-motoneurons are located”) is not supported by the provided packet text.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that α-motoneurons are located in the anterior horn; it only mentions α-motoneurons as a neuron class identified in spinal cord tissue.; The packet supports that motoneuron loss in the spinal anterior horn is severe in ALS/MND, but it does not support defining the anterior horn as the front region of the spinal cord.; The supplied packet does not explicitly define what the “anterior horn” anatomically refers to beyond using the phrase in the context of ALS/MND severity at death.; While the packet does state that “Motoneuron loss in the spinal anterior horn is severe in ALS/MND,” the definition adds a broader anatomical description (“front region”) that is not present in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Pamphlett Roger; Kum Jew Stephen. Age-Related Uptake of Heavy Metals in Human Spinal Interneurons. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0162260; article XML SHA-256 0328ee860bf63f035c79b18b7f377d03bdf59e112d9b4d1181a479464256954a. “Age-Related Uptake of Heavy Metals in Human Spinal Interneurons” (10.1371/journal.pone.0162260).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162260) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- anterior root [redraft]: Although the packet does support that “efferent anterior root fibers can be co-activated” during transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation and that this involves posterior sensory (afferent) root fibers under some circumstances, that support does not validate the unsupported anatomical wording in the first part of the definition.; The definition claims the anterior root “contains efferent motor fibers carrying signals outward from the spinal cord to muscles,” but the provided packet text does not explicitly support this anatomical description of anterior root contents or direction to muscles.; The packet supports that anterior root fibers are efferent motor fibers and that they can be co-activated during transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation, but it does not support the anatomical gloss ‘the front spinal nerve root.’; The second sentence generalizes from a specific study context to a broad definitional claim; the packet only reports an observation under certain circumstances, not a general property of the term.; ‘carrying signals outward from the spinal cord to muscles’ is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source text. New packet required. Source: [Danner Simon M; Krenn Matthias; Hofstoetter Ursula S; Toth Andrea; Mayr Winfried; Minassian Karen. Body Position Influences Which Neural Structures Are Recruited by Lumbar Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0147479; article XML SHA-256 437f3d19a564e31280b4dd4ca750632c21a4cd1440aa47fe726fb0e51c1ade8e. “Body Position Influences Which Neural Structures Are Recruited by Lumbar Transcutaneous Spinal Cord Stimulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0147479).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147479) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- anterograde memory [redraft]: The claim about using newer experience to update self-knowledge, and the contrast with older established information guiding self-judgment when impaired, is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source.; The definition presents a generalized cognitive definition, but the source is a disease-specific discussion and does not support the broader clinical wording used here.; The packet does not define anterograde memory as the general ability to take in and retain new information; it only mentions anterograde memory deficits about performance in the context of Alzheimer’s disease.; The packet does not mention “self-judgment” specifically; it discusses reliance on older consolidated information about ability, but the definition’s phrasing that this guides “self-judgment instead of newer experience” is not directly supported by the provided text.; The packet only states that memory disorder may prevent people with Alzheimer’s disease from “updat[ing] their personal information about performance” and that they may rely on “older consolidated material about ability”; it does not explicitly define anterograde memory as “the ability to take in and retain new information.” New packet required. Source: [Lenzoni Sabrina; Morris Robin G.; Mograbi Daniel C.. The Petrified Self 10 Years After: Current Evidence for Mnemonic anosognosia. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00465; article XML SHA-256 2f30ce3887a285fcdb3efebf75d3e4fbd3ce6c96b73231cd3ab0b0eb098237d4. “The Petrified Self 10 Years After: Current Evidence for Mnemonic anosognosia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00465).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00465) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- anterograde [redraft]: The definition narrows the term to the study’s analysis of drug effects, which is not established as the term’s meaning; the packet only shows anterograde as a direction of mitochondrial movement contrasted with retrograde movement.; The definition’s content is about mitochondrial transport directions in neurons (cell/molecular neuroscience), not learning; therefore the assigned field “learning” is not defensible based on the packet.; The packet uses anterograde in a biological/neuronal transport sense (mitochondrial motility), not the requested learning/psychology sense. New packet required. Source: [Dubey Priya; Datta Roshni; Eckenhoff Roderic G; Bedell Victoria M. In vivo changes in zebrafish anesthetic sensitivity in response to the loss of kif5Aa are associated with the alteration of mitochondrial motility. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316959; article XML SHA-256 1221642521b130f9f9017fe97492b42902b1414eb7013694048f1a2e3664b18a. “In vivo changes in zebrafish anesthetic sensitivity in response to the loss of kif5Aa are associated with the alteration of mitochondrial motility” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316959).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316959) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- anti- [redraft]: No evidence in the packet supports treating this entry as the term "anti-".; Several claims in the definition about aconitine (anti-inflammatory/anti-neuralgic effects; inducing arrhythmias; sodium channel activation) may align with the packet, but they do not address the requested term “anti-”, so the definition is not defensible as a definition of that term.; The definition does not match the requested term "anti-"; the packet is about aconitine, not the prefix anti-.; The definition is not a definition of the term as requested; it gives a substance description instead of the prefix sense.; The packet content describes aconitine’s properties (e.g., sodium channel activation, anti-inflammatory/neuralgic properties, inducing arrhythmias in experimental animals), which are not supported as the meaning of “anti-”.; The term to define is “anti-”, but the provided definition is about aconitine (a specific alkaloid), not a prefix meaning or sense for “anti-”. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aconitine” (D000157).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000157) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- antiepileptic [redraft]: Because the first sentence’s substantive general definition is unsupported by the packet, the overall definition cannot be accepted as fully supported.; The field is not defensible here: the source is a pharmacology/epilepsy study, not an ethics source, so the requested sense is mismatched to the packet.; The packet does not support the general claim that “An antiepileptic is a drug used to help control seizures in people with epilepsy.” It only describes lacosamide as an antiepileptic drug and discusses its use/indications.; The packet supports lacosamide as a third-generation antiepileptic drug used in epilepsy care, but it does not explicitly define the general term “antiepileptic” as a drug used to control seizures in people with epilepsy. New packet required. Source: [Du Zhaosong; Peng Hui; Wang Jun; Liu Maochang; Nie Gang; Li Ying. Influence of age and antiepileptic comedication on lacosamide concentrations in children with epilepsy: A retrospective cohort study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333030; article XML SHA-256 d071df070ebadaebb773e66680bb09ecda509fe707c718802d8b89d65f19aaea. “Influence of age and antiepileptic comedication on lacosamide concentrations in children with epilepsy: A retrospective cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333030).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333030) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- antigen [redraft]: Because the field justification is not supported by the packet, the definition is not defensible within the requested field.; The definition is otherwise broadly supported by the packet, but the field mismatch is enough to reject it under the requested scope.; The packet describes an immunological concept (stimulates immune system; T- and B-lymphocyte responses), but it provides no support for treating “antigen” as a term in the psychology/counselling field labeled “cognition.”; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: this is an immunology/biomedical term, not a cognition psychology/counselling sense. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Antigen” (C268).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- anxiety disorder [redraft]: Adds persistent, a substantive qualifier the record does not contain; otherwise supported. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Anxiety Disorder” (C2878).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- anxiety hierarchy [redraft]: The claim that it is used in exposure-based therapy to introduce, repeat, or prolong feared situations in a graded way goes beyond the packet; the source only says situations can be selectively designed and purposefully repeated or prolonged to fit the patient’s hierarchy.; The definition adds general therapy guidance that is not explicitly supported by the supplied text.; The definition’s phrasing that the hierarchy is an “ordered set of feared situations or cues” is not explicitly stated in the packet text provided; the packet only mentions exposure scenarios tailored to an anxiety hierarchy.; The packet supports that exposure scenarios can be tailored to a patient’s anxiety hierarchy, but it does not define an anxiety hierarchy as an ordered set of feared situations or as arranged from less distressing to more distressing.; The packet supports that exposure scenarios were “individually tailored to the patients’ anxiety hierarchy” and that VRET has high situational/therapeutic control so scenarios can be “selectively designed and purposefully repeated or prolonged” to fit patients’ anxiety hierarchy, but it does not define an anxiety hierarchy as an “ordered set” or specify ordering “from less distressing to more distressing.” New packet required. Source: [Kaussner Y; Kuraszkiewicz A M; Schoch S; Markel Petra; Hoffmann S; Baur-Streubel R; Kenntner-Mabiala R; Pauli P. Treating patients with driving phobia by virtual reality exposure therapy – a pilot study. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0226937; article XML SHA-256 76b5cf8c586bbf96b97a289c9413c0455ecbab22cbe8f1ffbd7e2cd0e95306a5. “Treating patients with driving phobia by virtual reality exposure therapy – a pilot study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0226937).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226937) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- anxiety state [redraft]: Because the definition adds time-specific and severity-specific meaning that is not explicitly present in the provided packet, the requested sense of the term is not defensibly supported.; The added gloss about anxiety experienced by people with anxiety disorders and whether it becomes less severe goes beyond the packet’s wording and is an unsupported generalization from a single study context.; The packet does not define “anxiety state” as a person’s current level or condition of anxiety at a given time; it only says VR therapy may improve the anxiety state of patients with anxiety disorders.; The packet does not support defining “anxiety state” as a person’s “current level or condition of anxiety at a given time.” It only mentions improving the anxiety state in patients.; The packet supports that VR therapy has a “positive effect on improving the anxiety state of patients with anxiety disorders,” but it does not explicitly define “in this packet” as addressing whether anxiety becomes “less severe.” New packet required. Source: [Zeng Weisi; Xu Jialan; Yu Jiayan; Chu Xin. Effectiveness of virtual reality therapy in the treatment of anxiety disorders in adolescents and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1553290; article XML SHA-256 4f27cb9a6279c5334e9aad7e7aa52e1ffd8935fa24ba8cacda793538b4348c1a. “Effectiveness of virtual reality therapy in the treatment of anxiety disorders in adolescents and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1553290).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1553290) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- anxious depression [redraft]: Because that “anxious form” characterization is not present in the provided packet text, the definition contains a substantive claim beyond the packet.; The packet only states that anxious depression (AD) is a “common subtype” of major depressive disorder (MDD). It does not explicitly support the additional wording that the disorder is characterized by “depression occurs in an anxious form.”; The phrasing “depression occurs in an anxious form” is broader and less exact than the packet’s wording; the packet only supports that anxious depression is a common subtype of major depressive disorder.; The second sentence makes a claim about what the packet does or does not provide, which is not supported by the source text and should not be part of the definition. New packet required. Source: [Juan Qiao; Shiwan Tao; Yurong Sun; Jiabo Shi; Yu Chen; Shui Tian; Zhijian Yao; Qing Lu. Brain structural and functional abnormalities in affective network are associated with anxious depression. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05970-2; article XML SHA-256 44cda4077b9d249ce9fd7c7dbc7ff91a047983be1e5cf431e19d7ecfa75c99c6. “Brain structural and functional abnormalities in affective network are associated with anxious depression” (10.1186/s12888-024-05970-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05970-2) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- apathy syndrome [redraft]: The definition claims that “clinically significant apathy” means “reduced motivation or interest,” but the packet does not provide that meaning/definition of apathy.; The packet supports apathy as a clinically significant feature in Parkinson’s disease, but it does not define apathy as “reduced motivation or interest”; that wording is unsupported by the source packet.; The summary of the study findings is broadly supported, but the definition goes beyond the packet by turning a study result into a general definitional gloss for “apathy syndrome.”; While the packet supports that clinically significant apathy in Parkinson’s disease nearly always co-presented with depression and/or anxiety and that “pure” apathy was very rare (2.8%), it does not support the additional phrasing that it “showed no distinct cognitive profile” in the specific way stated (the packet says apathy greatly overlaps with depression/anxiety and suggests apathy may be an epiphenomenon, with “no specific neuropsychological features,” but it does not directly support the exact wording about cognitive profile. ) New packet required. Source: [Foley Jennifer A.; Cipolotti Lisa. Apathy in Parkinson’s Disease: A Retrospective Study of Its Prevalence and Relationship With Mood, Anxiety, and Cognitive Function. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749624; article XML SHA-256 2852a7e3a16b6933ab29c4ff227bb6f8637e650c4fe4c31520bd1e509d7a0b76. “Apathy in Parkinson’s Disease: A Retrospective Study of Its Prevalence and Relationship With Mood, Anxiety, and Cognitive Function” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749624).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749624) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- appetitive conditioning [redraft]: The packet does not define appetitive conditioning as learning a stimulus becomes associated with reward or an attractive outcome, nor that it tends to be approached or chosen; those are unsupported generalizations.; The packet does not explicitly state that appetitive conditioning is learning that “tends to be approached.” It only describes that CS+ (rewarded) and CS− (non-rewarded) are learned and that “choice following conditioning with a CS+ and a CS− results” from the interaction of excitatory/inhibitory traces.; The packet supports appetitive conditioning only as something used alongside aversion conditioning in a differential conditioning procedure, not as a stated definition or as a ‘positive target’ in the way the definition phrases it.; While the packet supports that appetitive conditioning is used alongside aversion conditioning within a differential conditioning procedure and that the rewarded target (CS+) functions as the positive/excitatory target, the specific phrasing about appetitive conditioning causing approach is not directly supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Avarguès-Weber Aurore; de Brito Sanchez Maria G.; Giurfa Martin; Dyer Adrian G.. Aversive Reinforcement Improves Visual Discrimination Learning in Free-Flying Honeybees. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0015370; article XML SHA-256 01daf099cff40c1c991d8f37e801a905f4a8edc357c7c10da2f43f9deff9e1b4. “Aversive Reinforcement Improves Visual Discrimination Learning in Free-Flying Honeybees” (10.1371/journal.pone.0015370).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0015370) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- applied sport psychology [redraft]: Hedges with 'in this source' and describes the paper's argument rather than defining the field. New packet required. Source: [Young Bradley W.; Wilson Stuart G.; Hoar Sharleen; Bain Lisa; Siekańska Malgorzata; Baker Joseph. On the self-regulation of sport practice: Moving the narrative from theory and assessment toward practice. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1089110; article XML SHA-256 384571615edfc0ab0d7e8337b0911a410a7effdac1ae44d75638950babf585a7. “On the self-regulation of sport practice: Moving the narrative from theory and assessment toward practice” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1089110).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1089110) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- approach coping [redraft]: The definition includes the characterization “moving toward [the difficult situation] rather than away from it,” but the provided packet text does not state this “approach vs. avoidance” description.; The definition refers to “such as through problem-focused efforts …” and “emotion-focused engagement … like group-based anger,” which is supported (group efficacy beliefs; group-based anger), but because the “moving toward rather than away” element is unsupported, the overall definition cannot be accepted as supported by the packet.; The packet supports approach coping only as a model with problem-focused and emotion-focused pathways in the context of collective action, not as a general way of responding to difficult situations by moving toward them rather than away from them.; “Believing the group can be effective” and “group-based anger” are supported as examples (group efficacy beliefs and group-based anger), but the definition adds broader explanatory language about coping and motivation that is not stated in the source. New packet required. Source: [Radke Helena R. M.; Kutlaca Maja; Becker Julia C.. Applying the Dynamic Dual Pathway Model of Approach Coping to Collective Action Among Advantaged Group Allies and Disadvantaged Group Members. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.875848; article XML SHA-256 f585e2bfe18ddaf62b4a7fb6e56bd059c86d242ec335b4e38f7c43f7fb1aacbc. “Applying the Dynamic Dual Pathway Model of Approach Coping to Collective Action Among Advantaged Group Allies and Disadvantaged Group Members” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.875848).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.875848) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- approach response [redraft]: The claim that it is “often discussed as a conditioned tendency that can be triggered by cues associated with reward” is not stated in the packet as a general characterization of the term; the packet instead frames an unresolved question about whether approach bias reflects Pavlovian conditioning, habits, Pavlovian-instrumental transfer, or goal-directed action.; The packet does not directly define “approach response” as a general behavior of moving toward or seeking out a stimulus; it only says that a drug-cue bias may be a “Pavlovian conditioned approach response” among several possible mechanisms.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “approach response” as “a behavior of moving toward or seeking out a stimulus.” It discusses “approach bias” and “Pavlovian conditioned approach response,” but not a general definition matching that wording.; The wording suggests a settled definition, but the source presents the issue as unresolved rather than as an established consensus definition.; While the packet does support the idea that behavior can be “incongruent with an individual’s explicit desires” (described as paradoxical behavior in drug addiction), that support does not fully substantiate the definition’s broader claims about the term’s meaning.; “Drug-related cue,” “conditioned tendency,” and the claim that this response is generally discussed in learning research are broader than what the source supports; the source is limited to approach bias toward addictive substances and explicitly says the mechanism is unclear. New packet required. Source: [Watson P.; de Wit S.; Hommel Bernhard; Wiers R. W.. Motivational Mechanisms and Outcome Expectancies Underlying the Approach Bias toward Addictive Substances. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00440; article XML SHA-256 a0284a3dffcab1601fcff4194c441a01fdef2095819b85fbfebc1ff40993ad50. “Motivational Mechanisms and Outcome Expectancies Underlying the Approach Bias toward Addictive Substances” (10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00440).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00440) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- approach [redraft]: Defines a generic word from a one-line packet and smuggles a narrow treatment sense via 'in this context'. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Phobias and Phobia-Related Disorders. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 2d1a6d608eaf14c3ef4a3753ecd44577b1d734b347d63f48248f5d170e68b142. “Phobias and Phobia-Related Disorders” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/phobias-and-phobia-related-disorders).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/phobias-and-phobia-related-disorders) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- approach–avoidance conflict [redraft]: The definition’s example of deciding between a positive cue and a negative cue with incentives is broadly consistent with the packet’s AACT studies (e.g., choosing smiley vs. frowny icons with points), but the definition as a whole includes the unsupported first sentence.; The definition’s first claim—that approach–avoidance conflict is specifically a situation with a “pull toward one option and a push away from another”—is not stated or described in the provided packet text.; The packet supports a specific computerized approach-avoidance conflict task with positive/negative images and point offers, but it does not explicitly support the broader definitional claim that the term means a general motivational situation of being pulled toward one option and pushed away from another.; The phrase “when incentives are involved” and the generalized example of “deciding between a positive cue and a negative cue” go beyond what is stated in the packet and are not directly supported as a definition of the term.; The second sentence is too specific and partly interpretive: the packet describes participants being offered points to choose the frowny icon linked to a negative image, but it does not establish the broader generalization that this is the standard way the construct is studied. New packet required. Source: [Regehr Luke B J; Williams Douglas A; Buckels Erin E. Examining motivational profiles in the dark personality tetrad using an approach-avoidance conflict task. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327609; article XML SHA-256 fb4c7cf75777b77e8587e670d6eb0e80f0a34f97bb10d7eee1496cf590e557b9. “Examining motivational profiles in the dark personality tetrad using an approach-avoidance conflict task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327609).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327609) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- APS [redraft]: 'Reduce microbiota' misstates 'modulating microbial composition'; also describes study findings. New packet required. Source: [Lin Chen; Mi Yu-Wei; Zheng Huo-Wang; Hou Yan-Bin; Hu Jie-Qiong; Mao Jia-Xin; Dai Ni; Fu Chao-Lang; Li Xiao-Qiong; Ji Yun-Xin. Effects of in vitro fermentation of Astragalus polysaccharide on gut microbiota and neurotransmitter metabolites in patients with major depressive disorder. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1752933; article XML SHA-256 8e3e0ba9e8763aa6653754edb02005610247b0bc8a50a4d1b8a0cb845ff59baa. “Effects of in vitro fermentation of Astragalus polysaccharide on gut microbiota and neurotransmitter metabolites in patients with major depressive disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1752933).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1752933) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- AQ [redraft]: The claim that AQ includes a communication subscale is not supported by the packet; the source mentions communication difficulties, not a communication subscale.; The packet does not explicitly define AQ as a measure; it only reports differences in total AQ scores and subscales in one study, so the definition overgeneralizes from a single source.; The packet does not explicitly state that “higher AQ scores indicate more pronounced autistic traits”; it only reports that autistic traits were more pronounced in certain groups and that differences were “most evident in total AQ scores” (implying direction, but not stating the scoring interpretation).; The statement that higher AQ scores indicate more pronounced autistic traits is not directly stated in the packet and is therefore unsupported as written.; While the packet mentions AQ total scores, the Imagination subscale, and that communication difficulties were elevated, it does not explicitly describe AQ as a “measure” with those subscales as part of its general purpose/structure; it reports results using AQ rather than defining the instrument. New packet required. Source: [Parlakkaya Yıldız Fatma Büşra; Kurtulmuş Ayşe; Çelik Zülal; Ereğli Beyzanur; Görmez Aynur. Autistic traits in unaffected first-degree relatives of individuals with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: implications for shared familial neurodevelopmental vulnerability. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1933974; article XML SHA-256 90ca77c5c19fa2d0420a35ff380f31550d6c4c1ad114e87fe12df0b98f23504f. “Autistic traits in unaffected first-degree relatives of individuals with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: implications for shared familial neurodevelopmental vulnerability” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1933974).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1933974) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- aqueous humor [redraft]: The claim that aqueous humor “helps support the cornea and lens” is not supported by the packet text. The packet states it is “involved in the metabolism of the cornea and the crystalline lens,” but does not mention support.; The definition adds an unsupported function: the packet says aqueous humor is involved in the metabolism of the cornea and crystalline lens, not that it supports them.; “Helps support the cornea and lens” is not supported by the source text and changes the sense of the term beyond the packet’s wording. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aqueous Humor” (D001082).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001082) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- arachnoid granulations [redraft]: Because the “communicating hydrocephalus” causal conclusion is not explicitly supported by the packet wording, the definition’s second sentence contains an unsupported substantive claim.; The packet text defines communicating hydrocephalus, not arachnoid granulations, so the requested sense of the term is mismatched.; The packet text does not state that impaired CSF reabsorption by arachnoid granulations leads to “communicating hydrocephalus”; it only describes an abnormal accumulation of CSF within the ventricles as a consequence of impaired reabsorption, while “communicating hydrocephalus” appears only as a source_label, not in the provided definition text.; The second sentence adds a causal explanation about impaired reabsorption leading to hydrocephalus; that content belongs to the packet’s disease entry rather than a definition of the term asked for. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Communicating Hydrocephalus” (C34501).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- architectural constraints [redraft]: Not a dictionary headword sense; definition explains how one paper uses the phrase. New packet required. Source: [Simione Luca; Nolfi Stefano. The Emergence of Selective Attention through Probabilistic Associations between Stimuli and Actions. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0166174; article XML SHA-256 fd089916f67142f956cc81bc2903144cf0f96b9aaf8a270c02d3e88b5faeb64d. “The Emergence of Selective Attention through Probabilistic Associations between Stimuli and Actions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0166174).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166174) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- arginine vasopressin [redraft]: It states AVP is “released from AVP neurons and the posterior pituitary,” but the packet only clearly describes AVP secretion via exocytosis and discusses posterior pituitary exocytosis/SNAP25 in that context; the specific phrasing that AVP is released from “AVP neurons” as well as the posterior pituitary is not explicitly supported.; The claim that AVP secretion is regulated by SNAP25, syntaxin1, and tomosyn-1 is only partially supported: the packet shows these proteins are involved in binding/complex formation and that tomosyn-1 affects secretion, but it does not establish a general regulatory role for all three in the way the definition states.; The definition calls arginine vasopressin a “biological messenger,” which is not stated in the provided packet text.; The packet supports that AVP is secreted via exocytosis in the posterior pituitary and in AVP neurons, but it does not support the broader definitional framing as a messenger or hormone.; While the packet supports that proteins such as SNAP25 and syntaxin1 form SNARE complexes with tomosyn-1 and that tomosyn-1 affects KCl-stimulated AVP secretion, the definition’s characterization that AVP secretion is “regulated by synaptic proteins such as SNAP25, syntaxin1, and tomosyn-1” is not directly supported in the exact form “regulated … by synaptic proteins” (the packet frames these as exocytosis-related molecular interactions).; “Biological messenger” is not stated in the packet and is an unsupported generalization beyond the source text. New packet required. Source: [Takeuchi Seiji; Iwama Shintaro; Takagi Hiroshi; Kiyota Atsushi; Nakashima Kohtaro; Izumida Hisakazu; Fujisawa Haruki; Iwata Naoko; Suga Hidetaka; Watanabe Takashi; Kaibuchi Kozo; Oiso Yutaka; Arima Hiroshi; Sugimura Yoshihisa. Tomosyn Negatively Regulates Arginine Vasopressin Secretion in Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Neurons. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0164544; article XML SHA-256 2c2e5023b7adcb7ed589bae3716fb454fc2ec9eb9a38ea37ac3a0e2280c1ba2e. “Tomosyn Negatively Regulates Arginine Vasopressin Secretion in Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Neurons” (10.1371/journal.pone.0164544).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0164544) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Aricept [redraft]: The definition adds a general explanatory gloss about supporting thinking and memory; the packet supports neurocognitive-enhancing activity and acetylcholinesterase inhibition, but not that broader phrasing as a term definition in this field.; The definition claims the medication “can support thinking and memory,” but the packet only describes “neurocognitive-enhancing activity” and does not specifically mention “thinking and memory” in those terms.; The packet does not state that Aricept is a brand name for donepezil hydrochloride; it describes donepezil hydrochloride but does not link this to the brand “Aricept.”; The packet identifies the substance as donepezil hydrochloride but does not support the claim that Aricept is a brand name for it. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Donepezil Hydrochloride” (C2603).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- arousal level [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the source by defining arousal level as a general “degree of activation or stress” in an individual; the packet only supports arousal level in rats as a high- vs reduced-novelty stress condition tied to habituation in this experiment.; The definition generalizes to “an individual” and “at a given time,” while the packet describes arousal level specifically in rats under two context conditions (no habituation vs extensive prior habituation) for a particular task and experiment timeframe.; The definition’s first sentence defines “arousal level” as “the degree of activation or stress an individual is experiencing at a given time,” but the packet does not provide an explicit conceptual definition of arousal level as “degree of activation” (it only uses “arousal level” as an experimental condition in rats).; The source-specific sense should stay limited to the study’s animal context and its effect on learning and memory; the current wording reads as a broader general definition rather than a source-grounded one. New packet required. Source: [Segev Amir; Ramot Assaf; Akirav Irit. Stress Hormones Receptors in the Amygdala Mediate the Effects of Stress on the Consolidation, but Not the Retrieval, of a Non Aversive Spatial Task. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0029988; article XML SHA-256 2418acb9cd47da74954f14aa0721f7e1ae7a50348507b69efeda094eacbcebe5. “Stress Hormones Receptors in the Amygdala Mediate the Effects of Stress on the Consolidation, but Not the Retrieval, of a Non Aversive Spatial Task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0029988).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029988) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- arousal potential [redraft]: The final clause about novelty, complexity, and uncertainty is supported, but the definition should not rely on unsupported definitional framing beyond what the packet states.; The opening gloss, “the capacity of a stimulus or situation to produce emotional arousal,” is not stated in the packet and reads as an added general definition rather than a supported paraphrase.; The packet does not explicitly define *arousal potential* as “the capacity of a stimulus or situation to produce emotional arousal,” so that first substantive claim is not directly supported.; The packet supports Berlyne’s arousal potential theory in relation to hedonic response and the Wundt curve, but it does not explicitly support the broader claim that arousal potential itself is a general capacity of a stimulus or situation.; The packet supports the idea that “an appropriate level of arousal potential” is positive and “extreme arousal” is negative (inverse U/Wundt curve), but it does not clearly specify the valence pattern for “very low” arousal potential versus “very high,” as stated in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Yanagisawa Hideyoshi; Honda Shimon. Modeling the arousal potential of epistemic emotions using Bayesian information gain: a framework for inquiry cycles driven by free energy fluctuations. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1438080; article XML SHA-256 75f465d58376f48fc1888b8a7b6d981496321cb0eb72e86dc9a8a21f7c59e523. “Modeling the arousal potential of epistemic emotions using Bayesian information gain: a framework for inquiry cycles driven by free energy fluctuations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1438080).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1438080) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- arousal regulation [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported specifics such as “mental efficiency” and “better matched to the situation”; the packet only supports that music may regulate arousal and attention allocation in high-pressure esports, not this fuller performance-matching formulation.; The definition’s core description of “arousal regulation” as “the adjustment of a person’s level of psychological and physiological activation” is not stated in the packet as a definition of the term; the packet mentions “arousal regulation” as one mechanism but does not provide this explicit general definition.; The packet supports that music may function via “arousal regulation” and modulate “performance-relevant states,” but it does not explicitly state the specific phrase that music is used “to influence that activation state in demanding tasks” with the particular outcome wording “attention, mental efficiency, and execution are better matched to the situation.”; The source frames arousal regulation as one mechanism in functional ludomusicology, but it does not define the term as a general psychology concept in the broader way stated here.; While the packet refers to “physiological arousal” and attention-related mechanisms, it also presents additional mechanisms (cognitive-load/attention allocation; rhythmic entrainment) and other boundary conditions; the definition’s narrowed focus on attention/mental efficiency/execution match is not directly supported as the stated meaning of the term in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Wang Xinxin; Sun Yuyi. Beyond immersion: the cognitive mechanics of functional ludomusicology in esports performance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1759884; article XML SHA-256 fa33553404c8803f248f04a6316b015afc1b162a5a411b5674f5e661f8ba538f. “Beyond immersion: the cognitive mechanics of functional ludomusicology in esports performance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1759884).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1759884) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- arousal theory [redraft]: Conflates arousal theory with stimulation-seeking and fearlessness theories and reports study findings. New packet required. Source: [Kou Hui; Luo Wei; Li Xue; Yang Ye; Xiong Min; Shao Boyao; Xie Qinhong; Bi Taiyong. Cognitive deficits for facial emotions among male adolescent delinquents with conduct disorder. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.937754; article XML SHA-256 dc844054526dda92788e2166765a3ea6c4a3d39ea304804c81e1d65a6454730f. “Cognitive deficits for facial emotions among male adolescent delinquents with conduct disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.937754).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.937754) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- arrest reaction [redraft]: Packet supports only the eyes-close/eyes-open transition; 'EEG-based test' is study description, not definition. New packet required. Source: [Cheron Guy; Ristori Dominique; Petieau Mathieu; Simar Cédric; Zarka David; Cebolla Ana-Maria. Effects of Pulsed-Wave Chromotherapy and Guided Relaxation on the Theta-Alpha Oscillation During Arrest Reaction. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.792872; article XML SHA-256 3209dcc3b60cb1c73a7bccab536827add9cc6c651ab900f55cfcedf5b3168f2a. “Effects of Pulsed-Wave Chromotherapy and Guided Relaxation on the Theta-Alpha Oscillation During Arrest Reaction” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.792872).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.792872) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Artane [redraft]: The packet does not state that “Artane” is a brand name for trihexyphenidyl hydrochloride; it only describes trihexyphenidyl hydrochloride.; The packet supports trihexyphenidyl hydrochloride as the substance, but it does not state that Artane is a brand name for it.; The rest of the definition is broadly consistent with the packet, but the unsupported brand-name identification is a substantive claim and fails the source-only requirement. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Trihexyphenidyl Hydrochloride” (C47771).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- arteriovenous malformation [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“abnormal tangle of blood vessels involving arteries and veins in the brain”) is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text, which only states that an intracranial arteriovenous malformation is a common cause of primary intracerebral hemorrhage in young adults and that lesions are typically sporadic.; The packet supports that intracranial AVM is a common cause of primary intracerebral hemorrhage in young adults and that lesions are typically sporadic, but it does not explicitly support the added structural description of an "abnormal tangle of blood vessels involving arteries and veins in the brain." New packet required. Source: [Goss Jeremy A.; Huang August Y.; Smith Edward; Konczyk Dennis J.; Smits Patrick J.; Sudduth Christopher L.; Stapleton Christopher; Patel Aman; Alexandrescu Sanda; Warman Matthew L.; Greene Arin K.. Somatic mutations in intracranial arteriovenous malformations. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0226852; article XML SHA-256 d9260b3115422182fed0f4a827d4d1b72ecf53159dab11edf15cfca45697abfa. “Somatic mutations in intracranial arteriovenous malformations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0226852).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226852) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- articulator [redraft]: Headword is a noun for a speech organ; definition instead explains 'articulatory disorders' in one passage. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3055500-3067500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- artificial consciousness [redraft]: Opaque, jargon-heavy restatement of one paper's theory rather than a plain definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Sanfey John. Conscious simultaneity with continuous motion: a measure-theoretic resolution of the hard problem. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1809939; article XML SHA-256 058b8b611242eb68194848e77248c087be808535cbda1e91dc533a84384beab8. “Conscious simultaneity with continuous motion: a measure-theoretic resolution of the hard problem” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1809939).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1809939) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- arts and crafts [redraft]: Not a psychology headword; definition reports study findings instead of defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Metaferia Biruk K.; Takacs Zsofia K.; Futo Judit. The Relationship Between Parental Play Beliefs, Preschoolers’ Home Experience, and Executive Functions: An Exploratory Study in Ethiopia. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00624; article XML SHA-256 f0a5fbebf0e08c0589b5ec37ee6168f5a62ab137269f6d7644561dd469d9712a. “The Relationship Between Parental Play Beliefs, Preschoolers’ Home Experience, and Executive Functions: An Exploratory Study in Ethiopia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00624).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00624) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Asendin [redraft]: Because the source material is about amoxapine, using it to substantiate a definition for “Asendin” relies on an unsupported identification that is not present in the packet.; The definition presents Asendin as a specific medicine name, but the source packet does not identify Asendin as the drug described; that naming connection is unsupported.; The packet text is for amoxapine, not Asendin, so the definition is not supported for the requested term/sense.; The packet text provided is for “Amoxapine” (source_label and content) and does not explicitly state that “Asendin” is the same substance/brand name, so the definition’s claims about “Asendin” are not supported for that term. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Amoxapine” (C47397).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- asocial [redraft]: However, it does not explicitly support the full wording of the definition, especially “not fitting in with ordinary social life” and “withdrawn” (those specifics are not stated in the supplied text).; The packet contains the phrase “always asocial and peculiar, unmanageable and ill to get on with,” which supports meanings like “unmanageable” and “ill to get on with.”; The packet supports a historical description of a person as “asocial,” “unmanageable,” and “ill to get on with,” but it does not explicitly support the broader gloss “not fitting in with ordinary social life or relations with others.”; “Withdrawn” is not supported by the supplied passage. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2089500-2101500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- asphyxia [redraft]: The definition states that perinatal asphyxia is a “serious condition,” but the supplied packet does not explicitly describe it using that “serious condition” characterization (it instead says it is a “major contributor” to neonatal mortality and long-term neurodevelopmental impairment).; The packet supports the specific term/sense “perinatal asphyxia,” not asphyxia in general, so the definition shifts the entry to a narrower subtype without establishing that this is the requested sense.; “Serious condition in newborns” is not stated in the source; the packet only says perinatal asphyxia is a major contributor to neonatal mortality and long-term neurodevelopmental impairment. New packet required. Source: [Ayeni Victor Ayodeji; Abdullahi Aisha Adam; Isah Abdulmuminu; Ayamolowo Love Bukola; Adeyemi Timothy; Oladimeji Motunrayo Adebukunola; Ahwinahwi Ufuoma Shalom; Chukwuike Vitalis Ikenna; Okeke Oluchukwu Perpetual; Abodunrin Olunike Rebecca; Akinsolu Folahanmi Tomiwa; Sobande Olajide Odunayo. Pharmacologic neuroprotective agents for the treatment of perinatal asphyxia in low-income and lower-middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337798; article XML SHA-256 798fd776837c7cfd26e8e64dad0c35bc6bdcae7317db0e174b42ba6641d53cd1. “Pharmacologic neuroprotective agents for the treatment of perinatal asphyxia in low-income and lower-middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337798).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337798) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- assessment research [redraft]: Generic phrase elevated to a headword; claims generalise well beyond a DanceSport-specific packet. New packet required. Source: [Zhu Yuwei; Liu Guangyuan; Wang Xiaoyu. Mapping assessment practices in DanceSport: a Human-In-The-Loop systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847089; article XML SHA-256 9c1c4673504b3a4564b74f94615aec70393c0aded2278ee95b04296f49ecfa57. “Mapping assessment practices in DanceSport: a Human-In-The-Loop systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847089).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847089) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- assimilation effect [redraft]: The field label is also not clearly supported by the source, which is a psychology/social priming replication study rather than a learning definition.; The packet does not explicitly define an assimilation effect as a prime shifting later responses or behavior in the same direction as the prime; it only says the study tested a cooperation/competition priming effect and refers to a stronger assimilation effect of priming.; The packet does not explicitly define “assimilation effect” as “shifts a person’s later response or behavior in the same direction as the idea that was primed”; it discusses an “assimilation effect of priming” and “prime-to-behavior effects,” but it does not provide that directional-definition phrasing.; The packet supports a Prisoner’s Dilemma priming study, but it does not establish the broader general definition stated in the answer.; While the packet supports that the study tested cooperative/competitive priming and refers to an “assimilation effect of priming” in a Prisoner’s Dilemma decision context, the definition adds a general explanation (“such as toward more cooperation or more competition”) framed as part of the formal meaning of assimilation effect, which is not stated as a definition in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Belaus Anabel; Reyna Cecilia; Freidin Esteban. Testing the effect of cooperative/competitive priming on the Prisoner’s Dilemma. A replication study. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209263; article XML SHA-256 1d215b6e2a2011a3c49b456108fde054fd42602912ba8cde7c9cbcfba0aed9a6. “Testing the effect of cooperative/competitive priming on the Prisoner’s Dilemma. A replication study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209263).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209263) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- assimilation [redraft]: Hedged 'in this context' narrows a general headword; perceptual-assimilation sense is not stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Yang Jing; Chen Yufeng. Beyond orthography: a refined perceptual assimilation task paradigm for measuring cross-linguistic phonetic similarity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859283; article XML SHA-256 0e6e42e9df9ed65bd3b09d155754d44cd3885b5fe66f001945bfeaf10b192472. “Beyond orthography: a refined perceptual assimilation task paradigm for measuring cross-linguistic phonetic similarity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859283).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859283) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- assisted living [redraft]: The claim that assisted living is “a place in which psychological interventions can be delivered” is only indirectly implied by the study using DBT-ST among assisted living residents; the packet does not explicitly state this as a definitional characterization of assisted living.; The claim that it is a “long-term residential care setting” is only supported in the packet as the phrase “long-term residential care” (feasibility underexplored), but the packet does not directly connect that phrase as the definition of “assisted living.”; The definition adds an implementation claim about psychological interventions that is not stated in the source packet.; The packet does not explicitly define what “assisted living” refers to (e.g., it does not state “assisted living refers to …”), and only uses the term in describing study context ("assisted living residents").; The packet supports that assisted living residents are studied in a long-term residential care context, but it does not define assisted living as a care setting where psychological interventions can be delivered. New packet required. Source: [Koziol Philipp; Florin Carina; Heft Kathleen; Fellinger Robert; Probst Thomas. Dialectical behavioral therapy skills training in assisted living: transdiagnostic effects on goal attainment, self-efficacy, and symptom severity. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1669524; article XML SHA-256 0c3721d63c7d89310639ec3b0273ac39144ca3e2c9a9d8910dab2e8b22b979c1. “Dialectical behavioral therapy skills training in assisted living: transdiagnostic effects on goal attainment, self-efficacy, and symptom severity” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1669524).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1669524) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- assistive software [redraft]: Not a psychology headword, and the general definition goes beyond one microscopy workflow. New packet required. Source: [Chakravorty Rajib; Rawlinson David; Zhang Alan; Markham John; Dowling Mark R.; Wellard Cameron; Zhou Jie H. S.; Hodgkin Philip D.. Labour-Efficient In Vitro Lymphocyte Population Tracking and Fate Prediction Using Automation and Manual Review. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0083251; article XML SHA-256 f14a063d94faee7d57ed772d42658d6326f82e291f26d65333b76c36516c01b9. “Labour-Efficient In Vitro Lymphocyte Population Tracking and Fate Prediction Using Automation and Manual Review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0083251).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083251) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- associate [redraft]: General definition unsupported; packet gives only the affection-with-obedience example. New packet required. Source: [Jin Lei; Jiang Xinyi; Guo Feng. From parental psychological control to hidden emotional pressure: a multimodal review of children's socio-emotional development. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900170; article XML SHA-256 f080d03c725742830e8b28b1b7444f5a684af3fe218f7f2720d81000f402df20. “From parental psychological control to hidden emotional pressure: a multimodal review of children's socio-emotional development” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900170).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1900170) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- assumed similarity bias [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“tendency to judge another person’s feelings as more like one’s own than they really are”) is not explicitly defined in the provided packet text; the packet only names “assumed similarity bias” as a result/construct without giving this operational description.; The definition’s second sentence (“partners’ empathic judgments being shaped not only by their partner’s actual affect but also by projecting their own affect onto the partner”) is not stated in the packet; the packet mentions bias and moderation effects but does not describe this specific mechanism of “projecting their own affect.”; The first sentence is broadly consistent with the packet’s use of assumed similarity bias, but the second sentence adds an unsupported mechanism: the packet does not state that partners projected their own affect onto the other person.; The packet does not provide enough information to support either the exact phrasing or the specific explanatory interpretation used in the definition.; The packet only says the study found assumed similarity bias in reciprocal empathic judgments of affective valence and arousal during messenger texting; it does not define the bias in terms of ‘not only by their partner’s actual affect but also by projecting their own affect onto the partner.’ New packet required. Source: [Steinebach Philipp; Stein Miriam; Schnell Knut. Messenger-based assessment of empathic accuracy in couples’ smartphone communication. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-02483-9; article XML SHA-256 8d8861890d77340b87e305d2c6695ba4da8251d75f740fb3406cbc045e27f1ff. “Messenger-based assessment of empathic accuracy in couples’ smartphone communication” (10.1186/s40359-025-02483-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02483-9) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- asthenic type [redraft]: Packet only asserts insanity is of asthenic type; the weakness gloss and the support inference are added. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3391500-3403500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- asthma [redraft]: The definition claims asthma is “often associated with … depressive symptoms.” The packet states that asthma is frequently associated with emotional distress and impaired quality of life, and it examines associations with depressive symptoms, but it does not support the specific “often associated” frequency/likelihood claim about depressive symptoms.; The phrase about psychological context is too broad for the source packet: it only supports associations with emotional distress and impaired/impaired quality of life, not the fuller framing given here.; The source supports asthma as a chronic inflammatory respiratory disease, but it does not support the claim that asthma is often associated with depressive symptoms; the packet says that relationship remains unclear. New packet required. Source: [Pavón-Romero Gandhi F.; Flores-Medina Yvonee; Payan-Espindola Esteban; Cabrera-González Ximena; Cruz-Pérez Jessica; Fernando Ramírez-Jiménez; Pavón Lenin; Teran Luis M.. Association of asthma control, treatment, adherence, lung function, and allergy sensitization with depressive symptoms and quality of life in a real-life setting. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1882738; article XML SHA-256 bd11602d8f3c88f7b7eb0426ebc1d59bfe0a812a9810497e65666980014810e0. “Association of asthma control, treatment, adherence, lung function, and allergy sensitization with depressive symptoms and quality of life in a real-life setting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1882738).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1882738) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- asymptote [redraft]: General mathematical headword redefined as the IRT lower asymptote; limiting-value claim not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Sideridis Georgios; Alghamdi Mohammed. Modeling person guessing as a random effect: a Bayesian approach of the two-parameter logistic model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1678086; article XML SHA-256 3c42d8fdcd565d107c245ef27394ce78942b1e804990bba004f23f12cb522789. “Modeling person guessing as a random effect: a Bayesian approach of the two-parameter logistic model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1678086).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1678086) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- at risk [redraft]: General phrase narrowed to suicide risk via 'in this context'; follow-up claim not in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Wolk Courtney Benjamin; Duresso Biiftu; Weiss Samantha E; Khazanov Gabriela Kattan; Candon Molly; Oslin David W; Patel Esha; Press Matthew J; Buttenheim Alison; Anderson Eleanor; Pieri Matteo; Jager-Hyman Shari. Evaluating the acceptability, feasibility, and appropriateness of treatment engagement strategies for primary care patients at risk for suicide: a pilot study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897475; article XML SHA-256 4502f99f41b1008bec19a28464225f611037aa4a3da675d7137db8cf69469b45. “Evaluating the acceptability, feasibility, and appropriateness of treatment engagement strategies for primary care patients at risk for suicide: a pilot study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897475).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897475) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Atarax [redraft]: Packet never links the brand name Atarax to hydroxyzine; that identification is added. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hydroxyzine Hydrochloride” (C47559).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ataxic dysarthria [redraft]: Describes what the classifier distinguished rather than what the term means; no actual speech description. New packet required. Source: [Song Joomee; Lee Ju Hwan; Choi Jungeun; Suh Mee Kyung; Chung Myung Jin; Kim Young Hun; Park Jeongho; Choo Seung Ho; Son Ji Hyun; Lee Dong Yeong; Ahn Jong Hyeon; Youn Jinyoung; Kim Kyung-Su; Cho Jin Whan. Detection and differentiation of ataxic and hypokinetic dysarthria in cerebellar ataxia and parkinsonian disorders via wave splitting and integrating neural networks. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0268337; article XML SHA-256 23b946f90ab8b88616f394a7879c7deb90d4509219020e14c92f76fb33049ef6. “Detection and differentiation of ataxic and hypokinetic dysarthria in cerebellar ataxia and parkinsonian disorders via wave splitting and integrating neural networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0268337).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268337) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Ativan [redraft]: Packet never links the brand name Ativan to lorazepam; that identification is added. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lorazepam” (C619).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- attachment theory [redraft]: Packet only says aspects of attachment theory are used in IPT; it does not support defining the theory. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Interpersonal Psychotherapy” (D000079062).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000079062) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- attachment [redraft]: The definition adds broader generalizations about “healthy social and emotional functioning” and “family life” that go beyond the packet’s wording, which specifically mentions socio-emotional competence, psychopathology risk, autonomy, exploration, romantic relationships, marriage, parenting, and family stability.; The definition includes the specific phrasing/sense “emotional bonding and relationship security,” but the packet does not explicitly describe attachment in terms of “relationship security.”; The definition states that attachment “begins to take shape around birth”; the packet supports a link to “postnatal attachment” and infancy, but it does not explicitly state “around birth.”; The timing claim that attachment “begins to take shape around birth” is not supported by the packet; it says prenatal factors establish the foundation for postnatal attachment, not that attachment itself begins at birth. New packet required. Source: [Ho Jacky; Rahaman Mohammad Anisur. The influence of attachment and relational quality on developmental outcomes across the lifespan: a systematic review and meta-analytic insights (2014–2024). 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745013; article XML SHA-256 e5cd6f4904751c98daa06e76df6b69bf983f89b4f55515b003442f5d7ab8ee0e. “The influence of attachment and relational quality on developmental outcomes across the lifespan: a systematic review and meta-analytic insights (2014–2024)” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745013).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745013) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- attend [redraft]: The claim that “Not attending refers to repeated absence from school rather than taking part in school as expected” is not stated in the packet and appears to be an interpretive clarification beyond the supplied text.; The definition’s second sentence goes beyond the packet by rephrasing non-attendance as “rather than taking part in school as expected,” which is not stated in the source.; The packet discusses “children who do not regularly attend school” and “regular school non-attendees,” but it does not explicitly define the term “attend” as “being present at school on a regular basis.”; The packet supports a school-attendance sense of “attend,” but the requested field “cognition” is not defensible from the source, which is about school attendance and non-attendance rather than cognition. New packet required. Source: [Chavda Jasmine; Denyer Lauren; Trivedi Daksha; Ludlow Amanda K. Exploring the experiences of having a child who regularly does not attend school on parental mental health and wellbeing in the United Kingdom. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333501; article XML SHA-256 e0608e16f39e474099ec8a3dd0f6e4476a5a4538008701c9001ae81cb3320410. “Exploring the experiences of having a child who regularly does not attend school on parental mental health and wellbeing in the United Kingdom” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333501).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333501) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- attending behavior [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence contains an unverified characterization (tendency/willingness) that is not directly stated in the provided packet text.; The packet does not explicitly define “attending behavior” as a person’s “tendency or willingness to go to a hospital or clinic for care.” It only mentions “poor hospital-attending behavior” in relation to underdiagnosis/underestimation.; The packet links poor hospital-attending behavior specifically to underdiagnosis and underestimation of allergic conjunctivitis, not generally to “some health problems.”; The source supports hospital-attending behavior, but not the broadened wording “hospital or clinic”; clinic is not mentioned in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Kumah David Ben; Lartey Seth Yaw; Yemanyi Felix; Boateng Evans Gyimah; Awuah Emmanuel. Prevalence of allergic conjunctivitis among basic school children in the Kumasi Metropolis (Ghana): a community-based cross-sectional study. 2015; DOI 10.1186/s12886-015-0053-8; article XML SHA-256 0f97e571e02a15b89567eac6a55ddb6a7d1aca73523e28e967ca2ed1887a71b0. “Prevalence of allergic conjunctivitis among basic school children in the Kumasi Metropolis (Ghana): a community-based cross-sectional study” (10.1186/s12886-015-0053-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-015-0053-8) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- attention-control training [redraft]: Circular and describes the study's call for further research rather than defining the training. New packet required. Source: [Perra Oliver; Alderdice Fiona; Sweet David; McNulty Alison; Johnston Matthew; Bilello Delfina; Papageorgiou Kostas; Wass Sam. Attention and social communication skills of very preterm infants after training attention control: Bayesian analyses of a feasibility study. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0273767; article XML SHA-256 e1f4fa574745f3371102cd1ddfafc88edb0b56e801dc0ff4c13b0e5686ce27fd. “Attention and social communication skills of very preterm infants after training attention control: Bayesian analyses of a feasibility study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0273767).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273767) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- attention-getting [redraft]: General descriptor not a headword; packet only says alerting behaviors were described as attention-getting. New packet required. Source: [Catala Amélie; Cousillas Hugo; Hausberger Martine; Grandgeorge Marine. Dog alerting and/or responding to epileptic seizures: A scoping review. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0208280; article XML SHA-256 599677f056544854ad94d129f78c1b172c779b7f8f4ac5b354e667b88bd309c6. “Dog alerting and/or responding to epileptic seizures: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0208280).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208280) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- attention shifting [redraft]: Because of the above, the requested sense of “attention shifting” is not fully grounded in the supplied text, even though parts of the definition (core executive function; higher-order cognitive process; linked to academic achievement) are consistent with the packet.; The definition adds a broader functional description and an example domain (“academic skills”) that goes beyond the packet’s wording and current evidence presented there.; The definition adds specific content that is not explicitly supported by the packet—e.g., that attention shifting is “the mental ability to move attention between different tasks, rules, or aspects of information.” The packet only describes attention shifting as a core component of executive functions (higher-order cognitive processes) and does not provide this specific “move attention between tasks/rules” characterization.; The packet supports attention shifting as a core component of executive functions and as a higher-order cognitive process related to academic achievement, but it does not support the added explanation that it is the mental ability to move attention between different tasks, rules, or aspects of information. New packet required. Source: [von Suchodoletz Antje; Fäsche Anika; Skuballa Irene T.. The Role of Attention Shifting in Orthographic Competencies: Cross-Sectional Findings from 1st, 3rd, and 8th Grade Students. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01665; article XML SHA-256 599c5fd923698941b7f94a02f5605a0db7cdb8a43cd06670f1b12510ad3a56ea. “The Role of Attention Shifting in Orthographic Competencies: Cross-Sectional Findings from 1st, 3rd, and 8th Grade Students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01665).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01665) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- attenuation [redraft]: General term narrowed by 'in this biological context' to one paper's habenula model. New packet required. Source: [Ferreira-Vorkapic Camila; Ferreira Diego Moura; Coelho Renato Ramos; Wiech Monika Anna; Dantas Estélio Henrique Martin. Exercise-induced attenuation of the lateral habenula: a multi-axial quantitative synthesis of circuit-level resilience in depression. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1887822; article XML SHA-256 7fb7b8175c23591117d7dd9d38d6d960fb10602a6bd736e3617c96b9ae4991a9. “Exercise-induced attenuation of the lateral habenula: a multi-axial quantitative synthesis of circuit-level resilience in depression” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1887822).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1887822) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- attitude system [redraft]: Because the term’s core meaning is only inferable from the study’s operationalization (ratings of elements for CBT success and analysis of network structure), the broad framing about “related topics” is an unsupported generalization beyond what the packet directly supports.; The definition’s first sentence gives a broad, general characterization (“overall pattern of a person’s views about related topics, including both how strongly each element is valued and how those views connect”) that is not explicitly stated in the packet. The packet describes ratings of specific CBT-related elements and “attitude networks” and “attitude system structure,” but it does not provide this general definition of “attitude system.”; The opening general definition of an “attitude system” as an overall pattern of a person’s views and how they connect is not stated in the packet; the packet only says the study examined “attitude system structure” via importance ratings and network analysis.; The wording “structured set of beliefs about which parts of psychotherapy are important for treatment success” goes beyond the packet’s phrasing, which reports perceived importance ratings for five elements of CBT rather than a defined belief system. New packet required. Source: [Wang Yuanqing; Mei Feng; Zhao Wei. Pre-treatment consent framing shapes how laypeople evaluate CBT: a cross-cultural comparison of China and the United States. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1909096; article XML SHA-256 84b37bb6d11e8599a326fabf5e4b9fa64341d0f5e954995771a57ccbc1a0a468. “Pre-treatment consent framing shapes how laypeople evaluate CBT: a cross-cultural comparison of China and the United States” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1909096).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1909096) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- attraction [redraft]: General headword redefined as sport attraction; definition reports the study's hypothesised pathway. New packet required. Source: [Liu Danping; Liu Jing; Yang Ke; Hu Di; Ma Jingchen; Ran Hanjia; Song Yimin. Sport event destination image promotes subsequent sport participation through sport attraction: the moderating role of perceived stress. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1863652; article XML SHA-256 79490088e811dcd130e98389d2123eae5d9053b465a8c52cc9c49f0595bba1f1. “Sport event destination image promotes subsequent sport participation through sport attraction: the moderating role of perceived stress” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1863652).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1863652) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- attribution theory [redraft]: Because that unsupported framing is central to the definition, the definition cannot be considered fully supported by the supplied source packet.; The definition’s first claim—“explaining people’s reactions by considering what causes they assign to an event or experience”—is not stated in the provided packet text.; The opening general definition of attribution theory as a way of explaining people’s reactions by the causes they assign to events or experiences is not stated in the packet.; The packet supports a three-dimensional attribution framework with individual, informational, and situational dimensions, but it does not by itself establish that this is the definition of attribution theory in general. New packet required. Source: [Wenchang Xiao; Xuanhui Yang; Qun Zeng; Xiao Cheng. Health information anxiety in social media users during public health emergencies: A qualitative comparative analysis using attribution theory. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340674; article XML SHA-256 5b3f7e8ac2b82508995716be1f07ef21b1f16c2fa937204eed3d180279e41267. “Health information anxiety in social media users during public health emergencies: A qualitative comparative analysis using attribution theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340674).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340674) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- attribution [redraft]: Wrong sense: attribution in psychology is causal explanation, not assigning authorship. New packet required. Source: [He Wenting; Sun Yuyi. Human–AI emotional resonance in generative music: a mini-review of authorship attribution, affective response, and aesthetic evaluation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889696; article XML SHA-256 b9b444550180674fd76c1993fd1f17111628e92d2fa1acfc59c374b21dfb29cc. “Human–AI emotional resonance in generative music: a mini-review of authorship attribution, affective response, and aesthetic evaluation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889696).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889696) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- atypical features [redraft]: The definition adds a broader claim about depression assessment that is not supported as the term’s sense in the packet.; The packet describes an inventory/questionnaire item set, not a subtype of depressive symptoms.; The packet does not explicitly state that “atypical features” are a “subtype of depressive symptoms”; it only mentions “items to address… atypical features” within a depressive symptom assessment questionnaire. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology Self-Report Version Questionnaire” (C130315).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- audience [redraft]: Everyday word not a psychology headword; definition describes the review's findings about visual cues. New packet required. Source: [Sun Yue; Wang Yilin. Ancillary body movements in piano performance: a critical narrative review of structural coupling, audience cues, and cognitive-scaffolding claims. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838025; article XML SHA-256 06ec660b8db0758ed327e47304ad7a99233caf38304eeca7d34aefdb02371be7. “Ancillary body movements in piano performance: a critical narrative review of structural coupling, audience cues, and cognitive-scaffolding claims” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838025).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1838025) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- audiometry [redraft]: General headword redefined with an in-this-context hedge as evoked response audiometry for psychiatric biomarkers; wrong narrow sense. New packet required. Source: [Yanagi Masaya; Ishida Shizuka; Shirakawa Osamu; Hashimoto Mamoru. Phase delay and neural dyssynchrony of the 40-Hz auditory steady-state response in mood and psychotic disorders. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1879294; article XML SHA-256 1402c175fdfc0d99c9c3831c662687dbf303ccb84eedd1f1197fb8fbc9e1549d. “Phase delay and neural dyssynchrony of the 40-Hz auditory steady-state response in mood and psychotic disorders” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1879294).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1879294) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- auditory pathway [redraft]: Because the packet describes a test used to diagnose abnormalities of the 8th cranial nerve and associated auditory pathways, the provided definition may be conflating the procedure (auditory brainstem response) with the underlying pathways, which is not directly supported by the packet.; The claim that the packet describes the term “in the context of testing how well these pathways are functioning” is not a supported definition of the term and overstates what the source says.; The definition’s opening sentence reframes the packet as the nerve routes themselves; the packet instead defines an objective test of auditory brainstem function and auditory pathway function.; The packet is for the diagnostic procedure “Auditory Brainstem Response,” not the anatomical structure “auditory pathway,” so the requested sense is wrong.; The packet supports that the measurement is “from the auditory nerve to the mesencephalon,” but it does not explicitly state that the “auditory pathway” is “the set of nerve routes” carrying “sound-related signals” through the brainstem.; The packet text defines/uses “Auditory Brainstem Response” as a diagnostic test/procedure, not as a definition of the anatomical construct “auditory pathway” as “the set of nerve routes.” New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Auditory Brainstem Response” (C184949).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- auditory sensation [redraft]: Packet defines pitch perception as a dimension of auditory sensation; definition redefines auditory sensation itself as pitch, a wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pitch Perception” (D010898).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010898) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- auditory stimulus [redraft]: The definition states: “An auditory stimulus is a sound input used to trigger or measure a response.” The provided packet does not define an auditory stimulus as a sound input or describe its role as triggering responses; it only mentions “an auditory stimulus” in the context of measuring startle responses.; The packet only supports the idea that the term is used in “the measurement of the average maximal response to an auditory stimulus,” which aligns with the second sentence’s context, but the first sentence contains unsupported generalization.; The packet supports a measurement related to an auditory stimulus, not a definition of the stimulus itself, so the requested sense of the term is not established.; “Average maximum startle response to sound” adds unsupported startle language and changes the packet’s wording.; “Used to trigger or measure a response” is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet text. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Auditory Startle Average Maximum Response” (C226120).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- authoritarian [redraft]: Because the requested definition includes that ungrounded definitional description, the substantive meaning is not fully supported by the supplied packet.; The packet excerpt does not provide a definitional characterization of “authoritarian” as “support[ing] forceful, controlling social or political relations.” It only states that “authoritarian expressions” among young people have emerged and that they “strain democracy and civic coexistence.”; The packet supports a context of authoritarian expressions among young people amid institutional erosion and polarization, but it does not define authoritarian as attitudes or expressions that support forceful, controlling social or political relations.; The statement that the term can strain democratic life and civic coexistence is close to the packet’s wording, but the added broader definitional gloss is not directly supported by the source and makes the definition overgeneralized. New packet required. Source: [Troncoso-Tejada Gustavo; Polanco-Levicán Karina; Gálvez-Nieto José Luis; Ortiz-Velosa Eliana; González Casas David. Authoritarianism in youth social life: systematic literature review (2015–2025). 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794108; article XML SHA-256 548ec77c644eb22559c1ba743561e9fd75b03dac544a1788e4f4b6c0a67c4872. “Authoritarianism in youth social life: systematic literature review (2015–2025)” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794108).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794108) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- authoritative parenting [redraft]: Never says what the parenting style is; describes the study role and adds parent-child relationship effect the packet does not state. New packet required. Source: [Sun Li; Li Ao; Chen Meng; Li LuYao; Zhao Yan; Zhu AnQi; Hu Peng. Mediating and moderating effects of authoritative parenting styles on adolescent behavioral problems. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1336354; article XML SHA-256 427d2ce7af91912b1d69aef0a5ae0ad0244fe4a085233d3d56bacef086b0edc4. “Mediating and moderating effects of authoritative parenting styles on adolescent behavioral problems” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1336354).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1336354) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- authority relations [redraft]: The definition should stay close to the source’s usage; the packet supports authority relations specifically as being reshaped by platform-dominated environments, not as a general ethics term about guidance in everyday life.; The first sentence (“patterns of power and influence that shape who is treated as a trusted guide or source of direction in everyday life”) introduces a meaning (“trusted guide or source of direction”) that is not explicitly supported by the packet text.; The opening sentence gives a broad general definition of “authority relations” as everyday patterns of power and influence around a “trusted guide or source of direction,” but the packet only supports a narrower use tied to teachers’ accounts of platform-centered digital environments and shifts in epistemic authority.; While the packet supports that teachers described “shifts in epistemic authority from institutional actors toward digital platforms,” it does not provide support for the broader everyday-life framing used in the definition’s first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Calp Şükran; Bulut Pınar. Children's media engagement and media literacy in platformized environments: primary school teachers' perspectives. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847155; article XML SHA-256 2b23f4b3638b78560a970eda4ece02a42f1c01feebf816f397153a9ae6ebba84. “Children's media engagement and media literacy in platformized environments: primary school teachers' perspectives” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847155).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847155) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- auto- [redraft]: The packet’s definition states only that “Auto- (in compounds)… A prefix denoting reference to self.” It does not explicitly support the additional wording that, “In psychological language, it marks ideas or processes understood as self-directed or referring back to oneself.”; The source supports only “a prefix denoting reference to self” in compounds; “in psychological language” is not stated in the packet.; The specific framing in the provided definition (“ideas or processes understood as self-directed”) is not present in the packet.; “Self-directed” and “referring back to oneself” are broader paraphrases than the source’s wording and introduce interpretive generalization beyond the historical definition. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Auto-” (Auto-).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Auto-) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- autocratic leader [redraft]: The definition claims autocratic leaders’ influence is “concentrated in a top-down way rather than shared” and contrasts this with “autonomous subleaders or broad follower-to-follower communication,” but the provided packet text only contrasts autocratic vs participative/laissez-faire vulnerability and does not define autocratic leadership in terms of top-down concentration or the presence/absence of follower-to-follower communication.; The definition’s statement that autocratic leadership is “relatively vulnerable to being controlled or replaced by outside or hidden influential agents” is partially supported (the packet says the autocratic situation is more vulnerable to an externally imposed leader, and that an “official” autocratic leader can be driven by a hidden click), but because the key first sentence (top-down concentration / sharing with subleaders) is not supported, the overall requested definition is not fully defensible from the packet.; The first sentence attributes to an autocratic leader a specific top-down structure contrasted with autonomous subleaders and broad follower-to-follower communication, but the packet states those features for laissez-faire leadership, not autocratic leadership, and only indirectly contrasts autocratic with participative leadership.; The second sentence is broadly supported, but it overgeneralizes the source’s examples: the packet says an autocratic situation is more vulnerable to an externally imposed leader and can be driven by a hidden clique, not that this is a defining property in all cases. New packet required. Source: [Allahverdyan Armen E; Galstyan Aram. Emergence of Leadership in Communication. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0159301; article XML SHA-256 4c3a824606bb7dcdb9087c497bee13ebc04db57d8961543329f0c0297c06884c. “Emergence of Leadership in Communication” (10.1371/journal.pone.0159301).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159301) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- autocratic [redraft]: General word narrowed to a coaching leadership style; controlling, top-down, not sharing influence is not in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Zhu Jian; Wang Meng; Cruz Angelita Bautista; Kim Hyun-Duck. Systematic review and meta-analysis of Chinese coach leadership and athlete satisfaction and cohesion. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1385178; article XML SHA-256 4b088cc7a37377a3af4e346eea2f76ee4fa1d6714ebe35e4078b76c614c68910. “Systematic review and meta-analysis of Chinese coach leadership and athlete satisfaction and cohesion” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1385178).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1385178) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- autoimmunity [redraft]: Because the packet only directly supports the pregnancy/MARA framing (autoantibodies reactive to fetal brain proteins circulating in pregnant mothers and associated with offspring autism diagnosis, with potential effects on fetal/offspring brain development), the included general definition portion is not defensibly supported.; The definition’s first sentence gives a general, textbook-level meaning of “autoimmunity” (producing autoantibodies that react to the body’s own proteins), but the packet does not provide or explicitly support this general characterization of autoimmunity; it mainly discusses maternal autoantibodies in pregnancy (MARA) and their reactivity to fetal brain proteins.; The packet supports maternal autoimmunity during pregnancy and autoantibodies reactive to fetal brain proteins, but it does not support the general definition that autoimmunity is a state in which a person produces autoantibodies that react to the body’s own proteins.; The phrase 'potentially affecting fetal development, including the developing brain' goes beyond the packet’s wording by generalizing from reported associations and mechanistic investigation to a broader definitional claim. New packet required. Source: [Blumenthal Katelien H.; McLellan Janna; Van de Water Judy. Effects of maternal autoantibody exposure at the cellular level: implications for the developing brain. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1794161; article XML SHA-256 f5e1d9ac48427d4a2aad8514d336fe97b09759113da6e549776457b0542e5dd9. “Effects of maternal autoantibody exposure at the cellular level: implications for the developing brain” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1794161).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1794161) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- autonoetic [redraft]: The definition adds contrast with “more basic forms of consciousness,” but the packet only contrasts anoetic, noetic, and autonoetic in passing and does not support the broader explanatory framing or the claim that autonoetic is a recognized higher-level consciousness in this source.; The definition claims that autonoetic is “self-reflective consciousness” that includes reflecting on oneself and one’s own mental experience and contrasts it with more basic forms of consciousness; none of these details are explicitly supported or clarified in the provided packet.; The packet does not define “autonoetic.” It only states that “self-reflective autonoetic consciousness appears to be absent,” without explaining what autonoetic means.; The packet does not support describing autonoetic as a “higher-level, self-aware form” in general; it only uses the term in a specific argument about what seems present or absent during tonic immobility.; The packet only mentions “self-reflective autonoetic consciousness” as something that appears absent; it does not define autonoetic as self-reflective consciousness or as a higher-level form of awareness. New packet required. Source: [Woodruff Michael L.. Tonic immobility and phenomenal consciousness in animals: a review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1509999; article XML SHA-256 e524f5fdba18e7caf84930b2ebcd53f32894afca2703501918fca593e30109a4. “Tonic immobility and phenomenal consciousness in animals: a review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1509999).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1509999) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- autonomous [redraft]: General headword narrowed with an in-this-context hedge to self-navigating wheelchairs; not the normal psychological sense of autonomous. New packet required. Source: [Jeong Yihun; Lee Joon Ho; Lee Sun Ho; Park Dahae; Hwang Nahyeon; Choi Woo Young; Hwang Dongwook. Effects of deceleration profiles and driving speed on usability and user perception in autonomous wheelchairs. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850976; article XML SHA-256 d10a818233af54cc1b19152354b4e2bff6742e090a78dc451ee3103f9db9c49a. “Effects of deceleration profiles and driving speed on usability and user perception in autonomous wheelchairs” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850976).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850976) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- autophagy [redraft]: "Problems in this process are linked with some diseases" is broader than the packet’s wording, which says defective autophagy is associated with various diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases and cancer.; The definition adds unsupported generalizations such as "normal body changes" and "tissue remodeling"; the packet specifically mentions biological metamorphosis and removal of bone by osteoclasts, not those broader claims.; The definition states that autophagy “helps with normal body changes and tissue remodeling,” but the provided packet only supports roles in “BIOLOGICAL METAMORPHOSIS” and “removal of bone by OSTEOCLASTS,” not the specific concept of “tissue remodeling.” New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Autophagy” (D001343).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001343) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- autopsy [redraft]: The definition’s claim that the packet does not provide enough information to define autopsy more generally is not supported by the packet itself and goes beyond the cited text.; The packet does not state that the term “autopsy” refers specifically to “psychological autopsy”; it only mentions “Psychological autopsy (PA) methods” as such.; The packet supports “psychological autopsy (PA)” methods, not the general term “autopsy,” so the requested sense is not supported.; While the packet supports that psychological autopsy provides “an in-depth understanding” of “complex risk factors leading to suicide,” the definition’s framing that this is the definition of “autopsy” in general is not explicitly supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Soyuz Josna; Jaihind Jothikaran Teddy Andrews; Sakkir K K; Cherian Anish V; Ashok Lena; Chandrasekaran Varalakshmi; Augustin Boby; Elstin Anbu Raj S. Exploring factors contributing to adolescent suicide using psychological autopsy - A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348014; article XML SHA-256 c26dabd9bec7ea9b3db751957b6a56168de4a71ad5b00e83b8f6443c055b80c1. “Exploring factors contributing to adolescent suicide using psychological autopsy - A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348014).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348014) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- aversion [redraft]: Because “dislike or opposition” is an added substantive meaning not directly present in the packet, the requested sense is not fully defensible from the supplied source.; The claim that this is a “historical term” is not stated in the source text itself and is not supported by the packet’s cited definition.; The definition’s framing as a “historical term” is not explicitly supported by the packet wording itself (the packet is a historical dictionary entry, but it does not state that as part of the definition).; The packet only provides the headword etymology and cross-references (“See APPETENCE, and ANTIPATHY”); it does not support the added definition that aversion means a turning away from something, dislike, or opposition.; The packet text only provides etymology (“a + vertere, to turn”) and cross-references (“See APPETENCE, and ANTIPATHY”); it does not explicitly state that aversion means “dislike or opposition.” New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Aversion” (Aversion).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Aversion) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- aversive conditioning [redraft]: Although the packet supports that aversive conditioning “associates people as a conditioned stimulus with a negative, unconditioned stimulus, such as pain or fright, to increase wariness” and is used “to reverse habituation,” the added emphasis on avoidance is not directly supported.; The definition adds that the subject ‘avoids that cue’ and that the method is used to increase avoidance of humans or related signals; the packet only supports increasing wariness after pairing people with a negative stimulus, not avoidance as such.; The definition claims the subject “avoids that cue” / “increasing avoidance of humans or related signals,” but the packet only describes increases in “wariness” (measured via flight response distances) and “prevent[ing] the need for lethal wildlife management.” It does not explicitly state that avoidance (as such) is the targeted or outcome behavior.; The statement is framed too broadly for the source: the packet describes aversive conditioning in habituated wildlife management, specifically associating people with pain or fright to reverse habituation, rather than a general learning definition for ‘a person or other cue’ in all contexts. New packet required. Source: [Found Rob; Kloppers Elsabé L.; Hurd Thomas E.; St. Clair Colleen Cassady. Intermediate frequency of aversive conditioning best restores wariness in habituated elk ( Cervus canadensis ). 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0199216; article XML SHA-256 033737d17998a2c186cf9b1207d7e363874951ec5f8ce76e14a22bbd18277f69. “Intermediate frequency of aversive conditioning best restores wariness in habituated elk ( Cervus canadensis )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0199216).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199216) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- aversive system [redraft]: The definition adds a general explanatory claim about the system that is not established by the supplied text and goes beyond the packet’s wording.; The packet does not provide a general definition of the term “aversive system” as involving responses linked to “threat, anxiety, or avoidance”; this portion is unsupported.; The packet only supports that the inferior colliculus is described as part of the brain aversive system and has been related to aversive behavior in rats; it does not support the broader definition of an aversive system as brain structures involved in threat, anxiety, or avoidance.; While the packet says the inferior colliculus is “part of the brain aversive system” and that stimulation has been related to “aversive behavior in rats,” the definition’s first sentence contains additional explanatory content not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Ihme Hannah; Schwarting Rainer K. W.; Melo-Thomas Liana. Low frequency deep brain stimulation in the inferior colliculus ameliorates haloperidol-induced catalepsy and reduces anxiety in rats. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243438; article XML SHA-256 1cd058aaed68075ba5237db9853a57d9c908dd0ddbd948e5a5876ecf59b48a7f. “Low frequency deep brain stimulation in the inferior colliculus ameliorates haloperidol-induced catalepsy and reduces anxiety in rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243438).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243438) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- avoidance coping [redraft]: The contrast with “more adaptive coping strategies” is partly supported, but the definition adds a broader explanatory gloss that goes beyond the source text.; The definition’s claim that it is “maladaptive” is not explicitly supported in the packet; the packet only says interventions should target reducing avoidance coping and improving other adaptive coping strategies.; The definition’s contrast with “more adaptive coping strategies” is only implied by the sentence about “improving other adaptive coping strategies,” but the packet does not explicitly characterize avoidance coping as the contrasting construct beyond that recommendation.; The packet does not define avoidance coping as a coping style centered on avoiding distressing psychological experiences or problems; it only mentions reducing avoidance coping in a study implication.; The packet does not define “avoidance coping” (e.g., as avoiding distressing psychological experiences/problems) and provides no description of its meaning beyond mentioning it as something to reduce.; The packet does not explicitly state that avoidance coping is maladaptive, so that characterization is unsupported here. New packet required. Source: [Misiak Błażej; Frydecka Dorota; Szewczuk-Bogusławska Monika. Unravelling associations of personality traits, emotion regulation strategies, coping styles, and psychopathology with suicide risk in university students: a network perspective. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07436-5; article XML SHA-256 29c789cebf6940b498019147ba52e317edddd5b0c3d0f9c87b388cded3fd9315. “Unravelling associations of personality traits, emotion regulation strategies, coping styles, and psychopathology with suicide risk in university students: a network perspective” (10.1186/s12888-025-07436-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07436-5) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- avoidance of intimacy [redraft]: The claim that it is “one dimension of attachment” is not stated in the packet and is an unsupported generalization beyond the source text.; The definition claims that avoidance of intimacy is an attachment style “marked by keeping emotional closeness at a distance,” but the provided packet does not define avoidance of intimacy in those terms.; The definition says it is “treated as one dimension of attachment,” but the packet only lists “abandonment anxiety” and “avoidance of intimacy” as attachment styles used in the study; it does not explicitly describe them as dimensions of attachment.; The only substantiated claim from the packet is that, in this study, “avoidance of intimacy” was shown to contribute to pathological dissociation; the rest of the definition contains unsupported characterization.; The packet supports that “avoidance of intimacy” is an attachment style and that it was associated with pathological dissociation, but it does not explicitly support the added gloss that it is “marked by keeping emotional closeness at a distance in close relationships.” New packet required. Source: [Wang Baihui; Kuroki Toshihide. Association between negatively perceived parenting attitudes and dissociation: a cross-sectional study on the general population in Japan. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1235447; article XML SHA-256 733194191fc13be57611ec38a0de64507dccd67c033558d827d4bf438c745d33. “Association between negatively perceived parenting attitudes and dissociation: a cross-sectional study on the general population in Japan” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1235447).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1235447) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- avoidance response [redraft]: The added phrasing about observers “tending to withdraw” is not stated in the source and goes beyond the packet’s wording.; The definition’s first sentence (“moving away from or shying away from something perceived as threatening”) is a general characterization of “avoidance response” that is not stated in the provided packet text.; The packet only supports a context-specific claim that others’ pain, as a signal of threat, should induce observers’ avoidance response; it does not define the term as a general reaction of moving away or shying away from anything perceived as threatening.; While the packet does state that, under the threat value of pain hypothesis, others’ pain acts as a signal of threat and “should induce observers’ avoidance response,” the packet does not explicitly define “avoidance response” using the specific wording in the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Song Juan; Zhao Zijing; Jiao Zhibin; Peng Yao; Chu Mingyuan. Subliminal perception of others’ physical pain induces personal distress rather than empathic concern. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s40359-023-01310-3; article XML SHA-256 783ce857b97a4f172e4d85e6d0fae538980d2e6c491d02b7d998fa4801124bba. “Subliminal perception of others’ physical pain induces personal distress rather than empathic concern” (10.1186/s40359-023-01310-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01310-3) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- avoidance training [redraft]: General learning term redefined with an in-this-context hedge as Approach Avoidance Training cognitive bias modification; wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [Caudle M M; Klaming R; Fong C; Harlé K; Taylor C; Spadoni A; Bomyea J. Approach avoidance training versus Sham in veterans with alcohol use disorder: protocol for a randomized controlled trial. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-04961-z; article XML SHA-256 5abea1dc1b73c7e2a1d768bea943bdc56758d0924c9eb403e980df904fb5fc6c. “Approach avoidance training versus Sham in veterans with alcohol use disorder: protocol for a randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-023-04961-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04961-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- axis [redraft]: General word axis narrowed with a hedge to one proposed hand-brain-emotion model; packet never defines axis. New packet required. Source: [Guan Ruiqiao; Wang Wenxiao; Dai Jiaming; Li Dengdeng. The ‘hand-brain-emotion’ axis: a theoretical model for handicraft art-based intervention in anxiety disorders through neuroplasticity and autonomic regulation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1786210; article XML SHA-256 defbf6ad33513730ae3b37a909464a979d23cfe737290c4904a49c8de9eae7ba. “The ‘hand-brain-emotion’ axis: a theoretical model for handicraft art-based intervention in anxiety disorders through neuroplasticity and autonomic regulation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1786210).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1786210) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- axonal bundle [redraft]: The definition adds a specific interpretive claim about how the term is used in this source that is not stated in the packet.; The definition’s first substantive claim (“a grouped collection of axons”) is not stated or supported in the provided packet text.; The packet supports only that “axonal bundle size” is measured in vivo in npc1−/− mice and is discussed in connection with “axonal pathology,” but it does not provide the generic definition requested.; The packet supports that axonal bundle size was reported in NPC1-deficient mice, but it does not support defining axonal bundle size as a measure of axonal pathology in the brain. New packet required. Source: [Qin Qingyu; Liao Guanghong; Baudry Michel; Bi Xiaoning. Cholesterol Perturbation in Mice Results in p53 Degradation and Axonal Pathology through p38 MAPK and Mdm2 Activation. 2010; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0009999; article XML SHA-256 d37eefc9f9672ed608dc6f1d97d1f4943013ff50750754857f7030bbea2c3f4c. “Cholesterol Perturbation in Mice Results in p53 Degradation and Axonal Pathology through p38 MAPK and Mdm2 Activation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0009999).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0009999) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- axotomy [redraft]: Because of these unsupported added descriptions, the provided definition is not fully supported by the supplied packet.; The definition adds the unsupported claim that axotomy “creates loss of nerve input”; the packet only states that it is transection or severing of an axon and that this type of denervation is used in experimental studies.; The packet does not explicitly state that axotomy “creates loss of nerve input”; it only says it is a “type of denervation,” which is related but not the same exact claim.; The packet supports “transection or severing of an axon” but does not explicitly support describing an axon as “the long fiber of a nerve cell.” New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Axotomy” (D019771).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019771) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- bacteremia [redraft]: The definition adds a direct gloss (“bloodstream infection caused by bacteria in the blood”) that is not stated in the packet itself; the packet only discusses bacteremia as a condition/case context, morbidity and mortality, and antibiotic decision-making.; The packet does not explicitly state that bacteremia is defined as “a bloodstream infection caused by bacteria in the blood”; it refers to “bloodstream infections (BSIs)” and “bacteremia cases” but does not provide the explicit causal definition phrase.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source is about infectious disease and antimicrobial treatment, not cognition or psychology. New packet required. Source: [Gómez de la Torre Juan Carlos; Frenkel Ari; Chavez-Lencinas Carlos; Rendon Alicia; Fabian Max; Caceres-DelAguila Jose Alonso; Hueda-Zavaleta Miguel. Comparison of OneChoice AI-based clinical decision support recommendations with infectious disease specialists and non-specialists for bacteremia treatment in Lima, Peru. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331266; article XML SHA-256 a41d45be6f616fa283fc357fc2923b9b2649a5b9f4a94acac99a1e584c696c38. “Comparison of OneChoice AI-based clinical decision support recommendations with infectious disease specialists and non-specialists for bacteremia treatment in Lima, Peru” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331266).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331266) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- bad faith [redraft]: Packet defines dolus, not bad faith; definition transfers the dolus description to bad faith then contradicts it; headword unsupported. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dolus” (Dolus).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Dolus) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- balance theory [redraft]: The definition claims a triad is assessed as “balanced or frustrated”; the packet mentions “frustration” and that a term “captures balance theory,” but it does not explicitly define “balanced vs frustrated pattern” as a core criterion in the way stated.; The definition says the organization/change is through a “mix of positive and negative ties”; the packet explicitly mentions “negative edges in the triads,” but does not explicitly reference “positive ties” or a positive/negative mix.; The packet supports triads, balance theory, frustration, and social/political network dynamics, but it does not explicitly support the phrase “positive and negative ties” or the claim that balance theory is defined by the mix of positive and negative ties within triads. New packet required. Source: [Belaza Andres M; Hoefman Kevin; Ryckebusch Jan; Bramson Aaron; van den Heuvel Milan; Schoors Koen. Statistical physics of balance theory. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0183696; article XML SHA-256 d246950ccce6746546e0b291dd45c59e50a41d8514b86e6df3c1110840ef149b. “Statistical physics of balance theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0183696).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0183696) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- balanced bilingual [redraft]: The added claim about a relatively even language profile is not stated in the packet and is not directly supported by the source text.; The definition’s specific framing that the term “implies” a particular language-profile interpretation is not supported by the provided packet text.; The packet does not define what “balanced bilingual” means in terms of having a “relatively even bilingual language profile” or “rather than dominance by only a first language.” It only discusses effects in “balanced bilingual populations.”; The packet supports only a study finding about balanced bilingual populations, not a general definition that an individual balanced bilingual is someone for whom language of written assessment makes little difference to outcomes or symptom ratings.; The packet supports that assessment language on written instruments may have a limited impact on healthcare outcomes/symptom measures, but it does not support the definition’s claim about the implied underlying bilingual language balance/dominance aspect. New packet required. Source: [Erkoreka Leire; Ozamiz-Etxebarria Naiara; Ruiz Onintze; Prieto Maider; Aspiazu Saioa; Mingo Argiñe; Aguirre Urko; Orive Miren; Mancini Simona. Reported severity of psychotic, depressive and anxiety symptoms in relation to bilingual language profile: An exploratory study and the validation of Basque versions of the PQ-B, DASS-42, PHQ-9 and GAD-7. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314069; article XML SHA-256 9cc6f4a243cbba42e103fec1759c552b9c5dc660273056f059dbb5196ed28ae7. “Reported severity of psychotic, depressive and anxiety symptoms in relation to bilingual language profile: An exploratory study and the validation of Basque versions of the PQ-B, DASS-42, PHQ-9 and GAD-7” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314069).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314069) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- banding [redraft]: The definition describes a laboratory procedure for chromosome banding, and the packet classifies it as a “Laboratory Procedure,” not as something in the field of cognition.; The definition is acceptable in substance, but it does not fit the packet’s stated semantic type and source label only as a laboratory procedure; this is the wrong sense for the requested field.; The packet supports a laboratory procedure about chromosome banding, not a cognition concept, so the requested field is not defensible here. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Chromosome Banding” (C16437).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- bar graph [redraft]: Because the substantive explanation in the definition is not explicitly supported by the supplied packet, the requested sense of “bar graph” is not defensible from the source provided.; The definition’s statement that a bar graph shows values with bars whose height represents the amount is not stated in the packet; the packet only says a line graph is essentially a bar graph in which each bar is represented by a single point connected by a line.; The packet content is about a “Line Graph” and only indirectly mentions “bar graph” (“Essentially a bar graph…”). It does not provide a definition of “bar graph” showing that “each bar’s height represents the amount for that value or category.”; The packet source is a glossary entry for “Line Graph,” not “bar graph,” so the requested term/sense is not directly supported. New packet required. Source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Line Graph” (line_graph.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/line_graph.html) ([public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html))

- baro- [redraft]: The definition claims that “baro- refers to the body system involved in regulating blood pressure through autonomic reflexes,” but the packet describes baroreflex failure as a condition with blood pressure effects rather than explicitly stating the prefix’s meaning or that it denotes a specific body “system.”; The definition is framed for the field “cognition,” but the packet material provided concerns autonomic/cardiovascular function after neck irradiation rather than cognition.; The definition is more expansive than the packet warrants and reads as an inferred explanation rather than a strict dictionary sense supported by the supplied text.; The definition overgeneralizes the prefix: the packet supports its use in words like “baroreflex” and “baroreceptor” in a blood-pressure/autonomic context, but not that baro- itself refers to a “body system.”; The field is not supported by the packet; the source is a medical/autonomic article, not a cognition entry.; The packet does not define what the prefix “baro-” means as a standalone term; it only uses “baroreflex”/“baroreceptor” in the context of radiation-induced baroreflex failure and blood-pressure lability. New packet required. Source: [Triantafyllou Efthymios; Flores Ingrid González; Iliescu Cezar; Deswal Anita; Mouhayar Elie; Fuller Clifton D; Koutroumpakis Efstratios. Targeted autonomic testing for radiation‑induced baroreflex failure in head and neck cancer survivors: index case and early program experience. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40959-026-00501-2; article XML SHA-256 3343b9c639e2155ab0ec1fd57bb0a8254b4a8f01ed466ec82fe84eeb713b308b. “Targeted autonomic testing for radiation‑induced baroreflex failure in head and neck cancer survivors: index case and early program experience” (10.1186/s40959-026-00501-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40959-026-00501-2) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- barrier [redraft]: General headword barrier redefined as the gut epithelial barrier; wrong narrow sense for the dictionary term. New packet required. Source: [Monfort Sanchez Elena; Watson Aaron F.; Haider Tafhima; Chrysostomou Despoina; Storder Maelle; Mandal Nilanjan; Kelly Paul; Marchesi Julian R.; Avery James; Bourke Claire D.; Thompson Alex J.. Assessment of epithelial barrier integrity in cellular monolayer models using low cost, clinically approved fluorescent contrast agents. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358746; article XML SHA-256 c0e8026ee352b131951ea746b590eb372c2028b4bde73edde6a4c138af846ae7. “Assessment of epithelial barrier integrity in cellular monolayer models using low cost, clinically approved fluorescent contrast agents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358746).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358746) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- basal nuclei [redraft]: The definition adds “beneath the cerebral cortex,” which is not stated verbatim in the packet, even though the packet supports a related location description (“basal regions of the cerebral hemispheres”).; The packet does not explicitly support describing the telencephalon as “a major part of the forebrain”; it only states that the structures are “derived from the telencephalon.”; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that the basal nuclei are located in the “lower parts” of the cerebral hemispheres.; The phrase “a major part of the forebrain” is not supported by the packet; the source only says the structures are derived from the telencephalon. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Basal Ganglia” (D001479).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001479) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- baseline performance [redraft]: The claim that low baseline performance means poorer detection overstates the source wording and adds an interpretation not stated in the packet.; The definition’s first sentence (“starting level of performance on a task before considering the effect of an added manipulation or condition”) is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text.; The packet does support the second sentence’s specific claim that low baseline performance means poorer detection reflecting a weak perceptual signal (it states subthreshold TMS effects depend on whether baseline performance is low, “reflecting a situation with a weak perceptual signal”).; The packet only supports that low baseline performance is associated with a weak perceptual signal and can affect detection under TMS; it does not define baseline performance as a general starting level on a task before an added manipulation or condition. New packet required. Source: [Silvanto Juha; Bona Silvia; Marelli Marco; Cattaneo Zaira. On the Mechanisms of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): How Brain State and Baseline Performance Level Determine Behavioral Effects of TMS. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00741; article XML SHA-256 cffd6f508c5a3669c2251e819b41eda287dce897f4ee235afff72e275b2f8928. “On the Mechanisms of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): How Brain State and Baseline Performance Level Determine Behavioral Effects of TMS” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00741).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00741) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- baseline [redraft]: The claim that baseline findings are ‘used as a point of comparison for later results’ is not established by the packet; the source only says inconsistent baseline findings complicate interpretation of dual-task effects.; The definition adds a general meaning of baseline as a ‘starting or reference pattern’ measured under ‘standard conditions,’ but the packet only mentions ‘baseline findings’ in the context of dual-task gait assessment and does not support that broader formulation.; The definition’s phrasing includes general methodological details (“measured under standard conditions”) not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The final sentence generalizes to cognition research overall, while the packet supports only this narrower dual-task gait study context.; The packet does not define “baseline” as a starting/reference pattern of findings measured under standard conditions, nor does it state that baseline is used as a point of comparison for later results.; The packet mentions “baseline findings” in the context of dual-task gait paradigms, but it does not support the specific cognition-research interpretation that baseline findings help interpret whether another task/condition changes performance. New packet required. Source: [Al-Amri Mohammad; Abdallat Rula; Mashabi Abdulrhman; Al Balushi Hilal. Dual-task gait assessment using n-back testing during self-paced treadmill walking in virtual reality: reliability and baseline characterisation for future clinical application. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1807769; article XML SHA-256 63d55314a89f2f309e70d9410c2e0074cd1246fa3aaf8f556342144a3bac14ed. “Dual-task gait assessment using n-back testing during self-paced treadmill walking in virtual reality: reliability and baseline characterisation for future clinical application” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1807769).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1807769) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- basic need [redraft]: The definition claims that “Satisfaction of these needs at work is linked with supportive job conditions.” The packet specifies that competence/autonomy/relatedness were associated with “job resources (social support, job autonomy, professional growth),” but it does not use or directly support the broader phrase “supportive job conditions.”; “more positive job attitudes” overgeneralizes the source, which names job satisfaction and commitment and also reports turnover intentions/intentions to leave as an outcome rather than a positive attitude.; “supportive job conditions” is broader than the source support, which specifically reports associations with job resources such as social support, job autonomy, and professional growth. New packet required. Source: [Colledani Daiana; Capozza Dora; Falvo Rossella; Di Bernardo Gian Antonio. The Work-Related Basic Need Satisfaction Scale: An Italian Validation. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01859; article XML SHA-256 9d8e7e2e6dccc292f9476f2035eabfec0a97e812b14327934bf32ed0befee639. “The Work-Related Basic Need Satisfaction Scale: An Italian Validation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01859).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01859) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- basic personality [redraft]: Partially supported: the packet mentions the Big Five model and lists the five traits (neuroticism, extroversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness) and discusses personality traits/self-perception in relation to stress/anxiety/depression, but it does not support the specific wording or framing of the definition as a general meaning of the term “basic personality.”; The definition adds an unsupported gloss that basic personality means broad underlying traits describing a person’s characteristic style of thinking, feeling, and behaving; the packet only says the Big Five model embraces five basic personality traits.; The packet supports the Big Five list, but not the broader definitional framing or the implication that this is the meaning of the term rather than a model mentioned in the source.; Unsupported substantive claim: the packet does not define “basic personality” as broad underlying traits describing characteristic style of thinking, feeling, and behaving. New packet required. Source: [Tuygar Okutucu Fatma; Ceyhun Hacer Akgul. The impact of anxiety and depression levels on the Big Five personality traits. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321373; article XML SHA-256 8bc9ca54aaed681f7edc24fbce371993d6c3922f38ffe4661ec4d16f74746433. “The impact of anxiety and depression levels on the Big Five personality traits” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321373).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321373) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- basic research [redraft]: The contrast with “translational work” is partially supported (the packet says NIMH aims to balance basic research with translational work to advance treatments and address mental health disparities), but the definition adds additional claims about “improve treatments for mental disorders” and “reduce mental health disparities” beyond what is explicitly phrased in the packet text.; The packet does not define “basic research” as “foundational scientific study focused on making fundamental discoveries.” It only mentions balancing basic research with translational work.; The packet supports that NIMH balances basic research with translational work to advance treatments and address mental health disparities, but it does not define basic research as “foundational scientific study focused on making fundamental discoveries.”; The requested field is “diagnosis,” but the packet provides only a general history/program overview and does not connect the term to diagnosis specifically. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. National Institute of Mental Health: Celebrating 75 Years. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 6fa7f5095499edb4dcbd8f11ff9e41e0cebd8130a7b96f81670e62a49c216b71. “National Institute of Mental Health: Celebrating 75 Years” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/national-institute-of-mental-health-celebrating-75-years).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/national-institute-of-mental-health-celebrating-75-years) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- basic technique [redraft]: The definition adds interpretive framing (“established protein-measurement methods”) that goes beyond the packet’s narrower wording.; The packet does not support the claim that a “basic technique” is “a standard laboratory method used as a starting approach.” It only states that ELISA or Western blot “is known as a basic technique” for measuring intracellular proteins.; The packet does not support the claim that these methods are “widely used.”; The remainder of the definition’s limitations (e.g., problems with normalization and commercial kit cost; ELISA vs. Western blot time and facilities) is supported by the packet, but the unsupported elements above prevent a defensible pass.; “Standard laboratory method” and “widely used” are broader generalizations than the packet supports; the source does not define the term that way.; “Starting approach” is not supported by the source; the packet only says ELISA or Western blot are known as a basic technique for protein measurement, not that the term means an initial or starting method. New packet required. Source: [Edabashi Haiam; Elghadafi Radwa; Rajkanth Nischwethaa; Mody Janvi Saurabh; Ma Weiyuan; Dibart Serge; Tang Xiaoren. A hybrid technique for measurement of intra/extracellular proteins. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0282948; article XML SHA-256 942113bdc9da606fe807f19b0a99e020c9f85cb8049ae2055aa9c5d63d7da8bb. “A hybrid technique for measurement of intra/extracellular proteins” (10.1371/journal.pone.0282948).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282948) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Bayesian inference [redraft]: It broadens the source beyond the barn owl sound-localization context into general psychology and neuroscience claims about perception and behavior adapting to changing sensory reliability; the packet only supports that Bayesian models have been effective in characterizing those phenomena and that this specific model approximates a Bayesian estimate under varying sensory reliability.; The definition adds a general explanation of Bayesian inference as combining current sensory information with prior expectations, which is not stated in the supplied source packet.; The definition’s claim that Bayesian inference is “estimating what is most likely by combining current sensory information with prior expectations” is not explicitly stated or supported in the provided packet text.; The requested field is 'learning,' but the packet evidence is about perception, behavior, and neural encoding in sound localization rather than learning.; While the packet supports that Bayesian inference is used to characterize perception/behavior and that sensory reliability varies in the context of single-trial approximation, it does not provide the specific mechanism described in the first sentence (combining sensory information with prior expectations to estimate the most likely outcome). New packet required. Source: [Fischer Brian J; Shadron Keanu; Ferger Roland; Peña José L. Single trial Bayesian inference by population vector readout in the barn owl’s sound localization system. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0303843; article XML SHA-256 cc0badbea1a915f3c18d1fcacb669ede953e97711864024b4a8a907499bb9e12. “Single trial Bayesian inference by population vector readout in the barn owl’s sound localization system” (10.1371/journal.pone.0303843).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303843) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Bayesian [redraft]: Never says what Bayesian means; packet only names Bayesian meta-analyses, so definition narrows a general term to a circular description. New packet required. Source: [Shan Zhiming; Yang Weiqian; Wang Pu. Effects of imagery practice on basketball-related skills and psychological outcomes: a systematic review and Bayesian meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1888190; article XML SHA-256 f2a186c19486cbad96cdceb63941d03640d839ec510008670f6e6a400f222f53. “Effects of imagery practice on basketball-related skills and psychological outcomes: a systematic review and Bayesian meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1888190).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1888190) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- beat [redraft]: Because the definition’s core definitional claim (“beat is the basic time unit…”) is not directly supported by the provided text, the requested sense of the term is not fully defensible from the packet.; The claim that analyzing beats helps quantify expressive timing in skilled piano playing is broader than the packet supports; the source describes feature extraction and associations in classical piano performance, not a general definition of beats or an explicit statement about beats themselves.; The packet does not define a beat as the basic time unit of musical performance; it only mentions measures such as beat interval variability and local tempo change.; The packet does not explicitly define “beat” as the “basic time unit” in musical performance; it only mentions measurable features such as “beat interval variability” and “local tempo change” without stating a definitional meaning of the term. New packet required. Source: [Yan Mengjiao. Expressive coupling and textural dissociation in classical piano performance: evidence from the ASAP dataset. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1882570; article XML SHA-256 74008a538e128b99c60f5630b8906d3c5ceaa63cde5ee8ddb6c672fe4a14c438. “Expressive coupling and textural dissociation in classical piano performance: evidence from the ASAP dataset” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1882570).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1882570) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Beck Depression Inventory [redraft]: The definition adds general explanatory content that is not supported by the supplied source packet.; The definition focuses on “Beck Depression Inventory” but the packet provides support only for the revised form “Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II),” creating a term/sense mismatch.; The definition’s first sentence makes a general characterization (“used to measure depressive symptoms”) that is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet only lists BDI-II among neuropsychiatric/depressive symptom outcome measures in a specific DBS meta-analysis context.; The packet does not support that the term “Beck Depression Inventory” (BDI) itself is used to measure depressive symptoms; it only mentions “Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II)” as an outcome measure.; The packet supports only the Beck Depression Inventory-II as an outcome measure; it does not define the original Beck Depression Inventory or state that it is a psychological assessment used to measure depressive symptoms. New packet required. Source: [Ning Jing; Lv Xiujuan; You Jianyu; Zhou Xingyu; An Chengfei; Zhou Zhigang. Neuropsychological outcomes comparing deep brain stimulation and best medical treatment for Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587; article XML SHA-256 af971fb6a9b037c466d05ee91fa126e1c1ba634efe2ff3d6a458939cb778efd1. “Neuropsychological outcomes comparing deep brain stimulation and best medical treatment for Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation [redraft]: The definition states the measure is a “self-report response scale,” but the provided packet only says participants “responded to the Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation (BSS)” and does not explicitly characterize it as self-report.; The definition’s claim that it is used “for studying the nature and variation of suicidal thoughts” is only partly supported: the packet describes a “taxometric investigation into the underlying structure of suicidal ideation,” but it does not clearly support the specific phrasing about “nature and variation of suicidal thoughts.”; The packet only shows that participants in a study responded to the Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation; it does not explicitly support describing the instrument as a “self-report response scale.”; The packet supports a taxometric study of suicidal ideation in which the BSS was one measure used, but it does not support the broader claim that the BSS is used “for studying the nature and variation of suicidal thoughts.” New packet required. Source: [Carvalho Lucas de Francisco; Machado Gisele Magarotto; Pianowski Giselle; Hauck-Filho Nelson; Baptista Makilim Nunes; Grønnerød Cato. Persistently ambiguous: a taxometric investigation on two groups of suicidal ideation indicators. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1729597; article XML SHA-256 d9dd04be4564fcabb63d86034a7218bbf63d8331aaa47fe77e97c6e221e2f1e6. “Persistently ambiguous: a taxometric investigation on two groups of suicidal ideation indicators” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1729597).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1729597) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Bedlam [redraft]: Because the first substantive claim about “Bedlam” as the linking historical name is unsupported by the packet, the definition cannot be accepted as written.; The definition adds a linking statement that is not grounded in the supplied passage; the passage names Bethlem Royal Hospital but does not identify it as “Bedlam.”; The packet does not define “Bedlam” as a historical name linked to Bethlem Royal Hospital; it only contains discussion of “BETHLEIVE ROVAI. HOSPZTAI..” and related phrases (e.g., “Tom o' Bedlam”), without stating that “Bedlam” is the name linked to that hospital.; The packet supports the Bethlem Royal Hospital history and that lunatics were later received there, but it does not explicitly support the claim that “Bedlam” is the historical name for Bethlem Royal Hospital in London.; The portion stating that it “was later used to receive insane patients” is only partially supported: the packet says the earliest mention of “any insane patients” being there was in 1403, but it does not directly connect this to the phrase “later used” in the way the definition asserts.; The portion stating that the hospital “was not originally intended for lunatics” is supported by the packet (“not originally intended for lunatics”). New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-756000-768000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- behavior control [redraft]: The definition slightly rephrases the source with extra generalization; it should stay within the narrower scope of the packet rather than adding unsupported therapeutic framing.; The packet definition supports “manipulation… by biomedical, physical, psychological, or social means” but does not state that behavior control can be done for therapeutic purposes; your definition adds “for therapeutic purposes,” which is unsupported by the provided text.; The packet supports manipulation of behavior by biomedical, physical, psychological, or social means, including nontherapeutic uses, but it does not support the added claim that behavior control can be done for therapeutic purposes. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Behavior Control” (D032763).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D032763) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- behavior determinant [redraft]: Because the definition’s key elements (the meaning of the term and its general description as an influence on acting) are not supported by the supplied text, the definition cannot be validated against the packet.; The added explanation about identifying influences a program should target to design an intervention for behaviors of concern is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source.; The definition reads as a generalized behavior-change/public health concept rather than a learning-field sense supported by the packet.; The packet does not define “behavior determinant” as a general factor that shapes whether people act in a certain way; it only recommends using a behavior-determinant-intervention logic model in study design.; The packet only mentions using a “behavior-determinant-intervention logic model” to guide study design, but it does not describe what a “behavior determinant” specifically means within that model.; The provided packet does not define “behavior determinant” or state that it is “a factor that shapes or influences whether people act in a certain way.” New packet required. Source: [Fahme Sasha Abdallah; Khater Beatrice; Dagher Myriam; DeJong Jocelyn; Abdulrahim Sawsan. Developing a sexual and reproductive health educational intervention for adolescent Syrian refugee girls: Challenges and lessons learned. 2022; DOI 10.3389/frph.2022.780157; article XML SHA-256 4b8e750935358ab042736e35b7a5ad61747a4ebb5aa91f2b1c2b6cbdb3e942d2. “Developing a sexual and reproductive health educational intervention for adolescent Syrian refugee girls: Challenges and lessons learned” (10.3389/frph.2022.780157).](https://doi.org/10.3389/frph.2022.780157) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavior hierarchy [redraft]: Packet term is value-attitude-behavior hierarchy; definition hedges to attach that theory to the bare headword behavior hierarchy. New packet required. Source: [Song Jia; Kajalo Sami. Psychological determinants of participation in the sharing economy: a cross-cultural study of the U.S. and China. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1666282; article XML SHA-256 0f53e6bc267927f0e99b430a7f6d53e52ab630e0ba882e18496cf8f91424411a. “Psychological determinants of participation in the sharing economy: a cross-cultural study of the U.S. and China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1666282).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1666282) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavior pattern [redraft]: The definition adds a general abstract gloss (“recognizable, recurring way that actions unfold over time and space”) that is broader than the packet’s specific use; the packet only supports tourist movement patterns classified from digital footprints and photographs.; The definition’s wording that a behavior pattern is a “recognizable, recurring way that actions unfold over time and space” is more general than what the packet explicitly states; the packet only describes “spatiotemporal behavior patterns” of tourists and their classification, without explicitly supporting the “recognizable, recurring” formulation.; The packet supports a tourism/spatiotemporal behavior-pattern classification, not a learning-field sense of the term, so the requested field is not defensible from the source.; While the packet supports that tourists’ spatiotemporal movement/behavior were classified into distinct “typical behavior patterns” (five types) based on recorded digital footprints, the first sentence adds descriptive elements not clearly present in the packet text. New packet required. Source: [Dong Wei; Kang Qi; Wang Guangkui; Zhang Bin; Liu Ping. Spatiotemporal behavior pattern differentiation and preference identification of tourists from the perspective of ecotourism destination based on the tourism digital footprint data. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285192; article XML SHA-256 fcbc1330b333a10fb94cceff2d811ec8062094fc237d0e21689222971617bb0b. “Spatiotemporal behavior pattern differentiation and preference identification of tourists from the perspective of ecotourism destination based on the tourism digital footprint data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285192).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285192) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavior problem [redraft]: Claims that a “behavior problem” is “a pattern of problematic behavior symptoms” and that it is “often involving antisocial actions” are not directly supported as a definitional characterization in the provided text.; The definition adds broad clinical/general claims that are not stated in the source, so the requested sense is not fully supported by the packet.; The packet does not provide a definition of “behavior problem”; it only uses the phrase “behavior problem symptoms” and examines their association with children’s lying.; The packet supports only that children’s lying for personal reward is associated with behavior problems; it does not define “behavior problem” as a general pattern of problematic symptoms or as a category specifically involving aggression or delinquency.; The packet supports that behavior problems/symptoms correlate with aggression and delinquency and are associated with children’s lying for personal reward, but the first sentence’s general framing (“pattern,” “often involving antisocial actions such as…”) goes beyond what the packet states. New packet required. Source: [Liu Xue; Shang Siyuan; Zanette Sarah; Zhang Yongkang; Sun Qingzhou; Sai Liyang. An experimental investigation of association between children’s lying and behavior problems. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.982012; article XML SHA-256 43b4a20940711a38a832c94bc3c444376313c42d799a3a373dfc75c58273cf16. “An experimental investigation of association between children’s lying and behavior problems” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.982012).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.982012) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavioral assessment [redraft]: The definition adds purpose/interpretation (“used to look at patterns…in relation to expected responses”) that is not supported by the supplied packet text.; The definition goes beyond the source by turning a brief descriptor into a broader explanatory statement without support.; The packet supports only “Assessment of individual responses to age appropriate stimuli.” It does not mention evaluating “patterns of behavior” or relating behavior to “expected responses.”; The second sentence is not supported by the packet: it adds that the assessment is used to look at patterns of behavior and expected responses, which is not in the source text. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Behavioral Assessment” (C81234).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavioral coaching [redraft]: The definition’s wording (“behavioral coaching,” “work practices,” “other behavior-based activities”) generalizes from the packet’s discussion of coaching broadly and behavioral outcomes, but the packet does not explicitly define “behavioral coaching” as a named approach with those defining characteristics.; The first sentence’s formulation about an approach aimed at producing positive change in behavior is broader than the packet’s evidence, which only says coaching can develop new habits, attitudes, and work practices and that behavioral outcomes were more affected than other outcome types.; The packet discusses *executive coaching* outcomes, not a distinct definition of the term “behavioral coaching,” so the first sentence’s claim that “behavioral coaching is a coaching approach aimed at producing positive change in what people do” is not directly supported by the provided source text.; The packet discusses executive coaching and its behavioral outcomes, but it does not define the term "behavioral coaching" as a distinct coaching approach.; The statement generalizes from one meta-analysis of executive coaching to a broad definition of behavioral coaching without support from the source. New packet required. Source: [Nicolau Andreea; Candel Octav Sorin; Constantin Ticu; Kleingeld Ad. The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1089797; article XML SHA-256 a1b696376d5f7b0203b424df66d61cf046e14299ddadf465543f328ba926a0dc. “The effects of executive coaching on behaviors, attitudes, and personal characteristics: a meta-analysis of randomized control trial studies” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1089797).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1089797) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavioral deficit [redraft]: The definition’s general characterization (“an impairment or disturbance in normal behavior”) is not explicitly supported by the packet text, which only describes “behavioral deficits” observed after prenatal LPS exposure.; The definition’s “learning” field connection is not supported: the packet discusses behavioral outcomes (depression/anxiety/schizophrenia-like changes) in mice, but does not describe learning-specific constructs or learning tasks.; The opening clause defines the term too broadly as a general impairment or disturbance in normal behavior; the packet only supports a specific research-context use describing adverse postnatal behavioral effects in mice after prenatal LPS exposure.; The wording ‘anxiety-, depression-, or schizophrenia-like changes’ is only supported as examples in the cited study context, not as a general dictionary sense of the term.; While the packet supports that the deficits include depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia-like outcomes and that they are studied as postnatal behavioral deficits in adult offspring after prenatal exposure, the broader first-sentence wording goes beyond what the packet states. New packet required. Source: [Al-Amin Md. Mamun; Sultana Rabeya; Sultana Sharmin; Rahman Md. Mahbubur; Reza Hasan Mahmud. Astaxanthin ameliorates prenatal LPS-exposed behavioral deficits and oxidative stress in adult offspring. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12868-016-0245-z; article XML SHA-256 ca224e20103d3aef7e9e358287af07e35e18dbd9f917aa7857dafc4af9a5ce83. “Astaxanthin ameliorates prenatal LPS-exposed behavioral deficits and oxidative stress in adult offspring” (10.1186/s12868-016-0245-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-016-0245-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavioral family therapy [redraft]: Packet term is cognitive-behavioral family therapy for ASD psychoeducation; headword behavioral family therapy is a different, distinct approach. New packet required. Source: [Oshima Fumiyo; William Mandy; Takahashi Noriko; Tsuchiyagaito Aki; Kuwabara Hitoshi; Shiina Akihiro; Seto Mikuko; Hongo Minako; Iwama Yui; Hirano Yoshiyuki; Sutoh Chihiro; Taguchi Kayoko; Yoshida Tokiko; Kawasaki Yohei; Ozawa Yoshihito; Masuya Jiro; Sato Noriyuki; Nakamura Shizuka; Kuno Masaru; Takahashi Jumpei; Ohtani Toshiyuki; Matsuzawa Daisuke; Inada Naoko; Kuroda Miho; Ando Mika; Hori Arinobu; Nakagawa Akiko; Shimizu Eiji. Cognitive-behavioral family therapy as psychoeducation for adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders: Aware and Care for my Autistic Traits (ACAT) program study protocol for a pragmatic multisite randomized controlled trial. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s13063-020-04750-z; article XML SHA-256 c10a1c403847ef95fb532c0abd13218a2d6f1cf802759262bfdc813b26013e4a. “Cognitive-behavioral family therapy as psychoeducation for adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders: Aware and Care for my Autistic Traits (ACAT) program study protocol for a pragmatic multisite randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s13063-020-04750-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-020-04750-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavioral group therapy [redraft]: The definition’s framing (“as used in this packet, refers to cognitive-behavioral therapy provided in a group setting”) is therefore not directly supported by the packet’s wording, even though the packet does mention group CBT for depression in an outpatient clinic.; The field "learning" is not supported by the packet, which concerns clinical treatment for depression in psychiatric outpatient care rather than a learning topic.; The packet does not define the term “behavioral group therapy”; it discusses “cognitive-behavioral group therapy (group CBT)” rather than stating that “behavioral group therapy” is used to mean CBT in a group setting.; The packet supports cognitive-behavioral group therapy (group CBT), not the standalone term "behavioral group therapy," so the definition uses a broader or different sense than the source establishes. New packet required. Source: [Thimm Jens C; Antonsen Liss. Effectiveness of cognitive behavioral group therapy for depression in routine practice. 2014; DOI 10.1186/s12888-014-0292-x; article XML SHA-256 2cd914036f8553af1dfe89203c2336b7a997b5c35255285a59c12881497ab0cb. “Effectiveness of cognitive behavioral group therapy for depression in routine practice” (10.1186/s12888-014-0292-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-014-0292-x) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavioral health care [redraft]: It is not clearly supported in the packet that the term “behavioral health care” (as a general definition) is *specifically* confined to “outpatient or intensive outpatient services for youth.” The packet describes one example program (STAR Center) providing outpatient and intensive outpatient mental health treatment for suicidal youth, but it does not define “behavioral health care” in general as such.; The definition adds a broad generic gloss (“clinical care provided in mental health settings for problems involving thoughts, feelings, and behaviors”) that is not stated in the packet.; The definition is framed as an overall definition of “behavioral health care,” but the provided packet is primarily about measurement-based care (MBC) for suicidal youth rather than a standalone definition of the term itself.; The definition’s opening generalization—“problems involving thoughts, feelings, and behaviors”—is only partially supported. The packet explicitly discusses “suicidal thoughts and behaviors,” but it does not clearly support the inclusion of “feelings.”; The field label is not supported by the source packet; the packet is about clinical/implementation context, not an ethics term.; The packet supports a specific STAR Center context: outpatient and intensive outpatient mental health treatment for suicidal youth, not a general definition of the term.; The packet supports monitoring symptoms and suicide risk to inform treatment decisions, but not the broader wording that this is the meaning of “behavioral health care” in general. New packet required. Source: [Victor Sarah E; Salk Rachel H; Porta Giovanna; Hamilton Edward; Bero Kelsey; Poling Kim; Brent David A; Goldstein Tina R. Measurement-based care for suicidal youth: Outcomes and recommendations from the Services for Teens At Risk (STAR) Center. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0284073; article XML SHA-256 420da72170cfdbfe247a95a2203666cd21c53ff5897cc90c9391ccf843c42772. “Measurement-based care for suicidal youth: Outcomes and recommendations from the Services for Teens At Risk (STAR) Center” (10.1371/journal.pone.0284073).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284073) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavioral homeostasis [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported glosses such as “healthy pattern of behavior” and “despite stress or other challenges,” which are not stated in the packet.; The first sentence (“maintenance of a stable, healthy pattern of behavior despite stress…”) is a general behavioral-psychology gloss that is not supported by the packet text provided.; The packet supports only that microglia play an important role in the maintenance of brain and behavioral homeostasis; it does not define the term as “brain processes” or specifically as microglial activity.; The packet text supports that microglia are involved in “brain and behavioral homeostasis,” but it does not provide the specific definition components in the prompt (e.g., “stable, healthy pattern of behavior” and “despite stress or other challenges”) in those terms.; The provided definition treats “behavioral homeostasis” as a concept applicable to “diagnosis,” but the packet does not use it as a diagnostic concept or diagnostic criterion; it is discussed in research context related to stress and psychiatric disorders.; The requested sense is too expansive and partly reinterprets the term rather than defining the packet-supported meaning. New packet required. Source: [Yan Ling; Xuan Fang-Ling; Chen Song; Gou Mengzhuang; Chen Wenjin; Li Yanli; Wang Zhiren; Wang Leilei; Xie Ting; Fan Fengmei; Zharkovsky Alexander; Tan Yunlong; Tian Li. Replenished microglia partially rescue schizophrenia-related stress response. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fncel.2023.1254923; article XML SHA-256 2c73b7623f935e935a65db98a0d512adf3750bd0c218fd38a47c19c1287ba10f. “Replenished microglia partially rescue schizophrenia-related stress response” (10.3389/fncel.2023.1254923).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2023.1254923) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavioral inhibition system [redraft]: Individual difference system and neglect influencing BIS are not in packet; never says what BIS is. New packet required. Source: [Jin Min Jin; Jung Wookyoung; Hyun Myoung Ho; Lee Seung-Hwan. Effect of behavioral inhibition system and childhood emotional neglect on serotonergic activity, negative affect, and rejection sensitivity in non-clinical adults. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0207746; article XML SHA-256 896d106af09bdda9822eb9d24123bfd8e79b31bfef9a24b896f8a689ee906329. “Effect of behavioral inhibition system and childhood emotional neglect on serotonergic activity, negative affect, and rejection sensitivity in non-clinical adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0207746).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207746) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavioral mimicry [redraft]: The packet does not support the claim that behavioral mimicry is part of a developing set of social behaviors used to coordinate with others; it only says early development of implicit social behaviors remains uncertain and mentions coordination in a broader discussion of interaction behaviors.; The packet does not support the specific characterization that behavioral mimicry is “mirroring another person’s behavior during interaction.” It only states that it is an “implicit behavior thought to develop during early childhood” and discusses interaction behaviors broadly (including imitation/coordination tasks) without defining behavioral mimicry as mirroring.; The packet mentions early childhood development, but it does not describe mimicry as “part of the developing set of social behaviors used to coordinate with others.” It notes that roles in early social interactions remain unknown and does not assert that mimicry coordinates with others.; The packet supports that behavioral mimicry is an implicit behavior thought to develop during early childhood, but it does not explicitly support the added gloss that it means mirroring another person's behavior during interaction. New packet required. Source: [van Schaik Johanna E; Hunnius Sabine. Modulating mimicry: Exploring the roles of inhibitory control and social understanding in 5-year-olds' behavioral mimicry. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0194102; article XML SHA-256 d486a4553ed3c67f855ac59a7a23d7ab5ee912c82dfc34031773174a3f4806e0. “Modulating mimicry: Exploring the roles of inhibitory control and social understanding in 5-year-olds' behavioral mimicry” (10.1371/journal.pone.0194102).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194102) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavioral model [redraft]: General headword redefined as Andersen service-use model, a narrower thing the packet happens to discuss. New packet required. Source: [Amirian Elaheh; Razeghi Samaneh; Molaei Alireza; Shamshiri Ahmad R; Mohebbi Simin Z. Preventive and curative dental services utilization among children aged 12 years and younger in Tehran, Iran, based on the Andersen behavioral model: A generalized structural equation modeling. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312043; article XML SHA-256 2b4fc7a3ffa4ab1ee34a24d52dadf14ae99de61128add2e4824d919730ebdbeb. “Preventive and curative dental services utilization among children aged 12 years and younger in Tehran, Iran, based on the Andersen behavioral model: A generalized structural equation modeling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312043).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312043) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavioral modeling [redraft]: The added clause about peers shaping adolescents’ physical exercise through a motivating social atmosphere is a study-specific interpretation that goes beyond the packet’s wording and reads like a contextual explanation rather than a supported definition.; The definition’s wording adds specificity (“peers shaping adolescents’ physical exercise,” “models of active behavior,” and a “motivating social atmosphere”) that is consistent with the packet’s category label, but the packet does not spell out these mechanistic details in a way that directly supports the definition’s phrasing.; The packet does not provide the requested general, first-sentence definition that behavioral modeling involves “showing behaviors that others may copy or use as examples.”; The packet only states that one of the synthesized peer-effect pathways is “Behavioral Modeling and Atmosphere,” and that peer effects influence adolescents’ participation and persistence in physical exercise through multiple pathways; it does not explicitly describe behavioral modeling as peers providing “models of active behavior” that others copy.; The packet supports behavioral modeling as one pathway among peer effects, but it does not define the term as a general process of people influencing one another by imitation or copying. New packet required. Source: [Chen Kai; Chen Cheng; Yang Jincheng; Li Zhongdong. The impact of peer effects on adolescents' physical exercise: a meta-synthesis study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1748992; article XML SHA-256 052504028d58e59df66f3202baa708751b2162f5b85a0b98d93d028042016065. “The impact of peer effects on adolescents' physical exercise: a meta-synthesis study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1748992).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1748992) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavioral neuroscience [redraft]: Defines the field as experimental behavior research with no neural component; wrong sense of headword. New packet required. Source: [Berg Shaira; Fletcher Paul C.; Robbins Trevor W.; Milton Amy L.. From facing fears to experimental frontiers: immersive cinematic virtual reality environments as a catalyst for innovation in behavioral neuroscience. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1893646; article XML SHA-256 d79aa6415e2157dfa0aa567298095f385eca31b077688d35f321844241e7d666. “From facing fears to experimental frontiers: immersive cinematic virtual reality environments as a catalyst for innovation in behavioral neuroscience” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1893646).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1893646) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- behavioral psychology [redraft]: Hedges with in this learning context and redefines behavioral psychology as a perceptions-to-engagement pathway. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Lingli; Li Qian. Ethical perceptions and learning engagement in AI-assisted translation: a behavioral psychology study of English learners. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739478; article XML SHA-256 f79f08e39e715481ff84336b8b3bd9604b4b8fcd1b6c0cd9187120b2cc806481. “Ethical perceptions and learning engagement in AI-assisted translation: a behavioral psychology study of English learners” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739478).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739478) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- belief in a just world [redraft]: The definition claims BJW is “a relatively stable personal trait,” but the provided packet describes BJW as an “individual trait” with “adaptive functions” and a “foundation for coping strategies,” without stating that it is relatively stable.; The definition slightly overstates the packet’s wording by generalizing from study context to a broad psychology definition without enough support from the source text.; The packet supports BJW as a personal trait that aids coping and is associated with well-being and lower distress, but it does not clearly support the claim that it is a "relatively stable" trait in general. New packet required. Source: [Li Jia; Bai Junqing; Ouyang Lixia; Lin He. How belief in a just world shapes academic engagement among Chinese college art majors: A cross-level moderated mediation model. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317583; article XML SHA-256 a4ce2f1b352b2e7b3e6221fcd06ce1dc74863796348fef3f0e327c316c67197e. “How belief in a just world shapes academic engagement among Chinese college art majors: A cross-level moderated mediation model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317583).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317583) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- benzodiazepine agonist [redraft]: The provided definition describes a *treatment/management approach* (how to manage benzodiazepine dependence), not a diagnostic category or diagnosis in the sense implied by the requested field (“diagnosis”).; The requested field is not defensible here: the packet supports a treatment/intervention sense (“benzodiazepine agonist treatment”), not a diagnosis sense.; While the packet discusses benzodiazepine “stabilizing agonist treatment” as a proposed option and contrasts it with tapering/discontinuation, it does so in the context of a study protocol rather than defining a diagnostic construct. New packet required. Source: [Chalabianloo Fatemeh; Fadnes Lars Thore; Assmus Jörg; Mordal Jon; Solli Kristin K.; Dale Kjetil S.; Andersen Christina D.; Zavenova Silvia; Rønning Beathe H.; Blomkvist Andreas W.; Ryssdal Martin; Butt Wasifa S. J.; Marciuch Anne; Ørmen Anne G.; Ohldieck Christian; Løberg Else-Marie; Johansson Kjell Arne; for the BMX-BAR and NORCATS study group http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1242-1972 Chalabianloo Fatemeh Fatemeh.Chalabianloo@helse-bergen.no 1 2 Fadnes Lars Thore 1 2 Assmus Jörg 3 Mordal Jon 1 4 Solli Kristin K. 4 5 6 Dale Kjetil S. 7 Andersen Christina D. 1 Zavenova Silvia 1 Rønning Beathe H. 1 Blomkvist Andreas W. 8 9 Ryssdal Martin 8 Butt Wasifa S. J. 10 Marciuch Anne 10 Ørmen Anne G. 11 Ohldieck Christian 1 Løberg Else-Marie 12 13 Johansson Kjell Arne 1 2 Mellingen Svanhild Olsvold Maria K. Nordbotn Mette H. Trettenes Beate H. Berger Tine U. Sannerud Kristin Sundal Christine Pierron Marianne Moe Henriette Alibhai Zainab Helgøy Karoline N. Vedaa Susanne Holtan Line Kristiansen Heidi F. Haugen Britt K. Karlsen Jeanine T.H. Kaspersen Richard Digranes Linn C.W.. Benzodiazepine agonist treatment for patients with benzodiazepine dependence undergoing opioid agonist treatment: a study protocol for the randomized controlled trial BMX-BAR. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s13063-024-08692-8; article XML SHA-256 dc3840175b99240e0ba17ec92db06261c5b8c482d99b0d3f7947ad046f29bf5a. “Benzodiazepine agonist treatment for patients with benzodiazepine dependence undergoing opioid agonist treatment: a study protocol for the randomized controlled trial BMX-BAR” (10.1186/s13063-024-08692-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-024-08692-8) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- best frequency [redraft]: The claim that the “best frequency” is used specifically to “test how it responded to timing differences and modulation” is not directly stated. The packet says timing sensitivity (ITDs) and modulation frequencies were tested, but it does not explicitly connect that testing to choosing the best frequency beyond the fact of presentation at it.; The packet does not define what “best frequency” means (e.g., as the frequency eliciting the strongest or most sensitive response). It only states that stimuli were “presented at the best-frequency of the unit,” without explaining that term’s meaning.; The packet uses the term but does not define “best frequency” as the frequency that elicits a unit’s strongest or most sensitive response, so the core definition is unsupported.; The second sentence adds procedural context about why tones were presented at the best frequency, but the packet only shows that tones were presented at the best frequency in the study; it does not support the broader explanatory phrasing. New packet required. Source: [Hartley Douglas E. H.; Isaiah Amal. Envelope Enhancement Increases Cortical Sensitivity to Interaural Envelope Delays with Acoustic and Electric Hearing. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0104097; article XML SHA-256 786a2a739e620b01871b26e7fdb7cd64d25d5ab8e080ec6cfaa53c15c303027e. “Envelope Enhancement Increases Cortical Sensitivity to Interaural Envelope Delays with Acoustic and Electric Hearing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0104097).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0104097) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- BEST [redraft]: The definition adds Parkinson’s disease treatment details beyond what is explicitly supported by the source packet.; The definition’s additional framing about serving as the “usual treatment approach” for judging “neuropsychological and other outcomes” is not stated in the packet.; The packet does not define “BEST” as an acronym or explicitly state that it means “best medical treatment.”; The packet does not support the characterization of BEST as the “usual treatment approach” beyond noting comparisons and gaps in evidence.; The packet says studies compare DBS with best medical treatment, but it does not state that BEST is the general “usual treatment approach” used to judge outcomes.; The packet supports BEST as “best medical treatment,” but it does not define it as a specific standard of non-surgical, medication-based care.; While the packet mentions “DBS with best medical treatment” as a comparison, it does not support that this refers specifically to “standard non-surgical medication-based care.” New packet required. Source: [Ning Jing; Lv Xiujuan; You Jianyu; Zhou Xingyu; An Chengfei; Zhou Zhigang. Neuropsychological outcomes comparing deep brain stimulation and best medical treatment for Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587; article XML SHA-256 af971fb6a9b037c466d05ee91fa126e1c1ba634efe2ff3d6a458939cb778efd1. “Neuropsychological outcomes comparing deep brain stimulation and best medical treatment for Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1865587) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- beta coefficient [redraft]: The only support in the packet is an example value (“standardized beta coefficient = −0.09”) with a stated outcome association; the definition’s general description of beta coefficients is not supported.; The packet does not define what a “beta coefficient” is (e.g., that it is used to describe strength of association and direction).; The packet supports a specific standardized beta coefficient result in the cited study, but it does not define beta coefficient generally as a statistical number describing the strength and direction of association between variables.; The second sentence is supported in substance, but the definition should not add an unsupported general explanation beyond the packet. New packet required. Source: [Dejakaisaya Hattapark; Mahikul Wiriya; Na-ek Nat; Hirunpattarasilp Chanawee. Television watching and cognitive outcomes in adults and older adults: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323863; article XML SHA-256 a6d70f9dc72d01d6179cecc3c0f6a15ddd6775f5493fced87a83e53fa1da0471. “Television watching and cognitive outcomes in adults and older adults: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323863).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323863) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- betrayal [redraft]: The definition should stay within the packet’s wording; the packet supports a general “act of violation of trust or confidence of a moral standard,” but not the broader explanatory framing.; The definition’s “expected moral commitment” phrasing is not explicitly supported beyond the packet’s general reference to a “moral standard, etc.”; The packet only states that betrayal is an act of violation of trust or confidence of a moral standard (etc.). It does not support the added claim that, “In psychology, it can refer to a perceived breach of trust that affects how a person thinks about relationships and safety.”; The second sentence adds an unsupported psychological interpretation (“in psychology, it can refer to a perceived breach of trust that affects how a person thinks about relationships and safety”) that is not present in the source packet. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Betrayal” (D000081722).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000081722) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- between-subjects variance [redraft]: The claim that low between-subjects variance can make it harder to distinguish separate traits or factors is not supported by the packet.; The claim that low between-subjects variance means subjects differ less from one another is an inference not stated in the packet.; The definition includes interpretation about distinguishing traits/factors that is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet does not explicitly define “between-subjects variance” as “the amount of variation across different individuals in a study.”; The packet mentions “low amount of between-subjects variance” as a possible reason for prior findings, but it does not state that low between-subjects variance “means the subjects differ less from one another” or that this “can make it harder to distinguish separate traits or factors.”; The packet uses the term only in a specific study context and does not define it as a general measure of variation across different individuals in studies. New packet required. Source: [Weiss Alexander; Yokoyama Chihiro; Hayashi Takuya; Inoue-Murayama Miho. Personality, subjective well-being, and the serotonin 1a receptor gene in common marmosets ( Callithrix jacchus ). 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0238663; article XML SHA-256 20e76c534755ffa379c4bea53797f297218317d83dd445ed65aa090e633c36b6. “Personality, subjective well-being, and the serotonin 1a receptor gene in common marmosets ( Callithrix jacchus )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0238663).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238663) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- beyond reasonable doubt [redraft]: The claim that the source uses the phrase to mean a claim scientists may regard as settled for practical purposes is not supported by the packet text.; The definition’s claim that, in this source, the term is used to mean “settled for practical purposes” is not supported by the packet; no such explanation appears in the provided text.; The definition’s claims about “any remaining doubt would not be considered reasonable” are not stated or supported anywhere in the packet.; The packet does not define or explain the idiom as a general level of certainty; it only uses the phrase in a survey statement about COVID-19.; The packet does not provide a definition of “beyond reasonable doubt”; it only includes one instance of the phrase in a statement (“Science has put it beyond reasonable doubt…”). New packet required. Source: [Vickers Peter; Adamo Ludovica; Alfano Mark; Clark Cory; Cresto Eleonora; Cui He; Dang Haixin; Dellsén Finnur; Dupin Nathalie; Gradowski Laura; Graf Simon; Guevara Aline; Hallap Mark; Hamilton Jesse; Hardey Mariann; Helm Paula; Landrum Asheley; Levy Neil; Machery Edouard; Mills Sarah; Muller Seán; Sheppard Joanne; N. K. Shinod; Slater Matthew; Stegenga Jacob; Strandin Henning; Stuart Michael T.; Sweet David; Tasdan Ufuk; Taylor Henry; Towler Owen; Tulodziecki Dana; Tworek Heidi; Wallbank Rebecca; Wiltsche Harald; Mitchell Finnigan Samantha. Development of a novel methodology for ascertaining scientific opinion and extent of agreement. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313541; article XML SHA-256 ce6fba2752a4ca770fa4483558ce6a209e3513dc7bdfc7c8fed5dcaea4d505ed. “Development of a novel methodology for ascertaining scientific opinion and extent of agreement” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313541).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313541) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- BF [redraft]: The opening claim that BF stands for “brief form” is not supported as the term’s defined sense in the packet; only the compound acronym NMAS-BF is described.; The packet does not explicitly state that “BF” stands for “brief form” or that it means a “shortened version of an assessment”; it only shows that the instrument name includes “Brief Form” (NMAS-BF) without defining the abbreviation or its meaning.; The packet supports NMAS-BF as a brief form measure, but it does not establish BF alone as a standalone term or acronym in this source. New packet required. Source: [Özel İrem. Turkish adaptation and psychometric validation of the Normative Male Alexithymia Scale–Brief Form (NMAS-BF) among male university students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1851206; article XML SHA-256 a55c573dd24bdb39d392ef8b3a8cd1f5b8fe6752ec855c5c4bfba095946786d9. “Turkish adaptation and psychometric validation of the Normative Male Alexithymia Scale–Brief Form (NMAS-BF) among male university students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1851206).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1851206) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- biased estimator [redraft]: The added explanation that the bias arises “because of the way the problem is formulated or solved” is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the source support.; The definition mixes a general dictionary sense with a paper-specific example, but the source packet does not support that broader formulation.; The definition’s general characterization (“systematically gives shifted results”) is not supported verbatim or equivalently by the packet text; the packet only states that the standard least-mean-square approach “leads to a biased estimator” and discusses bias in the self-motion estimation context, not “shifted results” generally.; The packet supports only a specific claim that the least-mean-square approach used by the KvD algorithm leads to a biased estimator; it does not define the general term “biased estimator” as an estimation method with systematically shifted results.; While the packet supports that the standard least mean square approach used by the KvD algorithm leads to a biased estimator and is associated with the presence of bias in estimation, it does not explicitly describe this as a “systematically gives shifted results” mechanism. New packet required. Source: [Strübbe Simon; Stürzl Wolfgang; Egelhaaf Martin. Insect-Inspired Self-Motion Estimation with Dense Flow Fields—An Adaptive Matched Filter Approach. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0128413; article XML SHA-256 87dc5681185deb8b5e1381a9b9d65bf37eae4336618ded4033ee90f4f8c2ead1. “Insect-Inspired Self-Motion Estimation with Dense Flow Fields—An Adaptive Matched Filter Approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0128413).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0128413) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- bilingual education [redraft]: The packet discusses children’s bilingual education and second-language pronunciation in communicative contexts, but it does not support a general dictionary definition of bilingual education as an educational setting where children learn and communicate in two languages.; The packet does not define “bilingual education” as an educational setting where children learn and communicate in two languages, nor does it explicitly state that the two languages are “typically their first language and a second language.”; The phrase “typically their first language and a second language” is not established by the packet as a defining feature of bilingual education; the packet focuses on L1/L2 pronunciation and communication, not a full definition of the term.; While the packet supports that children’s L2 pronunciation patterns that differ from L1 speakers can affect communication effectiveness in bilingual education, the requested definition includes additional claims (the general definition/structure of bilingual education) that are not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Lin Youran; Li Fangfang; MacLeod Andrea A. N.; Pollock Karen E.. A conceptual model of second language pronunciation in communicative contexts: Implications for children’s bilingual education. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1125157; article XML SHA-256 4df262898cff7636d7ca47b3785f91152e23d4fbc30976984a47b5dd67e713a8. “A conceptual model of second language pronunciation in communicative contexts: Implications for children’s bilingual education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1125157).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1125157) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- bilirubin encephalopathy [redraft]: Impaired upward gaze substitutes for packet impaired vertical gaze; added specific fact. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Kernicterus” (D007647).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007647) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- binaural cue [redraft]: Because the specific meaning of ITD is not supported by the packet’s wording, the requested sense of the term is not fully defensible from the supplied source.; The definition’s second sentence explains that interaural time difference (ITD) “means small differences in when a sound reaches each ear,” but the provided packet text does not explicitly define ITD in those terms.; The first sentence adds a general definition (“information the brain gets by comparing what arrives at the two ears”) that is not stated in the packet; the packet only supports that binaural cues are used for sound localization.; The packet supports interaural time difference (ITD) as the binaural cue discussed, but the definition blurs the term with one specific cue without making clear that ITD is only the example studied here. New packet required. Source: [Peng Z. Ellen; Kan Alan; Litovsky Ruth Y.. Development of Binaural Sensitivity: Eye Gaze as a Measure of Real-time Processing. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fnsys.2020.00039; article XML SHA-256 c38bcb792d5b5bb68e1ccdacd7b725c2d4c980963546cf105a34b5715f4427b5. “Development of Binaural Sensitivity: Eye Gaze as a Measure of Real-time Processing” (10.3389/fnsys.2020.00039).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2020.00039) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- binding affinity [redraft]: Never says what affinity is and narrows headword to protein-ligand; vacuous definition. New packet required. Source: [Yang Dinghai; Kuang Linai; Hu An. Edge-enhanced interaction graph network for protein-ligand binding affinity prediction. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320465; article XML SHA-256 d62eecbdba706995d9f7767c0d2b6ba003f100acf40837f51c2d09c273de9744. “Edge-enhanced interaction graph network for protein-ligand binding affinity prediction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320465).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320465) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- binge-eating disorder [redraft]: Shame is added; packet lists disgust, depression, or guilt only. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Binge-Eating Disorder” (D056912).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D056912) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- binocular [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported generalization by stating that binocular vision means both eyes “working together”; the packet only refers to binocular vision dysfunction and a vergence task, not a direct definition of binocular.; The definition’s opening claim that “binocular refers to vision that involves both eyes working together” is not explicitly supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The final clause about problems in this system being described as binocular vision dysfunction is only partly supported; the packet names non-strabismic binocular vision dysfunction as a condition, but does not define it as the general label for all binocular-system problems.; The phrase “coordinated eye use during viewing tasks such as vergence” is not explicitly supported by the packet and goes beyond the provided source. New packet required. Source: [Lu Zhili; Zuo Xin; Zhang Qixuan; Liu Yue; Ma Xiang; Zhang Chi. Feasibility of EEG-based machine learning for the objective assessment of non-Strabismic binocular vision dysfunction. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1780742; article XML SHA-256 1b2847b26ee6717fb3835befad740475f9beb3e084090bb9d1ff96789fa1e218. “Feasibility of EEG-based machine learning for the objective assessment of non-Strabismic binocular vision dysfunction” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1780742).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1780742) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- bio- [redraft]: The definition adds a general lexical explanation and ‘In this packet, it appears…’ framing that goes beyond the packet’s evidence; only specific uses in the article are supported.; The packet does not explicitly define the prefix “bio-” as “related to living organisms or life processes,” nor does it provide a general etymological/prefix meaning for “bio-.”; The packet only describes “bio-logging” and “bio-logger” as technologies/methods used in animal research to collect data; it does not support the specific general prefix definition beyond those examples.; The packet supports bio-logging/bio-logger as terms for animal-research data-collection devices, but it does not support the broader claim that bio- is a general prefix meaning ‘related to living organisms or life processes.’; The requested sense is not clearly established by the packet alone, and the field ‘learning’ is not defensibly supported by the source text, which is about animal research and machine learning for bio-loggers rather than a psychology/learning dictionary sense.; The statement that “in this packet, it appears in terms like bio-logging and bio-logger for technologies used to study animal behaviour” is broadly consistent with the packet, but the overall definition contains an unsupported general claim about the prefix meaning. New packet required. Source: [Kerle-Malcharek Wilhelm; Klein Karsten; Wikelski Martin; Schreiber Falk; Wild Timm A. Resource-efficient data transmission for WiFi-capable bio-loggers based on machine learning. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354146; article XML SHA-256 130706e24cf1795a01f300f011d1f77f82bea5842078c2b198c1aa18ee985b6b. “Resource-efficient data transmission for WiFi-capable bio-loggers based on machine learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354146).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354146) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- biogenic [redraft]: Defines biogenic amines in bee venom, not the adjective biogenic; wrong headword sense. New packet required. Source: [Hamano Motoharu; Niki Kazuya; Imamura Keiki; Sasaki Ken. Caste- and age-specific venom composition of biogenic amines and the influence of diet in honey bees. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338795; article XML SHA-256 5cee54887a6c8848b276f0ecfbed4c885a0e86e60daad981b099e08160ac2de3. “Caste- and age-specific venom composition of biogenic amines and the influence of diet in honey bees” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338795).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338795) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- biological factor [redraft]: The packet does not provide a general definition of “biological factor” as a “bodily or physiological influence”; it only mentions a specific possible cause (“girls’ menstrual periods”) that could explain gender differential item functioning for “Stomach ache.”; The packet supports only a specific example: girls’ menstrual periods as a possible biological factor behind stomach ache/abdominal pain. It does not support the broad general definition of a biological factor as any bodily or physiological influence.; The phrase “can help explain a symptom or response pattern” goes beyond the packet; only a symptom-like item (“Stomach ache”) is discussed, not response patterns in general.; The second sentence is supported by the packet (menstrual periods potentially reflecting abdominal pain as a biological factor behind reported stomach ache), but the first sentence contains an unsupported general characterization not explicitly stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Hagquist Curt. Explaining differential item functioning focusing on the crucial role of external information – an example from the measurement of adolescent mental health. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s12874-019-0828-3; article XML SHA-256 9e003e4de08d83049a9572a774eb06b2998972bcb5babeb15c51feaca20fe2aa. “Explaining differential item functioning focusing on the crucial role of external information – an example from the measurement of adolescent mental health” (10.1186/s12874-019-0828-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-019-0828-3) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- biological marker [redraft]: Because the packet does not provide the general definition of “biological marker,” the definition’s scope and wording cannot be considered fully supported by the supplied source.; The definition adds a broader framing about psychiatric conditions and adverse childhood experiences; the packet only says telomere length has been linked to these and does not support a general definition of the term from that example alone.; The first sentence (“A biological marker is a measurable feature of the body that is used as an indicator of a biological process or state.”) is not stated in the provided packet; the packet only refers to telomere length as a biological marker for cellular senescence.; The general definitional claim that a biological marker is a measurable feature of the body used as an indicator is not stated in the packet; the packet only says telomere length is a biological marker for cellular senescence. New packet required. Source: [Vrettou Maria; Lager Susanne; Toffoletto Simone; Iliadis Stavros I; Kallak Theodora Kunovac; Agnafors Sara; Nieratschker Vanessa; Skalkidou Alkistis; Comasco Erika. Peripartum depression symptom trajectories, telomere length and genotype, and adverse childhood experiences. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-06115-1; article XML SHA-256 bfccb9c663a810b043490143da7cd384a2cb1ab676c16be2229626dec6c44625. “Peripartum depression symptom trajectories, telomere length and genotype, and adverse childhood experiences” (10.1186/s12888-024-06115-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-06115-1) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- biological motion [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly state that biological motion is “often studied using moving point-light displays”; it only mentions assessment through “biological light spots,” without clearly equating this to point-light displays.; The packet supports that biological motion perception involves judging motion characteristics and gender, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that it is a visual pattern produced by a living being or that the displays represent the body.; The packet supports “judging motion characteristics and gender” and that it is “typically assessed through biological light spots,” but it does not explicitly define biological motion as “the visual pattern of movement produced by a living being.”; “Moving point-light displays” is not stated in the packet; it refers instead to “biological light spots,” so the definition adds unsupported detail and an inferred synonym. New packet required. Source: [Wang Jifu; Shi Fang; Yu Lin. Effects of acute stress on biological motion perception. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0310502; article XML SHA-256 367c51231194034b6e490d2d7658280ab8ad3cd1d80242373d43fa4aa69d23f7. “Effects of acute stress on biological motion perception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0310502).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310502) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- biosynthesis [redraft]: The definition generalizes biosynthesis beyond what the packet states; the packet supports only the specific context of coenzyme Q biosynthesis and related genes/enzymes in yeast.; The provided source packet describes yeast coenzyme Q (CoQ) biosynthesis at a biochemical/molecular level (genes, enzymes, growth phenotypes), not cognition; therefore the definition’s placement in the “cognition” field is not supported by the packet.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source is a biochemistry/molecular biology article about coenzyme Q biosynthesis in yeasts, not a cognition term. New packet required. Source: [Nishihara Shogo; Nishida Ikuhisa; Matsuo Yasuhiro; Kaino Tomohiro; Kawamukai Makoto. Mitochondrial NAD kinase Pos5 is required for CoQ biosynthesis in yeasts. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346295; article XML SHA-256 78191a31bbd4f3b559f725893680f8364bc923fc3cf07a5345ac60912c9f4808. “Mitochondrial NAD kinase Pos5 is required for CoQ biosynthesis in yeasts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346295).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346295) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- biotransport [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence gives a broad, general meaning (“movement and distribution of a biological substance within the body”) that is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text, which instead frames the topic specifically as modeling nitric oxide (NO) transport/biotransport in the brain.; The first sentence generalizes biotransport as the movement and distribution of a biological substance within the whole body, but the packet only supports a brain NO transport model, not a general body-wide definition.; The packet supports the NO-related specifics (production in neurons and mechanotransduction in endothelial cells, diffusion/anomalous diffusion in the brain, and loss/reduction via reactions with superoxide and interaction with hemoglobin), but it does not substantiate the general biological-substance distribution phrasing as the source’s meaning.; The phrase "through brain tissue and blood vessel cells" is not stated in the packet; the source mentions diffusion in the brain and NO production in neurons and endothelial cells, but not transport through blood vessel cells as such. New packet required. Source: [Tamis Andrew; Drapaca Corina S.. Modeling NO Biotransport in Brain Using a Space-Fractional Reaction-Diffusion Equation. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fphys.2021.644149; article XML SHA-256 cc3a296f839dcafc96522226abc076ebd03d6d9a2e30ece710b00f67e2bce1d5. “Modeling NO Biotransport in Brain Using a Space-Fractional Reaction-Diffusion Equation” (10.3389/fphys.2021.644149).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2021.644149) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- bipolar electrode [redraft]: The definition claims a bipolar electrode has “two electrical contacts,” but the provided source text only mentions that “a bipolar electrode was placed around the affected sciatic nerve” and does not describe the number of contacts.; The definition should not generalize beyond the source context by presenting a device function as a general definition without support in the packet.; The packet only shows a bipolar electrode placed around the affected sciatic nerve for electrical stimulation; it does not support the added claim that the device has two electrical contacts. New packet required. Source: [Jongen Joost L. M.; Smits Helwin; Pederzani Tiziana; Bechakra Malik; Hossaini Mehdi; Koekkoek Sebastiaan K.; Huygen Frank J. P. M.; De Zeeuw Chris I.; Holstege Jan C.; Joosten Elbert A. J.. Spinal Autofluorescent Flavoprotein Imaging in a Rat Model of Nerve Injury-Induced Pain and the Effect of Spinal Cord Stimulation. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0109029; article XML SHA-256 4db16559f1b1a52178c4705d82bec0311f46de2ba00e5bd7673bdcab810e6051. “Spinal Autofluorescent Flavoprotein Imaging in a Rat Model of Nerve Injury-Induced Pain and the Effect of Spinal Cord Stimulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0109029).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109029) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- bipolar stimulation [redraft]: Only the second sentence (that, in this source, it refers to stimulating the primary motor cortex to produce motor evoked potentials) is supported by the provided text.; The definition adds a broader clinical/general sense that is not established by the source packet, which gives only one study-specific use in rats.; The packet does not state that “bipolar stimulation” uses “two poles or contacts”; it only mentions “bipolar stimulation of the primary motor cortex” without defining the two-pole/contacts mechanism.; The packet supports only that MEPs were produced by bipolar stimulation of the primary motor cortex; it does not define bipolar stimulation as a general method of electrically stimulating a nervous system area using two poles or contacts. New packet required. Source: [Eguibar Jose R.; Cortes Carmen; Hernandez Victor H.; Lopez-Juarez Alejandra; Piazza Valeria; Carmona Diego; Kleinert-Altamirano Anke; Morales-Campos Blanca; Salceda Emilio; Roncagliolo Manuel. 4-aminopyridine improves evoked potentials and ambulation in the taiep rat: A model of hypomyelination with atrophy of basal ganglia and cerebellum. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298208; article XML SHA-256 dcdae05b860874659444f75f2d1eeae816d6deb0107cb1af9a993937807a5442. “4-aminopyridine improves evoked potentials and ambulation in the taiep rat: A model of hypomyelination with atrophy of basal ganglia and cerebellum” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298208).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298208) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- birth cohort [redraft]: The definition’s phrase “related family factors” is not explicitly supported by the packet; the packet mentions paternal depression and child behavior, but does not characterize this as “family factors” in that way.; The packet does not explicitly state that cohort members are “born around the same time.” It only describes a “national birth cohort study” and later follow-up ages (1 year after birth, and age 5).; The packet shows a national birth cohort study with measurements at later ages, but it does not explicitly support the claim that this packet “refers to children … tracked from birth” in the way stated.; The second sentence adds unsupported detail: the packet mentions child behavior and paternal depression, but not “related family factors” as a broader study focus. New packet required. Source: [Schmitz Kristine; Jimenez Manuel E.; Corman Hope; Noonan Kelly; Reichman Nancy E.. Paternal depression in the postpartum year and children’s behaviors at age 5 in an urban U.S. birth cohort. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300018; article XML SHA-256 ac099ddd58ed281262be99545b145edeebd5a6b7c4fa0366777b771289b1aa9b. “Paternal depression in the postpartum year and children’s behaviors at age 5 in an urban U.S. birth cohort” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300018).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300018) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- birth trauma [redraft]: The field label is not well supported by the packet, which defines a neonatal physical injury rather than a mental-health concept.; The first sentence is substantially supported, but the second sentence adds an unsupported generalization: the source says birth trauma is a significant source of jeopardy for neonates and families and raises concern for healthcare providers, not that it is a major source of distress for families.; The packet supports that birth trauma is a structural/functional impairment due to mechanical forces during labor, delivery, or neonatal resuscitation, and that it is a significant source of jeopardy for neonates and the family with concerns for healthcare providers, but it does not explicitly support the phrasing that it is a “major source of distress” for families (it instead uses “jeopardy”). New packet required. Source: [Woldegeorgis Beshada Zerfu; Gebrekidan Amanuel Yosef; Kassie Gizachew Ambaw; Azeze Gedion Asnake; Asgedom Yordanos Sisay; Alemu Henok Berhanu; Obsa Mohammed Suleiman. Neonatal birth trauma and associated factors in low and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298519; article XML SHA-256 3338ddfd1bb1d0a5e68ccd81edacb67a53492a86aa1f566a4e5d466f26fa6cf5. “Neonatal birth trauma and associated factors in low and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298519).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298519) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- bisection [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence claims that bisection is the division of something “into two equal parts,” but the provided packet only mentions “successive bisection of a line” and does not explicitly define bisection as dividing into two equal parts.; The first sentence generalizes beyond the historical passage by presenting a general dictionary definition rather than the sense established in the source context.; The packet supports bisection only in the specific phrase “successive bisection of a line” and its role in Zeno-style arguments; it does not explicitly support the broader definition “the division of something, such as a line, into two equal parts.”; While the packet supports the historical point that successive bisection “never gives an absolute unit” (and that this implies we cannot assign a number), the definition also frames this as “continued division does not yield a final absolute unit,” which is broadly consistent but partially rests on interpretation beyond the packet’s explicit wording. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1911000-1923000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- blackboard [redraft]: Because the packet does not provide an explicit definition of Blackboard, the claim that it is specifically “used to deliver virtual classes” is not fully supported by the supplied text (only one study’s use is mentioned).; The added detail about synchronous courses with chat-based interaction is not supported as a definition of Blackboard; the packet discusses that feature as the study context, not as a property of the platform itself.; The packet only supports that a 15-week intensive English course was delivered online via Blackboard; it does not establish Blackboard’s general identity as an online learning platform or its function as a virtual-class delivery system.; The packet text only states that an online course was delivered “via Blackboard”; it does not explicitly define Blackboard as an “online learning platform” in general. New packet required. Source: [Bin Dahmash Nada Fahad. Chat-based interaction in virtual classes: EFL students’ perceptions, motivation, and well-being. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1807648; article XML SHA-256 0c78ce082e873d86440ab18a8eb32340ebf667b4b4dd0aabc8b4cd2d6b40f541. “Chat-based interaction in virtual classes: EFL students’ perceptions, motivation, and well-being” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1807648).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1807648) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- bladder reflex [redraft]: The definition’s phrase “automatic nerve-controlled activity” is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet discusses bladder reflexes and their suppression/modulation via nerve stimulation but does not define them as “automatic nerve-controlled activity.”; The phrase “automatic nerve-controlled activity” is a generalization not stated in the packet; the source only supports spontaneous bladder reflexes/contractions.; The remaining elements (spontaneous bladder contractions varying from regular to chaotic patterns, and suppression/stabilization by sacral intraspinal microstimulation targeting S2 dorsal horn) are supported by the packet.; The source supports suppression/stabilization of bladder reflex dynamics by that specific stimulation, but not the definition’s broader formulation as a general property of the term.; “Sacral spinal stimulation” is broader than the packet’s specific intervention, sacral intraspinal microstimulation targeting the dorsal horn of the S2 spinal cord. New packet required. Source: [Qasemi Amirhossein; Aminian Alireza; Erfanian Abbas. The inhibitory effect of intraspinal microstimulation of the sacral spinal cord on nonlinear bladder reflex dynamics in cats. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2025.1519377; article XML SHA-256 bdde36fc4522acab2eef2bc4ab9c2d2ef48f7c150e7f6f2de35d3493d97b7087. “The inhibitory effect of intraspinal microstimulation of the sacral spinal cord on nonlinear bladder reflex dynamics in cats” (10.3389/fnins.2025.1519377).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2025.1519377) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- blank screen [redraft]: Hedges with in this research context to define an ordinary term as an experimental control condition. New packet required. Source: [Mastroberardino Serena; Vredeveldt Annelies. Eye-closure increases children's memory accuracy for visual material. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00241; article XML SHA-256 e03c9abcb922b6ad39f3bee6b18b4f63eda2d4600f86545b24a87dc8a4b5e52b. “Eye-closure increases children's memory accuracy for visual material” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00241).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00241) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- blastocyst [redraft]: Defines blastocyst by image segmentation use rather than as an embryonic stage; hedged narrow sense. New packet required. Source: [Li Yiming; Wang Hua; Hu Jingfei; Zhang Jicong. TGDBN: Topology-guided dual-backbone network for semi-supervised blastocyst segmentation in assisted reproductive technology. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355053; article XML SHA-256 5de66230e57ea942337a69e5a4864ee5539d58046f7600ebe056da0db7f7420c. “TGDBN: Topology-guided dual-backbone network for semi-supervised blastocyst segmentation in assisted reproductive technology” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355053).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355053) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- BLM [redraft]: Abbreviation never expanded to bottom-line mentality as rubric requires. New packet required. Source: [Zhou Ying; Li Ting; Li Xiaoyue. Leader bottom-line mentality and employees’ innovative work behavior: the role of workplace spirituality and value congruence. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1912519; article XML SHA-256 6f3a78d1c637243fac9025c3366aa97d649a33bcef757324db84fc6b5a700554. “Leader bottom-line mentality and employees’ innovative work behavior: the role of workplace spirituality and value congruence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1912519).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1912519) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- block randomization [redraft]: The packet does not support the claim that this “helps keep the numbers in each group balanced as the trial progresses.”; The packet only states that the trial used “fixed-sized block randomization of 3” and does not describe the mechanism as assigning participants “in small preset blocks rather than one by one.”; The packet only supports that the trial used fixed-sized block randomization of 3; it does not support the fuller explanatory claim that participants are assigned in “small preset blocks rather than one by one.”; The stated purpose/benefit that block randomization “helps keep the numbers in each group balanced as the trial progresses” is not supported by the packet text. New packet required. Source: [Joineau Karel; Harroch Estelle; Boussac Mathilde; Fabbri Margherita; Leung Clémence; Ory-Magne Fabienne; Rousseau Vanessa; Peran Patrice; Brefel-Courbon Christine; Descamps Emeline. Effect of foot reflexology on chronic pain in Parkinson’s disease: A randomized controlled trial. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327865; article XML SHA-256 a1812affdaa4965e1d2e0be2ce32d9ab80e5058ec730366c9b732f060b35072c. “Effect of foot reflexology on chronic pain in Parkinson’s disease: A randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327865).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327865) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- blood glucose [redraft]: The definition slightly overgeneralizes beyond the packet by presenting the prognostic relevance as a general property of blood glucose rather than as a study aim in ICU patients with ICH.; The packet does support that early blood glucose trajectories/patterns were evaluated in ICU patients with intracerebral hemorrhage and their association with short-term mortality was assessed, but the provided definition includes an unsupported general definition of the term.; The packet supports that early blood glucose trajectories in critically ill patients with intracerebral hemorrhage were studied for association with short-term mortality, but it does not explicitly support the broader definitional claim that blood glucose is the amount of glucose in the blood.; The packet text provided does not explicitly define “blood glucose” as “the amount of glucose in the blood,” so this substantive definitional claim is not supported by the supplied packet. New packet required. Source: [Zuo Huan; Zuo Xin; Zhang Yaxin; Zheng Weihong. Prognostic value of blood glucose trajectories in critically ill patients with intracerebral hemorrhage: A retrospective cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342745; article XML SHA-256 a199cdb0e6144fc72e9cd7a8f56198c46f7c4ea0edd4a1a75591242a55fda1f4. “Prognostic value of blood glucose trajectories in critically ill patients with intracerebral hemorrhage: A retrospective cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342745).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342745) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- blood group [redraft]: Inherited is added; packet never says blood group antigens are inherited. New packet required. Source: [Öncül Hasan; Dağ Umut; Alakuş Mehmet Fuat; Dertsiz Kozan Betül; Savar Çağlayan Mehtap. Association between ABO and Rh blood groups and subtypes of age-related macular degeneration: A cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354886; article XML SHA-256 31663ae5c20e20d07f0687f664f0ce801f8d53dabc8722783d027bccd952b757. “Association between ABO and Rh blood groups and subtypes of age-related macular degeneration: A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354886).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354886) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- blood oxygenation level-dependent [redraft]: The definition adds a general mechanism-and-purpose explanation that is not stated in the packet, so the substantive sense is only partly supported.; The packet does not explicitly define “blood oxygenation level-dependent” as a “functional MRI signal” measuring “changes in blood oxygenation” in a region.; The packet does not state that the term is “often called the BOLD response” or “BOLD activation.”; The packet supports the abbreviation BOLD and the phrases “functional blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) response” and “BOLD activation,” but it does not define blood oxygenation level-dependent as the fMRI signal used to detect brain activity or explain that it measures changes in blood oxygenation in a region. New packet required. Source: [Harris Ashley D.; Puts Nicolaas A. J.; Anderson Brian A.; Yantis Steven; Pekar James J.; Barker Peter B.; Edden Richard A. E.. Multi-Regional Investigation of the Relationship between Functional MRI Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent (BOLD) Activation and GABA Concentration. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0117531; article XML SHA-256 79a212168aa040cc266e0f017261778d2a1626ad2307e5a9f7973049c49af025. “Multi-Regional Investigation of the Relationship between Functional MRI Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent (BOLD) Activation and GABA Concentration” (10.1371/journal.pone.0117531).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117531) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- blood pressure [redraft]: Never defines blood pressure; describes the paper's regulatory model and dipping phenotypes. New packet required. Source: [Layton Anita T. Temporal misalignment of renal sodium transport promotes non-dipping blood pressure phenotypes. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355222; article XML SHA-256 154b6b3efea25132024c256f2a344bd47d378a4f4dfddf02a0e5c7b37d75a8a5. “Temporal misalignment of renal sodium transport promotes non-dipping blood pressure phenotypes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355222).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355222) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- blur [redraft]: Hedges with in this context to define blur as experimentally induced; wrong narrow sense. New packet required. Source: [Wong Crystal Suei Cheng; Tan Ken Wei Sheng; Li Tingni; Gaultney Linden; Thompson Benjamin; Leung Tsz Wing; Park Adela So Yun. Theta burst stimulation of the visual cortex does not alter contrast sensitivity under optically induced blur. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341942; article XML SHA-256 915129157177b16e15c01b680f1d70179c084b186b0472d58296bd8079e457c1. “Theta burst stimulation of the visual cortex does not alter contrast sensitivity under optically induced blur” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341942).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341942) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- body-image avoidance [redraft]: The definition slightly broadens the source by saying it is a tendency to stay away from situations that trigger anxiety or discomfort; the packet specifically says it is refraining from situations that elicit worry about physical appearance.; The definition uses the term “चिंता” (anxiety) as the trigger, but the packet describes the trigger as “worry about physical appearance” and does not explicitly use “anxiety/चिंता.”; The packet supports an association with disordered eating and with body image disturbance, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that body-image avoidance is linked with body dissatisfaction. New packet required. Source: [Marshall Rachel D.; Latner Janet D.; Masuda Akihiko. Internalized Weight Bias and Disordered Eating: The Mediating Role of Body Image Avoidance and Drive for Thinness. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02999; article XML SHA-256 7691a4026abb09a37418888ac2be8c0430007f83785da1d6e065220b7e237cc9. “Internalized Weight Bias and Disordered Eating: The Mediating Role of Body Image Avoidance and Drive for Thinness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02999).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02999) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- body image [redraft]: The definition uses broad wording (“emotional difficulties”) while the packet specifies “emotional disorders”; this is not an exact match to what is supported.; The packet does not explicitly support the definition’s first sentence (“Body image is how a person views and feels about their own body”); it only states that *negative body image* is prevalent among women and links it to other outcomes, without defining body image in those terms.; The packet supports only a claim about negative body image in women; it does not define body image as “how a person views and feels about their own body.”; The second sentence slightly overgeneralizes the packet’s wording by recasting “emotional disorders” as “emotional difficulties.” New packet required. Source: [Luo Jianglin; Lyu Chen; Niu Jiayu; Lin Zhaocheng; Shi Yanhua; Ma Zhili. Effects of different exercise types on body image in females: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1942447; article XML SHA-256 2b57876bff420a9f4f01b919f4a8cd7087ebf7fb1c996559ab5a3951ecd7654f. “Effects of different exercise types on body image in females: a systematic review and network meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1942447).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1942447) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- body language [redraft]: Packet lists gestures, body language and appearance separately; folding appearance into body language is unsupported. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Skills” (D066107).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066107) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- body positioning [redraft]: Because the first sentence is unsupported by the packet, the overall definition cannot be considered fully defensible against the provided source.; The definition’s broad opening claim about body positioning in general is not directly supported by the source, which only discusses lateralized male-female mating positioning in Xenophallus umbratilis.; The packet does not provide or support the general definition “Body positioning is the way individuals place or orient their bodies relative to one another during an interaction.” It only discusses “male and female positioning” and “lateralized body positioning” in mating trials of *Xenophallus umbratilis*.; The supplied source is a biology article about fish mating behavior, so the requested field “learning” is not defensible from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Nielsen Mary-Elise; Johnson Erik S; Johnson Jerald B. Does male gonopodial morphology affect male-female mating positioning in the livebearing fish Xenophallus umbratilis ?. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281267; article XML SHA-256 c7451cf8c7d64f3a476214c6989bdf9c2cb448ab2a01242a0d830e6a4b0ca61a. “Does male gonopodial morphology affect male-female mating positioning in the livebearing fish Xenophallus umbratilis ?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281267).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281267) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- body therapies [redraft]: Hedges with in this source to redefine body therapies as mind-body MBSR; wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [Sumińska Sylwia; Rynkiewicz Andrzej. Mindfulness-based stress reduction training supplemented with physiological signals from smartwatch improves mindfulness and reduces stress, but not anxiety and depression. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322413; article XML SHA-256 12122a948e25ab28c924a8f3142de800cab11b87dcffafa3a4a6795bb55e293c. “Mindfulness-based stress reduction training supplemented with physiological signals from smartwatch improves mindfulness and reduces stress, but not anxiety and depression” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322413).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322413) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- bondage [redraft]: Packet defines imperative idea; bondage is only a passing phrase, and the definition hedges a wrong sense onto a general headword. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Imperative Idea or Conception, also Insistent Idea” (Imperativei).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Imperativei) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- borderline [redraft]: The definition’s phrasing “major relationship distress” is broader than the packet’s “severe interpersonal distress”; the packet supports interpersonal distress but does not specifically frame it as “major relationship” distress.; The packet indicates emergency-department care is precipitated by crises and distress, but it does not explicitly state that episodes “can lead to crisis care,” so that phrasing is not directly supported.; The packet supports borderline personality disorder (BPD), but not the broader lexicographic claim that the standalone term “borderline” usually refers to BPD.; The packet supports suicidal behaviors and acute emotional crises, but it does not explicitly mention “other self-harming behavior,” so that part of the definition is not supported.; The wording adds a generalized clinical characterization (“major relationship distress,” “can lead to crisis care”) that is only partly supported and goes beyond the packet’s narrower emergency-department context.; “Other self-harming behavior” is not stated in the packet; it mentions suicidal behaviors, acute emotional crises, severe interpersonal distress, and elevated suicide risk only. New packet required. Source: [Bouchard-Boivin Marissa; Hudon Alexandre; Godin Francis; Désilets Marie; Cailhol Lionel. Treatment of patients with borderline personality disorder in the emergency room? A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1820717; article XML SHA-256 1f899207786fa3bf2c17e994f0b9ca4971f28683fcf046564d26ac73f47335b8. “Treatment of patients with borderline personality disorder in the emergency room? A scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1820717).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1820717) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- bottom-up processing [redraft]: The definition presents “mode of information handling” as a characterization of bottom-up processing; the packet does not provide wording or an explicit basis for this framing beyond the frontal/parietal role contrast.; The definition’s claim that bottom-up processing “refers to processing that is driven more by incoming sensory or task information than by higher-level control” is not directly supported by the packet text, which only states that frontal regions relate to top-down processing and parietal areas relate to bottom-up processing without specifying this sensory-vs-control driving contrast.; The packet supports only the contrast that frontal regions are associated with top-down processing and parietal areas with bottom-up processing; it does not support the added general definition that bottom-up processing is driven more by incoming sensory or task information than by higher-level control.; The source is a single article background statement, so the definition should not present a broader general characterization as established consensus beyond what this packet explicitly says. New packet required. Source: [Keshvari Fatemeh; Farsi Alireza; Abdoli Behrouz; Bahrami Alireza. The effect of targeting and interceptive timing tasks on the brain waves of elite and educated athletes. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321539; article XML SHA-256 ec57b5ab23d981fa5cbd750f0a4a9e175aca9c2831a32e25849aca04988aa5f2. “The effect of targeting and interceptive timing tasks on the brain waves of elite and educated athletes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321539).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321539) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- boundary [redraft]: The packet discusses professional boundaries specifically in relation to generative AI mental health chatbots, but it does not explicitly frame boundaries as limits on the “proper role of a helper” (the definition broadens the scope beyond what’s stated).; The packet supports concern about professional boundaries and overreliance on AI in sensitive mental health contexts, but it does not define a boundary as a general ‘limit on the proper role of a helper or tool.’; The wording ‘professional boundaries are meant to keep use within appropriate limits’ adds a purpose statement not stated in the packet; the source only says such use raises concerns and that a warning message was studied. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Zeyu; Lu Xiaomei; Zhang Yinlan; Zhang Hao; Zhang Min. Privacy assurances and professional-boundary warnings in generative AI mental health chatbots: a randomized vignette experiment on calibrated trust, overreliance risk, and professional help-seeking intentions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1934264; article XML SHA-256 43687e79d76bca83b6de04f38eba94cf940e2329eff8b522ddb49361213d5f9e. “Privacy assurances and professional-boundary warnings in generative AI mental health chatbots: a randomized vignette experiment on calibrated trust, overreliance risk, and professional help-seeking intentions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1934264).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1934264) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- box-and-whisker plot [redraft]: The claim that, “In the source, it is used as an approach for excluding outliers from a larger dataset” is only partially supported (the packet says it is used to exclude outliers during reducing), without the broader framing as a larger dataset.; The definition adds a general description of what a box-and-whisker plot is and what it is used for, but the packet only supports that the authors used a box-and-whisker plot approach to exclude outliers in a data-reduction step.; The packet does not define a box-and-whisker plot as a “data-display method” or describe it as being used to examine the distribution of values; it only states that the “box-and-whisker plot approach” is used in a reducing operation.; The packet supports excluding outliers, but the definition’s claim about identifying unusual values/outliers and using the method to examine how values are distributed is not explicitly stated in the provided text.; The source does not support the broader claim that the method is used to examine distribution or identify unusual values/outliers as a general definitional statement. New packet required. Source: [Li Der-Chiang; Hu Susan C.; Lin Liang-Sian; Yeh Chun-Wu. Detecting representative data and generating synthetic samples to improve learning accuracy with imbalanced data sets. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0181853; article XML SHA-256 2eff8fda75946f74ceaee4fd0bc3472d4cdb73ff6aaca7560d3b945a521bf4bb. “Detecting representative data and generating synthetic samples to improve learning accuracy with imbalanced data sets” (10.1371/journal.pone.0181853).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181853) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- BP [redraft]: The definition states that BP is “the force of blood against artery walls,” but the provided packet only uses BP as “blood pressure (BP)” and reports systolic BP; it does not describe BP as a force against artery walls.; The packet supports BP as an abbreviation for blood pressure in the study, but it does not support the added general definition “the force of blood against artery walls.”; The rest of the definition (that, in the study context, BP is a health outcome tracked to see whether an intervention changes beliefs, adherence, and hypertension control) is broadly consistent with the packet’s aim to explore effects on illness perceptions, medication beliefs, medication adherence, and BP, but the unsupported “force” phrasing prevents the definition from being fully supported.; The study context is overstated: the packet says BP was measured alongside illness beliefs, medication adherence, and treatment beliefs, not “hypertension control.” New packet required. Source: [Brown Sarah L; McDonnell Barry J; McRae David; Angel Paul; Khan Imtiaz; Phillips Rhiannon; Hallingberg Britt; James Delyth H. Visualisation of hypertension: A non-randomised pilot study to explore the feasibility of a Community Pharmacy-based intervention to support medication adherence (Hi-BP). 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339871; article XML SHA-256 01a741a3b85c88945f57eabd46d75747b37b6fce0b4d2aa833885c7afb94620b. “Visualisation of hypertension: A non-randomised pilot study to explore the feasibility of a Community Pharmacy-based intervention to support medication adherence (Hi-BP)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339871).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339871) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- brace [redraft]: Hedges general headword brace to a valgus knee support and describes the trial rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [de Jong Lex D; van der Zwaard Babette C; van Blommestein Matthijs Y H; van Loon Corné JM. Effectiveness and user experiences of a valgus brace in patients with knee osteoarthritis: A mixed-method randomised controlled trial. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330157; article XML SHA-256 0736b0eb1f6a67ea5f2428d046c8316ae2eab35da09ddd10bc98b8a67c110152. “Effectiveness and user experiences of a valgus brace in patients with knee osteoarthritis: A mixed-method randomised controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330157).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330157) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- brain atrophy [redraft]: The first sentence adds a definitional claim not supported by the supplied source text.; The packet does not explicitly define brain atrophy as a reduction or loss of brain tissue.; The packet does not explicitly define “brain atrophy” as a “reduction or loss of brain tissue”; it only discusses brain atrophy in terms of prediction and associations in multiple sclerosis. New packet required. Source: [Tsivgoulis Georgios; Katsanos Aristeidis H.; Grigoriadis Nikolaos; Hadjigeorgiou Georgios M.; Heliopoulos Ioannis; Kilidireas Constantinos; Voumvourakis Konstantinos. The Effect of Disease Modifying Therapies on Brain Atrophy in Patients with Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0116511; article XML SHA-256 73b58a994a833839f03ba59e12085ca3394d42df73cb36f8a430943559e449ea. “The Effect of Disease Modifying Therapies on Brain Atrophy in Patients with Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0116511).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0116511) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- brain-derived neurotrophic factor [redraft]: Calls BDNF a protein; packet says only a member of the nerve growth factor family of trophic factors. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor” (D019208).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019208) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- brain pathology [redraft]: The claim that brain pathology “can alter its usual structure and function” is only indirectly suggested by mentions of “cortical reorganisation” and assumptions about structure-function relationships, but the exact phrasing about altering usual structure/function is not directly supported.; The definition asserts that imaging analyses become “more difficult and less reliable”; the packet supports that tractography analyses are difficult and that methods can fail or introduce confounds, but it does not explicitly support the word “less reliable.”; The definition’s characterization of brain pathology as “disease-related or injury-related abnormal changes” is not stated in the provided packet text.; The packet does not explicitly support the broader claim that brain pathology alters usual brain structure and function in general; it only notes that assumptions about structure-function relationships may not hold after cortical reorganisation in the study context.; The packet supports that brain pathology can make diffusion tractography analyses difficult and less reliable, but it does not define the term as disease-related or injury-related abnormal changes in the brain. New packet required. Source: [Reid Lee B; Cunnington Ross; Boyd Roslyn N; Rose Stephen E. Surface-Based fMRI-Driven Diffusion Tractography in the Presence of Significant Brain Pathology: A Study Linking Structure and Function in Cerebral Palsy. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0159540; article XML SHA-256 86d182bc86768bbe54eee0bc3d334d139a30aa4ec005e4f2ed3986520ac707b7. “Surface-Based fMRI-Driven Diffusion Tractography in the Presence of Significant Brain Pathology: A Study Linking Structure and Function in Cerebral Palsy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0159540).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159540) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- brain potential [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“A brain potential is a pattern of electrical activity from the brain recorded with electroencephalography (EEG)”) is a general characterization that is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text.; The packet supports event-related brain potential markers (ERPs) recorded with EEG during task events, but it does not define the broader term "brain potential" as a general pattern of electrical activity from the brain.; The source does not explicitly support the claim that the term refers specifically to cues, go trials, or nogo trials as a definitional sense rather than as study-specific measurements.; While the packet clearly discusses EEG-recorded event-related brain potentials (ERPs) and reports ERP markers for cue/go/nogo trials during a flanked CPT, it does not define the term “brain potential” in the broad way claimed by the definition. New packet required. Source: [Lau-Zhu Alex; Tye Charlotte; Rijsdijk Frühling; McLoughlin Grainne. No evidence of associations between ADHD and event-related brain potentials from a continuous performance task in a population-based sample of adolescent twins. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0223460; article XML SHA-256 b84e691bf81e346a0fbe32a15983f93731d860561a467b16f35e1e0e05de9c3d. “No evidence of associations between ADHD and event-related brain potentials from a continuous performance task in a population-based sample of adolescent twins” (10.1371/journal.pone.0223460).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223460) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- brain weight [redraft]: Because that comparative-use/generalization is not explicitly supported by the supplied packet text, the requested sense of the term is not fully defensible from the provided source.; The packet does not explicitly state that brain weight is used as a “basic indicator” for comparing brain development or exposure effects between groups; it only reports that pup brain weight was measured and differed between treated and control mice.; The packet supports that brain weight was measured in a specific mouse study, but it does not establish the general definition “the measured mass of the brain.”; The second sentence generalizes beyond the packet: the article shows a single exposure experiment where pup brain weight differed between groups, but it does not support the broader claim that brain weight is generally used as a basic indicator for comparing brain development or exposures in biological research. New packet required. Source: [J Bradley Adrienne; Mashburn-Warren Lauren; Blalock Lexie C; Scarpetti Francesca; Lauber Christian L. Porphyromonas gingivalis outer membrane vesicles alter cortical neurons and Tau phosphorylation in the embryonic mouse brain. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0310482; article XML SHA-256 4c95e88af7a9eb81f62e51336a5f4fa085f7ae6cc595fb6489e805a90553d5ac. “Porphyromonas gingivalis outer membrane vesicles alter cortical neurons and Tau phosphorylation in the embryonic mouse brain” (10.1371/journal.pone.0310482).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310482) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- branching [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the source by presenting the article’s model as a definitional meaning rather than as an article-specific proposal tied to autism symptom development.; The packet does not explicitly support the characterization of “aberrant branching” as “unusually increased or misdirected” connection growth; it only states that offline over-activity would entail “aberrant branching between cortical columns.”; The packet supports a speculative claim about guided axon growth/new connections between cortical columns during sleep, but it does not establish a general dictionary sense for “branching” as a standard term meaning.; “Misdirected connection growth” is not supported by the source text; the packet only says “aberrant branching between cortical columns.” New packet required. Source: [Béroule Dominique G. The irreplaceable role of sleep in building long-term memories: offline integration of free cortical units and its possible implication in autism. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1777687; article XML SHA-256 a9ca48e91948e03a91c124ff88bc9c9216b68c65f5a4ad33e88ee2916f9062e8. “The irreplaceable role of sleep in building long-term memories: offline integration of free cortical units and its possible implication in autism” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1777687).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1777687) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- brand name [redraft]: The definition’s first claim (“brand name is the word or verbal label used to identify a brand”) is not explicitly supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The first sentence defines the term in a way that is not stated in the packet; the packet only shows brand names being presented as words and discussed in terms of their graphical colour and associated logos.; The remaining parts (“treated as a visual word…shown in a particular colour” and “paired with an associated logo”) are consistent with the packet’s discussion of studying memory for the colour of the brand name’s graphical representation and memory for a logo associated by proximity with a brand name, but the definition as a whole includes an unsupported introductory claim.; The second sentence goes beyond the packet by presenting this as a general characterization of brand names rather than the specific experimental context described in the source. New packet required. Source: [Guest Duncan; Estes Zachary; Gibbert Michael; Mazursky David. Brand Suicide? Memory and Liking of Negative Brand Names. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0151628; article XML SHA-256 d164bc87c5ef42378262f5d62ace0f974ed99db33de96fe0365b09b8f3a276c3. “Brand Suicide? Memory and Liking of Negative Brand Names” (10.1371/journal.pone.0151628).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151628) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- branding [redraft]: The definition’s wording “often as a cultural practice” is not supported by the packet text, which does not indicate frequency (“often”).; The packet supports branding as body modification done as a cultural practice or expression of creativity or identity, but it does not support the added frequency claim "often."; The packet’s provided wording defines branding via “wounding … by branding … as a cultural practice or expression of creativity or identity,” but does not connect “branding” to the field labeled “cognition” in any way.; While the packet has the source label “Body Modification, Non-Therapeutic,” the packet excerpt itself does not explicitly say “non-therapeutic,” so that part of the definition is not directly supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Body Modification, Non-Therapeutic” (D046289).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D046289) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- breakthrough [redraft]: The assigned field “cognition” is not defensible from the packet, which is about seizure-related adverse events/finding criteria rather than cognition.; The definition asserts the packet meaning as “generalized seizures” occurring “despite medical intervention,” which is supported, but the requested field mapping (“cognition”) is not supported by the packet text.; The definition generalizes beyond the packet’s wording by treating the term as a broader symptom category instead of the narrower seizure phrase present in the source.; The packet supports the specific phrase “breakthrough generalized seizures despite medical intervention,” but not a standalone cognition sense for “breakthrough.”; The provided packet content for “breakthrough” explicitly refers to “breakthrough generalized seizures despite medical intervention,” which supports the seizure-based sense, but it does not support assigning this term to the field “cognition.” New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Grade 3 Tumor Lysis Syndrome, CTCAE 6.0” (C221303).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- breeding behavior [redraft]: The field ‘learning’ is not defensible from the packet; the source is about amphibian breeding/vocalization and urbanization, not learning or psychology/counselling content.; The packet does not explicitly state that the described “calling patterns” are “linked to mating,” only that calling behavior is examined as part of reproductive/breeding behavior and can be influenced by habitat alteration and anthropogenic noise (and that higher temperature is among the changed environmental factors considered).; The packet does not support the general definition that “breeding behavior is the set of actions animals use in reproduction.” It only discusses that “calling behavior of anurans” is “unique and exclusive breeding behavior,” without defining breeding behavior as a broader set of actions.; The supplied packet supports frog/anuran vocal and calling behavior during breeding, but not the broader claim that breeding behavior is generally “the set of actions animals use in reproduction.” New packet required. Source: [Lee Ji-A.; Rahman Md Mizanur; Cheon Seung-Ju; Borzée Amaël; Sung Ha-Cheol. The influences of urbanization on breeding behavior of American bullfrog ( Aquarana catesbeiana ) in South Korea. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326201; article XML SHA-256 de7fdd35724612dc79eec4bb8e49d4c4442fd425ae1536f7eb35ad2f23756e76. “The influences of urbanization on breeding behavior of American bullfrog ( Aquarana catesbeiana ) in South Korea” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326201).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326201) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Brief Visuospatial Memory Test [redraft]: The definition claims it is “one of the tests used to measure cognitive outcomes in people with multiple sclerosis.” While the packet does say that cognitive evaluations in MS included tests including BVMT, it does not provide further support for the definition’s broader framing (e.g., evaluation of visuospatial memory).; The definition claims the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test “is a cognitive assessment used to evaluate visuospatial memory,” but the packet only lists BVMT as one of several cognitive evaluation tests and does not state what it evaluates.; The first sentence adds a definitional claim about the test’s purpose that is not supported by the supplied source.; The packet supports that Brief Visuospatial Memory Test (BVMT) was listed among cognitive tests used in studies of people with multiple sclerosis, but it does not state that the test evaluates visuospatial memory. New packet required. Source: [Golabi Behnam; Razmaray Hadis; Seyedi-Sahebari Sepideh; Bandehagh Heliya; Hakimzadeh Zahra; Khosroshahi Ailin; Moghaddamziabari Seyedehyasmin; Aghaei Negar; Sanaie Sarvin; Talebi Mahnaz; Naseri Amirreza. Sleep and cognitive outcomes in multiple sclerosis; a systematic review. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-06103-5; article XML SHA-256 40ad529e9c4b68d3e080dcadb9791f517c833f56f3807a128b9c7dbdae3bf26b. “Sleep and cognitive outcomes in multiple sclerosis; a systematic review” (10.1186/s12888-024-06103-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-06103-5) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- brightness adaptation [redraft]: Redefines a perceptual headword as computer-vision preprocessing, hedged with in this source. New packet required. Source: [Lin Ning; Zuo Yue. Advancing driver fatigue detection in diverse lighting conditions for assisted driving vehicles with enhanced facial recognition technologies. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304669; article XML SHA-256 f92518d0d69904e65215025e119d784bf160f05b1fcea16849bcb338011cf55c. “Advancing driver fatigue detection in diverse lighting conditions for assisted driving vehicles with enhanced facial recognition technologies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304669).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304669) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- broadband [redraft]: Defines a pulse rather than the adjective, hedges to the source, and adds a meta sentence instead of a definition. New packet required. Source: [Elsadig Muna; Safdar Muhammad; Taha Hala H.; Afzal Muhammad. Computational time-dependent acoustic scattering in a rectangular membrane–porous waveguide. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358579; article XML SHA-256 288eddae3baa1a55863e7dfa921a722f6b1bb46081a8358ceb5a465c090ffa9f. “Computational time-dependent acoustic scattering in a rectangular membrane–porous waveguide” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358579).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358579) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- broken sleep [redraft]: Because the definition’s key characterization of the term is not explicitly supported by the provided packet, the requested sense of the term is not defensible from the supplied source.; The definition adds a general gloss that is not supported by the packet; only the association with insomnia is directly supported.; The packet only lists “broken sleep” as a component of “Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAMA) Insomnia” (with related symptoms), but it does not define “broken sleep” as “sleep that is interrupted rather than continuous through the night.”; The packet supports that “broken sleep” appears in a HAMA insomnia list, but it does not explicitly define broken sleep as sleep that is interrupted rather than continuous through the night. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “HAMA - Insomnia” (C102076).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- BST [redraft]: The definition states that “BST usually refers to the Block Span Task,” but the packet only describes “Block Span Task (BST)” in this specific article and does not support the word “usually.”; “BST usually refers to” is an unsupported generalization; the packet only supports this specific meaning in this article, not that it is the usual sense of the acronym.; “to study visuospatial difficulties” goes beyond the packet, which says the task was adapted for use in MRI to understand the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying visuospatial impairment in Parkinson’s disease. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Emily Z; Doucet Gaelle E; Huddleston Daniel; Bohsali Anastasia A; Mckay J Lucas; Krishnamurthy Venkatagiri; Hackney Madeleine E. Visuospatial cognition in people with Parkinson’s disease: a pilot study assessing a block span task using fMRI. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1762612; article XML SHA-256 7bcf41ef9582fa7e86be15787193602f5411858877a5662614b6cc57de9eda59. “Visuospatial cognition in people with Parkinson’s disease: a pilot study assessing a block span task using fMRI” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1762612).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1762612) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- bufotenin [redraft]: Field mismatch: the term refers to a hallucinogenic substance, not a diagnosis. The provided packet describes bufotenin as a serotonin analog used in CNS studies and misused as a psychedelic, without presenting it as a diagnostic label.; The definition adds an unsupported framing of a “mental health context” as though this were a diagnostic concept, which the source packet does not establish.; The requested field is not defensible for this term: bufotenin is a substance/chemical agent, not a diagnosis-term entry. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Bufotenin” (D002027).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002027) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- bulbar paralysis [redraft]: The definition adds an inferred meaning that is not stated in the source; a citation to the headword entry alone is not enough to support that specific sense.; The packet does not explicitly define “bulbar paralysis” as “paralysis associated with the bulb”; it only states that “Bulb” is a synonym for the medulla oblongata and that the term is used in combination “as bulbar paralysis.”; The packet supports that “bulb” is a synonym for the medulla oblongata and that the expression “bulbar paralysis” occurs as a combination, but it does not define “bulbar paralysis” as paralysis associated with the bulb.; While the packet supports the link between “bulb” and the medulla oblongata, the specific phrasing that “bulbar paralysis” is a historical term for paralysis associated with the bulb is not directly supported. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Bulb” (Bulb).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B2defs.htm#Bulb) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- burst [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly describe “burst firing” as a “pattern of rapid neuronal activity.” It only states that burst firing in lateral habenula is enhanced under stress/depression and that ketamine blocks burst firing.; The packet supports burst firing in the lateral habenula, but it does not explicitly define it as “a pattern of rapid neuronal activity in lateral habenula cells.”; The rest of the description about increased burst firing under stress and depression and its possible role as a cellular mechanism and therapeutic target in depression is supported. New packet required. Source: [Zhou Rong; Lu Jingjing; Ling Yunxiang; Wang Hong; Cui Lijun; Pan Yongliang; Chen Huanxin. NMDA receptors are not necessary for burst firing of lateral habenula neurons in mice. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828920; article XML SHA-256 dad491fff0f58e421a866767a1aece5ea1f0401c5595e97465689d0dc3349eab. “NMDA receptors are not necessary for burst firing of lateral habenula neurons in mice” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828920).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828920) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- CABG [redraft]: The definition is about a medical cardiac surgical procedure (CABG/MICS-CABG) and does not connect to any mental health concept; the packet itself contains no mental-health framing or psychological/counselling relevance, so the requested field is not defensible.; The definition is otherwise supported by the packet, but the requested field is out of scope for a psychology/counselling dictionary entry.; The term CABG and the supplied source are about coronary artery bypass grafting, a surgical cardiology procedure, not a mental health/psychology concept, so the field assignment is not defensible. New packet required. Source: [Palma Dallan Luis Roberto; Ferreira Lisboa Luiz Augusto; Oliveira Dallan Luis Alberto; Asdrubal Vilca Mejia Omar; Neves Filho Antonio Francisco; Doenst Torsten; Babliak Oleksandr; Orellana Sampedro Gustavo Alfredo; Jatene Fabio Biscegli. Minimally invasive coronary artery bypass grafting (MINI-CABG): Protocol for a pilot randomized controlled trial comparing minimally invasive versus conventional coronary surgery. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337829; article XML SHA-256 42a2d3d72a6f33bdc1e1dde06934e267f16e7d4e8b389e65ceb2c1f5801fcc9b. “Minimally invasive coronary artery bypass grafting (MINI-CABG): Protocol for a pilot randomized controlled trial comparing minimally invasive versus conventional coronary surgery” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337829).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337829) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- calcitonin [redraft]: The definition presents broad “may be mentioned because” rationale; while the packet discusses trialled uses and hypothesised mechanisms, it does not support the specific “psychology-related contexts” linkage.; The definition’s phrase “In psychology-related contexts” is not supported by the packet, which discusses biological/analgesic mechanisms (e.g., phantom limb pain) rather than explicitly framing calcitonin for psychology/cognition contexts.; The phrase “in psychology-related contexts” is unsupported by the packet; the source discusses adjunct analgesic trials and pain mechanisms, not a psychology/counselling usage of the term.; The supplied packet supports calcitonin as a 32-amino-acid polypeptide hormone with receptors in the brain and other tissues, but it does not support classifying this entry in the field of cognition or any psychology-specific sense. New packet required. Source: [Vidyasagar Sneha; Jeyaraman Kanakamani; Zahir Syeda Farah; Varghese Paul. Calcitonin as an adjunct for phantom limb pain. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351739; article XML SHA-256 56fa91bf4c220804f142b5c9162b3bc5bb5b05e18dd0af09a2426c2e68f189a9. “Calcitonin as an adjunct for phantom limb pain” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351739).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351739) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- calcium regulation [redraft]: Hedges a general headword to one model's alpha7 nAChR mechanism and describes the study rather than the term. New packet required. Source: [Ullah Aman; Therrien Karen; Cressman John R.; Kabbani Nadine. Computational model of alpha 7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in thalamic reticular nucleus neurons and their involvement in network states. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330635; article XML SHA-256 4a11659c048a2b0c5f988f5d578e828f90ffafaeaa73b593af1cd03db58801a7. “Computational model of alpha 7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in thalamic reticular nucleus neurons and their involvement in network states” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330635).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330635) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cancellation test [redraft]: The definition claims it is used “particularly in the assessment of attention-related difficulties,” but the packet does not link the cancellation test specifically to attention assessment (it only reports that attention-related symptoms were commonly self-reported and that overall neurocognitive alterations were relevant to attention/working memory, without attributing this to the cancellation test itself).; The definition goes beyond the packet by generalizing from one study to a generic test definition and by implying a specific clinical use that is not established here.; The definition’s explanation of the sense/meaning of “cancellation test” is not directly supported by the packet’s text.; The packet does not support the added characterization that the test is used particularly for attention-related difficulties; it only reports that some participants had persistent attention symptoms and that attention was among the domains of measurable change.; The packet only shows that the Multiple Feature Target Cancellation Test was one of several neuropsychological tests used in a post-COVID-19 study; it does not support the broader definitional claim that a cancellation test is generally a neuropsychological assessment task used to evaluate cognitive function.; The packet only states that the “Multiple Feature Target Cancellation Test” was used as one of several neuropsychological tests in an outpatient assessment; it does not define what a “cancellation test” is, what “target-cancellation measure” means, or the general purpose of cancellation tests. New packet required. Source: [Lauria Alessandra; Carfì Angelo; Benvenuto Francesca; Bramato Giulia; Ciciarello Francesca; Rocchi Sara; Rota Elisabetta; Salerno Andrea; Stella Leonardo; Tritto Marcello; Di Paola Antonella; Pais Cristina; Tosato Matteo; Janiri Delfina; Sani Gabriele; Lo Monaco Rita; Pagano Francesco C.; Fantoni Massimo; Bernabei Roberto; Landi Francesco; Bizzarro Alessandra; Gemelli Against COVID-19 Post-acute Care Group. Neuropsychological measures of post-COVID-19 cognitive status. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1136667; article XML SHA-256 a297ea954317be0796968e91442529c2d7681a9e769c654cddca49e1955bf3a0. “Neuropsychological measures of post-COVID-19 cognitive status” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1136667).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1136667) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cancer [redraft]: The definition says distress “may be accompanied by pain,” but the packet frames pain as the context (“cancer-related pain is frequently accompanied by psychological distress”).; The packet only supports statements about “cancer-related pain” being accompanied by psychological distress; it does not support the claim that “cancer is a physical illness” in a mental health context.; The packet supports cancer-related pain being accompanied by psychological distress, which may worsen symptom burden and impair quality of life, but it does not explicitly support defining cancer here as a physical illness.; The packet supports that distress “may worsen symptom burden and impair quality of life,” but the definition also broadens this to cancer generally rather than specifically cancer-related pain; this generalization is not supported by the provided text.; The wording ‘may be accompanied by pain’ is broader than the packet, which specifically discusses cancer-related pain rather than cancer itself. New packet required. Source: [Hu Yue; Liu Hai-Xiao; Wang Ling-Yun; Li Chang-Lin; Li Dong-Tao; Meng Ling-Han; Zheng Guang-Da; Bao Yan-Ju. Efficacy of psychological interventions versus standard care for cancer pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1811605; article XML SHA-256 66ecdebae1b3d05433a23849a016b0c4fb8e8ee78dfbb4a01d9213e1c740cbf4. “Efficacy of psychological interventions versus standard care for cancer pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1811605).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1811605) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cannabis abuse [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported clinical gloss: the source only refers to “cannabis abuse/dependence (CAST/SDS) scores” and does not define cannabis abuse as a clinically relevant substance-use problem.; The packet does not define what “cannabis abuse” means (e.g., “problematic use” or “serious enough to be identified…”); it only refers to “cannabis abuse/dependence” as variables measured by CAST/SDS.; The packet supports that cannabis abuse/dependence is discussed alongside dependence and analyzed via CAST/SDS scores, but it does not support the specific characterization that it is “measured as risk or severity scores rather than described in detail” (the text does not call them “severity” scores, nor does it explicitly contrast measurement vs. description in the way the definition states).; The source presents cannabis abuse/dependence as a measured score in a study, not as a detailed conceptual definition, so the definitional claim goes beyond the packet. New packet required. Source: [Perales José C; Maldonado Antonio; López-Quirantes Eva M; López-Torrecillas Francisca. Association patterns of cannabis abuse and dependence with risk of problematic non-substance-related dysregulated and addictive behaviors. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0255872; article XML SHA-256 79d1470940d41fe48bee8349c5b879e057f9a01b6d7b7a59854e26ec31420ad7. “Association patterns of cannabis abuse and dependence with risk of problematic non-substance-related dysregulated and addictive behaviors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0255872).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255872) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- card-sorting test [redraft]: The definition generalizes from the specific Berg Card Sorting Test to a generic card-sorting test without support that this sense is the intended entry scope.; The definition states that cards/card-like images are sorted “according to changing rules,” but the provided packet does not explicitly describe changing rules as part of the Berg Card Sorting Test procedure (it only notes that the BCST is like the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and is administered based on Berg’s procedures, without stating the changing-rule mechanism in the supplied text).; The packet supports a Berg Card Sorting Test as a neurobehavioral test of executive function, but it does not explicitly state that cards are sorted according to changing rules. New packet required. Source: [Fox Christopher J.; Mueller Shane T.; Gray Hilary M.; Raber Jacob; Piper Brian J.. Evaluation of a Short-Form of the Berg Card Sorting Test. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0063885; article XML SHA-256 796c589459fb961af52d715e176483ba2f17a775a608a94e8ea05a3ed159f87e. “Evaluation of a Short-Form of the Berg Card Sorting Test” (10.1371/journal.pone.0063885).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0063885) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cardiovascular disease [redraft]: Claims CVD is often identified with ECG plus clinical data; packet says existing methods neglect clinical data. New packet required. Source: [Qu Chang; Zhang Xin; Lu Yansong; Wang Yi; Su Chengzhi. MAF-Net: Multimodal cross-attention-based fusion network for cardiovascular disease classification. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345238; article XML SHA-256 fac74f3edc07e63f3d9a1662d0159c00f2851e8f71a1e202c0d3e83d9f6a1d5f. “MAF-Net: Multimodal cross-attention-based fusion network for cardiovascular disease classification” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345238).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345238) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cardiovascular reactivity [redraft]: The added explanation about heart-and-circulation responses during a task relating to cognitive performance goes beyond the packet’s wording and is an unsupported generalization.; The definition’s phrase “heart-and-circulation responses” is not supported by any explicit wording in the provided packet.; The packet does not describe cardiovascular reactivity as “how bodily heart-and-circulation responses during a task may relate to cognitive performance,” beyond the general association tested in the study.; The packet only states that the study tested whether “cardiovascular reactivity to a task” is associated with cognitive improvement, but it does not define “cardiovascular reactivity” or specify “the degree to which cardiovascular activity changes.”; The packet supports only that cardiovascular reactivity to a task was examined as being associated with cognitive improvement; it does not define the term as the degree of change in cardiovascular activity in response to a task or other demand. New packet required. Source: [Ong Lai Teik Derek; Lee Xiao Shiang; Lim Chu Jian; Low Chia Mei; Muslima Mariyam; Aquili Luca. Ginseng and Ginkgo Biloba Effects on Cognition as Modulated by Cardiovascular Reactivity: A Randomised Trial. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0150447; article XML SHA-256 558d29350cb32762ea20f543a1843d645c075be0694d95f7cc2873c0b1d79d4e. “Ginseng and Ginkgo Biloba Effects on Cognition as Modulated by Cardiovascular Reactivity: A Randomised Trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0150447).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0150447) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- career development [redraft]: Supportive learning experiences and multidisciplinary training are invented; packet never defines the term. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Academic Career Award” (C18613).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- career planning [redraft]: The claim that clearer career plans are linked with “greater effort toward reaching those plans” is only partially supported indirectly (“greater investment required to achieve those plans”); this does not cleanly and directly support the specific phrasing about “greater effort,” so the definition is not fully supported as written.; The packet does not explicitly define career planning as “the ongoing process of developing clear plans for one’s future career”; it discusses “the process of career planning” mainly in relation to reinforcement of self-efficacy, without stating the general definition in that wording.; The packet supports that clearer career plans are associated with higher self-efficacy and greater investment toward achieving those plans, but it does not directly define career planning as an ongoing process of developing clear plans for one’s future career.; The wording slightly overstates the source by turning an association into a general definitional claim about the term itself. New packet required. Source: [Wang Jingjing; Xu Xue; Lan Shufen; Huang Wenzhe. The relationship between career planning clarity and learning engagement among university students: the chain mediating role of self-efficacy and learning motivation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791804; article XML SHA-256 ffe9a9a83afcffa9be0df07ff37c7595609ce654d01bceb92bf4c94a5b940069. “The relationship between career planning clarity and learning engagement among university students: the chain mediating role of self-efficacy and learning motivation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791804).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791804) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- carnal [redraft]: The claim that carnal means “bodily or physical in a sexual sense” is not stated in the source; the text only says the sexual feeling is “imaginative and emotional rather than carnal.”; The definition turns a contrast in the source into a positive definition of carnal, which goes beyond what the historical text supports.; The packet (Baldwin 1901) only uses the term “carnal” in a contrast (“sexual feeling is imaginative and emotional rather than carnal”) and does not explicitly state that, in this usage, “carnal means bodily or physical in a sexual sense.”; The packet does not define the headword “carnal”; its source record is for “Erotomania or Eroticomania,” so the requested sense is not directly supported. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Erotomania or Eroticomania” (Erotomania).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Erotomania) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- carotid artery [redraft]: The claim that the carotid artery is a ‘major blood vessel’ is not supported by the supplied source text.; The definition claims the internal carotid artery is “a major blood vessel,” but the provided packet does not support that description.; The definition presents the microcirculation effect as a settled fact; in the packet this is framed as a hypothesis and study aim, not as established current consensus.; The packet supports atherosclerotic stenosis of the internal carotid artery causing or being associated with disturbances in cerebral and retinal microcirculation, but it does not support defining the term itself as the internal carotid artery. New packet required. Source: [Magyar-Stang Rita; István Lilla; Pál Hanga; Csányi Borbála; Gaál Anna; Mihály Zsuzsanna; Czinege Zsófia; Sótonyi Péter; Tamás Horváth; Koller Akos; Bereczki Dániel; Kovács Illés; Debreczeni Róbert. Impaired cerebrovascular reactivity correlates with reduced retinal vessel density in patients with carotid artery stenosis: Cross-sectional, single center study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0291521; article XML SHA-256 b3773acc01d5c8c9683ff464515a79e1ef6ed0d730de6c64226d2114ad8b53fe. “Impaired cerebrovascular reactivity correlates with reduced retinal vessel density in patients with carotid artery stenosis: Cross-sectional, single center study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0291521).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291521) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Cartesian coordinate system [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported generalization by calling it a “standard x–y framework”; the packet only says the Cartesian coordinate system is the default framework used in traffic conflict research, not that it is standard in general.; The definition includes an additional example (“such as vehicle movement and conflict points”) that is not explicitly stated as such in the packet; the packet mentions conflict identification and vehicle trajectories, but not that these are the examples framing the term.; The packet does not support the claim that the Cartesian coordinate system is specifically a “standard x–y framework.” It only describes Cartesian as being predominantly adopted by default and uses “Cartesian framework/straight-line equations,” without stating an x–y form.; The packet supports that Cartesian methods are workable on straight segments but are complicated/less accurate on curved segments, yet the definition’s comparison phrasing (“does not capture curved trajectories and lane changes as accurately or simply as … Frenet”) is broader than the packet’s specific statements about boundary fitting complexity and applicability/reliability.; The requested field is not well supported by the packet: the source is about traffic-conflict identification on roads, not the learning field.; The statement about representing “positions and trajectories” is broader than the packet, which discusses determining vehicle trajectory points and traffic conflict locations in this specific context. New packet required. Source: [Wu Jingan; Zhu Shunying; Jiang Ruoxi; He Taotao; Chen Jinquan. Traffic conflict identification method on curved road based on Frenet coordinate system. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344023; article XML SHA-256 5e9afcfd8216184d844c7f6b39f5b5a6b8252779e03dc82263d7c7948ad03c75. “Traffic conflict identification method on curved road based on Frenet coordinate system” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344023).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344023) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cata- [redraft]: The definition gives the acronym CATA (‘check-all-that-apply’) rather than the supplied term cata-.; The packet does not state that participants indicate all attributes that fit the item, nor that this shows how they perceive/distinguish qualities; it only reports that CATA results identified discriminating attributes between wines.; The packet mentions the “Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) method” but does not define it as a “check-all-that-apply” method or as a “descriptive sensory test.”; The packet supports CATA only as a descriptive sensory test used in a wine perception study; it does not establish a dictionary sense for the term itself.; The wording broadens the method into a general explanation of how people perceive and distinguish qualities, which is not directly supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Sánchez Elena; Oliveras Ingrid; Romero del Castillo Maria Roser; Salazar Angeles. Influence of the sociocultural perspective on the sensory perception of wine consumers in Mexico and Spain. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1171289; article XML SHA-256 64ba90cfdd89610972f57bddb63008592194bf725bc962f10a1b200317f4f3e3. “Influence of the sociocultural perspective on the sensory perception of wine consumers in Mexico and Spain” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1171289).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1171289) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- catecholaminergic [redraft]: The definition adds a general meaning for the term beyond the packet’s specific study context; the supported sense here is only that catecholaminergic inputs to CA1 were lesioned and were associated with reduced CA1 activity and impaired object-location memory.; The packet does not define catecholamines as “a group of chemical messengers in the nervous system,” so the first sentence’s characterization is unsupported by the provided source.; The packet supports catecholaminergic inputs to CA1, but it does not define catecholamines as “a group of chemical messengers in the nervous system.”; The packet supports that the study “lesioned the catecholaminergic inputs to CA1,” and that this affected c-Fos levels and impaired object location memory, but it does not support the full wording of the definition’s first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Crestani Ana Paula; Teratani-Ota Yusuke; Wiltgen Brian Joseph. Object location memories recruit distal CA1 and catecholaminergic inputs to proximodistal CA1. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337834; article XML SHA-256 0ade106e33931a9b8bf44d5714a94d6723e51991329f09590488619901a3f9ff. “Object location memories recruit distal CA1 and catecholaminergic inputs to proximodistal CA1” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337834).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337834) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- causal modeling [redraft]: The definition frames receptor-related signaling “between specific brain regions” and links this to “causal modeling” generally; the packet specifically describes DCM for ketamine-related connectivity changes, not a general definition of causal modeling beyond that context.; The definition generalizes beyond the supplied source by presenting a generic account of causal modeling rather than the specific DCM use described in the article.; The first sentence (“an approach for estimating how one part of a system influences another by fitting a model to observed data”) is a general definition not explicitly stated in the provided packet.; The packet supports dynamic causal modeling in a specific study, but it does not define the broader term causal modeling as a general method for estimating influence by fitting a model to observed data.; The packet supports that dynamic causal modeling (DCM) was used to measure changes in parameter estimates of connectivity using a biophysical model with realistic local neuronal architecture and receptor/channel signaling, but it does not support the broader general-purpose “causal modeling” wording used in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Gilbert Jessica R.; Galiano Christina S.; Nugent Allison C.; Zarate Carlos A.. Ketamine and Attentional Bias Toward Emotional Faces: Dynamic Causal Modeling of Magnetoencephalographic Connectivity in Treatment-Resistant Depression. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.673159; article XML SHA-256 999c05077fd5e97cbfdafb56c36a6b80757cfa66003b235be0aa81b7dfa3da61. “Ketamine and Attentional Bias Toward Emotional Faces: Dynamic Causal Modeling of Magnetoencephalographic Connectivity in Treatment-Resistant Depression” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.673159).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.673159) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- CEFT [redraft]: Second sentence recounts the study's gene-expression findings rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Bigelow Rebecca A.; Richeson John T.; McClurg Molly; Valeris-Chacin Robert; Morley Paul S.; Funk Jenna L.; Scott Matthew A.. Characterizing the influence of various antimicrobials used for metaphylaxis against bovine respiratory disease on host transcriptome responses. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fvets.2023.1272940; article XML SHA-256 7d6ca497cc1edd94a4551d18e6b3c592b91a45f11c8ac484e5234fcd171b204f. “Characterizing the influence of various antimicrobials used for metaphylaxis against bovine respiratory disease on host transcriptome responses” (10.3389/fvets.2023.1272940).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1272940) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cell death [redraft]: The definition mentions “injury-related death” as a biologically distinct form; the packet lists distinct types (e.g., apoptosis, necrosis, autophagy) and discusses programmed cell death, but it does not support the specific characterization “injury-related death.”; The definition slightly generalizes beyond the packet by presenting the forms of cell death as a broad, settled set in a way the source does not explicitly state.; The definition’s phrase “through several biologically distinct forms such as programmed self-destruction” is only partially supported: the packet supports programmed cell death and genetically regulated self-destruction, but the comparison to “injury-related death” is not supported.; The field requested is “diagnosis,” but the packet provides general biological context about cell death functions and disease associations, not any diagnostic-sense usage.; The phrase "injury-related death" is not supported by the packet; the source mentions distinct types such as apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy, but does not characterize any of them as injury-related. New packet required. Source: [Gao Yuanxiao; Zhao Xueyan; Li Caixia. The evolution of irreversible cell differentiation under cell death effect. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315255; article XML SHA-256 7c22acba9d5720c6da4bfd9bb18671e7fd43262502b479abd33c8dee1bd3bc37. “The evolution of irreversible cell differentiation under cell death effect” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315255).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315255) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cell division [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet is a bacterial cell-division (FtsZ/MinC/PrkC) molecular biology study, not cognition.; The definition claims cell division “is the process in which a cell undergoes physical splitting,” but the provided packet does not explicitly state that description of cell division.; The definition narrows the entry to a source-specific mechanistic account of FtsZ regulation; that is not a standard dictionary sense of the term 'cell division.'; The requested field is not defensible here: the source is a molecular biology article about the bacterial cell-division protein FtsZ, not a cognition/psychology sense.; While the packet supports that FtsZ phosphorylation affects tail-core binding, polymerization behavior, and interaction with the division inhibitor MinC, it does not directly support the specific phrasing that cell division is “regulated … through changes in its polymerization and interactions with division-control proteins during the cell cycle.” The packet discusses tail gating of access to the polymerization surface and MinC binding, but the requested broad description is not stated in that form. New packet required. Source: [Mallard William J.; Pham Vincent V.. FtsZ phosphorylation modulates tail-core binding to tune cell division in Bacillus subtilis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337820; article XML SHA-256 e47b7594a53acfb63758c891ec24f641932067fba76938c8fd0e82eda4299950. “FtsZ phosphorylation modulates tail-core binding to tune cell division in Bacillus subtilis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337820).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337820) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cellular automata [redraft]: Closes with meta-commentary about the packet and describes the source instead of defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Hall Joanne; Morgan Kerri; Stylianou Stella; Warnakulasooriyage Vindya. F -squares over cellular automata. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355562; article XML SHA-256 14fb13853863b20d49556d5e187c587e9753a5c5e8491ac92482b0c5e9a4e0cb. “F -squares over cellular automata” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355562).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355562) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- census [redraft]: The definition’s added claims about describing “educational conditions and practices” are not explicitly supported in the packet text.; The first sentence gives a general dictionary-style definition of “census” as data collected from an entire population or system rather than a sample, but the packet only shows a study using “school census data” and does not support that broad definition.; The packet does not define what a “census” is (e.g., systematic collection of data about an entire population/system versus a sample).; The packet only mentions that the study “analyzes school census data from 2009 to 2022,” but it provides no explanation of what “school census data” refers to (e.g., records gathered across schools over time).; The phrasing “in this context” adds an explanatory sense that is broader than the packet supports; the source only supports school census data as data analyzed over 2009–2022, not a general definition of census or a formal description of how censuses are collected. New packet required. Source: [Gonçalves André Calixto; Valentim Rodolfo; Rodrigues Francisco Aparecido; Fernandes Guilherme Antônio de Almeida Lopes; Fernandes Ivan Filipe. The impact of political ideologies on cultural erosion: Indigenous education policy in Brazil (2009–2022). 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354262; article XML SHA-256 aebca481ab62304f35ab7d7cedfaa27fbb796c9ecc3ff505192582cf07a78dbc. “The impact of political ideologies on cultural erosion: Indigenous education policy in Brazil (2009–2022)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354262).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354262) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- center of gravity [redraft]: Some additional implied framing (“improving the strength and stability of the septal L-strut design”) is directionally supported, but because the definition includes the unsupported “mass is balanced” characterization, the substantive claim is not defensible under the provided packet.; The definition’s first sentence is broader than the packet’s wording; the source does not define center of gravity as a general way of judging any structure’s mass balance under load, only in the context of this specific septal design analysis.; The definition’s phrase that center of gravity is “the point used in judging how a structure’s mass is balanced” is not explicitly supported by the packet text. The packet mentions using “principles of static equilibrium, such as the center of gravity” and relates a “lower center of gravity” to “strength and stability,” but it does not describe center of gravity as a “point used” for judging “mass balance.”; The packet supports an engineering/biomechanics sense of center of gravity in septal L-strut modeling, not a learning or psychology/counselling sense. New packet required. Source: [Wongchadakul Patcharaporn; Lohasammakul Suphalerk; Rattanadecho Phadungsak; Chu-Ongsakul Sorawuth. The advanced concepts for septal l-strut re-designing in septorhinoplasty for better strength and stability by considering of center of gravity. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288607; article XML SHA-256 711adc3425f03116e1f878051300e5341907139e79e502d327e2d0f7c0daccef. “The advanced concepts for septal l-strut re-designing in septorhinoplasty for better strength and stability by considering of center of gravity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288607).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288607) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- centering [redraft]: Hedges with in this context to redefine general headword centering as pitch centering only. New packet required. Source: [Rangwala Rabab; Subrahmanya Anantajit; Brent Kurtis; Gupta Saloni; Ranasinghe Kamalini; Dale Corby L.; Gaines Jessica L.; Pongos Alvincé L.; Rosen Clark A.; Schneider Sarah L.; Barkmeier-Kraemer Julie; Simonyan Kristina; Houde John F.; Nagarajan Srikantan S.. Enhanced pitch centering in individuals with laryngeal dystonia. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1688947; article XML SHA-256 db16865e7aef2b252c2463cc7e3c65761d2edf532166f3cc78d7c519fc97f6b8. “Enhanced pitch centering in individuals with laryngeal dystonia” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1688947).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1688947) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- central conflict [redraft]: Packet only uses the phrase central conflict signalling; definition invents a process and recounts findings. New packet required. Source: [Albrecht Björn; Banaschewski Tobias; Brandeis Daniel; Heinrich Hartmut; Rothenberger Aribert. Response inhibition deficits in externalizing child psychiatric disorders: An ERP-study with the Stop-task. 2005; DOI 10.1186/1744-9081-1-22; article XML SHA-256 7d1c155838061ea12ced2c36df2cdc68417d71410c5b6c1eb6a5adf636056c9d. “Response inhibition deficits in externalizing child psychiatric disorders: An ERP-study with the Stop-task” (10.1186/1744-9081-1-22).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-1-22) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- central executive [redraft]: The definition adds a broader characterization of the central executive that is not directly stated in the supplied source packet.; The definition describes the central executive as a “domain-general cognitive ability,” but the packet does not characterize the central executive that way.; The definition states that the central executive is “a component of working memory,” but the packet only describes working memory in relation to the study and does not explicitly define the central executive as a working-memory component.; The definition’s remaining parts (e.g., that it was linked to children’s arithmetic strategy choice and mediated the relationship between ANS acuity and strategy use/strategy utilization) are supported by the packet, but the unsupported characterizations prevent a pass.; The packet supports that the central executive mediated the relationship between approximate number system acuity and strategy utilization/choice, but it does not explicitly define the central executive here as a domain-general cognitive ability. New packet required. Source: [Li Hongxia; Zhang Mingliang; Wang Xiangyan; Ding Xiao; Si Jiwei. The Central Executive Mediates the Relationship Between Children’s Approximate Number System Acuity and Arithmetic Strategy Utilization in Computational Estimation. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00943; article XML SHA-256 9550577556f947fa3b2194f0ea381b846fee3ccef42f718ae50a5e49d5abbc76. “The Central Executive Mediates the Relationship Between Children’s Approximate Number System Acuity and Arithmetic Strategy Utilization in Computational Estimation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00943).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00943) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- central fissure [redraft]: Packet OCR is garbled figure labels; location between the central gyri and landmark claim are not supported. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-472500-484500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- central nucleus [redraft]: Generic headword central nucleus narrowed to the inferior colliculus subdivision the packet happens to describe. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Posterior Quadrigeminal Body” (C33377).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- central pain [redraft]: Packet discusses central pain processing in fibromyalgia, not the headword central pain; sense is wrong. New packet required. Source: [Müller Monika; Wüthrich Florian; Federspiel Andrea; Wiest Roland; Egloff Niklaus; Reichenbach Stephan; Exadaktylos Aristomenis; Jüni Peter; Curatolo Michele; Walther Sebastian. Altered central pain processing in fibromyalgia—A multimodal neuroimaging case-control study using arterial spin labelling. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0235879; article XML SHA-256 11c9ff4ed6d2ceede5b8ed5aa8e924e63c41727106f8bd676918d1d5fde1dd8f. “Altered central pain processing in fibromyalgia—A multimodal neuroimaging case-control study using arterial spin labelling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0235879).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235879) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- central sulcus [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported interpretation that central sulcus activity reflects “motor-related cortex when object knowledge is retrieved”; the packet only says motor cortex contributed to identification of tools/manmade objects, not retrieval of object knowledge.; The definition claims that central sulcus activity is “consistent with a contribution from motor-related cortex when object knowledge is retrieved,” but the packet only states that motor cortex contributes to identification of tools; it does not directly connect central sulcus activity to motor-related cortex or retrieval of object knowledge in that explicit manner.; The phrase “brain region” is imprecise for this term in the source, which identifies the central sulcus as a measured site (CS) rather than defining it as a cognitive construct.; While the packet supports that central sulcus was measured as part of modality-specific ‘spokes’ and that CS showed stronger later effects for specific-level identification of manmade objects, the motor-related consistency clause is an extra interpretive linkage not clearly supported in the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Mollo Giovanna; Cornelissen Piers L; Millman Rebecca E; Ellis Andrew W; Jefferies Elizabeth. Oscillatory Dynamics Supporting Semantic Cognition: MEG Evidence for the Contribution of the Anterior Temporal Lobe Hub and Modality-Specific Spokes. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0169269; article XML SHA-256 9d50f9573f0c4e2845c58a93214127d51e2fb5416c40c686c0105fa0956c53b9. “Oscillatory Dynamics Supporting Semantic Cognition: MEG Evidence for the Contribution of the Anterior Temporal Lobe Hub and Modality-Specific Spokes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0169269).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169269) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- central tendency [redraft]: Well-known statistical headword redefined as a time-perception bias via the in time perception hedge. New packet required. Source: [Murai Yuki; Yotsumoto Yuko. Timescale- and Sensory Modality-Dependency of the Central Tendency of Time Perception. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0158921; article XML SHA-256 2bf52a8b1597af7a42746e1ab32111411de4797d8f2c2461ed7d9ac7ee70bae4. “Timescale- and Sensory Modality-Dependency of the Central Tendency of Time Perception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0158921).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158921) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- centrifugal [redraft]: General adjective centrifugal narrowed to RPM acceleration with an in this context hedge. New packet required. Source: [Pica Andrada; Uras Giuseppe; Porco Ilaria Giuseppina; Manca Alessia; Pantaleo Antonella; Della Croce Ugo. Characterization of the random positioning machine as a microgravity simulator for biological applications. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351320; article XML SHA-256 6ee23852e482498140f60cd38c267f90433f87a6448a1ea5ddcf98c6bd22dcd4. “Characterization of the random positioning machine as a microgravity simulator for biological applications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351320).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351320) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- centroid [redraft]: The definition’s phrasing about “grouped data are organized” is not supported by the provided packet text.; The packet does not define what a “centroid” is (e.g., as a central representative point). It only mentions “centroid-based clustering” and that re-positioning is handled by “Neural Gas,” without explaining the centroid concept.; The packet supports only that Neural Gas is a centroid-based clustering algorithm used to re-position units; it does not define a centroid as a 'central representative point' or as a reference around which grouped data are organized.; The requested sense is not defensibly biological from the packet; the source is about clustering algorithms and data streams, not a biological concept definition. New packet required. Source: [Migenda Nico; Möller Ralf; Schenck Wolfram. H-NGPCA: Hierarchical clustering of data streams with adaptive number of clusters and adaptive dimensionality. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339171; article XML SHA-256 98b8d08c57914cdbfc0105f388b89d38bce461a52b192094ade1cda41efc9480. “H-NGPCA: Hierarchical clustering of data streams with adaptive number of clusters and adaptive dimensionality” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339171).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339171) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cerebral embolism [redraft]: Defines the genus cerebrovascular disorder, not the specific headword cerebral embolism. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cerebrovascular Disorder” (C2938).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cerebral hypoplasia [redraft]: The definition is not fully supported as written because it mixes a general diagnostic definition with a source-specific description, rather than restricting itself to what the packet actually states.; The packet does not provide the definition that cerebral hypoplasia means the cerebrum is “smaller or has less volume than expected” on imaging; it only reports the term “Cerebral hypoplasia/atrophy” as a finding.; The source supports that cerebral hypoplasia/atrophy was observed in some children with Pallister-Killian syndrome, but it does not define cerebral hypoplasia as a general structural brain abnormality in which the cerebrum is smaller or has less volume than expected on imaging.; The wording ‘in this source, it is described as a neuroradiological finding … often discussed together with cerebral atrophy as part of cerebral volume loss’ goes beyond the packet’s wording; the packet reports ‘cerebral hypoplasia/atrophy’ and separately mentions literature findings of ‘cerebral brain volume loss up to cerebral atrophy,’ but it does not establish that cerebral hypoplasia is a distinct named entity or current consensus definition.; While the packet supports that “cerebral hypoplasia/atrophy” occurs in a subset of children with Pallister-Killian syndrome and that brain volume loss/cerebral atrophy are discussed, it does not explicitly state that cerebral hypoplasia is “often discussed together with cerebral atrophy as part of cerebral volume loss” in the definitional sense used in the provided definition. New packet required. Source: [Fetta Anna; Toni Francesco; Pettenuzzo Ilaria; Ricci Emilia; Rocca Alessandro; Gambi Caterina; Soliani Luca; Di Pisa Veronica; Martini Silvia; Sperti Giacomo; Cagnazzo Valeria; Accorsi Patrizia; Bartolini Emanuele; Battaglia Domenica; Bernardo Pia; Canevini Maria Paola; Ferrari Anna Rita; Giordano Lucio; Locatelli Chiara; Mancardi Margherita; Orsini Alessandro; Pippucci Tommaso; Pruna Dario; Rosati Anna; Suppiej Agnese; Tagliani Sara; Vaisfeld Alessandro; Vignoli Aglaia; Izumi Kosuke; Krantz Ian; Cordelli Duccio Maria. Structural brain abnormalities in Pallister-Killian syndrome: a neuroimaging study of 31 children. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s13023-024-03065-5; article XML SHA-256 835f0e0b06a353964dc514da12b55e5c80089943dac51630aba02be1582874c6. “Structural brain abnormalities in Pallister-Killian syndrome: a neuroimaging study of 31 children” (10.1186/s13023-024-03065-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13023-024-03065-5) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cerebral ischemia [redraft]: Packet defines cerebral infarction; persistent focal deficit is infarction, not ischemia, so sense is wrong. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cerebral Infarction” (C50486).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cerebral palsy [redraft]: The definition says it is a “group of lifelong movement disorders,” while the packet describes it as “nonprogressive motor disorders” and does not explicitly state “lifelong.”; The definition states that cerebral palsy is caused by “brain injury or abnormal brain development,” but the packet only describes it as caused by “chronic brain injuries” (originating prenatal/perinatal/first few years) and does not mention abnormal brain development.; The packet supports a nonprogressive motor disorder caused by chronic brain injuries originating in the prenatal, perinatal, or first few years of life, but it does not support the added claim that cerebral palsy is caused by abnormal brain development.; The wording "lifelong" is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebral Palsy” (D002547).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002547) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- cerebral vascular disease [redraft]: The definition adds a general characterization of the term that is not directly supported by the supplied source text.; The definition characterizes the term as “a disease category,” but the packet does not describe it in those categorical terms.; The definition claims the disease is related to the “brain’s vascular system,” which is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define or discuss “cerebral vascular disease” as a standalone brain vascular disease category; it only mentions “cardio-cerebral vascular disease” in the context of prevention.; The packet specifically mentions “cardio-cerebral vascular disease,” but the definition does not account for this and instead refers more generally to “cerebral vascular disease.” New packet required. Source: [Qin Guangming; Luo Laisheng; Lv Lihong; Xiao Yufei; Tu Jiangfeng; Tao Lisha; Wu Jiaqi; Tang Xiaoxiao; Pan Wensheng. Decision Tree Analysis of Traditional Risk Factors of Carotid Atherosclerosis and a Cutpoint-Based Prevention Strategy. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0111769; article XML SHA-256 28ca096ad72b0d1307cc06e7d73cb5d5e83396b464622a7227adcbd3c238c602. “Decision Tree Analysis of Traditional Risk Factors of Carotid Atherosclerosis and a Cutpoint-Based Prevention Strategy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0111769).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0111769) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cerebro- [redraft]: The definition adds an interpretive gloss about what the word part “refers to” that is not directly supported by the packet and goes beyond the supplied source.; The packet does not support the claim that “cerebro-” is specifically described as a “biological word part.” It only provides usage of the term in “cerebro-spinal” in the context of cerebrospinal fluid flow.; The packet supports use in the compound “cerebro-spinal” and mentions cerebrospinal fluid flow, but it does not support the broader phrase “cerebrospinal system.”; While the packet supports references to “cerebro-spinal” / “cerebro spinal fluid flow pattern,” it does not explicitly state that “cerebro-” refers to the cerebrospinal system or its fluid flow as the requested standalone meaning of the prefix. New packet required. Source: [Leblond Lugdivine; Sudres Patrice; Evin Morgane. Cerebro-spinal flow pattern in the cervical subarachnoid space of healthy volunteers: Influence of the spinal cord morphology. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290927; article XML SHA-256 7c1a5b62015a3f7890466c5fcb56c6990d74a4ab0a609f5f2a62935a1ee2db50. “Cerebro-spinal flow pattern in the cervical subarachnoid space of healthy volunteers: Influence of the spinal cord morphology” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290927).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290927) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cerebrospinal fluid [redraft]: The definition adds that cerebrospinal fluid is "clear"; the packet supports only that it is a watery fluid.; The definition states cerebrospinal fluid is “clear,” but the provided packet only describes it as a “watery fluid” and does not mention clarity/being clear.; The rest of the definition is supported, but the added unsupported property makes it fail under the source-only rule. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebrospinal Fluid” (D002555).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002555) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- cerebrum [redraft]: The definition claims the cerebrum is “the largest part of the brain,” but the provided packet text does not state that the cerebrum is the largest part.; The remainder of the description (right/left hemispheres, outer cerebral cortex and subcortical basal ganglia, inclusion of all parts within the skull except medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum, and functions including sensorimotor/emotional/intellectual activities) is supported by the packet.; “Largest part of the brain” is not stated in the packet.; “Supports movement and sensation” is an interpretation of “sensorimotor” rather than a direct supported phrasing. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cerebrum” (D054022).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D054022) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- cervical ganglion [redraft]: The first sentence generalizes beyond the packet: it defines “cervical ganglion” broadly as a sympathetic nerve-cell cluster in the neck and part of the autonomic nervous system, but the packet only discusses the superior cervical ganglion in a rat study and does not define the general term.; The packet mentions sympathetic ganglia and measures synaptic plasticity (LTP) in the superior cervical ganglion, but it does not explicitly state that the SCG/cervical ganglion is located in the neck or that it is a “sympathetic nerve-cell cluster” in the way the definition claims.; The packet only discusses the superior cervical ganglion (SCG) in rats and does not explicitly define what a “cervical ganglion” is (e.g., as a sympathetic nerve-cell cluster in the neck) in general terms.; The packet supports the superior cervical ganglion as a site of altered synaptic transmission and plasticity in sympathetic activity, but not as a basis for a full generic definition of “cervical ganglion.” New packet required. Source: [Elinos Diana; Veladiz-Gracia Fernanda; González-Sierra Constanza; Rubio-Galicia Angel; Cifuentes Fredy; Morales Miguel A.. Long-term potentiation and neurotransmitters expression and segregation are altered in the Metabolic Syndrome-associated dysautonomia. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335728; article XML SHA-256 544f48297f1f76c1a51eb0f263ca70c5f09b4e6c4fb6838e10e136ed2cf1b54a. “Long-term potentiation and neurotransmitters expression and segregation are altered in the Metabolic Syndrome-associated dysautonomia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335728).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335728) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Cesamet [redraft]: Packet never names Cesamet; the brand-to-nabilone identification is an added fact. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nabilone” (C1171).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- CF [redraft]: Adds traumatized people as the population; packet says seriously ill patients and families. New packet required. Source: [Ravindran Nila; Abdul Hamid Nur Amira Binte; A Priyadarshini; Abdul Rahman Afiqah Bte; Wong Giovanna; Rajalingam Varsha; Wan Darius Wei Jun; Ramesh Kaaviya; Krishna Lalit Kumar Radha. Understanding the cost of caring in medicine through personhood: A systematic scoping review of compassion fatigue, vicarious trauma and secondary traumatic stress. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357726; article XML SHA-256 48c314789a430fe0754159dbfd1a03debf6356a11c80530c6761a6512a325602. “Understanding the cost of caring in medicine through personhood: A systematic scoping review of compassion fatigue, vicarious trauma and secondary traumatic stress” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357726).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357726) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- challenged [redraft]: Ordinary word given an invented specialised sense via in this context hedge; unsettling identity is paper-specific. New packet required. Source: [Zhao Zhenhua; Xie Dengbin. From technology anxiety to technology symbiosis: a grounded theory study of mid-career foreign language teachers’ subjectivity evolution in the AI era. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1914637; article XML SHA-256 883cb7f5aa302b6b88ab6f4ecd0173081bd1fbaa962a91fc9b0c32cfaadc54b4. “From technology anxiety to technology symbiosis: a grounded theory study of mid-career foreign language teachers’ subjectivity evolution in the AI era” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1914637).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1914637) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- channel capacity [redraft]: The definition generalizes channel capacity beyond what the source states; the packet only says THz radiation offers higher data rates and enhanced channel capacity, not a full definition of the term.; The packet content is about a nanophotonic THz sensor/absorber and optical sensing; it does not discuss “channel capacity” as a cognitive concept, so the field mapping to “cognition” is unsupported.; The packet does not provide the requested sense/definition that “Channel capacity is the amount of information a communication channel can carry.” It only mentions “enhanced channel capacity” in general terms.; The packet frames “channel capacity” as part of terahertz wireless communication advantages, but it does not state or justify the specific causal linkage “greater channel capacity is linked with higher data transmission performance.”; The term is not defensibly in the field of cognition; the packet discusses terahertz wireless communications and sensing, not a psychology/counselling concept. New packet required. Source: [Hamza Musa N.; Tariqul Islam Mohammad; Lavadiya Sunil; ud Din Iftikhar; Sanches Bruno; Koziel Slawomir; Iffat Naqvi Syeda; Farmani Ali; Panda Abinash; Islam Md. Shabiul. Nanophotonic perfect absorber with ultra-broadband terahertz-to-infrared response via hybrid-material design for advanced optical sensing. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342168; article XML SHA-256 0c4121f0575539be41216149d74a659681fa9d54ea741316be95d47680070c0e. “Nanophotonic perfect absorber with ultra-broadband terahertz-to-infrared response via hybrid-material design for advanced optical sensing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342168).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342168) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- channel [redraft]: General headword channel narrowed to ion channel via in this context hedge. New packet required. Source: [Dey Moushumi Rani; Li Baolin; Heddleston John; Aihara Eitaro. Voltage-gated sodium channel, Na v 1.8, regulates calcium dynamics in the dorsal root ganglion induced by cold nociceptive stimulus. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357395; article XML SHA-256 314fbe706bb2ebd57a777f9c06049c8623300ec723e5a9c087946025be3817b4. “Voltage-gated sodium channel, Na v 1.8, regulates calcium dynamics in the dorsal root ganglion induced by cold nociceptive stimulus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357395).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357395) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- character displacement [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the packet’s support by giving a broad general definition of character displacement; the packet only directly supports the specific case of reproductive character displacement in the cited fish populations.; The field is not defensible from the packet: this is an evolutionary biology/ecology concept about sympatry, allopatry, and mate choice in fish, not a learning/psychology term.; The first sentence’s general claim (“differ more in certain traits when they live together than when they live apart”) is not stated or clearly supported in the supplied packet text; the packet instead presents specific predictions and findings about spotting patterns and female association behavior in Poeciliopsis populations. New packet required. Source: [Roth-Monzón Andrea J.; Scott Laura E.; Camargo Ashley A.; Clark Eliza I.; Schott Eric E.; Johnson Jerald B.. Sympatry Predicts Spot Pigmentation Patterns and Female Association Behavior in the Livebearing Fish Poeciliopsis baenschi. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0170326; article XML SHA-256 05954e2dbaa72c5dab64ea5d62867ad3d2e89073b0a5f0d7b81507e098df0eed. “Sympatry Predicts Spot Pigmentation Patterns and Female Association Behavior in the Livebearing Fish Poeciliopsis baenschi” (10.1371/journal.pone.0170326).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170326) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- character traits [redraft]: Packet defines virtues; equating the broader headword character traits with virtues narrows the sense. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Virtues” (D028722).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D028722) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- charlatan [redraft]: The definition adds a broad general sense (“using showy or misleading claims and tricks to seem more skilled or effective”) that is not stated in the packet; the source only shows a pejorative label applied to Dr. Willis as “a bit of a charlatan” and “not always above the arts of that character.”; The definition adds an “especially in medical practice” framing that is not stated as part of a definition in the packet; the packet shows medical-related controversy but does not present that as the definitional sense of the word.; The packet does not define “charlatan” in general terms (e.g., “showy or misleading claims and tricks”); it only uses the term to criticize Dr. Willis (“a bit of a charlatan”) and references “the arts of that character.”; The packet’s support is limited to a historical critical context about Willis’s conduct (e.g., ridicule of medical assertions); it does not explicitly support the definition’s specific phrasing about “showy or misleading claims and tricks” or the generalization about “medical practice.”; The phrase “especially in medical practice” is broader than the source warrants. The packet gives a single historical medical example, but does not support a general medical-specific sense as part of the term’s definition.; The second sentence is acceptable as contextual commentary, but the overall entry should not present an unsupported generalized definition from one historical passage as if it were established by the source alone. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-136500-148500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- ChE [redraft]: ChE normally abbreviates cholinesterase; definition hedges in this packet to assign cultural heritage education. New packet required. Source: [Yu Xu. Cultural heritage education and civic engagement: a value-socialization model among Chinese university students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1779128; article XML SHA-256 1dd15ce4e1813d5431603771fab7394d20e7b4474a1e8e33652df4741e7ce53b. “Cultural heritage education and civic engagement: a value-socialization model among Chinese university students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1779128).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1779128) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- chemistry [redraft]: The definition adds broader explanatory claims that go beyond the source text, which only says GAD results from a mix of genetics, brain chemistry, biology, and environment.; The packet does not define “chemistry” as “chemical processes in the body or brain.” It only refers to “brain chemistry” as part of the causes of GAD, without explaining what “chemistry” means.; The packet supports brain chemistry as one factor in GAD, but it does not support defining chemistry as chemical processes in the body or as a general contributor to mental health.; The portion of the definition stating “may play a part in mental health” is not stated in the packet; the packet discusses GAD causes but does not characterize chemistry as broadly related to “mental health.” New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 77e8e3f9797bdd3e545d836e3c7a022d849dbcb9046d75b9663fada09c613399. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- chemoreceptor trigger zone [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define “chemoreceptor trigger zone” as referring to the “area postrema.”; The packet identifies the structure as the area postrema, but it does not state that this is the chemoreceptor trigger zone, so the term-to-structure mapping is unsupported by the supplied source.; The packet states that the area postrema lies outside the blood-brain barrier and acts as an emetic chemoreceptor, but it does not specifically claim that it “can detect substances in the body.”; While the packet supports “acting as an emetic chemoreceptor” (related to vomiting), the definition’s phrasing “contribute to the vomiting response” is not directly stated in the packet.; “Can detect substances in the body” goes beyond the packet’s wording; the packet only says the area postrema lies outside the blood-brain barrier and acts as an emetic chemoreceptor.; “Contribute to the vomiting response” is not stated in the packet in that form; the packet says its functions include acting as an emetic chemoreceptor. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Area Postrema” (D031608).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D031608) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- chi-square [redraft]: The definition is otherwise close to the source, but it adds a usage claim that goes beyond the supplied text.; The packet does not support the claim that chi-square tests are “commonly used” in research.; While the packet supports that chi-square tests (the oldest of these tests) are used to detect whether two or more population distributions differ, the definition’s broader wording (“commonly used to examine whether two or more population distributions differ”) is not explicitly supported as stated.; “Commonly used” is not supported by the packet; the packet says only that the oldest chi-square tests are used to detect whether two or more population distributions differ. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Chi-Square Distribution” (D016009).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016009) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- child care facilities [redraft]: The claim that these settings can affect children’s and parents’ “adjustment” is not supported by the packet; the source discusses distress/stress after reopening, not adjustment as such.; The definition claims child care facilities “can affect both children’s and parents’ stress and adjustment,” but the packet supports stress/distress after reopening and does not mention “adjustment.”; The definition describes child care facilities as “places children leave and later return to,” which is only specifically evidenced in the packet’s COVID-19 closure/reopening context, not as a general defining feature of child care facilities.; The definition is slightly broader than the packet’s wording by generalizing from child care centers/center-based child care to “child care facilities” without support for that broader equivalence in the source. New packet required. Source: [de Vet Sanne M.; Vrijhof Claudia I.; van der Veek Shelley M. C.; Pieplenbosch Jane M.; van Bakel Hedwig J. A.; Vermeer Harriet J.. Child Care in Times of COVID-19: Predictors of Distress in Dutch Children and Parents When Re-entering Center-Based Child Care After a 2-Month Lockdown. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718898; article XML SHA-256 495166e218ddcd14f7c9e8a828c1e7766a70c04b6f3690c61ee95eae8397ed64. “Child Care in Times of COVID-19: Predictors of Distress in Dutch Children and Parents When Re-entering Center-Based Child Care After a 2-Month Lockdown” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718898).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718898) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- child care [redraft]: The claim that child care includes the physical settings and features that shape behavior is an inference from the article’s discussion of environmental play features and affordances, not a stated definition of the term.; The packet does not define child care as care provided in early learning and child care centres; it only discusses those centres as settings for children’s outdoor play.; The packet focuses on outdoor play spaces and features (e.g., gardening areas, climbing structures, tricycle paths) and their association with play behaviour; it does not directly support the broader wording that physical settings/features “shape how children behave” in general beyond outdoor play engagement.; The packet supports that early learning and child care centres support children’s regular, repeated, quality time in outdoor play, and that environmental play features are associated with children’s outdoor play behaviour; however, it does not explicitly support the claim that these centres/environments are “designed to support their development” (development is not stated in the provided text).; The wording adds developmental/supportive and repeated-time details that are broader than the source support for this term. New packet required. Source: [Ramsden Rachel; Pike Ian; Thorne Sally; Brussoni Mariana. Children’s outdoor play at early learning and child care centres: Examining the impact of environmental play features on children’s play behaviour. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318538; article XML SHA-256 0843125a369e92aa1490cb4627f003f6f4dc83dfb50de3c9416c953bc2c0cad9. “Children’s outdoor play at early learning and child care centres: Examining the impact of environmental play features on children’s play behaviour” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318538).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318538) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- child guidance [redraft]: The definition adds “early support” as a specific emphasis; the packet supports prevention/prophylactic measures but does not explicitly mention “early support.”; The definition includes “care” (in addition to study), while the packet specifically describes “study and treatment”; “care” is not explicitly supported in the provided source text.; “Care” is broader than the source’s wording of “study and treatment” and is not directly supported as a definitional substitute.; “Early support” is not supported by the source text, which only states emphasis on preventive or prophylactic measures. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Child Guidance” (D002660).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002660) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- child visitation [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet content concerns family visits/support for parent-child contact during psychiatric inpatient admission (relationship/visitation), not cognition as such.; Some wording (“important part of supporting the parent-child relationship during admission”) is more interpretive than directly stated; the packet only identifies improved provision as a mechanism to improve parent-child connection.; The definition slightly overstates a precise definition that is not given in the packet; the source only says that provision for child/family visitation is inadequate and that improved provision may improve parent-child connection, rather than explicitly defining child visitation as the stated opportunity and role.; The requested field is not supported: the source is about psychiatric inpatient family visitation, not cognition. New packet required. Source: [Dunn Abby; Elsby-Pearson Chloe; Kalus Luise; Oliver Mark; Ratcliffe Eleanor; Cartwright-Hatton Sam. Mixed methods investigation into provision of family rooms and support for parents admitted to psychiatric inpatient units and their children: Study protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355693; article XML SHA-256 10696aa5bfc65fe9ce9222e255b27946453d7f5a423bfc5b0e7a84d663444dd6. “Mixed methods investigation into provision of family rooms and support for parents admitted to psychiatric inpatient units and their children: Study protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355693).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355693) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- childhood [redraft]: Headword childhood redefined as the period when disorders appear; wrong sense of a general term. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Children and Mental Health: Is This Just a Stage?. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 831beee5043409ab9dc62704c00da2d043348bf2cba3bb19cb65f5e0cf750158. “Children and Mental Health: Is This Just a Stage?” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/children-and-mental-health).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/children-and-mental-health) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- chimera [redraft]: Defines chimera state, not the headword chimera, with an in this context hedge. New packet required. Source: [Amiri Masoud; Nedaei Ershad; Makkiabadi Bahador. Physics-informed graph neural networks for robust cross-patient epileptic seizure prediction via chimera state detection. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345470; article XML SHA-256 30830834329b5678350be8facf9604ca20a8baf46d8753c5b8352ed2dd3e7637. “Physics-informed graph neural networks for robust cross-patient epileptic seizure prediction via chimera state detection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345470).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345470) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- chimerism [redraft]: Because the field is specified as “mental health,” the definition’s biological claims are not supported as relevant to or applicable within that field by the provided packet.; The definition presents a general biological meaning rather than a mental health-specific dictionary sense, so the requested field is not defensible from the packet.; The packet source describes chimerism in non-mental-health biological contexts (e.g., red macroalgae, invertebrates, plants) and does not provide information linking chimerism to mental health.; The term is not supported as a mental health entry; the packet is about biological chimerism in red algae and other organisms, not a psychology/counselling sense. New packet required. Source: [González Alejandra V.; Santelices Bernabé. Frequency of chimerism in populations of the kelp Lessonia spicata in central Chile. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0169182; article XML SHA-256 1eeed8a16810e66e429c480c012d5644be3de547a3858f8160023c0589be415e. “Frequency of chimerism in populations of the kelp Lessonia spicata in central Chile” (10.1371/journal.pone.0169182).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169182) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- CHINS [redraft]: The definition describes an anatomical structure of the mandible (chin/mentum) rather than anything related to the requested field of cognition.; The field is stated as cognition, but the definition is purely anatomical; the packet’s field eligibility note does not make this a supported cognition sense.; The packet content supports only the anatomical description (chin/mentum, fusion line, mental protuberance, mental foramen); there is no support linking it to cognition.; The term “CHINS” is treated as if it were the word “chin,” but the definition provides no support that this is the intended sense of the term “CHINS” in the packet.; Wrong sense/term pairing: the packet supports the anatomical term “Chin,” not the acronym or plural form “CHINS.” New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Chin” (D002680).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D002680) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- chiropractic [redraft]: The packet does not define chiropractic or state that it involves spinal adjustments; it only mentions “chiropractic care” in relation to longer-term effects.; The packet supports only that longer-term effects of chiropractic care on neuroplasticity, stress, and immune biomarkers remain unclear; it does not support the broader claim about possible effects on those measures.; The packet supports that longer-term effects on neuroplasticity, stress, and immune biomarkers are unclear, but it does not support the additional phrasing that this is “discussed in relation to possible effects” on those biological measures.; The wording ‘in this context, it is discussed in relation to…’ goes beyond the source by implying a broader discussion of effects rather than the specific uncertainty stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Amjad Imran; Niazi Imran Khan; Kumari Nitika; Ghani Usman; Rashid Usman; Duarte Felipe Coutinho Kullmann; Fortuna Federico; Iglesias Silvia; Gonzalez Diego; Sumich Alex; Fabre Bibiana; Holt Kelly; Haavik Heidi. The effects of 12 weeks of chiropractic spinal adjustments on physiological biomarkers in adults: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338730; article XML SHA-256 2ab00da4b8d3fc25416539ca59ac88a7b729a26fe7c477cc2b3e6e9a9d2ed95f. “The effects of 12 weeks of chiropractic spinal adjustments on physiological biomarkers in adults: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338730).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338730) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- choreiform [redraft]: Because the definition contains substantial elements (the chorea-like movement description) not supported by the packet, the requested sense is not fully defensible from the supplied source.; The added etymological gloss “resembling chorea” is not stated in the supplied passage, so the definition goes beyond the packet’s support.; The definition states that “choreiform means resembling chorea: involving irregular, involuntary, restless movements,” but the provided packet does not define “choreiform” in those terms (it only uses “choreiform movements” without describing irregular/involuntary/restless qualities).; The definition’s phrasing that, “in this historical passage, it refers to such movements occurring instead of a full epileptic fit,” is only partially supported: the packet says “choreiform movements or psychical equivalents may take the place of the true fit,” which supports substitution for a fit, but it does not explicitly characterize it as a “full epileptic fit.”; The packet supports only that “choreiform movements” may take the place of the true epileptic fit; it does not define the term as involving irregular, involuntary, restless movements. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2656500-2668500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- choreoid [redraft]: Packet gives only choreoid paraphasia; the restless jerking quality and chorea description are added facts. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3055500-3067500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- chronic brain disorder [redraft]: Because the definition includes an unsupported general characterization (long-lasting condition affecting the brain), the overall definition does not meet the support requirement.; The definition adds a broad generic gloss that goes beyond the packet’s wording and scope, instead of staying tightly anchored to the source’s specific use of the phrase in relation to epilepsy.; The first sentence (“A chronic brain disorder is a long-lasting condition affecting the brain.”) is not supported by the packet text, which only states that epilepsy is a chronic brain disorder and describes it as involving recurring seizures often after an earlier neuronal insult.; The source supports only the statement that epilepsy is a chronic brain disorder; it does not define the term ‘chronic brain disorder’ as a general category of any long-lasting condition affecting the brain. New packet required. Source: [Machnes Ziv M.; Huang Tony C. T.; Chang Philip K. Y.; Gill Raminder; Reist Nicholas; Dezsi Gabriella; Ozturk Ezgi; Charron Francois; O’Brien Terence J.; Jones Nigel C.; McKinney R. Anne; Szyf Moshe. DNA Methylation Mediates Persistent Epileptiform Activity In Vitro and In Vivo. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0076299; article XML SHA-256 88fe31009cc667e8b98088e323466795fdb045002976e460212588816e60c0fa. “DNA Methylation Mediates Persistent Epileptiform Activity In Vitro and In Vivo” (10.1371/journal.pone.0076299).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076299) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- chronic care [redraft]: The definition adds a general medical meaning that is not established by the supplied source text.; The definition adds “ongoing care” and “long-term health conditions” framing that is not present in the packet text provided.; The definition’s phrase “in the psychology-related context of the Chronic Care Model” is not substantiated by the packet, which provides information about patient activation/self-management rather than describing a broader “psychology-related context.”; The packet does not support the general claim that “Chronic care is ongoing care for long-term health conditions.” It only mentions patient activation as part of the Chronic Care Model in type 2 diabetes.; The packet supports that chronic care is discussed in the Chronic Care Model and that patients should play an active role in their care, but it does not support the broader definition of chronic care as ongoing care for long-term health conditions. New packet required. Source: [Yusoff Muzlifa Mohamed; Mohd Hashim Syahnaz; Ahmad Norfazilah. Patient activation among patients with type 2 diabetes and its association with perception of care, perceived autonomy support, sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348840; article XML SHA-256 d58628ae645e0a132742abd146b5e2741fcdf2db99a38815cc693c5a669e1fe2. “Patient activation among patients with type 2 diabetes and its association with perception of care, perceived autonomy support, sociodemographic and clinical characteristics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348840).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348840) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [redraft]: The definition claims COPD “can reduce … physical functioning,” but the packet only explicitly mentions reduced exercise capacity (and discusses physical wellbeing/quality of life in the context of pulmonary rehabilitation). It does not directly support the specific wording about “physical functioning.”; “physical functioning” is not supported by the source packet’s definition of COPD; the packet supports reduced exercise capacity but does not define COPD as reducing physical functioning. New packet required. Source: [Farley Christopher; Phillips Stuart M.; Smith-Turchyn Jenna; Brooks Dina. Measurement properties of the sit-to-stand test in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis using the COSMIN guidelines. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316451; article XML SHA-256 6944411fc1fe3969153e195fa0eb11460b99960b729ae2b819479aa4317b30bb. “Measurement properties of the sit-to-stand test in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis using the COSMIN guidelines” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316451).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316451) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- chronic psychosis [redraft]: The definition includes elements (“impaired theory of mind and poor functioning may continue beyond general neurocognitive problems”) that are only partially supported: the packet discusses ToM deficits not being fully accounted for by general neurocognitive deficits and ToM impairment affecting functioning, but it does not support the claim that this “continues beyond” neurocognitive problems as stated.; The packet does not define chronic psychosis as a long-standing or later-stage form of psychosis, so that sense is unsupported.; The packet does not define “chronic psychosis” as a long-standing or later-stage form rather than an early-stage episode; it only mentions “chronic patients” in passing.; The packet supports discussion of theory of mind (ToM) deficits and their relation to functioning in chronic patients, but it does not substantiate the definition’s broader framing about “persistent stage of psychosis” continuing beyond “general neurocognitive problems.”; The statement that this is a persistent stage in which impaired theory of mind and poor functioning continue beyond general neurocognitive problems overstates the source; the article only says these deficits and their effects are noted in chronic patients and are not fully accounted for by other neurocognitive deficits. New packet required. Source: [Langdon Robyn; Connors Michael H; Still Megan; Ward Philip B; Catts Stanley. Theory of mind and neurocognition in early psychosis: a quasi-experimental study. 2014; DOI 10.1186/s12888-014-0316-6; article XML SHA-256 7687abc22fc2a905f8c0d7adfc64c6594ae02dabe80e434a41e2b7974d8ed598. “Theory of mind and neurocognition in early psychosis: a quasi-experimental study” (10.1186/s12888-014-0316-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-014-0316-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- chronically suicidal [redraft]: The definition’s claim that it is “discussed alongside self-harm behaviour as a long-standing clinical problem” is only partially supported: the packet pairs “chronically suicidal and/or self-harm behaviour,” but it does not explicitly describe either as “long-standing” or provide time-based wording for the term itself.; The packet supports only that the phrase appears in a discussion of DBT as a treatment for “chronically suicidal and/or self-harm behaviour” in patients with borderline personality disorder; it does not define the term as persistent or recurring suicidal behaviour over time.; The packet uses the phrase “chronically suicidal” but does not define it (e.g., it does not explicitly state that it means persistent or recurring over time rather than a brief/isolated episode).; The statement that it is “discussed alongside self-harm behaviour as a long-standing clinical problem” adds an unsupported generalization not present in the source. New packet required. Source: [Huntjens Anne; van den Bosch L. M. C. Wies; Sizoo Bram; Kerkhof Ad; Huibers Marcus J. H.; van der Gaag Mark. The effect of dialectical behaviour therapy in autism spectrum patients with suicidality and/ or self-destructive behaviour (DIASS): study protocol for a multicentre randomised controlled trial. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12888-020-02531-1; article XML SHA-256 426ee99c7ed28da7f820705e173da4e9a0f4ef0f6c6958682842e816417d2586. “The effect of dialectical behaviour therapy in autism spectrum patients with suicidality and/ or self-destructive behaviour (DIASS): study protocol for a multicentre randomised controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-020-02531-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02531-1) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- chrono- [redraft]: The added explanation about “circadian rhythms” is broader than what is directly supported by the packet, which mentions chronotype and circadian misalignment but does not define chrono- in those terms.; The definition’s specific phrasing about “time-based patterns such as when eating happens and how behavior aligns with circadian rhythms” is only indirectly supported (eating timing and circadian misalignment are mentioned), but the core claim about what the prefix “chrono-” means is not supported by the packet.; The packet does not define “chrono-” as a prefix or provide evidence for its general meaning (e.g., “used for things related to time or timing”).; The packet does not explicitly define chrono- as a prefix meaning “time” or “timing”; it only uses related compound terms such as “chrono-nutrition” and “chrono-related behaviours.”; The packet only discusses terms in context—“chrono-nutrition,” “chronotype,” and “social jetlag (circadian misalignment)”—rather than establishing the requested “prefix” definition. New packet required. Source: [Rodrigues Joana; Magalhães Vânia; Santos Maria Paula; Reis Cátia; Pichel Fernando; Soares Paulo; Santos Jorge; Vilela Sofia. Weight loss in patients with severe obesity after bariatric surgery–the potential role of the chrono-nutrition, chronotype and the circadian misalignment: A study protocol of the ChronoWise prospective cohort. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313096; article XML SHA-256 f03ebc1bdcf5243b00e0e3576705f0016aed688c9afd30ef14c9c229ba470def. “Weight loss in patients with severe obesity after bariatric surgery–the potential role of the chrono-nutrition, chronotype and the circadian misalignment: A study protocol of the ChronoWise prospective cohort” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313096).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313096) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- clarification [redraft]: "Reducing uncertainty through added information or analysis" is an unsupported generalization beyond what the source text states.; The definition’s claims about “reducing uncertainty through added information or analysis” are not supported anywhere in the supplied packet text.; The packet only uses "clarification" in the research phrase "need for clarification using national data"; it does not support the full abstract definition given.; The provided packet does not define “clarification” or describe it as a general cognitive process; it only mentions a “need for clarification using national data” without stating what clarification means.; The source is a study background sentence, not a definitional or cognition-specific source for this term. New packet required. Source: [Bae Yujin; Song Ye-Seul; Park Eun Hee; Hong Hyun Ju; Kim Hyewon. Associations of weight change with perceived stress and depression: a nationwide population-based study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1941947; article XML SHA-256 a496d6144e19d2d4b9c9c5dcc88b93b5d98dda5bd83763e4bd348abc94d739c2. “Associations of weight change with perceived stress and depression: a nationwide population-based study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1941947).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1941947) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- classification method [redraft]: The first sentence (“A classification method is a way of sorting data into categories.”) is a general definition not explicitly supported by the provided packet text.; The first sentence gives a broad dictionary-style meaning (“a way of sorting data into categories”) that is not supported by the supplied source packet.; The packet text supports that a deep-learning “classification method” for EEG uses electrode distribution/layout in a graph structure and extracts spatial-spectral-temporal feature information, but it does not provide the general sorting-into-categories definition used in the first sentence.; The source supports a specific deep-learning EEG classification method for motion imagination, not a general definition of “classification method.” New packet required. Source: [Yan Zhaokun; Yang Xiangquan; Jin Yu. Considerate motion imagination classification method using deep learning. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0276526; article XML SHA-256 a0c759ffbf4ee5b37ed22307f3bf86922f6f1164155b9807d2202794d109fd54. “Considerate motion imagination classification method using deep learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0276526).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276526) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- CLES [redraft]: The packet refers to the instrument as the “Clinical Learning Environment, Supervision and Nurse Teacher (CLES+T) scale.” The definition drops the “+T” and states only “CLES,” so the requested term-sense mapping is not fully supported as written.; The packet supports the CLES+T scale, not CLES alone; the definition uses the wrong acronym/sense.; The source only says CLE factors were measured via the CLES+T scale in one study context; it does not establish this as a general measure for assessing clinical learning environments. New packet required. Source: [Bsharat Nihad; Aqtam Ibrahim; Al-Modallal Hanan; Dreidi Mutaz; Shouli Mustafa. Clinical learning environments and experiences of nursing students in West Bank Universities: A mixed-methods study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327506; article XML SHA-256 ed087a112da2a3f921d57be003ee2ea48690c7563da0f1fab34cb2ce95b2892f. “Clinical learning environments and experiences of nursing students in West Bank Universities: A mixed-methods study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327506).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327506) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- client [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported generalization: the packet only shows clients participating in counselling sessions and being analyzed at the session/client level, not that their experiences, behaviors, or outcomes are generally the focus of counselling work.; The packet does not explicitly define “client” as “the person who takes part in counselling sessions”; it only refers to “clients” as units in a study dataset (e.g., “159 sessions nested among 26 clients”).; The packet does not support the claim that clients’ “experiences, behaviors, or outcomes are the focus of the work”; the text specifically examines relationships between “client laughter” and “session outcomes,” not a general definition of counseling focus.; The research sense is only partly supported: the packet supports a client-level or between-clients comparison in a multilevel analysis, but not the broader phrasing about comparing differences between people receiving counselling.; The research-related part (“individual level when comparing differences between people receiving counselling”) is only partially supported: the packet describes a multilevel analysis separating “session-level (between-sessions) and client-level (between-clients),” but does not explicitly state that this is about “comparing differences” between people receiving counselling. New packet required. Source: [Kang Jieun; Baek Woo Hyun; Jeong Yeon Bin; Yang Hyerin; Lee Seongchan; Lee Sang Min. Relationship between client laughter and session outcomes in metaverse counseling. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s40359-024-02260-0; article XML SHA-256 bea4f7b12601f42ef4553731b8496a60e6719466ae6b0aeeb77958e82a4e9923. “Relationship between client laughter and session outcomes in metaverse counseling” (10.1186/s40359-024-02260-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-02260-0) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- clinical counseling [redraft]: The contrast with everyday, non-invasive supports is supported, but the wording generalizes beyond the source by turning that comparison into a broader definition of the term.; The contrast with “everyday, non-invasive supports” is only indirectly supported via the packet’s discussion of “non-invasive, routine…built-environment interventions,” but the packet does not characterize those specifically as “everyday, non-invasive supports.”; The packet does not explicitly define clinical counseling as a “traditional form of psychological help” or as occurring in a “formal clinical-style setting”; it only mentions that traditional psychological interventions are often confined to “clinical counseling and questionnaire screenings.”; The packet supports that traditional psychological interventions are often confined to clinical counseling, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that clinical counseling is provided in a formal clinical-style setting.; While the packet supports the idea that clinical counseling/questionnaire screenings can “induce a sense of stigma and pathological labeling,” the definition’s additional framing (traditional/clinical-style and everyday/non-invasive) is not directly supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Chen Yu; Chen Kai; Lyu Yanxia; Qian Ruicheng. Alleviating academic stress and enhancing interdisciplinary self-efficacy in university libraries: an exploratory mixed-methods study on restorative built-environment interventions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1904029; article XML SHA-256 13793e067bcc4dd74a9e1108ca4a426e827680c42f65f988e24154273245f4c2. “Alleviating academic stress and enhancing interdisciplinary self-efficacy in university libraries: an exploratory mixed-methods study on restorative built-environment interventions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1904029).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1904029) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- clinical depression [redraft]: Second sentence reproduces the DSM symptom list, which the rubric forbids as diagnostic criteria content. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Depressive Disorder, Major” (D003865).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003865) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- clinical efficacy [redraft]: The definition ties “clinical efficacy” specifically to “Guided Imagery and Music” and “beneficial effects across mood disorder groups and symptom areas,” while the packet only states the aim to evaluate clinical efficacy (not that such beneficial effects have been established or that “clinical efficacy” is defined in these terms).; The definition’s core wording (“how well a clinical intervention works in improving symptoms or related outcomes”) is a generic conception of efficacy that is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text.; The first sentence gives a broad, generic definition of clinical efficacy that is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source.; The packet mentions that the review will “Evaluate clinical efficacy and transdiagnostic potential across diverse mood disorder populations and symptom domains,” but it does not substantiate the specific framing in the definition as the requested meaning of the term itself.; The packet supports a review of GIM’s clinical efficacy and transdiagnostic potential in mood disorders, but it does not support the broader claim about effectiveness “in the people or disorders it is intended to help.” New packet required. Source: [Wang Tianyi; Zhao Xin; Wang Han; Li Ying; Jiang Qitong; Feng Yuan; Wang Gang; Du Jing. Guided Imagery and Music modulates neural circuits in mood disorders: a systematic review of mechanisms and clinical efficacy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739840; article XML SHA-256 b8a5db3c8b49cf0030b420880e95f90dd7e8848b4e7c1ad0550f7fd0f311e969. “Guided Imagery and Music modulates neural circuits in mood disorders: a systematic review of mechanisms and clinical efficacy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739840).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739840) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- clinical evidence [redraft]: Because the packet does not support the broader wording about patient outcomes in practice and the general-purpose meaning of clinical evidence, the definition contains unsupported generalization beyond the provided text.; The definition adds an unsupported functional claim that clinical evidence is information “used to judge how an intervention relates to patient outcomes in practice”; the packet only says the review synthesized “clinical evidence” alongside mechanistic and neurophysiological evidence.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “clinical evidence” as “information from clinical studies and observations … to judge how an intervention relates to patient outcomes in practice.” It only states the review’s aim to provide a clinically oriented synthesis including “mechanistic, neurophysiological, and clinical evidence” for taVNS in disorders of consciousness.; The packet supports that the article considered clinically oriented findings together with mechanistic and neurophysiological research, but it does not support the broader explanatory wording in the first sentence as a definition of the term.; The “mechanistic and neurophysiological” part is consistent with the packet, but the overall definition includes substantively unsupported claims, so the definition cannot be accepted as 1–3 concise sentences supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Mei Shutong; Fu Guan; Gao Ruixue; Li Wei. Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation for disorders of consciousness: a narrative review of neurophysiological mechanisms, clinical evidence, and future directions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1837913; article XML SHA-256 2bc921701e82b7b3548a233c55c52b1ce08dceca58b641436a373c2078f42365. “Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation for disorders of consciousness: a narrative review of neurophysiological mechanisms, clinical evidence, and future directions” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1837913).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1837913) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- clinical interview [redraft]: Redefines the general headword as the narrower Mental Status Schedule (standardized, scaled set questions). New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Mental Status Schedule” (D008609).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008609) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- clinical neurology [redraft]: The definition does not match the supplied term: the packet is for acromegaly, not clinical neurology.; The definition is acceptable only as a description of acromegaly; it is not a definition of the requested term.; The packet content is explicitly for “Acromegaly” (source_label: Acromegaly) and does not support that the term “clinical neurology” should be defined using this text.; The provided definition describes **Acromegaly**, not “clinical neurology.” New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Acromegaly” (D000172).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000172) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- clinical neuropsychology [redraft]: The definition slightly broadens the scope beyond the packet by generalizing from “mental health conditions” and the cited research topic to “mental and neurocognitive conditions” as a general claim.; The definition states that clinical neuropsychology “increasingly frames mental and neurocognitive conditions in more dimensional, individualized ways,” but the packet supports “stratified and dimensional understanding … based on continuous spectra” (precision medicine) without explicitly stating “individualized” framing.; “individualized ways” is not explicitly supported; the packet mentions a stratified and dimensional understanding and a precision medicine framework, but does not state individualized framing of conditions. New packet required. Source: [Fernández-Jiménez Eduardo; Aita Stephen L; Roth Robert M. Editorial: Advances in clinical neuropsychology and interplay with mental health in several health conditions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1839115; article XML SHA-256 3e402ae7c43b810d39059f5628056fd45c7a554e18399bb0200fcb3d4d681593. “Editorial: Advances in clinical neuropsychology and interplay with mental health in several health conditions” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1839115).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1839115) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- clinical significance [redraft]: The definition claims “practical importance … in real-world care” and “how it may affect understanding of the problem,” neither of which are explicitly stated in the packet.; The first sentence adds an unsupported general gloss (“especially for how it may affect understanding of the problem”), which is not stated in the packet.; The packet discusses that clinical significance and treatment implications “may also differ between active MDD and residual insomnia symptoms during partial remission,” but it does not provide enough support for the broader framing about real-world care and understanding.; The packet supports that clinical significance and treatment implications may differ between active MDD and residual insomnia during partial remission, but it does not support the broader claim that clinical significance generally means the practical importance of a symptom in real-world care. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Yiwei; Zhang Hua; Tang Jingkai; Wang Yibing; Wu Liang. Pharmacological modulation of hyperarousal in insomnia associated with major depressive disorder: a narrative review of sedating antidepressants and orexin receptor antagonists. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1928430; article XML SHA-256 1c9fa748e0466c86cb60f6a1ac5339b98270f43f15021da67707e7a5ec042cc2. “Pharmacological modulation of hyperarousal in insomnia associated with major depressive disorder: a narrative review of sedating antidepressants and orexin receptor antagonists” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1928430).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1928430) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- clinical [redraft]: 'In this context' smuggles a narrow sense (symptom-fit assessment) onto a general headword the packet never defines. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 26e67ff4f086c205fb75853bb73fb562d4a3adcbc6d53b78fdbc83f945b4f1ba. “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- closed head injury [redraft]: Although the packet uses a “closed-head injury model” and studies acute effects of repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (rmTBI) with behavioral (e.g., sensorimotor deficits, increased anxiety-like behavior) and biomarker/histological findings, the definition’s first sentence contains unsupported content beyond what the packet provides.; The packet does not define “closed head injury” as an impact to the head “without an open skull wound,” so that substantive part of the definition is unsupported.; The packet supports a closed-head injury model in rats used for repetitive mild traumatic brain injury, but it does not state the general definitional claim that closed head injury is trauma to the head without an open skull wound.; “Short-term neurobehavioral changes” is only partly supported: the packet reports acute sensorimotor deficits and increased anxiety-like behavior, but not the broader generalization in the definition.; “Signs of brain injury” is too broad for the packet; it reports specific acute findings such as elevated plasma neurofilament light and microglial activation, not a general definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Giesler Lauren P.; O’Brien William T.; Bain Jesse; Spitz Gershon; Jaehne Emily J.; van den Buuse Maarten; Shultz Sandy R.; Mychasiuk Richelle; McDonald Stuart J.. Investigating the role of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met polymorphism in repetitive mild traumatic brain injury outcomes in rats. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12993-025-00270-5; article XML SHA-256 a4536e2b1b92575330b095b267dd140fb43ba6c46218f0b8255ac4e359e401cc. “Investigating the role of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met polymorphism in repetitive mild traumatic brain injury outcomes in rats” (10.1186/s12993-025-00270-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-025-00270-5) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- closed-loop system [redraft]: It also frames the meaning as specifically “compression-generation-optimization loop that links data reduction, candidate creation, and strategy improvement.” While the packet describes Transformer compressing high-dimensional data, GAN generating candidate paths, and DDPG optimizing strategy, it does not explicitly use the specific labels “data reduction,” “candidate creation,” or “strategy improvement” as the referent of the term.; The definition includes the general characterization that stages work together “as a continuous cycle.” The packet does not explicitly describe a continuous cycle or loop structure beyond stating the model “forming a ‘compression-generation-optimization’ closed-loop system.”; The opening sentence gives a broad general definition of a closed-loop system that is not stated in the source packet; the packet only supports the specific three-module loop described in this paper.; The packet is about UAV path planning and a ‘compression-generation-optimization’ closed-loop system; it does not support the requested psychology/counselling field ‘learning’ as the definitional field. New packet required. Source: [Liu Liangshuai; Li Xiaofeng; Meng Lingming; Zhao Yuntao; Lv Yaya. Path planning for UAVs in complex terrain based on the PGD model: Algorithmic improvements combining feature extraction and reinforcement learning. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340394; article XML SHA-256 f9195cb29efc55fdbf997e6dfcf4ffa246ab3d5835522df9244cfab526b76c28. “Path planning for UAVs in complex terrain based on the PGD model: Algorithmic improvements combining feature extraction and reinforcement learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340394).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340394) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cluster sampling [redraft]: The definition’s claim that “A two-stage form is used when complete information about the whole population is not available” is only partially supported: the packet says two-stage cluster sampling is often employed when complete population information is not available, but it does not explicitly frame this as the defining rationale for a two-stage form within cluster sampling.; The packet does not mention anything about “complete information about the whole population” in the more specific way used in the second sentence (i.e., as a general condition for using a two-stage cluster design), beyond the brief statement about when it is employed.; The packet does not state the core definition that cluster sampling “selects groups, or clusters, rather than sampling every individual directly.” It only mentions “two-stage cluster sampling” in the context of estimation. ; The packet supports two-stage cluster sampling, but it does not explicitly define cluster sampling in general as selecting groups or clusters instead of individuals.; The phrase "rather than sampling every individual directly" is not supported by the packet.; The statement about sampling being carried out within chosen clusters is only supported for the two-stage cluster-sampling setting, not as a general definition of cluster sampling. New packet required. Source: [Minhas Kanwal Shafiq; Semary Hatem E.; Jabeen Riffat; Zaka Azam. Multiscale study of memory type simple ratio estimators in two stage sampling under exponentially weighted moving averages. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335586; article XML SHA-256 d391b486280e96c3b1af2e3c2cd6891d7d6d39d780cb86af1502f8bfe4a95dd6. “Multiscale study of memory type simple ratio estimators in two stage sampling under exponentially weighted moving averages” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335586).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335586) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- CM [redraft]: The claim that CM is “being studied for possible acute effects on measures such as reaction time during exhaustive exercise in humans” is not stated in the supplied source text, which only says those acute effects “remain uncharacterized in humans.”; The definition adds unsupported detail by recasting “chronic preclinical models” as “long-term preclinical research.”; The packet does not support that CM is being studied for acute effects on specific human measures such as reaction time; it only states that acute effects on “cognitive and physiological parameters” remain uncharacterized in humans.; The packet does not support the phrase “during exhaustive exercise” in combination with a cognition/reaction-time measure; it mentions acute effects during exhaustive exercise in general terms, without specifying reaction time. New packet required. Source: [Farzan Hamidreza; Koushkie Jahromi Maryam. Acute Cordyceps militaris supplementation and elevated resting oxygen uptake with faster reaction times: A randomized crossover trial. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351725; article XML SHA-256 a2370dfc30aceb76554db46336bc026ec2fc022d4fd7c18c868ce60e971f1023. “Acute Cordyceps militaris supplementation and elevated resting oxygen uptake with faster reaction times: A randomized crossover trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351725).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351725) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- CMI [redraft]: The packet text does not define what “CMI” stands for or describe it as a “caregiver-mediated early intervention program” or a “treatment approach” with “caregivers… involved directly.”; The provided packet excerpt only mentions participants in a “CMI program” and that toddlers had a diagnosis of autism or early signs, but it does not support the definition’s characterization of caregiver involvement.; The requested field is “diagnosis,” but the packet frames CMI as an intervention/program rather than a diagnosis.; The term is used for a caregiver-mediated intervention program, not a diagnosis, so the requested field is not defensible here. New packet required. Source: [Brian Jessica Ann; Roth Ian; Zwaigenbaum Lonnie; Smith Isabel; Sacrey Lori-Ann Rosalind; Bernardi Kate; MacWilliam Stacey; Daoud Sara; Dowds Erin; Jilderda Sanne; Osten Samara; Michelis Anna; Solish Abbie. Does baseline language ability predict response to early intervention for toddlers with early signs of autism? Evidence from a caregiver-mediated program. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1704374; article XML SHA-256 8da5675613222475dd37a4e587dfd6ad777f89c41ffff352f4e045c4041574a5. “Does baseline language ability predict response to early intervention for toddlers with early signs of autism? Evidence from a caregiver-mediated program” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1704374).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1704374) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- CNS [redraft]: The packet defines CNS specifically as “the organ system of the mouse,” but the provided definition does not limit CNS to the mouse, so the omission is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet’s scope.; The packet defines a mouse organ system, but the definition generalizes this to CNS as an organ system without the mouse limitation; that broader claim is not supported by the source text.; The source text does not explicitly establish that the term is the central nervous system rather than the narrower source wording alone. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “CNS” (C22605).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- coca [redraft]: Lowercase headword 'coca' normally means the plant; 'in this learning context' smuggles the COCA corpus acronym. New packet required. Source: [Li Hui; Zhu Jiasheng. The effectiveness of corpus-based high-frequency word acquisition strategies in improving English writing skills. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771284; article XML SHA-256 b8354e066281262602011512b3ff802a955b6ceae2814fb0e0de40a2a92cd8f9. “The effectiveness of corpus-based high-frequency word acquisition strategies in improving English writing skills” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771284).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771284) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cocaine intoxication [redraft]: The claim that it refers generally to cocaine’s immediate drug effects rather than long-term addiction is not supported by the source text.; The claim that the source “refers generally to cocaine’s immediate drug effects rather than long-term addiction alone” is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define “cocaine intoxication” or describe what the term specifically refers to beyond mentioning it in passing (“despite either cocaine intoxication, sensitization or intake escalation”).; The packet only uses the term “cocaine intoxication” in passing; it does not define it as the state of being under cocaine’s effects after taking it. New packet required. Source: [Lenoir Magalie; Serre Fuschia; Cantin Lauriane; Ahmed Serge H.. Intense Sweetness Surpasses Cocaine Reward. 2007; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0000698; article XML SHA-256 a3e01efe4d5205d3dcec76a1b96c285f17c2e630d3acfbe2966c44c49931b151. “Intense Sweetness Surpasses Cocaine Reward” (10.1371/journal.pone.0000698).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000698) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cocoa [redraft]: The phrase “could contribute to brain health” is not explicitly supported in the supplied packet (the packet discusses cognition enhancement, neuroprotective effects, improved blood flow, and decreased pro-inflammatory molecules, but does not describe “brain health”).; The phrase “could contribute to brain health” is not supported by the packet; the source mentions cognition-enhancing, neuroprotective, vasodilating, and anti-inflammatory activities, but not brain health as such. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cocoa Extract” (C121851).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- coefficient of determination [redraft]: The claim that higher values mean the model matches the data more closely is supported only in the specific context of model goodness of fit; the definition broadens this into a general rule for the coefficient of determination without packet support.; The packet discusses the “adjusted coefficient of determination” specifically, but the definition refers to the “coefficient of determination” generally without support in the provided text.; The packet supports the adjusted coefficient of determination, not the unadjusted coefficient of determination named in the definition.; While the packet notes that “adjusted coefficient of determination values … are generally high, indicating that the models fit the data well overall,” it does not explicitly support the definition’s phrasing that “higher adjusted coefficient of determination values mean the model matches the data more closely” as a general description of the measure’s meaning. New packet required. Source: [Ghavi Hossein-Zadeh Navid. Application of alternative nonlinear models to predict growth curve in partridges. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321680; article XML SHA-256 6aefd54a3368fbe8b199480e977cb702cc0e8d80528407385f2f2e7a9f02e758. “Application of alternative nonlinear models to predict growth curve in partridges” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321680).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321680) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- coefficient of multiple determination [redraft]: The definition is placed in the field “cognition,” but the packet content concerns markerless motion capture and biomechanical analysis in pole vault (not cognition).; The definition narrows the term to a general measure for matching two continuous series across a waveform or trajectory; the packet supports its use here for continuous waveform agreement, but not as a cognition dictionary entry.; The definition’s claim that “Higher values indicate stronger overall agreement” is not explicitly supported in the packet; the packet only reports that certain values exceeded thresholds for waveform agreement.; The definition’s examples (“movement displacement, velocity, or joint-angle patterns”) are only indirectly referenced via variables reported in the packet, but the core definitional relationship (how the coefficient functions) remains unsupported.; The provided packet does not define what the “coefficient of multiple determination” measures (e.g., it does not state that it is an index of agreement between two continuous measurement sets across a waveform/trajectory).; The supplied source is a biomechanics/sport-science article, not a cognition source, so the requested field is not defensible from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Bissas Athanassios; Cronin Neil J.. Evaluating markerless biomechanical analysis in a real-world pole vault competition setting. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329987; article XML SHA-256 6b75b73152353eba0aa44588d2aed11a02899fd83585013c6384ffeb7d56bc8f. “Evaluating markerless biomechanical analysis in a real-world pole vault competition setting” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329987).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329987) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- coefficient of variation [redraft]: The definition’s content is mostly supported, but the overall field assignment (“cognition”) is not supported by the packet.; The provided field is "cognition", but the packet describes the coefficient of variation as a statistical measure and discusses estimation/inference under censoring schemes in life-testing experiments; it does not support relating CV to cognition.; The supplied source supports the term as a statistical measure, not as a cognition-specific concept; the requested field is therefore not defensible from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Aljohani Hassan M; Alharthi Amirah Saeed; Almohri Wafa Ali J; Aljeddani Sadiah M A; Alsubaie Nahaa Eid; El-Sharkawy Walaa A. Simulation-based approach with an adaptive Type-II hybrid progressive censoring scheme to study the coefficient of variation of the weighted exponential distribution. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337982; article XML SHA-256 b087e3ebd20538b57279bc1b57fe9b6b68ba8303d58df10010a795f545cc965a. “Simulation-based approach with an adaptive Type-II hybrid progressive censoring scheme to study the coefficient of variation of the weighted exponential distribution” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337982).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337982) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- coefficient [redraft]: General headword 'coefficient' redefined as coefficient of variation via 'in this packet's context'. New packet required. Source: [Aljohani Hassan M; Alharthi Amirah Saeed; Almohri Wafa Ali J; Aljeddani Sadiah M A; Alsubaie Nahaa Eid; El-Sharkawy Walaa A. Simulation-based approach with an adaptive Type-II hybrid progressive censoring scheme to study the coefficient of variation of the weighted exponential distribution. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337982; article XML SHA-256 b087e3ebd20538b57279bc1b57fe9b6b68ba8303d58df10010a795f545cc965a. “Simulation-based approach with an adaptive Type-II hybrid progressive censoring scheme to study the coefficient of variation of the weighted exponential distribution” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337982).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337982) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- coercion [redraft]: The packet does not define coercion as “external pressure or influence that interferes with a person’s free choice”; it only discusses “coercion-resistance” as a security property preventing “external influence.”; The packet does not provide examples like “pushing or inducing someone to cast a particular vote.”; The packet supports coercion as external influence in e-voting, but it does not support the added claim that coercion “includes situations that enable vote-selling rather than an independent decision.”; The vote-selling language in the packet appears only as part of the description of coercion-resistance, not as a definition of coercion itself.; While the packet mentions “vote-selling” as a concern addressed by “coercion-resistance,” it does not explicitly frame this as “situations that enable vote-selling rather than an independent decision,” so that part is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Kho Yun-Xing; Heng Swee-Huay; Tan Syh-Yuan; Chin Ji-Jian. A provably secure coercion-resistant e-voting scheme with confidentiality, anonymity, unforgeability, and CAI verifiability. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324182; article XML SHA-256 55ce1c978fb3bd29f7cf93a818c28e4f57b158fb692add70865975a3a5faaeb1. “A provably secure coercion-resistant e-voting scheme with confidentiality, anonymity, unforgeability, and CAI verifiability” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324182).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324182) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cogito ergo sum [redraft]: The definition adds an interpretive claim about “early philosophical expression of mental unity” that is broader than the packet’s wording and not directly stated there.; The packet does not state (or summarize) that “cogito ergo sum” names Descartes’ claim that thinking establishes the thinker’s existence; it only mentions Descartes’ phrase in connection with Kant’s “ich denke” and the “transcendental unity of apperception.”; The packet links Descartes’ “cogito ergo sum” to Kant’s “ich denke” and the “transcendental unity of apperception,” but it does not support the gloss that the phrase means the act of thinking establishes the thinker’s existence.; The packet mentions “Des cartes' ‘cogito ergo sum’ is followed by Kant's ‘ich denke,’ a principle of the ‘transcendental unity of apperception,’” but it does not explicitly frame this as a “later paralleled” unifying “I think” claim in the way the definition describes. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mental Unity” (Mental Unity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Mental Unity) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- Cognex [redraft]: The definition adds a drug-name/sense distinction that is not established by the source text, which only describes the substance’s properties and mechanisms.; The packet describes tacrine hydrochloride (a salt form of tacrine) and its properties/mechanisms, but it does not state that “Cognex” is a brand name for tacrine hydrochloride, so that substantive claim is unsupported by the packet.; The packet identifies the entry as tacrine hydrochloride, not as the brand name Cognex; the brand-name claim is unsupported. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tacrine Hydrochloride” (C47742).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cognitive behavioral group therapy [redraft]: The claim that cognitive behavioral group therapy uses standard CBT elements such as exposure to feared situations is not directly supported for CBGT in the packet; the exposure example is stated for internet-based CBT, not CBGT.; The definition claims that the in-person form “uses standard CBT elements such as exposure to feared situations,” but the packet only explicitly describes this “exposure to feared situations” component in the context of the Internet-based CBT (ICBT) having the same components as conventional CBT—not specifically for CBGT.; The definition relies on a source-specific effectiveness claim (“well-established and effective”) that is historical study language and should not be presented as current clinical consensus without qualification.; The wording is partly meta-referential (“In the source packet”) rather than a standalone dictionary definition. New packet required. Source: [Hedman Erik; Andersson Gerhard; Ljótsson Brjánn; Andersson Erik; Rück Christian; Mörtberg Ewa; Lindefors Nils. Internet-Based Cognitive Behavior Therapy vs. Cognitive Behavioral Group Therapy for Social Anxiety Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Non-inferiority Trial. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0018001; article XML SHA-256 07542cb3960ca0250f87117d9612985511f8f646833fd41eb11158275749c694. “Internet-Based Cognitive Behavior Therapy vs. Cognitive Behavioral Group Therapy for Social Anxiety Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Non-inferiority Trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0018001).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0018001) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cognitive consistency theory [redraft]: Because the core theoretical premise in the first sentence is unsupported, the overall definition cannot be fully supported by the packet even though the latter workplace/green spillover elements partially align with the packet’s description (in-role green behavior leading to psychological changes such as reflective moral attentiveness and person–organization fit, which induce extra-role green behavior).; The added explanation about employees adjusting views of morality or organizational fit is only partially supported by the packet’s specific mediators (reflective moral attentiveness and person-organization fit) and should not be presented as the theory’s general meaning.; The definition goes beyond the packet by turning a study-specific spillover result into a broad definition of the term.; The definition’s first sentence (“people tend to want their actions and psychological reactions to fit together”) is a general characterization that is not stated in the provided packet.; The packet uses cognitive consistency theory as a framing device but does not define it as a general principle that people want their actions and psychological reactions to fit together. New packet required. Source: [Wang Xinnan; Jin Jiafei; Xu Jialiang; Khan Mehedi Hasan. Are women more likely to engage in extra green behaviors in the workplace? Gender differences in the spillover effect from employee in-role to extra-role green behavior. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1516658; article XML SHA-256 0ce100db187645d6ac31076ba97b9ab266b829987a30d6b6633a4a6c9c76fbfb. “Are women more likely to engage in extra green behaviors in the workplace? Gender differences in the spillover effect from employee in-role to extra-role green behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1516658).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1516658) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cognitive coping [redraft]: Second sentence describes the study design (matching strategy to coping style), not what the term means. New packet required. Source: [Fox Lisa; Walsh Jane C; Morrison Todd G; O’ Gorman David; Ruane Nancy; Mitchell Caroline; Carey John J; Coughlan Robert; McGuire Brian E. Cognitive Coping Style and the Effectiveness of Distraction or Sensation-Focused Instructions in Chronic Pain Patients. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0142285; article XML SHA-256 8af46a79e6a23a218bdd483b4c9467bd0ff0c3ebd5ae73b0191029130f829dc7. “Cognitive Coping Style and the Effectiveness of Distraction or Sensation-Focused Instructions in Chronic Pain Patients” (10.1371/journal.pone.0142285).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142285) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cognitive deficit [redraft]: The definition’s general claim that a cognitive deficit is “a reduction in thinking-related functioning” is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet does not support the broad definition that a cognitive deficit is a general reduction in thinking-related functioning; it only uses the phrase in a study-specific pathway description.; The source support is narrower and specific to eroded self-efficacy caused by resource depletion, so the definition overgeneralizes the term beyond what the packet shows.; While the packet supports that resource depletion can be translated into a “cognitive deficit (eroded self-efficacy),” it does not clearly support the specific phrasing that this refers “specifically to weakened self-efficacy” or that depletion “undermines a person’s belief in their ability to act effectively” beyond the brief parenthetical identification of “eroded self-efficacy.” New packet required. Source: [Dong Tongqiang; Yang Ziyi; Fang Yu; Che Jianying; Li Lanxin; Kong Yong. AI anxiety and teacher innovative intentions: a moderated serial mediation model of burnout and creative self-efficacy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828689; article XML SHA-256 9f460cd953627804ced0e74e6031687555d861b9d3733ee2f0a314a9196471d6. “AI anxiety and teacher innovative intentions: a moderated serial mediation model of burnout and creative self-efficacy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828689).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828689) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cognitive distortion [redraft]: "Can shape how a person interprets situations and relationships" is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet.; The definition’s first sentence (“maladaptive pattern of thinking” and that it “can shape how a person interprets situations and relationships”) is not explicitly supported in the packet text.; The mention of "avoidance and other coping problems" overreaches the packet, which only suggests avoidance of social discomfort, digital reassurance seeking, and problematic smartphone use/nomophobia.; The packet discusses *interpersonal cognitive distortions (ICDs)* and identifies dimensions including “interpersonal rejection” and “unrealistic relationship expectations,” but it does not provide enough support for the general framing in the first sentence.; The packet supports interpersonal cognitive distortions, not a general definition of "cognitive distortion" as such; the broader opening claim is unsupported by the source. New packet required. Source: [Javed Sarah; Parveen Heena; Kaneez Salma; Lone Ayoob; Alwadani Fahad; Al Khashram Nawaf. Interpersonal cognitive distortions as mediators of the relationship between psychological distress and nomophobia in adolescents: a cross-sectional mediation analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810935; article XML SHA-256 9b4f2fb6f2de316525bcad5c2704a2458742ed954da06e45d3ed3ef44449ae79. “Interpersonal cognitive distortions as mediators of the relationship between psychological distress and nomophobia in adolescents: a cross-sectional mediation analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810935).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810935) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cognitive evaluation theory [redraft]: Although the packet supports using it to classify discrete emotions, the definition’s first sentence contains a substantive, mechanism-level claim not explicitly supported by the provided text.; The definition adds an explanatory account that is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supported use in this source.; The packet does not define cognitive evaluation theory as a general theory that explains emotions through people mentally assessing or interpreting experience; it only says the study used the OCC model of psychological emotional cognitive evaluation theory as the basis for emotion classification.; The packet does not state that cognitive evaluation theory “explains emotions through how people mentally assess or interpret experience.” It only names the OCC model of “psychological emotional cognitive evaluation theory” as the basis for emotion classification, without describing mental assessment/interpretation as the mechanism. New packet required. Source: [Li-na Liu; Jia-yin Qi; Sheng-feng Wang; Zhen-ping Zhang; Qi-xing Qu. Is the expression of different discrete emotions related to time? Evidence from online Chinese reviews using sentiment analysis and human behavior dynamics. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1321582; article XML SHA-256 f73b0314619c43398541916d4fe1d6ff70c45d49537987b802019a311c0aa69f. “Is the expression of different discrete emotions related to time? Evidence from online Chinese reviews using sentiment analysis and human behavior dynamics” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1321582).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1321582) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cognitive model [redraft]: No information in the packet substantiates the specific phrasing that “Its quality is judged by how well it fits the data” (as a general rule) or that misfit relates to “showing how to improve it” in the exact way stated.; The definition goes beyond the packet by generalizing the scope of the term to a full description of cognitive diagnosis modeling rather than the limited revision/misfit context provided.; The packet does not support the definition’s core characterization that a “cognitive model” is “used in cognitive diagnosis research” to “represent cognitive processes or structure” and be compared with “observed data.”; The packet supports only parts about revision difficulty/bias (qualitative revision prone to subjective bias) and that quantitative methods may indicate model–data misfit without offering specific revision guidance; the broader claims about judging quality by fit and revising difficulty are not fully supported beyond these excerpts.; The packet supports only that qualitative revision of the cognitive model can be biased and that quantitative methods may show model-data misfit without specific revision guidance; it does not support the added claim that the model represents cognitive processes or structure in a way that is compared with observed data.; The statement that a model’s quality is judged by how well it fits the data is broader than the packet’s wording and is not directly supported as written. New packet required. Source: [Lin Shiwei; Zhang Xiaolong; Chen Guoxu; Sun Lingchen; Wang Xinyu; Ma Yongshuang. Revise the cognitive model using structural equation modeling. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758968; article XML SHA-256 504b0fb3da31d7c678180e3f910ac4e57d82009e646c48f8b32dbb1791bfea6a. “Revise the cognitive model using structural equation modeling” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758968).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758968) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cognitive overload [redraft]: The answer also shifts from the source’s second-language acquisition context to a general learning claim without support.; The definition adds a general cognitive definition that is not established by the supplied source; the source only discusses its role as a barrier in language learning.; The definition states that cognitive overload is “a condition in which the mental demands of a task become too great, making learning harder,” but the provided packet does not define cognitive overload in these terms.; The packet supports that cognitive overload is a major barrier to second-language acquisition, especially in EFL and ESL contexts, but it does not support the broader definitional claim that it is a condition in which task demands become too great and make learning harder.; While the packet supports that “Cognitive overload … are major barriers to second language acquisition, particularly in … EFL and ESL contexts,” the definition’s causal/definitional statement about task mental demands and learning difficulty is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Qi Yan. Cognitive overload in multimedia language learning: a review of attention limits and instructional design strategies. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850074; article XML SHA-256 e21747a817283e99b6673308874a690753f95978aba7e90f6f4847305d826f2c. “Cognitive overload in multimedia language learning: a review of attention limits and instructional design strategies” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850074).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850074) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cognitive penetrability [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported examples of higher-level mental states (“beliefs” and “expectations”); the packet only explicitly supports attention and memory, plus unspecified top-down factors.; The definition includes examples of “higher-level mental states” such as “beliefs” and “expectations,” but the packet only explicitly discusses “attention” and “memory” (and mentions other unspecified “high-level factors”) rather than beliefs or expectations.; The phrasing “can shape what a person actually perceives” is acceptable in the broad/narrow distinction, but the definition blurs the source’s stricter narrow sense, which requires flexible top-down factors causing a clear first-person illusion and is described as lacking strong evidence. New packet required. Source: [Lammers Nikki A.; de Haan Edward H.; Pinto Yair. No Evidence of Narrowly Defined Cognitive Penetrability in Unambiguous Vision. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00852; article XML SHA-256 16d499eb2250cc8b1d754f296d28bca1856d2f9807dabeb25e6af3896a4d9020. “No Evidence of Narrowly Defined Cognitive Penetrability in Unambiguous Vision” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00852).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00852) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cognitive process [redraft]: Some parts of the definition (“handling knowledge-related information” as a general description, and “mental activity involved in…”) are not stated in the packet in that form; the packet instead frames the cognitive process in terms of epistemic trust linked to adaptation to complex social environments.; The claim that the process is shaped by “features of incoming information” is broader than the packet’s wording, which only says it can be influenced by cognitive biases and external traits such as a stranger’s voice.; The packet does not explicitly support the wording that the cognitive process enables a person to “understand” (it mentions adaptation to complex social environments, but not “understand”).; The packet supports a link between epistemic trust and a cognitive process involving information with knowledge and adaptation to complex social environments, but it does not define a cognitive process as a general mental activity.; “Understand” is not supported by the packet; the source only mentions adaptation to complex social environments. New packet required. Source: [Zhu Cui; Zhang Yiran; Liu Zan; Xie Dongjie; Yang Cheng; Su Yanjie. Influence of strangers' vocal attractiveness on adolescents' epistemic trust: moderation effect of analytical thinking. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1700278; article XML SHA-256 3a2c4990798487ded02c8ca055bb310bc00d990ad3a0d6e583633db0064028d3. “Influence of strangers' vocal attractiveness on adolescents' epistemic trust: moderation effect of analytical thinking” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1700278).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1700278) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cognitive rehearsal [redraft]: The definition states that people “prepare and mentally or verbally rehearse responses” and that these are used in “expected conflict situations,” but the packet only says nurses can “respond to related conflicts using previously rehearsed methods” and does not explicitly describe mental/verbal rehearsal or “expected” conflict situations.; The packet supports cognitive rehearsal as an intervention approach used with nurses in workplace-bullying/conflict contexts, but it does not state that people “mentally or verbally rehearse” responses or define it as a general practice method.; The wording generalizes beyond the source by presenting a broader definition than the packet supports; the source gives a specific workplace-bullying intervention context, not a general concept definition.; While the second sentence is broadly consistent with the packet (increasing nurses’ knowledge/awareness of workplace bullying and enabling responses using rehearsed methods), the first sentence contains substantive details not supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Jeong Yulliana; Jung Hye Sun; Baek Eun Mi. Effectiveness of cognitive rehearsal programs for the prevention of workplace bullying among hospital nurses: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12889-024-18969-x; article XML SHA-256 9c70f21fe7eb7ab9faa16ae9559d15378698e515c72365225585f5966ef9323e. “Effectiveness of cognitive rehearsal programs for the prevention of workplace bullying among hospital nurses: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1186/s12889-024-18969-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18969-x) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cognitive stage [redraft]: The definition claims the later higher-level stage is contrasted with “earlier, basic processing,” but the packet does not describe any earlier/baseline processing stage or such a contrast; it only mentions that the dissociation was observed at a “high-order cognitive stage.”; The definition’s wording “especially to a later, higher-level phase in which…” is only partially supported; the packet refers to a “high-order cognitive stage” but does not substantiate that this is specifically “later” in the time course beyond the ERP components named (P200/P300).; The packet does not define a general term “cognitive stage” as a time course phase of mental processing; it only says the dissociation was observed at a “high-order cognitive stage.”; The source only supports a specific contextual usage tied to self-concept and high-order processing, not the broader definitional wording used here.; “Earlier, basic processing” is not stated in the source and is an added interpretation. New packet required. Source: [Xia Ruixue; Jin Ruijie; Yong Lin; Li Shaodong; Li Shifeng; Zhou Aibao. Temporal Features of the Differentiation between Self-Name and Religious Leader Name among Christians: An ERP Study. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02114; article XML SHA-256 103990c7385d860babe39df99fc3406af8efb8e5389d1309fad72a47cf3c9a52. “Temporal Features of the Differentiation between Self-Name and Religious Leader Name among Christians: An ERP Study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02114).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02114) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cognitive strategy [redraft]: The definition includes a specific reference to “spatial thinking and navigation,” but the packet only provides “spatial” in the context of navigation research and “spatial cognitive strategy structures,” without clearly defining the term in that exact way.; The packet does not support the general definition that “A cognitive strategy is a person's characteristic way of using mental processes or components to carry out a task.”; The packet supports a specific focus on self-reported spatial cognitive strategies in navigation, but it does not support the broader general definition of a cognitive strategy as a person's characteristic way of using mental processes or components to carry out a task.; The term sense is too generalized for the source: the packet only indicates self-reported spatial cognitive strategy structures, not a general cognition definition applicable to all tasks.; While the packet mentions “self-reported spatial cognitive strategy structures” and compares airline pilots vs non-pilots, it does not explicitly state that the term “cognitive strategy” (in this source) specifically refers to “self-reported strategies used for spatial thinking and navigation.” New packet required. Source: [Zhou Yuan; Long Ying; Yao Shuqi; Zhang Jing; Chen Yuxuan; Wang Ruida; Chang Ming. A psychological network analysis of self-reported spatial cognitive strategies in commercial airline pilots and non-pilots. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1844920; article XML SHA-256 a0db7101c1f027bba00912ff90d63ba29d7af7738c0ff57379c58133c82a0dde. “A psychological network analysis of self-reported spatial cognitive strategies in commercial airline pilots and non-pilots” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1844920).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1844920) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cognitivist [redraft]: Although the packet contrasts “post-cognitivist” with “current foundations of neurodiversity” and mentions a brain-body-environment continuum, it does not explicitly set up or define a corresponding “cognitivist vs post-cognitivist” contrast in the way the provided definition specifies.; The contrast with post-cognitivist views is not presented as a definition of cognitivist in the source, so the requested sense is only indirectly, not directly, supported.; The packet does not define “cognitivist” or state that it explains people mainly through cognition or brain functioning; it only discusses neurodiversity, post-cognitivist perspectives, and the brain-body-environment continuum.; The packet supports post-cognitivist and 3E/brain-body-environment language, but it does not define or clearly use cognitivist as an approach that explains people mainly through cognition or brain functioning.; The sentence about “continuous relationship among brain, body, and environment” is supported in spirit for the post-cognitivist part, but the definition’s overall framing depends on an unverified characterization of the “cognitivist” side. New packet required. Source: [Videla Ronnie; Aros May Britt; Parada Francisco; Kausel Leonie; Sandoval-Obando Eduardo; Jorquera Daniela; Ibacache David; Maluenda Sebastián; Rodríguez-Herrero Pablo; Cerpa Carola; González María Jesús; Chávez Marcelo; Ramírez Paola. Neurodiversity: post-cognitivist foundations of the 3E approach for educational inclusion of autistic students with technology. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1493863; article XML SHA-256 474c873480006c18d2644e9ea87e2fefa6965d7c3238e2ef0cdcb5bbcad97d97. “Neurodiversity: post-cognitivist foundations of the 3E approach for educational inclusion of autistic students with technology” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1493863).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1493863) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cohabitation [redraft]: Well-known headword (people living together) redefined as co-housed animals via 'in this study context'. New packet required. Source: [Castro Analía E.; López-Quiroz Marco A.; Ávila-González Daniela; Camacho Francisco J.; Paredes Raúl G.; Díaz Néstor F.; Portillo Wendy. Social experience and social cohabitation with mating promote spinogenesis in the nucleus accumbens of adult female prairie voles ( Microtus ochrogaster ). 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335626; article XML SHA-256 b45ca791f7a3d758c8514f817a6e392a27027b621374bbb6565a5e77f6d68d06. “Social experience and social cohabitation with mating promote spinogenesis in the nucleus accumbens of adult female prairie voles ( Microtus ochrogaster )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335626).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335626) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cohort analysis [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the packet by generalizing cohort analysis as a broad method ‘to examine how outcomes develop within that group’; the packet only supports a retrospective cohort analysis in one study context, not a general dictionary sense.; The definition’s mention of comparing “incidence” and “related risk factors” is only partially supported: the packet mentions “age-specific cumulative incidence,” “leading causes of death,” and assessing an effect of “degree of consanguinity,” but it does not clearly support the broader framing of “risk factors” as a general defining element of cohort analysis.; The packet does not explicitly define cohort analysis as “the study of a defined group of people over time” or “examining how outcomes develop within that group”; it only describes a specific retrospective cohort study.; The packet mentions “accounting for temporal trends and socioeconomic covariates,” which supports that part, but the rest of the definition includes general methodological wording that is not stated in the provided packet.; The requested field is not defensible: cohort analysis is a study design/epidemiologic method, not a diagnosis concept in the supplied packet. New packet required. Source: [Ali Naif Taleb; H Mehdi Mansour Abdulnabia; Abdullah Radfan Saleh. Survival disparities and competing mortality risks in offspring of consanguineous marriages in Yemen: A 26-year retrospective cohort analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349764; article XML SHA-256 3527a00b0cca9a52a64664432a973732948e02628c2a8f634eeb2168d308e3ca. “Survival disparities and competing mortality risks in offspring of consanguineous marriages in Yemen: A 26-year retrospective cohort analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349764).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349764) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- collaboration [redraft]: 'In learning contexts' narrows a general headword and attributes script properties (structured interaction) to collaboration itself. New packet required. Source: [Jiao Fangju; Bian Jiasheng; Zhang Rui; Zhou Tong. Collaboration scripts in computer-supported collaborative learning: a systematic review from 2011 to 2024. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1717440; article XML SHA-256 4625d0c7dc4e0dc72141e5fbcdfcaf57169ff3611e5ca47370cf5f31d6185c98. “Collaboration scripts in computer-supported collaborative learning: a systematic review from 2011 to 2024” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1717440).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1717440) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- collaborative learning [redraft]: The packet discusses **Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)**, not collaborative learning in general; the definition presents it without the CSCL scope.; The packet discusses computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) and collaboration scripts, not a general definition of collaborative learning, so the term’s sense is broader than the source supports.; The packet supports **cognitive, social, and affective** development, but the definition says **emotional** development, which is not the same wording/support in the packet.; The phrase 'cognitive, social, and emotional development' is not stated that way in the packet; it says 'cognitive, social, and affective development.' New packet required. Source: [Jiao Fangju; Bian Jiasheng; Zhang Rui; Zhou Tong. Collaboration scripts in computer-supported collaborative learning: a systematic review from 2011 to 2024. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1717440; article XML SHA-256 4625d0c7dc4e0dc72141e5fbcdfcaf57169ff3611e5ca47370cf5f31d6185c98. “Collaboration scripts in computer-supported collaborative learning: a systematic review from 2011 to 2024” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1717440).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1717440) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- collective memory [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“Collective memory is the shared remembering of information by members of a group or society”) is not explicitly supported or directly stated in the provided packet text; the packet discusses Americans’ memory for presidents but does not define collective memory in that general way.; The packet supports a study of Americans’ memory for U.S. presidents, but it does not explicitly define collective memory as the general “shared remembering of information by members of a group or society.”; The source supports the narrower claim that these collective memories include more than verbal information (names and faces), but not the broader definitional phrasing used here.; While the packet supports the idea that Americans’ recognition includes both names and faces (and that face recognition is lower than name recognition), the definition’s first sentence adds an ungrounded, general characterization beyond what the packet provides. New packet required. Source: [Putnam Adam L.; Drake Sarah Madison; Wang Serene Y.; DeSoto K. Andrew. Collective memory for American leaders: Measuring recognition for the names and faces of the US presidents. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0255209; article XML SHA-256 cd8f07a6410921c72458e7862746a61738dc7e293c60c76e8c49e4f2e19e14c6. “Collective memory for American leaders: Measuring recognition for the names and faces of the US presidents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0255209).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255209) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- collective self-esteem [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence therefore contains an unsupported substantive claim relative to the supplied packet.; The packet does not define “collective self-esteem” as “a person’s sense of worth tied to their social group or group identity”; it only discusses outcomes associated with impaired collective self-esteem without giving that conceptual definition.; The packet supports consequences of impaired collective self-esteem (social disconnection, social withdrawal, internalizing external devaluation as self-stigma), but it does not explicitly support the definitional claim that collective self-esteem is a person’s sense of worth tied to their social group or group identity.; The response adds a general definition that is not established by the supplied source text alone; a citation is not enough support under the review rules. New packet required. Source: [Wang Xiaoyi; Li Wanlu; Liu Rong; Zhang Xue; Meng Weijie. Perceived societal meritocratic climate and self-stigma among adolescents in conflict with the law: the mediating role of collective self-esteem and social disconnection. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852343; article XML SHA-256 c571a88d04a185fefe5128576887082d15c71822ada5102695bcf4a5f2a148fa. “Perceived societal meritocratic climate and self-stigma among adolescents in conflict with the law: the mediating role of collective self-esteem and social disconnection” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852343).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1852343) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- collusion [redraft]: The definition adds a contrast with involuntary muscular cues alone that is about muscle reading generally, not a documented definition of collusion.; The packet does not define "collusion" as secret cooperation; it only says feats involving collusion or fraud are not considered in the muscle-reading discussion.; The packet does not define “collusion”; it only states parenthetically that “feats involving collusion or fraud are not considered in this connection,” without explaining what collusion entails (e.g., secret cooperation, deception by working together).; The packet does not support the specific sense of collusion as working together to make an apparent mind-reading or muscle-reading feat seem genuine.; The specific wording in the definition about “secret cooperation” and “deception by working together” is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; While the packet does support a contrast between performances explained by involuntary muscular contractions and excluded cases involving “collusion or fraud,” the requested sense/meaning of “collusion” is not supported. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Muscle Reading” (Muscle Reading).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M5defs.htm#Muscle Reading) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- colocalization [redraft]: Describes the study's use of the analysis rather than defining the term; 'in this context' hedge on a general headword. New packet required. Source: [Lin Jingyu; Huang Haiming; Chen Lin; Wei Yanyan; Si Tianmei; Su Yunai; Niu Yajuan; Chen Jingxu. Proteome-wide Mendelian randomization and colocalization analyses identify potential biomarkers for schizophrenia. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1724567; article XML SHA-256 ff39f937bbb53eadbfc21507ba13e0c800d6094afacf82c98ae0e426c554f862. “Proteome-wide Mendelian randomization and colocalization analyses identify potential biomarkers for schizophrenia” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1724567).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1724567) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- colonial species [redraft]: The added explanation about colony living shaping competition, dominance, and young ending up in neighboring nests goes beyond what is directly supported as a general sense; the packet only discusses sibling aggression, dominance, and adoption in this particular species.; The claim that “colony living can shape social interactions such as competition, dominance” is only indirectly suggested in the study context (siblicidal aggression/adoption) and is not stated as a general property of colonial species in the packet.; The example about “chance that young may end up in neighboring nests” is only supported specifically by this kittiwake adoption scenario (ejected chicks falling into other nests), not as a general feature of colonial species as defined.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “colonial species” as living/breeding in groups or colonies in close proximity; it only uses the phrase “cliff-nesting colonial species” in context.; The packet supports that the black-legged kittiwake is described as a cliff-nesting colonial species, but it does not establish a general definition of “colonial species” as members that live or breed in close-proximity groups rather than separately. New packet required. Source: [Müller Martina S.; Roelofs Yvonne; Erikstad Kjell Einar; Groothuis Ton G. G.. Maternal Androgens Increase Sibling Aggression, Dominance, and Competitive Ability in the Siblicidal Black-Legged Kittiwake ( Rissa tridactyla ). 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0047763; article XML SHA-256 19e3026d86a9d471542d804f4f43a3f2fbb63f95b78b57331b191d69c6336777. “Maternal Androgens Increase Sibling Aggression, Dominance, and Competitive Ability in the Siblicidal Black-Legged Kittiwake ( Rissa tridactyla )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0047763).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0047763) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- color purity [redraft]: Packet only equates color purity with saturation; the vividness/dullness gloss is added, and field is wrong. New packet required. Source: [Assis Braulio A; Jarrett Benjamin J M; Koscky Gabe; Langkilde Tracy; Avery Julian D. Plastic sexual ornaments: Assessing temperature effects on color metrics in a color-changing reptile. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0233221; article XML SHA-256 b6a204760ec12deecda3d9b193777bc03b513f69cfcde46157ef53f7dd4148fb. “Plastic sexual ornaments: Assessing temperature effects on color metrics in a color-changing reptile” (10.1371/journal.pone.0233221).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233221) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- color system [redraft]: Because the field does not match what the packet supports, the definition cannot be judged as defensible for the requested field, even though the term usage itself (urban/website color system and local cultural attributes) is supported.; The assigned field is not defensible from the packet: the source is about visual design/web design and color matching, not biology.; The first sentence adds unsupported generalization about a color system being a scheme used to represent a desired style or identity; the packet only supports a city portal website color system and color matching for portal design.; The provided field is labeled "biological," but the packet describes a visual design/urban portal website color decision model (no biological scope is supported).; The wording should stay closer to the source’s specific sense of an urban color system for portal websites rather than a broader visual-design concept. New packet required. Source: [Wang Lin; Zhang Yi. The visual design of urban multimedia portals. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0282712; article XML SHA-256 7497b7c229520c73d7ca2d19cd1d31a5636001d9b295c18a2ba170d194fa1523. “The visual design of urban multimedia portals” (10.1371/journal.pone.0282712).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282712) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- coma therapy [redraft]: Hedges with medical context to redefine general headword as barbiturate coma therapy the packet discusses. New packet required. Source: [Ryu Jeong-Am; Jung Wonkyung; Jung Yoo Jin; Kwon Do Yeon; Kang Kina; Choi Hyeok; Kong Doo-Sik; Seol Ho Jun; Lee Jung-Il. Early prediction of neurological outcome after barbiturate coma therapy in patients undergoing brain tumor surgery. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0215280; article XML SHA-256 f97b751d7358067a03940fd7296438de842f6f7e0fe7824889bbf19edb1bf87a. “Early prediction of neurological outcome after barbiturate coma therapy in patients undergoing brain tumor surgery” (10.1371/journal.pone.0215280).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0215280) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- combination [redraft]: Ordinary word hedged into a narrow causal-factors sense drawn from a single sentence; no term defined. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression in Women: 4 Things to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d7e3878cd110511a1cab8edfc2803470cfecef390d776a8858330f68a78c0fab. “Depression in Women: 4 Things to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression-in-women).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression-in-women) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- commitment [redraft]: The definition broadens the scope beyond the packet by describing a general “legal handling” of persons with psychiatric disorders; the source only explicitly states that commitment is included among the legal aspects of psychiatry.; The definition states that commitment is “understood as a psychiatry-related legal matter rather than a clinical diagnosis itself,” but the provided packet does not explicitly support a contrast against clinical diagnosis; it only describes “Psychiatry in its legal aspects” and lists related topics (including commitment of persons with psychiatric disorders).; The packet supports commitment as a topic within psychiatry in its legal aspects, including commitment of persons with psychiatric disorders, but it does not support the added contrast that this is “rather than a clinical diagnosis itself.” New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Forensic Psychiatry” (D005555).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005555) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- common factor [redraft]: In-this-context hedge ties a general factor-analytic term specifically to mentalizing measures. New packet required. Source: [Asgarizadeh Ahmad; Shoumali Reihaneh; Tahan Maryam. The common structure of mentalizing. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332722; article XML SHA-256 736eef4d748e7d26741aec31c90216a799ba2ce746e1459803373f35bc6fde89. “The common structure of mentalizing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332722).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332722) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- commonsense psychology [redraft]: General term narrowed via hedge to one respect-prototypicality inference about groups. New packet required. Source: [Wright Joshua D.; Climenhage L. James; Schmitt Michael T.; Branscombe Nyla R.. Perceptual harmony in judgments of group prototypicality and intragroup respect. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243821; article XML SHA-256 e3a45fde98aa9ed3baca9b6670e28f520aff452480e54bde5d017bcf1b2658cb. “Perceptual harmony in judgments of group prototypicality and intragroup respect” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243821).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243821) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- communal nursing [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet describes an ethological observation in mice (communal nursing) rather than a psychological/clinical diagnosis.; Only partially supported wording: “shared social setting” is implied by “communal nursing,” but the packet does not explicitly describe a “shared social setting” in those terms.; The definition is framed as a diagnostic/clinical concept, but the source term is a rodent behavioral observation, so the field sense is not defensible here.; The packet supports that mice display communal nursing in wild and laboratory environments, but it does not support the added claim that this is described as a normal mother-young behavior.; Unsupported characterization: the definition claims this is “normal mother-young behavior”; the packet only states that mice “display … communal nursing in wild and laboratory environments” and does not explicitly frame it as “normal” or “mother-young behavior.” New packet required. Source: [Stroobants Stijn; Creemers John; Bosmans Guy; D’Hooge Rudi. Post-weaning infant-to-mother bonding in nutritionally independent female mice. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0227034; article XML SHA-256 fa3e53f7b295eabd4a41f79033ada8bc5075d6e0e8e5ea5bff3b9b087843def7. “Post-weaning infant-to-mother bonding in nutritionally independent female mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0227034).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227034) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- community inclusion [redraft]: Definition borrows the packet's definition of socio-community care; inclusion itself is never defined there. New packet required. Source: [Pino-Morán Juan Andrés; González Rodrigo; Rodríguez-Garrido Pía; Burrone María Soledad. Socio-community care of people with disabilities: Experiences of caregivers living in south-central zone of Chile. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339403; article XML SHA-256 c240d41e830c5fb669d829228c04da819cc1ee167f5821591aedc155cee3cefe. “Socio-community care of people with disabilities: Experiences of caregivers living in south-central zone of Chile” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339403).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339403) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- community [redraft]: Redefines the general word as IRB public members; wrong sense of headword. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 ff7a7468286526ac17a328be4c934d7799aad584950f0a10e9047534a7dd859b. “Clinical Research Trials and You: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/clinical-research-trials-and-you-questions-and-answers) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- comparison group [redraft]: Defines comparison group as inherently matched; packet describes matched-pair analysis, not the general term. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Matched-Pair Analysis” (D016555).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016555) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- compassion [redraft]: The definition generalizes compassion beyond the packet: the source discusses compassion specifically in nursing, not as a general psychological capacity.; The packet links compassion to reduced conflict, patients cooperating more, and improved patient/nurse outcomes, but “respond in a way that supports trust and cooperation” is not stated as part of a direct definition of compassion.; The packet supports that compassion helps nurses understand patients’ emotions and build trust, but it does not explicitly define compassion as a general "capacity to...respond" to "emotional suffering" (those phrases are more specific than the packet’s wording).; “Respond in a way that supports trust and cooperation” is only partly supported: the packet says compassion can help build trust and patients may cooperate more, but it does not define compassion as that kind of response.; “Understand another person’s emotional suffering” is not directly supported; the packet says nurses understand patients’ emotions and patients’ suffering is mentioned only in the context of compassion fatigue. New packet required. Source: [Li Zifeng; Zhou Xiaojing; Yang Luhuan; Xi Zuyang; Liu Huiqin; Fu Yuanzhi; Zhang Xiaojuan. Prediction models for compassion fatigue in nurses: A protocol for systematic review and critical appraisal. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342524; article XML SHA-256 5c1cdb9ca398eb2fe1b4ba549557b2a2d101abb303ad18af36607551375e90d8. “Prediction models for compassion fatigue in nurses: A protocol for systematic review and critical appraisal” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342524).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342524) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- compensatory mechanism [redraft]: Field mismatch: the provided packet is biomedical (obstructive sleep apnea, myocardium, cardiomyocytes, FOXM1/miR-320b, cell viability/apoptosis), not mental health psychology/counselling.; The definition adds a broad claim about “the body or its cells” that is not appropriate for the requested mental-health field, even though the packet supports a cellular/biological compensatory response.; The definition is framed as a general “protective response” to “stress” by changing how the body/cells function, but the packet specifically describes an early myocardial/FOXM1 compensatory response in a mouse model (biphasic expression at 4 vs 12 weeks) and associated cell findings, not a broadly stated mental-health mechanism in the requested field.; The definition’s phrasing (“may later be overwhelmed as the condition continues”) is broadly consistent with the packet’s timeline, but the definition does not restrict itself to the specific context (early myocardial injury/CIH progression) that the packet actually supports.; The source is about cardiomyocytes, myocardial injury, and obstructive sleep apnea; it does not support a mental-health sense of the term.; The wording “short-term adjustment” and “reduces damage at first, but may later be overwhelmed” is supported in substance, but the overall entry is mismatched to the field requested. New packet required. Source: [Wang Wan-yu; Chen Zhi-jia; Lai Ya-juan; Guo Lin-lin; Xiong Ao; Huang Zhen-yong; Yao Xiang-yang; Zeng Yi-ming. Exosomal miR-320b regulates cardiomyocyte FOXM1 expression and may serve as an early-stage compensatory mechanism in obstructive sleep apnea. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332862; article XML SHA-256 b91fc90979e54d2509a1a14680e34ccf7b3f7118ca06e55ec3e11756d916dd38. “Exosomal miR-320b regulates cardiomyocyte FOXM1 expression and may serve as an early-stage compensatory mechanism in obstructive sleep apnea” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332862).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332862) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- competence [redraft]: The definition broadens the term beyond the packet: the source only supports mathematics competence in this study, not a general definition of competence as a person’s level of capability in any domain.; The first sentence adds unsupported wording about being 'shown through patterns of performance on different kinds of content and thinking tasks'; the packet only says students may show different performance patterns across mathematical content and cognitive domains.; The packet text only states that mathematics competence is multidimensional and that students may show different performance patterns across mathematical content and cognitive domains; it does not support the broader definition of “competence” as a person’s level of capability in a domain shown through “patterns of performance on different kinds of content and thinking tasks.”; The phrase “different kinds of content and thinking tasks” is not explicitly supported in the provided packet; the packet refers to “mathematical content and cognitive domains” without mentioning “thinking tasks” as such.; The second sentence is supported, but the definition as a whole is not fully supported by the source packet. New packet required. Source: [Aziku Millicent; Tahri Dahman; Djekourmane Denis. Uncovering heterogeneity in South African students’ mathematics competence: latent profile analysis and multinomial logistic regression. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850152; article XML SHA-256 33f75286137a43236a811c09ad85172bf98a6411eed2340b862b723355296f1d. “Uncovering heterogeneity in South African students’ mathematics competence: latent profile analysis and multinomial logistic regression” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850152).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850152) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- competency to stand trial [redraft]: Form: definition comments on what the packet lacks instead of defining; sense is only trivially stated. New packet required. Source: [Verde Alfredo; Gritti Emanuela Saveria. Psychological assessment in forensic settings: new methodological conceptions and ethical considerations. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1825338; article XML SHA-256 f481ca559785d50e2a8d7a15555b117f5e3cd21fd484c94cdae1c7ae8f4ee215. “Psychological assessment in forensic settings: new methodological conceptions and ethical considerations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1825338).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1825338) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- competition tolerance [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory framing (“established competitor,” “shared nutrients,” “alternative to moving away or switching to different resources”) that is not a psychology/mental health definition and is tied to the packet’s bacterial competition context rather than the requested field.; The packet supports a microbiology/ecology sense of the term, not a mental health or counselling sense, so the field is wrong.; The provided packet defines “competition tolerance” in a microbial/ecological context (biofilms, antibiotic sensing, nutrient stress on an invader). Nothing in the packet supports treating this concept as belonging to the mental health field, so the requested field assignment is not supported. New packet required. Source: [Hashem Ihab; Van Impe Jan F.M.. A Game Theoretic Analysis of the Dual Function of Antibiotics. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fmicb.2021.812788; article XML SHA-256 f8a6eb0d5538fe6241d11f666902771b76f992a2ff97f01fa187175e955b38b2. “A Game Theoretic Analysis of the Dual Function of Antibiotics” (10.3389/fmicb.2021.812788).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.812788) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- competition [redraft]: Key elements in the definition—“people are under pressure to perform in relation to others,” and “intensified demands to manage responsibilities”—are not explicitly supported by the packet text.; The definition’s claim about “strengthen one’s personal competitiveness” is only indirectly suggested by the phrase “enhance personal competitiveness,” but the broader conceptual framing of competition as “pressure to perform in relation to others” is not supported.; The packet discusses time management competence and scale development/validation rather than defining competition as a psychological construct, so the requested sense of the term is not defensibly established.; The packet does not provide a definitional statement of “competition” (it only mentions “academic and social competition” as background context).; The packet supports competition only as “intensified academic and social competition,” not as a general situation in which people are under pressure to perform in relation to others.; The second sentence adds an interpretive gloss about managing responsibilities and strengthening personal competitiveness that is only partly supported and goes beyond the source’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Liu Fang; Li Man. Development and validation of the college students’ time management competence scale. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885044; article XML SHA-256 47198c3d7ea79238c1284482ce9b15ca79cf443290978a35abaf787f7180bfad. “Development and validation of the college students’ time management competence scale” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885044).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1885044) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- complementary and alternative medicine [redraft]: The definition claims CAM is “widely used alongside or instead of conventional medicine,” but the supplied packet does not explicitly state that CAM is used alongside or instead of conventional medicine (it reports worldwide increases in CAM use and discusses factors for popularity, but not this “alongside or instead” framing).; The packet supports CAM as diverse nutritional products and physical/physiological practices, but it does not explicitly support the claim that these approaches are used “alongside or instead of conventional medicine.”; The packet supports reasons such as dissatisfaction with conventional medicine, belief that CAM is natural or safe, and a desire to take an active role in healthcare decisions, but the definition adds broader framing (“broad set of nonconventional health approaches”) that is not directly established in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Naja Farah; Ahmad Maiss; Shatila Hibeh; Abu Shihab Katia Hazim N; Naalbandian Sally; Saqan Roba; Alzubaidi Hamzah; Hijazi Mohamad Ali. Role of community pharmacists in the safe and effective use of complementary and alternative medicine in the Middle East: A scoping review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332932; article XML SHA-256 3c98c7b20c97bebc4d02e0c2698cdbb922094c1d7708c1428dbbb5b7ede7ff2c. “Role of community pharmacists in the safe and effective use of complementary and alternative medicine in the Middle East: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332932).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332932) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- complementary classification [redraft]: Packet uses complementary as a modifier of classification characteristics; no such term exists to define. New packet required. Source: [Lv Fang; Huang Junheng; Wang Wei; Wei Yuliang; Sun Yunxiao; Wang Bailing. A two-route CNN model for bank account classification with heterogeneous data. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0220631; article XML SHA-256 48f71349d42afae0824dc1b828008f29f225a3e93e4e85892426d5551e0a98fa. “A two-route CNN model for bank account classification with heterogeneous data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0220631).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220631) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- complex reaction time [redraft]: Several parts of the definition are presented as general meaning of the term (e.g., “refers to performance on a response task used to assess cognitive function”), while the packet only provides limited, context-specific evidence (EPO effects on cognitive performance during experimental hypoglycemia).; The comparison with a simple reaction task and the claim that it reflects response under “more mentally demanding conditions” are not supported by the packet.; The definition goes beyond the packet by generalizing from one study context to a broader description of what the task measures.; The packet supports that a “complex reaction time task” was used and that it assessed sustained attention/working memory in a specific trial context, but it does not support the claim that this task reflects responding under “more mentally demanding conditions than a simple reaction task.” New packet required. Source: [Kristensen Peter Lommer; Pedersen-Bjergaard Ulrik; Kjær Troels Wesenberg; Olsen Niels Vidiendal; Dela Flemming; Holst Jens Juul; Faber Jens; Tarnow Lise; Thorsteinsson Birger. Influence of Erythropoietin on Cognitive Performance during Experimental Hypoglycemia in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomized Cross-Over Trial. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0059672; article XML SHA-256 fd9a607a2f35ea5376f573775219d4d871fa4a8f484e45a9a89ed5bcecd8d295. “Influence of Erythropoietin on Cognitive Performance during Experimental Hypoglycemia in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomized Cross-Over Trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0059672).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0059672) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- complex tone [redraft]: No part of the supplied packet supports the specific contrast phrasing used in the definition (“single harmonic… perceived as separate when it is sufficiently mistuned”) as a definition of the term rather than a study topic.; The definition goes beyond the supplied text by presenting a fuller acoustic definition of the term rather than limiting itself to the supported contrast with a mistuned harmonic.; The packet does not provide a definition of “complex tone” as “a sound made up of multiple harmonic frequency components heard together as one auditory pattern.”; The packet mentions “mistuning” and “harmonic separation thresholds,” but it does not explicitly state that a “complex tone” is contrasted with a “single harmonic” that may be perceived separately when mistuned.; The packet supports only that a harmonic can be perceived as distinct from a complex tone when sufficiently mistuned; it does not support the added definitional claim that a complex tone is a sound made of multiple harmonic frequency components heard together as one auditory pattern. New packet required. Source: [Azar Christel; Whittom Alexis; Chauvette Loonan; Couture Florence; Nadeau Claudelle; Bacon Benoit-Antoine; Champoux François; Sharp Andréanne. Effect of fundamental frequency removal on mistuned harmonic separation thresholds. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814083; article XML SHA-256 f58cf7f74d2ac8507f6ba7af16850dd9b9847b85ee6b7bd49a2f10eb4abfa65a. “Effect of fundamental frequency removal on mistuned harmonic separation thresholds” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814083).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814083) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- compliance [redraft]: General headword narrowed to following infection-control practices; wrong sense for a psychology entry. New packet required. Source: [Charles Cesilia; Mkonongo Lutengano; Masanja David; Edward Pendo; Maruba Damian; Mwita Philipo Felix; Nkondo Baraka; Elisha Frank; Bucheye Edward; Nyika Abel; Kalumiana Avent; Amsi Emmanuel; Ambikile Elly; Sirili Nathanael; Mollel Joshua; Njau Bernard; Bahegwa Radenta; Banuba Deogratias. Compliance with infection prevention and control practices and associated factors among healthcare workers in Tanzania: Experience from a secondary level-referral hospital. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337254; article XML SHA-256 daee54e2fc89d8988b42e08c4c84f40b461ec3e039ed0f5635837913bd5d0969. “Compliance with infection prevention and control practices and associated factors among healthcare workers in Tanzania: Experience from a secondary level-referral hospital” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337254).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337254) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- composite reliability [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported generalization by saying composite reliability is used in psychological assessment models to evaluate how reliably a factor or scale performs; the packet only shows it as a coefficient expected for the model’s factors.; The definition’s claim that composite reliability is “a coefficient used… to evaluate how reliably a factor or scale performs” is not explicitly supported by the provided text.; The definition’s claim that it is “considered alongside internal consistency” is only indirectly supported (the packet mentions both in the same expectation), but the substantive description of the role/meaning is not supported.; The packet only states that “satisfactory coefficients for both composite reliability and internal consistency” are expected for model factors; it does not define what composite reliability is or what it evaluates.; The source supports only that composite reliability is considered alongside internal consistency as a psychometric quality indicator, not the broader evaluative description given. New packet required. Source: [Schwarzer Nicola-Hans; Behringer Noëlle; Dees Paula; Gingelmaier Stephan; Henter Melanie; Kirsch Holger; Kreuzer Tillmann; Langnickel Robert; Link Pierre-Carl; Müller Sascha; Turner Agnes; Nolte Tobias. Replicability or revision? Further evidence on the psychometric quality of the German version of the epistemic trust, mistrust and credulity questionnaire. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04810-0; article XML SHA-256 577056bedf57e85b7e86b26a366093394d02eaf3afdc2f979b35305d6ae57253. “Replicability or revision? Further evidence on the psychometric quality of the German version of the epistemic trust, mistrust and credulity questionnaire” (10.1186/s40359-026-04810-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04810-0) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- compound action potential [redraft]: The field is not defensible for this term here: the packet is about spinal cord stimulation and evoked compound action potentials, not cognition or psychology.; The provided field is “cognition,” but the packet content concerns spinal cord stimulation, sensory fibers, and pain—there is no support in the packet that the term is being used in a cognition context.; The second sentence narrows the term to spinal cord stimulation as if that were part of the general definition; the packet only supports that this study calculated ECAPs in that specific SCS context.; While the core description matches the packet (evoked compound action potential generated by activated nerve fibers and recorded/calculated at recording contacts), the definition’s assigned field (“cognition”) is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Wu Zhen; Wu Nianshuang; Wang Penghao; Zhang Cheng; Wu Changzhe; Huo Xiaolin; Zhang Guanghao. Directional leads applied to spinal cord stimulation: A computational modelling study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345287; article XML SHA-256 6d441dd1ca787df3b46b199e38f3342b9c4531d71da57877f4655e05c39e3b5f. “Directional leads applied to spinal cord stimulation: A computational modelling study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345287).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345287) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- compunction [redraft]: Packet only contains an incidental usage; the scruple/hesitation meaning is supplied, not supported. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-273000-285000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- computed tomography [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet describes automating a clinical imaging/analysis pipeline (computed tomography to bone strength via FEA), not cognition as a psychology topic.; The definition goes beyond the packet by describing computed tomography as building detailed computer-based models of body structures; the packet only says CT scans were used in an FEA pipeline and does not define CT that way.; The field is not well matched to the term’s source context, which is medical imaging and bone analysis rather than cognition.; The provided definition’s focus (“cognition”) is therefore not supported by the packet’s content, which concerns time savings, landmarking, and bone-strength prediction rather than cognitive processes.; The second sentence is article-specific rather than a general dictionary definition of the term; it describes this study’s automated pipeline for children’s femurs and bone-strength estimation instead of the term itself. New packet required. Source: [Allison George; Almutairi Salman; Offiah Amaka C; Li Xinshan. PyPeCT2S: Pythonic paediatric computed tomography to strength with automatic landmarking for the automation of bone strength analysis in children. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352689; article XML SHA-256 4df6322c4e31d0a0c75ab36d70752321a13bad82429300c876e1cc0ed932e8bd. “PyPeCT2S: Pythonic paediatric computed tomography to strength with automatic landmarking for the automation of bone strength analysis in children” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352689).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352689) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- computer-assisted diagnosis [redraft]: The claim that the source material uses the term to mean “using these methods with CT images to aid liver segmentation” overstates the packet, which describes liver segmentation as related to computer-assisted diagnosis but does not define the term that way.; The definition adds a broad general meaning (“computer-based image processing and analysis to support diagnosis”) that is not stated in the packet; the packet only says liver segmentation is a processing technique for computer-assisted diagnosis.; The definition’s broad first sentence (“use of computer-based image processing and analysis to support diagnosis…”) is not directly supported by the packet, which does not define computer-assisted diagnosis in those general terms (it only states that liver segmentation is a “significant processing technique for computer-assisted diagnosis”).; The packet supports CT-based liver segmentation and related steps (feature extraction, classification to get probabilities, and random-walk use), but it does not provide enough explicit support for the specific general phrasing about “helping identify structures of interest” as part of the term’s meaning.; The requested sense is not well supported by the source packet alone; it reads as a general medical-imaging definition rather than a source-grounded entry. New packet required. Source: [Zheng Yongchang; Ai Danni; Zhang Pan; Gao Yefei; Xia Likun; Du Shunda; Sang Xinting; Yang Jian. Feature Learning Based Random Walk for Liver Segmentation. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0164098; article XML SHA-256 8041d96b704a3405de0b2cebedb8d531c321a1cc65940201201d800bc87e0784. “Feature Learning Based Random Walk for Liver Segmentation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0164098).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0164098) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- computer programming [redraft]: Redefines programming as a learning activity in CS education; hedge smuggles narrow sense onto general headword. New packet required. Source: [Mertens Andrew J.; Colunga Eliana. Assessing cognitive components of computational thinking. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1434453; article XML SHA-256 7df4bd6ad73867aa05bcb6b4926362121236fe58b8af520011df280620976984. “Assessing cognitive components of computational thinking” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1434453).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1434453) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- conative [redraft]: The definition adds broader interpretive wording (“impulse in mental life,” “more broadly than bodily appetite alone”) that is not explicitly supported by the provided excerpt.; The gloss “action-oriented wants or urges” goes beyond the packet’s wording and adds an interpretive characterization not stated in the source.; The packet does not directly define “conative” as “tendencies of striving or impulse”; it only says that “Appetite” is “applied to conative tendencies of all sorts,” and that for these “appetence (or appetency) and impulse are better.”; The packet does not support the claim that the phrase “conative tendencies” in this source means “action-oriented wants or urges more broadly than bodily appetite alone.” The text contrasts “appetite” with “impulse” and discusses appetite as an organic need, but it does not spell out “action-oriented wants/urges” as the meaning of “conative.”; “Striving” is not supported by the packet; the source only says “conative tendencies of all sorts” and recommends the terms “appetence” or “impulse” instead. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Appetite” (Appetite).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Appetite) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- concept acquisition [redraft]: Because the key defining characterization in the first sentence is not explicitly supported by the packet, the definition as a whole does not meet the requirement that every substantive claim be supported by the provided source text.; The claim that the source identifies a process of learning words and concepts is broader than the packet’s scope; the text focuses on explanatory factors (input frequency, concreteness/imageability, external modalities, interoceptive features, and social interaction) rather than a definition of concept acquisition itself.; The definition compresses multiple claims into one sentence and reads like a synthesized gloss rather than a source-grounded definition tied to the packet’s specific sense.; The definition’s first sentence claims that “concept acquisition is the process through which words and concepts are learned and come to have meaning in cognitive development.” The packet does not define concept acquisition in these terms; it discusses age of acquisition (AoA), concept grounding/groundability, and meaning acquisition via the symbol grounding problem, but not a definition of concept acquisition as “learning words and coming to have meaning.”; The packet supports discussion of factors affecting age of acquisition and concept groundability, but it does not define concept acquisition as the general process through which words and concepts are learned and come to have meaning in cognitive development. New packet required. Source: [Thill Serge; Twomey Katherine E.. What's on the Inside Counts: A Grounded Account of Concept Acquisition and Development. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00402; article XML SHA-256 fc9aa5657b62006a7a2c7ce780d870ddbcb6227b223ae9efe4b7841d1ee9411e. “What's on the Inside Counts: A Grounded Account of Concept Acquisition and Development” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00402).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00402) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- conceptual complexity [redraft]: The definition claims conceptual complexity broadly refers to “how complicated a concept is in the mind” and “features that can make it harder to process or distinguish,” but the packet only mentions specific example components (“how confusable a concept is with other, similar concepts” and “the diversity of the contexts in which a concept appears”) rather than defining complexity in terms of mind-complication or processing/distinguishability.; The definition’s second sentence is only partially supported: the packet supports the ideas of confusability and diversity of contexts, but it does not explicitly frame these as “factors” capturing complexity beyond that illustrative list (the definition treats them as the core reflection of conceptual complexity).; The packet does not define “conceptual complexity” as a general property of how complicated a concept is in the mind; it only mentions it as a category of variables and gives examples such as confusability with similar concepts and diversity of contexts.; The wording broadens the source beyond what is supported by the packet, which specifically treats these as related variables rather than a full definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Davis Charles P; Yee Eiling. Is time an embodied property of concepts?. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290997; article XML SHA-256 aef9b2522eb68618071d445d180baa10f1b592332530cca4dc45239a0101d73e. “Is time an embodied property of concepts?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290997).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290997) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Concerta [redraft]: Packet never mentions Concerta; brand-to-substance identification is an added fact. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Methylphenidate Hydrochloride” (C646).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- conciliation [redraft]: Because the key descriptive elements of the definition (calming/persuading/competition of cooperation; gentle vs force) are not explicitly present in the supplied passage, the requested sense is not defensibly supported.; The definition adds interpretive details (‘gentle handling rather than force’) that are not directly stated in the passage, so it goes beyond the supplied historical evidence.; The definition’s claim that conciliation is contrasted with “coercive or punitive measures” is only partially supported: the text contrasts conciliation failing with “torment” methods (hunger, chains, flogging), but it does not clearly establish conciliation as non-coercive or “gentle.”; The packet does not define “conciliation” as “trying to calm, persuade, or win the patient’s cooperation” or as “gentle handling rather than force.” It only states that “Should conciliation fail, patients must be cured by some sort of torment,” without describing what conciliation consists of in those terms.; The packet only supports that conciliation was something attempted before harsher measures; it does not explicitly support the fuller gloss ‘trying to calm, persuade, or win the patient’s cooperation by gentle handling.’ New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-94500-106500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- concordance [redraft]: General agreement term narrowed via hedge to AI diagnoses versus clinical benchmarks. New packet required. Source: [Serbaya Suhail H.; Surbaya Saud Hasan; Hafiz Tamara Abdulrahman; Khatib Sambas Mohammad Fouad Mohammad; Alshahrani Khalid Mohammed Saeed. An in-silico comparative cross-sectional diagnostic- accuracy study evaluating artificial intelligence platforms in identifying autism spectrum disorder from standardized pediatric case vignettes 2026. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1941175; article XML SHA-256 c06afc790ef2b86541b608393350680caf28bab9e694c2b29ec8593e9629ecb6. “An in-silico comparative cross-sectional diagnostic- accuracy study evaluating artificial intelligence platforms in identifying autism spectrum disorder from standardized pediatric case vignettes 2026” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1941175).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1941175) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- condition [redraft]: Packet defines disease or disorder; headword condition is given only that narrow sense. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Disease or Disorder” (C2991).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- conditional discrimination [redraft]: Because the “condition or cue determines correctness rather than one stimulus always being correct” phrasing is not directly stated in the supplied packet, that substantive part of the definition is unsupported by the source.; The definition adds general explanatory wording that is not established by the supplied source text; the packet only shows the term used for a weight-based task, not a standalone definition of the concept.; The packet supports that conditional discriminations are contrasted with simple discriminations and described as more cognitively demanding, but it does not explicitly support the fuller definitional claim that the correct response depends on a particular condition or cue rather than on one stimulus always being correct.; The packet supports that the study contrasts conditional discrimination with simple discrimination and suggests conditional discriminations are more cognitively demanding, but it does not explicitly define conditional discrimination as one where “the correct response depends on a particular condition or cue.” New packet required. Source: [Lambert Poppy J; Rippel-Rachle Antonia; Auersperg Alice M I. Testing weight-based conditional discrimination in Goffin’s cockatoos, Cacatua goffiniana. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338604; article XML SHA-256 ac76bc9b38bc386daa42df6df012b1ff431fdf85207a14b0f20fb817458473f8. “Testing weight-based conditional discrimination in Goffin’s cockatoos, Cacatua goffiniana” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338604).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338604) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- conditional reasoning [redraft]: General reasoning term hedged into the implicit-aggression test approach the packet describes. New packet required. Source: [Chu Kequn; Zhu Fengshu. Development and validation of the Chinese version of the conditional reasoning test for implicit aggression in college students. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1460499; article XML SHA-256 20a944ff31fdfbea05a9758c309986deec1c13a5755ec350e39061aeab6151e1. “Development and validation of the Chinese version of the conditional reasoning test for implicit aggression in college students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1460499).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1460499) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- conditioned aversion [redraft]: Because the core definitional claims (unpleasantness/avoidance after conditioning) are not supported in the supplied packet text, the definition is not defensible from the provided source.; The definition’s clause “In this packet, it refers specifically to learning-related aversion to sodium” is only partially supported: the packet text references “sodium conditioned aversion,” but does not explicitly state that the term refers specifically to “learning-related aversion to sodium.”; The packet does not provide a general, field-definitional description of “conditioned aversion” as a learned shift toward finding a stimulus unpleasant or avoiding it; it only mentions “sodium conditioned aversion” in passing.; The packet supports sodium conditioned aversion and salt chemotaxis learning, but it does not define conditioned aversion as a general learned shift toward finding a stimulus unpleasant or avoiding it after conditioning.; The specific sense is narrowed to sodium in the source; the broader first sentence generalizes beyond what the packet states. New packet required. Source: [Dao Joseph; Lee Aileen; Drecksel Dana K.; Bittlingmaier Nicole M.; Nelson Theodore M.. Characterization of TMC-1 in C. elegans sodium chemotaxis and sodium conditioned aversion. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12863-020-00844-4; article XML SHA-256 b78b0f7af666a09df6963b614943185a8b729ae3a880dfc7260a5de6e01a672a. “Characterization of TMC-1 in C. elegans sodium chemotaxis and sodium conditioned aversion” (10.1186/s12863-020-00844-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12863-020-00844-4) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- conditioned stimulus [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly state that the person/object/situation (e.g., the dentist/dental-related stimuli) is “previously neutral” before learning.; The packet supports a dentist and/or dental-related stimuli becoming a conditioned stimulus after pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, but it does not support the broader “previously neutral person, object, or situation” generalization.; The packet supports an emotional response specifically described as “fear,” but it does not support the broader claim that the emotional or behavioral response can be “emotional or behavioral.”; The packet supports fear as the conditioned response, but not the broader claim of an “emotional or behavioral response.” New packet required. Source: [Geers Andrew L; Seligman Laura D; Pituch Keenan A; Colagiuri Ben; Marusak Hilary A; Rabinak Christine A; Al-Ado Sena L; Turner Natalie; Nedley Michael. A test of pre-exposure spacing and multiple context pre-exposure on the mechanisms of latent inhibition of dental fear: A study protocol. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s40359-024-01580-5; article XML SHA-256 1b34d67f93baa5c3fa262f3c5935d4a9418ce612ac6e1e3bcd8c2bf99b4dec40. “A test of pre-exposure spacing and multiple context pre-exposure on the mechanisms of latent inhibition of dental fear: A study protocol” (10.1186/s40359-024-01580-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01580-5) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- confidence level [redraft]: The claim that confidence level can shape how someone experiences “stress” is not supported; the packet mentions anxiety, arousal, and performance outcomes, not stress.; The definition adds a broad psychology/general-use sense that is not established by the packet, which is limited to pre-competitive self-confidence in athletes.; The packet does not explicitly define “confidence level” as a “degree of confidence a person has in themselves in a given situation”; it mentions “self-confidence” and “confidence level” as psychological factors but does not provide a definitional meaning for the term.; The packet supports self-confidence/confidence level as a factor in athletic performance, but it does not define the term as a general “degree of confidence a person has in themselves” or “how strongly someone feels sure of their own ability.”; The packet supports that effects depend on interpretation of arousal and that satisfaction is an outcome, but it does not explicitly connect the term to “how strongly someone feels sure of their own ability” (as a general definitional statement) or to “stress” specifically beyond discussion of arousal interpretation. New packet required. Source: [López-Hernández Alejandro; Simón-Piqueras Juan Ángel; González Ravé José María. Self-confidence and perceived fatigue as predictors of performance satisfaction in trained swimmers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755167; article XML SHA-256 f47f921f268a85cbe80b9e9eb816d3ab084bdd9cb38e20acb01cdb0e0d972cb6. “Self-confidence and perceived fatigue as predictors of performance satisfaction in trained swimmers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755167).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755167) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- confidentiality [redraft]: The definition adds an ethical duty (“the duty to protect it”) that is not stated in the source packet, which defines confidentiality only as the privacy of information and its protection against unauthorized disclosure.; The definition adds the concept of a specific “duty” to protect information, but the packet text only states privacy and protection against unauthorized disclosure, without mentioning any duty/obligation. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Confidentiality” (D003219).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003219) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- configuration [redraft]: In-this-context hedge narrows a general word to finger spacing as a haptic cue. New packet required. Source: [Allen Keon S; Goldreich Daniel. Humans optimally integrate cutaneous and proprioceptive cues in haptic size perception. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1653390; article XML SHA-256 fc692e01ac1a035d8eba142b748026768d3babfe208eb6a750321ec45cd79f4e. “Humans optimally integrate cutaneous and proprioceptive cues in haptic size perception” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1653390).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1653390) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- confirmation [redraft]: Strengthening faith comes only from etymology; rest matches but that claim is added. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Confirmation” (Confirmation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Confirmation) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- confluence [redraft]: General word narrowed to large-scale crises reinforcing one another; sense drawn from one passage. New packet required. Source: [Bhugra Dinesh; Liebrenz Michael; Smith Alexander. Mental health in the time of polycrisis: geopolitical determinants and modern psychiatry. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1813883; article XML SHA-256 d960ff50d1dbd54e8f8a3ae7c0fbfe542d3a297351337add3ce714d4644db0df. “Mental health in the time of polycrisis: geopolitical determinants and modern psychiatry” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1813883).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1813883) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- confrontation naming [redraft]: The claim that confrontation naming is “often included in aphasia screening” is not directly supported; the packet only provides evidence for inclusion in one specific screening tool (SAST) rather than establishing frequency across screening generally.; The claim that it is "often included" in aphasia screening is too broad for the packet; it supports only this specific screening test and a general list of screening tests, not frequency or common inclusion across the field.; The definition adds functional detail about what the task measures and how it is used that is not explicitly supported by the supplied source text.; The packet mentions a subtest named “visual confrontation naming” within the Serbian Aphasia Screening Test, but it does not define “confrontation naming” as measuring naming ability when items are presented directly (e.g., through visual prompts).; The packet supports that visual confrontation naming is a subtest in an aphasia screening test, but it does not define confrontation naming as the task of naming items from direct visual prompts.; While the packet supports that the SAST is an aphasia screening assessment with multiple subtests evaluating language abilities, it does not explicitly state that confrontation naming is used specifically as “one part of evaluating language impairment” in the way the definition phrases it. New packet required. Source: [Vuković Mile; Milovanović Tanja; Teovanović Predrag; Stojanovik Vesna. Evaluation of reliability and validity of the Serbian Aphasia Screening Test. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304565; article XML SHA-256 78498dcd6603e75de01baebb8ea4c50808249381edfbaf40a61f8df1848e17e9. “Evaluation of reliability and validity of the Serbian Aphasia Screening Test” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304565).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304565) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- congenital anomaly [redraft]: Because that first sentence includes a substantive phrase not directly evidenced in the packet, the overall definition is not fully supported by the supplied source.; The definition states that a congenital anomaly is “a developmental abnormality present before birth,” but the provided packet does not explicitly support the “present before birth” characterization (it only labels the condition as “congenital” and describes neural tube defects involving incomplete closure).; The packet supports neural tube defects as a common congenital anomaly and describes myelomeningocele as a severe form with absent protective covering, but it does not support the broad general definition that a congenital anomaly is a developmental abnormality present before birth.; The wording goes beyond the packet by generalizing from one example to a full definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Maassel Nathan; Farrelly James; Coman Daniel; Freedman-Weiss Mollie; Ahle Samantha; Ullrich Sarah; Yung Nicholas; Hyder Fahmeed; Stitelman David. Diffusion weighted imaging as a biomarker of retinoic acid induced myelomeningocele. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0253583; article XML SHA-256 05b157ad45159cc902ca0a63f32b5ba027d917391bbcba133aae1d27da3ff67a. “Diffusion weighted imaging as a biomarker of retinoic acid induced myelomeningocele” (10.1371/journal.pone.0253583).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253583) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- congenital visual impairment [redraft]: Although the packet discusses that “abnormal visual experiences during early-life may adversely affect integration in congenitally visually impaired children,” it does not directly support the wording “altered visual integration” as stated in the definition.; The definition states that the condition is “reduced vision that is present from birth,” but the supplied packet does not explicitly define congenital visual impairment as reduced vision present from birth.; The packet does not directly support the gloss “reduced vision that is present from birth”; it refers to children with congenital visual impairment but does not define the term in those words.; The packet supports that children aged 4–17 with congenital visual impairment show “heightened intensity of Müller-Lyer illusion compared to visually normal counterparts,” but the overall definition includes additional elements (especially the birth/present-from-birth phrasing) that are not supported.; “Altered visual integration” is only indirectly suggested by the paper’s discussion that early-life abnormal visual experiences may adversely affect integration, not stated as a direct description of the condition. New packet required. Source: [Lin Na; Chen Bichi; Yang Maoyuan; Lu Fan; Deng Ruzhi. Low vision aids and age are associated with Müller-Lyer illusion in congenital visually impaired children. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1278554; article XML SHA-256 33e947b103216eaf7c15b9c2597bd6c89c7e4f6114d027b5fa0a8878ab381199. “Low vision aids and age are associated with Müller-Lyer illusion in congenital visually impaired children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1278554).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1278554) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- congruity theory [redraft]: Well-known headword redefined as role congruity theory via hedge; wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [Miller Andrea L.; Borgida Eugene. The Separate Spheres Model of Gendered Inequality. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0147315; article XML SHA-256 4be76c06a7605275ebe10c3a22e80589234cce5fed1f6c19f4152da49c4fd432. “The Separate Spheres Model of Gendered Inequality” (10.1371/journal.pone.0147315).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147315) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- connectionist model [redraft]: Defines connectionism as 'interacting processes over time' (dynamics), not networks of units; then narrows to one intertemporal-choice model. New packet required. Source: [Scherbaum Stefan; Dshemuchadse Maja; Goschke Thomas. Building a Bridge into the Future: Dynamic Connectionist Modeling as an Integrative Tool for Research on Intertemporal Choice. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00514; article XML SHA-256 5a44abac38ba5a358650d4276a343929c6378f6fd2c0d324a564e8e0374aed97. “Building a Bridge into the Future: Dynamic Connectionist Modeling as an Integrative Tool for Research on Intertemporal Choice” (10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00514).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00514) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- conscious memory [redraft]: The definition’s claim that this is “linked to episodic memory” is not supported beyond a general statement that relations with episodic memory “remain strongly debated”; the packet does not state a specific linkage between conscious memory and episodic memory as a meaning of the term.; The definition’s claim that, “in this source, it refers to explicit awareness of past choices,” is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet describes correct remembering but does not define conscious memory as explicit awareness.; The packet supports that “conscious memory of previous choices” is necessary for the effect, operationalized as items being “correctly remembered as chosen or rejected” (choice stage).; The phrasing “explicit awareness of past choices” goes beyond the packet’s wording and is not directly supported as a definitional gloss.; The source supports conscious memory of previous choices and correct remembering of chosen or rejected items, but it does not support the added claim that this sense is linked to episodic memory; the article says that relation remains strongly debated. New packet required. Source: [Hagège Joshua; Chammat Mariam; Tandetnik Caroline; Naccache Lionel. Suggestion of self-(in)coherence modulates cognitive dissonance. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0202204; article XML SHA-256 1f80de3f4fd29159e0db2a1d4030c03e6e9130d797df7e4fb63cd209a5a52721. “Suggestion of self-(in)coherence modulates cognitive dissonance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0202204).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202204) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- conscious process [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“A conscious process is a mental operation that happens with awareness”) is not supported anywhere in the provided packet.; The packet does not establish that this term, as used here, is a standard cognition term with that general meaning; it only contrasts conscious error recognition with unconscious/automatic error monitoring in this study.; The source supports conscious error recognition, but not the broad general definition of a "conscious process" as any mental operation that happens with awareness.; While the packet does contrast unconscious error detection with “conscious error recognition” (e.g., via the LPC) and contrasts “unconscious/automatic conflict monitoring” (N2) with conscious recognition, the definition’s first sentence states a general characterization of conscious processes that is not evidenced in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Yin Hua-zhan; Li Dan; Yang Junyi-; Li Wei; Qiu Jiang; Chen Ying-yu. Neural Bases of Unconscious Error Detection in a Chinese Anagram Solution Task: Evidence from ERP Study. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0154379; article XML SHA-256 4c56692620755f19650da72fe690b480d988c8ccc9ad420d1c9bedc1dbe1ed64. “Neural Bases of Unconscious Error Detection in a Chinese Anagram Solution Task: Evidence from ERP Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0154379).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154379) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- conscious resistance [redraft]: The definition adds a general account of ‘deliberate mental effort’ and ‘integrating scattered impressions or events to restore continuity’ that goes beyond the packet’s specific claim about conscious and resistant active efforts against digital fragmentation.; The definition frames the concept as pushing back to “reconnect” experience into a “more coherent whole”; while the packet points to reconstructing continuity and a “more complete… generative model,” the exact wording about “reconnected into a more coherent whole” is not directly supported as phrased.; The packet supports the idea that “conscious” and “resistant active efforts” are needed to respond to digital fragmentation and to reconstruct “experiential continuity,” but it does not explicitly define the process as “integrating scattered impressions or events,” so that specificity is not supported.; The packet uses the phrase to describe aesthetic experience in art education, not a developmental psychology concept, so the requested field is not well supported.; ‘Support fuller growth in experience’ is broader than the packet’s wording and is not stated as a supported definitional component. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Fangting. “Art as Experience” revisited: Dewey’s aesthetic cognition theory in the age of fragmented perception. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805282; article XML SHA-256 2516a472475482c12be0666037cdb89b3843ed92d798e9a7cfa82f8254d490e2. ““Art as Experience” revisited: Dewey’s aesthetic cognition theory in the age of fragmented perception” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805282).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805282) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- conservative [redraft]: 'In this context' hedge narrows a general headword to non-surgical treatment; packet never defines the term. New packet required. Source: [Gül Azra; van Geest Sarita; Kuijper Barbara; Van Der Plas Anton Adriaan; Vleggeert-Lankamp Carmen. The prevalence of Type D personality and its association with clinical outcomes in patients with cervical radiculopathy after either conservative or surgical treatment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1887901; article XML SHA-256 1029d11b393f17f5a807cf7060c4608d272533a81c3be3f86ee9a8d5bad7f482. “The prevalence of Type D personality and its association with clinical outcomes in patients with cervical radiculopathy after either conservative or surgical treatment” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1887901).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1887901) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- consolidation period [redraft]: The explanation that newly formed tissue hardens into stronger bone is only indirectly suggested by the study’s findings and goes beyond what the packet explicitly states.; The packet does not describe what the consolidation period is (e.g., a phase after bone separation) or what happens during it (e.g., tissue hardening/stronger bone).; The packet only explicitly supports that a “long consolidation period” is a major limitation in distraction osteogenesis, not the specific phase definition provided.; The packet supports that a long consolidation period is a major limitation in distraction osteogenesis, but it does not define the term as a specific post-separation phase or describe the sequence of bone separation followed by tissue hardening. New packet required. Source: [Xu Jia; Sun Yuxin; Wu Tianyi; Wang Bin; Liu Yang; Zhang Jinfang; Lee Wayne Yukwai; Kang Qinglin; Chai Yimin; Li Gang. Porcine brain extract promotes osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells and bone consolidation in a rat distraction osteogenesis model. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0187362; article XML SHA-256 8f321d8c4384329112032ff9041447b601b92f1b899a34136349e95ca69c5f64. “Porcine brain extract promotes osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells and bone consolidation in a rat distraction osteogenesis model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0187362).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0187362) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- consolidation [redraft]: The mechanism claim is only weakly supported and narrower in the packet: it says one potential mechanism involves oscillatory neuronal activity in premotor and primary motor cortices and their interaction, not the broader phrasing about "rhythmic brain activity and communication".; The packet does not define consolidation as a general cognitive process by which a newly learned motor memory becomes more stable after practice; it only says motor memory consolidation may be influenced by offline non-invasive brain stimulation.; The packet does not state that consolidation is “the process by which a newly learned motor memory becomes more stable after practice,” so this core characterization of the term is unsupported by the supplied text.; The packet does not support the added timing claim that consolidation occurs "during offline periods after training" as part of the definition; it only mentions offline application of stimulation in relation to motor memory consolidation.; The packet mentions “offline application” of brain stimulation, but it does not explicitly support the broader phrasing “during offline periods after training.”; The packet supports that a potential mechanism involves “changes in oscillatory neuronal activity” in premotor and primary motor cortices and their interaction, but it does not specifically justify the wording “communication between premotor and primary motor areas.” New packet required. Source: [Dabbagh Alhuda; Idaji Mina Jamshidi; Tzvi Elinor; Nikulin Vadim; Rumpf Jost-Julian; Classen Joseph. Absence of evidence for post-training tDCS effects on motor memory consolidation and premotor–primary motor cortex interaction: a resting-state EEG study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1698460; article XML SHA-256 a78a21a3ccd09be7466f10a3ba9026dc40c35651ae1d2018d77167b1ddb3f710. “Absence of evidence for post-training tDCS effects on motor memory consolidation and premotor–primary motor cortex interaction: a resting-state EEG study” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1698460).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1698460) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- conspicuous consumption [redraft]: The definition expands from “socially evaluative” / “identity-expressive” orientations to the more concrete mechanism “visibly express identity” and “concern about how one is seen,” which is not directly stated in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define conspicuous consumption itself; it only mentions “conspicuous consumption tendencies” and related “identity-expressive consumption orientations,” so the full definitional gloss is not supported by the supplied text.; The packet mentions “conspicuous consumption tendencies” alongside “social-face sensitivity” and frames related constructs as “socially evaluative sensitivity” and “identity-expressive consumption orientations,” but it does not explicitly support the definition’s specific wording that consumption is “visibly” expressive or that it is about “concern about how one is seen by others.”; “Visibly express identity” and “shaped by concern about how one is seen by others” go beyond the packet’s wording; the source only supports a general link to identity-expressive consumption and socially evaluative sensitivity in a study context. New packet required. Source: [Jeong Kwon-Hyuk; You Jiung. A study on the differences in social-face sensitivity and conspicuous consumption tendency based on sports consumers’ impulse buying tendency: focusing on Generation Z. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1764875; article XML SHA-256 f769ec73cd00a345540f1d8b99b00b522fb8a7ab67080d3ba408b72431d338e7. “A study on the differences in social-face sensitivity and conspicuous consumption tendency based on sports consumers’ impulse buying tendency: focusing on Generation Z” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1764875).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1764875) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- construal [redraft]: The definition blends a general dictionary sense with a source-specific claim, but the packet provides only a narrow research-context description of construal level, not a full definition of construal.; The packet does not explicitly define “construal” as “the way a person mentally frames or represents a situation,” so that general characterization is not supported by the provided text.; The packet does not support the general definition of construal as “the way a person mentally frames or represents a situation.” It only discusses construal level theory in relation to food choices and attention to food type/quantity.; While the packet supports that “chronic and situational construal levels” exist and guide attention to “food type” and “food quantity,” the provided definition includes an additional, broader wording (“mentally frames or represents a situation”) that is not substantiated in the packet.; “Relatively enduring or momentary mindset” is not stated in the packet; the source only mentions chronic and situational construal levels. New packet required. Source: [Kim Eunho; Kang Yoon-Hee. “Same Calories, Different Foods” – What do you choose? The role of construal level and age in shaping food choices. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1688277; article XML SHA-256 341063d048c73800af9f265b82574a2fe9ba4860ff298f3b00d2b35e5658e612. ““Same Calories, Different Foods” – What do you choose? The role of construal level and age in shaping food choices” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1688277).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1688277) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- construct validity [redraft]: The definition misstates construct validity as whether a test “appears” to measure something; that wording fits face validity more than construct validity.; The definition’s first sentence (“extent to which a test or assessment appears to measure the underlying ability or process it is intended to measure”) is not explicitly stated in the packet text provided.; The packet supports construct validity by reporting expected associations with established motor and cognitive measures, but the definition’s first sentence is not supported by the source and is misleading.; The packet supports construct validity only in the narrower, operational sense of demonstrating expected associations between SKILLCOURT outcomes and age-adjusted regression against established motor and seated PC-based cognitive measures; it does not support the broader “extent/underlying ability or process” phrasing.; The proposed support sentence (“scores on the new device relate in expected ways to established measures of similar motor and cognitive functions”) is only partially supported: the packet describes significant age-adjusted regression/prediction against specific established measures (e.g., TUG and PC-based cognitive tasks), but does not explicitly use the wording “similar” or “expected ways” as a general construct-validity criterion. New packet required. Source: [Giesche Florian; Vogt Lutz; Groneberg David A; Hülsdünker Thorben. Reliability, construct validity, and usefulness of an assessment device for agility and motor-cognitive reactive stepping performance in community-dwelling older adults. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351843; article XML SHA-256 aeaa1e2eaddd045aa411464ecdb62c37ceccfb720eb1ac95696250b9933fb1a4. “Reliability, construct validity, and usefulness of an assessment device for agility and motor-cognitive reactive stepping performance in community-dwelling older adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351843).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351843) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- constructivism [redraft]: Because that “active role…rather than simply receiving information” contrast is not substantiated in the provided packet text, the definition includes an unsupported substantive element.; The packet supports constructivism as an instructional philosophy, but it does not explicitly support the general explanatory claim that it is a learning approach in which learners build understanding rather than receive information.; The packet supports social, cognitive, and critical constructivism and mentions autonomy, critical thinking, and problem-solving, but it does not support the broader phrasing about ‘active contribution to society’ as a general defining feature.; The packet supports that the study examines “social, cognitive, and critical constructivism” and links constructivism with autonomy, critical thinking, and problem-solving, and with learners “actively contribute[ing] to nation-building,” but it does not explicitly support the specific claim that constructivism “emphasizes learners’ active role in building understanding rather than simply receiving information.” New packet required. Source: [Nyamekye Ernest; Asare-Danso Seth; Ofori Emmanuel Amo. Investigating the influence of language teachers’ constructivist self-efficacy on their practice of constructivism in Ghanaian language and culture instruction. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320246; article XML SHA-256 f5a20fca0a9750640231ec1cc4ad7b4ba48f354d6141e1e1e5cc2df20aa4c388. “Investigating the influence of language teachers’ constructivist self-efficacy on their practice of constructivism in Ghanaian language and culture instruction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320246).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320246) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- consumer behavior [redraft]: The packet defines consumer behavior as “Behavior associated with the procurement of goods, services, or experiences,” but the provided definition adds an additional psychology-specific gloss (“how people act when they acquire what they want or need”) that is not stated or supported in the packet text.; The phrase “what they want or need” is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet’s wording about procurement of goods, services, or experiences.; The second sentence adds an unsupported psychology-specific gloss (“In psychology-related use...”) that is not stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Consumer Behavior” (D003258).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003258) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- contact behavior [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence gives a broad, general meaning (“pattern of how people come into contact with a relevant source in their environment”), but the packet only mentions a specific “water contact behavior of humans” in the context of schistosomiasis transmission; it does not support the generalized phrasing.; The opening, general definition (“the pattern of how people come into contact with a relevant source in their environment”) is broader than the packet supports; the packet only supports human water contact in the context of schistosomiasis transmission.; The packet does not support the abstract phrase “relevant source in their environment” or a general learning-field sense for the term beyond the specific epidemiological context given. New packet required. Source: [Tamir Zemenu; Animut Abebe; Dugassa Sisay; Gebreselassie Araya; Tsegaye Aster; Kassa Tesfu; Eguale Tadesse; Kebede Tadesse; Negash Yohannes; Mekonnen Zeleke; Erko Berhanu. Intestinal helminthiasis survey with emphasis on schistosomiasis in Koga irrigation scheme environs, northwest Ethiopia. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0272560; article XML SHA-256 1fbd35062c4dd3e0f75b0baf235d186aec89265405ad536094127041f93a6f3e. “Intestinal helminthiasis survey with emphasis on schistosomiasis in Koga irrigation scheme environs, northwest Ethiopia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0272560).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272560) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- contact hypothesis [redraft]: The definition states that contact “can … often reduce intergroup prejudice,” but the packet only says research “prioritized the role of positive, direct, face-to-face interactions in shaping intergroup prejudices” and that these had a “comparatively stronger relationship with prejudice,” without explicitly stating that the effect is to reduce prejudice.; The packet supports that the contact hypothesis has traditionally emphasized positive, direct face-to-face contact and has recently expanded to indirect/vicarious, negative, and online contact, but it does not explicitly support the claim that contact often reduces prejudice.; The wording broadens the source beyond what is stated by adding a general causal claim about reducing prejudice; the packet only reports associations and comparative relationships in two studies, not a general clinical or empirical consensus. New packet required. Source: [Bond Julian; Dixon John; Tredoux Colin; Andreouli Eleni. The contact hypothesis and the virtual revolution: Does face-to-face interaction remain central to improving intergroup relations?. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0292831; article XML SHA-256 1d2ff4d07e81857dca45d89b8f7f7ac1646c5e5c4986200bdd95cb1a1984a22f. “The contact hypothesis and the virtual revolution: Does face-to-face interaction remain central to improving intergroup relations?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0292831).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292831) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- contagion [redraft]: The claim that emotions are spread or shared 'through their interactions' is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source.; The definition’s claim that emotional contagion is “an important process” in group behavior/relationships is broadly consistent with the packet, but because the core definitional wording about “spread or sharing…through interactions” is not directly supported, the definition is not fully defensible.; The packet does not state that, in psychology, “contagion usually refers to emotional contagion.”; The packet mentions emotional contagion shaping “group dynamics, interpersonal relationships, and affective regulation,” but it does not explicitly define it as “the spread or sharing of feelings between people through their interactions.”; The packet supports emotional contagion as a topic, but it does not establish that psychological contagion usually refers to emotional contagion as a general definitional sense.; The wording 'important process in group behavior, relationships, and how emotions are regulated' is a paraphrase of the source's 'group dynamics, interpersonal relationships, and affective regulation,' but the definition adds broader generalization rather than staying tightly within the source-backed wording. New packet required. Source: [Garzón-Alvarado Diego Alexander; Duque-Daza Carlos Alberto; Alexiadis Alessio; Tamayo Ricardo Mauricio. A dynamical systems model of emotional contagion: Oscillatory coupling in the circumplex of affect. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334738; article XML SHA-256 262645e93eb99364a6288131c29bf968f3329757156164a4578e409ead93d451. “A dynamical systems model of emotional contagion: Oscillatory coupling in the circumplex of affect” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334738).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334738) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- contents of consciousness [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“distinguishable mental items that make up conscious experience”) is not stated in the provided packet.; The definition’s second sentence adds that the contents are “kinds of contents that can become linked through experience” such that “the return of one tends to bring back another.” While a similar idea appears in the packet’s description of association (when one content recurs, the other tends to recur), the packet links this explicitly to “association of ideas,” not to a general definition of “contents of consciousness.”; The packet does not define the term “contents of consciousness.” It defines “Association (of ideas)” as a union between mental dispositions corresponding to “two or more distinguishable contents of consciousness,” but it does not give a standalone definition of what “contents of consciousness” are.; The phrase 'make up conscious experience' is an unsupported paraphrase not stated in the packet and is broader than the source text.; The source defines association between mental dispositions corresponding to distinguishable contents of consciousness; it does not define the contents themselves as the items that become linked through experience. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Association (of ideas)” (Association (of ideas)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Association (of ideas)) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- context-specific learning [redraft]: The claim that it means “learning processes understood in relation to a particular setting or activity rather than as a general trait” is unsupported by the source text.; The definition introduces a specific interpretation (“meaning how actively students are engaged…”) that is not explicitly stated in the packet text beyond naming the construct as “context-specific learning engagement.”; The first sentence makes a general, conceptual claim (“learning processes … rather than as a general trait”) that is not supported by the provided packet text.; The packet does not define context-specific learning itself; it only mentions “context-specific learning engagement” as a study variable.; The packet supports only that the study modeled “context-specific learning engagement (LE)” as a factor related to students’ perceptions in “STEAM-integrated music education (SIM-E)” and as an indirect association via LE; it does not provide the broader definitional framing used in the definition.; The phrase “how actively students are engaged in learning within the specific context of STEAM-integrated music education” describes engagement in that study, not a general dictionary sense of the term. New packet required. Source: [Wei Jianyun; Li Yun; Huo Weiyi. Perceived STEAM-integrated music education and students’ innovative competence: parallel indirect associations through creative self-efficacy and context-specific learning engagement. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1923767; article XML SHA-256 adddef5b5f6cb3fcbbebd63284d9c5ae602675bc039639f0b57943060b54f71a. “Perceived STEAM-integrated music education and students’ innovative competence: parallel indirect associations through creative self-efficacy and context-specific learning engagement” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1923767).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1923767) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- context [redraft]: Because the packet does not explicitly define “context” as a general term, the requested sense of the term is not fully supported by the packet’s text.; The first sentence gives a broad general definition of “context” as the surrounding situation or environment for psychological experiences and research findings, but the packet only supports a narrower study setting (a post-pandemic, cross-border English-medium instruction context).; The first sentence provides a general definition (“surrounding situation or environment… in which psychological experiences or research findings occur”), but the packet does not supply or explicitly support a definition of “context” at that level of generality.; The packet uses “context” in relation to a specific study setting (post-pandemic era, Southeast Asian English-medium instruction; Chinese graduate students studying in the Philippines), but the definition expands this to “post-pandemic, cross-border English-medium learning environment” without clear support that these exact phrases collectively define the term in the requested sense.; The wording goes beyond the packet by generalizing from this specific educational research setting to psychology more generally, which is not established in the source text. New packet required. Source: [Li Hailong. English language learning in an international context: psychological factors among Chinese graduate students in the Philippines. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766803; article XML SHA-256 d7dee383752774020679d72275cfcca402d2127469c7e02178613359d00f3c3d. “English language learning in an international context: psychological factors among Chinese graduate students in the Philippines” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766803).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766803) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- contingency [redraft]: 'In this context' hedge narrows the general headword to BCI temporal contingency; packet does not define contingency itself. New packet required. Source: [Chen Yufeng; Jiang Yongmei; Wang Xiran; Zeng Miao; Cui Jiahao. Advances in mechanisms of neuroplasticity induced by multimodal closed-loop brain–computer interfaces after stroke. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1828191; article XML SHA-256 e5405859f21254f92d8093c8fb09e27d0a5c79659a6d50baa6778861c194bb03. “Advances in mechanisms of neuroplasticity induced by multimodal closed-loop brain–computer interfaces after stroke” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1828191).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1828191) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- continuance commitment [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory description of the construct that is not stated in the supplied source text; a citation or general background is not enough to support that sense here.; The definition claims that continuance commitment is “higher among public sector employees, likely reflecting greater security,” which is broadly supported by the packet (“Public sector employees demonstrated higher levels of continuance commitment, likely due to job security”), but the additional explanation about “mainly because leaving would feel too costly or risky” is not supported.; The definition states that continuance commitment involves staying because leaving would feel “too costly or risky,” but the provided packet does not define continuance commitment in those terms or describe it as “costly or risky.”; The packet supports that continuance commitment was higher among public sector employees and that this was likely due to job security, but it does not define continuance commitment as staying because leaving would feel too costly or risky. New packet required. Source: [Todorović Dušan; Mitić Petar M.; Stojiljković Nenad; Olanescu Mihai; Suciu Adrian; Popa Danut. Organizational commitment in the private and public sectors: a regression analysis based on personality traits, subjective wellbeing, organizational orientations, and perceived employment uncertainty in Serbia. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1442990; article XML SHA-256 4ea4f0a29bd5ab48e66c450e3195186eded23bdcef6ebe72df6d206c2c886ec0. “Organizational commitment in the private and public sectors: a regression analysis based on personality traits, subjective wellbeing, organizational orientations, and perceived employment uncertainty in Serbia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1442990).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1442990) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- continuing care retirement community [redraft]: The definition’s specifics (“residents live within the same institution,” “nearby units or wings”) are only partially supported: the packet mentions “sharing a wing” as geographic proximity, but it does not explicitly support the broader claims about residents living within the same institution or in nearby units/wings as a definitional feature.; The packet supports that geographic proximity within a retirement community matters for close ties, but it does not support the broader claim that residents live in the same institution or that they are often in nearby units or wings as a general definition of the term.; The packet text provided does not explicitly define “continuing care retirement community” as a “residential community for older adults,” nor does it state the term’s general meaning beyond discussing “older continuing care retirement community residents.”; “Residential community for older adults” is not stated in the packet as a definition of the term; the source only discusses older residents in continuing care retirement communities in the context of one study. New packet required. Source: [Ayalon Liat; Yahav Inbal. Location, location, location: Close ties among older continuing care retirement community residents. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0225554; article XML SHA-256 8097c607480b7749d4e7c33429aebc6059fc80566ae8c6aca005348a0f6147f5. “Location, location, location: Close ties among older continuing care retirement community residents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0225554).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0225554) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- continuous rating scale [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence therefore contains an unsupported substantive claim beyond what is stated in the packet.; The first sentence adds an unverified general definition of the term rather than limiting itself to what the source supports.; The packet shows only that 30 healthy adults rated the quality of children’s sung productions on a continuous rating scale; it does not define the scale as a continuum-based alternative to fixed categories.; The packet supports that adults “rate the quality” on a “continuous rating scale,” but it does not provide support for the definition’s general explanation that a continuous rating scale is a method that scores “along a continuum rather than placing it into fixed categories.” New packet required. Source: [Clément Sylvain; Planchou Clément; Béland Renée; Motte Jacques; Samson Séverine. Singing abilities in children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI). 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00420; article XML SHA-256 e34d47584b8507acc1cb2fc99c325dc69ce2e0f368743f00b97ce6e2bcb0f9fc. “Singing abilities in children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI)” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00420).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00420) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- continuous recognition task [redraft]: The definition adds general behavioral details and a broad use claim that are not stated in the supplied source packet.; The definition’s claims about distinguishing previously seen versus new items and using it to study explicit memory are not explicitly stated in the provided packet text.; The packet does not support the specific characterization that the task is used “often” to study explicit memory by comparing brain or performance responses to old versus new items; the packet only reports analyses (e.g., old/new effects) in a particular study context without giving a general definition.; The packet mentions that participants performed a “continuous recognition task” while EEG was recorded, but it does not define what the task involves (e.g., how items are presented, what participants must do, or how “old” vs “new” are distinguished).; The packet supports that the task was used in a study of explicit verbal memory, but it does not define the task as a memory test in which people respond to items as they appear or explicitly describe the old/new judgment procedure. New packet required. Source: [Choi Jeong Woo; Jang Kyoung-Mi; Jung Ki-Young; Kim Myung-Sun; Kim Kyung Hwan. Reduced Theta-Band Power and Phase Synchrony during Explicit Verbal Memory Tasks in Female, Non-Clinical Individuals with Schizotypal Traits. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0148272; article XML SHA-256 ebfa320a4e1ab67c451ef73700f255fe4a066cb745f2749ab4d3d5d37da7bf61. “Reduced Theta-Band Power and Phase Synchrony during Explicit Verbal Memory Tasks in Female, Non-Clinical Individuals with Schizotypal Traits” (10.1371/journal.pone.0148272).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148272) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- contraception [redraft]: The clause “links with … other psychiatric symptoms” is only partially supported: the packet explicitly mentions mood and anxiety symptoms, and associations with depression and suicidal ideations, but it does not clearly support the broader phrase “other psychiatric symptoms.”; The field is not defensible here: contraception is a preventive method, not a diagnosis-related term.; The opening generic claim (“methods used to prevent pregnancy”) is not supported by the supplied packet, which only discusses hormonal contraception and its effects.; The packet does not state that contraception is used to prevent pregnancy; it discusses hormonal contraception’s effects (effectiveness, safety, reversibility) and potential psychological effects, but not its purpose in preventing pregnancy. New packet required. Source: [Poirier Amélie; Fortier Juliette; Marin Marie-France; Désilets Marie; Hudon Alexandre. Identifying psychiatric comorbidities that occur following the introduction of hormonal contraception: a scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1783906; article XML SHA-256 f0e802a605cbfd64b0b4a93a120455c54094c61eb1aee881f74801cf5e028bf5. “Identifying psychiatric comorbidities that occur following the introduction of hormonal contraception: a scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1783906).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1783906) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- contractility [redraft]: The definition states that contractility refers to “measurable functional contractions of the lower-limb lymphatic system during lymph flow,” but the provided packet text only mentions that the study “established… functional contractility metrics of the lower limb lymphatic system” without describing contractility as an active contractile ability or specifying it as contractions “during lymph flow.”; The packet does not supply the requested general sense definition (“ability of tissue or a vessel to actively contract”); it only references the term in the context of study metrics, not as a definition.; The packet only supports a study-specific use of “functional contractility metrics” for the lower-limb lymphatic system; it does not support the general definition of contractility as the ability of tissue or a vessel to actively contract.; The source does not define contractility on its own, so the definition overstates what is established by the supplied text.; “During lymph flow” is not stated in the packet and adds an unsupported detail about the timing/context of the contractions. New packet required. Source: [Kim Jihun; Bae Gyu-Seo; Kim Yujin; Yang Jiyoung; Jeon Eunsu; Seo Jincheol; Lee Youngjeon; Lee Sungin. Anatomical mapping and quantitative functional analysis of lower limb lymphatic flow in normal cynomolgus monkeys using indocyanine green lymphography. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338516; article XML SHA-256 b488261b14376bf1886f2a98fa97d84e47bbebf07e4f51ce58fc8b5fba9bf706. “Anatomical mapping and quantitative functional analysis of lower limb lymphatic flow in normal cynomolgus monkeys using indocyanine green lymphography” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338516).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338516) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- contralateral eye [redraft]: Because the definition’s first sentence is not directly supported by an explicit statement in the packet, the full requested sense cannot be considered defensibly supported.; The definition adds a broader contrastive statement about visual pathway input that is not explicitly supported by the source text.; The packet supports this term only in the context of retinotopic maps in the visual wulst, not as a general definition for any brain area or neural map.; The packet uses the terms “contralateral eye” and “ipsilateral eye” in experiments on the visual wulst, but it does not explicitly define “contralateral eye” as “the eye on the side opposite to the brain area or neural map being discussed.” New packet required. Source: [Michael Neethu; Löwel Siegrid; Bischof Hans-Joachim. Features of the Retinotopic Representation in the Visual Wulst of a Laterally Eyed Bird, the Zebra Finch ( Taeniopygia guttata ). 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0124917; article XML SHA-256 f1be19e54551ecc6ae2036629cee4779fd9ac52bce5dfc9df057a6cde23409d5. “Features of the Retinotopic Representation in the Visual Wulst of a Laterally Eyed Bird, the Zebra Finch ( Taeniopygia guttata )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0124917).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0124917) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- control condition [redraft]: Although the packet mentions “Glass's Δ SD pre measurement or control condition” and notes this is used when “experimental manipulation might affect the SD,” the packet does not define what a “control condition” is in general terms beyond that usage.; The definition’s first claim—“comparison group or situation in an independent-groups study … used as a reference for judging the effects of an experimental manipulation”—is not supported by the provided packet text.; The definition’s wording about using the control condition’s standard deviation as a reference is only partially supported (the packet supports the idea of using SD from the pre-measurement or control condition), but the full narrative framing is not explicitly stated in the packet.; The packet supports only a specific effect-size standardizer use of “control condition” in Glass’s Δ, not the broader general definition as a comparison group or situation used to judge an experimental manipulation.; The phrase “comparison group or situation in an independent-groups study” is not stated in the source passage and goes beyond what is supported there. New packet required. Source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- control processes [redraft]: The contrast with affective reactivity is supported in general, but the definition adds unsupported detail about specific impulsivity facets and their meaning.; The definition claims that the term “refers to the more self-regulating side of behavior.” The packet discusses “regulatory facets of impulsivity” but does not explicitly frame cognitive control processes as “the more self-regulating side of behavior.”; The definition’s emphasis on “planning ahead” and “staying on task” is not explicitly stated in the packet. While related UPPS facets (e.g., premeditation, perseverance) are mentioned, the packet does not equate these with the general phrase used in the definition.; The packet does not define “control processes” as “cognitive regulatory functions involved in guiding behavior.” It only states that impulsivity reflects both “affective reactivity and cognitive control processes.”; The packet only says impulsivity reflects both affective reactivity and cognitive control processes; it does not define control processes as planning ahead, staying on task, or the self-regulating side of behavior. New packet required. Source: [Barel Efrat; Cohen Ami; Mahagna Lila. Gonadal hormones and impulsivity facets: moderating roles of cortisol and anxiety. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871253; article XML SHA-256 1ec56736999979f4f1fc036fde389605c43f8816701a80ca617e935f510476b9. “Gonadal hormones and impulsivity facets: moderating roles of cortisol and anxiety” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871253).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871253) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- control theory [redraft]: 'In this source' hedge redefines a general headword as optimal control of rapid arm movement. New packet required. Source: [Assila Najoua; Braithwaite Ben; Begon Mickaël; Plamondon Réjean. Interpreting the kinematic theory of rapid human movement as an optimal control theory. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1685216; article XML SHA-256 4ef5823c6c1bc4fd8fb83bd1dfdd4a5688f928a658057c232ea051628ae951ad. “Interpreting the kinematic theory of rapid human movement as an optimal control theory” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1685216).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1685216) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- controlled attention [redraft]: The definition relies on a broader conceptual gloss rather than a source-backed dictionary sense.; The definition’s first sentence gives a general characterization of “controlled attention” (executive control resources to direct focus according to current goals) that is not explicitly supported anywhere in the provided packet.; The phrase “according to current goals” is not supported by the packet.; The source supports that temporal orienting demands controlled attention and that rhythm-based temporal preparation does not require executive control resources, but it does not define “controlled attention” itself as attention that depends on executive control resources to direct focus according to current goals. New packet required. Source: [de la Rosa María Dolores; Sanabria Daniel; Capizzi Mariagrazia; Correa Angel. Temporal Preparation Driven by Rhythms is Resistant to Working Memory Interference. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00308; article XML SHA-256 5eb6a8e404e6a50e1a419e5fc4130305853dc9fcc18df41b329646f3db277c6b. “Temporal Preparation Driven by Rhythms is Resistant to Working Memory Interference” (10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00308).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00308) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- controlled observation [redraft]: Research-methods headword redefined as video review for peer feedback, hedged with 'in this context'. New packet required. Source: [Abdelkafi Hiba; Ghorbel Ahmed; Yaakoubi Mohamed; Kammoun Mohamed Moncef; Alsaeed Mohammed Issa; Gharbi Adnene; Trabelsi Omar. The effect of video observation on the frequency, type, and accuracy of peer feedback in a long jump learning context. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1737033; article XML SHA-256 ee3d767395ceab009d23323b888be49726fd0249d6fd440329f0e4889bddc68c. “The effect of video observation on the frequency, type, and accuracy of peer feedback in a long jump learning context” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1737033).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1737033) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- contusion [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence generalizes that contusion is an injury that “damages body tissue,” but the packet only describes tissue damage in the context of spinal cord injury models (“damaging the constituent tissues of the spinal cord”).; The definition’s requested scope mixes a general definition of “contusion” with a specific discussion of “contusion injury model” and spinal cord injury; the packet supports the animal SCI contusion model rationale, but it does not explicitly provide a general, stand-alone definition of “contusion” beyond that SCI context.; The field is not defensible here: the source is a biomedical article about spinal cord injury biomechanics, not an ethics or psychology/counselling definition.; The packet supports contusion only in the specific context of spinal cord injury and contusion injury models; it does not define contusion generally as any injury caused by external mechanical force damaging body tissue. New packet required. Source: [Obaid Numaira; Zamora Dexter L.; Jimenez-Gonzalez Cesar; Sparrey Carolyn J.. Effect of morphology on the biomechanics of contusion models of non-human primate spinal cord injury: a finite element study in a digital population. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337794; article XML SHA-256 5b3795a531dcc42482f8d171527b50e5e02a88ef6e00a13c29cb38d81ebb06fe. “Effect of morphology on the biomechanics of contusion models of non-human primate spinal cord injury: a finite element study in a digital population” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337794).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337794) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- convenience sampling [redraft]: Because the substantive defining features in the provided definition are not stated in the packet, the definition includes unsupported claims.; The example about a readily accessible student group is not stated in the packet as a general feature of the term.; The packet does not explicitly support the definition’s examples (e.g., “readily accessible student group”) as the meaning of convenience sampling; it only reports that the sample consisted of Chilean university students.; The packet mentions that the study used a “non-probabilistic convenience sampling” approach, but it does not define convenience sampling as selecting participants based on ease of access/availability rather than random selection.; The packet supports that the study used non-probabilistic convenience sampling, but it does not define convenience sampling as selecting participants based on ease of access or availability rather than random selection.; The statement that, in psychology research, it means a sample is drawn from people who are convenient to recruit is a broader generalization not established by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Troncoso-Tejada Gustavo; Gálvez-Nieto José; Norambuena-Paredes Ignacio; Casas David González. Psychometric study of the political violence support scale in a sample of Chilean university students. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04416-6; article XML SHA-256 8267328f8103e15e0d986543d4be95da438d2ffc377e1b2d7404fc7a1692eaaf. “Psychometric study of the political violence support scale in a sample of Chilean university students” (10.1186/s40359-026-04416-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04416-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- convergent strabismus [redraft]: Adds 'weakness' of the lateral rectus; packet states only paralysis as the example mechanism. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Esotropia” (D004948).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004948) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- convergent thinking [redraft]: The cognitive-load claim is supported in general, but the wording broadens the source by saying performance ‘can be affected’ without keeping the packet’s narrower finding that low cognitive load was associated with higher scores on the studied convergent thinking task.; The definition states that convergent thinking involves solving tasks that have a “correct or best answer,” but the provided packet does not mention this criterion or define convergent thinking in terms of correct/best-answer tasks.; The packet supports convergent thinking as a critical aspect of creative thinking, but it does not state that it is specifically the kind of thinking used to solve tasks with a single correct or best answer.; The rest of the definition (that performance can be affected by factors such as cognitive load, and that lower cognitive load is linked to better convergent thinking scores) is broadly supported by the packet’s reported finding that scores were higher under low cognitive load than high cognitive load. New packet required. Source: [Zhao Yuan; Wang Yue; Lu Feng; Wang Jiajing; Xing Qiqi; Wider Walton. The influence of emotion regulation on convergent thinking under different cognitive loads. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353216; article XML SHA-256 3807f8ce8d8745f2d76cf28f4c19f389bbc773647b41a3dc9133a798f1bccb80. “The influence of emotion regulation on convergent thinking under different cognitive loads” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353216).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353216) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- conversation [redraft]: The claim that people “bring expectations and shared assumptions that shape how they understand each other” is not clearly supported by the packet’s wording; the packet references cognitive expectations and presuppositions in bilingual contexts but does not state the broader mechanism (“shape how they understand each other”).; The definition adds interpretive elements (“shared assumptions,” “shape how they understand each other”) that are not directly evidenced in the provided packet text.; The final sentence goes beyond the packet by asserting what “the packet only supports” and by generalizing the sense of the term rather than restricting the definition to the source-supported wording.; The packet does not explicitly define conversation as “spoken interaction.” It only mentions “conversation” and discusses “conversational presuppositions” and “cognitive expectations.”; The packet supports conversation in bilingual/literary contexts and mentions conversational presuppositions and cognitive expectations, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s added framing of “learning contexts” or the claim that conversation is “spoken interaction.” New packet required. Source: [Ke Yuguo; Chen Liang; Zhou Xiaozhen. Trouble spots in literary conversation learning: managing bilinguals’ cognitive expectation problems using conversational presupposition theory. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03473-7; article XML SHA-256 b02b18265f35a10480d607af5fb4295fced75d95925498ac351333f26fcb4e0b. “Trouble spots in literary conversation learning: managing bilinguals’ cognitive expectation problems using conversational presupposition theory” (10.1186/s40359-025-03473-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03473-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- convolution [redraft]: General headword (math operation; brain gyrus) narrowed to deep-learning kernel use the packet happens to discuss. New packet required. Source: [Peng Wenyu; Sheng Yuxia; Zhou Ying. A parallel convolution attention network for crop genomic prediction. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358451; article XML SHA-256 70513103a9fb0b8077a6af3510c250a40729419e9476305a6703903ff14a1977. “A parallel convolution attention network for crop genomic prediction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358451).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358451) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- convoy model of social relations [redraft]: Because the core explanatory description in the definition is not provided in the packet, the requested sense of the term is not defensibly supported by the supplied source text.; The claim that it is about people and social resources surrounding someone across different living situations goes beyond the packet’s wording, which only links social resources, living arrangements, and depression among older adults.; The packet does not define the convoy model itself; it only says the study’s results are consistent with it, so the definition’s explanation of the model is not directly supported.; The packet does not explicitly define what the “convoy model of social relations” is or how it conceptualizes “people and social resources surrounding someone” across living situations; it only states that the study’s results are “consistent with the convoy model of social relations.”; The packet does not support the specific claim that “stronger social support can help protect older adults from depression” as a direct implication of the convoy model (the packet reports associations between living arrangements and depressive symptoms, but does not tie that statement specifically to the convoy model).; The statement that stronger social support can protect older adults from depression is a study inference in this packet, not a supported general definition of the convoy model of social relations. New packet required. Source: [Wangliu Yiqi; Chen Ji-Kang. Living arrangements, household registration status and depression among older adults in mainland China. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12889-026-26765-y; article XML SHA-256 526158ae41d650b1030805f8850d311f8a225e2546d177fec3a94bbc84f4f9f0. “Living arrangements, household registration status and depression among older adults in mainland China” (10.1186/s12889-026-26765-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-026-26765-y) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- convulsive disorder [redraft]: The claim that this history “may increase the likelihood of later seizures” is only supported in the packet’s statement that patients with “a history of convulsive disorder … [are] more likely to have seizures,” but the definition’s wording (“diagnostic term” and “later seizures”) goes beyond what is explicitly stated.; The packet does not describe “convulsive disorder” as a diagnostic term or define it as such; it only refers to “history of convulsive disorder” as a covariate/risk factor.; The packet only shows “history of convulsive disorder” as a covariate and notes that such history has been reported to be associated with later seizures; it does not support defining the term itself as a diagnostic term for a condition involving convulsions or seizures.; The wording generalizes beyond the source by treating this as a settled diagnostic definition rather than a usage in one study’s background section. New packet required. Source: [Hatano Masakazu; Yamada Kaho; Matsuzaki Haruna; Yokoi Rina; Saito Takeo; Yamada Shigeki. Analysis of clozapine-induced seizures using the Japanese Adverse Drug Event Report database. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0287122; article XML SHA-256 571e9ef4e0ab3794820ba0b26b2be87163791093e6240504f7109dd0a811a331. “Analysis of clozapine-induced seizures using the Japanese Adverse Drug Event Report database” (10.1371/journal.pone.0287122).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287122) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cooperating teacher [redraft]: The definition adds that a cooperating teacher is an “experienced school teacher,” but the packet does not state that role or level of experience.; The definition’s wording (“ongoing interactions” shaping professional development and teacher identity) is partly supported by the packet’s focus on interactions and measured TI, but the packet does not provide enough support for the broader, generalized framing of the role as stated.; The packet does not explicitly define a “cooperating teacher” as an “experienced school teacher.”; The packet supports interaction during the teaching practicum and links those interactions to teacher identity development, but it does not directly define the term in the broader way the definition presents.; While the packet discusses how cooperating teacher–student teacher interactions relate to teacher identity and mentions elements like “shared activities,” it does not state that the cooperating teacher “helps shape the student teacher’s professional development and teacher identity” in the exact general terms used in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Weng Fengyu; Zhuang Shiqi; Zhang Jiren; Qiao Wei. Exploring the relationship between Chinese physical education student teachers’ teacher identity and their interactions with cooperating teachers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1746480; article XML SHA-256 970870c7608993ef6b350d6ad3e0350aa26759c2f93bfcab34a5d9481b13986e. “Exploring the relationship between Chinese physical education student teachers’ teacher identity and their interactions with cooperating teachers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1746480).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1746480) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cooperative training [redraft]: The definition frames the term as a general learning approach, but the packet only supports this sense in the narrow context of awake elephant echocardiography without anesthesia or restraint.; The definition states the animal is taught “to voluntarily take part in handling or examination procedures,” but the packet only describes cooperative training enabling echocardiography to be completed awake without anesthesia or restraint; it does not explicitly support the broader claim about voluntary handling participation.; The packet supports cooperative training “based on positive reinforcement” and cooperation with positioning/contact for TTE, but the definition’s wording generalizes beyond what is directly stated in the provided text.; The packet supports that the protocol was based on cooperative training and positive reinforcement, but it does not explicitly support the broader gloss that cooperative training means teaching an animal to voluntarily take part in handling or examination procedures.; “Positioning and contact” is an unsupported extrapolation from the article’s procedural details; the source only describes specific refinements for transthoracic echocardiography in elephants. New packet required. Source: [Boutibou Antonin; Chetboul Valérie; Magnin Mathieu; Bureau Morgan; Baillon Coline; Chai Norin. Feasibility of Baseline cardIac investiGation in awake elepHants ( Elephas mAximus ) using tRansThoracic echocardiography: The BIG HEART study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333463; article XML SHA-256 6c9163a543acc1b5bfd0b01e02c4f7a8511aad2be9ec5f111b8f553d323d4546. “Feasibility of Baseline cardIac investiGation in awake elepHants ( Elephas mAximus ) using tRansThoracic echocardiography: The BIG HEART study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333463).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333463) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- coordinative structure [redraft]: The definition adds general explanatory phrasing (“organized way,” “pattern of interaction,” “varies over time”) that is broader than the packet’s supported wording about coordinative variability between segments or joints during movement.; The packet does not present a concept/definition of “coordinative structure” as a mental-health term; it uses “coordinative structure/structure of coordinative variability” within a movement biomechanics context.; The packet supports a biomechanics/movement sense of the term, not a mental health sense.; The supplied packet content is about biomechanical/dynamical-systems analysis of overuse injuries (e.g., patella-femoral pain syndrome), not mental-health constructs; therefore applying this definition in the “mental health” field is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Hamill Joseph; Palmer Christopher; Van Emmerik Richard E A. Coordinative variability and overuse injury. 2012; DOI 10.1186/1758-2555-4-45; article XML SHA-256 875a0b3d10033436a92711a1ce392e9c217796143703806f9eb863c351f3a491. “Coordinative variability and overuse injury” (10.1186/1758-2555-4-45).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1758-2555-4-45) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- coping strategy [redraft]: The first sentence makes a broader definitional claim than the source provides; the article only discusses coping in the specific context of breakup-related music listening, not a general psychology definition.; The first sentence makes a general definitional claim (“a way a person tries to manage or control emotions…”) that is not explicitly defined in the provided packet; the packet only supports the specific notion of using music to “control emotions” in the context of romantic breakups.; The packet does not explicitly define “coping strategy” in general terms; support is limited to the study’s use of music-listening as (adaptive vs maladaptive) coping after romantic breakups.; The packet supports music-listening as a coping strategy after romantic breakups, but it does not define coping strategy in general as “a way a person tries to manage or control emotions in response to a stressful or upsetting experience.” New packet required. Source: [He Hanwei; Chen Shu; Hua Cheng. Adaptive or maladaptive music-listening coping strategy: How does neuroticism use music after experiencing a romantic relationship breakup?. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331373; article XML SHA-256 bd49f6acc35d84a1087721b13d8c96d759e8de7358ed9ce6f8d62540ff62c821. “Adaptive or maladaptive music-listening coping strategy: How does neuroticism use music after experiencing a romantic relationship breakup?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331373).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331373) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- coping style [redraft]: The definition’s first claim (“a person’s characteristic way of responding to stress or pressure”) is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text, which discusses coping styles via specific scales and mediation results but does not define coping style in those terms.; The packet does not define coping style as a person’s characteristic way of responding to stress or pressure; it only shows that the study examines positive and negative coping styles as mediators.; The sentence about coping patterns helping explain how academic self-efficacy is linked to students’ academic stress is supported, but the definition adds an unsupported general characterization that is not stated in the source. New packet required. Source: [Sun Pu; Wang Lifang; Yan Ling. Mediation of coping style between academic self-efficacy and academic stress in middle school students. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1496528; article XML SHA-256 f92a50d76bb08f59ba020de4e42902d30618da4daea41396230f7e2f62141eb6. “Mediation of coping style between academic self-efficacy and academic stress in middle school students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1496528).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1496528) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- core knowledge [redraft]: The claim that confidentiality “can restrict knowledge sharing and make open collaboration harder” is only indirectly supported (the packet says confidentiality hinders collaboration), but the first sentence is unsupported, so the overall definition cannot be accepted.; The field “ethics” is not defensible from the supplied source; the packet is about open innovation, reward mechanisms, and collaboration in product design, not ethics as a field.; The packet does not define “core knowledge” as “the central know-how or information a team relies on”; it only mentions that the competitive nature of design teams often “keeps core knowledge confidential.”; The packet supports a design-collaboration meaning of “core knowledge” as confidential knowledge in competitive teams, not the broader gloss “the central know-how or information a team relies on.”; The statement that confidentiality can “restrict knowledge sharing and make open collaboration harder” is only partly supported; the source says core knowledge is kept confidential, hindering collaboration, but does not make the broader generalization in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Xu Boqun; Xu Kexin; Zhu Yuning; Zhou Yiting; Liu Xiaojian. Driving innovation: When design collaboration becomes open source, how do reward mechanisms and in-process feedback act as catalysts. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327482; article XML SHA-256 6bd6a1abf5370b1cc2f9b9797e32005e8c9f4933257f56c11e906accd752104a. “Driving innovation: When design collaboration becomes open source, how do reward mechanisms and in-process feedback act as catalysts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327482).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327482) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Cornelia de Lange syndrome [redraft]: The definition includes “learning … impairment,” but the packet does not mention learning (it mentions “mental retardation” and does not explicitly link this to learning impairment).; The packet supports behavioral problems, delayed growth, low birth weight, mental retardation, and distinctive facial appearance, but it does not support the added claim of “learning impairment.”; “Genetic syndrome” is not stated in the packet; the packet only supports a rare syndrome with gene mutations linked to the disorder. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cornelia De Lange Syndrome” (C75016).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- corporeal [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly support the wording “bodily or physical” as separate senses from “relating to the body.”; The packet only states “Pertaining to the BODY”; it does not explicitly support the added contrast “rather than nonbodily.”; The packet supports only “pertaining to the body”; it does not support the added gloss “physical rather than nonbodily.” New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Corporeal” (Corporeal).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Corporeal) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- correct detection [redraft]: The added specificity about molecular testing recognizing virulent Bacillus anthracis is contextual and not supported as the term’s dictionary sense.; The definition narrows the term to Bacillus anthracis detection, which is not justified by the source packet.; The first sentence provides a general definition of “correct detection” (accurately finding/identifying an intended target; avoiding mistaking it for a closely related source; preventing false positives) that is not explicitly stated as a definition in the provided packet, which only describes problems/challenges with “correct detection and identification” in molecular methods.; The packet uses the phrase in a specific microbiology article context, but it does not define a general assessment term meaning “accurately finding and identifying the intended target when testing.” New packet required. Source: [van Tongeren Sandra P.; Roest Hendrik I. J.; Degener John E.; Harmsen Hermie J. M.. Bacillus anthracis -Like Bacteria and Other B. cereus Group Members in a Microbial Community Within the International Space Station: A Challenge for Rapid and Easy Molecular Detection of Virulent B. anthracis. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0098871; article XML SHA-256 e53dc38504ff9e73dcca801ce832dbe86227ec17eaaacaaa68aa14ca302242d3. “Bacillus anthracis -Like Bacteria and Other B. cereus Group Members in a Microbial Community Within the International Space Station: A Challenge for Rapid and Easy Molecular Detection of Virulent B. anthracis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0098871).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0098871) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- correlation [redraft]: The definition’s claim that correlation “by itself show[s] that one causes the other” (i.e., does not establish causation) is not mentioned or supported in the packet.; The definition’s wording that “variables vary together” is not stated or supported in the packet.; The packet does not support the specific examples used in the definition (e.g., “personality traits and perceived stress”) as part of a general definitional statement; it only appears as the study context.; The packet shows correlation used as a relationship between selected personality traits and perceived stress, but it does not support the broader dictionary-style definition that correlation is generally an association between any two measured factors.; The packet supports only that the study assesses a “correlation between selected personality traits and the level of perceived stress.” It does not provide a general definition of correlation as a relationship between two measured factors.; The statement that correlation means variables vary together and does not by itself show causation is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [Falenta Adrianna; Przytocka Natalia; Droździok Natalia; Florek Szymon; Suchodolski Alexander; Piegza Magdalena; Szulik Mariola; Kalarus Zbigniew; Gorczyca Piotr; Dębski Paweł. An analysis of the relationship of selected personality traits on perceived stress in patients undergoing ablation for atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1681576; article XML SHA-256 6435dd9fbf1b2bcc2a92f732ea84e39b6d4d76f3a0ec8a8146f258cf6de66b3d. “An analysis of the relationship of selected personality traits on perceived stress in patients undergoing ablation for atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1681576).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1681576) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cortical layers [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported detail by stating that cortical layers include “neocortical gray matter regions”; the packet discusses cortical layers, cortical lamination, and neocortical gray and white matter, but does not define cortical layers as gray matter regions.; The definition’s first sentence (“distinct laminar subdivisions within the cerebral cortex… arranged in a layered pattern” and specifically “neocortical gray matter regions”) is not explicitly supported by the packet text, which discusses “cortical layers” in the context of imaging/measurement feasibility rather than providing a formal definition of what the layers are.; The phrasing “current clinically available MRI methods” is supportable in substance, but the definition slightly overstates the source by generalizing from one article’s limitation to the term itself rather than limiting the claim to what the article says about visualization of cortical layers.; While the packet supports the idea that current clinically available MRI at 3T lacks sufficient resolution/precision to study or visualize cortical lamination accurately, it does not provide support for the added anatomical framing in the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Jamárik Jakub; Vitouš Jiří; Jiřík Radovan; Schwarz Daniel; Koriťáková Eva. Limitations of multiexponential T 1 mapping of cortical myeloarchitecture. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338035; article XML SHA-256 4394696e70773c81346ff0fb71bf56fecced789eec99ab1c297840a3e233c287. “Limitations of multiexponential T 1 mapping of cortical myeloarchitecture” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338035).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338035) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cortico- [redraft]: The definition adds a broader explanatory claim about what the morpheme means beyond the source text, which is not supported by the packet alone.; The packet does not describe the cortex as “the brain’s outer layer,” so that claim is unsupported by the provided text.; The packet mentions “cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical” loops between cognitive and affective circuits, but it does not explicitly state that these loops “include cortical pathways,” so that specific phrasing is not directly supported.; The packet supports the appearance of “cortico-” in “cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC)” loops, but it does not explicitly define the word part as meaning involvement of the cortex or as a general word part used in brain-circuit names.; The packet supports the presence of the term “cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) loops,” but it does not define “cortico-” as a word part or explicitly state that it indicates involvement of the cortex.; “the brain’s outer layer” is unsupported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Lauro Peter M; Palmer Charles F; Nambiar Marshall M; Muller Ully; Qiu Liming; Halpern Casey H; Scangos Katherine W. Circuit-based neuromodulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review of prior and emerging methods. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828620; article XML SHA-256 abb584ae7745ca91cf96bffdef1ddd58ed7cda26475f21993089cb87561fa676. “Circuit-based neuromodulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review of prior and emerging methods” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828620).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828620) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- corticospinal tract [redraft]: Because the requested sense/meaning in the definition (descending motor output from the cortex) is not directly supported by the supplied packet text, the definition contains an unsupported substantive claim.; The definition adds an unsupported generalization that the corticospinal tract is a “central nervous system pathway”; the packet only supports discussion of corticospinal tract structure, corticospinal excitability, and descending motor output in the study context.; The packet excerpt does not explicitly define the corticospinal tract as a “central nervous system pathway involved in descending motor output from the cortex,” nor does it provide language matching that description; it only discusses corticospinal excitability, corticospinal tract volume, and associations with quadriceps strength.; The source supports the study context about corticospinal tract volume and excitability being explored in relation to quadriceps strength deficits, but not a general definitional claim about the tract itself. New packet required. Source: [Kim HoWon; Geschwender Cole; Lepley Adam S. Corticospinal tract structure and descending motor output following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: an exploratory multimodal neuroimaging assessment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1888579; article XML SHA-256 a9aceb4e9aaa9d8025cfadb5c46e45ddd0f130a166d556c0808160ce039a3b16. “Corticospinal tract structure and descending motor output following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: an exploratory multimodal neuroimaging assessment” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1888579).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1888579) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cortisol [redraft]: Does not define cortisol as a hormone; describes its use as a salivary measure in one study. New packet required. Source: [Melzer Dawn K.; Yeater Deirdre M.; DeRubis Madison; Kohlroser Christiana; Pierce Barbara J.. Brief therapy dog interactions may increase self-efficacy and lower perceived stress and cortisol in high school students: a preliminary study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876920; article XML SHA-256 f8e3084b47a003db4d6ac50f5f8d49d9dfb5941227652ded454afa88fd29ac2a. “Brief therapy dog interactions may increase self-efficacy and lower perceived stress and cortisol in high school students: a preliminary study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876920).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1876920) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cost containment [redraft]: The claim that “it is linked to a market-oriented logic that emphasizes efficiency” is only partially supported: the packet identifies “market” as including “efficiency and cost containment,” but it does not explicitly state that cost containment is “linked” via a market-oriented logic beyond that shorthand.; The packet does not define “cost containment” as “the goal of limiting or controlling expenses”; it only provides an example mapping “market (i.e., efficiency and cost containment)” without stating what cost containment means or how it operates.; The packet supports only that, in healthcare, "market" logic includes efficiency and cost containment; it does not explicitly define cost containment as the general goal of limiting or controlling expenses.; The phrase "in the hospital context in this packet" is supported, but "it is linked to a market-oriented logic that emphasizes efficiency" should be framed more narrowly as the packet's institutional-logic description rather than a broader definitional claim. New packet required. Source: [Majid Umair; Kuluski Kerry; Kontos Pia; Gray Carolyn Steele. How do hospital goals resonate with leaders, clinicians, managers, and patient and family partners? A critical discourse analysis of institutional logics. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344582; article XML SHA-256 60880baf631d33f136efdada717fd1b83a298fa6067f5ae4da5df41586342f4f. “How do hospital goals resonate with leaders, clinicians, managers, and patient and family partners? A critical discourse analysis of institutional logics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344582).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344582) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cost–benefit analysis [redraft]: Because the packet lacks the substantive conceptual description required (the “way of comparing … benefits with costs in economic terms”), the definition cannot be verified as grounded in the supplied source.; The claim that it can be used in mental health research to judge whether psychotherapy or medication are worth the resources they require is broader than the packet supports and reads as an unsupported generalization.; The definition states a general meaning of “cost–benefit analysis” (comparing expected benefits with costs in economic terms). The provided packet does not contain any definition or explanation supporting this general characterization—only that a study “performed a cost-benefit analysis (CBA)” for specific treatments.; The definition’s mental-health-research usage claim (e.g., judging whether psychotherapy or medication are worth resources) is not explicitly supported by the packet text beyond the fact that CBA was applied to IPT and fluoxetine. No details are provided about the method or purpose of the comparison in the packet.; The packet only shows that a study performed a cost-benefit analysis of interpersonal psychotherapy and fluoxetine for depression and PTSD in primary care; it does not define cost-benefit analysis as a general method of comparing expected benefits with costs in economic terms. New packet required. Source: [Olwanda Easter; Mwai Daniel; Mathai Muthoni A.; Burger Rachel L.; Ongeri Linnet; Bukusi David; Mbwayo Anne; Rota Grace; Otieno Ammon; Rota Raymond; Meffert Susan M.; Kahn James G.. Cost-benefit analysis of interpersonal therapy and fluoxetine for treating depression and PTSD in primary care settings in Kenya. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08239-y; article XML SHA-256 878a3506f63c7c0286d707b118d953f27819408ae1d5826f61a386d4fc4c09b9. “Cost-benefit analysis of interpersonal therapy and fluoxetine for treating depression and PTSD in primary care settings in Kenya” (10.1186/s12888-026-08239-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08239-y) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- counterfactual [redraft]: Redefines general headword as an XAI what-if explanation; second sentence hedges with in this source and describes the paper. New packet required. Source: [Jahan Nusrat; Maua Jannatul; Rozario Uland; Shoaib Hashibul Ahsan. An integrated explainable AI framework with counterfactual optimization for decision support. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358643; article XML SHA-256 c8586c23326666fc2840db609cd2d36260ce3f5cc130173f05c6ffd484c7bc13. “An integrated explainable AI framework with counterfactual optimization for decision support” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358643).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358643) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- countershading [redraft]: Never says what countershading is; shading-related patterns interacting with self-shadowing is invented, packet only lists the term. New packet required. Source: [Hancock George R A; Cuthill Innes C; Troscianko Jolyon. Shining a light on camouflage evolution: Using genetic algorithms to determine the effects of geometry and lighting on optimal camouflage. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346231; article XML SHA-256 9931bfd49a9c9a935d6061273a9138c7a2ebf65f59b6984fc3ccb1579e533bc0. “Shining a light on camouflage evolution: Using genetic algorithms to determine the effects of geometry and lighting on optimal camouflage” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346231).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346231) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- couples counseling [redraft]: The added explanation that it means discussing family planning with a couple to address barriers such as partner disapproval and improve uptake is an inference from the study context, not a definition supported by the supplied text.; The definition’s specific mechanism—“discussing family planning with a couple as a way to address barriers such as partner disapproval and improve uptake”—is only partially supported. The packet mentions challenges in accessing family planning including “partner disapproval” and that the objective is to increase modern FP uptake after training, but the text provided does not explicitly describe the counseling as discussing family planning with both partners to address those barriers.; The packet does not define couples counseling as counseling delivered with both partners together; it only mentions training health surveillance assistants in couples counseling.; The packet does not explicitly state the requested sense that couples counseling is “counseling delivered with both partners together.” The provided text only describes a trial objective involving “training HSAs in couples counseling.” New packet required. Source: [Lemani Clara; Tang Jennifer H.; Kopp Dawn; Phiri Billy; Kumvula Chrissy; Chikosi Loyce; Mwale Mwawi; Rosenberg Nora E.. Contraceptive uptake after training community health workers in couples counseling: A cluster randomized trial. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0175879; article XML SHA-256 be033275cf842c4a80e362b94620585a75cd8ba8c1cb56a953e1abcd350b6a84. “Contraceptive uptake after training community health workers in couples counseling: A cluster randomized trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0175879).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175879) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- covariation [redraft]: The definition’s core claim about conjoint variation is broadly supported, but the opening gloss is too generalized for the source and does not stay within the packet’s specific phrasing and scope.; The packet supports a *logical* meaning tied to the “method of concomitant variations” (induction), but it does not support the definition’s claim that this is also a “historical logical and psychological usage.”; The packet supports the historical logical term/concept of “concomitance,” not the term “covariation”; the requested sense is therefore mismatched to the source.; “Historical logical and psychological usage” is not supported by the packet: the relevant entry here is explicitly labeled logical, while the psychological material in the excerpt is about other terms. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baldwin dictionary, 1901: C4defs.htm” (ffd1bbd428b354054301).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- covert behavior [redraft]: The definition’s claim that motor imagery is an example because a person mentally rehearses a movement “without actually making an overt movement” is supported by the packet, but the definition also embeds an unsupported general framing about “internal rather than observable action.”; The definition’s first sentence (“Covert behavior is behavior that happens internally rather than as observable action”) is not directly supported by the packet’s text, which does not provide a general definition of “covert behavior.”; The example of motor imagery is supported, but the broader first-sentence definition goes beyond the packet’s text and reads like an unsupported generalization.; The packet only uses the phrase “covert behavior of MI” and does not define covert behavior as a general class of internally occurring, non-observable behavior.; The packet uses the phrase “covert behavior” only in a speculative/supportive context (“revealing the covert behavior of MI…”) rather than establishing the term’s meaning in general learning/theoretical terms. New packet required. Source: [Jongsma Marijtje L. A.; Meulenbroek Ruud G. J.; Okely Judith; Baas C. Marjolein; van der Lubbe Rob H. J.; Steenbergen Bert. Effects of Hand Orientation on Motor Imagery - Event Related Potentials Suggest Kinesthetic Motor Imagery to Solve the Hand Laterality Judgment Task. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0076515; article XML SHA-256 3e601b04aa4a73e14dd89122d6ef0010bed824329cf3b7fb7ffbd44812ebac26. “Effects of Hand Orientation on Motor Imagery - Event Related Potentials Suggest Kinesthetic Motor Imagery to Solve the Hand Laterality Judgment Task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0076515).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076515) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- CQT [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define Constant-Q Transform (CQT) as “an audio representation used to capture spectral features of sound,” nor does it provide the requested sense of CQT in those terms.; The packet supports CQT as Constant-Q Transform and its use with MFCC and raw waveform for spoof detection in ASV systems, but it does not support the broader characterization that it is an “audio representation used to capture spectral features of sound.”; While the packet does support that CQT is used alongside MFCC and raw waveform modalities for spoof detection in an ASV system (i.e., detecting spoofed audio generated by speech synthesis), the definition’s first sentence includes an unsupported characterization. New packet required. Source: [Wang Xinwei; Tan Zhicheng; Li Guo. Spoof detection with dynamic learnable sparse attention and tri-modal fusion in resource-constrained audio systems. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335240; article XML SHA-256 c0da39b309ba116934f5cac70cacbf66cd80eb8ba8473cc5b76f39eb31b8abaa. “Spoof detection with dynamic learnable sparse attention and tri-modal fusion in resource-constrained audio systems” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335240).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335240) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Cramér’s V [redraft]: Because the definition’s substantive description is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text, the field is not defensible under the given constraints.; The definition goes beyond the packet by explaining the purpose/interpretation of Cramér’s V in this study rather than limiting itself to what the article explicitly states.; The packet does not define what Cramér’s V measures (e.g., “strength of association” or “between groups/categorical variables”); it only states that chi-square tests used “Cramér’s V effect sizes.”; The packet does not support the specific claim that, “in this study,” Cramér’s V was used to describe effect size “beyond whether they were simply statistically significant.”; The packet supports that Cramér’s V was used with chi-square tests as an effect size, but it does not support the added claim that it was used here specifically to describe the size of group differences beyond statistical significance. New packet required. Source: [Akkaya Meryem Hüsna; Yaprak Emre; Gündoğdu Ahmet Doğukan; Akansel Yasemin Turan; Alvur Tuncay Müge. Periodontal knowledge and clinical attitudes of family physicians in Turkey: a cross-sectional survey. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12875-026-03324-3; article XML SHA-256 79a67d79cd521d50c0384494cbc2a1cd7d0e5b8c8e9829b6af524ede7b525747. “Periodontal knowledge and clinical attitudes of family physicians in Turkey: a cross-sectional survey” (10.1186/s12875-026-03324-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12875-026-03324-3) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cranial index [redraft]: Hedges with in this historical source to deny the normal shape-ratio sense; packet even separates cephalic index as shape classification. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3328500-3340500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- crash [redraft]: Hedges with in this packet to narrow a general word to freeway crash prediction; describes the study rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Tang Feng; Wu Rui; Liu Zhizhen; Zhong Shiyu. Two-dimensional ETTC–labeled longitudinal and lateral conflicts for interpretable real-time crash risk prediction in freeway interchange diverging areas. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344623; article XML SHA-256 2a9347b979bf07d46b7a4512bb0f267bdd5297ba678157d350f2303ef2889870. “Two-dimensional ETTC–labeled longitudinal and lateral conflicts for interpretable real-time crash risk prediction in freeway interchange diverging areas” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344623).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344623) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- CRH [redraft]: Because the packet’s terminology is CRF (not CRH), the requested sense of the term “CRH” is not supported by the packet.; The definition states “CRH refers to corticotropin-releasing hormone,” but the provided packet defines and discusses “CRF” as “corticotropin releasing factor” and focuses on “CRF receptor expression” (CRFR1/CRFR2), not CRH specifically.; The packet supports corticotropin-releasing factor signaling, not the definition’s full expansion of CRH as “corticotropin-releasing hormone or factor”; the hormone sense is not supported here.; The source is about CRF/CRH-related signaling in a rat study, so the definition should not present the acronym as established generally beyond what the packet directly supports. New packet required. Source: [Burman Michael A.; Zuke Jared T.. The effects of early life pain and juvenile fear conditioning on CRF-receptor expression in the amygdala and hypothalamus of the juvenile rat. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326300; article XML SHA-256 8bb895ceee8c7c47b9b8a3a4786c32f82398c33011a438d64abdedc4f25bcb70. “The effects of early life pain and juvenile fear conditioning on CRF-receptor expression in the amygdala and hypothalamus of the juvenile rat” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326300).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326300) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cribriform plate [redraft]: The definition slightly overgeneralizes the source by presenting the cribriform plate as a general barrier that organisms pass through, rather than the specific pathway described for this amoeba.; The packet supports that *Naegleria fowleri* penetrates the olfactory mucosa, travels along the olfactory nerves, and burrows through the cribriform plate to reach the brain’s frontal lobes, but it does not explicitly state that the cribriform plate “lies between the olfactory area and the frontal lobes of the brain.”; The phrase “barrier that organisms can pass through” is only indirectly supported by the packet’s description of burrowing through the cribriform plate; the more specific anatomical positioning claim is not supported.; The source supports that Naegleria fowleri burrows through the cribriform plate en route to the frontal lobes, but it does not explicitly support the claim that the cribriform plate lies between the olfactory area and the frontal lobes. New packet required. Source: [Tillery Logan; Barrett Kayleigh; Goldstein Jenna; Lassner Jared W.; Osterhout Bram; Tran Nathan L.; Xu Lily; Young Ryan M.; Craig Justin; Chun Ian; Dranow David M.; Abendroth Jan; Delker Silvia L.; Davies Douglas R.; Mayclin Stephen J.; Calhoun Brandy; Bolejack Madison J.; Staker Bart; Subramanian Sandhya; Phan Isabelle; Lorimer Donald D.; Myler Peter J.; Edwards Thomas E.; Kyle Dennis E.; Rice Christopher A.; Morris James C.; Leahy James W.; Manetsch Roman; Barrett Lynn K.; Smith Craig L.; Van Voorhis Wesley C.. Naegleria fowleri : Protein structures to facilitate drug discovery for the deadly, pathogenic free-living amoeba. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0241738; article XML SHA-256 f212f02f3aab33290153d5b2c1ea8b042d33731130235f098c0f2ae659d8cefd. “Naegleria fowleri : Protein structures to facilitate drug discovery for the deadly, pathogenic free-living amoeba” (10.1371/journal.pone.0241738).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241738) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- criminal conviction [redraft]: The packet supports that the study measured lifetime criminal conviction in adults with ADHD, but it does not define criminal conviction as “having been found guilty of a crime.”; The packet uses the phrase “lifetime criminal conviction (CC)” as a study measure, but it does not explicitly define “criminal conviction” as “having been found guilty of a crime,” so that substantive wording is not supported by the provided text.; The remaining content—using it as a lifetime measure in a study of adults with ADHD—is supported by the packet (“estimate the prevalence of lifetime criminal conviction … in a clinical sample of adults with ADHD”).; “Used as a history measure” is not stated in the packet; the source only says the study aimed to estimate the prevalence of lifetime criminal conviction and associations with ADHD severity and emotional dysregulation. New packet required. Source: [Anker Espen; Ginsberg Ylva; Heir Trond. Prevalence of criminal convictions in Norwegian adult ADHD outpatients and associations with ADHD symptom severity and emotional dysregulation. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12888-021-03223-0; article XML SHA-256 07557983cd0f9d7485b29d2ef959a57e47b66a26d74ebfe559e971a0d5097f03. “Prevalence of criminal convictions in Norwegian adult ADHD outpatients and associations with ADHD symptom severity and emotional dysregulation” (10.1186/s12888-021-03223-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03223-0) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- crisis counseling [redraft]: Because the definition includes several explanatory characterizations (immediacy, “in the moment,” and “mental health crisis”) that are not stated in the packet, the definition is not fully supported by the supplied source.; The packet does not explicitly define crisis counseling as “immediate help and support” or as “urgent supportive contact meant to help in the moment,” even though it advises calling/texting for crisis counseling and support.; The packet supports crisis counseling as help available by calling or texting 988, but it does not explicitly define it as “immediate” or “urgent” support.; The packet supports the example of “struggling or having thoughts of suicide,” but it does not explicitly ground this in the phrase “mental health crisis.”; “Mental health crisis” is broader than the packet’s stated situations (“struggling or having thoughts of suicide”), so the definition adds unsupported scope. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar Disorder in Teens and Young Adults: Know the Signs. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 00c9eb439a49887a2f54309be87b2fa22f76951b56a6c02b2c7207ffd8fcf09c. “Bipolar Disorder in Teens and Young Adults: Know the Signs” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder-in-teens-and-young-adults-know-the-signs).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder-in-teens-and-young-adults-know-the-signs) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- critical care unit [redraft]: Because the definition includes substantive claims not supported by the provided packet text, the requested sense cannot be considered fully defensible.; The definition adds broad clinical-description claims that are not stated in the source text.; The packet does not define a “critical care unit” as a hospital setting for patients with life-threatening conditions receiving intensive monitoring and care.; The packet only mentions the phrase “critical care unit” in the context of prognosticating neurological outcome (e.g., after cardiac arrest), but it does not support the broader description given in the first sentence.; The packet only supports that a critical care unit is a setting where neurological outcome may be prognosticated, for example after cardiac arrest; it does not define the unit generally as a place for patients with life-threatening conditions receiving intensive monitoring and care. New packet required. Source: [Maier Sven; Goebel Ulrich; Krause Sonja; Benk Christoph; Schick Martin A.; Buerkle Hartmut; Beyersdorf Friedhelm; Kari Fabian A.; Wollborn Jakob. Somatosensory and transcranial motor evoked potential monitoring in a porcine model for experimental procedures. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0205410; article XML SHA-256 09a1760637b12ee2c78e0d890d9b684dc3ada824717883c00741d5978a15e02c. “Somatosensory and transcranial motor evoked potential monitoring in a porcine model for experimental procedures” (10.1371/journal.pone.0205410).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205410) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- critical period [redraft]: Because the first substantive sentence is not directly supported by the packet’s text, the definition cannot be considered fully defensible from the supplied source.; The added explanation about ‘later abilities’ is not supported by the packet.; The definition claims that a “critical period” is “a stage of development when experiences and relationships are especially important for shaping later abilities,” but the provided packet does not explicitly state this general meaning of “critical period.” It only states that “Early childhood is a critical period for the development of children’s social skills” and reports associations with teacher-child interaction quality.; The definition goes beyond the source’s wording instead of staying within the specific sense shown in the text.; The packet supports only that early childhood is described as a critical period for developing children’s social skills; it does not define the term as a stage when experiences and relationships are especially important for shaping later abilities. New packet required. Source: [Feng Li; Li Shuanglong. A meta-analysis of the association between teacher-child interaction quality and young children’s social skills. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1808031; article XML SHA-256 5f7ed73a2cb4b3147cd8ddb14194616fff4706a2c83a6b5938f75d3cf1b3ef6f. “A meta-analysis of the association between teacher-child interaction quality and young children’s social skills” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1808031).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1808031) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- critical range [redraft]: The definition adds “data broad enough to support active case investigation and screening for likely tuberculosis cases,” but the packet instead uses the terms “active case investigation” and “presumptive case screening” for identifying/detecting “confirmed TB cases,” without stating “likely tuberculosis cases.”; The definition’s interpretation of “critical range” as “the essential set or span of information needed for a specific surveillance purpose” is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet only says the platform “collects a critical range of data” for particular TB activities.; The packet describes the purpose in TB surveillance terms (active case investigation/presumptive case screening and identifying confirmed TB cases), but the definition reframes it with additional general wording (“essential set,” “specific surveillance purpose,” “likely tuberculosis cases”) that is not directly supported by the provided text.; The packet supports that GPMS TB Transportal collects a "critical range of data" for active case investigation and presumptive case screening, but it does not define the phrase as an "essential set or span of information" for a surveillance purpose.; The statement about "screening for likely tuberculosis cases" goes beyond the packet’s wording, which refers to "presumptive case screening" and to identifying and detecting confirmed TB cases. New packet required. Source: [Gadicherla Suman; Krishnappa Lalitha; Madhuri Bindu; Mitra Susanna G; Ramaprasad Arkalgud; Seevan Raja; Sreeganga S D; Thodika Nibras K; Mathew Salu; Suresh Vani. Envisioning a learning surveillance system for tuberculosis. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243610; article XML SHA-256 81d2c82a28e0563b0aee9f51493a79cf358e68fc14b4074f324dacf90fa15197. “Envisioning a learning surveillance system for tuberculosis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243610).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243610) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- critical region [redraft]: Critical region has a well-known statistical meaning; redefined as a brain area from one incidental phrase in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Wei Yi-Chia; Kung Yi-Chia; Lin Ching-Po; Chen Chih-Ken; Lin Chemin; Tseng Rung-Yu; Chen Yao-Liang; Huang Wen-Yi; Chen Pin-Yuan; Chong Shin-Tai; Shyu Yu-Chiau; Chang Wei-Chou; Yeh Chun-Hung. White matter alterations and their associations with biomarkers and behavior in subjective cognitive decline individuals: a fixel-based analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12993-024-00238-x; article XML SHA-256 18cae0fdac8df03821cc603912e05593ea42a416de79c9772c8a72f3d62cb01a. “White matter alterations and their associations with biomarkers and behavior in subjective cognitive decline individuals: a fixel-based analysis” (10.1186/s12993-024-00238-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-024-00238-x) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cross-cultural psychology [redraft]: The definition’s claims about culture shaping psychological processes and their interpretation, and about extending theories more broadly beyond one cultural tradition, are only indirectly reflected in the packet’s description of extending European-based aesthetic models to traditional Chinese contexts, not stated as the definition of the term itself.; The packet does not define cross-cultural psychology as a general field or as the study of how cultural traditions, knowledge structures, and values shape psychological processes and interpretation.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “cross-cultural psychology” as a field (“the study of…”)—it only mentions cross-cultural psychology as part of an integrative framework for a specific neuroaesthetics/theoretical-extension project.; The packet supports only a specific application in a neuroaesthetics framework: culturally specific mechanisms, cultural mediation, and culturally specific knowledge structures in Chinese aesthetic processing. It does not support the broader explanatory claim that theories from one cultural tradition need to be extended to account for culturally specific patterns of perception, emotion, and meaning as a general definition of the term.; The packet uses “cross-cultural psychology” to motivate culturally pluralistic extension in neuroaesthetics; it does not support the definition’s broader scope statement that cultural traditions/values shape psychological processes across the field. New packet required. Source: [Mao Wei-Na. The aesthetic triad and traditional Chinese art symbols: a theoretical framework. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1789978; article XML SHA-256 0a8eb0d09c1d8d438c7532167bdaae5392bac1b34dbf43f8439bb0410341a552. “The aesthetic triad and traditional Chinese art symbols: a theoretical framework” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1789978).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1789978) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cross-cultural research [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported generalization about investigators examining patterns or themes that extend across groups; the packet only says that meta-themes cut across research sites.; The definition’s second sentence overstates the packet’s description by saying findings are compared across locations; the excerpt discusses achieving saturation of meta-themes across sites rather than explicitly describing a comparison procedure across locations as part of the term’s definition.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “cross-cultural research” as research carried out across different cultural settings so investigators can examine patterns/themes that extend across groups. The excerpt only references “multi-site, cross-cultural research” in the context of sample size and data/thematic saturation, without defining the term.; The packet only mentions “multi-site, cross-cultural research” in the context of sample-size sufficiency and saturation; it does not define cross-cultural research as a general research method across cultural settings.; The packet supports that the excerpt concerns multi-site cross-cultural research and that “meta-themes” can cut across research sites, but the definition’s first sentence includes additional explanatory wording (“so investigators can examine patterns or themes…”) that is not explicitly stated in the packet.; The wording suggests a broader definitional claim than the source supports, so the requested sense is not adequately established from the packet alone. New packet required. Source: [BMC: Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies. Version of record 2018-11-21; DOI 10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7. “Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency” (05ea0554db4e6d0f11b4).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cross-lagged panel design [redraft]: The claim that it is used to examine how factors influence each other over time is an inferred generalization beyond the packet’s explicit content about one two-wave study and its cross-lagged paths.; The definition includes the claim that the design is used “rather than only showing that they are associated at one point,” but the provided packet does not describe this contrast or discuss association-at-one-point versus longitudinal prediction.; The packet supports that the study uses a cross-lagged panel approach with variables measured at two time points (T1 and T2) and that earlier measures predict later measures via “cross-lagged over-time paths,” but it does not substantiate the additional “rather than only” statement.; The packet uses the term in a specific study but does not define “cross-lagged panel design” as a general research approach, so the broad explanatory definition is not directly supported by the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [Bakadorova Olga; Raufelder Diana. The Interplay of Students’ School Engagement, School Self-Concept and Motivational Relations during Adolescence. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02171; article XML SHA-256 d8aa9021aa3c30fa2341f1098c7d4dc0c6f4e6c30e540ee27a4bccae51121c9e. “The Interplay of Students’ School Engagement, School Self-Concept and Motivational Relations during Adolescence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02171).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02171) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cross section [redraft]: Hedges with in fixel-based analysis to narrow general headword cross section to the FC metric; wrong headword for that sense. New packet required. Source: [Zhou Yijia; Yang Yuhang; Cheng Zixuan; Liu Jingwen; Zhang Yu; Luo Jiaxin; Huang Xingyin; Liu Mingke; Liu Can; Lei Du; Hu Liangbo. Structural network alterations in adolescent major depression and bipolar disorder: a graph-theoretical and fixel-based analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-07961-x; article XML SHA-256 8aa7442ef205cc5addaba8b7a6effd07e8efe516eda85d97d83b70e64af5cf43. “Structural network alterations in adolescent major depression and bipolar disorder: a graph-theoretical and fixel-based analysis” (10.1186/s12888-026-07961-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-07961-x) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cross-sectional sampling [redraft]: The claim about “repeated cross-sectional sampling” using “new samples… at multiple time points” is not clearly described in the packet as a conceptual distinction; the packet only reports a “descriptive study” where the flock was visited at multiple time points and radiographs were taken from hens at each visit, without explicitly defining cross-sectional sampling in those terms.; The definition’s core explanation (“selecting a group to assess at a single point in time rather than following the same individuals over time”) is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text.; The explanation of repeated cross-sectional sampling as using new samples at multiple time points to describe population change is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source.; The packet only shows an instance of repeated cross-sectional sampling in one study; it does not define cross-sectional sampling as a general method or support the contrast with following the same individuals over time.; The packet’s example is veterinary (laying hens; keel bone fractures) rather than mental health, so the definition is not supported as being in the requested field context.; The source is a veterinary article, so using it to define a psychology/mental health term requires direct support that is not present here. New packet required. Source: [Gretarsson Páll; Søvik Åste; Thøfner Ida; Moe Randi Oppermann; Toftaker Ingrid; Kittelsen Käthe. Fracture morphology and ossification process of the keel bone in modern laying hens based on radiographic imaging. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312878; article XML SHA-256 8664ca49396e551d2113655b3055f2db509418e86f01b0b65c2a304454df8b63. “Fracture morphology and ossification process of the keel bone in modern laying hens based on radiographic imaging” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312878).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312878) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cross-situational consistency [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence gives a broad, general meaning (“a psychological characteristic”) that is not directly supported by the packet, which discusses specifically the stability of women’s well-being across menstrual cycle phases.; The first sentence gives a general dictionary-style definition, but the packet does not define cross-situational consistency as a psychological characteristic showing similar levels in different situations or contexts.; The packet does not support the generalized framing as a cross-situational/context general construct; it only provides evidence about well-being stability in short windows across high- and low-fertility menstrual phases.; The source only supports a study-specific use: stability of women’s well-being across menstrual cycle phases over a short period of time, not the broader generalization in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Villani Daniela; Iannello Paola; Cipresso Pietro; Antonietti Alessandro. The Stability of Individual Well-Being in Short Windows of Time: Women’s Perceptions across the Ovulatory Cycle. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02092; article XML SHA-256 4ba3ec105a260c8a9f2a4eb21c37e292ee0e4bbf3e6124810dbd80544ef144ea. “The Stability of Individual Well-Being in Short Windows of Time: Women’s Perceptions across the Ovulatory Cycle” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02092).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02092) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cross-training [redraft]: The definition should stay within the packet’s specific sense rather than presenting a general dictionary-style definition that is not directly supported by the source.; The first sentence adds an unsupported generalization about cross-training beyond what the packet states.; The first sentence claims a general definition of cross-training as “mixes different kinds of exercise rather than relying on one method alone,” but the provided packet does not explicitly support that general characterization.; The packet supports a specific intervention called High-Intensity Interval Cross Training (HIICT), but it does not define the general term “cross-training” as a broad approach that mixes different kinds of exercise. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Zhenyu; Liu Chenghao; Liu Tao; Xie Yun. Effects of high-intensity interval cross training and classical training on physical and sprint performance in male junior sprinters. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354592; article XML SHA-256 df375d37cbf8808d80b6136e596cec3ff59e27c64adefb3b78e9fa217ab9b0e2. “Effects of high-intensity interval cross training and classical training on physical and sprint performance in male junior sprinters” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354592).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354592) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- crossed dominance [redraft]: Because the requested sense depends on that explicit left/right description, the provided definition’s core anatomical-side claims are not directly supported by the supplied packet text.; The contrast with ipsilateral dominance as same-side eye and leg dominance is not stated in the supplied text, so that part of the definition is unsupported.; The packet does not explicitly define what “crossed” or “ipsilateral” mean in terms of which side (e.g., dominant eye on one side vs dominant leg on the other, or eye and leg on the same side). It only mentions “ipsilateral/crossed dominance patterns” and that participants were “categorized into ipsilateral/crossed dominance groups based on eye-leg combinations,” without stating the side-to-side mapping.; The packet mentions eye/leg lateral dominance and groups participants into ipsilateral/crossed dominance categories, but it does not explicitly define crossed dominance as opposite-sided dominance across body systems. New packet required. Source: [Huang Yunfei; Yin Yiquan. The influence of lateral dominance on bilateral performance in alpine skiers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fspor.2026.1717506; article XML SHA-256 bcf0227064cc53ba10de71b6875c30b1b8c64e7cf5d71e6e84cfd79bd55edd0e. “The influence of lateral dominance on bilateral performance in alpine skiers” (10.3389/fspor.2026.1717506).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2026.1717506) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cryostat [redraft]: The claim about cryo-sectioning being difficult with fatty tissues due to freezing-related artifacts affecting interpretation is supported (fatty tissue challenges with artifacts are described), but the first sentence remains unsupported.; The definition relies on general background knowledge about cryostats rather than only the supplied source packet.; The packet does not explicitly define a cryostat as “a device used to cut thin sections of frozen tissue for histology”; it only states that some samples were “sectioned on a standard cryostat.”; The packet supports cryostat use in cryo-sectioning and the difficulty/artifact issue with fatty tissue, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that it is a device for cutting thin sections of frozen tissue for histology. New packet required. Source: [Snoddy Erin P.; Tang Tien T.; Fowlkes Natalie; Huynh Thomas; Brewer Savannah Kari J.; Contreras Alejandro; Reece Gregory; Brock Kristy K.. Development of an H&E on-block staining technique for collagen detection in cryo-fluorescence tomography imaging of frozen breast tissue samples. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324493; article XML SHA-256 56b39f22eb59ae8f85c2d79f4526f53eea321b57995d00bbd86289edfdb0187e. “Development of an H&E on-block staining technique for collagen detection in cryo-fluorescence tomography imaging of frozen breast tissue samples” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324493).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324493) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- CSR [redraft]: The definition blends the term with related constructs from the article (ethical judgment, CSR skepticism, ethical purchase intentions) rather than giving a clean definition of CSR.; The packet does not explicitly define what “CSR” stands for or provides a general definitional statement of CSR as “an organization’s socially responsible efforts or initiatives”; it instead discusses CSR within a specific study context (e.g., “an organization’s CSR efforts”).; The packet supports CSR as an organization’s socially responsible efforts or initiatives, but it does not define CSR as consumer responses of “skepticism or support.”; The portion stating that consumers “respond with either skepticism or support” is not directly supported as a two-sided (skepticism vs. support) characterization in the packet; the packet discusses skepticism levels and links lower skepticism to “higher intentions,” but it does not explicitly frame this as “support” in the definitional sense given.; “Consumers may judge morally” is supported only for ethical judgment of CSR efforts, not as the meaning of CSR itself. New packet required. Source: [Cheng Yang; Jiang Yangzhi (Nicole); Zhang Qizhao. Navigating ethical waters: The impact of ethical judgment, norms, and CSR skepticism on CSR engagement and purchasing intention in a breast cancer campaign. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352994; article XML SHA-256 554a03fc9eb95538880d79926187fa15de4673b118a2f30f2c7d8d1de223498c. “Navigating ethical waters: The impact of ethical judgment, norms, and CSR skepticism on CSR engagement and purchasing intention in a breast cancer campaign” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352994).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352994) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- CS–US interval [redraft]: Because the key temporal characterization is not stated in the packet, the definition relies on unsupported generalization.; The definition’s first sentence states a general rule (“time between presentation of the CS and presentation of the US”) that is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text.; The packet supports the study-specific timing between the tone CS and the shock US, but it does not explicitly define the term as a general classical-conditioning concept.; The phrase “In classical conditioning” adds a broader definitional claim that is not stated in the source packet.; The second sentence claims the source study operationalized the interval as “the period after the tone began and before the shock was delivered,” but the packet does not provide that explicit description. New packet required. Source: [Eleore Lyndell; López-Ramos Juan Carlos; Guerra-Narbona Rafael; Delgado-García José M.. Role of Reuniens Nucleus Projections to the Medial Prefrontal Cortex and to the Hippocampal Pyramidal CA1 Area in Associative Learning. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0023538; article XML SHA-256 7727455665c1a85fae0a91e8e6eb9865254ff4eb3edbda433371a5cbc3f6b120. “Role of Reuniens Nucleus Projections to the Medial Prefrontal Cortex and to the Hippocampal Pyramidal CA1 Area in Associative Learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0023538).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0023538) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cue [redraft]: Hedges with in this context to narrow general headword cue to addiction stimuli, then defines cue reactivity instead of cue. New packet required. Source: [Herlinger Katherine E.; Ling Yong Yong; Nestor Liam J.; Pannekoek Nienke J.; Al Lababidi Moaz; Ertl Natalie; Vanelli Frederica; Alabdulkader Shahd; Chhibbar Pallavi; Guerrero Eva; Canizares Silvia; Akavarapu Sri; Munafò Marcus R.; Lingford-Hughes Anne R.; Nutt David J.; Goldstone Anthony P.. Salient cue reactivity and eating behaviors in ex-smokers, abstinent alcohol use disorder, and obesity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830228; article XML SHA-256 61efc9e29e87aeb756d6d69981cb8a459bf89e0c1da96fe2f4ad11f3d97db086. “Salient cue reactivity and eating behaviors in ex-smokers, abstinent alcohol use disorder, and obesity” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830228).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830228) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cult [redraft]: Final sentence comments on what the packet supports instead of defining; cult itself appears only in a language gloss. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fire-worship” (Fire-worship).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fire-worship) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- cultural learning [redraft]: Packet defines cross-cultural learning; cultural learning is a distinct established term and this definition gives the wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [Yang Min. Generative AI-based digital storytelling enhances cross-cultural symbol learning through learning engagement. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1882907; article XML SHA-256 c5f60f432eec9501a40eb0be6876018954ca30b7c0e1e726bd59a0984b530345. “Generative AI-based digital storytelling enhances cross-cultural symbol learning through learning engagement” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1882907).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1882907) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cultural memory [redraft]: The definition is not fully grounded in the supplied packet because it introduces the concept of remembrance (“personally meaningful remembrance of cultural content”) without support from the packet’s wording.; The packet mentions cultural cognition and cultural identity alongside cultural memory, but it does not characterize cultural memory specifically as developing “through a profound experience of intangible cultural heritage tourism” in the way the definition states (the definition adds this framing and the specific notion of “remembrance” that are not explicitly present in the provided text).; The packet supports only that cultural memory is one component of the personal significance of profound ICH tourism experiences; it does not define it as a personally meaningful remembrance or say it develops through such an experience.; The packet supports that “cultural memory” is one component of “personal significance” achieved through the profound experience in Chinese ICH tourism, but it does not define cultural memory as a “personally meaningful remembrance of cultural content.”; The wording adds interpretive detail not stated in the source and goes beyond the supported description of cultural memory in the article. New packet required. Source: [Lou Ming; Hu Shaomei; Hu Di; Zhang Qing. Constructing a profound experience model of Chinese Intangible Cultural Heritage Tourism based on grounded theory. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351084; article XML SHA-256 f029112074f79046b5caeb4fabcce35666a7075103614afde36a8024c7f44626. “Constructing a profound experience model of Chinese Intangible Cultural Heritage Tourism based on grounded theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351084).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351084) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cultural norm [redraft]: The first sentence adds a broad general definition (“widely shared value or expectation in a society” and “shapes how people think about roles and relationships”) that is not stated in the packet and is broader than the source supports.; The packet only states that “Confucian filial piety culture” is “a core cultural norm” in Chinese society; it does not define what a “cultural norm” is in general (e.g., “widely shared value or expectation,” or that it “shapes how people think about roles and relationships”).; The second sentence’s content about filial piety aligns with the packet’s description (“respecting elders and intergenerational responsibility” and being a “core cultural norm”), but the first sentence contains broader definitional claims not supported by the packet.; The source supports only that Confucian filial piety culture is a core cultural norm in Chinese society centered on respect for elders and intergenerational responsibility; it does not support the fuller explanatory gloss in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Hu Xiaojuan; Xie Fen. The impact of grandparent-grandchild interactions on the imagination of aging among Chinese youth groups: The chain mediating role of intergenerational relations and filial piety concept. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345803; article XML SHA-256 089f1ec4e6d220f73cec64521d933ccc9a707369b088f73b7923916f6e7d0cff. “The impact of grandparent-grandchild interactions on the imagination of aging among Chinese youth groups: The chain mediating role of intergenerational relations and filial piety concept” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345803).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345803) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cultural psychology [redraft]: The definition adds framing language (“psychological experience and meaning,” “older adults experience and interpret aging”) that is broader than what the packet directly articulates as the meaning of “cultural psychology.”; The definition’s first sentence (“an area of psychology concerned with how sociocultural influences shape psychological experience and meaning”) is not explicitly stated in the packet.; The first sentence is a broad general definition, but the packet does not define cultural psychology that way; it only mentions cultural psychology as one literature area in a review of subjective aging.; The packet describes cultural psychology as one part of a fragmented literature and specifies a “sociocultural pathway” (ageism, cultural norms, intergenerational relations, socioeconomic conditions) shaping subjective aging, but it does not clearly equate this to “In this packet, it refers to understanding … affect how older adults experience and interpret aging” as a formal sense of the term.; The second sentence is unsupported and too specific: the packet discusses how ageism, cultural norms, intergenerational relations, and socioeconomic conditions shape subjective aging in older adults, not that cultural psychology itself refers to that aging-focused topic. New packet required. Source: [Song Siyao; Jia Kaiyang; Hou Bowen. Subjective aging and psychological well-being in older adults: a narrative review and multilevel framework integrating perceptual, behavioral, and sociocultural pathways. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911901; article XML SHA-256 987ead95492bd80e4f0019f0012e58cdf2bb5b7b7ff9437f01dc96b92fb5bab9. “Subjective aging and psychological well-being in older adults: a narrative review and multilevel framework integrating perceptual, behavioral, and sociocultural pathways” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911901).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1911901) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- culture bound [redraft]: Only Hikikomori is described as a “Japanese culture-bound syndrome”; the broader conceptual framing in the definition is not explicitly supported by the packet.; The definition relies on a general explanation of the term that is not established by the supplied source packet.; The packet does not provide or support a general definition of what a “culture-bound condition” means (e.g., being “closely tied” to a culture rather than general across cultures).; The packet supports only that Hikikomori is described as a Japanese culture-bound syndrome; it does not support the broader definitional claim that a culture-bound condition is generally one that is closely tied to a particular cultural setting rather than being described as general across cultures. New packet required. Source: [Imai Hissei; Takamatsu Toko; Mitsuya Hideaki; Yoshizawa Hajime; Mitsuya Hidehiko; Furukawa Toshi A.. The Characteristics and Social Functioning of Pathological Social Withdrawal, “Hikikomori,” in a Secondary Care Setting: a One-Year Cohort Study. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12888-020-02660-7; article XML SHA-256 8fc30ae97cf4f8ce21511584b9321f002a95078715af870d29ff0afd21c8d2c3. “The Characteristics and Social Functioning of Pathological Social Withdrawal, “Hikikomori,” in a Secondary Care Setting: a One-Year Cohort Study” (10.1186/s12888-020-02660-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02660-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- culture change [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported details about culture change as an organized effort to shift a group’s “shared norms” and “way of relating”; the packet only says organizational culture change is prosocial and intended to benefit employees and their wellbeing/success.; The definition states that culture change is “an organized effort to shift a group or organization’s shared norms and way of relating,” but the provided packet text does not define culture change in these terms or describe it as shifting norms/relational ways. ; The gloss “improve the group’s overall environment and functioning” is broader than the packet, which does not use that phrasing or define culture change in those terms.; The packet supports a specific organizational context (“support for culture change initiatives” / “organizational culture change”), so the definition should not present a general standalone sense without that limitation.; The packet supports that “supporting organizational culture change is prosocial (i.e., group promoting) in nature” and that it is “designed to benefit all employees and contribute to their wellbeing and success,” but it does not explicitly support the broader “shift shared norms and way of relating” framing used in the definition. New packet required. Source: [de Grandpré Éloïse; Suurd Ralph Cindy; Hiller Emily. Thwarted belongingness and empathy's relation with organizational culture change. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1287769; article XML SHA-256 c97ed85f59e65d624b5019393cce591972fd7a1c53e9b48009dbe394c8d70ce3. “Thwarted belongingness and empathy's relation with organizational culture change” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1287769).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1287769) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- culture shock [redraft]: The definition slightly overgeneralizes the source by presenting culture shock as a general stress-and-disorientation state rather than the article’s more limited description of tension, anxiety, stress, and related symptoms in international students.; The definition states that culture shock involves “stress and disorientation,” but the packet supports stress/tension/anxiety and various emotional/physical symptoms; it does not mention “disorientation” as a characteristic.; The packet supports stress, anxiety, self-doubt, insecurity, irritability, poor concentration, tiredness, and longing to return home, but it does not clearly support the added claim of disorientation. New packet required. Source: [Almukdad Mustafa; Karadag Engin. Culture shock among international students in Turkey: an analysis of the effects of self-efficacy, life satisfaction and socio-cultural adaptation on culture shock. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s40359-024-01641-9; article XML SHA-256 0d041850b8b79193fb682f1346962c11d991b1c23d67681b5acba9a97c994748. “Culture shock among international students in Turkey: an analysis of the effects of self-efficacy, life satisfaction and socio-cultural adaptation on culture shock” (10.1186/s40359-024-01641-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01641-9) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cumulative probability distribution [redraft]: The comparison that this measure “can reflect more of the overall pattern than a single summary value like the median” is not stated in the packet; the source only says GSM is the fiftieth percentile and that it ignores details of the probability distribution, while suggesting AUCPDC may be useful.; The definition gives a general statistical explanation of a cumulative probability distribution, but the packet supports only its use as cumulative probability distribution curves for plaque gray-scale images and AUCPDC, not a broad definition of the term in general.; The definition’s general statement that a cumulative probability distribution is “a curve that shows how probabilities add up across values” is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text. New packet required. Source: [Huang Xiaowei; Zhang Yanling; Meng Long; Abbott Derek; Qian Ming; Wong Kelvin K. L.; Zheng Rongqing; Zheng Hairong; Niu Lili. Evaluation of carotid plaque echogenicity based on the integral of the cumulative probability distribution using gray-scale ultrasound images. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0185261; article XML SHA-256 ac49af49184030939e018d8a0f076b95d456ae05a0d18602544af7214d156b89. “Evaluation of carotid plaque echogenicity based on the integral of the cumulative probability distribution using gray-scale ultrasound images” (10.1371/journal.pone.0185261).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185261) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cumulative probability [redraft]: Says pixel values add up progressively, which misdescribes a cumulative probability of pixel values and is not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Huang Xiaowei; Zhang Yanling; Meng Long; Abbott Derek; Qian Ming; Wong Kelvin K. L.; Zheng Rongqing; Zheng Hairong; Niu Lili. Evaluation of carotid plaque echogenicity based on the integral of the cumulative probability distribution using gray-scale ultrasound images. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0185261; article XML SHA-256 ac49af49184030939e018d8a0f076b95d456ae05a0d18602544af7214d156b89. “Evaluation of carotid plaque echogenicity based on the integral of the cumulative probability distribution using gray-scale ultrasound images” (10.1371/journal.pone.0185261).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185261) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- current material [redraft]: The claim that the packet “only supports this context-specific meaning, not a broader psychology or counselling definition” is not supported by the packet (the packet provides no information about whether broader meanings are or are not supported).; The definition makes an interpretive restriction (“only supports…”) that goes beyond what is directly evidenced in the provided text.; The packet does not explicitly define “current material” as referring to “instructional resources already being used”; it only uses the phrase “current material and behavioral gaps” and mentions “selected instructional materials” with “limited systematic attention.”; The second sentence makes a meta-claim that the packet supports only this context-specific meaning and not a broader psychology or counselling definition; the packet does not establish that contrast.; The wording "already being used" is not explicitly supported; the packet supports existing/selected instructional materials and textbooks, but not that this is the intended definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Xiao Guo; Mazlan Chamil Arkhasa Nikko. Self-regulated vocal health in undergraduate vocal music education: a qualitative needs analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1894233; article XML SHA-256 783e194f09d85643898b1b2d2b1b47f688bb80c7ddc0f716a94a246c0b0aab1a. “Self-regulated vocal health in undergraduate vocal music education: a qualitative needs analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1894233).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1894233) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- curriculum development [redraft]: No substantive support is provided in the packet for the specific phrasing/sense of “curriculum development” used in the definition (design/improve educational program; informed by evidence about learner needs and implementation barriers/supports).; The definition adds unsupported generalizations not stated in the packet, including that curriculum development is specifically a process of “designing or improving” an educational program and that it is informed by evidence about learner needs.; The packet mentions “curriculum development” only as an anticipated outcome (“inform future curriculum development”) in relation to telemedicine training; it does not define the term or specify the meaning in the way the definition does.; The packet supports curriculum-related elements such as curricular content, teaching methods, assessment strategies, and contextual influences on implementation, but it does not define curriculum development itself or establish the broader abstract definition given.; The provided definition makes broad, general claims about “curriculum development” (e.g., deciding content, teaching, assessment, implementation; being informed by evidence about learner needs and contextual barriers/supports), but the source packet only describes a telemedicine education scoping review protocol and does not supply or support a definition of “curriculum development” with these elements. New packet required. Source: [Vo Joshua; Mai Tina; Bui Nhi Yen; Khoi Dang Ngoc; Nguyen Minh Phan Ngoc; Nguyen Quang Thanh. Telemedicine education for medical students and residents worldwide: A scoping review protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359776; article XML SHA-256 16e226d4f3252a4ac1788202643f2ed75031d8080525ad036a8f832e4809c10e. “Telemedicine education for medical students and residents worldwide: A scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359776).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359776) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- curvilinear [redraft]: Because the definition adds a specific geometric/functional meaning (curved vs straight line) that is not stated in the supplied text, the requested sense is not fully supported by the packet.; The definition adds an explanatory gloss about "a curved line rather than a straight one" that is not stated in the source passage, which only gives the contrast by example.; The packet only contrasts the terms “curvilinear” and “rectilinear” as possibilities for motion (“curvilinear nor rectilinear”), but it does not explicitly define “curvilinear” as “relating to motion or form that follows a curved line rather than a straight one.”; The packet supports only a historical contrast between "curvilinear" and "rectilinear" in the context of motion; it does not support the broader claim that the term also means relating to "form." New packet required. Source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8) ([public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628))

- custom [redraft]: The definition describes magical thinking, not the requested term “custom,” so the sense does not match the entry term.; The field is listed as diagnosis, but the packet supports a psychological construct discussed in psychiatry/psychology rather than a diagnosis label itself.; The provided definition describes “Magical thinking,” but the term to be defined is “custom,” so the requested sense/meaning for the term is not supported by the packet.; While the packet supports most claims about magical thinking (e.g., unrealistic thought-action influence; presence in the general population; relevance to obsessive-compulsive disorder and schizophrenia; possible links to distress/dysfunction), those supported claims do not correct the term mismatch (“custom” vs. “magical thinking”). New packet required. Source: [Eddy Clare M. The many manifestations of magical thinking: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759906; article XML SHA-256 029a29bafb99aebfbc95f95be269413dcb7111ac1498cec74dd7e6e9607de378. “The many manifestations of magical thinking: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759906).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759906) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- cutting [redraft]: Second sentence reports what the packet indicates rather than defining; hedged in this source throughout instead of stating the sense. New packet required. Source: [Moe Anita; Stänicke Erik; Haavind Hanne. The crisis of abstaining from self-cutting: a phenomenological study of three women's divergent trajectories after cessation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791431; article XML SHA-256 eaae5921640da5d126f703e6708703d7443948fb5162c617a7cbef10f7a9e56f. “The crisis of abstaining from self-cutting: a phenomenological study of three women's divergent trajectories after cessation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791431).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1791431) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- CVLT [redraft]: The definition’s specific description of what is measured (“verbal learning and memory”) is an added substantive claim not directly supported by the provided text.; The packet does not explicitly expand CVLT as the California Verbal Learning Test, so the acronym expansion is unsupported by the supplied source.; The packet does not explicitly state that the CVLT “measures verbal learning and memory.” It only says that the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) was used to assess neurocognitive function and reports “CVLT sum of immediate recall from Trial-1 to Trial-5.”; The source supports only that CVLT was used to assess neurocognitive function and reports immediate recall across trials; it does not directly define CVLT as a test of verbal learning and memory. New packet required. Source: [Pawłowski Tomasz; Radkowski Marek; Perlejewski Karol; Szymańska Bogna; Berak Hanna; Horban Andrzej; Laskus Tomasz. Direct-acting antivirals (DAA) positively affect depression and cognitive function in patients with chronic hepatitis C. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320221; article XML SHA-256 e998b4d0a27405ab480faaadc5076f7fe7ff5bfdee98e95999d1f82197f72799. “Direct-acting antivirals (DAA) positively affect depression and cognitive function in patients with chronic hepatitis C” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320221).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320221) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- daily stressor [redraft]: The definition claims a “daily stressor” is an “everyday experience or exposure that can trigger a stress response,” but the packet only uses the term in the context of “a daily stressor such as exposure to thin ideals” and does not support the broader characterization (“everyday,” “can trigger a stress response”).; The definition’s example (“exposure to thin ideals”) is supported, but the surrounding general explanation of what a daily stressor is is not supported by the packet.; The packet supports thin-ideal exposure as an example of a daily stressor, but it does not define “daily stressor” as any everyday experience or exposure that can trigger a stress response.; The phrase “can trigger a stress response” is broader than the packet’s wording and adds a general causal definition that is not explicitly supported. New packet required. Source: [Humbel Nadine; Messerli-Bürgy Nadine; Schuck Kathrin; Wyssen Andrea; Garcia-Burgos David; Biedert Esther; Lennertz Julia; Meyer Andrea H; Whinyates Katherina; Isenschmid Bettina; Milos Gabriella; Trier Stephan; Adolph Dirk; Cwik Jan; Margraf Jürgen; Assion Hans-Jörg; Teismann Tobias; Ueberberg Bianca; Juckel Georg; Müller Judith; Klauke Benedikt; Schneider Silvia; Munsch Simone. Self-reported emotion regulation difficulties are associated with mood but not with the biological stress response to thin ideal exposure. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0199769; article XML SHA-256 cbc040ba3539c8b89f2c99df12993002035f84f16f6a329553b9ca7430f8d63d. “Self-reported emotion regulation difficulties are associated with mood but not with the biological stress response to thin ideal exposure” (10.1371/journal.pone.0199769).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199769) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Dalmane [redraft]: The definition states that “Dalmane is a brand name for flurazepam hydrochloride,” but the provided packet text does not mention Dalmane as a brand name; it only describes flurazepam hydrochloride.; The packet identifies Dalmane as the hydrochloride salt form of flurazepam, not as a brand name, so the first claim is unsupported.; The statement about strengthening GABA’s inhibitory effects at GABA-A receptors is more specific than the packet’s wording and is not stated in that form. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Flurazepam Hydrochloride” (C29060).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dangerousness [redraft]: General headword redefined via in this context as a metacognitive belief about thoughts; narrow sense smuggled onto a general word. New packet required. Source: [Nordahl Henrik; Anyan Frederick; Hjemdal Odin; Wells Adrian. Partial and directional relationships between negative metacognitive beliefs and the big five personality traits. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897206; article XML SHA-256 54b9156befbeb3cdc250ad43ec8581edd82ca9227d9af08842787b1c2879f745. “Partial and directional relationships between negative metacognitive beliefs and the big five personality traits” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897206).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1897206) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- data set [redraft]: The definition adds a broader generalization about what a data set is that is not explicitly established by the packet, which only describes one specific data set.; The definition’s general description (“A data set is a collection of related measurements or signals gathered for analysis”) is not stated or clearly supported in the provided packet text, which only describes a specific study’s dataset used for gearbox fault diagnosis.; The packet supports that the Gearbox Fault Diagnosis Data set contains vibration signals from four sensors and that these were processed for deep learning, but it does not support the claim that the model was used to 'train and evaluate' the model; only training is stated.; The parts that refer to vibration readings from several sensors, processing, and use in training/evaluation are supported by the packet, but the unsupported general definition prevents a pass. New packet required. Source: [Kiliç İrfan; Karaduman Gülşah; Tasar Beyda; Yaman Orhan. RGB-based visual encoding of vibration data for gearbox fault diagnosis using U-Net segmentation model. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350838; article XML SHA-256 1261654be814ef0513627a28bc7a350fdfe028c35e3d055993fdeda8271d1017. “RGB-based visual encoding of vibration data for gearbox fault diagnosis using U-Net segmentation model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350838).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350838) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- data types [redraft]: The claim that this is specific to “cognition-related research” is not supported; the packet describes sentiment analysis and model performance rather than cognition research.; The packet does not support the general definition that “Data types are different forms of information used in analysis”; it only discusses multimodal sentiment analysis using text and image modalities.; The packet supports text and image modalities in multimodal sentiment analysis, but it does not support the broader claim that this is specifically “in cognition-related research.”; The statement that combining multiple data types can provide complementary information and improve tasks is only supported in the context of this sentiment-analysis study, not as a general definition across cognition research.; While the packet supports combining text and image (multi-modal sentiment analysis) and notes challenges in integrating them, it does not clearly support the full framing in the definition (e.g., “provide complementary information” and “improve tasks like sentiment analysis” beyond the asserted sentiment-analysis performance gains in the study context). New packet required. Source: [Yang Weijia; Xue Zilian; Fu Guitao; Chen Guodong; Yang Cunyuan. Enhanced sentiment analysis in tourism reviews via multimodal graph convolutional networks. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333628; article XML SHA-256 52f83975f9135cd24cb90c872d79a7f008c2c208674eb4b0b3a1da44d6693409. “Enhanced sentiment analysis in tourism reviews via multimodal graph convolutional networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333628).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333628) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- database [redraft]: Opens with in this context and defines database as a collection of sounds; general headword narrowed to one packet example. New packet required. Source: [Lelic Dina; Marmel Frederic. Normative emotional responses to environmental sounds in middle-aged to older adults with normal hearing: Stimuli from the Marcell database. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356295; article XML SHA-256 78cd23905e7f8e8bc5a333db92a6cac15ca8e078e71ece34edb4c0c8442c1fda. “Normative emotional responses to environmental sounds in middle-aged to older adults with normal hearing: Stimuli from the Marcell database” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356295).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356295) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- DBT [redraft]: Headword DBT redefined via here referring to as DBT-A for adolescents with BPD features; narrower than the normal sense. New packet required. Source: [de Weerd Anneke; Krabbendam Anne A.; Koudstaal Agaath; Sins Joep; Schraven Jacquelijne; Vermeiren Robert R. J. M.; Roeleveld Jantine; Koopman-Verhoeff Elisabeth; Nooteboom Laura A.. Unraveling dynamic factors in Dialectic Behavioural Treatment for Adolescents (DBT-A): A study protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340173; article XML SHA-256 97233b55b90f62115a223e8ae42cb3495bf66af5c0a46c8aa09d573e7266d5aa. “Unraveling dynamic factors in Dialectic Behavioural Treatment for Adolescents (DBT-A): A study protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340173).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340173) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- deafferentation [redraft]: Claims about “reduced signals from the damaged side” are not explicitly supported as a stated mechanism in the provided text; the packet reports observed adaptations (e.g., hair cell calyces loss and glial reactivity) without defining sensory input reduction in those terms.; The definition adds a general explanatory gloss (“loss or removal of incoming sensory nerve input to a structure”) that is not stated in the packet, which only supports the specific vestibular injury context.; The definition’s description of “central and peripheral changes that follow” is broadly aligned with the packet’s reporting of central and peripheral adaptations, but because the core definition (what deafferentation *is*) is not explicitly supported, the overall definition cannot be accepted as grounded in the packet.; The packet does not explicitly define *deafferentation* as “the loss or removal of incoming sensory nerve input to a structure.”; The packet uses the term in the context of a unilateral vestibular injury model (chemical unilateral labyrinthectomy) but does not directly state that this specifically represents “loss or removal” of incoming sensory nerve input to a structure.; The requested field “learning” is not supported by the source packet; the packet is about vestibular deafferentation, central/peripheral plasticity, and behavioral consequences after inner-ear injury, not learning. New packet required. Source: [Trico Jessica; Watabe Isabelle; Parameshwarappa Vinay; Lapotre Agnes; Godaert Louis; Tonetto Alain; Chabbert Christian; Zwergal Andreas; Tighilet Brahim. Central and peripheral plasticity after chemical unilateral labyrinthectomy: Glial responses, calyces dynamics, and behavioral consequences. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355839; article XML SHA-256 420099f22891250bcdfe1d5842aeed1a859dc5692a33d6c83647c3621ddf9d3c. “Central and peripheral plasticity after chemical unilateral labyrinthectomy: Glial responses, calyces dynamics, and behavioral consequences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355839).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355839) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- death anxiety [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the source by generalizing from older adults with chronic illness to a broader dictionary-style meaning without support in the packet.; The packet does not support the claim that death anxiety is specifically “emotional distress or fear connected to death”; it only states it is an “emotional response” in older adults with chronic illness.; The packet supports only that death anxiety is a relevant emotional response in older adults with chronic illness; it does not define it as “emotional distress or fear connected to death.”; The second sentence adds unsupported claims: that it is an “important reaction” and that it may influence how people think, feel, and act.; While the packet mentions that its role in shaping “psychological and behavioural responses” remains underexplored, it does not directly support the definition’s wording that it “may influence how they think, feel, and act,” nor does it describe it as an “important reaction.” New packet required. Source: [Alcântara Leovaldo; Figueiredo Teodora; Midão Luís; Costa Elísio; Paúl Constança. Psychological and behavioural responses to death anxiety in older adults with chronic illnesses: a systematic integrative review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1684385; article XML SHA-256 fe227ef1826487354f3e20012fe184c45e860debe2ce22e3312eebdb70d40988. “Psychological and behavioural responses to death anxiety in older adults with chronic illnesses: a systematic integrative review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1684385).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1684385) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- death education [redraft]: The claim that this education helps people “better cope with the reality of death” is only indirectly supported and goes beyond the packet’s more limited wording about spiritual cultivation possibly assisting with the topic of death.; The packet discusses “life education,” also known as “life and death education,” rather than defining “death education” as its own distinct term; the definition’s framing of death education specifically is not directly supported.; The packet includes the idea that “life education … may assist us with the topic of death” and “help individuals cope with … negative conditions,” but it does not explicitly support the specific wording that it “better cope[s] with loss” or that it targets “the reality of death” in those terms.; The packet supports “life education,” also called “life and death education,” but it does not clearly define a distinct term “death education” as such.; While the packet mentions approaching death and “the onset of grief,” it does not explicitly support the definition’s claim that death education “helps people explore … the meaning of life.”; “Meaning of life” and “loss” are not stated in the packet; the source instead refers to “life wisdom,” “meaningful understanding,” and coping with death and grief. New packet required. Source: [Phan Huy P.; Ngu Bing H.; Chen Si Chi; Wu Lijuing; Lin Wei-Wen; Hsu Chao-Sheng. Introducing the Study of Life and Death Education to Support the Importance of Positive Psychology: An Integrated Model of Philosophical Beliefs, Religious Faith, and Spirituality. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.580186; article XML SHA-256 8b8501cb373942cef270cddc91ff8485768ea36aebcac79eefab7513fa1323e1. “Introducing the Study of Life and Death Education to Support the Importance of Positive Psychology: An Integrated Model of Philosophical Beliefs, Religious Faith, and Spirituality” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.580186).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.580186) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- death taboo [redraft]: The definition adds a broader claim that death taboo itself is a barrier to autonomous decision-making about future care; the packet only supports a narrower link to fear, communication avoidance, and lower ACP acceptance in end-stage heart failure patients.; The definition states that death taboo “acts as a barrier to open communication and autonomous decision-making about future care.” While the packet supports communication avoidance linked to filial piety and moral pressure/fear triggered by death taboo, it does not clearly support that death taboo specifically creates a barrier to autonomous decision-making (the packet attributes restriction of autonomy primarily to “family-centered decision-making.”).; “Cultural belief” is not supported by the packet; the source describes death taboo as a cultural taboo/pressure, not a belief. New packet required. Source: [Liu Na; Chen Lina; Mao Xinrui; Xia Shuqin; Wang Qi; Hu Dandan; Zhang Weiying. Qualitative study on influencing factors of acceptance of advance care planning in patients with end-stage heart failure based on COM-B theory. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpubh.2026.1820593; article XML SHA-256 3c6c32764e0ee70313d25bf04568c52a91cc39162242e7badf98123789b2010d. “Qualitative study on influencing factors of acceptance of advance care planning in patients with end-stage heart failure based on COM-B theory” (10.3389/fpubh.2026.1820593).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2026.1820593) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- death wish [redraft]: The definition adds a general sense for the term that is not supported by the source text, which only says not to interpret high place experiences as an expression of a hidden death wish.; The definition includes “should not automatically be inferred from experiences like the high place phenomenon,” which is supported, but the first sentence contains an unsupported substantive claim about meaning.; The packet does not provide a definition of “death wish” as “an underlying wish or desire to die.” It only mentions “a hidden death wish” in the context of interpreting the “high place phenomenon.”; The packet only shows the phrase in the cautionary context of a “hidden death wish”; it does not define “death wish” as an underlying wish or desire to die. New packet required. Source: [Teismann Tobias; Brailovskaia Julia; Schaumburg Svenja; Wannemüller André. High place phenomenon: prevalence and clinical correlates in two German samples. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12888-020-02875-8; article XML SHA-256 a4774b538b7ae8d00e0b154286c5f0379152ea8bd942ba38d9109ea2965ee2a6. “High place phenomenon: prevalence and clinical correlates in two German samples” (10.1186/s12888-020-02875-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02875-8) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- decadence [redraft]: The claim that it is treated as equivalent to social retrogression is not directly supported by the supplied text.; The definition adds explanatory content beyond the packet, so the requested sense is not fully supported by the source alone.; The definition claims equivalence to “social retrogression,” but the packet provides only a cross-reference (“See SOCIAL RETROGRESSION”) and does not explicitly assert that the senses are equivalent.; The packet only gives the entry label and cross-reference (“See SOCIAL RETROGRESSION”); it does not itself state that decadence means a falling away or decline in a society.; The packet text for “Decadence (social)” only gives foreign-language equivalents (“Ger. Verfall ; Fr. décadence ; Ital. decadenza”) and says “See SOCIAL RETROGRESSION,” but it does not state that decadence means a “falling away or decline” in a society. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Decadence (social)” (Decadence (social)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Decadence (social)) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- deceleration [redraft]: The packet supports deceleration as a motion dynamic relevant to autonomous wheelchair navigation, but it does not explicitly define it as a reduction in movement speed.; The provided packet content is primarily about autonomous wheelchair motion planning/control and user experience/usability (human factors), not clearly about cognition as such; the definition’s assignment to the field “cognition” is not directly supported by the packet.; The second sentence is mostly supported, but the first sentence makes a definitional claim that goes beyond the source text.; “During navigation or braking” is broader than the packet’s wording; the packet mentions autonomous wheelchair navigation and braking profiles, but not that deceleration itself is defined in that way. New packet required. Source: [Jeong Yihun; Lee Joon Ho; Lee Sun Ho; Park Dahae; Hwang Nahyeon; Choi Woo Young; Hwang Dongwook. Effects of deceleration profiles and driving speed on usability and user perception in autonomous wheelchairs. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850976; article XML SHA-256 d10a818233af54cc1b19152354b4e2bff6742e090a78dc451ee3103f9db9c49a. “Effects of deceleration profiles and driving speed on usability and user perception in autonomous wheelchairs” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850976).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850976) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- declarative memory [redraft]: Defines the term by the study procedure (recognition testing after encoding) rather than its meaning; recall not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Lukács Ágnes; Kemény Ferenc; Lum Jarrad A. G.; Ullman Michael T.. Learning and Overnight Retention in Declarative Memory in Specific Language Impairment. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0169474; article XML SHA-256 1ca909e84e0848954f49794d3570a19a17aeb01e606b2dab4e7aad7cdd2f426b. “Learning and Overnight Retention in Declarative Memory in Specific Language Impairment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0169474).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169474) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- decline effect [redraft]: Decline effect has a well-known meaning; definition redefines it via in this packet as a memory-weighting term in a game model. New packet required. Source: [Long Hui; Gong Rizhao; Yao Jiaqian; Li Qian. Effect of heterogeneous investment induced by payoff and emotion on cooperation in public goods games by considering memory decline effects. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281648; article XML SHA-256 14c241880021464df657f936502faa426de0e242a91e0ddf3902be5983c401d4. “Effect of heterogeneous investment induced by payoff and emotion on cooperation in public goods games by considering memory decline effects” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281648).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281648) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- deep body temperature [redraft]: The definition adds interpretive wording about an “index of internal heat and fever-related changes” that is only partly supported; the source specifically links Tb to LPS-induced fever in an animal model of systemic inflammation.; The definition claims deep body temperature is “the temperature inside the body’s core” and is “measured as an index of internal heat…rather than surface warmth,” but the provided packet only states that the study “measured deep body temperature (Tb)” in an animal model of LPS-induced fever/systemic inflammation; it does not support “core” or contrast with surface warmth.; The definition’s final clause (“In this source, it is the body temperature tracked during systemic inflammation.”) is supported, but the earlier additional characterization is not fully supported by the packet.; “temperature inside the body’s core” and “rather than surface warmth” are not stated in the source; the packet only says the authors measured deep body temperature (Tb). New packet required. Source: [Nogueira Jonatas E.; Soriano Renato N.; Fernandez Rodrigo A. R.; Francescato Heloísa D. C.; Saia Rafael S.; Coimbra Terezila M.; Antunes-Rodrigues José; Branco Luiz G. S.. Effect of Physical Exercise on the Febrigenic Signaling is Modulated by Preoptic Hydrogen Sulfide Production. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0170468; article XML SHA-256 6ee78555b6e90bf57384969c5192d1ee03817d722c58e162de87b903ffeec63a. “Effect of Physical Exercise on the Febrigenic Signaling is Modulated by Preoptic Hydrogen Sulfide Production” (10.1371/journal.pone.0170468).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170468) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- defensiveness [redraft]: The definition’s wording about “settings that emphasize harmony and saving face” is not explicitly stated as such in the packet; it mentions harmony/face maintenance concepts (mianzi/relational harmony) and suppression of direct confrontation, but not “saving face” as a direct characterization of defensiveness.; The packet does not support the core definition claim that defensiveness is “a dimension of relationship sabotage” that “refers to protective responses within intimate relationships.” It only lists “Defensiveness” as one of three dimensions of relationship sabotage and discusses how cultural norms may influence expressions of that dimension.; The packet supports defensiveness as a core dimension of relationship sabotage, but it does not explicitly support the gloss 'protective responses' or the claim that defensiveness itself is a protective response.; The packet supports the cultural nuance only in a limited way (that collectivistic norms may lead individuals to suppress direct confrontation, potentially resulting in more implicit/indirect forms of defensiveness), but it does not clearly support the broader framing that these are “protective responses” or that the term specifically means “protective responses” within intimate relationships.; The statement that defensiveness 'can undermine the relationship' is an inference from relationship sabotage generally, not a claim stated in the packet about defensiveness specifically. New packet required. Source: [Feng Wei; Zhang Manyu; Wang Changle; Bu Yubo. The validation, reliability, and measurement invariance of the relationship sabotage scale in Chinese college students. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04546-x; article XML SHA-256 10548570968961c945c2066308eabcf735ec99f577b691627971b4717a8dd1b9. “The validation, reliability, and measurement invariance of the relationship sabotage scale in Chinese college students” (10.1186/s40359-026-04546-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04546-x) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- deficiency [redraft]: The definition’s “specifically too little iron” component is consistent with the ferritin-based measure, but because the packet does not explicitly define “deficiency,” the requested “in this source” meaning is not fully supported.; The opening general definition (“having an insufficient amount of something the body needs”) is broader than what the packet supports and is not directly stated in the source.; The packet does not define the standalone term "deficiency"; it only discusses iron deficiency anemia, so the claimed sense is too specific and not established as the entry sense.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of the term “deficiency” (e.g., a statement that “deficiency means having an insufficient amount of something the body needs”).; The provided text discusses iron deficiency anemia and uses ferritin (<15 µg/L) and hemoglobin levels, but it does not directly define “deficiency” itself; the definition you provided is an interpretation/generalization rather than something stated in the packet.; The requested field is ethics, but the packet is a medical study on iron deficiency anemia, so the field assignment is not defensible from the source. New packet required. Source: [Dendir Kedir; Fente Desalegn; Tamir Zemenu; Wordofa Moges; Getaneh Abush; Getahun Tigist; Meles Mehari; Besha Chala; Habtu Wossene; Tolcha Yoseph. Magnitude and determinants of iron deficiency anemia among first antenatal care attending pregnant women at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355295; article XML SHA-256 a838c23e2fb572e240288e5ae5448972bd580e800221a875b97badf366e53ce9. “Magnitude and determinants of iron deficiency anemia among first antenatal care attending pregnant women at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355295).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355295) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- deification [redraft]: Hedges in this historical context to define deification as being about nature only, and ends with a meta sentence about the packet. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Naturism” (Naturism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N1defs.htm#Naturism) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- delay of gratification [redraft]: The claim that development is shaped by social and cultural context is supported (e.g., self-control as context-specific and sensitive to social/cultural influences; cross-cultural variation), but this alone is insufficient to pass because other substantive claims in the definition lack support.; The packet does not define “delay of gratification” as “holding back from taking an immediate reward in order to wait for a better one later,” so the core meaning in the definition is unsupported by the provided text.; The packet does not explicitly define delay of gratification as withholding an immediate reward to wait for a better later one; it only discusses research on children’s delay of gratification.; The packet supports that self-control/self-regulation are related and that development is shaped by social and cultural influences, but it does not support the broader definitional wording that this is a general ability with that specific reward-based meaning.; The wording goes beyond the supplied source by presenting a general encyclopedic definition rather than a source-grounded description from the packet.; While the packet discusses children’s “delay of gratification” and links related constructs to “self-control” and “self-regulation” in context, it does not explicitly state the definition’s claim that the term is “closely related” to both self-control and self-regulation. New packet required. Source: [Ding Ning; Frohnwieser Anna; Miller Rachael; Clayton Nicola S.. Waiting for the better reward: Comparison of delay of gratification in young children across two cultures. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0256966; article XML SHA-256 e1647a92da5a7a2e133772d2d148d366d735a40e900d1296d99266edf7a3a407. “Waiting for the better reward: Comparison of delay of gratification in young children across two cultures” (10.1371/journal.pone.0256966).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256966) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- delay of reinforcement [redraft]: The definition presents the concept as general learning mechanism (“behavior is affected…”) using support that appears to be from a specific interpretation involving SHR/ADHD, which is not established as a general definition within the packet.; The packet does not define the term; it only mentions “steeper delay-of-reinforcement gradients” as an explanatory account of operant hyperactivity.; The packet text does not define “delay of reinforcement” or explain, in general learning terms, how behavior is affected when reinforcement is not immediate.; The specific claim that a “steeper delay-of-reinforcement gradient means behavior is more strongly influenced by reinforcement being delayed” is not explicitly stated in the provided packet; it only reports that operant hyperactivity is “primarily driven by steeper delay-of-reinforcement gradients.”; “A steeper gradient means behavior is more strongly influenced by reinforcement being delayed” is not supported by the packet and adds an interpretive claim beyond the source.; “How behavior is affected when reinforcement is not immediate” is an unsupported gloss not stated in the supplied text. New packet required. Source: [Hill Jade C; Herbst Katrina; Sanabria Federico. Characterizing operant hyperactivity in the Spontaneously Hypertensive Rat. 2012; DOI 10.1186/1744-9081-8-5; article XML SHA-256 8051f48e50a5b55e6109bd7e7b0d2a6e09fb097d5c012f3d61fc1f9f9280e88f. “Characterizing operant hyperactivity in the Spontaneously Hypertensive Rat” (10.1186/1744-9081-8-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-8-5) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- delayed alternation task [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported generalization by saying the task is used to examine sensitivity to catecholamine levels; the packet only says the prefrontal cortex is highly sensitive to catecholamine levels, not that this is an established property of the task itself.; The definition’s “used to examine cognitive function linked to the prefrontal cortex” is only indirectly supported; the packet states the task is dependent on prefrontal cortex but does not describe it as being used to examine cognitive function in that way.; The field is not defensible: a delayed alternation task is a behavioral/neuropsychological test, not a diagnosis term.; The packet does not support the specific procedure description “alternating responses after a delay”; it only states that rats perform a “delayed alternation task,” without describing the timing/alternation mechanics.; The packet says PFC is “highly sensitive to levels of catecholamines,” but it does not explicitly support the claim that the task is “sensitive” to catecholamine levels (only the PFC is).; The requested field is “diagnosis,” but the packet is about methylphenidate mechanisms and ADHD relevance; it does not present the term as diagnostic in the sense of diagnosis/diagnostic criteria. New packet required. Source: [Arnsten Amy FT; Dudley Anne G. Methylphenidate improves prefrontal cortical cognitive function through α2 adrenoceptor and dopamine D1 receptor actions: Relevance to therapeutic effects in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. 2005; DOI 10.1186/1744-9081-1-2; article XML SHA-256 07774a7ef67127d3713a0d830513ce8ff0ed5748c4571e5edf9126db0634e206. “Methylphenidate improves prefrontal cortical cognitive function through α2 adrenoceptor and dopamine D1 receptor actions: Relevance to therapeutic effects in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder” (10.1186/1744-9081-1-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-1-2) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- delayed feedback [redraft]: Although the definition’s core description of a closed-loop delayed feedback method and disrupting synchronized oscillations is consistent with the packet, the requested field (“learning”) is not supported by the packet.; Field mismatch: the provided packet discusses delayed feedback deep brain stimulation to suppress pathological synchronized oscillations in Parkinson’s disease (a neurostimulation/control context), not learning as such.; The added clause about using delayed recordings to guide stimulation and disrupt synchronized oscillations is only supported for the Parkinson’s/DBS context, so the definition is not field-appropriate for "learning."; The definition gives a generic control-systems meaning, but the packet uses "delayed feedback stimulation" in the context of deep brain stimulation for Parkinson’s disease, not learning.; The source does not support presenting this as a learning-term definition; it is a neuroscience/DBS usage instead. New packet required. Source: [Daneshzand Mohammad; Faezipour Miad; Barkana Buket D. Robust desynchronization of Parkinson’s disease pathological oscillations by frequency modulation of delayed feedback deep brain stimulation. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0207761; article XML SHA-256 ddffc77cc44e04a4c6d647d80bb3148f0bccb911f5761a34ff65e92e0d9e7953. “Robust desynchronization of Parkinson’s disease pathological oscillations by frequency modulation of delayed feedback deep brain stimulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0207761).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207761) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- delayed response [redraft]: Packet defines the psychological refractory period; headword delayed response is given that sense rather than its own meaning. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Refractory Period, Psychological” (D012033).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012033) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- deliberate sampling [redraft]: The claim that the purpose is to ensure marginalized and underserved groups are adequately represented is stronger than the source, which only says such groups need to be examined; it does not state a representativeness requirement.; The packet only states that “deliberate sampling plans are needed to examine those most marginalized and underserved,” but it does not define deliberate sampling as an “intentional plan for choosing research participants rather than relying on who is easiest to include.”; The packet supports that deliberate sampling plans are needed to examine marginalized and underserved groups, but it does not explicitly support the broader definition that this is an intentional plan for choosing participants instead of convenience-based recruitment.; The packet supports the general idea of ensuring marginalized/underserved groups are examined, but it does not explicitly support the full rationale in the definition (“so their experiences can be examined”) in the way the definition phrases it. New packet required. Source: [Kammer-Kerwick Matt; Cox Kyle; Purohit Ishani; Watkins S Craig. The role of social determinants of health in mental health: An examination of the moderating effects of race, ethnicity, and gender on depression through the all of us research program dataset. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pmen.0000015; article XML SHA-256 6b2b528a998ab69e152f50eb437d121a1425b9353fc333ac3f46b0966622796f. “The role of social determinants of health in mental health: An examination of the moderating effects of race, ethnicity, and gender on depression through the all of us research program dataset” (10.1371/journal.pmen.0000015).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmen.0000015) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- deliberate self-harm [redraft]: The definition adds that the person “intentionally injures themselves,” but the packet definition only says “Behavior in which persons hurt or harm themselves” and does not explicitly state intentionality.; The definition slightly overstates the source by converting “hurt or harm themselves” into “injures themselves.”; The packet supports self-harm without suicidal or sexual motive, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that the behavior is intentional. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Self-Injurious Behavior” (D016728).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016728) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- delivery [redraft]: The definition adds a broader generalization about ‘other cell contents’ and immune activation that goes beyond the packet’s wording; the packet specifically discusses sEV-delivered antigens, cytoplasmic delivery, uptake, and cross-presentation in DCs.; The definition includes “antigens or other cell contents,” but the packet specifically discusses “antigen delivery” and antigen cross-presentation; it does not support that “other cell contents” are included in the meaning as stated.; The packet provides immunology/EV uptake and antigen cross-presentation details, not anything within the specified field "cognition".; The requested field is not supported: the packet is about extracellular vesicle uptake and antigen presentation in dendritic cells, not cognition/psychology.; The rest of the definition is largely consistent with the packet (EVs carrying antigen to dendritic cells for uptake and antigen presentation), but the unsupported “other cell contents” and the field mismatch are substantive issues. New packet required. Source: [Koyama Takashi; Kojima Katsuhiko; Maeda Koki; Matsui Takahide; Kosai Hitomi; Ishida Noriko; Morita Eiji; Fukuda Mitsunori; Tanaka Nobuyuki. Tyro3 facilitates cytoplasmic delivery of extracellular vesicle contents and antigen presentation via major histocompatibility complex class I in dendritic cells. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355054; article XML SHA-256 7de9456b0239610a53cef6afd4d89b7368ad3493f2d4e5cc207e35a38dafb40e. “Tyro3 facilitates cytoplasmic delivery of extracellular vesicle contents and antigen presentation via major histocompatibility complex class I in dendritic cells” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355054).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355054) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- deltoid [redraft]: The definition adds a functional explanation of the muscle that is only indirectly implied by the study context; the packet itself does not explicitly define the deltoid as the shoulder muscle responsible for lifting the arm away from the body.; The definition claims deltoid activity was measured as an indicator of how shoulder movement was “initiated and carried out,” but the packet specifies that muscle activity was recorded from the sternocleidomastoid (SCM) “as an indicator of startReact” (i.e., initiation-related effects). The packet does not describe DELT activity as an indicator of initiation in the same way.; The packet does not explicitly state that the deltoid is a shoulder muscle whose function is lifting the arm away from the body (shoulder abduction); it only mentions recording “Middle deltoid (DELT) activity” during unilateral shoulder abduction movements.; The packet reports outcomes such as DELT onset and movement timing/kinematics, but it does not support the specific causal framing that deltoid activity indicates how movement was initiated and carried out.; The packet supports that deltoid activity was recorded during shoulder abduction, but it does not support the claim that deltoid activity was used as an indicator of how shoulder movement was initiated and carried out. New packet required. Source: [Thomas Christina; Johnson Brianna; Baillargeon Emma M.; Heckman Rosalind L.. Motor planning, initiation and execution of shoulder abduction against gravity: Evidence from startReact. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346615; article XML SHA-256 9be1576d2704e86ea0c4e087680e04b3a78a4188fceed73d515aa473515a00e8. “Motor planning, initiation and execution of shoulder abduction against gravity: Evidence from startReact” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346615).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346615) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- demand reduction [redraft]: Demand reduction has an established psychology sense (reducing drug demand); packet gives an electricity-grid sense instead. New packet required. Source: [Morris Peter; Buys Laurie; Vine Desley. Moving from Outsider to Insider: Peer Status and Partnerships between Electricity Utilities and Residential Consumers. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0101189; article XML SHA-256 e35fc0b4aac8ab7160b148636961bb641bea6d314417b757e7ff62f89b3e8d66. “Moving from Outsider to Insider: Peer Status and Partnerships between Electricity Utilities and Residential Consumers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0101189).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0101189) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dementia of the Alzheimer’s type [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory paraphrase that goes beyond the source wording rather than staying tightly within the supported sense.; The gloss “meaning difficulty remembering personal experiences or events” is not supported by the packet; the source only says DAT involves primarily loss of episodic memory.; The packet supports that “typical dementia of the Alzheimer’s type (DAT) involves primarily loss of episodic memory,” but it does not explicitly support the claim that DAT is “the typical form of Alzheimer’s disease” as phrased in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Madhavan Ajay; Whitwell Jennifer L.; Weigand Stephen D.; Duffy Joseph R.; Strand Edythe A.; Machulda Mary M.; Tosakulwong Nirubol; Senjem Matthew L.; Gunter Jeffrey L.; Lowe Val J.; Petersen Ronald C.; Jack Clifford R.; Josephs Keith A.. FDG PET and MRI in Logopenic Primary Progressive Aphasia versus Dementia of the Alzheimer’s Type. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0062471; article XML SHA-256 233573525fcbfcca78f9bfdafb3626eee5a80eb503b46f539acfcf086ea32a35. “FDG PET and MRI in Logopenic Primary Progressive Aphasia versus Dementia of the Alzheimer’s Type” (10.1371/journal.pone.0062471).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062471) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dementia praecox [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly support the claim that “dementia praecox” is a *historical term*; it only provides a descriptor that is labeled under “Schizophrenia” and describes characteristic features.; The packet supports the symptom description and the schizophrenia label, but it does not support the claim that this is a historical term for schizophrenia. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Schizophrenia” (D012559).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012559) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- demotivation [redraft]: First sentence defines demotivation as specific to foreign language study; general headword narrowed to the packet topic. New packet required. Source: [Gao Lixiang; Liu Honggang. Revisiting students’ foreign language learning demotivation: From concepts to themes. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1030634; article XML SHA-256 16972a416cc068611df1ee45d340c3aca9bee69de2be70a1ddfba4b78cd94449. “Revisiting students’ foreign language learning demotivation: From concepts to themes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1030634).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1030634) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- demyelination [redraft]: The definition adds a general biological gloss that is not stated in the source packet, so the core definitional claim is unsupported by the supplied text.; The definition states that demyelination is “the loss or damage of myelin” and that myelin is “the protective covering of nerve fibers,” but the packet does not define demyelination as loss/damage of myelin or describe myelin’s protective role.; The packet supports demyelination as a feature of multiple sclerosis in the central nervous system and as a process induced in a murine cuprizone model, but it does not define demyelination as the loss or damage of myelin or describe myelin as the protective covering of nerve fibers.; While the packet links demyelination to “within the central nervous system (CNS)” and mentions demyelination occurring in multiple sclerosis and being induced in the cuprizone mouse model, it does not provide the specific mechanistic/definitional wording used in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Kråkenes Torbjørn; Wergeland Stig; Al-Sharabi Niyaz; Mohamed-Ahmed Samih; Fromreide Siren; Costea Daniela-Elana; Mustafa Kamal; Bø Lars; Kvistad Christopher Elnan. The neuroprotective potential of mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow and human exfoliated deciduous teeth in a murine model of demyelination. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293908; article XML SHA-256 c7e1b65dcdc6432bfa454fb61569c0a51eca8cde88bcdb81b9aefd1f6ec1c163. “The neuroprotective potential of mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow and human exfoliated deciduous teeth in a murine model of demyelination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293908).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293908) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dendrogram [redraft]: No support in the packet for the claim that the diagram shows how items/variables group based on distances from one another.; The definition adds explanatory detail beyond the supplied source, so it is not fully grounded in the packet alone.; The only snippet in the packet refers to calculating distances for dendrogram hierarchical clustering (equation context), but it does not provide the requested definitional meaning.; The packet only supports that dendrograms are used in hierarchical clustering and involve distance calculations; it does not explicitly support the fuller description as a tree-like diagram or the claim that they show how items or variables group together based on distances.; The provided packet text does not define “dendrogram” or describe it as a tree-like diagram for hierarchical clustering. New packet required. Source: [Huang Alexander A; Huang Samuel Y. Dendrogram of transparent feature importance machine learning statistics to classify associations for heart failure: A reanalysis of a retrospective cohort study of the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care III (MIMIC-III) database. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288819; article XML SHA-256 d9f04d907ec6820a7128c8b5fa7a8876cf65d01b1a9bbafa6b0db06dcdcc39fc. “Dendrogram of transparent feature importance machine learning statistics to classify associations for heart failure: A reanalysis of a retrospective cohort study of the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care III (MIMIC-III) database” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288819).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288819) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- denervation [redraft]: The definition makes the source-specific claim sound like the term refers to this particular experimental procedure, but the packet only uses denervation descriptively in a study and does not establish a special in-source sense.; The definition’s first sentence (“Denervation is the removal or interruption of nerve supply…”) is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text.; The packet supports renal pedicle denervation improving urine flow, but it does not support the added mechanism wording “cutting or disabling nerves”; that is more specific than the source states.; The second sentence adds interpretive framing (“cutting or disabling nerves around the renal pedicle”) that is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet only says “Denervation of nerves” without detailing the mechanism as cutting or disabling.; While the packet does mention “Denervation of nerves around the renal pedicle” and that it “improved urine flow,” the packet does not support the broader general characterization of denervation given in the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Sawanobori Yoshiharu; Nakano Daisuke; Kitamura Hiroaki; Kitada Kento; Asaga Takehiko; Suzuki Norio; Yamamoto Masayuki; Ogino Yuichi; Shirakami Gotaro; Nishiyama Akira. A kappa opioid receptor agonist, difelikefalin, improves acute kidney injury in experimental sepsis models. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343693; article XML SHA-256 fd160bc3f71d9b5f984b506cac32a86db0afe7efb183f8041f9efbf6bf843519. “A kappa opioid receptor agonist, difelikefalin, improves acute kidney injury in experimental sepsis models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343693).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343693) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dental phobia [redraft]: The definition says “prior nonthreatening exposure to dental-related cues may interfere… and reduce the likelihood that dental phobia develops,” but the packet only describes latent inhibition as pre-exposure impairing learning of dental fear from aversive associative conditioning; it does not explicitly describe the pre-exposure as “nonthreatening” or “dental-related cues” in those exact terms.; The definition states “a strong fear,” but the packet does not characterize dental phobia/fear as “strong.”; The packet supports latent inhibition reducing the development of dental fear/dental phobia, but it does not directly define dental phobia as a "strong fear related to dental stimuli."; The phrase "through aversive associative learning" is supported, but the definition adds a broader definitional claim about the nature of dental phobia that is not established in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Geers Andrew L; Seligman Laura D; Pituch Keenan A; Colagiuri Ben; Marusak Hilary A; Rabinak Christine A; Al-Ado Sena L; Turner Natalie; Nedley Michael. A test of pre-exposure spacing and multiple context pre-exposure on the mechanisms of latent inhibition of dental fear: A study protocol. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s40359-024-01580-5; article XML SHA-256 1b34d67f93baa5c3fa262f3c5935d4a9418ce612ac6e1e3bcd8c2bf99b4dec40. “A test of pre-exposure spacing and multiple context pre-exposure on the mechanisms of latent inhibition of dental fear: A study protocol” (10.1186/s40359-024-01580-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01580-5) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dental [redraft]: The added statement about care, education, and communication related to oral health is an unsupported generalization from the packet.; The definition makes general claims about what “dental” refers to (e.g., oral health care, education, and communication broadly) that are not explicitly supported in the supplied packet text.; The definition’s claim that “dental” refers to oral health care and to services delivered by dental care professionals is broader than the packet’s scope, which only mentions dental care providers in relation to teledentistry adoption.; The packet does not provide a direct definition of the term “dental.”; The packet is about teledentistry adoption (facilitators/barriers) and mentions “oral healthcare delivery” and “dental care providers,” but it does not justify the specific explanatory scope stated in the definition.; The packet is about teledentistry and dental care providers, not a dictionary definition of the term “dental,” so the requested sense is not directly supported. New packet required. Source: [Hakami Amjad; Mohan Sarika. The perceived facilitators and barriers to the potential adoption of teledentistry among dental care providers in Saudi Arabia: A systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359436; article XML SHA-256 1b82bf8ffbed2fca15e1231c2068e8a6ba9ba956fc85fa02f672cf0b753d4b41. “The perceived facilitators and barriers to the potential adoption of teledentistry among dental care providers in Saudi Arabia: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359436).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359436) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dependent groups [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported example (“codeine-containing cough syrup”) as if it were the meaning of the term rather than a study-specific participant description.; The definition gives the wrong sense of the term: the packet uses “dependent groups” in a statistical/comparative sense (“controls and CCS-dependent groups”), not as a label for people dependent on a substance.; The definition’s final claim (“The term identifies a research group by dependence status rather than describing a general type of group.”) is an interpretive/generalization that is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text.; The substance-specific explanation and the claim that the term identifies a research group by dependence status rather than a general type of group are not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Qiu Yingwei; Lv Xiaofei; Su Huanhuan; Jiang Guihua; Tian Junzhang; Zhuo Fuzhen; Han Lujun; Zhang Xuelin. Reduced Regional Homogeneity in Bilateral Frontostriatal System Relates to Higher Impulsivity Behavior in Codeine-Containing Cough Syrups Dependent Individuals. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0078738; article XML SHA-256 130bd289d93ad13a512857a8fbcbd3698c5fc7ad4235b2cd17c0586a690010b3. “Reduced Regional Homogeneity in Bilateral Frontostriatal System Relates to Higher Impulsivity Behavior in Codeine-Containing Cough Syrups Dependent Individuals” (10.1371/journal.pone.0078738).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0078738) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dependent model [redraft]: Headword is a fragment of time-dependent model; definition hedges in this source and describes one study's model. New packet required. Source: [Meng Pu; Meng Xin; Hu Rui; Zhang Liqun. Predicting the aesthetics of dynamic generative artwork based on statistical image features: A time-dependent model. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0291647; article XML SHA-256 205a70e8e0c2c8d6146860c50c1791134c23b746de2ed93fc2a738f59e44da4e. “Predicting the aesthetics of dynamic generative artwork based on statistical image features: A time-dependent model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0291647).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291647) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dependent-samples t test [redraft]: Because the packet does not provide an explicit description of the method beyond this study’s usage, the definition’s conceptual contrast to independent groups is an unsupported generalization.; The packet demonstrates use of a dependent-samples t-test for pre- to post-supplementation changes within the same subjects, but it does not explicitly support the claim that it “evaluates change within the paired data rather than comparing separate independent groups.”; The packet only shows a dependent samples t-test used on pre- vs post-supplementation measurements in one group; it does not define the test as a general method for related measurements or paired data.; The phrase “same participants measured before and after an intervention” is an unsupported generalization beyond the specific study context in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Smith Abbie E; Walter Ashley A; Herda Trent J; Ryan Eric D; Moon Jordan R; Cramer Joel T; Stout Jeffrey R. Effects of creatine loading on electromyographic fatigue threshold during cycle ergometry in college-aged women. 2007; DOI 10.1186/1550-2783-4-20; article XML SHA-256 8aeb6e942da8beec5b579cdcd680c4915957e5494355efd0a112282e28e907c6. “Effects of creatine loading on electromyographic fatigue threshold during cycle ergometry in college-aged women” (10.1186/1550-2783-4-20).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-4-20) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- deprivation [redraft]: The definition’s claims about the study’s direction are partially supported (RD diminishes OCB; OI mediates), but the specific phrasing “weaker organizational identification” is not directly supported by the provided text.; The packet does not define deprivation as “relative deprivation” being “a negative psychological state that arises when people feel unfairly disadvantaged compared with others.” (It mentions “Relative deprivation (RD)” but provides no such conceptual definition.); The packet does not explicitly support that relative deprivation is “linked to weaker organizational identification.” It only states that organizational identification “partially mediates” the RD–OCB relationship, without clearly indicating whether organizational identification is weaker/less in response to RD.; The packet supports relative deprivation, but it does not explicitly define it as feeling unfairly disadvantaged compared with others.; The wording goes beyond the packet by presenting that narrower psychological definition as if it were established from the source, rather than limiting the definition to the study’s usage. New packet required. Source: [Han Shuangbin; Fan Yuxiang. From psychological imbalance to behavioral withdrawal: unraveling the impact of relative deprivation on organizational citizenship behavior in tourism enterprises. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1619960; article XML SHA-256 20d5fa48d11c35b68f32385899c5b7042e04c29f26353435955dccf26351b707. “From psychological imbalance to behavioral withdrawal: unraveling the impact of relative deprivation on organizational citizenship behavior in tourism enterprises” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1619960).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1619960) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dermatological disorder [redraft]: Hedges in this source and defines the general term as chronic itch; describes one condition rather than the headword. New packet required. Source: [Jiao Huifeng; Dai Qi; Li Zhaoting; Yuan Min; Xu Guoqun; Tian Yingxin; Su Guangyuan; Zhang Yu; Sun Chong; Wang Shunqi; Ma Chaolin; Pan Haili. Spinal Calcrl + neurons amplify mechanical itch signaling via synaptic plasticity in chronic itch model. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336113; article XML SHA-256 aaca337feeae1afe19a241bb0753bcee911a6f232efde23eb46ec398bf68cccc. “Spinal Calcrl + neurons amplify mechanical itch signaling via synaptic plasticity in chronic itch model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336113).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336113) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- descending tract [redraft]: Describes the study setting rather than defining the term; hedged with in this context and no real definition given. New packet required. Source: [van Asseldonk Edwin H. F.; Campfens Sanne Floor; Verwer Stan J. F.; van Putten Michel J. A. M.; Stegeman Dick F.. Reliability and Agreement of Intramuscular Coherence in Tibialis Anterior Muscle. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0088428; article XML SHA-256 a136850a1e593816fc83006d366a744fd1c1dc2475b1b78acd482493e2fa57c4. “Reliability and Agreement of Intramuscular Coherence in Tibialis Anterior Muscle” (10.1371/journal.pone.0088428).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088428) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- descriptive approach [redraft]: Hedged with in this packet; narrows a general term to one qualitative interview study and adds unsupported contrast with testing theory. New packet required. Source: [Engeda Eshetu Haileselassie; Aldersey Heather M.; Davison Colleen M.; Gelaye Kassahun Alemu; Fayed Nora. Perceptions and behaviors of healthcare providers towards rehabilitation support to children with severe malaria-related disability in Ethiopia: A qualitative descriptive study using the Theoretical Domains Framework. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298769; article XML SHA-256 638c10359fabd2a36b98bf4d87fcadb7991040389b504d2fa42709539fd7e040. “Perceptions and behaviors of healthcare providers towards rehabilitation support to children with severe malaria-related disability in Ethiopia: A qualitative descriptive study using the Theoretical Domains Framework” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298769).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298769) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- descriptive average [redraft]: Claims that it “summarize[s] a set of observed measurements” and “gives a simple picture of the typical level” are not supported by the provided packet text.; The definition adds details about summarizing “a set of observed measurements” and “the recorded data” that are not stated in the packet.; The definition’s statement that it “without going beyond describing that sample” is not explicitly present in the packet.; The field “cognition” is not supported by the source text, which is a biomechanics article about spherical grip and instrumented movement analysis.; The packet only states that the statistical analysis was descriptive and included “average and standard deviations,” but it does not define what “descriptive average” specifically means (e.g., whether it is the mean value).; The packet only uses “descriptive” to characterize the statistical analysis as “average and standard deviations”; it does not define “descriptive average” as a mean value or as a specific statistical concept. New packet required. Source: [Martin-Martin Jaime; Cuesta-Vargas Antonio I. A biomechanical study of spherical grip. 2013; DOI 10.1186/2193-1801-2-591; article XML SHA-256 dacc229e92c7f01d8b05980243ab9ac0f6d2779073e7078f05a8d3f75834f545. “A biomechanical study of spherical grip” (10.1186/2193-1801-2-591).](https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-591) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- descriptive research [redraft]: The packet does not provide the general definition of “descriptive research” as a study type for “examining and describing how factors are related to one another”; it only states an aim of a specific descriptive study.; The packet supports the specific reference to investigating relationships among symptom severity, stress, social support, and adaptation after hospital discharge (in COVID-19 patients), but the definition’s broader characterization is not explicitly supported by the provided text.; The packet supports this term only as the study design used in one article to investigate relationships among symptom severity, stress, social support, and adaptation after hospital discharge; it does not support the broader generic definition of descriptive research as a type of study that examines how factors are related in general.; The second sentence is source-specific, but the first sentence adds an unsupported generalization beyond the packet’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Yeetho Panyasuda; Chaiviboontham Suchira; Sumdaengrit Bualuang. The relationships between symptom severity post COVID-19, stress, social support and adaptation in patients with COVID-19 after discharge from the hospital. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327825; article XML SHA-256 1ad146300bae7b9648fe1648de54aae603c8aac75089ce49bd16aaea2aefe93b. “The relationships between symptom severity post COVID-19, stress, social support and adaptation in patients with COVID-19 after discharge from the hospital” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327825).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327825) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Desoxyn [redraft]: The definition should not add an unsupported naming/brand claim when the packet only supports the substance and its pharmacologic effects.; The definition states that “Desoxyn is a brand name for methamphetamine hydrochloride,” but the packet text provided only describes methamphetamine hydrochloride itself (its CNS stimulating properties and mechanism) and does not explicitly support the “Desoxyn” branding claim.; The packet identifies Desoxyn as methamphetamine hydrochloride, not as a brand name; the opening clause is unsupported and appears to use the wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Methamphetamine Hydrochloride” (C47609).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- despair [redraft]: The claim that despair is “closely connected with loneliness, depression, and broader social and health conditions” is only partially supported; the packet mentions loneliness, depression, and social/environmental factors, but does not state this as a defined relationship for despair.; The claim that emotional despair is presented as a “growing public mental health concern” is stronger and more specific than the packet, which only says emotional despair, loneliness, and chronic diseases “have been rising.”; The definition claims despair is connected with “broader social and health conditions”; the packet says emotional despair, loneliness, and chronic diseases have been rising together, but does not explicitly frame these as a connection to despair in the way stated.; The packet does not provide a definition of “despair” or describe it as “a state of profound emotional suffering and loss of wellbeing.”; The packet mentions “emotional despair” alongside “loneliness” and that “depression has been identified as a significant element of the global mental health crisis,” but it does not explicitly state that emotional despair is “closely connected with” loneliness and depression (the definition makes a stronger causal/close-association claim than the packet supports).; The packet uses the phrase “emotional despair” but does not define despair as “a state of profound emotional suffering and loss of wellbeing.” New packet required. Source: [Patterson Elissa H.; Miller Chazlyn; Hannapel Madison. Public psychology and holistic approaches to prevention and treatment of depression. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1600094; article XML SHA-256 b645e72122fcf3e9ce773c0c5a3ab2ed7ffa319d902211e52f93d02d3268d136. “Public psychology and holistic approaches to prevention and treatment of depression” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1600094).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1600094) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- detachment [redraft]: The definition adds a broader normative claim about “constant engagement” being culturally expected or morally valued; the packet supports continuous academic engagement and moralized educational cultures, but not the general definition as stated.; The packet discusses theoretical frameworks and conceptual gaps, but it does not supply the requested term-in-context meaning in a way that would allow validation of the definition’s core claims.; The packet does not provide any explicit definition of “detachment,” nor does it state that detachment means “mentally disengaging from ongoing academic demands and stress” or “stepping back psychologically from study-related pressures.”; The phrase about disengaging “during periods that would otherwise allow rest or recovery” is not supported by the packet; the source discusses difficulty detaching in high-performance academic environments, not a rest/recovery period definition.; The provided definition contains multiple specific interpretive claims (e.g., difficulty due to “constant engagement” being culturally expected or “morally valued”) that are not explicitly defined or supported as part of a “detachment” definition in the packet text shown. New packet required. Source: [Chen Yingyan; Pan Lily; Lu Feifei; Sun Daokai; Liao Chuanjing; Na Meng. Psychological detachment in Chinese higher education: a multitheoretical model of academic stress, cultural pressure, and coping resources. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1647184; article XML SHA-256 779de1cfe40f8f4fbfc5d588dbadf2a9189fa74f3d6849953d6ecc363454d481. “Psychological detachment in Chinese higher education: a multitheoretical model of academic stress, cultural pressure, and coping resources” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1647184).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1647184) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- detection threshold [redraft]: The definition’s general statement that “detection threshold is the lowest level of a stimulus or signal that can still be noticed” is not explicitly stated or directly supported in the provided packet text (the packet discusses threshold limits measured, but does not define the term in general terms).; The definition’s sense is supported by the packet, but the requested field ‘learning’ is not defensibly supported by this source; the packet is about canine odor detection thresholds in an environmental-conditions study, not a learning concept.; The first sentence is broadly acceptable, but the entry should not imply a general clinical or learning-theory usage beyond what the packet supports.; The packet does support the second, more specific idea that the study’s detection thresholds refer to odor concentrations detectable by dogs for energetic materials under different environmental conditions, but because the first general claim is unsupported, the overall definition cannot be accepted as fully supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Fernandez Lauren S.; Kane Sarah A.; DeChant Mallory T.; Prada-Tiedemann Paola A.; Hall Nathaniel J.. Environmental effects on explosive detection threshold of domestic dogs. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0306817; article XML SHA-256 7c1d93adc385a38420ccdb350c9c6e5a3a1d064db06f64405c5390c6daf188ac. “Environmental effects on explosive detection threshold of domestic dogs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0306817).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306817) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- deterioration index [redraft]: Because the definition’s first sentence contains general explanatory claims not directly supported by the provided packet text, the overall definition is not defensible from the supplied source.; The packet does not define a deterioration index as a scoring measure; it only says existing deterioration index scores were used as inputs to machine-learning models.; The packet does not explicitly define what a “deterioration index” is (e.g., that it is a “scoring measure” estimating “likelihood” of worsening); it only states that the ML models used “existing deterioration index scores” as inputs.; The requested sense is not clearly a psychology/learning dictionary sense; the source is a clinical machine-learning study rather than a definitional source.; “Used to estimate the likelihood that a hospitalized patient’s condition will worsen” is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet. New packet required. Source: [Mu Emily; Jabbour Sarah; Dalca Adrian V.; Guttag John; Wiens Jenna; Sjoding Michael W.. Augmenting existing deterioration indices with chest radiographs to predict clinical deterioration. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0263922; article XML SHA-256 b36bcf78315f7ca127b942825509e0d63865b27f18b9324788f07e1ae9f3b6b1. “Augmenting existing deterioration indices with chest radiographs to predict clinical deterioration” (10.1371/journal.pone.0263922).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263922) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- deterministic process [redraft]: Redefines a general term as attractor pull toward a desired state; a deterministic process is not generally goal-directed. New packet required. Source: [Harrison Steven J; De Bari Benjamin; Poutre Ryan; Kinsella-Shaw Jeffrey M. Understanding the effects of real-time head position feedback on postural sway in terms of changes in underlying deterministic and stochastic dynamical processes. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334067; article XML SHA-256 34307d54f4126b3674b00397610ccb36e55ee84d659dea32c6f9398a59691857. “Understanding the effects of real-time head position feedback on postural sway in terms of changes in underlying deterministic and stochastic dynamical processes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334067).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334067) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- detoxification [redraft]: Claims about detoxification being intended to address particular effects (e.g., “cardiovascular instability, blood changes, and oxidative stress imbalance”) are only mentioned as consequences of chronic alcohol consumption; the packet does not link those specific effects to the purpose of detoxification in the way the definition states.; The definition goes beyond the source by presenting these biomarker problems as the referent sense of the term rather than as study findings about chronic alcohol consumption.; The definition’s specific framing of “mental health” and “short-term recovery from alcohol-related effects on the body” is not explicitly supported by the packet text provided.; The packet does not define detoxification as a structured period or state that it is intended to support recovery; it only mentions “structured detoxification” and that short-term recovery following it is incompletely characterized.; The packet does not define detoxification as a “structured period” intended to “support short-term recovery” after chronic alcohol use; it only states that chronic alcohol consumption induces multisystem dysfunction and that short-term recovery following structured detoxification is incompletely characterized.; The wording narrows detoxification to recovery from alcohol-related bodily effects more strongly than the packet supports; the source only says chronic alcohol consumption induces cardiovascular, hematological, and oxidative stress changes and then discusses recovery after detoxification. New packet required. Source: [Emara Ashraf Mahmoud; Alshammari Anoud Maseer Ateeq; Alhowail Ahmad H; Elgharabawy Rehab Mohamed. Short-term effects of alcohol detoxification on cardiovascular, hematological, and oxidative stress biomarkers: A prospective cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352164; article XML SHA-256 d849a7bc9edddcb86f6ea212fa2e391d21f800675f99f3923e5af46e3a401cbb. “Short-term effects of alcohol detoxification on cardiovascular, hematological, and oxidative stress biomarkers: A prospective cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352164).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352164) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- development cycle [redraft]: The claim that a shorter development cycle “changes product design and replacement patterns” goes beyond the source, which only says it has led to a qualitative shift in automotive products and is associated with rapid replacement.; The definition adds a general product-development sense that is not established in the packet and is not specifically supported for this term in the cited source context.; The definition links the shorter cycle to “smart vehicles are updated more quickly, which changes product design and replacement patterns,” which is partially consistent with the packet, but the overall definition still fails due to the unsupported general characterization in the first sentence.; The definition’s first sentence (“Development cycle is the period in which a product is designed and brought forward to its next version or replacement.”) is not explicitly stated or supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet only directly discusses an “increasingly shortened development cycle of smart vehicles” and the downstream effects (e.g., quicker updates, changes in replacement patterns and product design). It does not provide the general, formal time-period meaning stated in the definition.; The packet only mentions an “increasingly shortened development cycle” for smart vehicles; it does not define the term as the period in which a product is designed and brought to its next version or replacement. New packet required. Source: [Liu Zongming; Chen Xuhui; Liang Xinan. Growable design of passenger vehicle interior space based on FAHP and FQFD. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0303233; article XML SHA-256 061863b5a63d7abc6563dea9df322ed5f912e13e3f16da8af2d21b3d6e9f076e. “Growable design of passenger vehicle interior space based on FAHP and FQFD” (10.1371/journal.pone.0303233).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303233) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- developmental age [redraft]: The packet does not define developmental age as a DNA methylation-based estimate of gestational age; it only says DNAm GA is the biomarker and that gestational age acceleration is a metric of developmental maturity derived from it.; The packet does not explicitly define “developmental age” as “an estimate of developmental maturity early in life, derived from a DNA methylation measure of gestational age.” It describes a DNA-methylation-based biomarker of gestational age (DNAm GA) and a derived metric called “gestational age acceleration,” but it does not state that this corresponds to “developmental age” in the exact way the definition claims.; The packet says DNAm GA can be used to calculate “gestational age acceleration” (a residual between DNAm GA and clinically estimated gestational age). It does not support the definition’s phrasing that developmental age itself is derived from DNAm-measured gestational age.; The statement that developmental age is used to study how prenatal social and neighborhood conditions relate to neonatal development is broader than what the packet supports; the article discusses associations with maternal income/Medicaid status and neighborhood opportunity in relation to developmental maturity, not a general definition of the term.; While the packet discusses prenatal influences (maternal income/HI and neighborhood opportunity types) on neonatal outcomes via gestational age acceleration at birth, it does not clearly support the definition’s wording that “developmental age” (as defined) is used specifically to relate “prenatal social and neighborhood conditions” to “neonatal development.” New packet required. Source: [Pilkay Stefanie R.; Knight Anna K.; Bush Nicole R.; LeWinn Kaja; Davis Robert L.; Tylavsky Frances; Smith Alicia K.. Poverty and neighborhood opportunity effects on neonate DNAm developmental age. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0306452; article XML SHA-256 e30f011aa8e6a788d28808837f5245873b337223e0ca3dce75d2c6befb2b7fbf. “Poverty and neighborhood opportunity effects on neonate DNAm developmental age” (10.1371/journal.pone.0306452).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306452) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- developmental cognitive neuroscience [redraft]: The claim that the field examines processes such as attention, learning, memory, language, and motor activity across development goes beyond what the packet states; those cognitive processes are described as examples of information time-frequency EEG analysis can provide, not as the scope of the field itself.; The definition’s claim that the field “studies how brain-based cognitive functions change during human development” is not explicitly stated in the provided packet (the packet mentions studying brain function across the lifespan and the use of EEG/time-frequency in developmental cognitive neuroscience, but does not clearly describe “how functions change” as the defining focus).; The packet supports EEG and time-frequency analysis as tools used in developmental cognitive neuroscience, but it does not explicitly define the term as the area of cognitive neuroscience that studies how brain-based cognitive functions change during human development. New packet required. Source: [Ferrari Ambra; Filippin Luca; Buiatti Marco; Parise Eugenio. WTools: A MATLAB-based toolbox for time-frequency analysis of infant data. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323179; article XML SHA-256 6928c3f839c5ed9a191967e30edff474ba7a7149925c7046e68ed02355454d0c. “WTools: A MATLAB-based toolbox for time-frequency analysis of infant data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323179).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323179) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- developmental dysphasia [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define “developmental dysphasia” as a “childhood developmental language disorder”; it only mentions “childhood language disorders” generally and refers to “developmental dysphasia” without giving that definitional phrasing.; The packet does not explicitly support defining developmental dysphasia as a childhood developmental language disorder; it only refers more generally to “developmental language disorders” and mentions developmental dysphasia as one condition discussed in relation to FM stimulation.; The phrase about abnormal responses is only loosely supported: the source says Stefanatos used the technique in “the demonstration of abnormality in developmental dysphasia,” but it does not clearly state the condition was defined by abnormal responses on a frequency-modulated auditory evoked response measure.; While the packet mentions “later use … in the demonstration of abnormality in developmental dysphasia,” the provided excerpt does not clearly state that the abnormality was specifically “responses … with a frequency-modulated auditory evoked response measure” (it discusses the FM technique and its use, but the definition’s exact claim is not directly supported in the supplied text). New packet required. Source: [Duffy Frank H; Eksioglu Yaman Z; Rotenberg Alexander; Madsen Joseph R; Shankardass Aditi; Als Heidelise. The frequency modulated auditory evoked response (FMAER), a technical advance for study of childhood language disorders: cortical source localization and selected case studies. 2013; DOI 10.1186/1471-2377-13-12; article XML SHA-256 339767c48494f5a04f622841fb29344c30c310764c9acfcc4c27fb4d0863d22d. “The frequency modulated auditory evoked response (FMAER), a technical advance for study of childhood language disorders: cortical source localization and selected case studies” (10.1186/1471-2377-13-12).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2377-13-12) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- developmental immaturity [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory gloss that goes beyond the packet’s evidence; the source only lists developmental immaturity as one of several child-related attributions for anticipated failure.; The definition claims that developmental immaturity means the child is “not yet developmentally ready for the demands of a task,” but the packet does not provide that specific meaning or interpretation of the term—only that teachers attributed anticipated failure to “developmental immaturity.”; The definition’s statement that this appears “as one of several reasons teachers used to explain lower expected competence” is broadly consistent with the packet’s finding that anticipated failure among children with lower teacher-rated learning behavior scores was attributed to developmental immaturity, but the unsupported first-sentence meaning prevents a full pass.; The packet supports that teachers sometimes attributed anticipated failure to developmental immaturity, but it does not define the term as meaning the child is “not yet developmentally ready for the demands of a task.” New packet required. Source: [Adak Özdemir Atiye. Attributional explanations in preschool teachers’ competence judgments on tangram tasks: links with learning behaviors and task difficulty. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859618; article XML SHA-256 b1c87b816de4488cd92eabe3f4be10ee27bba45e8193e1d3c6142de608d2abbf. “Attributional explanations in preschool teachers’ competence judgments on tangram tasks: links with learning behaviors and task difficulty” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859618).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859618) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- developmental schedules [redraft]: The definition is not fully supported by the packet as written, because it adds interpretive claims about what developmental schedules are used for beyond the source text.; The packet only mentions correlations between “Gesell Developmental Schedules (GDS) gross motor scores” and clinical features in an ASD group; it does not explicitly state the general purpose that developmental schedules are “used to relate aspects of development to clinical features in children.”; The packet supports that GDS stands for Gesell Developmental Schedules and that gross motor scores were used in an ASD correlation analysis, but it does not support the broader claim that it is a child development assessment in general clinical use.; The statement that it is used to relate aspects of development to clinical features in children overgeneralizes a single study correlation; the packet does not establish this as the instrument’s purpose or a current diagnostic use. New packet required. Source: [Xu Xiaowen; Li Yang; Lan Haifei; Ding Ning; Li Weikai; Zheng Guifen; Song Xiufeng. Quantitative susceptibility mapping shows alterations of brain iron content in children with autism spectrum disorder: a whole-brain analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07235-y; article XML SHA-256 909377a05d99a05fc18a10659f4c12b799e7d4e7bf008d03be9f6e5a63090b93. “Quantitative susceptibility mapping shows alterations of brain iron content in children with autism spectrum disorder: a whole-brain analysis” (10.1186/s12888-025-07235-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07235-y) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- deviate [redraft]: The definition adds broader senses (“intended standard” and “meaning”) that are not supported by the packet, which only shows deviation from “disciplinary connotations.”; The packet only explicitly supports deviation from “disciplinary connotations,” not deviation from an “intended standard” or “meaning” more generally, so those parts of the definition are not fully supported by the provided text.; The second sentence introduces an unsupported generalization about methods producing results that are no longer aligned with the concepts they represent; the packet only discusses data-driven methods deviating from disciplinary connotations in this article context.; The second sentence’s phrasing (“methods producing results that no longer stay closely aligned with the concepts they are meant to represent”) is more general than the packet’s specific statement about avoiding methods that deviate from disciplinary connotations. New packet required. Source: [Lin Shiwei; Zhang Xiaolong; Chen Guoxu; Sun Lingchen; Wang Xinyu; Ma Yongshuang. Revise the cognitive model using structural equation modeling. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758968; article XML SHA-256 504b0fb3da31d7c678180e3f910ac4e57d82009e646c48f8b32dbb1791bfea6a. “Revise the cognitive model using structural equation modeling” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758968).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758968) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- diabetic enteropathy [redraft]: The definition refers to “gut microbiota changes,” while the packet only mentions “the microbiota” without explicitly describing it as “gut” microbiota.; The definition states that diabetic enteropathy is “an intestinal complication of diabetes mellitus,” but the packet does not explicitly describe diabetic enteropathy as a “complication” (it only refers to it as a functional change in the context of diabetic autonomic neuropathy and mentions intestinal epithelial cell differentiation).; The packet mentions inflammation and the microbiota as precipitating factors, but it does not specifically support the broader claim that gut microbiota changes contribute to it.; The packet says abnormal differentiation of intestinal epithelial cells is an early phenotypic change and the focus of the study, but it does not clearly support it as a confirmed contributing factor to diabetic enteropathy.; The packet supports diabetic enteropathy as mainly a functional change caused by diabetic autonomic neuropathy, but it does not explicitly support calling it an intestinal complication of diabetes mellitus. New packet required. Source: [Shan Ti-Dong; Yue Han; Sun Xue-Guo; Jiang Yue-Ping; Chen Li. Rspo3 regulates the abnormal differentiation of small intestinal epithelial cells in diabetic state. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s13287-021-02385-8; article XML SHA-256 de8d0354abfd96604bb93fad00945ec416346037747bd62edadb208992e38726. “Rspo3 regulates the abnormal differentiation of small intestinal epithelial cells in diabetic state” (10.1186/s13287-021-02385-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13287-021-02385-8) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [redraft]: The claim that it is used as a reference for diagnosis is not supported by the packet; the packet only describes it as a categorical classification of mental disorders based on criteria sets with defining features.; The definition omits the packet’s explicit point that it is “produced by the American Psychiatric Association,” which is a substantive mismatch, and the missing/changed details are not recoverable from the packet.; The packet states it is a “categorical classification of MENTAL DISORDERS based on criteria sets with defining features,” but it does not explicitly support the claim that it “is used as a reference for diagnosis.” New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders” (D039721).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D039721) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- Diagnostic Interview Schedule [redraft]: The definition claims the Diagnostic Interview Schedule is “interview-based,” but the packet only states that the Korean version of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV was used to assess participants; it does not describe it as interview-based.; The packet supports that the Korean version of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV was used to assess participants and assign them to ADHD, ADHD-NOS, and neurotypical groups, but it does not explicitly support the broader claim that the Diagnostic Interview Schedule is an "interview-based diagnostic assessment." New packet required. Source: [Byeon Jun; Choi Tae Young; Won Geun Hui; Lee Jaewon; Kim Jun Won. A novel quantitative electroencephalography subtype with high alpha power in ADHD: ADHD or misdiagnosed ADHD?. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0242566; article XML SHA-256 10a09c41bfdac4817d2a7837b2a0aa2d6097599c66877263b7b50a1e9ab9d26c. “A novel quantitative electroencephalography subtype with high alpha power in ADHD: ADHD or misdiagnosed ADHD?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0242566).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242566) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- diagnostic interview [redraft]: The definition generalizes from one study context (NPD) to the generic term without support from the packet.; The packet states that PNI/NPI were evaluated for convergent validity against a diagnostic interview for narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), but it does not explicitly define what a “diagnostic interview” is or that it is “used to determine whether a person meets the diagnosis.”; The packet supports a clinician-administered diagnostic interview for narcissistic personality disorder and its use as a comparison standard, but it does not support the broader claim that diagnostic interviews are used to determine whether a person meets the diagnosis for any particular mental disorder.; The packet supports that the diagnostic interview was used as a reference/criterion for comparing self-report screening measures, but the full definition’s general wording (“clinician-administered assessment,” and “whether a person meets the diagnosis”) is not explicitly stated in the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Baggio Stéphanie; Iglesias Katia; Duarte Miguel; Nicastro Rosetta; Hasler Roland; Euler Sebastian; Debbané Martin; Starcevic Vladan; Perroud Nader. Validation of self-report measures of narcissism against a diagnostic interview. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0266540; article XML SHA-256 d3ccb7e231699fb2122cd8f9e68dfe8555e0755b8e17d52ccba36c75f60c567e. “Validation of self-report measures of narcissism against a diagnostic interview” (10.1371/journal.pone.0266540).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266540) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- diagnosticity [redraft]: The assigned field ‘biological’ is not supported by the source packet, which is in psychology/psycholinguistics.; The definition discusses “color-diagnosticity” in terms of a typical color vs many colors, which matches the packet’s HCD vs LCD examples, but the first sentence’s framing (“helps identify or represent”) is not directly supported.; The definition’s broader wording about helping “identify or represent an object or concept” goes beyond what is stated in the packet, which focuses on whether color is a core conceptual component for high color-diagnostic objects.; The definition’s generalization that diagnosticity “means how strongly a particular feature helps identify or represent an object or concept” is broader than what the packet explicitly states. The packet specifically describes that a “core conceptual component” (e.g., color) is strongly associated with a typical color for HCD objects and less so for LCD objects, and relates this to effects on lexical access; it does not directly define diagnosticity in terms of “identifying or representing” objects/concepts in general.; The packet supports color-diagnosticity in a language-production/ERP study, not the broader general definition of diagnosticity across arbitrary features and objects. New packet required. Source: [Redmann Alexandra; FitzPatrick Ian; Hellwig Frauke; Indefrey Peter. The use of conceptual components in language production: an ERP study. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00363; article XML SHA-256 9bd6d28105b5b702d4dae8969d2fd2a52c996299beca758a5b3e7e99e5b094d0. “The use of conceptual components in language production: an ERP study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00363).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00363) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- diastolic blood pressure [redraft]: The definition states that diastolic blood pressure is “measured during the diastolic phase.” This explanation of what the diastolic phase is/means is not provided in the supplied packet.; The source packet supports diastolic blood pressure as a measure used in a head-up tilt test and mentions autonomic nervous system involvement, but it does not define it as blood pressure measured during the diastolic phase.; The wording “one of the values the autonomic nervous system helps regulate” is broader than what the packet explicitly states; the packet says the autonomic nervous system regulates blood pressure generally, not that this specific value is identified as a regulated value in a definitional sense.; While the packet supports that autonomic nervous system regulates blood pressure and that the study examined diastolic blood pressure changes from supine to upright during a head-up tilt test (HUTT), it does not provide the claimed definition of diastolic blood pressure as being “measured during the diastolic phase.” New packet required. Source: [Rhim Guil; Kim Moon Jung. Effect of the early diastolic blood pressure response to the head-up tilt test on the recurrence of benign paroxysmal positional vertigo. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0301800; article XML SHA-256 c9d67dd87c4c3cfd81da34b3c04ad78d781eb9698dbe624ed3251830228f1652. “Effect of the early diastolic blood pressure response to the head-up tilt test on the recurrence of benign paroxysmal positional vertigo” (10.1371/journal.pone.0301800).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301800) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- diathesis [redraft]: The definition claims diathesis was “inherited” as well as degenerative; the packet discusses it as “degenerate diathesis” and “brain deterioration,” but it does not explicitly state “inherited.”; The packet supports a degenerative mental disposition, but it does not support the added claim that this disposition was inherited.; The rest of the definition is broadly supported, but the unsupported inherited component makes the definition too expansive for the source.; The second sentence also adds the phrasing “in historical psychology and psychiatry” as a stated usage scope; while the packet notes extensive use with reference to mental conditions, it does not explicitly frame it in exactly those terms. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Diathesis” (Diathesis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Diathesis) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- diathesis–stress model [redraft]: The definition generalizes from symptoms and academic/interpersonal events to a broad ‘stressful environmental experiences’ framework without direct support in the packet.; The packet does not define the diathesis–stress model in the way stated (e.g., that vulnerability relates to worse symptoms mainly when stress is high, and not better outcomes when stress is low).; The packet only mentions that results may fit the differential susceptibility model for perceived stress/anxiety and the diathesis–stress model for depressive symptoms, without providing the model’s defining directional pattern as claimed in the definition.; The packet supports an interaction between individual traits and environmental factors, but it does not define the diathesis–stress model as a general theory of outcomes in the broad way stated here; the source is a single study in Chinese adolescents.; The second sentence adds a specific asymmetry (“rather than to better outcomes when stress is low”) that is not explicitly supported by the packet’s text and goes beyond the study’s reported findings. New packet required. Source: [Xu Youyun; Liu Yapeng; Chen Zheng; Zhang Jing; Deng Huihua; Gu Jiexin. Interaction Effects of Life Events and Hair Cortisol on Perceived Stress, Anxiety, and Depressive Symptoms Among Chinese Adolescents: Testing the Differential Susceptibility and Diathesis-Stress Models. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00297; article XML SHA-256 bd91e394384a830e0b943510564994168983e08886613a67bc448f64978e3264. “Interaction Effects of Life Events and Hair Cortisol on Perceived Stress, Anxiety, and Depressive Symptoms Among Chinese Adolescents: Testing the Differential Susceptibility and Diathesis-Stress Models” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00297).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00297) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- didactic teaching [redraft]: The comparison claim is not supported in the supplied text: the packet says didactic teaching helps students apply theory to clinical situations in an inefficient way, but it does not establish that it is less effective than a flipped-classroom approach in general or in this source’s findings.; The definition adds a broader explanatory gloss (“in which theoretical material is presented to students”) that is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied wording.; The definition claims it is “less effective for helping nursing students apply theory to clinical situations than a flipped-classroom approach,” but the packet characterizes didactic teaching as helping “in an inefficient way” and also notes “no consistent outcomes” across studies comparing FC and lecture-based learning, so the relative effectiveness phrasing is stronger than the packet supports.; The definition states that didactic teaching “present[s] theoretical material … in a conventional, lecture-based way,” but the packet does not explicitly describe didactic teaching in those terms (it only contrasts “flipped classroom” with “lecture-based learning (LBL)”).; The packet does not support defining “didactic teaching” as a conventional lecture-based method; it only mentions “didactic teaching delivery method” and separately refers to “lecture-based learning” without equating the two. New packet required. Source: [Li Bao-Zhu; Cao Nv-Wei; Ren Chun-Xia; Chu Xiu-Jie; Zhou Hao-Yue; Guo Biao. Flipped classroom improves nursing students’ theoretical learning in China: A meta-analysis. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0237926; article XML SHA-256 a191d2c590063971bc206a9ad255396a360a138f7c3c81c86417cd7ba81a7bd9. “Flipped classroom improves nursing students’ theoretical learning in China: A meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0237926).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237926) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- diencephalic amnesia [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly support the contrast that diencephalic amnesia reflects memory impairment from the broader network “rather than from the hippocampus alone.”; The packet states that damage to an extended network connected to the hippocampal formation results in diencephalic amnesia, and it mentions specific subcortical structures (e.g., anterior thalamic nuclei and rostral midline thalamic nuclei). However, it does not explicitly support the wording “especially within the diencephalon,” nor does it define the term as being centered “within the diencephalon.”; The packet supports an extended network of structures connected to the hippocampal formation, but it does not specifically support the added claim that this network is “especially within the diencephalon.” New packet required. Source: [O’Mara Shane M.; Aggleton John P.. Space and Memory (Far) Beyond the Hippocampus: Many Subcortical Structures Also Support Cognitive Mapping and Mnemonic Processing. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fncir.2019.00052; article XML SHA-256 20f1e9157f9f7c57bb3dde81c278712f546a3b71eb3da74d6af0a77217d8b181. “Space and Memory (Far) Beyond the Hippocampus: Many Subcortical Structures Also Support Cognitive Mapping and Mnemonic Processing” (10.3389/fncir.2019.00052).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fncir.2019.00052) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- diet [redraft]: Because the packet does not support the general wording “an individual consumes” or “pattern of eating” as the definitional core, the definition contains an unsupported substantive claim beyond the packet’s content.; The definition adds a broad explanatory gloss ('such as a high-fat or fat-rich pattern of eating') beyond the packet’s specific study context, which is not stated as a general definition.; The definition’s first sentence gives a general meaning of “diet” as “the kind of food an individual consumes,” but the provided packet only discusses “fat-rich diet”/“high-fat diet” in an offspring study and does not explicitly define “diet” in that general way.; The field/sense framing is only weakly supported: the packet is a research article about high-fat diet effects, not a clear learning-domain definition of the term.; The packet discusses a high-fat/fat-rich diet in a rat study, but it does not support the general dictionary claim that diet means the kind of food an individual consumes. New packet required. Source: [Espitia-Bautista Estefania; Cruz-Lemolle Anel; Sánchez-Meza Carlos; Cortés-Gutiérrez Daniela; Lugo-Martínez Haydée; Escobar Carolina. Sex-dependent phenotypes of anxiety and palatable food-seeking in offspring born from rats exposed to a high-fat diet. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1898577; article XML SHA-256 74f475c0afac4161d51be2f18e1434a112db5444efe696fbd1795634df67185a. “Sex-dependent phenotypes of anxiety and palatable food-seeking in offspring born from rats exposed to a high-fat diet” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1898577).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1898577) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- DIF [redraft]: The definition asserts specific psychological/assessment mechanics (e.g., “may not work the same way across different groups”) that are not supported by any explanatory text in the supplied packet.; The packet does not define “DIF” as “differential item functioning”; it only lists “DIF” among keywords/tags.; The packet does not state that DIF is examined in item response theory or instrument validation, nor that it involves items functioning differently across groups.; The packet supports that DIF expands to “differential item functioning” and that it is linked to item response theory and instrument validation, but it does not state the definition that test items may function differently across groups.; The wording generalizes beyond the packet’s visible content; a keyword list and article title are not enough to support the full explanatory definition given.; “DIF” in the provided packet could be interpreted as multiple things (e.g., it also appears alongside “Dynamic fit index” as a keyword), but the definition assumes the “differential item functioning” sense without support from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Dåderman Anna M; Persson Björn N; Ahlstrand Inger; Hallgren Jenny; Larsson Ingrid; Larsson Margaretha; Sundler Annelie J; Hedén Lena; Nunstedt Håkan; Ekman Aimée; Lood Qarin; Andersson Hammar Isabelle; Pennbrant Sandra. Item response theory modelling of the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire-short form: item streamlining, differential item functioning, and validity in a Swedish multicenter cross-sectional study. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03271-1; article XML SHA-256 a47f8fb49014995427e7956aeaeb4657bb65aae088db544023314451efa9fbad. “Item response theory modelling of the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire-short form: item streamlining, differential item functioning, and validity in a Swedish multicenter cross-sectional study” (10.1186/s40359-025-03271-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03271-1) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- difference threshold [redraft]: Packet identifies difference threshold with apparent equality of two differences; definition contrasts them and adds least-difference wording. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2929500-2941500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- differential association [redraft]: Well-known criminology term redefined from one phrase sex-differential association; wrong sense of headword. New packet required. Source: [Castillo-Klagges Rodrigo; Pezo-Sáez Camila; Aguila Luis; Pantoja Verónica; Treulen Favián. Academic stress through salivary biomarkers: A multivariate exploration of cortisol, IL-1β, CRP, and IgA levels with sex-specific insights. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340316; article XML SHA-256 95e69f2e80b15e2ed89e1d0c21da693961435fc7e967e3e0ec22cf1c26dc5069. “Academic stress through salivary biomarkers: A multivariate exploration of cortisol, IL-1β, CRP, and IgA levels with sex-specific insights” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340316).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340316) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- differential conditioning [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory generalization that goes beyond the supplied source context, which is limited to colour-discrimination processing in insects.; The definition specifies “fine colour discrimination,” which is supported by the packet, but the additional, more general claim about how differential conditioning works is not defensibly grounded in the provided source excerpt.; The definition’s general mechanism (“distinguish between similar stimuli by conditioning different responses to them”) is not explicitly supported by the packet text, which only states that differential conditioning is important for “processing fine colour discriminations.”; The packet supports only that differential conditioning is important for fine colour discriminations in insects; it does not support the broader general definition that it is a learning process by which experience helps an organism distinguish similar stimuli by conditioning different responses. New packet required. Source: [Reser David H.; Wijesekara Witharanage Randika; Rosa Marcello G. P.; Dyer Adrian G.. Honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) Learn Color Discriminations via Differential Conditioning Independent of Long Wavelength (Green) Photoreceptor Modulation. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0048577; article XML SHA-256 104ef5bbddef61c848b719adfbe1369fcc3550fabafe92ad48b86d8daace6476. “Honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) Learn Color Discriminations via Differential Conditioning Independent of Long Wavelength (Green) Photoreceptor Modulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0048577).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048577) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- digital [redraft]: Hedged narrow sense for a general adjective; telehealth delivery is attributed to digital without packet support. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 77e8e3f9797bdd3e545d836e3c7a022d849dbcb9046d75b9663fada09c613399. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- dilation [redraft]: The claim about the effect being strengthened/mediated by increased arousal is supported by the packet (Experiment 1: increased arousal mediated temporal dilation; Experiment 2: downregulating arousal attenuated it).; The definition claims that, in cognition, dilation “usually means temporal dilation,” but the packet only discusses temporal dilation in the specific context of facial attractiveness and time perception; it does not support a general “usually” meaning.; The packet supports a specific finding about the temporal dilation effect of attractive faces, but it does not support the broad dictionary-style generalization that “dilation” usually means this in cognition.; The phrase “experienced as lasting longer than it actually does” is not stated in the source and goes beyond the packet’s wording.; The source supports a relationship in which increased arousal mediates or underlies the temporal dilation effect, but not the stronger general claim that dilation is generally “strengthened by increased arousal” across cognition. New packet required. Source: [Zhou Sihong; Li Lingjing; Wang Fuyun; Tian Yu. How Facial Attractiveness Affects Time Perception: Increased Arousal Results in Temporal Dilation of Attractive Faces. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.784099; article XML SHA-256 5129c11c1f1d6a149cbb8f24c35aa09e4671452e52d0b39c5f477b657c72ce67. “How Facial Attractiveness Affects Time Perception: Increased Arousal Results in Temporal Dilation of Attractive Faces” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.784099).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.784099) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dilator [redraft]: General headword narrowed to one facial action code via in this source hedge; not the normal sense. New packet required. Source: [da Fé Vanessa Cristini Sebastião; dos Santos Viviane Maria Oliveira; de Lima Ana Caroline Bini; Hernandes Maria Simara Palermo; Caldara Fabiana Ribeiro; Gomes Marina De Nadai Bonin. Auditory enrichment on facial and physiological responses of Pantaneiro geldings and mares under short-term stress. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323649; article XML SHA-256 800ac5d9c46ba70565117eff6f3850f3b667daec1878cf5bad1c42c09393619d. “Auditory enrichment on facial and physiological responses of Pantaneiro geldings and mares under short-term stress” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323649).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323649) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dimension [redraft]: Whole definition hedged to this context and built on one study's construct rather than defining the headword. New packet required. Source: [Yu Yang; Zhang Yue; Liu Wei; Liu Weiqi. Evaluative threat as an internal dimension of music performance anxiety among Chinese university music students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1902711; article XML SHA-256 4a6d9feb89cc87dcaafb0047809d70b2672b7f58ab958e690bd2ac151b39ee82. “Evaluative threat as an internal dimension of music performance anxiety among Chinese university music students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1902711).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1902711) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- diminished capacity [redraft]: Because “recall” is not directly supported by the supplied packet, the definition adds an unsupported sense beyond “reproduction.”; The definition slightly overgeneralizes the source’s wording by turning a specific experimental description of fatigue into a broader gloss on mental material without direct support.; The packet supports a “diminished capacity of reproduction,” but it does not support adding “recall” as an equivalent sense.; The packet supports “diminished capacity of reproduction” as a characteristic of mental fatigue, but it does not explicitly mention “recall.” New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fatigue (mental)” (Fatigue).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fatigue) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- diotic [redraft]: The definition states a general rule that diotic sounds are typically experienced as coming from inside the head; the packet only describes this in the specific experimental context of sounds processed to be perceived as internalized, not as a general dictionary definition.; The packet does not define “diotic” as being presented “in the same way to both ears.”; The packet only indicates that “internalized (diotic)” is one condition in a sound externalization task, but it does not support the specific mechanism/description about equal presentation to both ears.; The packet supports diotic as a way sounds were processed to be perceived as internalized, but it does not explicitly support the added gloss that it means a sound presented in the same way to both ears.; The requested field is diagnosis, but the term here is an auditory/perceptual descriptor rather than a diagnosis term. New packet required. Source: [Fivel Laure; Lavandier Mathieu; Grimault Nicolas; Perrin Fabien; Mondino Marine; Haesebaert Frédéric. Is it inside my head? Characterization of sound externalization in schizophrenia. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345074; article XML SHA-256 f94c4c6040cf5912f8a535b4f49322e46db167b4babb7c3d5d438deb31f2e1ff. “Is it inside my head? Characterization of sound externalization in schizophrenia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345074).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345074) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- direct marketing [redraft]: The claim that this may be influential “because it reaches people directly rather than through general advertising” is not supported in the packet (the packet does not contrast direct marketing with “general advertising”).; The definition makes a broader contextual claim about gambling-specific influence that is only partly supported; the packet supports that direct marketing may be potent and that studies in gambling are limited, but not the broader explanatory framing given here.; The definition’s gambling-specific wording “especially influential” is not directly phrased as an evidence-backed conclusion about influence; the packet says “Combining promotional marketing with the use of direct communication channels is likely to be an especially potent form of influence,” which is more specific than the definition’s broader explanation.; The final clause adds an unsupported comparison to “general advertising”; the packet only says direct communication channels can make marketing especially potent, not that it works by contrast with general advertising. New packet required. Source: [Syvertsen André; Pallesen Ståle; Erevik Eilin Kristine; Mentzoni Rune Aune. Direct Marketing Experiences Among Individuals With Current and Lifetime Gambling Disorder. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01957; article XML SHA-256 53cac0838fa265a700f28f04014ce4aec6ed3f0a19f361d1e85b9b16b8faf036. “Direct Marketing Experiences Among Individuals With Current and Lifetime Gambling Disorder” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01957).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01957) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- directed attention [redraft]: The definition compresses background claims from the article into a broad dictionary-style characterization; several elements are interpretive rather than directly supported by the packet text.; The definition’s phrase that directed attention is “the deliberate, effortful focusing of the mind” is not explicitly stated in the packet text you provided (the packet describes directed attention as a “finite resource” used by persistent cognitive demands, but does not define it in those terms).; The packet supports directed attention as a finite resource that can be overused and lead to attentional fatigue, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s wording that it is the “deliberate, effortful focusing of the mind on tasks or information.”; The remainder of the definition (directed attention as a finite resource that can lead to attentional fatigue when overused, and that urban/high cognitive-load contexts accelerate attentional fatigue) is broadly supported by the packet, but the unsupported first clause is substantive and prevents passing.; The statement that fatigue occurs “especially in urban or high-load environments” is only partly supported: the packet links urbanization and continuous cognitive demands to attentional fatigue, but it does not establish this as a general defining property of directed attention. New packet required. Source: [Sakdavong Jean-Christophe; Melliere Jason; Dia Mouhammadou; Niveau Anaïs; Brunet Carole; Pleuchot Sylvain; Désirée Samuel. Non-linear effects of technological immersion on directed attention restoration: an exploratory study across smartphone, tablet, and virtual reality interfaces. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1942295; article XML SHA-256 a4bf2278d11bdb86dfa436d90dc3de4f44c2336a490ebfdaeb79a2ad1365e934. “Non-linear effects of technological immersion on directed attention restoration: an exploratory study across smartphone, tablet, and virtual reality interfaces” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1942295).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1942295) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- directive therapy [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported generalization by describing directive therapy as a therapist-led approach contrasted with the client’s own direction; the packet only supports that it is a structured, directive, protocol-driven approach.; The definition states that, “In this source, it is presented as part of the more technical style of psychotherapy used in offender rehabilitation.” While the packet supports a link to offender rehabilitation and “technical, protocol-driven approaches,” it does not explicitly describe “directive therapy” as part of a “more technical style” in the way claimed.; The packet does not explicitly define “directive therapy” as “therapist-led” or as being guided by planned techniques “rather than left mainly to the client’s own direction.”; The packet only reports that “structured and directive therapy approaches” are “most frequently emphasised” and that there is “predominance of technical, protocol-driven approaches”; it does not provide the requested therapist-versus-client-direction contrast.; The phrase “In this source” is acceptable, but the entry should not imply a broader established definition beyond the packet’s limited context.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source is a psychotherapy/offender-rehabilitation review, not an ethics reference. New packet required. Source: [Tutal Nihal; Dogan Betul Gokcen; Lagetto Gloria; de Felice Giulio. Change process in psychotherapy for criminal offenders: a comprehensive review with content analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776909; article XML SHA-256 e3dfe084899cc242a9fc00908d7aa7a18d7a887ac11920071cd2196b7d4ab63a. “Change process in psychotherapy for criminal offenders: a comprehensive review with content analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776909).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776909) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- directive [redraft]: The claim that directive coaching works by drawing less from the coachee’s own solutions is not stated in the packet and is an unsupported generalization.; The definition attributes “mainly drawing solutions from the coachee” to the non-directive style; the packet does not provide this characterization.; The packet does not define “directive” as “a guiding style” where the coach “takes a more active role in shaping the conversation and steering progress toward goals”; it only references “directive versus non-directive coaching styles” and that AI versions were developed using Heron’s intervention analysis model.; The packet does not explicitly state that “directive” is the opposite of a “non-directive approach,” even though it contrasts the two styles; that explicit definitional relationship is not provided as a clear definition.; The packet supports that directive coaching is contrasted with non-directive coaching, but it does not define directive as a more guiding style or say the coach actively shapes the conversation and steers progress toward goals. New packet required. Source: [Terblanche Nicky H D; Brown Andrew Beric. Rethinking directiveness in AI coaching chatbots. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1822088; article XML SHA-256 0e2411ab9a45ddfbd2b20311284ceabfe5194df9fbe57e7edd5dffe01db323be. “Rethinking directiveness in AI coaching chatbots” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1822088).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1822088) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- disability adjusted life years [redraft]: Because the definition’s core conceptual claims (disability + early death; comparative use over time/across groups) are not directly supported in the supplied packet text, the definition cannot be verified against the packet.; The comparison function across illnesses, time, or groups is not established in the packet; it only says the study analyzed CVD DALY trends in Chile and by gender.; The definition adds general explanatory claims that are broader than the source text and are not directly supported by it.; The packet does not explicitly define DALYs as a combined measure of disability and early death, nor does it state that DALYs are used to capture that combined impact.; The packet supports DALYs as a burden metric used in population health analyses, but it does not define DALYs as a combined measure of disability and early death.; The packet uses DALYs as an outcome metric (e.g., trends, burden, contributions by risk factors), but it does not provide the requested general definition about “population-level measure,” “burden a disease causes,” or “compare how strongly illnesses affect health over time or across groups.” New packet required. Source: [Briones-Valdivieso Camilo; Nuñez Claudia; Celis Andrés; Araneda Jaqueline; Cristi-Montero Carlos; O’Donovan Gary; Celis-Morales Carlos; Deo Salil V; Petermann-Rocha Fanny. The Chilean burden of disability-adjusted life years due to cardiovascular diseases: Results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325519; article XML SHA-256 160dc3017fbfca898b01872a7900f9cbd38eb52f0464ae16cbb3d0bd0542910a. “The Chilean burden of disability-adjusted life years due to cardiovascular diseases: Results from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325519).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325519) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Disability Rating Scale [redraft]: The definition slightly overgeneralizes by presenting the scale as a general tool for social dysfunction, whereas the packet only shows it being used in this specific study to investigate social function in enterostomy patients and their family caregivers.; The packet does not describe a tool named simply “Disability Rating Scale”; it specifies “WHO Social Disability rating Scale.” The definition’s term does not match the packet’s stated name.; The packet supports the WHO Social Disability Rating Scale, not the standalone term “Disability Rating Scale”; the acronym/sense is therefore ambiguous or possibly wrong. New packet required. Source: [Fan Ying; Song Meixuan; Xu Shicong; Tan Yuyue; Li Xianrong. Subjective and objective effects of anxiety and fatigue on social function in patients with enterostomy and their family caregivers. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0309991; article XML SHA-256 1651a785341400be6d3c1ea9df12283ee8a02d82e28f9deac1b21903ec7e9868. “Subjective and objective effects of anxiety and fatigue on social function in patients with enterostomy and their family caregivers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0309991).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309991) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- disadvantaged [redraft]: The definition claims disadvantaged backgrounds are “linked with fewer supports or opportunities,” but the provided packet does not mention fewer supports/opportunities as a characteristic or mechanism of socioeconomic disadvantage.; The definition goes beyond the packet by explaining disadvantage as a broader background condition rather than the specific sense shown here: students from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds with difficulty sustaining self-regulated learning and persistent participation/achievement gaps.; The packet supports that socioeconomically disadvantaged students experience difficulty sustaining self-regulated learning and that this contributes to persistent gaps in participation and academic achievement, but the specific phrase about “fewer supports or opportunities” is not supported by the supplied text.; The phrase "linked with fewer supports or opportunities" is not supported by the packet and adds an unsupported generalization. New packet required. Source: [Zhao Yan. Unlocking potential in underachieving learners: self-regulation development through AI-supported e-mentoring among socioeconomically disadvantaged students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805629; article XML SHA-256 3b14d1b8b8a77345d63844380848eea98d0ac6003df65db2aa3aa301f1e0a8ad. “Unlocking potential in underachieving learners: self-regulation development through AI-supported e-mentoring among socioeconomically disadvantaged students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805629).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1805629) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- discharge planning [redraft]: The definition claims a “team-based” and “pharmacy-guided workflow” designed to support ongoing treatment after discharge; the packet mentions “pharmacy-guided” but does not provide support for “team-based,” “ongoing treatment after discharge,” or the general purpose described.; The definition frames the term as applying to a general “mental health context,” while the packet evidence is specific to alcohol use disorder (AUD).; The definition says the workflow is intended to “help reduce readmission,” but the packet only indicates the study assessed readmissions; it does not explicitly support a claim about intended reduction (beyond measuring impact).; The packet only states that a “pharmacy-guided AUD discharge planning workflow” was studied for its impact on “MAT prescriptions and inpatient readmissions.” It does not support the broader statement that discharge planning is “the process of organizing care as a patient leaves inpatient treatment.”; The packet supports a specific alcohol-use-disorder discharge planning workflow, not the broad general definition of discharge planning as a general process of organizing care when a patient leaves inpatient treatment.; The term is presented as a team-based, pharmacy-guided workflow, but the definition adds broader clinical purpose and scope that are not fully supported by the source text.; “Designed to support ongoing treatment after discharge” is not stated in the packet; the source only says the workflow was to affect MAT prescriptions and inpatient readmissions. New packet required. Source: [Abiri Parinaz; Jeong Il Seok Daniel; Verdell Amber; Shah Shivani; Entabi Rana; Nguyen Hoanglong. Improvement in inpatient discharge planning for patients with alcohol use disorder with the implementation of a team-based multidisciplinary workflow. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0306066; article XML SHA-256 d825df0b3d2b231d6fb688b3b76f118bf4a5f25f82671abfe95b1bbf5249b686. “Improvement in inpatient discharge planning for patients with alcohol use disorder with the implementation of a team-based multidisciplinary workflow” (10.1371/journal.pone.0306066).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306066) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- discharge procedure [redraft]: Term built from discharge procedure codes phrase; not a normal-sense headword and not a psychology term. New packet required. Source: [Rafaisz Kris; Suter Flurina; Rohrmann Sabine; Mueller Beat; Schuetz Philipp; Nebiker Christian Andreas; Kutz Alexander; Struja Tristan. Association between health care insurance type and rates of visceral surgical procedures in Switzerland. A population-based weighted retrospective cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12889-026-28164-9; article XML SHA-256 87732f001136754bbb1157bb627dd8ca42ebbee9621423cc14e18001865e7f18. “Association between health care insurance type and rates of visceral surgical procedures in Switzerland. A population-based weighted retrospective cohort study” (10.1186/s12889-026-28164-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-026-28164-9) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- discharge [redraft]: General headword narrowed to psychiatric inpatient discharge with context hedge; second sentence describes the paper. New packet required. Source: [Elgendy Hossam Eldin; Shalaby Reham; Owusu Ernest; Mao Wanying; Agyapong Belinda; Vuong Wes; Eboreime Ejemai; Nkire Nnamdi; Wei Yifeng; Agyapong Vincent I. O.. Predictors of psychiatric emergency department visits within twelve months post-inpatient psychiatric discharge in Alberta, Canada. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351753; article XML SHA-256 b21c57ba5d52a9269ee05a34e40ceda96f2d849b1571b68aa626d1e6dff5a28e. “Predictors of psychiatric emergency department visits within twelve months post-inpatient psychiatric discharge in Alberta, Canada” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351753).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351753) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- disconnection syndrome [redraft]: Only the second sentence’s specific application to congenital amusia (altered white-matter pathways/tract impairments and reduced brain network efficiency) is supported by the packet.; The definition should stay tightly within the article’s evidence: altered white-matter tracts and reduced network efficiency in amusics.; The definition’s first sentence provides a general characterization of “disconnection syndrome” (disrupted structural links between brain regions rather than a problem in a single area), but the packet does not supply this wording or an explicit general definition of the term.; The first sentence gives a general definition of “disconnection syndrome” as a pattern caused by disrupted links between brain regions rather than a single area, but the packet only supports a specific application to congenital amusia and does not define the broader concept.; The wording “in this source, the term refers to congenital amusia” goes beyond the packet’s exact claim; the article says congenital amusia “is a disconnection syndrome,” not that the term is used as a direct synonym for congenital amusia in a definitional sense. New packet required. Source: [Wang Jieqiong; Zhang Caicai; Wan Shibiao; Peng Gang. Is Congenital Amusia a Disconnection Syndrome? A Study Combining Tract- and Network-Based Analysis. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00473; article XML SHA-256 2a26529724600897e86e85e2cf80f957ab6e938266432bc1fbfdd618f9c81526. “Is Congenital Amusia a Disconnection Syndrome? A Study Combining Tract- and Network-Based Analysis” (10.3389/fnhum.2017.00473).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00473) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- discourse [redraft]: Second sentence comments on the source instead of defining, and misstates it by omitting the universe cross-reference. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Discourse” (Discourse).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Discourse) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- discovery method [redraft]: Hedged with in this context; drug discovery sense smuggled onto a vague general headword. New packet required. Source: [Gorenflo Maria P.; Gao Zhenxiang; Davis Pamela B.; Kaelber David; Xu Rong. Amphetamine use and Parkinson’s disease: integration of artificial intelligence prediction, clinical corroboration, and mechanism of action analyses. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323761; article XML SHA-256 4b2485c1bcd2df4d568ef1de1003711dbf34802cdb36f97106bd9f14a2626003. “Amphetamine use and Parkinson’s disease: integration of artificial intelligence prediction, clinical corroboration, and mechanism of action analyses” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323761).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323761) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- discrimination training [redraft]: The definition adds a broad generalization about discrimination training as a general practice for improving stimulus discrimination; the packet only supports a specific auditory behavioral discrimination-training context, not that wider definition.; The first sentence defines discrimination training as generally aimed at “improving a person’s ability to tell apart differences between stimuli or stimulus features,” but the provided packet specifically discusses behavioral discrimination training in the context of discriminating auditory changes/attributes of amplitude-modulated tones (carrier/modulation frequency), not a general-purpose description of discrimination training across all stimuli or features.; The first sentence is not directly supported by the source text and goes beyond the packet’s scope from auditory-tone change detection to a general learning definition.; The packet does not explicitly state that the goal is improving ability “to tell apart differences” in general terms; it only supports that discrimination training modulates auditory cortex/neocortical responses to particular sound attribute changes. New packet required. Source: [Draganova Rossitza; Wollbrink Andreas; Schulz Matthias; Okamoto Hidehiko; Pantev Christo. Modulation of auditory evoked responses to spectral and temporal changes by behavioral discrimination training. 2009; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-10-143; article XML SHA-256 908dd455ab73f01cdf06c6f7cf8e50a4d8d2c3161a79e36e2441d0145795f85c. “Modulation of auditory evoked responses to spectral and temporal changes by behavioral discrimination training” (10.1186/1471-2202-10-143).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-10-143) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- discussion group [redraft]: Only the general idea of an “active control”/“structurally matched supportive discussion group (SDG)” is supported; the definition’s additional descriptive phrasing about supportive conversation about experiences/concerns is not evidenced in the provided text.; The definition adds details about how such a group functions in general that are not stated in the source and may overgeneralize beyond this study context.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that participants meet for “supportive conversation about their experiences or concerns.” It only names a “supportive discussion group (SDG)” without describing its conversational content.; The packet supports a structurally matched supportive discussion group used as an active control/comparison condition, but it does not support the broader generic definition that it is a group-based format for supportive conversation about participants’ experiences or concerns. New packet required. Source: [Long Wei; Luo Yingying; Du Jiangnan; Tang Yuhuan. Aesthetic experience as a candidate process linking group art therapy to social anxiety relief: a randomized trial with repeated process assessment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1953607; article XML SHA-256 a45f1c242f77a43d9c6692a0ef30b3723b6835e893ded455906ba855b919f04a. “Aesthetic experience as a candidate process linking group art therapy to social anxiety relief: a randomized trial with repeated process assessment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1953607).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1953607) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- disfigurement [redraft]: The definition should stay within the packet-supported sense; the packet does not establish disfigurement generally as any visible atypical alteration or malformation in physical appearance, especially of the face.; The definition’s first sentence (“visible atypical alteration or malformation in physical appearance, especially of the face”) is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text, which only discusses congenital facial malformations (specifically cleft lip/palate) and how they affect observers’ visual scanning and appraisals.; The first sentence gives a broad dictionary-style definition of disfigurement that is not supported by the packet, which only discusses congenital facial malformations/disfigurement in the context of cleft lip and/or palate and face perception.; While the second sentence’s key elements about the packet context—congenital facial differences such as cleft lip and/or palate and effects on how observers visually attend to and appraise a face—are broadly consistent with the packet, the overall definition still includes an unsupported general characterization of the term. New packet required. Source: [Hunt Benjamin W; De Pascalis Leonardo. In the eye and mind of the beholder: The effects of familiarisation on the perception of atypical infant facial configurations. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311763; article XML SHA-256 caa160a5552762ea5da1f17b170a5bb8dfdc5a6fee3aa869050cc2acda16c0e0. “In the eye and mind of the beholder: The effects of familiarisation on the perception of atypical infant facial configurations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311763).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311763) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- disparate impact [redraft]: The definition adds pandemic-specific framing (“In this context, it refers to the pandemic affecting racially minoritised people disproportionately”) which is loosely supported, but the core general definition component is not supported by the packet.; The packet does not provide a definitional statement that “disparate impact” means “an unequal effect on one group compared with others,” nor does it explicitly describe it as a “harm/burdens that group more heavily.”; The packet supports only a descriptive use of the idea that the COVID-19 pandemic “disproportionately impacted people from racially minoritised backgrounds,” but it does not define “disparate impact” in general terms.; The packet supports that the COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately impacted racially minoritised people, but it does not support a general dictionary sense of “disparate impact” as a broad term meaning any unequal effect or burden beyond this study context.; The supplied field, cognition, is not defensible from the packet; the source is a qualitative public-health/mental-health study, not a cognition context. New packet required. Source: [Burgess Rochelle A.; Kanu Nancy; Matthews Tanya; Mukotekwa Owen; Smith-Gul Amina; Yusuf Intisar; Lamptey Isabella; McCauley Nyisha; Wilson Renae; Pirisola Michael; Gul Malik. Exploring experiences and impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on young racially minoritised people in the United Kingdom: A qualitative study. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0266504; article XML SHA-256 b568aa3c6bba5af2d84571ecc784944568305ba24ab3b7ebd695675ac2c407b0. “Exploring experiences and impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on young racially minoritised people in the United Kingdom: A qualitative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0266504).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266504) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dispersion parameter [redraft]: The claim that the dispersion parameter is treated as a “dynamic quantity” estimated “along with travel-demand and link-choice values from traffic-count data” is broadly consistent with the packet (dynamic dispersion parameter; estimation of OD and link-choice via partial traffic counts), but because the definition includes the unsupported “spread or varies within a network” characterization, the definition as written cannot be passed.; The definition’s field is not supported by the source packet: the source is a traffic/network modeling paper about origin-destination matrices, link choice proportion, and dispersion parameter estimation, not a learning term.; The packet supports that the paper estimates an OD matrix, link choice proportion, and a “dynamic dispersion parameter” in a route-choice-related traffic model, but it does not explicitly state that the dispersion parameter “represent[s] how travelers’ route choice behavior is spread or varies within a network,” so that specific interpretation is not directly supported.; The phrase “within a network” is too generic here and the definition slightly overgeneralizes the source’s specific setting of a congested traffic network and partial traffic counts. New packet required. Source: [Wang Yong; Ma Xiaolei; Liu Yong; Gong Ke; Henricakson Kristian C.; Xu Maozeng; Wang Yinhai. A Two-Stage Algorithm for Origin-Destination Matrices Estimation Considering Dynamic Dispersion Parameter for Route Choice. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0146850; article XML SHA-256 6c4da35ec4570d50dd1b3f3868166b6642b77d08f758369be6e17c12d3c8a857. “A Two-Stage Algorithm for Origin-Destination Matrices Estimation Considering Dynamic Dispersion Parameter for Route Choice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0146850).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146850) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dispersion [redraft]: Second sentence describes transfer dispersion entropy method, not the term; smuggles narrow packet sense onto general headword. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Hong; Zhang Yin; Liu Jingna; Dong Keqiang. Fault diagnosis of aero-engines using transfer dispersion entropy and dispersion patterns. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348356; article XML SHA-256 accdd3965881e552a893b5cae1d6a702295d1dc2874636ab4783547c465e2775. “Fault diagnosis of aero-engines using transfer dispersion entropy and dispersion patterns” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348356).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348356) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- displacement [redraft]: In this context hedge narrows a well-known psychology headword to flood housing displacement. New packet required. Source: [Chen Jessica; McNaught Rebecca; Bailie Jodie; Ekanayake Kanchana; Bailie Ross. Housing displacement experiences following major flooding in regional Australia: A qualitative study of online news articles. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357805; article XML SHA-256 a28cb37915062006008d4c2715ae9579c0ff9de307f62e2d48575e9d03529922. “Housing displacement experiences following major flooding in regional Australia: A qualitative study of online news articles” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357805).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357805) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- display rule [redraft]: The added explanation about workers’ norms for emotional expression is broader than the packet supports and goes beyond the cited study’s wording.; The packet does not define a display rule as an expectation about which emotions should be shown in a given role or interaction; it only mentions teachers’ perceptions of display rules as an antecedent in an emotional labor study.; The packet does not explicitly state that display rules are “norms for emotional expression” or that they “shape how they manage their feelings and outward displays”; it reports relationships between display rule perceptions and emotional labor strategies (surface acting, deep acting) and well-being, but does not directly describe these mechanisms as stated in the definition.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “display rule” as “a perceived expectation” about which emotions should be shown; it only mentions “teachers’ perceptions of display rules” as an antecedent variable. New packet required. Source: [Huang Shenghua; Yin Hongbiao; Tang Lifang. Emotional Labor in Knowledge-Based Service Relationships: The Roles of Self-Monitoring and Display Rule Perceptions. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00801; article XML SHA-256 6861ff685234b396802f37002a330356acefc91edd715c71a35b5271d7f9369b. “Emotional Labor in Knowledge-Based Service Relationships: The Roles of Self-Monitoring and Display Rule Perceptions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00801).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00801) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dispositional attribution [redraft]: The definition adds a general explanatory gloss that is not stated in the source packet and is therefore unsupported by the supplied text.; The definition claims dispositional attribution is “a pattern more typical of Western societies,” which is supported by the packet, but the remainder of the definition includes specific explanatory wording that is not explicitly supported by the packet.; The definition states that dispositional attribution explains people’s behaviour “mainly in terms of their personal qualities or tendencies, rather than the situation they are in,” but the provided packet does not define dispositional attribution in this way (it only contrasts “dispositional attribution” with “situational attribution” without detailing the meaning).; The packet supports that dispositional attribution is “typical of Western societies” and is contrasted with situational attribution, but it does not define the term as explaining behaviour mainly in terms of personal qualities or tendencies rather than the situation. New packet required. Source: [Mesoudi Alex; Magid Kesson; Hussain Delwar. How Do People Become W.E.I.R.D.? Migration Reveals the Cultural Transmission Mechanisms Underlying Variation in Psychological Processes. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0147162; article XML SHA-256 04688d58700dfa06c5edb0486e5e2f0380be00bbe408f69f8bf07141b9f44f47. “How Do People Become W.E.I.R.D.? Migration Reveals the Cultural Transmission Mechanisms Underlying Variation in Psychological Processes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0147162).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147162) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dissociative pattern [redraft]: The definition frames the neural activity as occurring “during intrusive emotional memory retrieval.” While the packet discusses intrusive recollections generally and describes the experimental “re-exposed to the context of the trauma” paradigm, it does not explicitly label the task/activation as “intrusive emotional memory retrieval.”; The definition’s claim that the BLA link “suggest[es] coordinated but non-uniform neural responses” goes beyond the packet, which only states that the “dissociative pattern of activation of the VH sub-regions positively correlated with the activation of the BLA,” without explicitly characterizing coordination or non-uniformity.; The phrase “intrusive emotional memory retrieval” is not stated in the packet; the source only describes recollection of a trauma reminder and notes that intrusive recollections are often triggered by trauma reminders.; “Coordinated but non-uniform neural responses” is an interpretive generalization beyond the packet’s wording, which only reports a positive correlation between VH sub-region activation and BLA activation. New packet required. Source: [Ritov Gilad; Ardi Ziv; Richter-Levin Gal. Differential activation of amygdala, dorsal and ventral hippocampus following an exposure to a reminder of underwater trauma. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00018; article XML SHA-256 2c03510eae0c052557f906e8b9806eac0439ccc08d355a3cde95513b5f34c2ab. “Differential activation of amygdala, dorsal and ventral hippocampus following an exposure to a reminder of underwater trauma” (10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00018).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00018) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- dissonance [redraft]: Defines musical dissonance, not the psychology sense, and second sentence reports study findings rather than meaning. New packet required. Source: [Wilson Sara; Braaten Richard F.; Coluzzi Seth J.. Music and awe: complex emotions evoked by tonal dissonance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767623; article XML SHA-256 8a50b94e09fe5613cde101bbf27d1537795fd5eaee8cd7db84ce5f1fa202e25d. “Music and awe: complex emotions evoked by tonal dissonance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767623).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767623) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- distal [redraft]: The definition’s example (“outer parts of the upper limb rather than nearer the trunk”) is not stated or supported anywhere in the supplied packet.; The packet only uses “distal” in contrast with “proximal” for upper-extremity muscles; it does not define distal as a general term for muscles or body parts farther from the body’s central region.; The packet text provided does not define “distal” as referring to body parts farther from the body’s central region; it only mentions proximal versus distal muscles in the context of a study hypothesis.; “outer parts of the upper limb rather than nearer the trunk” is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet’s wording and scope. New packet required. Source: [Nynes Alexander; McGhie David; Aune Morten A; Aune Tore Kristian. Comparison of contralateral muscle excitation in proximal versus distal muscles in the upper extremities. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1718126; article XML SHA-256 09510242456f849907f7a406d3b0439c85912ab2b2102064db2a029d62b0da32. “Comparison of contralateral muscle excitation in proximal versus distal muscles in the upper extremities” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1718126).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1718126) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- distance [redraft]: Hedge narrows general headword distance to interpersonal distance, a different headword. New packet required. Source: [Butti Niccolò; Montirosso Rosario; Cartaud Alice; Oldrati Viola; Coello Yann; Urgesi Cosimo. Peripersonal space and interpersonal distance as windows onto multisensory body representation in adolescents with overgrowth syndromes. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1951893; article XML SHA-256 766bc05ae19fea6ac342573400948502c27ab7720b2ef6d72afb49de50e6240e. “Peripersonal space and interpersonal distance as windows onto multisensory body representation in adolescents with overgrowth syndromes” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1951893).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1951893) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- distinctness [redraft]: The added gloss about orderly, intelligible presentation contrasted with confusion or vagueness is not supported by the packet.; The definition goes beyond the source by turning a brief historical comparison into a general account of the term’s meaning.; The definition links distinctness to a “view of truth” valuing “orderly, intelligible presentation rather than confusion or vagueness,” but the packet does not support that characterization of distinctness or of truth in this way.; The packet does not define “distinctness” as a quality of an idea or representation being “clearly set off and differentiated.” It only mentions that Descartes’s rational standard of “clearness and distinctness” is echoed in Boileau’s use of “truth,” without explaining distinctness in those terms.; The packet only mentions Boileau’s use of “truth” as nearly the same as Descartes’s rational “clearness and distinctness”; it does not explicitly define “distinctness” as a quality of an idea or representation.; While the packet mentions the phrase “clearness and distinctness,” it does not provide the requested sense of the term beyond referencing it as part of Descartes’s rational standard. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Art and Art Theories” (Art and Art Theories).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Art and Art Theories) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- distortion [redraft]: Hedge narrows general headword to interpersonal cognitive distortion from the study rather than defining distortion. New packet required. Source: [Javed Sarah; Parveen Heena; Kaneez Salma; Lone Ayoob; Alwadani Fahad; Al Khashram Nawaf. Interpersonal cognitive distortions as mediators of the relationship between psychological distress and nomophobia in adolescents: a cross-sectional mediation analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810935; article XML SHA-256 9b4f2fb6f2de316525bcad5c2704a2458742ed954da06e45d3ed3ef44449ae79. “Interpersonal cognitive distortions as mediators of the relationship between psychological distress and nomophobia in adolescents: a cross-sectional mediation analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810935).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810935) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- distractibility [redraft]: The definition adds interpretive gloss beyond the source packet, which does not itself define distractibility as a cognition-related concept in the way stated.; The definition’s added interpretation “especially difficulty maintaining focus” is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The definition’s claim that distractibility “referr[s] to concentration” is not explicitly supported by the packet beyond the combined label.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “distractibility”; it only shows the combined descriptor “Concentration/distractibility” from an ADAS-COG-related entry.; The packet only supports the label "Concentration/distractibility" in the ADAS-COG context; it does not support the added explanation that distractibility is "especially difficulty maintaining focus." New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “ADAS-COG Date 30th June 2015 Version - Concentration/Distractibility” (C214432).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- distraction [redraft]: Defines a general attention term as a pediatric pain-control method; wrong narrow sense of a well-known headword. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Distraction” (C5330).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- distress tolerance [redraft]: The definition claims the skills “support coping” in difficult interpersonal situations so the person “feels more stable and safe.” While “cope with difficult interpersonal situations and emergencies” and feeling “stable” and “safe” are supported, the definition also adds “more” (relative change) which is not explicitly stated in the packet.; The definition slightly overgeneralizes the source by framing the skills as broadly for ‘crisis situations’ rather than specifically the difficult interpersonal situations and emergencies described in the packet.; The definition’s phrase “intense emotional strain or crisis situations” is not directly supported by the packet; the packet specifically mentions “difficult interpersonal situations and emergencies” and “immediate reduction of tension,” not “intense emotional strain” or “crisis situations.”; The requested field is not defensible: ‘distress tolerance’ here is a DBT skill/intervention, not a diagnosis. New packet required. Source: [Schaich Anja; Braakmann Diana; Rogg Mirco; Meine Clara; Ambrosch Julia; Assmann Nele; Borgwardt Stefan; Schweiger Ulrich; Fassbinder Eva. How do patients with borderline personality disorder experience Distress Tolerance Skills in the context of dialectical behavioral therapy?—A qualitative study. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0252403; article XML SHA-256 e0c7ece668ec41382efb50347f74e84de3eb3178b7bfa04d1c53ab6d92c3da8a. “How do patients with borderline personality disorder experience Distress Tolerance Skills in the context of dialectical behavioral therapy?—A qualitative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0252403).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252403) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- distributed attention [redraft]: The packet does not define “distributed attention” as awareness “spread more broadly rather than concentrated on a single target.” It only references attempts to categorize meditation as using “focused or distributed attentional systems” without describing this broad-vs-single-target characterization.; The packet identifies Vipassana and Rig-pa as practices thought to use distributed attention, but the definition goes beyond the source by presenting that interpretation as the sense of the term rather than as the article’s tentative classification.; The packet supports a focused-versus-distributed attentional classification in meditation and says this dichotomy lacks strong empirical support, but it does not define distributed attention as awareness being spread broadly or as the opposite of concentrating on a single target.; The packet supports that focused vs distributed attention is a proposed classification, that it includes examples (Shamatha vs Vipassana; and Rig-pa vs Deity), and that the focused-versus-distributed dichotomy “received strong empirical support” (i.e., lacked strong empirical support), but the first sentence includes an unsupported explanatory description of the term. New packet required. Source: [Amihai Ido; Kozhevnikov Maria. Arousal vs. Relaxation: A Comparison of the Neurophysiological and Cognitive Correlates of Vajrayana and Theravada Meditative Practices. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0102990; article XML SHA-256 62721f66bdd562639985f5cc6cd4791288c701b5fec30c0dadc14e3eceee48ed. “Arousal vs. Relaxation: A Comparison of the Neurophysiological and Cognitive Correlates of Vajrayana and Theravada Meditative Practices” (10.1371/journal.pone.0102990).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102990) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- diversity training [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the packet by generalizing from a managerial implication in one article to a broader workplace-training definition without clear support for that broader sense.; The definition’s claim that it is “part of culturally sensitive support within organizations” is only indirectly supported by the packet’s mention of “culturally sensitive policies to support migrant integration”; it does not clearly tie those culturally sensitive policies to diversity training itself.; The first sentence is broadly supported by the packet, but the second sentence adds an unsupported interpretation: the packet does not say diversity training is itself “part of culturally sensitive support within organizations.”; The packet supports that “diversity training” is linked to promoting inclusive workplace cultures, but it does not provide support for framing diversity training specifically as a “workplace training approach” (as opposed to a general managerial implication).; The provided “field” is cognition, but the packet’s discussion of diversity training appears in managerial/organizational implications rather than presenting cognition-specific content for this term. New packet required. Source: [Barua Harshita; Maheshwari Nidhi. The interplay between migration and self-identity: a structured review using TCCM and bibliometric analysis. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1563508; article XML SHA-256 768db70a8581e197df2e8c97cf10703ec82c4cc89c3680076702105db836d531. “The interplay between migration and self-identity: a structured review using TCCM and bibliometric analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1563508).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1563508) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- D–KEFS [redraft]: The definition should not generalize beyond the packet’s specific use in this article, which concerns a particular sorting test added to a broader neuropsychological battery rather than D–KEFS in general.; The packet does not support the specific claim that D–KEFS “adds information about abilities such as abstract and conceptual reasoning” (it states BRB-NT mainly assesses memory/attention/processing speed and does not properly investigate executive functions, and separately notes that failures in abstract and conceptual reasoning can occur, but it does not link that example to D–KEFS ST specifically).; The packet supports the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System Sorting Test (D-KEFS ST), not D–KEFS as the sorting test itself; the acronym/sense is therefore incorrect. New packet required. Source: [Riccardi Alice; Puthenparampil Marco; Rinaldi Francesca; Ermani Mario; Perini Paola; Gallo Paolo. D-KEFS ST Failure Identifies Multiple Sclerosis Patients With Worse Objective and Self-Perceived Physical and Cognitive Disability. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00049; article XML SHA-256 72881432fb2eb4e8e0fd4717aeff18bdfdbaacbda1d23b34da6136fc3412d3fd. “D-KEFS ST Failure Identifies Multiple Sclerosis Patients With Worse Objective and Self-Perceived Physical and Cognitive Disability” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00049).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00049) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- DL [redraft]: Deep learning expansion follows, but a type of machine learning is added; packet treats ML and DL as separate components. New packet required. Source: [Mukesh R.; Logesh S.; Dass Sarat C.; Cynthia G.; Sudhandra M.; Sivaprabha K.; Annu Regha T.; Kiruthiga S.. Ionospheric TEC anomalies analysis and prediction during six volcanic eruptions using a Hybrid ML-DL model and comparison with the AR/MLR Models. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354386; article XML SHA-256 6daf55f3c88812139aa52648ae5709af2ef02401d6aaf403f8a614e31a238d75. “Ionospheric TEC anomalies analysis and prediction during six volcanic eruptions using a Hybrid ML-DL model and comparison with the AR/MLR Models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354386).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354386) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- DNA [redraft]: The claim that differences in DNA can contribute to vulnerability to mental disorders is not directly supported by the packet; it says certain genes, along with biological and environmental factors, can be associated with mental disorders.; The definition claims that DNA differences contribute to “vulnerability to mental disorders,” but the packet only states that certain genes can be associated with mental disorders; it does not support the specific idea of “vulnerability.”; The definition goes beyond the packet by turning a general association with mental disorders into a stronger causal claim about individual vulnerability.; The definition is otherwise broadly consistent with the packet’s supported claims (genes as DNA segments forming proteins; inheritance from biological parents; variations contributing to differences in appearance/personality/health; associations with mental disorders). New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Looking at My Genes: What Can They Tell Me About My Mental Health?. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 e0a8e68cb501d46c5f874a27c2d5a30a84750d1a2237f7aef870195d127e7c4e. “Looking at My Genes: What Can They Tell Me About My Mental Health?” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/looking-at-my-genes).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/looking-at-my-genes) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- doctor shopping [redraft]: The definition is supported on the core sense of "doctor shopping" as overlapping prescriptions from multiple prescribers to obtain higher doses than intended by individual prescribers, and on its role in supplying the black market, but the field "learning" is not supported by the packet's content, which is about prescription drug abuse monitoring and addictovigilance rather than learning.; The packet says doctor shopping “involves overlapping prescriptions from multiple prescribers for the same drug, to obtain higher doses than those prescribed by each prescriber on an individual basis,” but it does not support the specific phrasing “larger amounts than any one prescriber intended.”; The packet supports that doctor shopping “may play an important role in supplying the black market,” but it does not explicitly support the definition’s wording “contribute to diversion to the black market.” New packet required. Source: [Soeiro Thomas; Lacroix Clémence; Pradel Vincent; Lapeyre-Mestre Maryse; Micallef Joëlle. Early Detection of Prescription Drug Abuse Using Doctor Shopping Monitoring From Claims Databases: Illustration From the Experience of the French Addictovigilance Network. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.640120; article XML SHA-256 82c2d2db4a83a8e3d37040ac7e86fc63e5354044e5445d32fb2b8090bb7d207b. “Early Detection of Prescription Drug Abuse Using Doctor Shopping Monitoring From Claims Databases: Illustration From the Experience of the French Addictovigilance Network” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.640120).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.640120) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- doctrine of causes [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define the “doctrine of causes” as a view that “understands nature in terms of causes”; it only says Bacon “retains so much of the Aristotelian and scholastic doctrine of causes,” without stating what that doctrine holds in general terms.; The packet only mentions the phrase as part of Bacon’s conception of nature; it does not define the standalone term “doctrine of causes.”; The wording “understands nature in terms of causes” is a broader gloss than the source provides, which only says Bacon’s conception of nature retained “so much of the Aristotelian and scholastic doctrine of causes.” New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Baconian Method” (Baconian Method).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Baconian Method) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- doctrine [redraft]: Although the substantive content about vitalism versus mechanistic materialism and the organic/inorganic heating distinction is supported by the packet, the requested term (“doctrine”) is not actually defined—so the match to the supplied term is incorrect.; The definition begins with “Vitalism is the view…,” which is a term mismatch for the input term and not a definition of “doctrine” as requested.; The definition provided defines **vitalism**, not the term **“doctrine.”** The packet’s entry is for **Vitalism** (linked under the term field), but it does not support a definition of the general word “doctrine” itself in the field of learning.; The supplied packet is for the concept/source label “Vitalism,” not the term “doctrine,” so the requested sense does not match the packet. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Vitalism” (D014799).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014799) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- domain-general ability [redraft]: Because the packet does not explicitly define the term’s general meaning, the first sentence of the proposed definition is unsupported.; The packet does not provide a definition of “domain-general ability” as a broad mental capacity usable across tasks/subjects/contexts rather than tied to one discipline; the excerpt only states that “spatial cognition is not solely a domain-general ability” and that it is “shaped by educational experiences and disciplinary exposure.”; The packet supports that spatial cognition is “not solely a domain-general ability” and is shaped by educational and disciplinary exposure, but it does not explicitly define domain-general ability as a broad mental capacity usable across tasks, subjects, or contexts.; The wording generalizes beyond the source by presenting a broad cross-task definition that is not stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Özkaya Ali; Turan Saim; Uzun Adem; Akhan Osman. Disciplinary trends in spatial concept associations: a multifaceted analysis of student responses. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745600; article XML SHA-256 cd7ebc61ac4906ae0a663c407a9961aa3c6d00f26b800d6a9193dc3a5e0a422f. “Disciplinary trends in spatial concept associations: a multifaceted analysis of student responses” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745600).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745600) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dominant allele [redraft]: The definition adds a general claim that a dominant allele’s effects are seen when only one copy is present; the packet does not explicitly state this one-copy rule.; The definition’s example claim is not supported: the packet attributes the observed behavioral/metabolic differences in 129S2B6−Tas1r3−/− F1 hybrids to expression of the recessive Tas1r3 allele, and it states that hemizygosity of Tas1r3 did not influence the relevant traits.; The definition’s general claim about what makes an allele “dominant” (effects seen with only one copy, contrasted with recessive) is not explicitly supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The example is loosely supported but overgeneralized: the packet says the C57BL/6J strain carries the dominant Tas1r3 allele, not that this allele is simply “the one associated with” all sweetener-related traits in hybrid mice.; The packet does not support the specific phrasing that a “dominant Tas1r3 allele” is the one associated with the sweetener-related traits in the hybrid mice described.; The requested field is learning, but the term and source packet are about genetics/allelic variation rather than a learning concept, so the field is not defensible from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Murovets Vladimir O.; Lukina Ekaterina A.; Sozontov Egor A.; Andreeva Julia V.; Khropycheva Raisa P.; Zolotarev Vasiliy A.. Allelic variation of the Tas1r3 taste receptor gene affects sweet taste responsiveness and metabolism of glucose in F 1 mouse hybrids. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0235913; article XML SHA-256 e2ec00101c6c31fcaffeb7927429f1333872484b16efcad6af6e1530b566f6c2. “Allelic variation of the Tas1r3 taste receptor gene affects sweet taste responsiveness and metabolism of glucose in F 1 mouse hybrids” (10.1371/journal.pone.0235913).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235913) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dominant eye [redraft]: The packet excerpt does not state how the “dominant eye” was identified (e.g., the specific criterion/test used to decide dominance), so the definition’s claim that it is “the eye identified as the dominant one when a person’s two eyes are compared” is not explicitly supported.; The packet uses “dominant eye” only as a study condition (“dominant eye fixation”) and does not define it as the eye identified as dominant when the two eyes are compared.; The phrase “the eye used alone during a dominant-eye fixation condition” is an inference from the study context, not an explicit definition in the source packet.; While the packet does describe “dominant eye fixation” as one of the experimental fixation conditions (implying an eye used alone during that condition), the packet does not clearly support the full second sentence as written: it does not explicitly define the term to mean “the eye used alone during a dominant-eye fixation condition,” it only describes the study conditions.; “Non-dominant eye” as a contrasting category is not defined in the packet; the definition adds a general explanatory sense that is unsupported here. New packet required. Source: [Hirasawa Kazunori; Kobayashi Kaoru; Shibamoto Asuka; Tobari Houmi; Fukuda Yuki; Shoji Nobuyuki. Variability in monocular and binocular fixation during standard automated perimetry. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0207517; article XML SHA-256 68d9fcfb57cda04a8c72c94877fbd19a6992af93801bb0c9ce1a36714ed162df. “Variability in monocular and binocular fixation during standard automated perimetry” (10.1371/journal.pone.0207517).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207517) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Doppler effect [redraft]: The definition adds a general physics explanation that is not stated in the supplied source packet.; The packet does not provide or explicitly support a general definition of the Doppler effect as a change in observed frequency due to movement between a sound source and a listener/recording point; it only discusses testing Doppler shifts as a hypothesis for whale-song frequency variation.; The packet supports that the Doppler effect was considered as a possible explanation for observed frequency differences in whale calls, but it does not explicitly define the effect as a frequency change caused by movement between a sound source and a listener/recording point. New packet required. Source: [Miller Brian S.; Leaper Russell; Calderan Susannah; Gedamke Jason. Red Shift, Blue Shift: Investigating Doppler Shifts, Blubber Thickness, and Migration as Explanations of Seasonal Variation in the Tonality of Antarctic Blue Whale Song. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0107740; article XML SHA-256 e1b9d123f88bad1b61d9e38cef54f2e68dc89afa143f8650c70691b9c46f1b66. “Red Shift, Blue Shift: Investigating Doppler Shifts, Blubber Thickness, and Migration as Explanations of Seasonal Variation in the Tonality of Antarctic Blue Whale Song” (10.1371/journal.pone.0107740).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107740) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dorsal stream [redraft]: Second sentence is meta-commentary on the packet, not a definition; describes the source rather than the term. New packet required. Source: [Paton Joshua; van Boxtel Jeroen J A. Attentional biases, as measured by motion-induced blindness, are linked to schizophrenia traits. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325609; article XML SHA-256 c902b73658f5674635d5cf2a5b32d1ad43f57813c3a507e32ecfcaa83b445d86. “Attentional biases, as measured by motion-induced blindness, are linked to schizophrenia traits” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325609).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325609) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dotting test [redraft]: The definition is slightly over-specific by presenting the test as used to assess named cognitive domains in general, rather than limiting itself to the packet's wording about the PHES battery and its associated functions.; The packet mentions “Serial Dotting Test (SDT)” as part of the PHES battery, but it does not state that “dotting test” is also called “Serial Dotting Test.”; The packet says the tests “assess psychomotor retardation, attention deficit and executive functions,” whereas the definition claims “psychomotor speed.”; The packet supports that the Serial Dotting Test is one of five psychometrical tests in the porto-systemic encephalopathy battery/PHES and that the battery assesses psychomotor retardation, attention deficit, and executive functions, but it does not specifically support the phrasing "psychomotor speed." New packet required. Source: [Pessidjo Djomatcho Larissa; Kowo Mathurin Pierre; Ndam Antonin Ndjitoyap; Njonnou Sylvain Raoul Simeni; Kenfack Gabin Ulrich; Andoulo Firmin Ankouane; Bagnaka Servais Fiacre Eloumou; Bekolo Winnie Tatiana; Malongue Agnès; Babagna Isabelle Dang; Sida Magloire Biwolé; Luma Henry; Njoya Oudou. Normalisation of the psychometric encephalopathy score within the Cameroonian population. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12876-021-01858-7; article XML SHA-256 27baad8d8b32ac3f2f0aae95c01663a4e288013c12207e65bd15104738fb8e8e. “Normalisation of the psychometric encephalopathy score within the Cameroonian population” (10.1186/s12876-021-01858-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12876-021-01858-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- double helix [redraft]: Well-known headword redefined via hedge as one paper's absorptive-capacity model. New packet required. Source: [Cheng Liangyou; Qiu Yong; Wang Luwei. The double helix model: Dynamic evolution of knowledge absorptive capacity and innovation efficiency. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336530; article XML SHA-256 1debbe10e3ff8e14497dd0c5910aa65b6585184a5634de0ab4d0731404dfc1e0. “The double helix model: Dynamic evolution of knowledge absorptive capacity and innovation efficiency” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336530).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336530) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- double standard [redraft]: The definition adds an interpretation about a “common moral rule” that is not stated in the packet text.; The definition’s claim that a double standard means using “two different measures … rather than one common moral rule” is not explicitly supported by the packet; the packet states that a “double standard of virtue and duty” prevailed but does not describe it as being “rather than one common moral rule.”; The definition’s claim that the passage describes a “medieval Christian distinction … between higher and lower expectations of conduct” is only loosely implied; the packet mentions medieval ecclesiastical jurisprudence and Christian casuistry, but it does not explicitly state “higher and lower expectations” or characterize the distinction in those terms.; The phrase “higher and lower expectations of conduct” is not supported by the supplied passage; the excerpt only states that “there came to prevail a double standard of virtue and duty” and then cuts off mid-sentence. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1102500-1114500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- downward social comparison [redraft]: The claim that such comparison makes viewers feel relatively more capable is not supported by the packet.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “downward social comparison” as a tendency to compare oneself with someone doing worse or failing; it only mentions “components of downward social comparison” in relation to game failures.; The packet does not support the claim that seeing another person fail makes viewers feel “relatively more capable.”; The packet supports that witnessing failures can activate downward social comparison and competitive motivation, but it does not define downward social comparison as a general tendency to compare oneself with someone doing worse or failing.; While the packet does support that witnessing failures can “activate… competitive motivation,” it does not clearly support the rest of the definition’s wording about increasing “interest” via that specific mechanism. New packet required. Source: [Zetian Dai; Juan Xue; Jiaxin Du; Hoe Tan Wee. Unlocking play willingness: the dual pathways of curiosity drive and downward social comparison in game advertising. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1374649; article XML SHA-256 eaa1de7a83756cebe8812cc25df0a51764211b805d782f936ec4f90afbfca41e. “Unlocking play willingness: the dual pathways of curiosity drive and downward social comparison in game advertising” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1374649).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1374649) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dream ego [redraft]: The definition adds “how freely it moves,” which is only loosely related to the packet’s phrase “clear mobility” and is not stated as a definitional feature in the source.; The packet does not explicitly define “dream ego” as the “dreamer’s sense of self,” nor does it provide wording that directly supports the specific characterization “sense of self as it appears within a dream narrative.” It only reports comparisons in terms of “dream-ego agency,” “vagueness of the dream-ego,” “mobility,” and “presence of others,” without defining the construct in those terms.; The packet supports dream-ego as a feature of dream structure characterized by agency, mobility, vagueness, and the presence of others, but it does not define it as the dreamer’s “sense of self” within the dream narrative.; The wording presents these features as a current general definition rather than as findings from previous research in this specific article context. New packet required. Source: [Konakawa Hisae; Kawai Toshio; Tanaka Yasuhiro; Hatanaka Chihiro; Li Qi; Koh Alethea. Examining the association between cultural self-construal and dream structures in China, Japan, and the United States. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1688407; article XML SHA-256 b8077ae8f4bf43dada49e90ad5e2f2b7c0712332bf90dbe82a11b438af5ed63d. “Examining the association between cultural self-construal and dream structures in China, Japan, and the United States” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1688407).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1688407) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dream interpretation [redraft]: The packet supports dream interpretation being used to consider dreams for personal insight in psychotherapy and in lay group methods (Ullman and Schredl). However, it does not explicitly state that these group methods use “guided discussion methods,” so that specific wording is unsupported.; “Explore its possible meaning” is not stated in the packet; the source supports working with a recent dream to gain personal insight, not a general definition of meaning-making.; “Structured lay-led groups using guided discussion methods” goes beyond the packet, which only says the Ullman and Schredl methods are designed for lay use in groups and that psychotherapy training is not needed for group leaders; it does not describe guided discussion methods. New packet required. Source: [Edwards Christopher L.; Malinowski Josie E.; McGee Shauna L.; Bennett Paul D.; Ruby Perrine M.; Blagrove Mark T.. Comparing personal insight gains due to consideration of a recent dream and consideration of a recent event using the Ullman and Schredl dream group methods. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00831; article XML SHA-256 3925a2a149823d3a555cda092fe317eeb8f889837c0872a5b958380df7acc919. “Comparing personal insight gains due to consideration of a recent dream and consideration of a recent event using the Ullman and Schredl dream group methods” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00831).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00831) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- DRL [redraft]: Other substantive parts—DRL being used for vehicle routing, and the need for data reflecting real-world/ geocoded locations, distances, and demands—are broadly consistent with the packet, but the unsupported first-sentence claim causes the definition to fail the support requirement.; The definition’s phrase “an approach that applies reinforcement learning with deep-learning methods” is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text (the packet mentions “deep reinforcement learning (DRL) algorithms” but does not describe the mechanism as combining reinforcement learning with deep-learning methods).; The first sentence gives a general technical definition of DRL as an approach that applies reinforcement learning with deep-learning methods; the packet only identifies the acronym as “deep reinforcement learning” and does not state that explanatory definition.; The source-specific sense is only partially supported: the packet supports DRL being used for vehicle routing and the need for real-world compatible data with locations, distances, and demands, but the definition compresses this into a broader claim about what DRL “refers to” without clearly staying within the source wording. New packet required. Source: [Ali Hina; Saleem Khalid. Generating large-scale real-world vehicle routing dataset with novel spatial data extraction tool. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304422; article XML SHA-256 9debfffdc6f20542b8494323ac5fe1ca6865e46fc544b8e0117824e05f9a9c0a. “Generating large-scale real-world vehicle routing dataset with novel spatial data extraction tool” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304422).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304422) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Drosophila [redraft]: Describes the study organism role rather than defining the term; never says what Drosophila is. New packet required. Source: [Lotfy Mohamed; Al Sawai Fatema; Alyammahi Dhoha; Kundu Biduth. Metformin modulates survival, oxidative stress, and gene expression in a high-sucrose Drosophila diabetes model. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359638; article XML SHA-256 473d2e15695ef833cd85e0770ffcc16721f178a03a050384b3c9d2460178b75a. “Metformin modulates survival, oxidative stress, and gene expression in a high-sucrose Drosophila diabetes model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359638).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359638) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- drowsiness [redraft]: The claim that drowsiness “can impair alertness” is not directly supported by the supplied packet text, which focuses on “driver drowsiness detection” and “fatigue detection” rather than explicitly stating impairment of alertness.; The definition’s first sentence generalizes beyond the source’s specific subject matter; the source is about driver drowsiness detection, not a general psychology/counselling definition.; The packet supports driver drowsiness in an automotive detection context, but it does not define drowsiness generally as a state of sleepiness or fatigue that impairs alertness. New packet required. Source: [Essahraui Siham; Lamaakal Ismail; Maleh Yassine; El Makkaoui Khalid; Bouami Mouncef Filali; Ouahbi Ibrahim; Elmannai Hela; Abd El-Latif Ahmed A. FastKAN-DDD: A novel fast Kolmogorov-Arnold network-based approach for driver drowsiness detection optimized for TinyML deployment. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332577; article XML SHA-256 6519038ba769e4f59fe53a1f8bf195df352e866cb6cd005f3a672ba2e16d9708. “FastKAN-DDD: A novel fast Kolmogorov-Arnold network-based approach for driver drowsiness detection optimized for TinyML deployment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332577).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332577) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Drug Abuse Screening Test [redraft]: The definition claims the Drug Abuse Screening Test is “a questionnaire”; the packet only describes it as a “drug-abuse screening tool” and does not explicitly state that it is a questionnaire.; The definition states it is used to “gauge how severe a person’s drug use may be.” The packet mentions an “urgent requirement” to understand “the severity of their drug use,” but it does not directly connect that function to DAST-20 as an explicit purpose in the way the definition claims.; The packet does not support the description of DAST-20 as a “widely used 20-item version” in this wording; “20-item” is implied by the title, but “widely used” is not established in the packet text.; The packet supports DAST-20 as a drug-abuse screening tool and reports acceptable reliability/validity for the Tagalog version, but it does not explicitly support the claims that it is a questionnaire or that it gauges how severe a person’s drug use may be.; While the packet supports that Tagalog versions of DAST-20 were “confirmed to be reliable and valid,” it does not support the broader framing that the overall Drug Abuse Screening Test (as a general term) is “widely used” and operates specifically as described beyond what is stated about DAST-20 in this study. New packet required. Source: [Harada Takayuki; Nomura Kazutaka; Baba Toshiaki; Shirasaka Tomohiro; Takano Ayumi; Kanamori Shogo. Development and validation of Tagalog versions of the Drug Abuse Screening Test-20 (DAST-20) and Stimulant Relapse Risk Scale (SRRS) for drug users in the Philippines. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0280047; article XML SHA-256 13320384b718502efa2fed5aebfb25ed0313a1f006e7ea764cc3713e5858b670. “Development and validation of Tagalog versions of the Drug Abuse Screening Test-20 (DAST-20) and Stimulant Relapse Risk Scale (SRRS) for drug users in the Philippines” (10.1371/journal.pone.0280047).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280047) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- drug abuse treatment [redraft]: The definition claims that treatment “includes medication-based treatment and related monitoring,” but the provided packet discusses medication comparisons (methadone, buprenorphine, extended-release naltrexone) and data collected during trials; it does not explicitly support the notion of “related monitoring” as part of the definition.; The definition is placed under the “diagnosis” field, but the source packet is about clinical trials and medication-assisted treatment approaches for opioid use disorder, not diagnostic criteria or diagnosis.; The packet discusses medication-assisted/pharmacological treatment for opioid use disorder in clinical trials, not a general definition of “drug abuse treatment” for substance use problems overall.; “Inpatient facilities or outpatient treatment programs” is supported only as study/treatment settings mentioned in the article, not as part of a dictionary definition of the term.; “Related monitoring intended to help people complete care and move toward long-term recovery” goes beyond what the packet states and is not directly defined there. New packet required. Source: [Balise Raymond R; Hu Mei-Chen; Calderon Anna R; Odom Gabriel J; Brandt Laura; Luo Sean X; Feaster Daniel J. Data cleaning and harmonization of clinical trial data: Medication-assisted treatment for opioid use disorder. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312695; article XML SHA-256 658dd6929f2031845cb247ba33adfc64298f5f715d81f68463b58ba802cee036. “Data cleaning and harmonization of clinical trial data: Medication-assisted treatment for opioid use disorder” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312695).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312695) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dry eyes [redraft]: The definition adds a broad clinical characterization of dry eyes that is only partly supported by the packet; the packet specifically discusses ocular surface mucins and gene-expression changes in Sjögren’s syndrome-associated dry eyes, not the general condition in that form.; The definition’s core claim (“dry eyes” as a condition where the eye’s tear film and mucus-related surface balance are disrupted) is not explicitly stated in the packet text provided.; The definition’s statement that the topic is discussed “through changes in mucin-related gene activity on the ocular surface” is only partially supported (the packet reports mucin-related gene mRNA changes assessed by impression cytology after rebamipide), but the overall definition still contains unsupported definitional elements.; The packet does discuss Sjögren’s syndrome–associated dry eyes (SS-DE) and mucin-related gene expression changes, but it does not provide a general definition of “dry eyes” in terms of disrupted tear film–mucus balance.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source is a biomedical/ophthalmology article about Sjögren’s syndrome-associated dry eyes, not cognition. New packet required. Source: [Shoji Jun; Inada Noriko; Tomioka Akiko; Yamagami Satoru. Assessment of mucin-related gene alterations following treatment with rebamipide ophthalmic suspension in Sjögren’s syndrome-associated dry eyes. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0242617; article XML SHA-256 105315596d335f40b4f138bad94e4e5e10aec401b9e7b9ab7ddf243bb06e6b98. “Assessment of mucin-related gene alterations following treatment with rebamipide ophthalmic suspension in Sjögren’s syndrome-associated dry eyes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0242617).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242617) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- DS [redraft]: The definition’s opening expansion is therefore not securely supported by the supplied source packet, even though the treatment and mechanism statements are broadly consistent with the packet.; The packet does not support the specific acronym/symbol “DS” standing for disulfiram; it refers to “Disulfiram (DSF)” but does not define “DS” as an abbreviation.; The packet supports disulfiram as the substance, but it does not support the acronym sense “DS” for disulfiram; the source text uses “DSF,” not “DS.”; The packet supports disulfiram’s use for alcoholism and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase inhibition leading to the disulfiram-ethanol reaction, but the requested sense/term “DS” is not explicitly established in the packet. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Disulfiram” (C447).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- DSM–IV–TR [redraft]: The packet does support the ADHD age-of-onset change description (from before age 7 with impairment to before age 12 without that impairment-specific wording), but it does not provide support for the “fourth edition, text revision” characterization.; The packet supports the DSM-IV-TR ADHD age-of-onset rule and that DSM-IV-TR preceded DSM-5, but it does not support identifying DSM-IV-TR as the “fourth edition, text revision” of the manual.; The packet text does not state that DSM–IV–TR is the “fourth edition” or specifically a “text revision.”; “A manual used to define mental disorder diagnoses” is broader than what the packet explicitly states and is not directly supported by the provided source text. New packet required. Source: [Sanders Sharon; Thomas Rae; Glasziou Paul; Doust Jenny. A review of changes to the attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder age of onset criterion using the checklist for modifying disease definitions. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s12888-019-2337-7; article XML SHA-256 9d6cd5462afec294d8aac12e2cf560ebf6e29edf8208ed3e6ca29c9a6ce9368f. “A review of changes to the attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder age of onset criterion using the checklist for modifying disease definitions” (10.1186/s12888-019-2337-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2337-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- DTPS [redraft]: The definition asserts that cells “temporarily survive a drug treatment” by “evading its effects without permanent genetic resistance”; while the packet describes DTPs as “temporarily survive drug treatment” and notes they can provide “a reservoir for future genetic changes driving permanent resistance,” it does not explicitly support the phrasing that they do so specifically “without permanent genetic resistance.”; The definition frames the term in “cancer” and describes cancer-cell drug resistance mechanisms; this is not clearly within the requested field of “mental health,” and no mental-health context is provided in the packet.; The packet supports drug-tolerant persisters/DTPs in cancer research, not a mental health or counselling term, so the requested field is not defensible from the source.; The provided definition claims “DTPS” stands for “drug-tolerant persisters,” but the packet consistently uses “DTPs” (drug-tolerant persisters) rather than “DTPS,” so the specific acronym “DTPS” is not supported.; The source uses DTPs (drug-tolerant persisters), not DTPS as a defined acronym, so the exact term/sense is not fully supported. New packet required. Source: [Iyer Anton; Alva Adrian; Granada Adrián E; Chakrabarti Shaon. Inheritable cell-states shape drug-persister correlations and population dynamics in cancer cells. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1013446; article XML SHA-256 0c9d7a2b712e65969cd4d6fd08cfed00277be56a55f2007b346840e83c3f96e7. “Inheritable cell-states shape drug-persister correlations and population dynamics in cancer cells” (10.1371/journal.pcbi.1013446).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1013446) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- DTs [redraft]: The definition broadens the source too far by presenting DTs as a general category of educational materials; the packet only supports DTs as digital textbooks discussed in undergraduate nursing education.; The definition claims DTs are “designed to match learners’ information-processing styles,” but the provided packet only mentions “information processing methods” and does not substantiate a “information-processing styles” framing as stated.; The definition is not strictly limited to what the packet describes as “future direction” and “should be developed,” yet it presents the intent (“tools designed to match…,” “support timely, personalized learning”) as a more general description rather than the packet’s scoped findings and recommendations.; The field label ‘development’ is not clearly supported by the packet’s content, which is about nursing education and digital textbooks rather than a development sense in psychology/counselling. New packet required. Source: [Jang Aeri; Park Hyunyoung; Moon Jeong Eun. Future direction of digital textbooks in undergraduate nursing education: A scoping review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326109; article XML SHA-256 957e468e421375c55445d9b0c66574317229da58c7895c1714f83d949bd02d4c. “Future direction of digital textbooks in undergraduate nursing education: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326109).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326109) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dual scaling [redraft]: Dual scaling is a known psychometric method; definition redefines it as an urban-scaling threshold pattern. New packet required. Source: [Mullachery Pricila H; Bilal Usama. Urban scaling of opioid analgesic sales in the United States. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0258526; article XML SHA-256 58317942a64bac05282cd9faf138f6eaeeddaf906208a1d5b2ab58676dc53daf. “Urban scaling of opioid analgesic sales in the United States” (10.1371/journal.pone.0258526).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258526) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dual thresholds [redraft]: Generic phrase defined by one paper's blockchain cost framework; describes the study, not a term. New packet required. Source: [Wei Guangxing; Shen Jiayi; Guo Xiaohan. Selecting suitable entities to implement blockchain in green agricultural supply chains. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334867; article XML SHA-256 15971f719f2baec03629d1e8dca3173245de915d296919d25bee2345b0b2165a. “Selecting suitable entities to implement blockchain in green agricultural supply chains” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334867).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334867) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dummy variable [redraft]: The definition is a general statistics usage of 'dummy variable'; the packet supports only the specific binary coding example for heat stress, not a mental-health-specific sense.; The definition’s first sentence (“A dummy variable is a simple coded variable used to show whether a condition is present or absent.”) is not directly stated in the packet; the packet only describes one specific dummy-variable coding for heat stress (code 1 vs 0).; The packet is from a cattle genomics/heat-stress study, not a mental health source, so the requested field is not supported by the evidence.; The packet’s example is about heat stress in Holstein cattle and does not provide mental-health context for the general definition, so the definition is only partially grounded in the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [Halli Kathrin; Vanvanhossou Seyi Fridaius; Bohlouli Mehdi; König Sven; Yin Tong. Identification of candidate genes on the basis of SNP by time-lagged heat stress interactions for milk production traits in German Holstein cattle. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0258216; article XML SHA-256 2d65018bdfa8100b217d564fa083b805dceaef85b33633c6971cffdf26178adf. “Identification of candidate genes on the basis of SNP by time-lagged heat stress interactions for milk production traits in German Holstein cattle” (10.1371/journal.pone.0258216).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258216) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Dutch Hunger Winter [redraft]: The definition claims the effects “persist across the lifespan,” but the packet only states “decades later” and does not explicitly support persistence across the lifespan as a whole.; The definition’s wording “long-term biological and developmental effects” is partially supported (e.g., metabolic/neurodevelopmental consequences; long-term health like diabetes/cardiovascular disease), but the specific linkage in the definition to “developmental effects that persist across the lifespan” is not fully supported by the packet’s phrasing.; The packet supports long-term health effects of in utero exposure, but “persist across the lifespan” is broader than the source states; it only says effects are seen decades later and does not establish a lifespan-wide generalization.; The packet supports the Dutch Hunger Winter as the 1944–45 famine in the Netherlands, but it does not support the claim that it is “often used” as a historical example in research. New packet required. Source: [Eftekhari Adan; Aker Amira; Uppalapati Khartik; Wispelwey Bram. Scarcity by design: famine, structural violence, and the biosocial inheritance of political deprivation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpubh.2026.1819688; article XML SHA-256 56d9eef84fd73996c17ab3a297ce6d9bc193055f655b9c757990021aaeeb9d28. “Scarcity by design: famine, structural violence, and the biosocial inheritance of political deprivation” (10.3389/fpubh.2026.1819688).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2026.1819688) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- duty to warn [redraft]: The definition adds that the duty is an “ethical and legal” responsibility; the packet only states an “obligation” to breach confidentiality and does not explicitly support ethical and/or legal wording.; The packet supports an obligation to breach confidentiality to warn third parties, but it does not mention a legal responsibility; adding “legal” is unsupported.; The packet supports warning third parties about being assaulted or contracting a serious infection, but it does not provide support for the specific phrasing “health professional’s ethical and legal responsibility.”; The source says the danger is to third parties being assaulted or contracting a serious infection, so the wording should stay anchored to that scope rather than generalizing beyond it. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Duty to Warn” (D017007).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017007) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- dynamic [redraft]: Describes what the packet says rather than defining the word; second sentence is commentary on the source, not a definition. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dynamic” (Dynamic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Dynamic) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- dynamometry [redraft]: The definition narrows the term to a specific application in hamstring assessment without showing that this is the requested general sense of 'dynamometry'.; The packet does not explicitly define “dynamometry” as “a method of measuring strength with specialized equipment,” so the first substantive claim of the definition is unsupported.; The packet supports only that isokinetic dynamometry was the most frequently used hamstring-strength assessment modality; it does not define dynamometry in general as a method of measuring strength with specialized equipment.; The second sentence overstates the source by saying it is used for monitoring reliability, fatigue-related changes, and limb differences; the article reports reliability, post-activity fatigue sensitivity, and inter-limb asymmetry patterns, but not that these are the specific purposes of isokinetic dynamometry. New packet required. Source: [Sundh Adam E.; Ripley Nicholas J.; Lamb A. J.; Comfort Paul. Hamstring strength assessment methods in sport: A systematic review and meta-analysis of post-activity strength decrements, asymmetry benchmarks, and measurement reliability. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352509; article XML SHA-256 a5ba86e046df47078ab32485ae8ace0cdce895d113d5f79bce0d88b926d92f0c. “Hamstring strength assessment methods in sport: A systematic review and meta-analysis of post-activity strength decrements, asymmetry benchmarks, and measurement reliability” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352509).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352509) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dysfunction [redraft]: The claim that dysfunction is described as “rather than simply a difference in anatomy” is an interpretation of the study’s findings, not an explicit definition in the packet.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “dysfunction” as “impaired functioning” or as “a disturbance in how a person functions rather than simply a difference in anatomy.”; The packet supports a study-specific meaning of sexual dysfunction outcomes (loss of libido, loss of sexual pleasure, dyspareunia), but it does not define dysfunction generally as “impaired functioning” or as a broad disturbance in how a person functions.; The packet uses “sexual dysfunction” to describe specific sexual outcomes (e.g., loss of libido, loss of sexual pleasure, dyspareunia) and reports associations, but it does not support the broader definitional framing about dysfunction vs anatomy.; The requested field is set to cognition, but the packet is about sexual dysfunction in a gynecology/sexual health context, so the field is not well supported. New packet required. Source: [Lock Emily; Ades Veronica. Sexual dysfunction after female genital mutilation/cutting: A retrospective cross-sectional study of associations with organ-specific genital anatomy, trauma history, and psychiatric comorbidity. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356761; article XML SHA-256 c78af0653d780aa7707cb4d8a6ba768d2de3da0665fb4bae6f177490e03b65d2. “Sexual dysfunction after female genital mutilation/cutting: A retrospective cross-sectional study of associations with organ-specific genital anatomy, trauma history, and psychiatric comorbidity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356761).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356761) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- dyspraxia [redraft]: Packet defines apraxia; dyspraxia is a different headword and the definition simply relabels the apraxia record. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Apraxias” (D001072).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001072) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- dystopia [redraft]: The added explanation about technology or social change causing harmful outcomes is not established by the packet; it is an unsupported generalization beyond the source text.; The definition’s claims about “an imagined troubling future or social order,” being “contrasted with a utopian ideal,” and referring to “fearful expectations about how technology or social change could lead to harmful outcomes” are not explicitly stated or supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet discusses robot leadership perceptions, but does not support the definition’s broader framing about technology/social change leading to harmful outcomes as the meaning of “dystopia.”; The packet does not provide a definition of “dystopia”; it only mentions that participants “imagined either a utopia or worried about a dystopia.”; The packet only shows the word used in context (“worry about a dystopia”) and does not support the broader definitional claim that dystopia means an imagined troubling future or social order. New packet required. Source: [Cichor Jakub Edward; Hubner-Benz Sylvia; Benz Tobias; Emmerling Franziska; Peus Claudia. Robot leadership–Investigating human perceptions and reactions towards social robots showing leadership behaviors. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281786; article XML SHA-256 ae8fe1e19ac9cd3a75ee75e759874ac17d9f8bdf8554db709660678a66219a4b. “Robot leadership–Investigating human perceptions and reactions towards social robots showing leadership behaviors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281786).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281786) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- EA [redraft]: Packet's abbreviation is EA-SI; EA alone is not defined there and the definition grafts the SI part onto it. New packet required. Source: [Resch Maximilian; Bellhäuser Henrik. Appreciation should be EA-SI—demystifying the definition and operationalization of experienced appreciation at work by developing a new construct. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1445533; article XML SHA-256 6725b863ca5d35ac90c8ccb5e885985fae6a1390edffc8114fb706cc3032b83a. “Appreciation should be EA-SI—demystifying the definition and operationalization of experienced appreciation at work by developing a new construct” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1445533).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1445533) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- early experience [redraft]: Normal sense is early-life experience; definition glosses an incidental phrase in the passage as a technical term. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-231000-243000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- early intervention [redraft]: 'Young people' is an inference from 'youth mental health care' rather than a statement directly supported by the packet, and the packet only mentions CHR-P and FEP populations in this context.; The definition claims a sense of the term for the requested field (“diagnosis”), but the packet discusses heterogeneity of care models and service components rather than defining a diagnostic concept.; The definition includes “It is described as a key part of youth mental health care,” which is broadly supported, but the other substantive elements are not supported by the provided packet.; The packet does not state that early intervention “means providing mental health services early in the course of illness”; it only mentions that early intervention in psychosis (EIP) is a key component of youth mental health care and discusses care models for CHR-P and FEP.; The packet does not support the claim that early intervention is “especially for young people who are at clinical high risk for psychosis or experiencing a first episode of psychosis”; while it mentions CHR-P and FEP and youth mental health care, it does not explicitly frame them as an “especially for” group.; The packet supports early intervention in psychosis as a key component of youth mental health care, but it does not explicitly define the term as 'providing mental health services early in the course of illness.' New packet required. Source: [Scognamiglio Pasquale; Martiadis Vassilis; Diaspro Giuseppe; Viacava Luca; Longobardi Anna; Rea Raffaele; Iniziato Valeria; Saviano Pasquale; La Pia Silvestro. Clinical practice guidelines and quality standards for early intervention in psychosis: an AGREE II appraisal and systematic review of service components. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1831668; article XML SHA-256 f4c7faae27b7feefe01f8dbf19d69c7e1e58083ce48e0da922756baacb0d1d07. “Clinical practice guidelines and quality standards for early intervention in psychosis: an AGREE II appraisal and systematic review of service components” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1831668).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1831668) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ECM [redraft]: Abbreviation never expanded; definition describes the study's integrated model rather than what ECM stands for. New packet required. Source: [Li Haoran; Li Jiahao; Fan Xingchen. An empirical study on the intentions and behaviors of non-art majors in continuously selecting esthetic education courses: integration of ECM and TPB. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1757284; article XML SHA-256 61971d1cfef1a88a810cc5b1c315360c6c23458d115b1abed02fe3441ec78083. “An empirical study on the intentions and behaviors of non-art majors in continuously selecting esthetic education courses: integration of ECM and TPB” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1757284).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1757284) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ecological niche [redraft]: Because the supplied text frames “ecological niche” mainly through the modeling procedure (not as a definitional concept), the first sentence of the provided definition is not explicitly supported by the packet.; The packet does not directly define the term “ecological niche” as a “pattern of environmental, climatic, and time-and-place conditions” linked to where an organism occurs; it only describes “Ecological Niche Modeling” as a process using spatiotemporal, climatic, and environmental data to predict distribution.; The packet supports ecological niche modeling, not the term ecological niche itself; the definition appears to conflate the niche with the modeling process used to predict distribution.; The requested field is learning, but the source is an ecology/wildlife disease modeling article, so the field is not defensible from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Beeman Sean P; Morrison Andrea M; Unnasch Thomas R; Unnasch Robert S. Ensemble ecological niche modeling of West Nile virus probability in Florida. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0256868; article XML SHA-256 e9065147742b548522cce2c3a8c5bce1ae700ac09d57d044e15cae77df697c78. “Ensemble ecological niche modeling of West Nile virus probability in Florida” (10.1371/journal.pone.0256868).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256868) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ecological systems theory [redraft]: Because that phrase is a substantive claim about the theory’s framing, the definition includes at least one element not directly evidenced in the provided text.; The packet discusses applying ecological systems/social-ecological theory to outcomes and references proximal vs. distal influences, but it does not explicitly support the specific characterization “a developmental view.”; The packet supports a social-ecological view of youth behavior and outcomes, but it does not explicitly support calling ecological systems theory a “developmental view.” New packet required. Source: [Sheerin Kaitlin M.; Brodell Regina; Huey Stanley J.; Kemp Kathleen A.. Applying ecological systems theory to juvenile legal system interventions outcomes research: a measurement framework. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1177568; article XML SHA-256 44cd766256c659c681cfa307391d013cbe2626da767599a9f117ee46c5695a9f. “Applying ecological systems theory to juvenile legal system interventions outcomes research: a measurement framework” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1177568).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1177568) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- economy of effort [redraft]: The definition claims the idea is “influential,” but the packet only states that assumptions “are open to question” and that there are doubts/criticisms; it does not support the “influential” qualifier.; The packet does not explicitly define “economy of effort” as organizing articulation to “conserve effort or energy,” so that characterization is not directly supported.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: this is a speech-production/articulatory-dynamics concept, not a mental-health term.; While the packet supports the contrast idea that there is “higher priority” to transmit as much information as possible in a given time (and names it the “principle of maximum rate of information”), the definition’s first sentence includes unsupported elements about how the principle operates (conserving energy). New packet required. Source: [Xu Yi; Prom-on Santitham. Economy of Effort or Maximum Rate of Information? Exploring Basic Principles of Articulatory Dynamics. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02469; article XML SHA-256 bf1bb1abbbc8858c09072b12cf0e1b5f80b3cc9ae0e58313e793920f33f80467. “Economy of Effort or Maximum Rate of Information? Exploring Basic Principles of Articulatory Dynamics” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02469).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02469) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ecosystemic approach [redraft]: Built from one phrase; adds wider systems and the individual-only contrast, and the rest restates the paper's recommendation. New packet required. Source: [Wen Xue; Shu Yinuo; Qu Diyang; Wang Yinzhe; Cui Zaixu; Zhang Xiaoqian; Chen Runsen. Associations of bullying perpetration and peer victimization subtypes with preadolescent’s suicidality, non-suicidal self-injury, neurocognition, and brain development. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12916-023-02808-8; article XML SHA-256 234ade0b94c7cb67a21cdda42ddf67a16b72e504cdbf0098e903428cbfa55722. “Associations of bullying perpetration and peer victimization subtypes with preadolescent’s suicidality, non-suicidal self-injury, neurocognition, and brain development” (10.1186/s12916-023-02808-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-023-02808-8) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Ecstasy [redraft]: Does not say what ecstasy is; only describes how the source lists it among coping substances. New packet required. Source: [Bbosa Godfrey S.; Muwonge Haruna. Alcohol and substance use in extreme environment temperatures exposures, neural mechanisms, coping mechanisms, substance use disorders, and increased hospital visits. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1677947; article XML SHA-256 0c194009a370ab391d57afdcde31ab8a70955edc3f1d55c77fa2d9327e810d0b. “Alcohol and substance use in extreme environment temperatures exposures, neural mechanisms, coping mechanisms, substance use disorders, and increased hospital visits” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1677947).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1677947) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- EDA [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported generalization by saying electrodermal activity measures changes in autonomic arousal; the packet only says EDA was recorded as a physiological signal and that autonomic measures may capture affective states.; The packet does not explicitly define EDA as “measur[ing] changes in the body’s autonomic arousal.” While EDA is described as a physiological recording and the study discusses “autonomic measures,” the specific phrasing about autonomic arousal as the measured target is not supported verbatim or equivalently by the provided text.; The wording implies a broader established use of EDA beyond what the packet supports, and the packet does not define EDA in those terms. New packet required. Source: [Li Jingyi; Shi Difu; Kuang Huolingxiao; Weng Yu. Emotion recognition in cross-linguistic legal context: a comparison between human-based and computational approaches. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859697; article XML SHA-256 ff728f27154471482f7d983c729e66d50e11b2bbb5ff2c2935c32934e2897efe. “Emotion recognition in cross-linguistic legal context: a comparison between human-based and computational approaches” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859697).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859697) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- edge detector [redraft]: The definition refers to “edge detector,” but the packet specifies “corner-edge detector features” (Harris-Stephens filtered signal). The requested sense/specificity in the definition is not fully supported.; The definition’s initial general explanation (“pick out boundaries or corner-like changes”) is not stated in the provided packet; the packet only mentions that “corner-edge detector features” were used.; The packet does not define an edge detector as an image-analysis feature for boundaries or corner-like changes; it only reports that corner-edge detector features with Harris-Stephens filtered signal were used in radiomic analysis.; The second sentence is too specific and partially unsupported in wording: the packet mentions corner-edge detector features with Harris-Stephens filtered signal, but not that these were 'measures' or that the study used them exactly as described.; While the packet supports that Harris-Stephens filtered signal and radiomic features from brain lesion ROIs were used in this study, the definition’s broader characterization of what an edge detector does is not directly supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Jambor Ivan; Steiner Aida; Pesola Marko; Gardberg Maria; Frantzén Janek; Jokinen Pekka; Liimatainen Timo; Minn Heikki; Aronen Hannu; Merisaari Harri. Relaxation Along a Fictitious Field, continuous wave T1rho, adiabatic T1rho and adiabatic T2rho imaging of human gliomas at 3T: A feasibility study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296958; article XML SHA-256 8a1eddf8d2816db93f63345a80249bee41f2cb19885ad148e12d3c9fbbe8d4ab. “Relaxation Along a Fictitious Field, continuous wave T1rho, adiabatic T1rho and adiabatic T2rho imaging of human gliomas at 3T: A feasibility study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296958).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296958) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- EDI [redraft]: The definition’s interpretation (“how research considers fairness, representation… and their meaningful inclusion”) goes beyond the packet’s stated focus on identifying and mapping research that explicitly articulates EDI and describing how it is conceptualized/operationalized/implemented.; The packet supports that EDI expands to equity, diversity, and inclusion, but it does not explicitly support the added explanation about fairness, representation of different groups, or meaningful inclusion as the meaning of the term in this source.; The packet supports that EDI means “Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion” and that the review maps how EDI is conceptualized, operationalized, and implemented in post-secondary student mental health and well-being research, but it does not explicitly state that EDI “refers to how research considers fairness” or that it specifically involves “representation of different groups” and “their meaningful inclusion.”; The source describes EDI in post-secondary student mental health and well-being research and how it is conceptualized, operationalized, and implemented; it does not define EDI as a general research principle in the way the definition states. New packet required. Source: [Rao Sandy; Olayinka Ayomide; Buckley Rya; Ewing Lexi; Qureshi Bilal; Kamchokchai Thanida; Patel Khushi; Cleverley Kristin. Equity, diversity, and inclusion in post-secondary student mental health and well-being research: A scoping review protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349684; article XML SHA-256 97d1d0beaa263db1ac58a8973f9d815f975be27ea664ea51433ee78f6241fee6. “Equity, diversity, and inclusion in post-secondary student mental health and well-being research: A scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349684).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349684) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- educational counseling [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported content: the packet does not say educational counseling is a structured intervention that gives patients information and guidance.; The definition’s first sentence therefore contains a substantive claim about the nature/content of educational counseling that is not supported by the provided packet text.; The packet does not state that educational counseling “gives patients information and guidance”; it only mentions that “Educational counseling and pharmacotherapy initiation reduced readmission risk” among hospitalized patients.; The packet supports only that educational counseling was one of several inpatient addiction interventions associated with lower 30-day readmission risk; it does not define the term as an inpatient addiction service itself. New packet required. Source: [Ssentongo Paddy; Nunez Jonathan; Dissinger Donald; Bali Bhavna. Rates and factors for 30-day readmission in patients with substance use disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1654157; article XML SHA-256 c63c31bf2feb4c71cee46e32e70b333bbf865aa85477ae1b715e7c73d521813c. “Rates and factors for 30-day readmission in patients with substance use disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1654157).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1654157) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- educational placement [redraft]: Defines a service activity from one phrase and adds an unstated step-toward-long-term-opportunity claim. New packet required. Source: [Quinlan-Davidson Meaghen; Dixon Mahalia; Chinnery Gina; Hawke Lisa D.; Iyer Srividya; Moxness Katherine; Prebeg Matthew; Thabane Lehana; Henderson J. L.. Youth not engaged in education, employment, or training: a discrete choice experiment of service preferences in Canada. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12889-024-18877-0; article XML SHA-256 b454bb4539b03ae36c3798e2d3dd983d9c1861436377ddf3fdc85b7fc43a379c. “Youth not engaged in education, employment, or training: a discrete choice experiment of service preferences in Canada” (10.1186/s12889-024-18877-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18877-0) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- EEG biofeedback [redraft]: The definition slightly broadens the studied use from the packet’s specific settings (certain brain disorders and chemotherapy for breast cancer) to a more general claim about medical contexts.; The definition’s claim that it “may help with stress and mental side effects in some medical contexts” is broader than the packet, which specifically says it “may help cancer patients deal with the stress and mental side effects of chemotherapy.”; The final clause generalizes beyond the packet: it says EEG biofeedback may help with stress and mental side effects in some medical contexts, but the source only mentions cancer patients treated with chemotherapy for breast cancer. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neurofeedback” (C93302).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- effect [redraft]: Hedged with in this context and then describes the review's findings rather than defining effect. New packet required. Source: [Li Chen; Wang Ze; Kozhamkulova Nazgul Seifullinkyzy; Jiang Na; Luo Xiaoyu. The buffering effect of perceived teacher support on students’ academic burnout in online learning: a mini review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1919759; article XML SHA-256 88f8f0ef03cdb97c09c116bba1e181ea70eb425e72d3c9b31890d6aeeaf881b0. “The buffering effect of perceived teacher support on students’ academic burnout in online learning: a mini review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1919759).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1919759) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- effective stimulus [redraft]: The definition adds interpretation about “adaptation” and “something that successfully produces the response” beyond the source’s wording; a citation alone does not support those extra claims.; The definition specifies a mental-health field context, but the packet describes exercise-mediated activation of skeletal-muscle signaling pathways, with no mental-health content provided.; The definition’s first sentence (“successfully produces the response or activation being studied”) is a generalization that is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text.; The definition’s first sentence is a broad generalization that is not stated in the packet; the packet only supports that SIE was an effective stimulus for activating specific stress protein kinase signaling pathways.; The packet supports the idea that an exercise condition “proved to be an effective stimulus” for activating stress-kinase signaling linked to adaptation, but it does not explicitly support the broader framing of “produces the response or activation being studied.”; The packet’s source is an exercise-physiology article, not a psychology/mental-health source, so the requested field is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Parker Lewan; Trewin Adam; Levinger Itamar; Shaw Christopher S.; Stepto Nigel K.. The effect of exercise-intensity on skeletal muscle stress kinase and insulin protein signaling. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0171613; article XML SHA-256 8e00ebf73058a397309fb28746ffc2cebe9cf67924c5d43c464d4561402073a3. “The effect of exercise-intensity on skeletal muscle stress kinase and insulin protein signaling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0171613).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171613) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Effexor [redraft]: The packet defines venlafaxine hydrochloride (and its metabolism to O-desmethylvenlafaxine) but does not explicitly state that “Effexor” is a brand name for venlafaxine hydrochloride, so that substantive claim is unsupported by the provided text.; The packet says the substance is used for the treatment of depression, but it does not explicitly identify it as an antidepressant.; The packet supports venlafaxine hydrochloride and its metabolism/reuptake effects, but it does not state that Effexor is a brand name for it. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Venlafaxine Hydrochloride” (C29540).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- efficacy research [redraft]: The definition states a general meaning of “efficacy research” (i.e., examining whether a service/intervention works effectively for its intended purpose), but the provided packet does not supply or explicitly support this characterization of the term.; The packet mentions telehealth feasibility and efficacy research, but it does not define “efficacy research” as studies that determine whether a service or intervention works effectively for its intended purpose.; The second sentence narrows the term to telehealth services addressing access barriers in rural communities; that application is supported, but the broader general definition is not explicitly supported by the source.; While the packet mentions that “telehealth feasibility and efficacy research is also reviewed” in the context of rural service barriers for ASD, it does not define “efficacy research” as studies specifically “to see whether [telehealth] can help address diagnostic and treatment access barriers in rural communities.” The packet discusses diagnosis/treatment barriers and suggests telecommunication may offer an inroad, but it does not directly define efficacy research in those terms. New packet required. Source: [Antezana Ligia; Scarpa Angela; Valdespino Andrew; Albright Jordan; Richey John A.. Rural Trends in Diagnosis and Services for Autism Spectrum Disorder. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00590; article XML SHA-256 41f90e359367b47f0a06f1fe08d5a303c31741cd180e444ecfa799bc825f3966. “Rural Trends in Diagnosis and Services for Autism Spectrum Disorder” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00590).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00590) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- efficacy [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“how well a treatment works in producing its intended benefit”) is a general definitional claim not supported by the supplied packet text.; The packet does not provide a dictionary-style or explicit definition of the term “efficacy”; it only uses the word “efficacy” in the background context of a study (“efficacy and safety… have not been systematically evaluated”).; The packet only supports a specific research question about the efficacy of adding Chinese patent medicines to SSRIs for depressive disorder; it does not support the broader explanatory definition or the claim that this is what efficacy means.; The packet uses the word 'efficacy' in a study context but does not define it as 'how well a treatment works in producing its intended benefit.'; The second sentence narrows efficacy to “an added medicine… combined with another treatment for depressive disorder”; while the packet mentions adjunctive addition of Chinese patent medicines to SSRIs for depressive disorder, it does not define efficacy in those terms.; The wording 'in this context' is acceptable only as a topic context, but the definition still overstates the source by turning a study objective into a dictionary definition. New packet required. Source: [Geng Hongye; Li Lixuan; Lu Chengyuan; Wang Shuling. Comparative efficacy and safety of seven Chinese patent medicines combined with SSRIs for depressive disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1872413; article XML SHA-256 2e057f26fc1c72b50a2bb0b2e53b4078c729acdedd8c69e3f20fcc99ddf793d2. “Comparative efficacy and safety of seven Chinese patent medicines combined with SSRIs for depressive disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1872413).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1872413) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- effortful processing [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“Effortful processing is mental activity that requires noticeable cognitive effort or task demand”) is not directly supported by the packet; the packet only states that pupil dilation is “a well-established measure of task demands and effortful processing,” but it does not provide a general definitional description of what “effortful processing” means.; The packet does not define “effortful processing” as a kind of mental activity; it only says pupil dilation is a measure of task demands and effortful processing.; While the second sentence is supported (the packet reports larger pupil dilation during preparation for more difficult search tasks, e.g., difficult shape targets evoking larger dilations), the definition as a whole includes the unsupported general characterization from the first sentence.; “Greater pupil dilation” for more difficult tasks is supported, but the broader definitional gloss about noticeable cognitive effort/task demand is an unsupported generalization rather than wording grounded in the source. New packet required. Source: [Irons Jessica L; Jeon Minjeong; Leber Andrew B. Pre-stimulus pupil dilation and the preparatory control of attention. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0188787; article XML SHA-256 2412801e4c4dd6acdc4027b7b2e2112bcdfaa6a09635752204a2a3699922120b. “Pre-stimulus pupil dilation and the preparatory control of attention” (10.1371/journal.pone.0188787).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188787) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ego identity [redraft]: The definition also implies that the listed parenting factors relate to “more or less favorably formed” ego identity development overall; while the packet reports associations/predictions for ego identity status (e.g., emotional warmth predicting more favorable ego identity status), it does not support the broader wording that ego identity is “more or less favorably formed” in the sense used in the definition.; The definition claims that “ego identity” is a “person’s developing sense of self,” but the provided packet does not define ego identity in those terms (it only discusses ego identity status acquisition and measurement via scales).; The packet does not define ego identity as a “developing sense of self,” so that core definitional claim is unsupported.; The source supports associations between parental rearing styles and adolescents’ ego identity development, but the definition adds a broader characterization of ego identity status as “more or less favorably formed” that is not established as a general definition in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Ding Yan; Sun Changan; Dong Bo. Effect of parental rearing styles on adolescent ego identity: the mediating role of involutionary attitudes. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1292718; article XML SHA-256 baacfee2f422e9cdb0740f7e39902e6bab0830da295070af1857c4ea2a0d4e08. “Effect of parental rearing styles on adolescent ego identity: the mediating role of involutionary attitudes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1292718).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1292718) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ego structure [redraft]: Hedged with in this source and reduces a construct to personality profile while describing the study's design. New packet required. Source: [Ota Yoko; Korshunova Natalia; Demura Masashi; Katsuyama Midori; Katsuyama Hironobu; Rahayu Sri Ratna; Saijoh Kiyofumi. Association between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) severity and ego structure of the Nanai people. 2017; DOI 10.1186/s12199-017-0666-z; article XML SHA-256 0d5c03f89af36280be31a5c918bdfde5fb7a53fa3446880cdcddf2b08114d77d. “Association between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) severity and ego structure of the Nanai people” (10.1186/s12199-017-0666-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-017-0666-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- egotism [redraft]: The definition’s second sentence adds a distinction—"rather than simply self-reference"—that is not supported by the packet text, which defines egoism/egotism in terms of a conscious end/aim being the advantage of the personal self but does not contrast this with mere self-reference.; The packet supports that egotism was used in the same sense as egoism—an attitude or disposition with the conscious end of advantage for the personal self—but it does not support the added contrast with “simply self-reference.” New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Egoism” (Egoism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Egoism) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- EHR [redraft]: Abbreviation never expanded as electronic health record; routine care framing not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Hennessy Cassandra; Swartz Alison Z.; Harrell Frank E.; Silver Heidi J.. Mitigating bias in the analysis and inferences from using longitudinal EHR data in disease outcomes research. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12874-026-02881-6; article XML SHA-256 cfc9f23946b117a9a2c887b203893e34e33a8e0e673643f563d3fb444240164b. “Mitigating bias in the analysis and inferences from using longitudinal EHR data in disease outcomes research” (10.1186/s12874-026-02881-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-026-02881-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Eigenwelt [redraft]: Because that key contrast claim is not directly supported by the packet’s provided text, the definition contains at least one substantive element that cannot be confirmed from the supplied source.; The definition claims that Eigenwelt “refers to experience becoming organized more within a personal, less shared world rather than within ordinary intersubjective self-evidence,” but the packet only explicitly lists Eigenwelt as “the constitution of an idiosyncratic private world” and separately mentions “loss of lifeworld through diminished natural self-evidence”; it does not explicitly state this specific contrast wording about “ordinary intersubjective self-evidence.”; The packet supports Eigenwelt as an “idiosyncratic private world” and as one interpretation of the schizophrenic lifeworld, but it does not support the added claim that experience becomes organized in a less shared world in contrast to “ordinary intersubjective self-evidence.”; “Phenomenological term” is broadly defensible from the article context, but the definition goes beyond the packet by paraphrasing a specific phenomenological mechanism that is not explicitly stated for Eigenwelt. New packet required. Source: [Kramer Marco; Mavrogiorgou Paraskevi; Juckel Georg. The concept of the schizophrenic lifeworld revisited. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1625364; article XML SHA-256 29642857278e9c1fb898c2275bb991ce5b4e4f1032640950944c9ef3cb8a6456. “The concept of the schizophrenic lifeworld revisited” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1625364).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1625364) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- elaboration [redraft]: Hedged with in this context; narrows a general term to the explanation-and-elaboration paper's purpose. New packet required. Source: [Shoesmith Emily; Ratschen Elena; Riga Evgenia; Mills Daniel S; Gibsone Selina; McMillan Dean; Wu Qi; Clarke Chris; Sprange Kirsty; Meints Kerstin; Gee Nancy R; Nieforth Leanne O; Dollion Nicolas; Fine Aubrey; Hall Sophie S. Guidance for protocol content and reporting of dog-assisted interventions in randomised controlled trials: explanation and elaboration of the SPIRIT 2025 and CONSORT 2025 extensions. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12874-025-02663-6; article XML SHA-256 c11afbf1db61e4256dac25943f326eb91257d02ea32d52ca412ed0550dc997d4. “Guidance for protocol content and reporting of dog-assisted interventions in randomised controlled trials: explanation and elaboration of the SPIRIT 2025 and CONSORT 2025 extensions” (10.1186/s12874-025-02663-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-025-02663-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- elation [redraft]: The definition states that “elation is an abnormally elevated mood state,” but the provided packet does not define elation as abnormally elevated mood; it only lists “elation” among examples of severe mood disturbances.; The packet supports elation only as one example of a severe disturbance in mood within psychotic affective disorders; it does not explicitly support the added gloss that elation is an "abnormally elevated mood state."; The packet supports that “elation” can be present as part of a severe mood disturbance in psychotic affective disorders (described as affective disorders with psychotic symptoms), but the definition’s first claim goes beyond what is supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Affective Disorders, Psychotic” (D000341).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000341) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- elective [redraft]: Because the requested sense (planned vs acute traumatic event) is not directly supported as a standalone term definition in the packet, the claim is an unsupported generalization beyond the supplied text.; The definition adds an explanatory contrast (“planned in advance rather than done because of an acute traumatic event”) that is only partly supported by the packet’s specific comparison of elective TKA revision versus periprosthetic fracture, and it broadens beyond the exact usage shown.; The definition includes a mental-health field framing, but the packet is about orthopedic surgery outcomes and provides no mental-health-related meaning for “elective.”; The packet does not explicitly define “elective” as “planned in advance rather than done because of an acute traumatic event.” It only mentions “elective TKA revision” in contrast to “periprosthetic fracture,” without stating a general definition of the term.; The packet is a surgical/orthopedic article about distal femoral replacement, not a mental health source, so the requested field is not defensible from the supplied evidence.; The wording “In the packet, it describes…” is meta-commentary rather than a dictionary definition and does not cleanly define the term itself. New packet required. Source: [Postler Anne Elisabeth; Beyer Franziska; Lützner Cornelia; Lützner Jörg. Outcome of distal femoral replacement: Influence of trauma vs. elective indications – A prospective single-center study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354235; article XML SHA-256 0e16530774f25340d589227ac38fa19893c1e12dfb6e1b032d1bebb57ca8116d. “Outcome of distal femoral replacement: Influence of trauma vs. elective indications – A prospective single-center study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354235).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354235) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- electric potential [redraft]: Hedged with in this source; redefines a general physics term as the neuronal membrane potential of one paper. New packet required. Source: [Pinto Thiago M.; Wedemann Roseli S.; Cortez Célia M.. Modeling the Electric Potential across Neuronal Membranes: The Effect of Fixed Charges on Spinal Ganglion Neurons and Neuroblastoma Cells. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0096194; article XML SHA-256 79c4e5c77464a24f84de53ae012182225aa6bbb0b4d29bd65038f9734d9e168d. “Modeling the Electric Potential across Neuronal Membranes: The Effect of Fixed Charges on Spinal Ganglion Neurons and Neuroblastoma Cells” (10.1371/journal.pone.0096194).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0096194) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- electrode [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define an “electrode” as a “recording point or sensor” used in EEG measurement; it only references “EEG electrode location selection” in the context of P300-design BCIs.; The packet supports EEG electrode location selection in a non-invasive P300 brain-computer interface, but it does not explicitly define an electrode as a “recording point or sensor” used in EEG measurement.; The second sentence adds a gloss about electrode location “for a brain-computer interface” that is only partially supported and reads like an extrapolation from the study context rather than a definition grounded in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Tou Si Long Jenny; Warschausky Seth A.; Karlsson Petra; Huggins Jane E.. Individualized electrode subset improves the calibration accuracy of an EEG P300-design brain-computer interface for people with severe cerebral palsy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1720969; article XML SHA-256 c74f723a51191db59252355c64966288b0d5e0ffc853a96e4ddd84df8e3f9e17. “Individualized electrode subset improves the calibration accuracy of an EEG P300-design brain-computer interface for people with severe cerebral palsy” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1720969).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1720969) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- electromagnetic spectrum [redraft]: The claim that shifting patterns affect how signals are “recognized” and “protected from interference” goes beyond the packet’s wording and overstates the source’s scope.; The definition claims the spectrum “affect[s] how signals are … protected from interference.” The packet discusses interference suppression and anti-jamming communication quality/reliability, but it does not explicitly frame this as “protecting” signals (so this substantive claim is not directly supported).; The packet supports an electromagnetic spectrum environment as a setting for wireless communication and interference, but it does not support defining the term itself as a “communication environment” or as a “range of signal conditions.”; The requested sense is not clearly established from the packet; the source uses the phrase in an engineering context, not as a cognition/dictionary sense of the term. New packet required. Source: [Zhao Hui; Zhao Guobin; Wang Xichun; Zhang Zhonghui; Xun Xianchao. Intelligent anti-jamming communication technology with electromagnetic spectrum feature cognition. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319953; article XML SHA-256 8c52de678b2bb4ee0fd6c2f5fc62428362e4e2ebf3052c27071994d1c201aee6. “Intelligent anti-jamming communication technology with electromagnetic spectrum feature cognition” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319953).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319953) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- electronic health record [redraft]: The definition adds a broad generalization about 'replacing paper records' as the core purpose, while the packet supports EHRs as tools that improve documentation, reporting, communication, and access to up-to-date clinical information, but not that as the defining sense in this field.; The definition claims the EHR is “for recording and sharing patient information within health care services,” but the packet describes providing up-to-date clinical information, streaming patient documentation, and communication between health care workers; it does not clearly support the specific notion of “sharing patient information within health care services.”; The entry is not defensible for the requested field of cognition in a psychology/counselling dictionary; the packet describes a health information system used in health care settings, not a cognition term. New packet required. Source: [Shrestha Anmol; Shah Jasmit; Khakhar Zamanali; Ruiz Armando; Talib Zohray; Ali Sayed K. End user experiences of an electronic health records platform in a tertiary hospital system in Kenya. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332249; article XML SHA-256 e60079d80d48d2cc2fd522e5e1533ec0100322b2ae3c2ebc0e7cae044490cf37. “End user experiences of an electronic health records platform in a tertiary hospital system in Kenya” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332249).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332249) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- electrostimulator [redraft]: Narrows a general stimulation-device term to applying fields to cultured cells, the packet's particular setup. New packet required. Source: [Aragón Ángel; Cebro-Márquez María; Perez Eliseo; Pazos Antonio; Lage Ricardo; González-Juanatey José Ramón; Moscoso Isabel; Bao-Varela Carmen; Nieto Daniel. Bioelectronics-on-a-chip for cardio myoblast proliferation enhancement using electric field stimulation. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s40824-020-00195-2; article XML SHA-256 d20aed2511cd8cb15868b702b39c49d6e678dd7265a6ddbfbabb7a4f70b97e63. “Bioelectronics-on-a-chip for cardio myoblast proliferation enhancement using electric field stimulation” (10.1186/s40824-020-00195-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40824-020-00195-2) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- elevated mood [redraft]: The definition’s wording is a general mental-health characterization that is not directly supported by the packet’s text about drug-induced effects.; The packet does not define *elevated mood* as a general mental-health term; it mentions it only as one manifestation of psychologic dependence in a drug descriptor.; The packet does not explicitly define “elevated mood” as a higher-than-usual positive emotional state; it only mentions “elevated mood” as something induced by abused psychostimulant drugs.; The packet provides context tying “elevated mood” to psychostimulant effects (with additional items like increased wakefulness and well-being), but it does not support the requested characterization about being “higher-than-usual” or “positive emotional state.”; The phrase ‘higher-than-usual positive emotional state’ is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet’s wording, which only links elevated mood with increased wakefulness and a feeling of well-being. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dextroamphetamine-Amphetamine” (C26643).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- eliminativism [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly state that eliminativism leaves mental concepts out of explanations or favors brain-level accounts; this is an unsupported generalization beyond the source text.; The packet does not support the core definition of eliminativism as treating the brain as the basis of mind; that wording matches the packet’s emergentist position, not eliminativism.; The packet excerpt does not state that eliminativism “tends to leave mental concepts out of explanations” or that it “favor[s] brain-level accounts instead”; the provided text only shows the article’s stance against eliminativism and its preference for an emergentist approach, not eliminativism’s detailed features.; The source only provides a contrast with emergentism and the role of mental concepts in explaining psychopathology, not a full definition of eliminativism. New packet required. Source: [Mancini Francesco; Mancini Alessandra; Castelfranchi Cristiano. Unhealthy mind in a healthy body: A criticism to eliminativism in psychopathology. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.889698; article XML SHA-256 8721b248cb6232582cf112a7eacfd5b71f909138645138f257915cd26b7b7abc. “Unhealthy mind in a healthy body: A criticism to eliminativism in psychopathology” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.889698).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.889698) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- elite athlete [redraft]: The definition adds a specific functional role for elite athletes—being guided by detailed cognitive, psychosocial, and motor assessments—which is about the study’s intervention framework, not a supported meaning of the term itself.; The definition frames the assessments as guiding training/performance decisions to develop individual potential; the packet supports individual potential/adaptation potential via intervention decision-making, but does not clearly support the broader wording about training and performance decisions beyond interventions.; The packet’s described focus is on using diagnostic data to inform *intervention* decisions (including sport-specific intervention trees), not explicitly on “training and performance decisions” in general.; The second sentence narrows the term to athletes for whom interventions are tailored to sport-specific demands, which is likewise a study conclusion rather than a definition of “elite athlete.”; “Advanced competitive sport” and “high-performance sport participant” are not stated as the dictionary sense in the packet; the packet only refers to elite athletes as participants in various sports disciplines. New packet required. Source: [Siebert Lena; Reichert Lukas; Musculus Lisa; Will Laura; Al-Ghezi Ahmed; Raab Markus; Zentgraf Karen. How fast-and-frugal trees can inform diagnostic and intervention decisions for enhancing elite athlete performance. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329395; article XML SHA-256 f46b46e8ad5a7bfbab6af67e0caccac6d8008d41d5c95dc0934154d63cf839dc. “How fast-and-frugal trees can inform diagnostic and intervention decisions for enhancing elite athlete performance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329395).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329395) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- emergency call system [redraft]: Other elements (base station, home motion sensors, a wearable/necklace fall-detection sensor, and a social service) are supported by the packet, but the unsupported “unusual inactivity” and “quickly alert” components prevent a full pass.; The definition claims detection of “unusual inactivity”; the packet describes emergency detection using motion sensors and a necklace with fall detection sensors, but does not mention inactivity detection as a feature.; The definition says the system “quickly alert[s] for help”; the packet mentions an emergency call system and support services, but does not explicitly state that alerts occur quickly.; The packet supports a home-based emergency call system with a base station, home motion sensors, a necklace with fall-detection sensors, and a social service, but it does not support the added claim that the system detects “unusual inactivity.”; “Quickly alert for help” is only indirectly supported by the description that fall sensors may trigger an emergency call automatically and that the system promises immediate responses; the definition should not extend beyond the packet’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Zoellick Jan C.; Lech Sonia; O’Sullivan Julie L.; Jansen Eva; Supplieth Juliana; Kuhnert Ronny; Grittner Ulrike; Schuster Johanna. Fall sensors, home emergency system, and social service for ≥ 75-year-olds living at home - a matched control intervention study. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12877-025-05856-2; article XML SHA-256 a1f54a7592f55be21d51de7220c74499ab40a976506df35bc1f5100ae6077566. “Fall sensors, home emergency system, and social service for ≥ 75-year-olds living at home - a matched control intervention study” (10.1186/s12877-025-05856-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-025-05856-2) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- emergency intervention [redraft]: The packet defines “suicidal events” as “either a suicide attempt or an emergency intervention for an acute suicidal crisis,” but it does not state that an emergency intervention is an “urgent response.”; The packet does not explicitly characterize an “emergency intervention” as “treated as a serious suicidal event.” (It is only included as one type of “suicidal events.”); The packet does support that it is distinct from a suicide attempt, but it does not say it is a diagnosis- or risk-level category on its own, so the phrasing “treated as a serious suicidal event” needs tighter grounding in the source.; The packet supports that an emergency intervention occurs for an acute suicidal crisis and is counted among “suicidal events,” but it does not support defining it as a general “urgent response” or as a clinical intervention procedure.; While the packet indicates emergency intervention is distinct from a suicide attempt by listing them as separate alternatives within “suicidal events,” it does not support the added claim that it “indicat[es] immediate crisis-level risk” beyond the phrase “for an acute suicidal crisis.” New packet required. Source: [Yen Shirley; Suazo Nazaret; Doerr Jackson; Macrynikola Natalia; Villarreal Leanna S; Sodano Sophia; O’Brien Kimberly H M; Wolff Jennifer C; Breault Christopher; Gibb Brandon E; Elwy Rani; Kahler Christopher W; Ranney Megan; Jones Richard; Spirito Anthony. Skills to Enhance Positivity in adolescents at risk for suicide: Protocol for a randomized controlled trial. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0287285; article XML SHA-256 ba93220f2d8745c9506a7c0c4732ff8db1907263cd75a6fd102b05e89cc9e07e. “Skills to Enhance Positivity in adolescents at risk for suicide: Protocol for a randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0287285).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287285) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- emergent feature [redraft]: The definition presents a general conceptual explanation rather than the narrower source-supported sense of leadership as an emergent feature in social organizations.; The packet does not define “emergent feature” as “a group characteristic that develops through members’ interaction and coordination within the organization”; it only states that leadership is treated as an “emergent feature of social organizations.”; The packet does not support the claim that leadership “can be understood as emerging from the group’s social process”; it only describes leadership as an emergent feature within a theoretical framework and mentions coordination in a collaborative game.; The packet supports only the specific claim that leadership can be an emergent feature of social organizations; it does not define “emergent feature” as a general group characteristic in social psychology.; “Within the organization” and “through members’ interaction and coordination” are broader definitional glosses that are not stated in the source text. New packet required. Source: [Curral Luis; Marques-Quinteiro Pedro; Gomes Catarina; Lind Pedro G. Leadership as an Emergent Feature in Social Organizations: Insights from A Laboratory Simulation Experiment. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0166697; article XML SHA-256 ef0fd1132f908c46c825c6978dce7e7a43082f843ab12f90abd16837441b9224. “Leadership as an Emergent Feature in Social Organizations: Insights from A Laboratory Simulation Experiment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0166697).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166697) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- emergent leader [redraft]: The packet mentions “emergent leader-follower dynamics” and that binding may reflect the distribution of predictive control within a dyad, but it does not explicitly support the claim that the leader-follower role is “not set in advance.”; The packet supports emergent leader-follower dynamics in movement trajectories and distribution of predictive control within a dyad, but it does not define an “emergent leader” as a person who comes to take a more guiding role, nor does it support the claim that the role was not set in advance.; The wording broadens the source beyond what is stated by adding group-level and role-based interpretation (“member of a pair or group,” “guiding role,” “co-regulation”) that is not explicitly supported in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Woolford Felix; Suzuki Keisuke. Intentional binding reflects pair dynamics and sense of agency in embodied joint action in human-human dyads but not in human-computer dyads. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768740; article XML SHA-256 e72630f9a549ced6f7dd33f79c23eca02e64a484acb6cef87054fcf27e7180d9. “Intentional binding reflects pair dynamics and sense of agency in embodied joint action in human-human dyads but not in human-computer dyads” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768740).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768740) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- emergent property [redraft]: The definition includes an unsupported broad characterization of the term beyond what is explicitly stated in the packet.; The first sentence gives a general dictionary-style definition that is not directly supported by the packet; the packet only supports the specific claim that consciousness is described as not an emergent property of neural processes.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “emergent property” (e.g., that it is “a feature understood as arising from more basic underlying processes”); it only mentions the phrase in the claim that consciousness is “not an emergent property of neural processes.”; The requested field is not defensible here: the packet uses the term in a philosophy of consciousness/metaphysics argument, not in ethics. New packet required. Source: [Arora Amira. The spiritual core of the hard problem: consciousness as foundational, not emergent. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1659944; article XML SHA-256 1daea28cf4ac714358fbedc6b8ea19caceb03b24ff25e5f5bc55ae9b4e0c11ed. “The spiritual core of the hard problem: consciousness as foundational, not emergent” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1659944).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1659944) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- emotional contagion [redraft]: The field label is defensible, but the definition adds a mechanistic description not established by the supplied source text alone.; The packet does not explicitly define emotional contagion as the “spread or sharing of emotional states between people through their interactions.” It only states that emotional contagion shapes group dynamics, interpersonal relationships, and affective regulation, and discusses modeling approaches.; The packet supports emotional contagion as important in group dynamics, interpersonal relationships, and affective regulation, but it does not explicitly support the definitional claim that it is the spread or sharing of emotional states between people through their interactions.; The phrase “how feelings are regulated over time” is only partially supported: the packet mentions “affective regulation” and “time-continuous interaction dynamics,” but it does not clearly support the specific claim that emotional contagion is about feelings being regulated “over time.” New packet required. Source: [Garzón-Alvarado Diego Alexander; Duque-Daza Carlos Alberto; Alexiadis Alessio; Tamayo Ricardo Mauricio. A dynamical systems model of emotional contagion: Oscillatory coupling in the circumplex of affect. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334738; article XML SHA-256 262645e93eb99364a6288131c29bf968f3329757156164a4578e409ead93d451. “A dynamical systems model of emotional contagion: Oscillatory coupling in the circumplex of affect” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334738).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334738) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- emotional dependence [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported content by characterizing emotional dependence as “emotional reliance on an AI system” and as something that “can develop” through user interaction; the packet only says it is a unique feature of AI interactions.; The packet does not define “emotional dependence”; it only mentions it as an example of “unique features of AI interactions” (with parasocial relationships) that existing studies have not targeted. Therefore, the definition’s claims about what it is (“emotional reliance on an AI system”) and how it “can develop” are not supported by the packet.; The packet does not support the specific framing that it is a “distinct feature of AI emotional engagement,” beyond a general statement that targeted measures are needed to capture unique features.; The packet provides background and instrument-development aims, but it does not provide enough content to justify the definition’s substantive assertions or the requested sense of the term.; The packet supports emotional dependence as a feature relevant to AI emotional engagement, but not the fuller causal/process description given here. New packet required. Source: [Xu Jiasui; Mao Mengjie; Yao Yan; Li Wen; Dai Qunsen. Development and psychometric evaluation of the AI emotional engagement scale. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1921527; article XML SHA-256 52449616f72bca7b0eb14b0c3c67468faec6f5528210a14fe4100a3e5ffbd197. “Development and psychometric evaluation of the AI emotional engagement scale” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1921527).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1921527) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- emotional dysregulation [redraft]: Bakes the paper's stressor-to-escape pathway into the term's meaning and then describes the source rather than defining. New packet required. Source: [Qi Xin; He Juan; Wang Qilong; Liu Sha; Zhang Lei; Zhao Jianpeng; Ma Dongmei; Zhao Dongrong. A systematic review of internet addiction in hospitalized adolescents: proposing a hospital-adapted moderated dual mediation model of emotional dysregulation and social compensation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830013; article XML SHA-256 a9f4337c5bc9cb4c252470fc26cc7f1c279a0b4922bb37afa28b393f57803fef. “A systematic review of internet addiction in hospitalized adolescents: proposing a hospital-adapted moderated dual mediation model of emotional dysregulation and social compensation” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830013).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830013) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- emotional stress [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define “emotional stress” as “involving emotional strain,” and that specific characterization (“emotional strain”) is not supported by the provided text.; The packet supports that healthcare undergraduate students may experience high emotional stress, and that it negatively affects working memory and well-being, but it does not define emotional stress as a general “form of stress involving emotional strain.”; The wording extends beyond the source by presenting a broader definitional claim rather than limiting itself to the study context. New packet required. Source: [Yaemrattanakul Weeranan; Manachamni Kanokwan; Ruangrattanapong Jutharat; Supajumroon Worawadee; Intarapakdee Worravat; Klangkhong Kanokwalin; Wannasangthong Kanjanaporn; Madhay Nureeda; Kaewkeaw Patchanee; Paphatarinan Korawat; Khuna Lalita. Comparing the effects of sitting meditation and body scan on working memory in undergraduate healthcare students: a single-blind randomised trial. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04923-6; article XML SHA-256 6821bc236232e4a980449462ceeb5f61ec3cc0a6b2d23a40c98ef56c49eaa743. “Comparing the effects of sitting meditation and body scan on working memory in undergraduate healthcare students: a single-blind randomised trial” (10.1186/s40359-026-04923-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04923-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- empirical psychology [redraft]: Because that key substantive clause is unsupported by the packet, the provided definition cannot be fully validated against the supplied source.; The definition compresses the source into a general definition plus a crisis explanation; the source only supports the latter as a description of the field’s current crisis, not the former as its meaning.; The opening gloss, “the part of psychology that aims to build knowledge from observed research findings,” is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source text.; The packet does not explicitly define “empirical psychology” as aiming to build knowledge from observed research findings; it mainly discusses a crisis (non-replication, issues with NHST) rather than stating this purpose/definition.; The packet supports a replication/significance-testing crisis in empirical psychology, but it does not support the broader definitional claim that empirical psychology is the general knowledge-building branch of psychology. New packet required. Source: [Witte Erich H.; Zenker Frank. From Discovery to Justification: Outline of an Ideal Research Program in Empirical Psychology. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01847; article XML SHA-256 33b77c61998e72710307f2bd9a4fc58f04f5f597def33915ceb1778cc1b36fb3. “From Discovery to Justification: Outline of an Ideal Research Program in Empirical Psychology” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01847).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01847) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- empirical [redraft]: Although the first sentence broadly matches the packet’s “experience” basis (“based upon… guided by… derived from… EXPERIENCE”), the psychology/contrast content is not supported by the packet text.; The added contrast “rather than from theory alone” is not supported by the source, which only says “based upon,” “guided by,” and “derived from” experience.; The definition broadens the source by framing the term specifically as used “in psychology or related fields,” while the packet provides only a general historical definition of “empirical.”; The definition’s second sentence claims a specific psychology/related-fields usage (“In psychology or related fields…”) and contrasts “experience rather than theory alone,” but the provided packet does not mention psychology-specific contexts or any explicit “rather than theory” contrast. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Empirical” (Empirical).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Empirical) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- employment discrimination [redraft]: The definition adds “unequal treatment in employment,” which is not stated in the packet.; The definition’s claim that employment discrimination is “unequal treatment in employment” is not stated or supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet links discrimination to underexplored investigation regarding its impact on the “efficiency of labor allocation,” which supports only a limited part of the definition; however, because the unequal-treatment component is unsupported, the overall definition cannot be accepted.; The requested field sense is not well matched to the packet, which is about labor-market economics rather than cognition.; The source supports only that employment discrimination is believed to be a barrier to labor market development and that reducing it may improve labor allocation; it does not directly define it as a factor that hinders the efficient allocation of labor.; While the packet does say employment discrimination is “believed as a barrier to the development of the labor market,” the definition adds additional framing (“acts as a barrier to labor market development” in that exact structure) that goes beyond what is explicitly supported beyond the general “believed” barrier statement. New packet required. Source: [Guo Rongwang; Wang Jianxiu; You Yuntian. The impact of multiple discrimination on labor misallocation of China: Based on fsQCA method. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308442; article XML SHA-256 73bc8fb674511adde630c0fc82f11b8eac4ea645b0e374716a48304a7e6c718b. “The impact of multiple discrimination on labor misallocation of China: Based on fsQCA method” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308442).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308442) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- enabling [redraft]: The definition generalizes ‘enabling’ as a broad dictionary sense (‘making a change or action possible or easier’) that is not explicitly defined in the packet.; The definition introduces a specific “context” (digitalization + organizational adaptation + capability reshaping) that is only partially evidenced; the packet supports the general idea of digitalization affecting adaptation and capability reconfiguration, but does not substantiate the full wording as a direct “requested sense” of the term.; The definition’s first sentence (“making a change or action possible or easier”) is not explicitly stated or defined in the provided packet; the packet mentions “enabling mechanisms” but does not define “enabling” in those terms.; The definition’s specific framing about “digitalization supports organizational adaptation and the reshaping of capabilities” is broadly consistent with the packet, but the packet uses the wording “enabling mechanisms” in relation to how digitalization shapes organizational adaptation and capability reconfiguration; it does not independently support the additional phrasing/interpretation (“reshaping of capabilities” as the reshaping mechanism).; The packet only supports the phrase ‘enabling mechanisms’ in the context of digitalization shaping organizational adaptation and capability reconfiguration; it does not establish the broader wording about digitalization ‘supporting organizational adaptation and the reshaping of capabilities’ as a definition of the term itself.; The requested sense is not clearly established for the cognition field; the source text is primarily about organizational capabilities rather than a cognition concept. New packet required. Source: [Jia Sen; Khaw Khai Wah; Zhou Yiqi. Digitalization and organizational capabilities: a mechanism-based integrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745412; article XML SHA-256 06e572ff97a5dca6c1ac231427ee3ca165ad0ab19b686d5737a69b3ce47a6c49. “Digitalization and organizational capabilities: a mechanism-based integrative review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745412).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745412) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- encoding specificity [redraft]: The claim that a cue is encoded in a “detailed, specific way rather than a general, non-specific way” goes beyond the packet’s wording and is not directly supported as a definition.; The definition’s first sentence generalizes “to-be-remembered cue” as a broad memory process, while the packet only frames cue specificity within event-based prospective memory (remembering planned actions in response to target cues).; The packet discusses “cue-encoding specificity (specific cue vs. non-specific cue)” in event-based prospective memory, but it does not explicitly define “specific” as encoding “in a detailed, specific way rather than a general, non-specific way,” so this detailed/detailed-vs-general characterization is not directly supported.; The packet supports cue-encoding specificity in event-based prospective memory, but it does not establish a general definition of “encoding specificity” as a broad memory principle. New packet required. Source: [Chen Youzhen; Zhang Manman; Xin Cong; Guo Yunfei; Lin Qin; Ma Zhujun; Hu Jinhui; Huang Weiting; Liao Qianfang. Effect of Encoding on Prospective Memory. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.701281; article XML SHA-256 38ff652ed211061c7c94e620fd752fc721b0e0159cdc70508d4ea69602c49fec. “Effect of Encoding on Prospective Memory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.701281).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.701281) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- encoding [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence makes general claims about encoding as “representing incoming information” and making it “usable,” but the packet only states that cognitive encoding of musical sequences involves capturing structure, temporal dynamics, and uncertainties; it does not explicitly support the “incoming information” or “usable form” phrasing.; The first sentence adds a broad general definition of encoding as representing incoming information in a usable form; the packet only supports a narrower claim about the cognitive encoding of musical sequences capturing structure, temporal dynamics, and uncertainties.; The packet supports the music-specific aspect (capturing structure, temporal dynamics, and inherent uncertainties of musical data), but the broader cognition-process wording in the first sentence is not directly supported by the provided text.; The second sentence is close to the packet’s scope, but it still goes beyond the source by framing the term as specifically about how musical sequences are “mentally represented” rather than using the packet’s wording about cognitive encoding of musical sequences.; “Usable form” is not supported by the packet, and “incoming information” is also not stated there. New packet required. Source: [Lin Shaojie; Zeng Guang. Cognitive encoding modeling of musical sequences for vocal performance and intelligent music composition. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768708; article XML SHA-256 6a4f8fbd4d4020392c6c42228af1a034e6901df0621cf6a35e47c477a0e8a3f2. “Cognitive encoding modeling of musical sequences for vocal performance and intelligent music composition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768708).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768708) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- end-aversion bias [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the source by making a stronger claim about how the bias works; the packet only says the VAS anchors are often not well defined and that end-aversion bias may occur.; The definition’s added explanation (“reluctance or distortion”) is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet only states that "end-aversion bias" may occur with VAS and that validity concerns relate to anchors being not well defined; it does not describe the specific mechanism as “reluctance or distortion related to the scale’s endpoints or anchors.”; The packet supports that end-aversion bias is a possible measurement bias in visual analogue scale (VAS) preference measurement, but it does not support the added explanation that it reflects reluctance or distortion specifically related to the scale’s endpoints or anchors. New packet required. Source: [Rashidi Amir Adel; Anis Aslam H; Marra Carlo A. Do visual analogue scale (VAS) derived standard gamble (SG) utilities agree with Health Utilities Index utilities? A comparison of patient and community preferences for health status in rheumatoid arthritis patients. 2006; DOI 10.1186/1477-7525-4-25; article XML SHA-256 e10c3a050c12cb28975238820b6c4e363c53e3b1cd052566b9a5cf5e0195154e. “Do visual analogue scale (VAS) derived standard gamble (SG) utilities agree with Health Utilities Index utilities? A comparison of patient and community preferences for health status in rheumatoid arthritis patients” (10.1186/1477-7525-4-25).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-4-25) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- endocannabinoid [redraft]: The definition slightly generalizes beyond the packet by framing the effects as “brain communication” rather than the packet’s more specific “neuronal and glial communications.”; The definition’s link to “brain communication” is only partially supported: the packet specifies “neuronal and glial communications,” which is related but not identical wording to “brain communication.”; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that an endocannabinoid is a “naturally occurring signaling molecule.” It describes endocannabinoids as part of the endocannabinoid system (eCBs anandamide and 2-AG) and their regulation/role, but does not state “naturally occurring” or explicitly call them “signaling molecules.”; “Act with cannabinoid receptors and related enzymes” is not fully supported: the packet says the system comprises cannabinoid receptors and enzymes that regulate endocannabinoid production and degradation, but it does not state that endocannabinoids act with enzymes.; “Naturally occurring signaling molecule” is not stated in the source packet; the packet identifies endocannabinoids as components of the endocannabinoid system but does not explicitly define them that way. New packet required. Source: [Rao Jagadeesh S.; Alejandra Tangarife Maria; Venegas Maria Margarita; Forero Barbara; González Tamayo Laura Lucía; Escobar-Gallego Juan Pablo; Rodríguez-Soacha Diego A.; Ferreiros Alexandra; Mukunda Ram. The role of the endocannabinoid system in managing neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1709266; article XML SHA-256 026089343dcb01b79d8d6c4029ec9c344ee7918f2702e345a83b45468e90d755. “The role of the endocannabinoid system in managing neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1709266).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1709266) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- endogenous opioid [redraft]: The definition slightly overgeneralizes by recasting the source’s ‘health protective effects of social bonds’ as a broader claim about ‘health benefits tied to close relationships.’; The field is not defensible: this is a neurochemical/theoretical term from a psychology article, not a diagnosis term.; The provided field is "diagnosis," but the packet content presents a speculative/neurobiological theory of social attachment (BOTSA/BOVTOCH/BOTSEC) rather than diagnosing any condition; the definition is not diagnostic in nature. New packet required. Source: [Lee Sung W.; Cullen Kathryn R.; Rim Sung-ryun; Toddes Carlee. The jeong and haan of Vincent van Gogh: neuropeptides of bondedness and loss. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1432175; article XML SHA-256 36314432ab5dc736f13450ff3580794684f9f2217c698a7036f9bfb8c3dcdffc. “The jeong and haan of Vincent van Gogh: neuropeptides of bondedness and loss” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1432175).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1432175) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- endogenous [redraft]: Uses 'in this context' to narrow the general word endogenous to pain control. New packet required. Source: [Gozansky Einav; Weissman-Fogel Irit; Okon-Singer Hadas. The involvement of attentional biases in endogenous pain inhibition and autonomic reactivity. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342113; article XML SHA-256 ea07b49e7fbe51c4be01d323482b4cc93e8def5fa5a6b2d85a3d87ff771a40ef. “The involvement of attentional biases in endogenous pain inhibition and autonomic reactivity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342113).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342113) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- endoplasmic reticulum [redraft]: The definition is a description of cellular biology (endoplasmic reticulum structure/functions, unfolded protein response, apoptosis) and does not provide any content that fits the requested field of “diagnosis” based on the supplied packet.; The requested field is wrong: the packet supports a biology/cell-biology definition of the endoplasmic reticulum, not a psychology/counselling ‘diagnosis’ sense. New packet required. Source: [Li Yanjun; Gao Songyin; Meng Yuelan. Integrated analysis of endoplasmic reticulum stress regulators’ expression identifies distinct subtypes of autism spectrum disorder. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1136154; article XML SHA-256 af53b4313e78724fe34fc1a6c72b16cbe7e2e27aab1b28ebf00ef2ad45535d29. “Integrated analysis of endoplasmic reticulum stress regulators’ expression identifies distinct subtypes of autism spectrum disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1136154).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1136154) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- engineering controls [redraft]: The definition’s examples (“climate-responsive measures in a dissection laboratory to limit formaldehyde exposure, improve thermal conditions, and reduce microbial contamination”) are directionally consistent with the packet’s description (formaledehyde exposure, temperature/humidity effects, and microbial contamination; and support for climate-responsive controls addressing chemical safety, thermal regulation, and biosafety), but they are embedded in the unsupported generic definition.; The first sentence gives a generic definition of “engineering controls” (e.g., “physical or environmental changes… used to reduce hazards at their source”), but the provided packet text only discusses dissection-hall hazards and says the study “supports the implementation of climate-responsive engineering controls,” without providing a general definitional statement for the term.; The packet content is about occupational hazards in anatomy dissection settings, not mental health; the definition is therefore not well-grounded in the specified field (“mental health”).; The supplied source is about occupational hazards and laboratory safety in an anatomy dissection hall, not the requested mental health field; the field assignment is not defensible from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Madsusan Areeya; Krainara Saowaluk; Suksong Wantanasak; Sudchoo Kittithat; Tohmoh Nadeyah; Jonggrijug Pattharaporn; Maipunklang Chomkaeo; Chadaram Chanitsara; Samaeng Kholeeyoh; Kurdthongmee Piyadhida; Noosab Uratit; Nakapong Arun; Udomsri Yanawut; Kanaso Suttiporn; Sakorn Natee; Guan Ng Yee; Sangkhano Sukrit. Impact of a tropical monsoon climate on formaldehyde exposure and microbial contamination in anatomy dissection hall. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337238; article XML SHA-256 3ad9d919927af3768d8ce79811c116712646d6ec49f022619b0cd448aff70b4d. “Impact of a tropical monsoon climate on formaldehyde exposure and microbial contamination in anatomy dissection hall” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337238).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337238) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- engulfment [redraft]: Defines the whole autophagy process, not the headword engulfment. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Autophagy” (D001343).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001343) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- enjoyment [redraft]: Because the definition’s first sentence is not explicitly supported by the packet, the requested term sense is not defensible from the provided source.; The definition adds a general dictionary-style meaning that is not supported by the source packet.; The packet does not define “enjoyment” as “the feeling of pleasure or interest in everyday activities”; it only mentions “loss of interest or enjoyment in daily activities” as a negative symptom.; The packet supports only that loss of interest or enjoyment in daily activities is a negative symptom of schizophrenia; it does not define “enjoyment” as pleasure or interest in everyday activities. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Schizophrenia. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 43270b4941f013ac9885be92f3b32f1ed64375ff1fb44d589f3cc1975e5a59a1. “Schizophrenia” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- enrichment [redraft]: Redefines the general term enrichment as work-family enrichment and asserts an unsupported 'usually'. New packet required. Source: [Zhan Lili; Zhang Haoran; Hui Xueli; Shi Yantao; Sheng Ziqing. Work–family enrichment and kindergarten teachers’ occupational commitment: the roles of job satisfaction and emotional intelligence. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887039; article XML SHA-256 ec9a32c5ec78762dcf5848a6f04435d941dd39a4a999304daad8016c1a9dcc00. “Work–family enrichment and kindergarten teachers’ occupational commitment: the roles of job satisfaction and emotional intelligence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887039).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887039) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- enthusiasm [redraft]: The definition broadens the scope beyond the source by turning a teacher-specific construct into a general term; that is an unsupported generalization.; The field is not well supported by the packet: the source is an education/teaching study, so labeling the sense as cognition is not defensible from the packet alone.; The provided packet does not support classifying the term/definition under the field label "cognition"; it discusses teachers’ teaching enthusiasm as an affective/attitudinal construct in relation to engagement and teaching quality, without connecting it to cognition.; The source supports the specific sense of teachers’ teaching enthusiasm, not a general psychology definition of enthusiasm across any core activity. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Yang; Hao Yipu. The relationship between distributed leadership and teachers' teaching enthusiasm: the chain mediation of teacher autonomy and organizational commitment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1896309; article XML SHA-256 7e7a4761f12c4bd05e4619e5b5dcd34ed1d3609f1b547b24a8af434cbe94272c. “The relationship between distributed leadership and teachers' teaching enthusiasm: the chain mediation of teacher autonomy and organizational commitment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1896309).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1896309) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- entity theory [redraft]: The definition’s core characterization (“personal qualities or situations are fixed and not easily changed”) is not explicitly stated in the packet. The packet describes that entity theory is associated with beliefs such as “they cannot change the bad situation,” but it does not clearly define entity theory as fixedness of personal qualities (it references “implicit personality theory” without directly stating the fixed-belief content).; The packet supports entity theory as a belief linked to negative reactions to setbacks and the sense that one cannot change a bad situation, but it does not explicitly support the broader claim that personal qualities or situations are fixed and not easily changed.; The second sentence’s general phrasing (“more self-doubt and negative emotional reactions when people face setbacks or negative life events”) is only partially supported: the packet specifically mentions “doubt their own abilities” and negative emotions like “sadness,” and that negative life events relate to negative attitudes/reactions, but it does not directly support the broad causal framing as stated in the definition.; The wording generalizes beyond the packet’s wording about students, abilities, and negative life events, so the definition is broader than the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [Liu Dan; Geng Xiaowei; Zhang Fuwei; Zhang Yuan; Li Xueli. The influence of negative life events on college students’ suicidal ideation: the mediating role of entity theory and the moderating role of meaning in life. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1443474; article XML SHA-256 215d71b539006257cfa1d043852ca1719e6aaf7ed7723e5ed67df94f742f06ac. “The influence of negative life events on college students’ suicidal ideation: the mediating role of entity theory and the moderating role of meaning in life” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1443474).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1443474) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- environmental aesthetics [redraft]: The claims about “encounters with landscapes” shaping meaning, values, and “personal transformation” are only partially inferable (the packet mentions transformation themes and lifelong value/awareness), but they are not presented as part of an explicit definition of environmental aesthetics in the packet.; The packet does not provide a definition of “environmental aesthetics” or state that it is the study of how people perceive beauty/awe/the sublime in natural surroundings.; The packet does not support the claim that environmental aesthetics is specifically the study of how people perceive beauty in natural surroundings; it only mentions an interdisciplinary understanding of environmental aesthetics in the context of awe and wilderness experiences.; The packet only references an “interdisciplinary understanding of environmental aesthetics” in the context of a study of awe, the sublime, and transformation; it does not support the definition’s broader characterization as a general field of study.; The statement that encounters with landscapes shape meaning, values, and personal transformation goes beyond the packet’s support; the source mentions transformation, self-knowledge, and self-transcendence, but not values or a general theory of landscape-based meaning-making. New packet required. Source: [Løvoll Helga Synnevåg; Sæther Knut-Willy. Awe experiences, the sublime, and spiritual well-being in Arctic wilderness. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.973922; article XML SHA-256 6d4673f38c42061a57828cd2ab9c5656e948ff0b3ad12369abb718ffab2b8d20. “Awe experiences, the sublime, and spiritual well-being in Arctic wilderness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.973922).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.973922) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- environmental design [redraft]: Because the core definitional framing is not evidenced in the packet, the definition cannot be accepted as a defensible, sourced definition.; The definition gives a broad general meaning for “environmental design” (“planning or shaping of surroundings to support health and recovery”) that is not stated in the packet as a definition of the term.; The definition’s first sentence (“Environmental design is the planning or shaping of surroundings…”) is not supported by the packet, which discusses VR as a tool within “therapeutic landscapes” and references “environmental design in the field of public health” without defining environmental design as planning/shaping surroundings.; The packet only supports a narrower research context involving virtual reality, therapeutic landscapes, and public health; it does not establish that environmental design itself means using natural-looking virtual settings.; The packet supports the idea of using virtual natural environments to aid “health recovery” in therapeutic/public-health contexts, but it does not explicitly support the broader general phrasing about environmental design generally being the planning/shaping of surroundings.; “Public health outcomes” and “therapeutic experiences” are plausible paraphrases of the study’s aims, but the wording overgeneralizes beyond what the source directly supports. New packet required. Source: [Wen Yuhan; Shen Xiwei; Shen Yan. Improving immersive experiences in virtual natural setting for public health and environmental design: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297986; article XML SHA-256 c920ba647d703f49b1aacfb76d445a735d2529f9b84fc42b10027ba0401812dc. “Improving immersive experiences in virtual natural setting for public health and environmental design: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297986).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297986) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- environmental field [redraft]: Claims about “visual framing and donor engagement are being studied” are only indirectly suggested by the described experiment; the packet does not connect this to the term “environmental field” as a defined concept.; The definition is longer than needed and blends a general occupational meaning with the source-specific context, rather than defining the term as used in the packet.; The definition’s first sentence adds an unsupported dictionary sense (“area of work concerned with environmental and conservation issues”) that is not established by the packet; the source only uses the phrase in the article’s research context (“visual framing remains understudied in the environmental field”).; The packet discusses a study of visual framing in “environmental organizations” and “conservation fundraising,” but it does not use or define the term “environmental field,” so the interpretation that the term “names the broader setting” is not evidenced.; The packet does not provide a definition or explicit support for the phrase “environmental field” as an “area of work” or “broader setting,” so those substantive claims are unsupported by the supplied source text.; The phrase about “activities of environmental organizations and fundraising for biodiversity protection” is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet’s specific discussion of conservation fundraising in one study. New packet required. Source: [Salazar Gabby; Neves João; Alves Vasco; Silva Bruno; Veríssimo Diogo. Picturing donations: Do images influence conservation fundraising?. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0251882; article XML SHA-256 d37ebdcf083ee1b68785ea7f9f91c9d379c5f10c98520367da86bcb216adce6b. “Picturing donations: Do images influence conservation fundraising?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0251882).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251882) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- environmental manipulation [redraft]: The definition claims a general meaning of the term (“changing outside conditions in an experiment to alter a biological state and see how that change affects a response”), but the provided packet only mentions “decreasing cholesterol levels through environmental manipulation” and does not define or justify this broader general characterization of the phrase.; The definition is not strictly confined to learning-related content: the packet is primarily about acute functional tolerance to ethanol in *C. elegans* and neuronal/lipid mechanisms, with no support that the term is used in a learning-specific sense.; The definition states “In this source, it refers to lowering cholesterol levels through external conditions rather than by direct genetic change.” The packet supports that cholesterol levels were decreased via “environmental manipulation” and contrasts this with genetic manipulations (e.g., genetic changes affecting TAG levels), but it does not explicitly state the ‘rather than by direct genetic change’ wording or that the cholesterol manipulation is specifically non-genetic in the way the definition implies.; The packet only shows that decreasing cholesterol levels through environmental manipulation had effects similar to decreased TAG levels; it does not define the term as a general experimental method for changing outside conditions to alter a biological state and measure a response.; The phrase is not supported as meaning “lowering cholesterol levels through external conditions rather than by direct genetic change” in general; that interpretation is an extrapolation beyond the single study context. New packet required. Source: [Bettinger Jill C.; Leung Kapo; Bolling Mia H.; Goldsmith Andrew D.; Davies Andrew G.. Lipid Environment Modulates the Development of Acute Tolerance to Ethanol in Caenorhabditis elegans. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0035192; article XML SHA-256 85efc2f0bf3af588c714483f206a982c88a7e66d3cf5588887348aeed50cd791. “Lipid Environment Modulates the Development of Acute Tolerance to Ethanol in Caenorhabditis elegans” (10.1371/journal.pone.0035192).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035192) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- epidemic [redraft]: Because key parts of the definition (especially the speed/spreading framing) are not explicitly supported by the supplied text, the definition is not fully defensible from the packet.; The mention that it can require non-pharmaceutical interventions is supported, but the definition adds a broader explanatory gloss that goes beyond the source text.; The packet does not provide a definitional basis for “an outbreak that spreads quickly enough,” “fast-moving,” or any explicit characterization of epidemic speed—only that policymaking needs to “respond at the pace of the outbreak.”; The packet supports that epidemic control policies must respond at the pace of the outbreak, but it does not explicitly define an epidemic as an outbreak that spreads quickly enough or as a fast-moving public health event.; The packet supports the idea that epidemics involve policymaking that responds to outbreak pace and that there is interest in “non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs),” but it does not establish that epidemics are “public health event[s]” as stated (this is only implied by the context). New packet required. Source: [Bolshov Oleksandr; Chumachenko Dmytro. Reinforcement learning for policymaking in epidemic control: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351176; article XML SHA-256 9f908c97ebc3ac8d575003b65d22e57cdbaafae37b2fa425cecd603a04f982c0. “Reinforcement learning for policymaking in epidemic control: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351176).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351176) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- epidermis [redraft]: The definition is phrased as if it were a settled packet-specific sense, but the packet supports only a botanical meaning of epidermis, not a mental-health term sense.; The definition’s framing (“outer stem layer of the plant…”, “first line of defense…”, “its own metabolic response patterns”) is plant-specific and comes from the packet, but the supplied field is mental health, creating a substantive mismatch not supported by the packet.; The provided packet is about plant physiology (Cynomorium songaricum stem epidermis) and contains no mental-health content; the definition’s field is therefore not supported by the packet.; The requested field is mental health, but the packet is about plant tissue physiology, so the field assignment is not defensible. New packet required. Source: [Tang Yu; Zhang Xunchao; Yang Yang; Wang Wenshu; Wang Jie; Zhou Yubi. Tissue-specific amino acid accumulation in Cynomorium songaricum stem and epidermis responds to distinct water and soil cues. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354162; article XML SHA-256 08c347168ea7a9377b4d6d2072dff5241306c60d01aafe85c8476532ccb01392. “Tissue-specific amino acid accumulation in Cynomorium songaricum stem and epidermis responds to distinct water and soil cues” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354162).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354162) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- epilepsy surgery [redraft]: Second sentence invents an assessment sense of the term that the packet does not give. New packet required. Source: [Armañanzas Rubén; Alonso-Nanclares Lidia; DeFelipe-Oroquieta Jesús; Kastanauskaite Asta; de Sola Rafael G.; DeFelipe Javier; Bielza Concha; Larrañaga Pedro. Machine Learning Approach for the Outcome Prediction of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Surgery. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0062819; article XML SHA-256 ae1901bb839aa1f38948a35acaf29af3695f9513d813814c5975f17e8d96766b. “Machine Learning Approach for the Outcome Prediction of Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Surgery” (10.1371/journal.pone.0062819).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062819) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- epileptiform [redraft]: The definition adds a between-seizures gloss that fits “interictal,” but that temporal detail is not explicitly given as the meaning of “epileptiform” itself in the packet.; The definition asserts a specific meaning linkage (“it refers to … interictal epileptiform discharges”) that is directionally consistent with the packet’s focus, but the additional unsupported wording prevents full support.; The field is not supported by the packet, which is about EEG/epileptiform discharges rather than learning.; The packet supports interictal epileptiform discharges as diagnostically important EEG abnormalities, but it does not define the standalone term “epileptiform” as an EEG pattern associated with epilepsy-like brain activity.; The packet text does not state that the relevant abnormalities occur “between seizures.”; The packet text does not support the claim that “epileptiform” describes “an EEG pattern associated with epilepsy-like brain activity.”; While the packet does discuss “interictal epileptiform discharges (IEDs)” and describes them as “diagnostically important EEG abnormalities,” the provided definition adds multiple substantive details (“epilepsy-like brain activity” and “between seizures”) that are not explicitly supported in the supplied packet. New packet required. Source: [Plabon Al Mukshit; Mukit Abdul; Neyamul Md.; Jehady Omar Faruk; Zuba Fatima Tuz; Mina Md. Faisal; Islam Torikul. Conditional spatial classification of expert-confirmed interictal epileptiform discharge epochs: An EEG-ECG ablation and SHAP analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358782; article XML SHA-256 8d6727ab6037cedbb0f7af1a59fab3ac8e79eda5d8d81b9f98f72d0dd8df837f. “Conditional spatial classification of expert-confirmed interictal epileptiform discharge epochs: An EEG-ECG ablation and SHAP analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358782).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358782) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- epileptogenic focus [redraft]: The definition makes a specific causal claim that an epileptogenic focus is the exact brain area where seizure activity starts; the packet supports identifying epileptogenic focus locations and brain structures associated with seizures, but does not explicitly define the term in those words.; The definition’s first sentence (“specific brain area where epileptic seizure activity starts”) is broadly consistent with the packet’s use of “epileptogenic focus locations or brain structures” and its focus on seizure-onset/epileptogenic localization, but the packet does not provide an explicit one-to-one definitional statement of “epileptogenic focus” as “the specific brain area where seizure activity starts.”; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: this is an epilepsy/neurology topic about focal seizures and autonomic dysfunction, not a cognition entry.; The second sentence claims that identifying the seizure-onset location “can help relate symptoms, including autonomic changes, to the brain structures involved.” While the packet discusses autonomic changes during seizures and argues that ictal autonomic dysfunction indicates involvement of central autonomic areas and may be useful diagnostically, it does not explicitly state that *identifying the epileptogenic focus/seizure-onset location* helps relate symptoms to brain structures in the way the definition asserts. New packet required. Source: [Zhuravlev Dmitry; Marchenko Anna; Skalnaya Anastasia; Lebedeva Marina; Trifonov Igor; Rider Flora; Ierusalimsky Nikolay; Burkitbaev Sabir; Semenovykh Natalia; Luzin Roman; Sinkin Mikhail; Krylov Vladimir; Guekht Alla. Ictal cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction during focal seizures induced by direct electrical stimulation: An observational study research protocol. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320357; article XML SHA-256 430778de768cef70cb8be40a0a2b3da895e243f56dec60411408d172d2c172be. “Ictal cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction during focal seizures induced by direct electrical stimulation: An observational study research protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320357).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320357) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- epileptogenic lesion [redraft]: The definition makes a broader causal claim about a ‘focal brain abnormality associated with a person’s epilepsy’ that is only indirectly suggested by the packet and not explicitly defined there.; The packet does not define the term as a general concept; it uses ‘epileptogenic lesion’ only in the context of one study on children and young adults with focal lesional epilepsy.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition that an “epileptogenic lesion” is “a focal brain abnormality.” It only uses the term in the context of “focal lesional epilepsy” and analyzes language activations “with the epileptogenic lesion,” without stating the term’s meaning as a focal brain abnormality.; The second sentence adds a study-specific role (‘reference point for examining how language functions are organized… before and after epilepsy surgery’) that is not a supported dictionary sense of the term.; While the packet does support using the epileptogenic lesion as a reference point in analyses of “language representation” and language changes in relation to surgery (preoperative vs postoperative language fMRI/lateralization), the first substantive claim about the term’s definition is not supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Barba Carmen; Montanaro Domenico; Grisotto Laura; Frijia Francesca; Pellacani Simona; Cavalli Anna; Rizzi Susanna; Lenge Matteo; Aghakhanyan Gayane; Sibilia Valentina; Giordano Flavio; Pisano Tiziana; Mari Francesco; Melani Federico; Cherubini Andrea; Buccoliero Annamaria; Caligiuri Maria Eugenia; Guerrini Renzo. Patterns and predictors of language representation and the influence of epilepsy surgery on language reorganization in children and young adults with focal lesional epilepsy. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0238389; article XML SHA-256 ae359cacc0a67036b20e73ddbbfd1b3ca0b0ba28e2a27f4016afc1ce10285e2b. “Patterns and predictors of language representation and the influence of epilepsy surgery on language reorganization in children and young adults with focal lesional epilepsy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0238389).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238389) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- episode [redraft]: Because the key definitional claims are not supported by the provided packet text, the requested sense of “episode” in diagnosis is not defensible.; The definition adds an explanatory claim (“In this source, first episode psychosis means the initial occurrence of psychotic symptoms”) that is broader and more interpretive than the packet text, which only says negative symptoms are evident from the first episode of psychosis.; The packet only mentions “first episode of psychosis (FEP)” but does not explain what “first episode” means (e.g., that it is the initial occurrence of psychotic symptoms).; The packet supports the phrase “first episode of psychosis” only as a reference to psychosis presenting at the first episode, not a general diagnostic definition of an “episode” as a distinct period in which a disorder or its symptoms are present.; The packet text does not define the term “episode” as a distinct period when a disorder or its symptoms are present. New packet required. Source: [Ingabire Germaine; Scarabelot Luis Felipe; Del-Ben Cristina Marta; Corsi-Zuelli Fabiana. Peripheral blood immune markers associated with negative symptoms in first episode psychosis: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1782134; article XML SHA-256 b96b679a6d7dce098d45e700f8c27ed3536e5666c641744315d445d32ccba9f6. “Peripheral blood immune markers associated with negative symptoms in first episode psychosis: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1782134).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1782134) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- epistemic [redraft]: Second sentence narrows epistemic to epistemic trust and asserts an unsupported 'often'. New packet required. Source: [Zhu Cui; Zhang Yiran; Liu Zan; Xie Dongjie; Yang Cheng; Su Yanjie. Influence of strangers' vocal attractiveness on adolescents' epistemic trust: moderation effect of analytical thinking. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1700278; article XML SHA-256 3a2c4990798487ded02c8ca055bb310bc00d990ad3a0d6e583633db0064028d3. “Influence of strangers' vocal attractiveness on adolescents' epistemic trust: moderation effect of analytical thinking” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1700278).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1700278) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- EPSP [redraft]: The definition adds that an EPSP is “brief,” but the supplied source only supports depolarization of synaptic membrane potentials during neurotransmission and does not state duration.; The definition states the EPSP is a “brief” depolarizing change, but the provided packet does not describe EPSPs as brief. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials” (D019706).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D019706) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- equation [redraft]: Uses 'in this learning context' to narrow the general word equation to one model. New packet required. Source: [Wang Kui; Zou Tao. A fractional differential equation model for student learning dynamics using anonymized learning analytics data. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901905; article XML SHA-256 e53427c4b959286e30a22344076c52ee41cbf4f2a525866a43e9209dc61eccb9. “A fractional differential equation model for student learning dynamics using anonymized learning analytics data” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901905).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901905) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- equilibrium potential [redraft]: The packet does not provide a general definition of “equilibrium potential” (e.g., an electrical level where an ion is balanced across a membrane); it only mentions that “chloride equilibrium potential (E_Cl) was determined” in a salamander retinal slice.; The packet only supports a specific chloride equilibrium potential measured in salamander cones; it does not support the broader general definition of equilibrium potential as the balance point for any ion across a cell membrane.; The statement that chloride equilibrium potential can influence neurotransmission is only indirectly suggested by the background about chloride-dependent mechanisms and photoreceptor release, not stated as a general claim in the source.; While the packet discusses chloride-dependent mechanisms regulating neurotransmission (intracellular chloride ions regulating neurotransmission from photoreceptors), it does not explicitly state that chloride equilibrium potential is “the membrane voltage related to chloride ions” in the definitional sense used in the provided definition. New packet required. Source: [Thoreson Wallace B; Bryson Eric J. Chloride equilibrium potential in salamander cones. 2004; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-5-53; article XML SHA-256 25247e3de0f2c2d975a993c937e5100ff10f0320f50f927d74116c94ee3333ba. “Chloride equilibrium potential in salamander cones” (10.1186/1471-2202-5-53).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-5-53) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- equipment design [redraft]: Narrows a general term to lightning protection gear and adds unsupported 'physical forces'. New packet required. Source: [Machts René; Hunold Alexander; Drebenstedt Christian; Rock Michael; Leu Carsten; Haueisen Jens. Measurement and analysis of partial lightning currents in a head phantom. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0223133; article XML SHA-256 f8e993b36950f776f38f6422b062356c58200461b6611054ee2c5cc755318a64. “Measurement and analysis of partial lightning currents in a head phantom” (10.1371/journal.pone.0223133).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223133) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ergot alkaloid [redraft]: Says ergot alkaloids are 'in the ergotamine group', inverting the packet's class relation. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ergotamine Tartrate” (C47517).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- erotica [redraft]: The claim that erotica is “an example of engaging emotional material” and that it can make it slower to shift gaze away is broadly supported by the packet’s statement that ocular disengagement is affected by engaging picture contents “such as erotica,” along with findings of delayed saccade initiation from emotional (arousing) scenes. However, because the sexual-arousal definition is not supported, the definition cannot be accepted as written.; The packet does not define “erotica” as “sexually arousing visual content,” nor does it explicitly state the sexual-arousal meaning of the term.; The packet only uses “erotica” as an example of an engaging picture content; it does not define the term as sexually arousing visual content.; The second sentence overgeneralizes by turning the article’s specific finding about arousing scenes and saccade slowing into a broad definition of erotica as emotional material that holds attention. New packet required. Source: [De Cesarei Andrea; Sambuco Nicola; D’Ascenzo Stefania; Nicoletti Roberto; Codispoti Maurizio. Delayed ocular disengagement from arousing scenes. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1297192; article XML SHA-256 1ce1e4b6aecb4dd4e7a8c78b40f256afc267385e37fefdc26ec7c7e41191eba2. “Delayed ocular disengagement from arousing scenes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1297192).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1297192) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- eroticization [redraft]: Because the packet does not support the specific characterization (“people, relationships, or behaviour” framed/portrayed in sexualized terms), the requested sense/meaning in the definition is only partially supported.; The definition adds unsupported detail about eroticization as the framing or portrayal of people, relationships, or behaviour in sexualized terms; the packet only mentions “media eroticization” as one influence on adolescent sexual decision-making.; The packet does not define “eroticization” as “the framing or portrayal of people, relationships, or behaviour in sexualized terms”; it only mentions “media eroticization” as a factor influencing adolescent sexual decision-making.; The phrase “such as through media messages” is not supported by the packet.; The second sentence overstates the packet’s claim by presenting eroticization as a described category in the source rather than a term mentioned in passing among several influences. New packet required. Source: [Macintyre Anna K-J; Montero Vega Adela Rosa; Sagbakken Mette. From disease to desire, pleasure to the pill: A qualitative study of adolescent learning about sexual health and sexuality in Chile. 2015; DOI 10.1186/s12889-015-2253-9; article XML SHA-256 5747e1d82808e1cf27a27ddebe7c3a77cfc927134aa8d5f2279031bd472d742d. “From disease to desire, pleasure to the pill: A qualitative study of adolescent learning about sexual health and sexuality in Chile” (10.1186/s12889-015-2253-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-2253-9) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- error [redraft]: Because the first sentence’s core definition is not directly supported by the packet, the requested term sense is not fully defensible.; The definition adds that “in the packet’s context, these prediction errors arise during face processing,” which is broadly consistent with the packet’s discussion of facial-feature-related prediction errors, but the packet does not explicitly tie the general term “error” to the specific learning mismatch formulation given in the first sentence.; The definition broadens the packet’s specific EEG/face-processing finding into a general statement about learning without support from the source packet.; The definition’s first sentence gives a general characterization of “error” as a mismatch between what is predicted and what is perceived, but the packet does not define “error” (or “error” in learning) in these terms.; The packet supports face-processing prediction errors and their role in updating predictive models during social interaction, but it does not support a general learning-definition claim that an error is a mismatch between what is predicted and what is perceived. New packet required. Source: [Costa Cristiano; Ward Emma K.; Pezzetta Rachele; Masina Fabio; Arcara Giorgio; Press Clare; Scarpazza Cristina. Early electrophysiological responses reflect precision-weighted prediction errors to face features. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357956; article XML SHA-256 df567dac00bc7850a370d0f0ad23f14badc45bf155cec68a41808d2647e416a2. “Early electrophysiological responses reflect precision-weighted prediction errors to face features” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357956).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357956) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- escape behavior [redraft]: The definition adds an interpretation about “the supplied source refers to how ants flee danger” but the packet does not define the term in these general organism-level terms; it only reports observations of ants’ escaping behavior in particular experimental conditions.; The definition generalizes beyond the packet’s specific ant study by presenting escape behavior as a broad organism-level concept, rather than the source’s narrower discussion of ants escaping heat or citronella oil exposure.; The definition’s general claim that “escape behavior” is the set of actions an organism shows when trying to get away from a threatening or aversive situation is not explicitly supported in the supplied packet (the packet discusses specific experiments on ants and their escape through exits).; The packet supports escape via two exits and group leaving, but it does not by itself establish the full generalized wording about “threatening or aversive situations.” New packet required. Source: [Chung Yuan-Kai; Lin Chung-Chi. Heat-induced symmetry breaking in ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) escape behavior. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0173642; article XML SHA-256 36668c57e5c72ca84b6869332bcda4ec57f6b9211367e9163550649f8a3565b0. “Heat-induced symmetry breaking in ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) escape behavior” (10.1371/journal.pone.0173642).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0173642) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- essentialism [redraft]: Uses 'in this context' to narrow the general term essentialism to one caregiver claim. New packet required. Source: [Karlsson Gunnar. The early interaction of the primary caregiver and the infant with respect to sex, gender and ego-identity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777617; article XML SHA-256 6a24b3fd2d41ad4a6cf7940f487a68972d012f31e95cbbf32fb16329c814b137. “The early interaction of the primary caregiver and the infant with respect to sex, gender and ego-identity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777617).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777617) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- estimators [redraft]: Hedges with 'in this learning context' to narrow the general term to gain estimators. New packet required. Source: [Navarrete-Ulloa Jairo A.; Giaconi Valentina; Contador Gonzalo. Normal gains: estimators of learning rates in pretest-posttest settings. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901493; article XML SHA-256 e5947923d1dfb222da21b15dd8959fe1ea26069634089a83e6ad64a06410efa9. “Normal gains: estimators of learning rates in pretest-posttest settings” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901493).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901493) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- estradiol [redraft]: Describes a paper's treatment proposal rather than defining the hormone estradiol. New packet required. Source: [Carlson John. A framework for safe estradiol modulation in male bipolar disorder: theoretical justification for SERM-enabled adjunctive therapy. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1644175; article XML SHA-256 18bac106b421f27e297c3ff2dea1af984f0dd8eb7f7b1703dbcdd8d3482ddc8a. “A framework for safe estradiol modulation in male bipolar disorder: theoretical justification for SERM-enabled adjunctive therapy” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1644175).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1644175) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ethical imperative [redraft]: Because the first sentence’s interpretation is not supported by the packet, the overall definition is not fully defensible based on the supplied source.; The definition’s phrasing “a strong moral obligation” is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text. The packet only states there is “a growing ethical imperative to feedback research results,” without defining “ethical imperative” as “strong moral obligation.”; The first sentence gives a general dictionary-style definition of “ethical imperative” that is not stated or directly supported by the source packet; the packet only uses the phrase in context (“a growing ethical imperative to feedback research results to participants”).; The source supports the narrower contextual sense about returning research results to participants, but not the broader claim that the term means a general strong moral obligation to do something. New packet required. Source: [Lorimer Karen; Gray Cindy M; Hunt Kate; Wyke Sally; Anderson Annie; Benzeval Michaela. Response to written feedback of clinical data within a longitudinal study: a qualitative study exploring the ethical implications. 2011; DOI 10.1186/1471-2288-11-10; article XML SHA-256 a8fb0eff15ab2b89faf3566bc14447cd58e6f4aea5acf12dc64a5e8ecfda2464. “Response to written feedback of clinical data within a longitudinal study: a qualitative study exploring the ethical implications” (10.1186/1471-2288-11-10).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-10) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- ethnic [redraft]: The definition stretches a specific study context into a broad definitional claim, which is unsupported by the packet alone.; The packet supports ethnic minorities with endangered languages/scripts and associated cultural continuity, but it does not define “ethnic” generally as “belonging to a cultural group.”; The packet supports that the study concerns “ethnic minorities” and relates eroded languages/traditional scripts to continuity of collective memory, identity, and values, but it does not provide an explicit definition of “ethnic” as “belonging to a cultural group.”; The remaining elements of the definition (shared language/traditional scripts, continuity of collective memory/identity/values, and psychological distress when these are threatened/eroded) are broadly consistent with the packet text, but the overall definition includes the unsupported broader definitional framing noted above.; “Traditional writing” is not stated in the packet; the source mentions traditional scripts. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Xian; Li Zichan. Perceived cultural continuity, self-schemas, self-esteem, and psychological distress among members of ethnic groups with endangered scripts in Southwest China. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768184; article XML SHA-256 7144bdf119e203fc88bc41fddab202bd5c4a3c66b99c171060c7fe38fe5bb055. “Perceived cultural continuity, self-schemas, self-esteem, and psychological distress among members of ethnic groups with endangered scripts in Southwest China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768184).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768184) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- eugenics [redraft]: Well-known headword redefined via 'in this context' as a narrow prenatal-screening sense the packet happens to use. New packet required. Source: [Wei Shiyu; Yuan Yuan; Tu Suhua; Pang Chunrong; Chen Maomei; Ren Min. Karyotyping with amniotic fluid in 6,572 pregnant women and pregnancy outcomes——A single-center retrospective study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324744; article XML SHA-256 a900efbd280bd5458edb89611e7f67928ea1d2481fe4bde7573092cf1fa367b7. “Karyotyping with amniotic fluid in 6,572 pregnant women and pregnancy outcomes——A single-center retrospective study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324744).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324744) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- euphoriant [redraft]: The first sentence (“A euphoriant is a substance used to produce euphoria or pleasurable mood effects”) is not explicitly stated or supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet supports only that arecoline “has been used as a euphoriant in the Pacific Islands”; it does not define euphoriant as a substance used to produce euphoria or pleasurable mood effects.; The second sentence narrows the claim to arecoline and adds context not needed for the term’s definition, so the requested sense of the term is not directly supported by the packet.; While the packet does say arecoline “has been used as a euphoriant in the Pacific Islands,” it does not provide the requested general definition of what an “euphoriant” is. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Arecoline” (D001115).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001115) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- euthanasia [redraft]: The definition adds a general explanation of euthanasia as “ending a person’s life because of suffering,” which is not stated in the supplied source packet.; The field choice is not well supported by the packet; the source is about euthanasia/assisted suicide in mental-disorder contexts, not a diagnosis term or diagnostic concept.; The provided field is “diagnosis,” but euthanasia is not presented in the packet as a diagnostic category; the packet frames it as a clinical/bioethical/medico-legal topic rather than a diagnosis. New packet required. Source: [Tripi Dalila; Giantesani Mario; Arena Jan Francesco; Ferracuti Stefano. Forensic-psychiatric and medico-legal challenges in euthanasia and assisted suicide for patients with mental disorders: balancing autonomy, vulnerability, and professional responsibility. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1835123; article XML SHA-256 4abc58eafbc02021958231ea48370ca4971ca34251fe992b9906891cdc696802. “Forensic-psychiatric and medico-legal challenges in euthanasia and assisted suicide for patients with mental disorders: balancing autonomy, vulnerability, and professional responsibility” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1835123).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1835123) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- evasion [redraft]: The definition’s opening generalization (“the process of avoiding or escaping a defensive response”) is broader than what the packet states and is not supported as a general definition in this source.; The field is not defensible from the packet: the source is about HSV-1 immune evasion and antiviral signaling, not a learning/psychology sense of the term.; The first sentence (“Evasion is the process of avoiding or escaping a defensive response”) is not stated or supported in the provided packet, which instead discusses viral immune evasion mechanisms in HSV-1.; The provided packet content supports a specific meaning of immune evasion (UL21 disrupts cGAS-STING and suppresses type-I interferon responses, facilitating replication), but the definition presents a broader, general term definition that the packet does not supply. New packet required. Source: [Suleman Muhammad; Ali Imtiaz; Sayaf Abrar Mohammad; Hassan Fakhrul; Ilahi Usama; Alissa Mohammed; Crovella Sergio; Shaito Abdullah A; Yassine Hadi M. Mechanistic inhibition of herpes simplex virus-1 UL21 immune-evasion function by natural-product scaffolds: A multi-tier docking, dynamics, and energetic profiling approach. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355499; article XML SHA-256 0826fc2ba166bf934eb650ae9af3f145d8dc54f93e8b9c7e748d485a480e5c92. “Mechanistic inhibition of herpes simplex virus-1 UL21 immune-evasion function by natural-product scaffolds: A multi-tier docking, dynamics, and energetic profiling approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355499).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355499) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- evolution [redraft]: Describes how the packet uses the word rather than defining the headword; narrow bibliometric sense smuggled onto a general term. New packet required. Source: [Roca Mora Maria Meritxell; Sanchez-Monge Marcia; Balardini Ayoub Dibe; Aguiar-Barros Ana Beatriz P.; Serrano-Porras Sofia; de Filippis Renato; Schoretsanitis Georgios. GLP-1 receptor agonists and psychiatric outcomes: a bibliometric analysis of research trends, thematic evolution, and collaboration networks. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857078; article XML SHA-256 055f7133c1e71c1295787d24c29cced9617d6b74523781b08283501bed5dbd10. “GLP-1 receptor agonists and psychiatric outcomes: a bibliometric analysis of research trends, thematic evolution, and collaboration networks” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857078).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857078) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ex post facto design [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence claims that an ex post facto design studies variables “as they already exist rather than manipulating them,” but the provided packet only states that the study used a “quantitative methodology based on non-experimental or ex post facto design” and does not explicitly describe variables as already existing or contrast against manipulation.; The packet does support that, in this instance, ex post facto design was used with “semi-structured and closed survey-questionnaire-type instruments” and that it included data on teachers’ “sociodemographic and professional profile” (participants’ characteristics) and “teachers' beliefs,” so the second sentence is broadly supported, but overall the definition fails due to the unsupported general characterization in the first sentence.; The packet supports a non-experimental/ex post facto quantitative survey-questionnaire design, but it does not explicitly state the broader general definition that this approach studies variables as they already exist rather than manipulating them.; The packet supports that the design collected participants’ sociodemographic/professional profiles and beliefs, but the wording “used to examine participants’ characteristics and beliefs” is a paraphrase that should stay tightly anchored to the packet’s specific description. New packet required. Source: [Caro Valverde María Teresa; de Amo Sánchez-Fortún José Manuel; Domínguez-Oller Juana Celia. Implicit Teacher Theories Regarding the Argumentative Commentary of Multimodal Texts in the Teaching of Spanish as a Native and Foreign Language. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749426; article XML SHA-256 a3836b3d4b202a38ee1aa6f8fc732645cbe28dbdc9cc80f8d4f6134c4e07d916. “Implicit Teacher Theories Regarding the Argumentative Commentary of Multimodal Texts in the Teaching of Spanish as a Native and Foreign Language” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749426).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749426) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- EX/RP [redraft]: The claim that patients confront feared situations or thoughts while refraining from compulsive responses is not stated in the packet.; The definition’s wording frames EX/RP as a specific “cognitive-behavioral treatment approach” and includes behavioral targets not explicitly described in the provided packet text beyond the general ERP focus.; The packet only states that CBT “focuses on exposure and response prevention (ERP)” as the primary psychological treatment for OCD, but it does not support the additional description that patients “confront feared situations or thoughts” while “refraining from their usual compulsive responses.”; The packet supports EX/RP only as part of the name of the Patient Exposure and Response Prevention (EX/RP) Adherence Scale (PEAS), not as the term for the treatment itself.; The sentence about adherence to EX/RP during and between sessions being measured as an indicator of treatment engagement is only partly supported; the packet says in- and between-session patient adherence was measured with PEAS and may reflect treatment engagement, but it does not state this as a general definition of EX/RP.; The statement that EX/RP is a cognitive-behavioral treatment approach for obsessive–compulsive disorder is not directly supported by the packet; the packet mentions ERP as the CBT focus, but not EX/RP in that sense. New packet required. Source: [Berg Håvard; Tjelle Kristian; Solem Stian; Hansen Bjarne; Kvale Gerd; Björgvinsson Thröstur; Hagen Kristen. Motivation in the Bergen 4-day treatment for obsessive–compulsive disorder. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07218-z; article XML SHA-256 88f1866bd0729aa00175cc501c168e76be6f8b07d5c49b556ae128619d463e12. “Motivation in the Bergen 4-day treatment for obsessive–compulsive disorder” (10.1186/s12888-025-07218-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07218-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ex vivo [redraft]: Because these substantive parts of the definition are not directly supported by the provided packet wording, the definition is not fully defensible.; The definition claims ex vivo offers “preserving more of the tissue’s natural features than standard cell culture,” but the packet supports only that ex vivo infection models provide “greater accuracy and physiological relevance” compared to “traditional cell culture systems,” not preservation of “natural features.”; The packet does not explicitly state that ex vivo refers to “living tissue taken out of an organism” (it discusses ex vivo corneal infection models but does not define the term in those exact terms).; The packet supports ex vivo infection models and their practical and ethical advantages, but it does not explicitly support the general definitional claim that ex vivo means living tissue taken out of an organism and studied outside the body.; The wording goes beyond the supplied source by presenting a broad dictionary-style definition rather than the narrower research-model usage shown in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Foulkes Daniel M; Mclean Keri; Sharma Tarunima; Fernig David G; Kaye Stephen B. Stable topical application of antimicrobials using plumbing rings in an ex vivo porcine corneal infection model. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319911; article XML SHA-256 49f713641d21aaf608684a9df6dd95ac58b9a7ae3ab2a0f1e16501645bde5882. “Stable topical application of antimicrobials using plumbing rings in an ex vivo porcine corneal infection model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319911).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319911) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ex- [redraft]: The gloss about an ex-smoker being someone who smoked in the past but does not currently smoke is not stated in the packet and is unsupported as a dictionary definition here.; The packet does not explicitly define the prefix “ex-” as meaning “former or previous.” It only uses “ex-smokers” as a label in the study text, without stating the meaning of “ex-” itself.; The packet only uses the form “smokers/ex-smokers” in a study context; it does not define the prefix ex- or support the broader generalization that it means “former or previous.” New packet required. Source: [von Zimmermann Claudia; Weinland Christian; Kornhuber Johannes; Lenz Bernd; Mühle Christiane. Interaction of serum resistin and smoking behavior in predicting depression risk: a sex-sensitive analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08419-w; article XML SHA-256 1d07a93a8df401961ddac564d1d619c408a5562a73b0ba79fe2dd955a5b86716. “Interaction of serum resistin and smoking behavior in predicting depression risk: a sex-sensitive analysis” (10.1186/s12888-026-08419-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08419-w) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- exaltation [redraft]: The definition claims the grandiose beliefs are “about one’s importance, power, wealth, or identity,” but the packet explicitly lists “importance” and “wealth” and related terms (e.g., strength), while “power” and “identity” are not stated in the provided text.; “Identity” is not supported by the source wording; the packet lists delusions of grandeur, vanity, unusual strength, importance, or wealth, but not grandiose beliefs about one’s identity. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Exaltation” (Exaltation).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#Exaltation) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- exchange theory [redraft]: The definition’s wording (“young people’s intentions to marry”) is slightly broader than the packet’s phrasing (“young adults’ marital intentions”), and the packet does not justify the general “relationship decisions in connection with economic conditions” claim.; The packet supports one study that examined economic pressure, marital intentions, and psychological capital; it does not establish a general definition of the theory as a framework for relationship decisions under economic conditions.; The packet supports that the study drew on “social exchange theory,” examined the impact of economic pressure on young adults’ marital intentions, and focused on a mediating role of psychological capital, but it does not explicitly define exchange theory as a “social framework” or describe it as “used to study relationship decisions” in general terms.; The source identifies the theory as “social exchange theory,” not the broader bare term “exchange theory,” so the sense is not exact. New packet required. Source: [Liu Jihui; Shao Yuanyuan; Qiao Yan; Xu Fang. Research on the impact of economic stress on young adults’ marital intentions from the perspective of social exchange theory: a study on the mediating role of psychological capital. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758280; article XML SHA-256 e44606c158cef2c928e4e8298634267b6c191c40602d40eac96c0a705108d7cd. “Research on the impact of economic stress on young adults’ marital intentions from the perspective of social exchange theory: a study on the mediating role of psychological capital” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758280).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1758280) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- excitatory postsynaptic potential [redraft]: The definition adds an association with glutamatergic input, which is supported, but it presents this as a general definitional feature rather than the packet’s specific experimental context.; The definition states that the term is “the excitatory component of neuronal signaling,” but the packet only describes EPSP in the context of dendritic integration experiments/models and does not explicitly support this phrasing as a definitional characterization.; The phrase “the excitatory component of neuronal signaling” is broader than what the packet states; the source only describes the excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) as a voltage value in a dendritic integration rule.; The wording is otherwise close, but it should stay tightly tied to the source’s statement that the EPSP is measured as a voltage value at the time it reaches its peak.; While the packet supports that the EPSP is a voltage value associated with excitatory glutamatergic input and that it is measured at the time when it reaches its peak, it does not explicitly define EPSP as “the voltage change produced in a postsynaptic neuron by excitatory input” in those exact terms. New packet required. Source: [Zhou Douglas; Li Songting; Zhang Xiao-hui; Cai David. Phenomenological Incorporation of Nonlinear Dendritic Integration Using Integrate-and-Fire Neuronal Frameworks. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0053508; article XML SHA-256 b453d9b4221456b78064da5da819beb2b15de09d3b775a51e28861cb23d11f8f. “Phenomenological Incorporation of Nonlinear Dendritic Integration Using Integrate-and-Fire Neuronal Frameworks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0053508).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0053508) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- executive attention [redraft]: The definition states that executive attention is “involved in directing and controlling processing,” but the supplied packet only discusses executive attention’s involvement in conscious vs. unconscious processing and its links to temporal attention and working-memory subsystems; it does not define executive attention as directing/controlling processing.; The packet does not define executive attention as a form of attention involved in directing and controlling processing.; The packet supports a link to temporal attention and to the working-memory manipulation subsystem rather than the maintenance subsystem, but the definition overstates the packet by presenting these as the defining sense of the term.; The packet supports a role in unconscious processing, but it does not support the claim that executive attention also supports conscious processing.; The remainder of the definition (that evidence indicates executive attention supports both conscious and unconscious processing, and that it is linked to temporal attention and the working-memory manipulation system rather than the maintenance system) is consistent with parts of the packet, but the overall definition fails because of the unsupported first claim. New packet required. Source: [Mao Xuechen; Huang Qin; Shi Jilong; Yu Yanglan; Li Anmin. Athletes demonstrate an advantage in unconscious processing under working-memory load specifically within sport-related domains. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1697078; article XML SHA-256 f19b1c9dc6d6abc89086e56e93abed0f274cc3fe585286a48adf71242501a2d1. “Athletes demonstrate an advantage in unconscious processing under working-memory load specifically within sport-related domains” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1697078).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1697078) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- exercise adherence [redraft]: Because the definition contains substantive claims beyond what the packet explicitly provides (especially the general time-based/behavioral extent wording), the definition cannot be accepted as supported by the supplied source packet.; The added gloss about being "especially as an intention to sustain exercise behavior, such as continuing to meet planned activity goals" goes beyond the packet’s wording; the packet discusses "exercise adherence intention" and sustaining exercise plans, but not that fuller definition or planned activity goals.; The definition’s first sentence (“extent to which a person keeps following an exercise plan or maintains regular physical activity over time”) is not explicitly supported as a definition in the provided packet text; the packet discusses exercise adherence intention and related effects, but does not supply this general operational meaning.; The packet supports exercise adherence in relation to sustaining exercise plans or behavior, but it does not explicitly define it as the extent to which a person keeps following an exercise plan or maintains regular physical activity over time.; The packet supports the latter portion about “intention to sustain exercise behavior/ plans” in the context of gamification and intention (it references “exercise adherence intention” and intention effects), but the definition combines this with an additional, broader characterization not stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Sun Yi; Dong Hongchi; Jiang Wenyi. Is more always better? An S-shaped impact of gamification feature richness on exercise adherence intention. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1671543; article XML SHA-256 0825222ba8a7d03d8ead386a2e32baba47046159582b516cbb428e882722bb8d. “Is more always better? An S-shaped impact of gamification feature richness on exercise adherence intention” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1671543).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1671543) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- exhaustive search [redraft]: Because the packet is limited to a single use of the term in a systematic-review context, the broad characterization in the definition (including “all relevant… other information”) is an unsupported generalization.; The definition’s claims that the search aims to find “all relevant cases, studies, or other information” and specifically contrasts this with “only a selected sample” are not directly supported in the packet text provided.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “exhaustive search” (it only uses the phrase “performed an exhaustive search for case studies”).; The packet only supports an exhaustive search for case studies in a specific systematic review; the definition generalizes this to any cases, studies, or other information on a topic.; The wording implies a general dictionary sense of the term without clear support from the supplied source for that broader sense. New packet required. Source: [Häuser Katja; Domahs Frank. Functional lateralization of lexical stress representation: a systematic review of patient data. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00317; article XML SHA-256 4427924e60e86f21e59bf7d6fde07ffad86b6428bcd33faedb2d27025631e41a. “Functional lateralization of lexical stress representation: a systematic review of patient data” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00317).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00317) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- existential phenomenology [redraft]: Second sentence on meaning grounded in embodied existence is not in the packet; only lived body and physical-psychological interplay are. New packet required. Source: [Schippert Ana Carla S P; Grov Ellen Karine; Bjørnnes Ann Kristin. “After torture, everything changed”: the unpacking of trauma from torture with interpretative phenomenological analysis and Merleau-Ponty’s theory of the lived body. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-02507-4; article XML SHA-256 bba46355198f9b9880ce8ef2e2b12870474b81f2d78989646802db177b4e28f9. ““After torture, everything changed”: the unpacking of trauma from torture with interpretative phenomenological analysis and Merleau-Ponty’s theory of the lived body” (10.1186/s40359-025-02507-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02507-4) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- exogenous cue [redraft]: The definition claims it “help[s] orient attention under conditions of spatial uncertainty”; while the packet discusses “spatial uncertainty,” it does not explicitly connect that uncertainty to exogenous cues orienting attention in the stated way.; The definition says “it was used to manipulate attention before a visual target appeared”; the packet does not describe the timing relative to target onset beyond stating that targets were presented and attention was manipulated via an exogenous cue.; The definition states that an exogenous cue is “an external signal used to direct attention to a location”; the packet only mentions that attention was “manipulated … via an exogenous cue” and does not define exogenous cues as external signals directing attention to locations.; The packet supports only that attention was manipulated via an exogenous cue in a spatial cueing/detection task; it does not explicitly define the term as an external signal that directs attention to a location.; “Helping orient attention under conditions of spatial uncertainty” is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet’s wording.; “In this context, it was used to manipulate attention before a visual target appeared” is only implied, not directly supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [De Lestrange-Anginieur Elie; Kee Chea-su. Investigation of the impact of blur under mobile attentional orientation using a vision simulator. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0234380; article XML SHA-256 785bba5b6d2d410d068a0babbebab01fe71c7a4f94754fbcb8a5473d4d096204. “Investigation of the impact of blur under mobile attentional orientation using a vision simulator” (10.1371/journal.pone.0234380).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0234380) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- exogenous variable [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported explanatory gloss about how exogenous variables function generally rather than restricting itself to the supported sense in the source article.; The definition’s general characterization of an “exogenous variable” as a factor “coming from outside the model’s internal pathways” and used as a “starting-point influence” is not explicitly supported anywhere in the provided packet text (the packet only states that one construct was “proposed as an exogenous variable”).; The packet supports only the specific modeling example; it does not state the general definition that an exogenous variable is a factor coming from outside the model’s internal pathways or serving as a starting-point influence on other variables.; The requested sense of the term is defensibly illustrated only by the packet’s specific usage (“successful academic identity as an exogenous variable” with mindfulness and academic self-efficacy as mediators), but the broader general definition is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Chen Shuya. Structural modeling of Chinese students’ academic achievement identity and basic psychological needs: do academic self-efficacy, and mindfulness play a mediating role?. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s40359-024-01571-6; article XML SHA-256 0dd32d13b4004f9b46cf62bbf7b4e18c24e394632dcf64ea85277166a3fc1c5e. “Structural modeling of Chinese students’ academic achievement identity and basic psychological needs: do academic self-efficacy, and mindfulness play a mediating role?” (10.1186/s40359-024-01571-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01571-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- exogenous [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported contrast with being ‘produced within’ the body/organism; the packet only supports use of exogenous as coming from an external source or administration, not that explicit endogenous contrast.; The definition’s first sentence (“coming from outside the body or organism rather than being produced within it”) is not explicitly supported in the packet text; the packet only mentions “exogenous treatment” in relation to administering neuropeptides.; The second sentence’s specific example (“a substance such as a neuropeptide being given from an external source to increase its levels”) is only partially supported: the packet states “exogenous treatment with either peptide can improve social symptoms,” but it does not explicitly define exogenous as “being given from an external source” or specify “increase its levels.” New packet required. Source: [Li Qin; Zhao Weihua; Xu Dan; Le Jiao; Kou Juan; Lan Chunmei; Xu Xinjie; Meng Fanchao; Li Xi; Shou Xiaojing; Zhang Rong; Kendrick Keith M.. Peripheral oxytocin but not vasopressin concentrations are associated with language skills in young autistic children. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1854532; article XML SHA-256 853e5ace3c3746abdad235750bd788fa89df9f3a174898efe6881be0fadbcf05. “Peripheral oxytocin but not vasopressin concentrations are associated with language skills in young autistic children” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1854532).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1854532) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- exon [redraft]: Field defensibility: the packet content is about molecular biology (RNA splicing, introns/exons, alternative splicing, transcriptome/proteome), not cognition/psychology, so using the requested field “cognition” is not well supported by the packet.; The definition is otherwise supported, but the requested field/sense does not match the supplied source context.; The field is not defensible from the packet: the source is molecular biology/genetics about RNA splicing, not cognition or psychology/counselling. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Xunzhi; Yu Ze; Westfall Aundrea K.; Han Kunyi; Mootha V. Vinod; Xing Chao. Transcriptomic analysis implicates the involvement of RBM20 in Fuchs’ endothelial corneal dystrophy with TCF4 repeat expansion. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332512; article XML SHA-256 3a944261a3b14358c2fbf0c2760b5a7081f106ca5de9d363a5dbe68c4aa9cc13. “Transcriptomic analysis implicates the involvement of RBM20 in Fuchs’ endothelial corneal dystrophy with TCF4 repeat expansion” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332512).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332512) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- exosystem [redraft]: The definition’s second sentence claims these exosystem conditions “can influence family and parenting experiences,” but the packet only reports that exosystem-organizational/community factors (e.g., number of children in the household, neighborhood, hours spent with children, child’s illness/behavior problems, social support) were identified as associated with parental burnout; it does not explicitly support broader wording about influencing “family and parenting experiences.”; The packet supports exosystem as the organizational/community level in Ecological Systems Theory, but it does not support listing “household” as an exosystem condition.; “Time demands” is not stated in the packet; the closest supported wording is the number of hours spent with children. New packet required. Source: [Ren Xiaohe; Cai Yingying; Wang Jingyi; Chen Ou. A systematic review of parental burnout and related factors among parents. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12889-024-17829-y; article XML SHA-256 b0db0b642dba296de6a93774abf5e95b8a27ccca97530bd1428be8ef570d9940. “A systematic review of parental burnout and related factors among parents” (10.1186/s12889-024-17829-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-17829-y) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- exp [redraft]: The definition adds an interpretation of what the metric measures (“how well facial expressions are preserved or matched”) that is not stated in the source text, which only names EXP among evaluation metrics.; The packet does not define EXP as “expression error” nor explain what EXP numerically represents beyond listing “Expressions Errors (EXP)” as an evaluation metric.; The packet does not explicitly describe EXP as measuring how well facial expressions are “preserved or matched.”; The packet does not support the claim that “Lower EXP values indicate smaller differences”; instead, it states the method achieved “the highest scores for Pose and EXP,” which contradicts the idea that lower values are better.; The packet supports EXP as an expressions-error metric for face-swapping evaluation, but it does not explicitly support the claim that lower EXP values indicate smaller expression differences. New packet required. Source: [Seo Hojun; Ahn Junyeoung; Kang Byungseok. CrossSwap: A shape-aware identity cross-attention face swapping framework. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349356; article XML SHA-256 bc6613c62e88fc850c1ec86fa743e67ee92b081e0b2179e035dc58ddc2602dc2. “CrossSwap: A shape-aware identity cross-attention face swapping framework” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349356).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349356) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- experimental method [redraft]: The definition adds a specific pretest-posttest control-group description as if it were the term’s meaning; the packet only supports this as one study design, not a general definition of “experimental method.”; The definition says the method is “used to test whether a counselling program has an effect” by comparing groups and pre/post; while the packet describes a quasi-experimental study with control vs experimental groups and pre/post measurement, it does not support labeling that approach specifically as an “experimental method” (vs “quasi-experimental”).; The packet describes the study as using a quasi-experimental method, not an experimental method, so the requested sense is not supported.; The packet does not define the term “experimental method”; it only states that the study used a “quasi-experimental method,” so the definition’s identification of “experimental method” as the approach is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Alotaibi Mohammed Hawwal Malfi. The effectiveness of a proposed counseling program in reducing mental wandering and digital stress among the students of the scientific departments in Afif, Shaqra University. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739002; article XML SHA-256 1e2a9abb964d952b162c565ed0e2ff43b657a7c272c8baacecdf969be9790717. “The effectiveness of a proposed counseling program in reducing mental wandering and digital stress among the students of the scientific departments in Afif, Shaqra University” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739002).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1739002) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- experimental treatment [redraft]: The definition adds broader claims about a treatment’s effects being under investigation and not taken as established, which are not stated directly in the packet.; The definition claims it “refers to methods being tried for psychiatric or neurologic disorders,” but the packet only explicitly supports this for the single method mentioned (fMRI NF), not as a general definitional scope for the term.; The definition’s phrasing about “questions remain about how they work” (as a defining characteristic of the term) is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet only notes particular concerns about how fMRI NF might work (placebo vs operant-conditioning principles).; The packet only provides a specific example (fMRI neurofeedback) being described as an “experimental treatment” and mentions disregarded concerns about placebo effects. It does not support the broader, general definition that an “experimental treatment” is characterized by effects/mechanisms “still being investigated rather than taken as established.”; The phrase about methods being tried for psychiatric or neurologic disorders goes beyond the source’s single example and should not be generalized as the term’s full sense from this packet alone.; The source only supports fMRI neurofeedback as an example of an experimental treatment; it does not establish a general dictionary definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Klöbl M.; Robinson S. D.; Silberbauer L. R.; Reed M. B.; Sahl A.; Gomola D.; Hahn A.; Lanzenberger R.. Subjective regulation success mediates the influence of neurofeedback performance on mood in the absence of training effects. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1743425; article XML SHA-256 855b3cac524c8e3906f571796de8dda0f907180aa1b7adc976ac8e09e645ce11. “Subjective regulation success mediates the influence of neurofeedback performance on mood in the absence of training effects” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1743425).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1743425) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- expert performance [redraft]: The definition claims expert performance “depends not only on technical ability but also” on perceiving demands and adjusting actions; the packet supports perceiving and adapting to acoustic conditions as crucial, but it does not support the “not only technical ability” part.; The definition narrows the term to musicians and acoustic environments in a way that goes beyond the packet’s stated general point that acoustic perception and adaptation are crucial to expert performance.; The definition states playing remains “expressive”; the packet details adaptations in terms of tempo, pedalling, voicing, dynamics, projection, clarity, and communication, but does not explicitly mention “expressive” as such.; The wording adds an explanatory gloss (“depends not only on technical ability but also on perceiving the demands of the setting and adjusting actions to fit them”) that is broader than the packet’s evidence and is not directly stated as a definition in the source.; “Expressive” is not supported by the packet; the source mentions clarity and communication, but not expressiveness as an outcome of acoustic adaptation. New packet required. Source: [Shao Mutong; Williamon Aaron; Waddell George. Playing to the room: how solo pianists perceive, understand, and adapt to acoustic conditions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1909431; article XML SHA-256 b103693cbc0791a3af68c34e395579c5ba538f2f7da2e4df498cf822c23bbf36. “Playing to the room: how solo pianists perceive, understand, and adapt to acoustic conditions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1909431).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1909431) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- expert testimony [redraft]: General legal headword hedged with 'in this source' into a narrow forensic identification sense the packet merely mentions. New packet required. Source: [Kai Kotomi; Katsuyama Midori; Hayashi Takahito. Novel height estimation formula that accounts for the effects of aging based on lumbar length measurements in postmortem CT images. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339125; article XML SHA-256 dd921d97d4cb27a44110189c0df81ca29ff47388268fa269ec032f29c1b6303b. “Novel height estimation formula that accounts for the effects of aging based on lumbar length measurements in postmortem CT images” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339125).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339125) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- expertise [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (‘Expertise is being seen as especially knowledgeable or skilled in a particular area’) is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text, which instead discusses inferring/attributing ‘domain-specific expertise’ from spatial proximity without defining expertise as knowledgeable/skilled.; The first sentence adds an unsupported gloss (“especially knowledgeable or skilled”); the packet only supports attributed domain-specific expertise, not that definition of the term.; The response should stick to what the study actually shows about expertise attribution from spatial proximity, rather than broadening the term beyond the supplied text. New packet required. Source: [Friedrich Scarlett; Linne Roman. Close is clever! Spatial proximity shapes expertise attribution. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763841; article XML SHA-256 a500e9424bb65090e10d28bf7708bbb82b9b31859daab3de594c3eed62466cae. “Close is clever! Spatial proximity shapes expertise attribution” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763841).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1763841) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- expert–novice differences [redraft]: The first sentence defines “expert–novice differences” as “performance and attention differences” between “more highly trained people and less experienced beginners on the same task,” but the provided packet does not explicitly make or support that definitional framing.; The packet supports only a narrower claim: that “tactical training experience, rather than occupational tenure alone, contributes to more efficient gaze strategies under stress,” which is insufficient to justify the broader definition’s general wording about performance/attention differences on the same task.; The packet supports this term only in a narrow police use-of-force eye-tracking context; it does not establish the broad general definition about all tasks or the general claim of “performance and attention differences” between highly trained people and beginners.; “Performance differences” is not specifically supported in the packet; the packet’s support is for more efficient gaze strategies under stress and related decision-making findings, not a general performance-based definition. New packet required. Source: [Li Yaoguang; Cui Wenlai. Cognitive decision-making in police use of force: a scoping review based on eye-tracking research. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1837475; article XML SHA-256 5caf1fc7e3a968f4a442a8148cf27b994a33fe7e5ac1c46b9cf54a7a37cf0dd5. “Cognitive decision-making in police use of force: a scoping review based on eye-tracking research” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1837475).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1837475) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- explained variance [redraft]: The EEG-specific gloss that higher global explained variance means a microstate class captures more of the brain signal’s overall activity pattern is an unsupported extrapolation beyond the packet.; The definition includes an EEG-specific interpretation (“microstate class captures… overall activity pattern”) that is not supported by any explicit explanatory text in the provided packet.; The definition’s claim that “higher global explained variance means a microstate class captures more of the brain signal’s overall activity pattern” is not explicitly stated in the packet.; The packet does not define “explained variance” (or “global explained variance”) as a general quantity of “overall variation in the data” accounted for by a pattern/factor.; The packet supports that microstate analysis reported a significantly enhanced global explained variance (GEV) for class D, but it does not define explained variance as the amount of overall variation accounted for by a pattern or factor.; While the packet reports “significantly enhanced global explained variance (GEV)” for class D (and an opposite effect for sad vs happy), it does not provide the requested conceptual interpretation or a description matching the wording of the definition. New packet required. Source: [Gupta Ashish; Srivastava Chandan Kumar; Bhushan Braj; Behera Laxmidhar. A comparative study of EEG microstate dynamics during happy and sad music videos. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1469468; article XML SHA-256 be7bde025b642f73490fc152ea11ec105c9361c03bad5512280c3b652171523f. “A comparative study of EEG microstate dynamics during happy and sad music videos” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1469468).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1469468) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- explicit behavior [redraft]: The added explanation that speaking makes language directly visible in what a person does is not stated or supported by the packet.; The definition adds a general characterization (“outward, observable action”) that goes beyond what the provided source text explicitly says.; The definition goes beyond the packet’s wording by presenting a broader general definition and a causal explanation not established by the source.; The definition’s first sentence (“Explicit behavior is an outward, observable action.”) is not supported by the packet, which only states that speaking is the “first explicit behavior of language” and that it makes language “directly visible.”; The packet supports only that speaking is described as the first explicit behavior of language; it does not define explicit behavior generally as an outward, observable action. New packet required. Source: [Yin Sheng-Kai. A study of the effects of thematic language teaching on the promotion of multimedia design students’ listening and speaking skills. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.915145; article XML SHA-256 438e89b62b90a45cc3cb5a27dfbec176c5a635bddc0f83fb7238fd02d3084ada. “A study of the effects of thematic language teaching on the promotion of multimedia design students’ listening and speaking skills” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.915145).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.915145) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- explicit prejudice [redraft]: The definition includes additional specificity (e.g., the exact forms of directness/conscious reporting and the meaning of the response being “absolute, self-reported”) that is not supported by the provided packet text.; The packet contrasts explicit/absolute prejudice measures with comparative and IAT measures, but it does not define explicit prejudice as direct, conscious self-reports or as openly expressed negative attitudes.; The packet does not explicitly define “explicit prejudice” as “direct, conscious reports rather than indirect methods” or use phrasing that supports this characterization.; The phrase "on absolute, self-reported measures" is only partially supported; the packet says the study used absolute measures of prejudice that closely resembled the original study, but it does not state that explicit prejudice is generally defined by absolute self-report measures.; While the packet contrasts “explicit measures” with the Implicit Association Test (IAT), it does not state that explicit prejudice specifically involves “absolute, self-reported measures,” nor does it describe them as “openly expressed negative attitudes” on such measures. New packet required. Source: [Thompson Jordan L.; Cassario Abigail L.; Vallabha Shree; Gnall Samantha A.; Rice Sada; Solanki Prachi; Carrillo Alejandro; Brandt Mark J.; Wetherell Geoffrey A.. Registered report: Stress testing predictive models of ideological prejudice. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334152; article XML SHA-256 c373fb30dcc6bcfec8aacf30588f3cc6fad8cbecd7df854a096c9334ee78a5b4. “Registered report: Stress testing predictive models of ideological prejudice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334152).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334152) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- exploratory drive [redraft]: Because the defining/meaning claim is unsupported by the packet, the requested sense of the term is not defensible from the supplied source.; The packet does not provide a formal definition of “exploratory drive” as “how much an animal explores its environment”; it only reports that behavioral assessments showed age-related declines in “exploratory drive.”; The packet shows only that exploratory drive declined with age in the study; it does not define the term as an aspect of behavior reflecting how much an animal explores its environment.; The wording presents a gloss as if it were the packet’s meaning, but no fuller formal definition is given in the source text. New packet required. Source: [Amiot Florent; Etchebest Antxon; Andriambelo Bijou; St-Germain Joannie; Avino Mariano; Plourde Mélanie; Laurent Benoit; Pifferi Fabien. Age-related molecular and functional remodeling of the choroid plexus in the gray mouse lemur. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357233; article XML SHA-256 5004c1b393703d31c5c90e1af410532ecf424d7e8da9bed6a84a04b6d8c3cfbb. “Age-related molecular and functional remodeling of the choroid plexus in the gray mouse lemur” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357233).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357233) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- exploratory research [redraft]: The definition asserts multiple substantive purposes (“refine concepts,” “define terms,” “identify useful questions and methods”) that are not explicitly listed or directly supported in the packet beyond mentioning “operational definitions,” “methodological considerations,” and “exploratory research questions.”; The definition’s reference to “later comparative or confirmatory studies” is not stated in the packet (the packet mentions “future comparative studies,” but not confirmatory studies or the specific sequencing implied).; The packet does not provide a definition of “exploratory research” matching the supplied wording; it only describes a “mini review” that proposes a “hypothesis-generating conceptual framework” and “exploratory research questions” for future work.; While the packet notes asymmetric/limited direct evidence (e.g., limited objective evidence in BFRBs) and presents a framework as “tentative,” it does not explicitly support the broader claims that exploratory research is “early,” used “when evidence is limited or uneven,” or that it is specifically intended to “refine concepts, define terms,” and “identify useful questions and methods for later comparative or confirmatory studies.”; “Early” is an extrapolation not stated in the packet, which describes the work as hypothesis-generating and exploratory but does not define exploratory research as an early-stage type of investigation.; “Later comparative or confirmatory studies” is not fully supported: the packet mentions future comparative studies, but not confirmatory studies. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Yahui; Feng Meijing; Ma Rui; Xue Qiuyan; Li Xue; Liu Fangming. Candidate emotional awareness–interoceptive pathways in body-focused repetitive behaviors and somatic symptom disorder: a hypothesis-generating mini review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1867350; article XML SHA-256 314d74fd134eca629307555af1116e8287a2148582ddea0d2336e5c9216a3691. “Candidate emotional awareness–interoceptive pathways in body-focused repetitive behaviors and somatic symptom disorder: a hypothesis-generating mini review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1867350).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1867350) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- exponential distribution [redraft]: Explanation of the memoryless property is added; the packet names it but does not state what it means. New packet required. Source: [Gul Ahtasham; Sandhu Amjad Javaid; Farooq Muhammad; Adil Muhammad; Hassan Yasir; Khan Faridoon. Half logistic-truncated exponential distribution: Characteristics and applications. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285992; article XML SHA-256 dffe21586bb4f7fc556c4136eb8abe4f98c37fa9ad07f2fb711334c93acff4a6. “Half logistic-truncated exponential distribution: Characteristics and applications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285992).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285992) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- exposure and response prevention [redraft]: Garbled mechanism: patients refrain from compulsions, not from 'response-prevention behaviors'; packet does not support that description. New packet required. Source: [Laurent Nicole. Enhancing readiness for exposure and response prevention in obsessive compulsive disorder: ketogenic metabolic therapy as a candidate readiness adjunct. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770306; article XML SHA-256 049ea1e9757407eac14592943352ec5d60b800c108d2ab75cf592035e050f3cd. “Enhancing readiness for exposure and response prevention in obsessive compulsive disorder: ketogenic metabolic therapy as a candidate readiness adjunct” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770306).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1770306) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- expressive language [redraft]: The first sentence (“Expressive language is the ability to communicate through speech, writing, or signs.”) is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet describes expressive language as being impaired (speech, writing, signs) rather than defining it as an ability.; The packet’s record is for Broca aphasia, described as an aphasia with impaired expressive language and relatively preserved comprehension; the definition instead defines the general capacity of expressive language and shifts to a condition-specific claim.; The second sentence about Broca aphasia impairing the expressive aspect while comprehension/receptive abilities are relatively preserved is supported by the packet.; The statement about Broca aphasia is not a definition of the term ‘expressive language’ itself, so the requested sense does not match the source record. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Aphasia, Broca” (D001039).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001039) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- extensor [redraft]: Because the definition’s substantive general statements about the meaning of “extensor” are not stated in the provided packet, the requested sense cannot be fully verified against the packet.; The packet does not explicitly define “extensor” as a muscle involved in extension or straightening movement; it only reports “extensor strength” in the context of trunk control without stating what the term means.; The packet does not explicitly state that the term refers specifically to trunk extensors; that wording adds an unsupported gloss beyond the source.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that, “in this packet, the term refers specifically to trunk extensors” (it mentions “trunk extensor strength,” but it does not provide a definition of the term or its scope).; The packet supports a context-specific use of “trunk extensor strength,” but it does not define “extensor” in general as a muscle involved in extension. New packet required. Source: [Alshahrani Adel; Reddy Ravi Shankar; Gular Kumar; Kakaraparthi Venkata Nagaraj; Gautam Ajay Prashad. Postural control and trunk mobility impairments in adults with long COVID: A cross-sectional study using computerized posturography and clinical biomechanical tools. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354593; article XML SHA-256 99776f8252dcffd6c1ab67cf75d71a46c46c2ea5b2cc89b79f26dcfe8b9bca28. “Postural control and trunk mobility impairments in adults with long COVID: A cross-sectional study using computerized posturography and clinical biomechanical tools” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354593).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354593) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- externalizing–internalizing [redraft]: Because the first sentence contains an unsupported characterization, the requested sense of the term is not fully defensible from the supplied packet.; The definition adds interpretive wording about the term’s meaning that is not stated in the source; the source only describes these as observed behavioral ratings within a prison behavior assessment study.; The definition’s description of “externalizing–internalizing” as “outwardly expressed” versus “inwardly directed” behavior is not stated or explicitly supported in the provided packet text (the packet mentions the labels “externalizing” and “internalizing” but does not define them in these directional terms).; The packet supports that prison officers rated externalizing and internalizing behavior, but it does not define externalizing–internalizing as the combined consideration of two broad behavior patterns or explain them as outwardly vs. inwardly directed behavior. New packet required. Source: [Hausam Joscha; Lehmann Robert J. B.; Dahle Klaus-Peter. A Person-Centered Approach to Prison Behavior Based on Officers’ Observations: Relations to Risk, Prison Misconduct, and Recidivism. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00241; article XML SHA-256 fc1865c1fc019ee837bf44656225ffe4d81feaf757fa4e7cdce273fefd7e3248. “A Person-Centered Approach to Prison Behavior Based on Officers’ Observations: Relations to Risk, Prison Misconduct, and Recidivism” (10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00241).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00241) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- extracellular space [redraft]: Because the definition includes a substantive claim (“outside cells”) not directly supported by the provided packet text, the definition is not fully defensible.; The definition adds a broader general definition not established by the source packet, rather than staying within the source’s specific usage.; The packet only supports the usage that exosomes are released into the extracellular space; it does not explicitly define extracellular space as “the area outside cells.”; The packet supports that exosomes are “released into the extracellular space,” but it does not explicitly state that the extracellular space is “the area outside cells.” New packet required. Source: [Sadeghi Atefeh; Noorbakhshnia Maryam; Khodashenas Shabanali. Protective potential of BM-MSC extracted Exosomes in a rat model of Alzheimer’s disease. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320883; article XML SHA-256 646c2ede2cbce7f78b26af3bac87bb1eff55a63e04a7258de70bf412490321f0. “Protective potential of BM-MSC extracted Exosomes in a rat model of Alzheimer’s disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320883).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320883) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- extrastriate cortex [redraft]: Because the first substantive sentence is unsupported by the packet, the overall definition does not meet the requirement that every substantive claim be supported by the supplied source packet.; The definition should stay tied to the source’s specific finding; the packet only reports an interaction between simplicity and prototypicality evaluations in the right extrastriate cortex, not a broader consensus description of the term.; The definition’s claim that the extrastriate cortex is “involved in visual processing beyond the earliest stages” is not explicitly supported in the provided packet. The packet only describes “early ventral stream” versus “late ventral stream” involvement and reports an “interaction … in the extrastriate cortex in the right hemisphere,” without stating that the extrastriate cortex is specifically “beyond the earliest stages.”; The first sentence adds a general anatomical definition (“a region of the cerebral cortex involved in visual processing beyond the earliest stages”) that is not stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Cho Erin; Yoon Shin-Ae; Park Hae-Jeong. Neural processing of prototypicality and simplicity of product design in forming design preferences. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297148; article XML SHA-256 a42841ffb1a6c955728c1f531b5871c205a8813b0fb734d8ee2202b7c7b419d8. “Neural processing of prototypicality and simplicity of product design in forming design preferences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297148).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297148) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- eyelid conditioning [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported mechanistic detail: a “previously neutral cue” being linked to something that triggers blinking is not stated in the packet.; The packet does not mention “triggers blinking” as an explicit outcome; it only refers to eyelid closure.; The packet only states “reflex closure of the eyelid occurring as a result of classical conditioning” and does not explicitly support that the reflex is “learned,” that a “previously neutral cue” is used, or that the cue is “linked” through conditioning.; The packet supports only “reflex closure of the eyelid occurring as a result of classical conditioning,” so the expanded causal explanation goes beyond the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Conditioning, Eyelid” (D003215).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003215) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- eyewitness memory [redraft]: The definition adds a broader memory description (“memory for an event a person has seen and later reports in testimony”) that is only partially grounded in the packet’s wording about testimonies about a witnessed event; the packet does not define the term as such.; The packet does not explicitly define “eyewitness memory” as “memory for an event a person has seen and later reports in testimony.”; The packet provides context and study findings about peripheral details in testimonies, but it does not provide an overall definitional characterization matching all parts of the proposed definition.; The packet supports eyewitness memory as testimony about a witnessed event and the inclusion of peripheral details, but it does not support the added claim about central information.; While the packet mentions “eyewitness testimonies” after viewing a video and relates a measure to “peripheral” details, it does not support the specific claim that this definition “includes…central and…peripheral information.” New packet required. Source: [Badiola-Lekue Ixone; Arriola Naiara; Rodríguez Gabriel. The relationship between latent inhibition, divergent thinking, and eyewitness memory: A study on attention to irrelevant stimuli. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315158; article XML SHA-256 d05d67d307e87a0fd4eb060d56e043ba3832b9ee7b7def4385748252c3576215. “The relationship between latent inhibition, divergent thinking, and eyewitness memory: A study on attention to irrelevant stimuli” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315158).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315158) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- F value [redraft]: The definition should stay tightly within the supplied source passage; it goes beyond the passage by generalizing to analyses such as ANOVA without that being directly defined for the term here.; The first sentence adds an unsupported characterization of an F value as expressing the size of an effect relative to error or unexplained variation; the packet only says an F value and its degrees of freedom can be used to calculate partial eta squared.; The packet does not define what an “F value” is or say that it expresses the size of an effect relative to “error or unexplained variation.” It only discusses how partial eta squared (η²p) can be computed from an F value and its degrees of freedom. New packet required. Source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- face-to-face group [redraft]: The definition claims that a face-to-face group is “an in-person meeting … who give and discuss their judgments together,” but the packet does not state that participants jointly discuss judgments; it describes a “face-to-face group elicitation procedure” whose central element is a trial roulette question eliciting experts’ judgments.; The packet says the procedure elicits experts’ judgments expressed as distributions; it does not support the broader generic definition of a face-to-face group as a meeting of participants who discuss judgments, beyond this specific elicitation context.; The packet supports an in-person face-to-face group elicitation procedure, but it does not state that participants “give and discuss their judgments together.” New packet required. Source: [Zondervan-Zwijnenburg Mariëlle; van de Schoot-Hubeek Wenneke; Lek Kimberley; Hoijtink Herbert; van de Schoot Rens. Application and Evaluation of an Expert Judgment Elicitation Procedure for Correlations. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00090; article XML SHA-256 70230cf9e071d999c8bc0ce5101aab3ec903b867fa519b6a5cd7e28fcd59eb2e. “Application and Evaluation of an Expert Judgment Elicitation Procedure for Correlations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00090).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00090) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- facial disfigurement [redraft]: The claim that facial disfigurement “can change how observers visually attend to a face and how positively they appraise it” goes beyond the packet’s wording and generalizes a study finding about cleft-affected infant faces into a broader definitional statement.; The definition equates the general term “facial disfigurement” with “cleft lip and/or palate,” but the packet discusses “cleft-affected infant faces” and does not explicitly map the broader term to that example as a definition.; The definition should stay tightly tied to the packet’s specific sense (cleft-affected infant faces / congenital facial malformation) rather than presenting broader, unsupported general wording.; The packet describes the effect as “adversely affected” and discusses “aversive behaviour” / cuteness ratings; it does not support the specific framing that observers’ appraisal changes “how positively they appraise it.”; The packet supports congenital facial malformation examples such as cleft lip and/or palate, but it does not explicitly define facial disfigurement as any “visible difference in the face.”; The packet supports that congenital facial malformation (e.g., cleft lip/palate) affects adults’ visual scanning and subjective appraisal of infant faces, but it does not explicitly define “facial disfigurement” as a general “visible difference in the face.” New packet required. Source: [Hunt Benjamin W; De Pascalis Leonardo. In the eye and mind of the beholder: The effects of familiarisation on the perception of atypical infant facial configurations. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311763; article XML SHA-256 caa160a5552762ea5da1f17b170a5bb8dfdc5a6fee3aa869050cc2acda16c0e0. “In the eye and mind of the beholder: The effects of familiarisation on the perception of atypical infant facial configurations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311763).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311763) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- facial feedback hypothesis [redraft]: Field mismatch: the provided packet is a narrative review about psychological/psychiatric outcomes and mechanisms of upper facial botulinum toxin, not a diagnostic entry, diagnostic criteria, or diagnostic framing for a specific disorder.; The first sentence is slightly overgeneralized beyond the packet’s scope, which supports the hypothesis in relation to upper facial BoNT-A, corrugator/procerus inhibition, and limbic signaling rather than establishing the broader claim for all facial muscle activity.; The requested field is mismatched: this term is a psychological hypothesis/theory, not a diagnosis, and the packet only discusses it in the context of psychodermatology and BoNT-A effects. New packet required. Source: [Loewen Álvaro; Aranda-Guerrero Sabina; Tajima-Pozo Kazuhiro. Beyond aesthetic outcomes: psychodermatological benefits of botulinum toxin treatment in the upper facial third. A narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1822916; article XML SHA-256 81ff9b48ae9dc70f306b12e4024079eb85108a9ac9bd2f0d86e7bcb9380d8057. “Beyond aesthetic outcomes: psychodermatological benefits of botulinum toxin treatment in the upper facial third. A narrative review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1822916).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1822916) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- facilitator [redraft]: The contrast with barriers is supported, but the added explanatory gloss about supporting or encouraging physical activity goes beyond what is explicitly defined in the packet.; The definition gives a general meaning of “facilitator” (a factor/condition that makes behavior easier) and contrasts it with “barriers,” but the provided packet does not state this definitional characterization of facilitators or the exact “makes easier vs hinders” relationship.; The packet discusses “barriers and facilitators to physical activity” as perceived items measured in a questionnaire, but it does not explicitly define what a facilitator is in general terms; it only refers to facilitator variables/models and study outcomes without giving a source-backed definition.; The packet supports ‘facilitators’ only as influences related to physical activity during COVID-19 confinement, not as a general learning term or a broad factor that makes any behavior or activity easier to do.; The requested field/sense is not well supported by the source, which is about physical activity rather than learning. New packet required. Source: [Castro Monteiro Fernanda; Luiza C. Wuillaume Maria; Linhares Veloso Filho Carlos; Figueiredo Karla; Barreto Schuch Felipe; Nunes de Carvalho Andrea; Sousa Matias Thiago; Nunes Pereira Oliva Henrique; Sobral Monteiro-Junior Renato; Carneiro Lara; Camaz Deslandes Andrea. Identifying cluster profiles based on barriers and facilitators to physical activity during COVID-19 confinement: A cross-sectional study using machine learning analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354036; article XML SHA-256 ae501c79b5cb22e002a3c5ca949d4c7a031dd394e1013f210f019e3485c5f9a1. “Identifying cluster profiles based on barriers and facilitators to physical activity during COVID-19 confinement: A cross-sectional study using machine learning analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354036).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354036) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- factor theory of intelligence [redraft]: Because the packet provides only a brief contextual mention, the requested “factor theory of intelligence” sense (including the general framing and the “two main components” description) is not supported by the supplied text.; The definition adds explanatory detail not present in the source packet and should not present historical theory as a supported current meaning without evidence.; The definition claims that Cattell’s two-factor theory “treats intelligence as having two main components”; the packet does not state what the components are or that intelligence is modeled explicitly as “two main components” in that way—only that it is “two-factor.”; The packet does not define “factor theory of intelligence” as a general view explaining cognitive ability in terms of underlying factors; it only mentions that the study applies “the two-factor theory of intelligence by Cattell.”; The packet does not state that Cattell’s theory treats intelligence as having two main components, so that specific gloss is unsupported.; The packet only shows that the study applied Cattell’s two-factor theory of intelligence; it does not support the general definition of “factor theory of intelligence” as a view explaining cognitive ability in terms of underlying factors. New packet required. Source: [McCutcheon Lynn E; Zsila Ágnes; Demetrovics Zsolt. Celebrity worship and cognitive skills revisited: applying Cattell’s two-factor theory of intelligence in a cross-sectional study. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s40359-021-00679-3; article XML SHA-256 3be084bd6b1f789bdbbb70d908b11c8e77c020aeef2c062ba034259c9e00017f. “Celebrity worship and cognitive skills revisited: applying Cattell’s two-factor theory of intelligence in a cross-sectional study” (10.1186/s40359-021-00679-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00679-3) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- factor theory of personality [redraft]: General headword narrowed to the five-factor theory the packet uses; factor theories are not only five-dimensional. New packet required. Source: [Kawali Ankush; Jose Ringhoo Theresa; Aishwarya; Kurian Mathew; Kacha Kushal; Mahendradas Padmamalini; Shetty Rohit. Personality and uveitis. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12348-016-0108-x; article XML SHA-256 2d1ff5202abdc8f8238c31fd31dc726db332fa40544066495672ff2732f9e4cc. “Personality and uveitis” (10.1186/s12348-016-0108-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12348-016-0108-x) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- factorial analysis of variance [redraft]: Defines factorial ANOVA by one paper's application to network meta-analysis rather than its meaning as multi-factor ANOVA. New packet required. Source: [Piepho Hans-Peter. Network-meta analysis made easy: detection of inconsistency using factorial analysis-of-variance models. 2014; DOI 10.1186/1471-2288-14-61; article XML SHA-256 ca75fee0b69bd08d8424ba490a4920664c747bc1a2222e76a08031fa03f00cb0. “Network-meta analysis made easy: detection of inconsistency using factorial analysis-of-variance models” (10.1186/1471-2288-14-61).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-14-61) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fad [redraft]: Headword 'fad' has a well-known meaning; definition substitutes an unrelated acronym from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Wang Jiwei; Li Decheng; Zhao Xin. Perceived fairness of algorithmic decision-making and university teachers’ job burnout: a moderated chain-mediation model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901039; article XML SHA-256 6201bee41df77cfadaf2f9e44b8eec978b53783f820fdcb791490b9ec8fdb5d5. “Perceived fairness of algorithmic decision-making and university teachers’ job burnout: a moderated chain-mediation model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901039).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901039) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- false analogy [redraft]: The definition adds a specific gloss about a word form being "wrongly reshaped to fit a familiar pattern" that is not stated in the source packet.; The definition includes wording (“ordinary analogical reshaping,” “rather than as mistakes”) that is not directly stated or clearly entailed by the provided text.; The first sentence relies on a historical sense and framing that are not clearly established by the packet; the source instead explains analogy as ordinary historical change without a correctness/incorrectness distinction.; The packet does not support the claim that “false analogy” was used as an older grammatical label for “a word form seen as wrongly reshaped to fit a familiar pattern.” It discusses “analogy” in older grammar, but does not describe “false analogy” as an older label for incorrectly reshaped forms.; The packet does not support treating "false analogy" as an accepted older grammatical term; it says modern historical grammar "cannot speak of 'false' analogy."; While the packet does support that, in the historical view, “false” analogy is not spoken of (it states that modern historical grammar “cannot speak of ‘false’ analogy”), it does not explicitly frame this as “not accepted” because changes are understood as ordinary analogical reshaping rather than mistakes. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Analogy (linguistic)” (Analogy (linguistic)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Analogy (linguistic)) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- false detection [redraft]: The definition’s general characterization (“incorrect identification of something as present or as belonging to the wrong category during a detection task”) is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text; the packet only refers to “challenges of false detection” and mentions a “misclassification problem” for left/right gestures.; The packet does not provide a direct, standalone description of “false detection” as a concept/definition; it uses the term within the context of a specific gesture-detection task and model, so the requested broad detection-task wording is unsupported.; The packet supports that the paper addresses false detection in traffic police gesture recognition and mentions misclassification of left-turn vs right-turn gestures, but it does not define false detection as the general concept of incorrectly identifying something as present or as belonging to the wrong category.; The source context is narrower than the definition: it concerns detection/model errors in image-based gesture recognition, not a general detection-task definition across settings.; While the packet does mention misclassification between “left-turn and right-turn gestures,” the provided definition adds additional general-scope phrasing (e.g., “present” and “wrong category”) that is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Xiaoyu; Guo Baohua; Anthony Sigama; Bassir David; Zhang Yuandi. FDMB-YOLOv11: Traffic police command gesture recognition method under different lighting conditions. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357212; article XML SHA-256 cc0dbf08bde32277fee8bec5eb4ff85934708d0610885f7214d1178576901e73. “FDMB-YOLOv11: Traffic police command gesture recognition method under different lighting conditions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357212).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357212) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- falsifiability [redraft]: The packet does not provide an explicit or definitional description of “falsifiability” as a general property of claims/research approaches being open to being tested in ways that could show them to be wrong, so the definition’s first sentence is unsupported by the supplied source.; The packet uses “falsifiability” only in the narrow sense of preserving a study’s testability while revising methods; it does not support the broader general definition as the quality of any claim or research approach that can be shown wrong.; While the packet mentions “preserving falsifiability” in the context of reframing methodology (and discusses adjusting approaches to better match the dynamics of the OBE state), it does not state the specific meaning given in the definition’s second sentence (that falsifiability here means designing studies so they remain scientifically testable even when methods are adjusted to better fit the experience).; “Keeps it open to being tested in ways that could show it to be wrong” and similar wording is not stated in the packet and is an unsupported generalization beyond the source text. New packet required. Source: [Weiler Marina; Pehlivanova Marieta; Cozzolino Philip J.. From laboratory targets to experiential authenticity: reframing the study of veridicality in OBEs. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1720998; article XML SHA-256 d348433596659944266e98c341dc94c2e23034a2eec406439f430b69be384d1e. “From laboratory targets to experiential authenticity: reframing the study of veridicality in OBEs” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1720998).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1720998) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- familial Turner syndrome [redraft]: The definition is more expansive than the packet in wording and framing, including generalized phrasing such as “pattern of physical and hormonal differences,” which is not stated that way in the source.; The definition’s opening claim (“older name for Noonan syndrome”) is therefore unsupported by the provided packet.; The packet does not state that “familial Turner syndrome” is an older name for “Noonan syndrome.” It describes a condition labeled under “Noonan Syndrome,” but it does not explicitly link the term “familial Turner syndrome” as an older/alternate name for Noonan syndrome.; The packet supports that this term is the Noonan syndrome descriptor and that Noonan syndrome is genetically heterogeneous, affects both sexes with a normal karyotype, and can include short stature, webbed neck, skeletal malformations, hormonal imbalance, cardiac abnormalities, and intellectual disability, but it does not support the claim that this is an older name for Noonan syndrome. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Noonan Syndrome” (D009634).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009634) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- familiar [redraft]: Hedges with 'in this context' to narrow a general word to places, then reports a study finding rather than defining. New packet required. Source: [Liu Jie; Hu Hanyang; Jiang Mengyin; Jia Yunpeng. Personality and spatial familiarity interact to shape affective responses in urban parks: a VR study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1700552; article XML SHA-256 ce6a13f24a96b22af84d0ad8304fd1aa1354fa8d31e055aac38c802d0d36a94d. “Personality and spatial familiarity interact to shape affective responses in urban parks: a VR study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1700552).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1700552) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- familiarity [redraft]: The definition introduces a general dictionary meaning of familiarity as ‘being in an environment or situation that feels known rather than novel,’ but the packet only supports familiarity in the narrower context of familiar environments and does not define the term this way.; The packet does not explicitly define familiarity as “the state of being in an environment or situation that feels known rather than novel”; it only discusses familiarity in relation to emotional responses in familiar vs unfamiliar environments.; The packet supports non-uniform effects across individuals, but the definition’s first-sentence framing (“feels known rather than novel”) and the “discomfort” wording are not directly supported by the provided text.; The packet supports “emotional security” and “reduced negative affect,” but it does not explicitly support the phrasing “lowering discomfort.”; The wording is broader than the packet’s supported sense, which is about personality–familiarity interactions in affective responses, not familiarity as a general psychological state.; ‘Often increasing a sense of security and lowering discomfort’ overstates the packet, which says these effects may occur for some individuals and may vary by personality; it does not support a general or frequent effect claim. New packet required. Source: [Liu Jie; Hu Hanyang; Jiang Mengyin; Jia Yunpeng. Personality and spatial familiarity interact to shape affective responses in urban parks: a VR study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1700552; article XML SHA-256 ce6a13f24a96b22af84d0ad8304fd1aa1354fa8d31e055aac38c802d0d36a94d. “Personality and spatial familiarity interact to shape affective responses in urban parks: a VR study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1700552).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1700552) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- family resemblance [redraft]: The definition’s phrasing that family resemblance “highlights how knowledge, practices, values, methods, institutions, and social setting connect to one another” is only partially mirrored by the packet’s focus on relationships among knowledge/evidence/methods/values/institutions, but the packet does not support the broader “social setting” component as part of the term’s definition.; The packet does not define the Family Resemblance Approach as a method for describing a field by overlapping links rather than a single defining feature; that interpretive claim is unsupported.; The packet does not provide a definition of “family resemblance” as an approach based on “overlapping links among its parts rather than one single defining feature.”; The packet supports relationships among geographical knowledge, evidence, methods, values, institutions, and social context, but it does not support the broader generalized phrasing about how the approach works across a field.; While the packet mentions that the study is “Guided by the Family Resemblance Approach (FRA)” and discusses relationships among “knowledge, evidence, methods, values, institutions,” it does not support the specific characterization in the definition of family resemblance itself as a general descriptive method in that manner. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Weirui; Wang Xiangdong; Wu Changhong; Dong Chenlong. The nature of science in Chinese senior secondary geography textbooks under the context of sustainable development: Identifying the gaps and seeking reform. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357310; article XML SHA-256 e26452b5fb4c04afa6a8a25054682590fdf2252c960ee268d2554ce0d50fdac3. “The nature of science in Chinese senior secondary geography textbooks under the context of sustainable development: Identifying the gaps and seeking reform” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357310).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357310) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- family support services [redraft]: Redefines a general term as Germany's ECI programme offerings: free, voluntary, only for families with children 0-3. New packet required. Source: [Neumann Anna; Ulrich Susanne M.; Sinß Frank; Chakraverty Digo; Hänelt Maria; Lux Ulrike; Ghezih Sarah; Löchner Johanna; Renner Ilona. How are families in Germany doing in 2022? Study protocol of a nationally representative, cross-sectional study of parents with children aged 0–3 years. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285723; article XML SHA-256 151e386de96adf8ec05707f57f97e751ad78b064f156550db929cffb07ce78d2. “How are families in Germany doing in 2022? Study protocol of a nationally representative, cross-sectional study of parents with children aged 0–3 years” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285723).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285723) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- family systems theory [redraft]: The definition presents the theory as a general clinical/psychological account, but the packet provides only one study’s findings and should not be used to generalize the theory’s meaning beyond that evidence.; The packet does not define family systems theory as a developmental perspective; it only says the study is based on family systems theory.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that family systems theory is “a developmental perspective.” It only states “Based on family systems theory” and then reports a longitudinal study.; The packet supports longitudinal reciprocal associations between “family functioning” and “externalizing problems,” but the definition generalizes this to “an adolescent’s behavior” and “changes in family functioning… and a young person’s externalizing problems can influence each other over time” without explicit wording equivalent to “adolescent’s behavior” or a direct definitional statement connecting family systems theory to that developmental framing.; The phrase about understanding an adolescent’s behavior in relation to how the family functions as a whole is broader than the packet’s evidence, which only supports a reciprocal relationship between family functioning and externalizing problems in this study population. New packet required. Source: [Liang Zhugui; Tang ShiWei; Li ZhiHua. The dynamic association between family functioning and externalizing problems in adolescents from low-income families: a latent change score model study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768618; article XML SHA-256 1f8e2f6241545410d2ffd321eda85f084a16cd367d19d50613a989139b9d258f. “The dynamic association between family functioning and externalizing problems in adolescents from low-income families: a latent change score model study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768618).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768618) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- FAR [redraft]: The definition adds wording about "body blood-flow dynamics" that is looser than the source’s "systemic hemodynamics," so the phrasing is not tightly supported.; The packet does not explicitly define “FAR” as an acronym for far-infrared therapy; it refers to “Far-infrared (FIR) therapy” instead.; The packet supports far-infrared (FIR) therapy, not the acronym FAR; the requested sense appears to be the wrong abbreviation. New packet required. Source: [Liu Yu; Geng Wenxiang; Wang Tao; Liu Yang; Li Wenzheng; Chang Zheng; Yang Xianjun; Chen Yanyan; Xia Qingrong; Ding Zenghui. Far infrared intervention on brain changes in patients with alcohol dependence: a pilot longitudinal MRI study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759791; article XML SHA-256 b9be16fda0e7c13a6c955c67da7f59ab444e3e3bbe7339ebebabdf7ffde6c87a. “Far infrared intervention on brain changes in patients with alcohol dependence: a pilot longitudinal MRI study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759791).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759791) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fasciculus gracilis [redraft]: Most of the definition recounts demyelination and axon-loss findings from a cat diet study rather than defining the tract. New packet required. Source: [Radcliff Abigail B; Heidari Moones; Field Aaron S; Duncan Ian D. Feline irradiated diet-induced demyelination; a model of the neuropathology of sub-acute combined degeneration?. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0228109; article XML SHA-256 b2a7ab543a3553a4267dd5b8ba020e66906da13ca646936861f2fbf5e03485fd. “Feline irradiated diet-induced demyelination; a model of the neuropathology of sub-acute combined degeneration?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0228109).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228109) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fascination [redraft]: The definition claims “fascination refers to the exercise or experience of a peculiar captivating influence over a person.” This idea is only implied by the packet’s definition of “Charm” (verb sense 2: “exercise a peculiar or fascinating influence”), but the packet does not explicitly connect that to “fascination” as a term’s meaning.; The definition’s reference to “older discussions placed it alongside trance, hypnosis, and magical influence” is not directly supported as a statement about “fascination” itself; the packet mentions the trio and then discusses magic in the general usage of “charm,” without defining “fascination.”; The packet does not provide a definition of the term “fascination”; it only mentions “so-called FASCINATION, TRANCE, and HYPNOSIS” as contexts where the verb “to exercise a peculiar or fascinating influence” is used.; The packet supports an active sense of “to exercise a peculiar or fascinating influence,” but it does not support adding “the experience of” that influence.; Therefore, substantive claims about “fascination” and the requested sense of the term are not fully supported by the supplied packet.; “Magical influence” goes beyond the packet, which links the term to the practice of magic rather than defining fascination itself as magical influence. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Charm” (Charm).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Charm) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- fashion [redraft]: The added characterization of fashion as involving "personal expression, social significance, aesthetic appeal, emotional response, and sustainability concerns" is only partially reflected in the study’s variables and conclusions, and is not supported as a definition of fashion from the packet.; The definition’s linkage to Gen Z continuing to use slow fashion apparel is only supported as the study outcome variable, not as a definitional meaning of “fashion.”; The packet does not define the term "fashion" itself in this sense; it studies personal and social fashion consciousness in relation to slow fashion apparel, so the entry shifts the term to a broader, unsupported meaning.; The packet does not provide a definition of “fashion” as “clothing-related choices and meanings shaped by personal expression, social significance, aesthetic appeal, emotional response, and sustainability concerns.”; The packet frames “personal and social fashion consciousness” and measured value variables (aesthetic, emotional, social, green) as predictors of “willingness to continue using slow fashion apparel,” but it does not state that these elements define “fashion.”; The sentence mixes the term definition with a study result about values linked to Gen Z consumers’ willingness to continue using slow fashion apparel, which is not a definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Zhu Jiayu; Liu Anding. The mechanism of fashion consciousness influencing Gen Z’s Willingness to continue using slow fashion apparel in a sustainable context. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357599; article XML SHA-256 8c6082c7e2b44e7f58fb3371d26b70f8c829b966da2cb3399a6e8f439dfbbfab. “The mechanism of fashion consciousness influencing Gen Z’s Willingness to continue using slow fashion apparel in a sustainable context” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357599).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357599) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fat [redraft]: Circular, hedged 'in this context' gloss of a general word, followed by a description of what the study examined. New packet required. Source: [Espitia-Bautista Estefania; Cruz-Lemolle Anel; Sánchez-Meza Carlos; Cortés-Gutiérrez Daniela; Lugo-Martínez Haydée; Escobar Carolina. Sex-dependent phenotypes of anxiety and palatable food-seeking in offspring born from rats exposed to a high-fat diet. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1898577; article XML SHA-256 74f475c0afac4161d51be2f18e1434a112db5444efe696fbd1795634df67185a. “Sex-dependent phenotypes of anxiety and palatable food-seeking in offspring born from rats exposed to a high-fat diet” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1898577).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1898577) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- FBA [redraft]: The definition leans on neuroscience/neuroimaging terminology that is outside the supplied psychology/counselling context of the task.; The packet supports FBA as a white-matter diffusion MRI/fixel-based analysis method, not a term in the field of learning; the requested field is not defensible from the source.; The packet supports that FBA uses a study-specific population template for group analysis, but it does not clearly support the qualifier “typically uses” (the packet only states that it “utilized” a population template in this study). New packet required. Source: [Wei Yi-Chia; Kung Yi-Chia; Lin Ching-Po; Chen Chih-Ken; Lin Chemin; Tseng Rung-Yu; Chen Yao-Liang; Huang Wen-Yi; Chen Pin-Yuan; Chong Shin-Tai; Shyu Yu-Chiau; Chang Wei-Chou; Yeh Chun-Hung. White matter alterations and their associations with biomarkers and behavior in subjective cognitive decline individuals: a fixel-based analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12993-024-00238-x; article XML SHA-256 18cae0fdac8df03821cc603912e05593ea42a416de79c9772c8a72f3d62cb01a. “White matter alterations and their associations with biomarkers and behavior in subjective cognitive decline individuals: a fixel-based analysis” (10.1186/s12993-024-00238-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-024-00238-x) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fear response [redraft]: The packet does not establish that the term broadly refers to an innate fear reaction that can be altered; it shows one specific altered fear-response finding in a particular study.; The packet does not state a general definition that a “fear response” is a behavioral reaction to something threatening or fear-provoking; it only describes that the mice show a “delayed innate fear response.”; The packet only reports a delayed innate fear response in a mouse model; it does not support a general dictionary definition of fear response as an organism’s behavioral reaction to threatening or fear-provoking stimuli.; The phrase “innate fear reaction that can be altered, such as appearing later than expected” is only weakly supported by the packet’s mention of a “delayed innate fear response,” but the overall definition includes additional unsupported generalization in the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Shahapal Anu; Park Sumi; Yoo Sangjin; Ma Shi-Xun; Lee Jongha; Kwak Hoyun; Hwang Jong-Ik; Seong Jae Young. Partial FAM19A5 deficiency in mice leads to disrupted spine maturation, hyperactivity, and an altered fear response. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327493; article XML SHA-256 35f38ddf3333a7e4466dc7a8894644e2186e4f840251384dc894155ece76c9c9. “Partial FAM19A5 deficiency in mice leads to disrupted spine maturation, hyperactivity, and an altered fear response” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327493).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327493) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Fear Survey Schedule [redraft]: The definition’s characterization of the measure as being used to study “patterns of emotional and behavioral reactivity” is only indirectly supported; while the packet links aggression, impulsivity, and fear to a “reactivity” factor, it does not explicitly frame the study as “emotional and behavioral reactivity” patterns.; The packet does not explicitly describe the Fear Survey Schedule as a “psychological survey” or as measuring a person’s “level of fear”; it only states that participants completed the Fear Survey Schedule and that “fear” loaded positively on a reactivity factor.; The packet only shows the Fear Survey Schedule as one of several questionnaires completed in a specific study; it does not support a general definition of the instrument as a survey used to measure a person’s level of fear for research purposes.; The second sentence goes beyond the source by claiming it was used to study 'patterns of emotional and behavioral reactivity'; the packet says only that fear, aggression, and impulsivity loaded on a 'reactivity' factor in a principal components analysis, not that this is the schedule’s intended use or established meaning. New packet required. Source: [Boothroyd Lynda G; Cross Catharine P. Father absence and gendered traits in sons and daughters. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0179954; article XML SHA-256 b39e08e8d1b6b38aea10e2d349b47adcfe38bf0da815584b70e10f250c94401f. “Father absence and gendered traits in sons and daughters” (10.1371/journal.pone.0179954).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179954) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- feasibility test [redraft]: The definition’s second-sentence referent (“testing whether a new way of visualizing moving tumour and dose patterns could be produced and used meaningfully”) is not fully supported as written: the packet describes producing a movie visualization technique and discussing consequences, but does not explicitly claim the test was “used meaningfully.”; The packet does not support the general characterization “initial tryout used to see whether a proposed method or procedure can be carried out in practice.” It only states that the described work “is a feasibility test for a visualisation of tumour and isodose motion,” without defining feasibility test in general terms.; The packet supports that this was a feasibility test, but it does not support placing the term in the cognition field; the source is a radiotherapy/medical-imaging article, not a cognition context.; The second sentence narrows the meaning to a specific visualization of moving tumour and dose patterns, which is source-specific rather than a general dictionary definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Dzierma Yvonne; Nuesken Frank G.; Fleckenstein Jochen; Kremp Stephanie; Licht Norbert P.; Ruebe Christian. Visualisation of Respiratory Tumour Motion and Co-Moving Isodose Lines in the Context of Respiratory Gating, IMRT and Flattening-Filter-Free Beams. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0053799; article XML SHA-256 4cb8bd675934aff46ae2eeeb5b3784c27ad37381d44e95f35aeecb807b31d33a. “Visualisation of Respiratory Tumour Motion and Co-Moving Isodose Lines in the Context of Respiratory Gating, IMRT and Flattening-Filter-Free Beams” (10.1371/journal.pone.0053799).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0053799) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- feature indicator [redraft]: Packet only names a 'Feature Indicator Attention module'; standalone term and general mechanism are invented. New packet required. Source: [Cui Hanzhi; Huang Dawei; Feng Wancheng; Li Zhengao; Ouyang Qiuxue; Zhong Conghan. FIAEPI-KD: A novel knowledge distillation approach for precise detection of missing insulators in transmission lines. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324524; article XML SHA-256 9882448c5946b043b2923a2bca769626a40b1f6da9f69064d840ff9005a90b47. “FIAEPI-KD: A novel knowledge distillation approach for precise detection of missing insulators in transmission lines” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324524).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324524) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- feature model [redraft]: The claimed specific sense is not established by the packet as a general definition of “feature model”; it is only a paper-specific method for border binary detection.; The definition adds unsupported details such as “measurable characteristics,” “turning them into a feature vector,” and “binary features”; the packet only supports a multidimensional feature model used to extract feature vectors from binaries for detection.; The definition states that, in this source, the feature model refers to “a multidimensional set of binary features.” The provided packet only mentions a “multidimensional feature model (MDFM)” and extracting “feature vectors,” but it does not support the claim that the features are specifically binary.; The packet is about firmware security analysis and border binary detection, not a psychology/counselling sense in the field of learning. New packet required. Source: [Yue Shudan; Zhang Guimin; Li Qingbao; Zhang Wenbo; Li Xiaonan; Jiao Weihua. BBDetector: Intelligent border binary detection in IoT device firmware based on a multidimensional feature model. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329469; article XML SHA-256 dd5cb90d447f96ad4afa03c013e312c747c35feac656b9f2a58e7d470fb28ad0. “BBDetector: Intelligent border binary detection in IoT device firmware based on a multidimensional feature model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329469).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329469) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- febrile delirium [redraft]: Packet is about brain cancer; the term appears only in passing and the second sentence misstates the source. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-997500-1009500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- feces [redraft]: Second sentence uses 'in this source' to describe a wetland study's findings, not the term; general sense is one line. New packet required. Source: [Long Yunchuan; Lang Jian; Wang Longyan; Guo Jin; Jiang Xuankong; Jiang Juan. Ecological risk assessment of migratory bird feces in plateau wetland: Phosphorus speciation, ARGs, and pathogens. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348709; article XML SHA-256 241e443f6deaf427276571078f6b8ad1be0f1dc6839ac739749afaab3b6e9f6c. “Ecological risk assessment of migratory bird feces in plateau wetland: Phosphorus speciation, ARGs, and pathogens” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348709).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348709) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- feedback system [redraft]: The definition adds a treatment-context explanation and use in substance use disorder care that are not stated in the supplied packet text, so the requested sense is not fully supported.; The definition includes specific contextualization (“Here, it is discussed in substance use disorder treatment.”) that is not supported beyond the presence of “Substance use disorders” and “Routine outcome monitoring” as keywords.; The packet does not define “feedback system” or specify its sense in the requested psychology/diagnosis field; therefore the provided definition’s substantive claims are not evidenced by the supplied packet.; The packet only supports that the article concerns routine outcome monitoring, feedback systems, and substance use disorders; it does not define a feedback system as a clinical tool or support the specific claim that it tracks a patient’s progress during treatment and provides feedback about that progress.; The packet text provided contains only the keyword list (including “Feedback system,” “Routine outcome monitoring,” and “Substance use disorders”), and does not support the claim that a “feedback system” is a “clinical tool,” nor that it is “used in routine outcome monitoring,” nor that it “tracks a patient’s progress during treatment” or “provide[s] feedback about that progress.” New packet required. Source: [Grindheim Øyvind; Brattland Heidi; Moltu Christian; McAleavey Andrew; Tømmervik Kristin; Govasmark Hege; Iversen Valentina. Tracking progress via clinical feedback systems in treatment of substance use disorders: a qualitative study exploring patients’ response processes. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03377-6; article XML SHA-256 3eb696531aea287b743926895751020b744f7396e5bf7d34d5fdbc1e3c5fd988. “Tracking progress via clinical feedback systems in treatment of substance use disorders: a qualitative study exploring patients’ response processes” (10.1186/s40359-025-03377-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03377-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- feedback [redraft]: The claim that feedback’s valence can ‘strongly shape’ responses is broader than the packet’s wording and should be limited to what the source states about a ‘considerable’ cognitive influence and responses that are ‘often shaped’ by valence.; The packet discusses that emotional and behavioral responses to feedback are shaped by its valence (positive/negative) and that feedback systems exert cognitive influence, but it does not explicitly support the full phrasing that valence can strongly shape cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses in the general way stated.; The packet does not define “feedback” as information people receive about their performance or behavior.; The packet supports feedback valence as positive or negative and notes cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses, but it does not support defining feedback specifically as information about a person’s performance or behavior. New packet required. Source: [Bartos Adel; Marosi Monika; Karsai Istvan; Schwartz Kristof. Feedback systems as interferers in perfectionism: a systematic literature review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1732312; article XML SHA-256 131fab158f74646e645c9b145e21ef0a603bb0e9f6e5af441131d220a618667e. “Feedback systems as interferers in perfectionism: a systematic literature review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1732312).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1732312) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- feedforward [redraft]: Does not define feedforward; hedged 'in this context' and describes the literature's state rather than the term. New packet required. Source: [Vögelin Jill; Koenig Irene; Sterkele Iris; Himmelsbach Theresa; Blasimann Angela; Zinzen Evert; Rogan Slavko. Feedback and feedforward methods in medical and higher health education: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354742; article XML SHA-256 48d285c315a1efaf18d10434428ff8bf1c88d5d9c11db0eef0d753aa19ae8fe4. “Feedback and feedforward methods in medical and higher health education: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354742).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354742) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- female genitalia [redraft]: The definition mixes a general anatomical gloss with study-specific findings; the study evidence is limited to the Drosophila melanogaster subgroup and should not be presented as a general definition of the term.; The definition’s first sentence expands the meaning to “female copulatory or reproductive structures,” but the provided packet specifically discusses “female copulatory structures” and does not substantiate “reproductive structures” as part of the cited meaning.; The packet supports female copulatory structures in Drosophila, but it does not support the broader claim that female genitalia are female reproductive structures. New packet required. Source: [Yassin Amir; Orgogozo Virginie. Coevolution between Male and Female Genitalia in the Drosophila melanogaster Species Subgroup. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0057158; article XML SHA-256 94f51f6030703d9291aaec47e69edecffd1fa543359f09e807b244c6df24b2a1. “Coevolution between Male and Female Genitalia in the Drosophila melanogaster Species Subgroup” (10.1371/journal.pone.0057158).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0057158) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fetal infection [redraft]: The definition asserts that, in the supplied source, fetal infection refers specifically to human cytomegalovirus reaching the fetus during pregnancy; while the packet discusses fetal/ congenital hCMV infection, it does not explicitly equate the general phrase “fetal infection” with “human cytomegalovirus reaching the fetus during pregnancy” as a direct definitional mapping.; The definition’s first sentence (“Fetal infection is an infection that occurs in the developing fetus before birth”) is not stated or defined in the supplied packet text, so the core meaning is unsupported.; The definition’s listed later developmental problems (hearing, balance, cognitive, and motor difficulties) are only partially supported: the packet mentions sensorineural hearing loss, vestibular impairment, and cognitive/motor developmental delay, but it does not support this exact set as the specific consequences “such as” in a definitional sense.; The opening sentence generalizes beyond the source packet; the packet does not define fetal infection in general terms.; The packet supports a specific sense of fetal infection as congenital human cytomegalovirus (hCMV) infection, not a general definition of any infection occurring in the fetus before birth.; The source supports hearing loss, vestibular impairment, and cognitive/motor developmental delay, but it does not specifically state the broader phrase “balance, cognitive, and motor difficulties” as a general description of fetal infection. New packet required. Source: [Grijpink Lucia C M; van der Valk Wouter H; van Beelen Edward S A; de Groot John C M J; Locher Heiko; Vossen Ann C T M. Cytomegalovirus host receptor expression in the human fetal inner ear. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320605; article XML SHA-256 6b4d736e0996561bdc459ec96dc8d3a8d30538d1e5dffea05d13fd12fad6cb9c. “Cytomegalovirus host receptor expression in the human fetal inner ear” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320605).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320605) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fetal presentation [redraft]: The definition’s claim that fetal presentation is the fetus’s position “for birth” is not supported by the packet; the packet only says it is an obstetric assessment made from ultrasound. ; The definition’s claim that fetal presentation is “the way the fetus is positioned for birth” is not stated or explicitly supported in the provided packet text.; The requested field is not defensible here: the packet is about obstetric ultrasound and automated prenatal diagnosis, not the psychology/counselling sense implied by field="learning". New packet required. Source: [Arroyo Junior; Marini Thomas J; Saavedra Ana C; Toscano Marika; Baran Timothy M; Drennan Kathryn; Dozier Ann; Zhao Yu Tina; Egoavil Miguel; Tamayo Lorena; Ramos Berta; Castaneda Benjamin. No sonographer, no radiologist: New system for automatic prenatal detection of fetal biometry, fetal presentation, and placental location. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0262107; article XML SHA-256 2cc7fd1fff4d596ad54358312645f2f76d2fde37984ca204cbf2a67b32e495f2. “No sonographer, no radiologist: New system for automatic prenatal detection of fetal biometry, fetal presentation, and placental location” (10.1371/journal.pone.0262107).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262107) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- FFS [redraft]: The definition claims that FFS is “calculated from visual field test results”; the packet only states that FFS was calculated according to the AMA Guides, but it does not explicitly specify the input being visual field test results (e.g., Goldmann perimetry) for FFS.; The definition’s comparison that FFS had “weaker or less consistent links with reading performance than the Functional Acuity Score” is only indirectly supported: the packet says field-based measures showed weak or inconsistent associations and that FAS showed the strongest associations, but it does not explicitly single out FFS versus FAS for that comparison.; The packet says field-based measures showed weak or inconsistent associations with reading parameters, but it does not specifically show that FFS had weaker or less consistent links than the Functional Acuity Score.; The packet supports that FFS was calculated according to the AMA Guides, but it does not explicitly define it as a measure calculated from visual field test results. New packet required. Source: [Tsuruoka Mieko; Inoue Kenji. Functional acuity score as a surrogate of reading performance in low vision: A Japanese disability evaluation cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358323; article XML SHA-256 afc952b6e96ac34fb65bcf2b7a0dccbfc51b71fdd694cecf84a8e929db45fa9e. “Functional acuity score as a surrogate of reading performance in low vision: A Japanese disability evaluation cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358323).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358323) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- FI [redraft]: The claim that it “reflect[s] flexibility-related executive functioning” is an added interpretation not stated in the source text.; The definition says the combined result “reflect[s] flexibility-related executive functioning,” but the packet only states that FI is an index combining the Shift and Emotional Control scales; it does not explicitly describe the construct as “flexibility-related executive functioning.”; The packet supports FI as the Flexibility Index, an index of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Preschool Version that combines the Shift and Emotional Control scales, but it does not support calling it a “score.” New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Flexibility Index” (C121479).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fibril [redraft]: Hedges 'in this context' to narrow general 'fibril' to alpha-synuclein preformed fibrils; 'thread-like' not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Callizot Noelle; Culley Georgia; Flower Grace; Rouvière Laura; De Conto Véronique; Wojcinski Alexandre; Botto Catherine; Estrella Cecilia; Henriques Alexandre; Verwaerde Philippe. AZP2006 in Parkinson’s disease models: A promising new neuroprotective treatment involving lysosomal homeostasis and the Progranulin/Prosaposin complex. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359269; article XML SHA-256 b0c045de4a9c531fb9add0a6c5f74a3955b51aa07d70e9b3698df9412d90df6c. “AZP2006 in Parkinson’s disease models: A promising new neuroprotective treatment involving lysosomal homeostasis and the Progranulin/Prosaposin complex” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359269).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359269) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fibrillation [redraft]: Redefines general headword as atrial fibrillation 'in this packet' and then summarises study associations. New packet required. Source: [Falenta Adrianna; Przytocka Natalia; Droździok Natalia; Florek Szymon; Suchodolski Alexander; Piegza Magdalena; Szulik Mariola; Kalarus Zbigniew; Gorczyca Piotr; Dębski Paweł. An analysis of the relationship of selected personality traits on perceived stress in patients undergoing ablation for atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1681576; article XML SHA-256 6435dd9fbf1b2bcc2a92f732ea84e39b6d4d76f3a0ec8a8146f258cf6de66b3d. “An analysis of the relationship of selected personality traits on perceived stress in patients undergoing ablation for atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1681576).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1681576) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- field dependence [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the packet by presenting a general cognitive-style characterization rather than restricting the sense to the specific empirical findings described in the source.; The definition’s first sentence describes field dependence as being driven by “surrounding information” and causing a tendency to “shift focus with changes in the task context,” but the provided packet does not define field dependence in those terms (it only examines effects of “field dependence/independence” on Bayesian-reasoning eye-tracking outcomes).; The opening sentence gives a broad definitional gloss for field dependence (“attention and reasoning are more shaped by surrounding information” and “more likely to shift focus with changes in the task context”) that is not directly supported by the packet, which only reports results about eye-tracking measures, attention allocation, and base-rate neglect in Bayesian reasoning tasks.; The packet does not establish the “cognitive style” characterization in the specific explanatory wording used by the definition (the packet discusses empirical effects on attention allocation and base-rate neglect rather than providing a general definitional characterization).; The second sentence is only partially supported: the packet reports that high hit rates amplified “field-dependent participants’ base rate neglect” and that field-independent individuals maintained more stable attention allocation, but the definition’s phrasing combines multiple claims (“less stable attention allocation and greater base-rate neglect … during Bayesian reasoning tasks”) without all details being explicitly stated as such. New packet required. Source: [Yin Lin; Shi Zifu; Liu Mei; Chen Huohong. Effect of hit rate and cognitive style on Bayesian reasoning: evidence from eye movements. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1485283; article XML SHA-256 bd6dc3d3113ae48deba236f1987817870766f1b3cf8ff409816d09335d935023. “Effect of hit rate and cognitive style on Bayesian reasoning: evidence from eye movements” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1485283).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1485283) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- field survey [redraft]: Builds the general term from one study's three-wave design and describes that study rather than the term. New packet required. Source: [Yang Wenyuan; Zhu Xiaomin. Beyond vulnerability: reflective selfhood, rural woman identity reinterpretation, and agency under structural constraint. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893046; article XML SHA-256 2f7598fd49a571560ca30b2b253a3df729ae5f81b4a70500b4a20c4126b4c105. “Beyond vulnerability: reflective selfhood, rural woman identity reinterpretation, and agency under structural constraint” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893046).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893046) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- field [redraft]: Narrows general 'field' to ephaptic electric fields via hedge; 'without direct synaptic contact' not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Hunt Tam; MacIver M Bruce. A historical review of ephaptic field research: from early foundations through contemporary renaissance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1747899; article XML SHA-256 b4b0e94b4e24c9a89b90b657dc3596d1131817b57784df64e1e0f0e2f77a85a5. “A historical review of ephaptic field research: from early foundations through contemporary renaissance” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1747899).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1747899) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fight-or-flight response [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the packet: it presents fight-or-flight as a general rapid reaction to a stressor that prepares the body to deal with threat, but the packet only describes this response in Thoroughbred horses and does not support that broader formulation.; The packet does not explicitly support that the physiological activation is “to deal with threat.”; The packet supports activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis and cortisol release in response to a stress stimulus, but not the added phrasing about the body becoming physiologically activated to deal with threat.; The packet supports that in horses, the fight-or-flight response involves activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis releasing cortisol, but it does not explicitly state that this is a “rapid reaction” to a stressor. New packet required. Source: [Holtby Amy R.; McGivney Beatrice A.; Browne John A.; Katz Lisa M.; Murphy Keith J.; Hill Emmeline W.. Variation in salivary cortisol responses in yearling Thoroughbred racehorses during their first year of training. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0284102; article XML SHA-256 e843212f2ecd6b10db44d07ba7de1946414d8a0c59a7b0c568d61f40187740ad. “Variation in salivary cortisol responses in yearling Thoroughbred racehorses during their first year of training” (10.1371/journal.pone.0284102).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284102) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fighting [redraft]: Hedges 'in this context' to redefine an ordinary word as organisational disease-control efforts. New packet required. Source: [Gallegati Mauro; Lopreite Milena; Puliga Michelangelo. Modeling the formation of a worldwide health network fighting TBC: Key drivers in policy, management and governance in developing countries and global health institutions. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330538; article XML SHA-256 f8e7971793ad62099652e7c61e04dc7fc76c8eb08fc89cc6ddeae6015f9397f8. “Modeling the formation of a worldwide health network fighting TBC: Key drivers in policy, management and governance in developing countries and global health institutions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330538).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330538) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- figural aftereffect [redraft]: The definition adds an interpretive Gestalt claim about the whole field that is not stated in the packet.; The definition claims it “has been used in Gestalt psychology to show that perception is influenced by relationships across the whole field,” but the packet only states that it is used to demonstrate that events in one part of the perceptual field may affect perception in another part; it does not mention “relationships across the whole field.”; “relationships across the whole field” is broader than the source, which only says events in one part of the perceptual field may affect perception in another part. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Figural Aftereffect” (D005366).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005366) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- filter theory [redraft]: Wrong sense: filter theory in psychology is Broadbent's attention model, not voice source-filter theory. New packet required. Source: [Del Valle Carlos Hugo C. Acoustic markers of emotional expression in professional lyrical singing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880734; article XML SHA-256 4d0a35f8c0e9cfcb44d0d95fedc6030fcbff2c2a2c6bf3e979498c1782703fbc. “Acoustic markers of emotional expression in professional lyrical singing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880734).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1880734) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- filter [redraft]: Hedges 'in this context' to narrow general 'filter' to light filters for glare. New packet required. Source: [Marié Sarah; Moger Chloé; Brasselet Romain. Improving filter recommendations: the role of individual light sensitivity in ecological conditions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755789; article XML SHA-256 f0ffefac9973fa1d94645f28a1c3ea8bc84451b31c7921244c02b16604f75d77. “Improving filter recommendations: the role of individual light sensitivity in ecological conditions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755789).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755789) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- final free recall [redraft]: Redefines a general memory-paradigm term as one specific CVLT-C List A task the packet happens to describe. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “List A Trial 5 Free Recall” (C120392).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Finger Tapping Test [redraft]: The definition adds broader general-purpose description (“often to assess how fast and consistently the movement can be performed”) that is not stated in the packet as a definition of the test itself.; The definition also attributes bradykinesia features to “reduced movement size,” which is not explicitly stated in the packet; while the packet reports differences in “tapping amplitude” measures, it does not directly characterize these as “reduced movement size.”; The definition claims the test assesses “how fast” movements can be performed and that bradykinesia features include “lower speed,” but the supplied packet describes using finger-tapping to detect bradykinesia via machine-vision features (e.g., “tapping scores,” “tapping amplitude variation,” and “amplitude decremental parameters”) without explicitly stating that the test’s relevant bradykinesia feature is “lower speed.”; The supplied source is about Parkinson’s disease/bradykinesia assessment, not the psychology/counselling field of learning, so the requested field is not defensible from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Kasemsap Narongrit; Tikkapanyo Purinat; Wanjantuk Panupong; Vorasoot Nisa; Kongbunkiat Kannikar; Panitchote Anupol. Screening for Parkinson’s disease using “computer vision”. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330373; article XML SHA-256 843f199043db5416086a2ada66de75527092636a38d3179fa7389d17dd11ef4c. “Screening for Parkinson’s disease using “computer vision”” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330373).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330373) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- first admission [redraft]: The definition asserts “treatment of schizophrenia” tied to the first hospital admission, but the packet text only describes the trial objective and population generally, not the definitional linkage for the term.; The distinction from people with previous admissions is not stated in the source; that interpretation goes beyond the packet text.; The only support in the packet is that the study concerns “first-admission patients with schizophrenia,” without specifying the requested details about hospitalization and distinguishing newly admitted patients from those with previous admissions.; The packet does not define what “first admission” means (e.g., whether it is the person’s first hospital admission, how it is determined, or what prior admission history means).; The packet supports a subgroup of “first-admission patients with schizophrenia,” but it does not support the added detail that the admission is specifically “for treatment.”; This term is not itself a diagnosis, so placing it under the diagnosis sense is not defensible from the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [Ishii Mio; Okumura Yasuyuki; Sugiyama Naoya; Hasegawa Hana; Noda Toshie; Hirayasu Yoshio; Ito Hiroto. Efficacy of shared decision making on treatment satisfaction for patients with first-admission schizophrenia: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. 2014; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-14-111; article XML SHA-256 245221c49c732f327d567c58a60b7e18789fa46d45d7d8b224ab8aa079c1e63f. “Efficacy of shared decision making on treatment satisfaction for patients with first-admission schizophrenia: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial” (10.1186/1471-244x-14-111).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-14-111) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- first-episode schizophrenia [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define “first-episode schizophrenia” as schizophrenia at the time of a person’s initial illness episode; it only uses the shorthand “first episode schizophrenia (FOS)” to label participants in the study without stating the definitional meaning of the term.; The packet supports first-episode schizophrenia as a patient group in the early stage of schizophrenia and as a context for exploring biomarker utility, but it does not define the term as schizophrenia “at the time of a person’s initial illness episode.”; The packet supports the idea of using exosome-related measures as biomarkers for FOS, but the definition’s phrasing (“more objective diagnostic biomarkers may be useful”) is broader/interpretive than what is explicitly stated as a point tied to diagnostic biomarkers for first-episode schizophrenia.; The statement that it “typically aris[es] in adolescence or early adulthood” is a general claim about schizophrenia in the background text, not a supported definition of first-episode schizophrenia in the source.; While the packet states that “SZ often occurs in adolescence and early adulthood” and that finding objective biomarkers is meaningful, it does not link this adolescence/early-adulthood timing specifically to “first-episode schizophrenia.” New packet required. Source: [Du Xinzhe; Lv Jinzhi; Feng Jianping; Li Xinrong; Gao Yao; Wang Xiao; Zhao Wentao; Ren Zhiyong; Zhang Ruifang; Cao Xiaohua; Liu Sha; Xu Yong. Plasma exosomes lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA network construction and its diagnostic efficacy identification in first-episode schizophrenia. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05052-9; article XML SHA-256 9d5ba8b12f0803f40b16af31e61a665cf7162f7d2fba0183a2f9855c55148ed8. “Plasma exosomes lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA network construction and its diagnostic efficacy identification in first-episode schizophrenia” (10.1186/s12888-023-05052-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05052-9) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- first-order factor [redraft]: The definition adds psychometric/general explanatory claims that are broader than the source evidence and are not supported as a definitional sense of the term.; The definition states that a first-order factor model “means the observed ratings are organized into these primary factors without adding a higher-level factor above them.” The packet does not mention or contrast the presence/absence of a higher-level factor (e.g., no description of higher-order factors).; The definition’s framing about explaining “patterns in interview scale scores” is not explicitly stated in the packet (the packet reports a factor structure and model fit, but not this interpretive wording).; The packet does not support the claim that a “first-order factor” is a “directly measured dimension” (no definition of first-order factor is provided).; The packet supports only that a first-order factor model with four correlated factors fit the interview data; it does not define a first-order factor as a directly measured dimension.; The statement that observed ratings are organized into primary factors without a higher-level factor is not established by the packet and goes beyond the cited model description.; While the packet mentions “a first-order factor model with four correlated factors,” it does not provide enough detail to substantiate the additional specific characterization used in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Kohl Lea Teresa; Oswald Felix; Thöne Ann-Kathrin; Rausch Jana; Görtz-Dorten Anja; Dose Christina; Hautmann Christopher; Treier Anne-Katrin; von Wirth Elena; Ketter Johanna; Kasperzack Daria; Banaschewski Tobias; Brandeis Daniel; Kaiser Anna; Jans Thomas; Geissler Julia; Legenbauer Tanja; Renner Tobias; Poustka Luise; Konrad Kerstin; Kölch Michael; Bienioschek Stefanie; ESCAlife-consortium; Becker Katja; Döpfner Manfred. Psychometric evaluation of a DSM-5-based semi-structured parent interview for externalizing disorders in preschool children. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357785; article XML SHA-256 003f4f46da0f218f94a8f835f25ee402093df322fb2de2aae0b266df666447ca. “Psychometric evaluation of a DSM-5-based semi-structured parent interview for externalizing disorders in preschool children” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357785).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357785) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fissure [redraft]: The definition begins with a general description (“a crack or narrow opening in rock”), but the provided packet does not supply that general definition of “fissure”; it only discusses “rear-edge vertical fissures” in bedding rock slopes.; The packet supports a rear-edge vertical fissure in a gently dipping bedding rock slope, and that water conditions and fissure position affect stability; however, it does not support the broader general definition “a crack or narrow opening in rock.”; The requested field is listed as learning, but the source packet is about slope/rock engineering rather than psychology or counselling learning terminology, so the field is not defensible from the packet.; The second sentence’s claims about location and water presence affecting slope stability and sliding risk are only indirectly supported: the packet says fissure position affects stability/hazard prediction and that water pressure significantly alters the most unfavorable fissure position, but it does not explicitly use the wording “sliding risk” or “whether it contains water” as a directly defined determinant.; The specific additional claim that the fissure refers “specifically to a rear-edge vertical crack in a bedding rock slope” is supported in substance by the packet’s repeated focus on “rear-edge vertical fissures” in “bedding rock slopes,” but the first sentence’s general definition is not supported. New packet required. Source: [Ren Zhenghang; Liu Junhao; Yang Rui; Wu Licheng; Zan Peng; Tang Haifu. A method for calculating the downslope sliding force of gently dipping bedding rock slopes while accounting for the uncertainty of rear-edge vertical fissures. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342903; article XML SHA-256 c655eeb6e682eaf23b711df67284d3c14a54672e8ea37e663f3af6c1d11f6924. “A method for calculating the downslope sliding force of gently dipping bedding rock slopes while accounting for the uncertainty of rear-edge vertical fissures” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342903).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342903) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- five-factor personality model [redraft]: The definition overstates the packet by presenting the five-factor personality model as closely aligning with dimensional maladaptive-trait measures as a defining feature, rather than as a contextual alignment shown for specific instruments in this article.; The definition’s phrase “dimensional measures of maladaptive personality traits” is not directly supported as written; the packet discusses “personality pathology” and five pathological domains, but it does not specifically describe these as “maladaptive personality traits” in the same terms.; The packet does not explicitly state that the five-factor personality model is “describing personality in terms of five broad trait dimensions”; it only refers to the “five-factor personality model/FFM” in relation to other measures without clearly defining those five dimensions within the provided text.; The packet supports the five-factor model’s relevance to personality pathology and personality disorder prediction, but it does not explicitly define the model as a way of describing personality in terms of five broad trait dimensions. New packet required. Source: [Aluja Anton; Balada Ferran; Atitsogbe Kokou A; Rossier Jérôme; García Luis F. Convergence of the dimensional assessment of personality pathology (DAPP-BQ) and the five-factor personality inventory for the international classification of diseases 11th edition (FFiCD) in the context of the five-factor model and personality disorders. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05835-8; article XML SHA-256 117363365b69913e4f1740e33c863c45490918d4d1d86f2575cc26f9ecc380ea. “Convergence of the dimensional assessment of personality pathology (DAPP-BQ) and the five-factor personality inventory for the international classification of diseases 11th edition (FFiCD) in the context of the five-factor model and personality disorders” (10.1186/s12888-024-05835-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05835-8) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fixation point [redraft]: The packet specifies correspondence to “the stimulation of the centre of the fovea centralis,” and the provided definition’s “central part of the retina used for the sharpest seeing” goes beyond what is explicitly supported in the supplied text.; The packet states that the fixation point is the external point both eyes fixate in normal vision, but it does not explicitly describe the retina region as “used for the sharpest seeing.”; The second sentence adds unsupported material: the source says the fixation point corresponds to stimulation of the centre of the fovea centralis, but it does not state that this is the part of the retina used for the sharpest seeing.; The wording “point in the visual field” and “single external point” are close to the source, but the definition should stay within what the packet explicitly supports without adding interpretive gloss. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Fixation Point” (Fixationp).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Fixationp) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- fixed action pattern [redraft]: The added claim that the form is carried out in a consistent, species-specific way is not stated in the packet as the definition of the term.; The definition’s first sentence describes fixed action patterns as a “highly stereotyped sequence… carried out in a consistent, species-specific way,” but the packet only states that certain repetitive startle-like maneuvers have a “highly stereotyped appearance resembling Fixed Action Pattern sequences.”; The packet does not define fixed action pattern as a general behavioral category; it only says the fish’s repetitive startle-like maneuvers had a highly stereotyped appearance resembling fixed action pattern sequences.; The packet does not provide enough information to support the “sequence of behavior” and “consistent, species-specific” framing as the requested meaning of the term within this dataset.; The requested field "learning" is not supported by the packet, which is about fish behavioral responses to acute warming rather than a learning concept.; While the definition’s second sentence (repetitive startle-like movements with notably uniform form) is broadly aligned with the packet’s “repetitive startle-like maneuvers” and “highly stereotyped appearance,” the unsupported first sentence prevents a pass. New packet required. Source: [Ismailov Iskander I.; Scharping Jordan B.; Andreeva Iraida E.; Friedlander Michael J.. Antarctic teleosts with and without hemoglobin behaviorally mitigate deleterious effects of acute environmental warming. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0252359; article XML SHA-256 a13050239359fe81acd201d4805d7b9aced7f74d2210cd33a9fee1ebaed4618c. “Antarctic teleosts with and without hemoglobin behaviorally mitigate deleterious effects of acute environmental warming” (10.1371/journal.pone.0252359).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252359) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fixed parameter [redraft]: The definition is not in a defensible psychology/cognition sense; the packet’s source is a control-engineering article about PID control in agricultural irrigation, not a cognition term or counselling/psychology usage.; The packet does not explicitly define a “fixed parameter” as a general notion of “a setting that stays unchanged during operation rather than being adjusted in real time.” It only describes “static parameters” in PID as a limitation, without giving the requested general one-sentence definition.; The provided packet content is about control engineering (PID/fuzzy PID control for irrigation), not cognition/psychology; the “field” label “cognition” is unsupported by the packet.; The wording about a fixed parameter staying unchanged and limiting adaptation is supported, but the entry imports a technical control-systems meaning rather than a cognition-domain definition. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Wanjun; Tong Jingsheng; Zhang Feng; Zhang Wanliang; Zhang Jingxuan; Zhang Jingyi; Zhang Jingyan; Sun Honghong; Northwood Derek O.; Waters Kristian E.; Ma Hao. Integrated irrigation of water and fertilizer with superior self-correcting fuzzy PID control system. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324448; article XML SHA-256 78827ba20823e1569b55f7e8291c35840342c9479aa0d50d5b85e5f0db7a2872. “Integrated irrigation of water and fertilizer with superior self-correcting fuzzy PID control system” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324448).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324448) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- flanker task [redraft]: The definition’s phrasing is slightly overgeneralized in treating the task as a way to assess inhibitory control directly; the packet specifically says it is used as an index of interference control, a component of inhibitory control.; The field is not defensible from the packet: the source describes the flanker task as a cognitive task/measure of interference control, not as a diagnosis term.; The provided “field” is labeled “diagnosis,” but the definition itself does not state any diagnostic purpose or criteria—only that it is a psychological task assessing interference control. The packet discusses clinical samples in general, yet the definition does not connect the task to diagnosing any condition, so the field label “diagnosis” is not well supported by the definition. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Shao-Shuai; Zhong Yu-qing; Li Xu; Peng Ming. Dissociation of prepotent response inhibition and interference control in problematic internet use: evidence from the Go/No-Go and Flanker tasks. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s40359-024-01698-6; article XML SHA-256 9605e331f64b2b914da4fe21f31be0850fd3a22fa423d7f93b699679401c0d52. “Dissociation of prepotent response inhibition and interference control in problematic internet use: evidence from the Go/No-Go and Flanker tasks” (10.1186/s40359-024-01698-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01698-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- flexion reflex [redraft]: The field is not supported by the packet, which treats the reflex as a nociceptive/pain measure rather than a learning concept.; The packet supports that the nociceptive flexion reflex was used to assess mechanical nociceptive threshold, but it does not define the flexion reflex as a pain-related withdrawal response with activation of flexor muscles.; The packet text does not explicitly define the flexion reflex as “a pain-related withdrawal response in which flexor muscles are activated,” nor does it describe flexor muscle activation as part of the reflex.; While the packet does state that “The nociceptive flexion reflex was tested using an analgesy-meter” and that “intrathecal administration of ML297 increased the mechanical nociceptive threshold,” it does not clearly support the specific wording that it is “a pain-related withdrawal response” with “flexor muscles” activated. New packet required. Source: [Kimura Masami; Shiokawa Hiroaki; Karashima Yuji; Sumie Makoto; Hoka Sumio; Yamaura Ken. Antinociceptive effect of selective G protein-gated inwardly rectifying K + channel agonist ML297 in the rat spinal cord. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0239094; article XML SHA-256 46f7eae92ab45a37174ad5e683e9615f46bb6f0e11c2b7c2cc6ff7c38c143b4c. “Antinociceptive effect of selective G protein-gated inwardly rectifying K + channel agonist ML297 in the rat spinal cord” (10.1371/journal.pone.0239094).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239094) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fluency [redraft]: Defines Childhood-Onset Fluency Disorder, not the headword 'fluency'; wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Childhood-Onset Fluency Disorder” (D000067454).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000067454) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- fMRI [redraft]: The final sentence adds “in psychology and counselling contexts,” which is not supported by the packet; the packet only says fMRI is most commonly used in studies of brain function.; The packet supports that functional MRI takes images in quick succession and statistically analyzes differences, and that it is most commonly used in studies of brain function. It does not explicitly support the additional claim that in psychology and counselling contexts it is “most often” used for studying brain function.; The rest of the definition is broadly supported, but the added context makes the definition go beyond the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging” (C17958).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- focused attention [redraft]: The definition claims it is “studied as a brief mental practice” and links it to decision quality, cognitive bias, and dealing with difficult trade-offs; the packet mentions a “brief FA induction” and examines decision quality/probability weighting bias and emotional trade-off difficulty, but it does not clearly support the full breadth of this phrasing (e.g., the explicit claim about “how people deal with difficult trade-offs”).; The definition contains multiple specific claims that are only partially supported by the provided packet text.; The packet excerpt does not define focused attention as “a type of meditation used to direct and sustain attention in a deliberate way,” so that substantive characterization is unsupported.; The packet supports focused attention meditation as a brief meditation/induction, but it does not support the added definitional claim that it is a practice “used to direct and sustain attention in a deliberate way.”; The source discusses proposed effects on decision quality, cognitive bias, probability weighting bias, and emotional trade-off difficulty, but the definition overgeneralizes these study aims into a broader statement about how people deal with difficult trade-offs. New packet required. Source: [Zhi Chuyu; Li Biqin. Does focused attention meditation improve probability weighting bias? The role of emotional trade-off difficulty and compensatory decision making. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04053-z; article XML SHA-256 6f57b8bc84fd2afe8a756883349502e5c2565fc8a20c5d073595947c3efc9aee. “Does focused attention meditation improve probability weighting bias? The role of emotional trade-off difficulty and compensatory decision making” (10.1186/s40359-026-04053-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04053-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- focusing mechanism [redraft]: The definition’s claims about “selective focusing” in cognitive terms and handling complex input are not stated in the packet and go beyond the source wording.; The definition’s wording is more general (“assigns attention…so a system is more sensitive…”) than the packet, which specifically mentions allocating attention weights across scales to improve responsiveness in a model for object detection (channel, spatial orientation, positional information, and object detection precision).; The packet describes a machine-learning “dynamic focusing mechanism” within an object-detection model (using multi-scale attention and wise-IoU), not a clearly defined cognition/psychology process; the definition’s “In cognitive terms” framing is not supported by the packet.; The packet supports allocating attention across scales to improve model responsiveness to channel, spatial orientation, and positional variations, but not the broader generalized definition given.; The packet uses “focusing mechanism” in an object-detection / attention-model context, not as a psychology or cognition term.; While the packet supports multi-scale attention allocating attention weights and responsiveness to spatial orientation/positional information, it does not support the additional interpretation that this constitutes a “selective focusing” cognitive function for handling complex input more accurately as a general cognitive mechanism. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Yang; Zhou Bin; Zhao Xue; Song Xiaomeng. Enhanced object detection in low-visibility haze conditions with YOLOv9s. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317852; article XML SHA-256 65c675e74ef9d7f787cb437b9a3170ea0d690bdd669ca29117c5c4d801966158. “Enhanced object detection in low-visibility haze conditions with YOLOv9s” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317852).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317852) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- follow-up counseling [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence gives a general purpose (“help the person understand and adjust to the information over time”) that is not explicitly supported in the packet text, which only describes that disclosure was often a one-time event lacking post-disclosure follow-up counseling.; The first sentence gives a broad generic definition (“counseling provided after an important disclosure or conversation…”) that is not stated in the source packet.; The packet supports only the HIV-disclosure context: it says there was no focused post-disclosure follow-up counselling after children were told their HIV status, not a general definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Kairania Robert; Onyango-Ouma Washington; Ondicho Tom G; Kagaayi Joseph; Kigozi Godfrey. ‘Mummy told me that I have HIV , that is the only thing she told me’ : Experiences of HIV status disclosure to children in Masaka Region, Uganda. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285990; article XML SHA-256 d6cc178d3f9f03301abe0d4e950cbb16d14ed6b818a61a121933ae0912c9ec36. “‘Mummy told me that I have HIV , that is the only thing she told me’ : Experiences of HIV status disclosure to children in Masaka Region, Uganda” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285990).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285990) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- following behavior [redraft]: The definition frames the term as a traffic-driving concept; this is not the requested learning sense of the term.; The definition’s first sentence (“adjusts speed, spacing, and braking while traveling behind another vehicle”) is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet discusses “car-following behavior” in fog (e.g., reaction time, headway, speed variation, braking force) but does not define it in those exact terms or as a direct description of speed/spacing/braking adjustments.; The supplied packet is about traffic/car-following behavior in foggy highway driving, not the requested psychology/counselling field of learning, so the field and sense are not defensible from the source. New packet required. Source: [Chen Rui; He Xiaolei. Control strategy for connected automated vehicles to reduce car-following risks and energy consumption on foggy highway. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326118; article XML SHA-256 05748bbe3ab6de01d0616035a071d378fc2d0bf735c25b7b775596c953ca7e48. “Control strategy for connected automated vehicles to reduce car-following risks and energy consumption on foggy highway” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326118).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326118) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- foraging [redraft]: Because the packet content only describes “crop foraging by primates” in the context of human-wildlife conflict and maize damage, the general behavioral definition in the first sentence is an unsupported generalization from the packet.; The definition adds a conflict-with-farmers explanation as if it were part of the term’s meaning; the packet describes human-wildlife conflict as a consequence/context, not a definitional component.; The field is given as "learning," but the packet content is about primate crop-foraging and human-wildlife conflict, not a learning term in psychology/counselling.; The first sentence (“Foraging is the behavior of searching for and obtaining food.”) is not directly stated or defined in the provided packet text.; The packet supports only the specific sense of crop foraging by primates in maize fields; it does not support the broader general definition of foraging as searching for and obtaining food. New packet required. Source: [Deneke Yigrem; Megaze Aberham; Tekalign Wondimagegnehu; Dobamo Taye; Leirs Herwig. Patterns of primates crop foraging and the impacts on incomes of smallholders across the mosaic agricultural landscape of Wolaita zone, southern Ethiopia. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313831; article XML SHA-256 810132a4985bd0626c6bcb804b3fb6bd33dbf3b3788f9642a0afd94cb835a38f. “Patterns of primates crop foraging and the impacts on incomes of smallholders across the mosaic agricultural landscape of Wolaita zone, southern Ethiopia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313831).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313831) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- forethought [redraft]: The definition’s framing that a “lack of forethought is reflected in impulsive behavior” is not explicitly stated in the packet text; the packet only labels the record as “Impulsive Behavior,” without defining the relationship in the text provided.; The packet supports a notion of acting without forethought (impulsive behavior), not a definition of forethought itself as thinking ahead.; The packet text only describes initiation of actions without forethought (i.e., a lack of forethought) rather than defining forethought itself as “thinking ahead.”; The second sentence adds an inference about how lack of forethought is reflected in impulsive behavior; that relationship is not stated in the packet as a definitional claim for forethought. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Impulsive Behavior” (C93213).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- formal language [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the packet by presenting a general dictionary-style sense of “formal language,” whereas the source only uses the phrase in the specific collocation “formal language learning settings.”; The definition introduces “language learning” as a general characterization of the term, while the packet uses the phrase only in the context of studying GenAI in formal vs informal digital learning; the specific phrasing of the definition is not supported.; The definition’s contrasts (“autonomous or casual learning outside formal instructional environments”) are not supported by the packet text provided.; The final contrast with “autonomous or casual learning outside formal instructional environments” is not supported by the packet; it introduces an extra opposition not stated there.; The packet only mentions “formal language learning settings” and compares them to “Informal Digital Learning of English,” but it does not define “formal language” as “organized, structured settings.”; The packet supports “formal language learning settings” only as a contrast to “informal digital learning of English,” but it does not support the broader gloss “organized, structured settings” as a defined sense of the term. New packet required. Source: [Cheng Ni; Zhang Jing. The interplay of autonomous learning behavior, academic buoyancy and second language demotivation in the GenAI-assisted informal digital learning of English. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810246; article XML SHA-256 1b92d7ba703dceafd60ae6bee8f12f0ebbfc90e36e5b60d4c261d99722c1222c. “The interplay of autonomous learning behavior, academic buoyancy and second language demotivation in the GenAI-assisted informal digital learning of English” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810246).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810246) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- formal reasoning [redraft]: The definition attributes a broader general sense to the term than the source provides; the packet only mentions formal reasoning in the specific context of judicial decisions.; The packet does not define formal reasoning as being “based on explicit logical or rule-based thinking”; it only states that “Judicial decisions must rest on formal reasoning” without describing its basis.; The packet supports that formal reasoning is contrasted with informal reasoning in judicial judgment making, but it does not support the added gloss that it means decision-making based on explicit logical or rule-based thinking.; While the packet does contrast formal reasoning with “informal reasoning” driven by “cognitive and motivational biases,” the definition’s first sentence adds details (explicit logic/rules) that are not supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Camplá Xaviera; Gancedo Yurena; Sanmarco Jéssica; Montes Álvaro; Novo Mercedes. Study of informal reasoning in judicial agents in sexual aggression cases. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.866145; article XML SHA-256 5891b8d034b0ae112f8b7f05dcb6b3c430cca007fef525811a541b9933b41f75. “Study of informal reasoning in judicial agents in sexual aggression cases” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.866145).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.866145) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- formal theory [redraft]: 'Formal theory' is a general term; definition hedges into a narrow aesthetic sense and adds 'proportion' not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Form and Formalism” (Formf).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Formf) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- foster care [redraft]: Well-known headword redefined as animal-shelter fostering via 'in this context'; home setting and temporariness not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Powell Lauren; Ackerman Roxy; Reinhard Chelsea L; Serpell James; Watson Brittany. A prospective study of mental wellbeing, quality of life, human-animal attachment, and grief among foster caregivers at animal shelters. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0301661; article XML SHA-256 f1f48cff0394eaf658297c375f9198b89a71a24d4f309023e13eeaecf6a5f4f1. “A prospective study of mental wellbeing, quality of life, human-animal attachment, and grief among foster caregivers at animal shelters” (10.1371/journal.pone.0301661).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301661) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- foul [redraft]: Foul is a rule violation, not 'a situation a referee must judge'; hedged study-specific sense on a general headword. New packet required. Source: [Zhou Zilu; Tao Rancheng; Huang Kongyun; Zhou Changjing. Visual search behavior and decision-making in expert and less-experienced football referees across different foul situations: an eye-tracking study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871146; article XML SHA-256 9969dd5aa48bf84717048603dfabb4c719f52edfd6fad01396094bb51811140f. “Visual search behavior and decision-making in expert and less-experienced football referees across different foul situations: an eye-tracking study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871146).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871146) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Four As [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the packet by assigning specific functional roles to each A that are not stated in the source text.; The packet does not support the definition’s claims about “adaptive resources and actions” or that the process leads to “later adjustment outcomes.”; The packet supports that the CCMA conceptualizes career development through four interconnected dimensions labeled adaptivity, adaptability, adapting, and adaptation (“four As”), but it does not support the definition’s phrasing that they describe a process “moving from a person’s readiness or tendency to adapt.”; The packet supports that the “four As” are adaptivity, adaptability, adapting, and adaptation within the Career Construction Model of Adaptation, but it does not support the added explanation that they describe a process from “readiness or tendency to adapt” through “adaptive resources and actions” to “adjustment outcomes.”; While the packet mentions a supported serial mediation sequence (adaptivity to adaptation, via adaptability and adapting), the specific process description in the definition (readiness/tendency → resources/actions → adjustment outcomes) is not explicitly present in the provided packet. New packet required. Source: [Sam Yoke Loo; Christopoulos Georgios; Uy Marilyn A; Annabel Chen Shen-Hsing; Hendriks Henriette; Robbins Trevor W; Sahakian Barbara; Leong Victoria; Kourtzi Zoe; The CLIC Consortium. A psychometric examination of the career construction model of adaptation in working adults and students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1799936; article XML SHA-256 814f58a1ff50a13a3ce1504a45b6b4e76d9a4c52ee0741779bebe1cab01f15ad. “A psychometric examination of the career construction model of adaptation in working adults and students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1799936).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1799936) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Fourier spectrum [redraft]: General signal-processing term hedged into image-only spatial-frequency sense via 'in this context'. New packet required. Source: [Øvervoll Morten; Schettino Ilaria; Suzuki Hikaru; Okubo Matia; Laeng Bruno. Filtered beauty in Oslo and Tokyo: A spatial frequency analysis of facial attractiveness. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0227513; article XML SHA-256 440ca41a8b46661d210c5451205f2a687c53ac17529c1d5ec91fe64474366aed. “Filtered beauty in Oslo and Tokyo: A spatial frequency analysis of facial attractiveness” (10.1371/journal.pone.0227513).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227513) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fourth ventricle [redraft]: 'Fluid-filled' is an added fact; packet says only 'cavity'. Rest is supported. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Fourth Ventricle” (D020546).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020546) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- foveal vision [redraft]: 'Central retinal region' and 'more peripheral' are added facts not in the OCR passage. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4462500-4474500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- FR [redraft]: FR has a well-known psychology sense (fixed ratio); redefined as a nonce MRI architecture abbreviation. New packet required. Source: [Acs Richard; Zhuang Hanqi. Semi-supervised synthesis of 7T MRI from 3T using 3D FR-U-Net with anatomical segmentation consistency assessment. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333499; article XML SHA-256 ba837be1fedb2a85590dff7314485a1e69f5e5ca299e3f056d8ce8ff1fba3ce9. “Semi-supervised synthesis of 7T MRI from 3T using 3D FR-U-Net with anatomical segmentation consistency assessment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333499).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333499) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- frame of reference [redraft]: Although the second sentence’s details closely match the packet’s description (somatotopic vs spatiotopic/peripersonal, including body limb position in external space and nearby external objects), the definition is not limited to the packet’s specific context (nociceptive localization).; The contrast "either by where they fall on the body itself or by where the body and nearby objects are positioned in external space" is broader and more categorical than the packet, which only says a somatotopic frame is insufficient and examines a spatiotopic/peripersonal frame for nociceptive stimuli.; The definition generalizes “the spatial system the mind uses to locate events or sensations” broadly, but the packet only investigates localization of nociceptive stimuli using (somatotopic vs spatiotopic/peripersonal) frames of reference.; The definition overgeneralizes beyond the packet: the source discusses localization of nociceptive stimuli, not a general spatial system the mind uses to locate events or sensations. New packet required. Source: [De Paepe Annick L.; Crombez Geert; Legrain Valéry. From a Somatotopic to a Spatiotopic Frame of Reference for the Localization of Nociceptive Stimuli. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0137120; article XML SHA-256 ec22914ff6d54b1638ee8a01fa095594f76392025afe0f4accb6019735734764. “From a Somatotopic to a Spatiotopic Frame of Reference for the Localization of Nociceptive Stimuli” (10.1371/journal.pone.0137120).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137120) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- framing [redraft]: Framing has a well-known psychology sense; packet is about imagination and only uses 'framing hypotheses' in passing. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Imagination” (Imagination).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Imagination) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- free energy [redraft]: The definition shifts from the term “free energy” to “expected free energy” without the packet clearly establishing that sense as the intended entry for this term.; The definition states that “free energy is a quantity an agent seeks to reduce” while building and updating a model, but the provided packet text only explicitly mentions deriving a policy by “minimizing the expected free energy.” It does not define free energy itself as a reducible quantity in that manner.; The definition’s distinction and phrasing about “Expected free energy refers to the predicted amount of this quantity under different possible actions” is not supported by the packet text; the packet only says the policy is derived by minimizing expected free energy, without describing what expected free energy represents in terms of predicted amounts across actions.; The packet supports minimizing expected free energy to derive a policy, but it does not define free energy itself as a quantity an agent seeks to reduce while building and updating a model from limited observations.; The wording goes beyond the packet’s claims by presenting a general active-inference explanation of perception and action as if it were a definitional account.; While the packet supports that agents interact with a “world model” built from “partially observable environments” and that policies come from minimizing expected free energy, the additional claims about free-energy reduction during model building and the specific interpretation of “expected free energy” are not substantiated in the supplied excerpt. New packet required. Source: [Pazem Joséphine; Krumm Marius; Vining Alexander Q; Fiderer Lukas J; Briegel Hans J. Free Energy Projective Simulation (FEPS): Active inference with interpretability. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331047; article XML SHA-256 44d621a0f6d3199a8ed1f82710433c56c861e5ff6b94a4d354fabffde6745e36. “Free Energy Projective Simulation (FEPS): Active inference with interpretability” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331047).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331047) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- free operant [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence claims that a free operant is a procedure where a response can be made “at any time rather than only when a specific trial is presented.” This specific characterization is not stated in the provided packet text.; The first sentence adds a general procedural contrast (“rather than only when a specific trial is presented”) that is not supported by the packet.; The packet only explicitly describes free-operant temporal avoidance (Sidman avoidance) in which an animal receives a shock if an interval passes without a specified response; the “trial presented” contrast is not supported.; The packet supports free-operant temporal avoidance as a timed avoidance procedure, but it does not define the broader term as a response available at any time independent of trial presentation. New packet required. Source: [Zentall Thomas R.. Basic Behavioral Processes Involved in Procrastination. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769928; article XML SHA-256 999a28f01a943a0c9540fb9f3826d4c37ae51bcac466ef84154f7c74c1c0d743. “Basic Behavioral Processes Involved in Procrastination” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769928).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769928) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- freezing behavior [redraft]: The definition adds a broad behavioral description that is not explicitly defined in the packet, which presents freezing behavior only as a correlated observation alongside CA1 trace-cell activity.; The definition’s claim that freezing behavior is “commonly observed during conditioned fear learning and memory retrieval” is not explicitly supported in the provided text; the packet mentions trace fear conditioning and that freezing is high during the trace period, plus retrieval/extinction effects, but does not make a general “commonly observed” statement.; The definition’s claim that the packet describes freezing behavior as “closely tracks activity in hippocampal neurons involved in trace fear memory” is only partially supported: the packet says there is a “high degree of correlation” between neuron activity and freezing behavior, but it does not explicitly say that the neurons are “involved” in freezing behavior beyond that correlation language.; The packet does not define “freezing behavior” as “a fear-related response in which an animal remains still”; it only states that mice “exhibit a high level of freezing behavior” without describing the behavior itself.; The packet does not support the general definition of freezing behavior as an animal “remaining still”; it only reports a high level of freezing behavior in conditioned mice during specific fear-conditioning phases.; “Commonly observed during conditioned fear learning and memory retrieval” overgeneralizes from a single study; the packet only shows this association in trace fear conditioning and retrieval in mice. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Liang; Chen Xuanmao; Sindreu Carlos; Lu Song; Storm Daniel R.; Zweifel Larry S.; Xia Zhengui. Dynamics of a hippocampal neuronal ensemble encoding trace fear memory revealed by in vivo Ca 2+ imaging. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0219152; article XML SHA-256 27a7c50a461f3783eabc52e0089e722d25d045289e5c3f8ab88ab6afccd05f93. “Dynamics of a hippocampal neuronal ensemble encoding trace fear memory revealed by in vivo Ca 2+ imaging” (10.1371/journal.pone.0219152).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219152) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- frequency analysis [redraft]: Defines EEG time-frequency analysis, not frequency analysis; narrows a general term to one modality. New packet required. Source: [Ferrari Ambra; Filippin Luca; Buiatti Marco; Parise Eugenio. WTools: A MATLAB-based toolbox for time-frequency analysis of infant data. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323179; article XML SHA-256 6928c3f839c5ed9a191967e30edff474ba7a7149925c7046e68ed02355454d0c. “WTools: A MATLAB-based toolbox for time-frequency analysis of infant data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323179).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323179) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- frequentist [redraft]: Gives no content for 'frequentist'; second sentence wrongly attributes NMA's intervention comparison to the term. New packet required. Source: [Luo Jianglin; Lyu Chen; Niu Jiayu; Lin Zhaocheng; Shi Yanhua; Ma Zhili. Effects of different exercise types on body image in females: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1942447; article XML SHA-256 2b57876bff420a9f4f01b919f4a8cd7087ebf7fb1c996559ab5a3951ecd7654f. “Effects of different exercise types on body image in females: a systematic review and network meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1942447).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1942447) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- frontal plane [redraft]: 'Side-to-side plane' is an added fact; packet never says what the frontal plane is. New packet required. Source: [Walker Eric R; Hyngstrom Allison S; Onushko Tanya; Schmit Brian D. Locomotor adaptations to prolonged step-by-step frontal plane trunk perturbations in young adults. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0203776; article XML SHA-256 a5021f91b0c96378d1b6e8a3069d7a865a7b5f9ffb558d5b9321c11af65e67b1. “Locomotor adaptations to prolonged step-by-step frontal plane trunk perturbations in young adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0203776).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203776) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- frontal section [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported characterization (“rather than a psychological concept”) that is not stated in the packet.; The definition claims the term is “used as an anatomical measurement area rather than a psychological concept,” but the provided packet does not explicitly contrast it with psychological meaning; it only describes anatomical/measurement usage.; The field is not defensible from the source packet: the term is used in an anatomy/dentofacial study, not an ethics or psychology concept.; The phrasing “side facial profile” is looser than the packet’s wording (“lateral profile”), so the sense is only partially supported. New packet required. Source: [Zheng Xiuyun; Ding Siqi; Mei Qin; Wu Chuan; Zhang Qunyan; Fu Chunfeng; Han Quancheng; Jin Shiyu; Yu Ruiqi; Yu Muchen; Ye Zixian; Shen Jun; Xu Jianguang; Liu Xiaoyu; Wu Tingting. A cross-sectional study: correlation of forehead morphology and dentoskeletal malocclusion in Chinese people. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12903-023-03795-1; article XML SHA-256 d84df861a18dae41889b9b6e23ac2be43cf41902c40a10c270cc12b2d1454e9e. “A cross-sectional study: correlation of forehead morphology and dentoskeletal malocclusion in Chinese people” (10.1186/s12903-023-03795-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-023-03795-1) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- frontal [redraft]: The definition’s claim that changes in frontal activity are “signs of how intensively a person is engaging mental control and effort” is not directly supported; the packet instead links Fm theta power with “cognitive processing” and “cognitive strain,” not explicitly “mental control and effort.”; The packet does not explicitly define “frontal” as the front part of the brain; it only discusses “frontal midline theta (Fm theta)” without stating that “frontal” refers to the front brain region.; The packet does support associations between task-related Fm theta power and cognitive processing/cognitive strain, but the definition goes beyond that by specifying the broader “mental control and effort” interpretation.; The packet supports frontal midline theta activity as a measure related to cognitive processing, but it does not define the term “frontal” as the front part of the brain in general.; “Mental control and effort” is not stated in the packet; the source only says frontal midline theta power is a key indicator of cognitive processing and reduced cognitive strain. New packet required. Source: [Kanatschnig Thomas; Berger Lisa Maria; Schrapf Norbert; Tilp Markus; Kober Silvia Erika. The theta paradox—delayed reduction of frontal midline theta following downregulation neurofeedback training. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1806951; article XML SHA-256 9d5f22c9a0f5c348619ec0399aa58b4af3dbbc5274458d172a822ba6c77fc61d. “The theta paradox—delayed reduction of frontal midline theta following downregulation neurofeedback training” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1806951).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1806951) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- FTT [redraft]: FTT has a well-known developmental sense (failure to thrive); redefined as one program's nonce acronym. New packet required. Source: [Hormann Oliver; Voltmer Katharina; von Salisch Maria. It takes two to tango - how teacher-child interactions help advance children’s emotion knowledge. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1622163; article XML SHA-256 96b76820bafba58159f34a9e1a83e1aaf8c1488006d6e88d7f8c62a6f939a732. “It takes two to tango - how teacher-child interactions help advance children’s emotion knowledge” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1622163).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1622163) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- full term [redraft]: The definition adds a general birth-timing explanation that is not established by the supplied source packet alone.; The definition includes additional timing concepts (“usual expected length,” “preterm”) that are not explicitly supported by the supplied packet text.; The packet does not define “full term” as being born after a pregnancy that has reached the usual expected length.; The packet only uses “full term” as a label contrasted with “moderate-to-late preterm”; it does not support the added explanation that this means a pregnancy has reached the “usual expected length.”; The packet provides only that children were “born moderate-to-late preterm and full term,” but it does not state the requested distinction (typical time vs moderate-to-late preterm) in definitional terms. New packet required. Source: [Bogičević Lilly; Verhoeven Marjolein; van Baar Anneloes L. Exploring predictors at toddler age of distinct profiles of attentional functioning in 6-year-old children born moderate-to-late preterm and full term. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0254797; article XML SHA-256 598291cc9c809c614e6b08f05c763ae514c2b9f41eccba3aaf172f55f36e665c. “Exploring predictors at toddler age of distinct profiles of attentional functioning in 6-year-old children born moderate-to-late preterm and full term” (10.1371/journal.pone.0254797).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254797) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fun-seeking [redraft]: The definition frames the term within the field “diagnosis,” but the packet presents fun-seeking as part of reinforcement sensitivity linked to alcohol misuse outcomes (e.g., risky single-occasion drinking and alcohol use disorder), not as a diagnostic concept or diagnostic criterion.; The definition’s first sentence states that fun-seeking “reflects sensitivity to rewarding, positively reinforcing experiences,” but the packet only describes BAS as including “fun seeking, drive, reward responsiveness” as distinct neurobiological systems, and does not explicitly define fun-seeking in terms of sensitivity to rewarding/positively reinforcing experiences.; The first sentence goes beyond the packet by defining fun-seeking as “sensitivity to rewarding, positively reinforcing experiences”; the source only identifies fun seeking as a BAS facet and does not explicitly define it that way.; The wording “behavioral activation system” and the reward-sensitivity description are generalized from the broader BAS framework rather than specifically supported for fun-seeking in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Studer Joseph; Baggio Stéphanie; Dupuis Marc; Mohler-Kuo Meichun; Daeppen Jean-Bernard; Gmel Gerhard. Drinking Motives As Mediators of the Associations between Reinforcement Sensitivity and Alcohol Misuse and Problems. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00718; article XML SHA-256 b4b821d956c3b8d1b15a550aa7051563c1ef4f5b8a949ba2e30b4d47223e0c63. “Drinking Motives As Mediators of the Associations between Reinforcement Sensitivity and Alcohol Misuse and Problems” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00718).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00718) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- function word [redraft]: Because the definition includes a substantive general characterization (“helps mark how words combine… rather than mainly adding descriptive content”) that is not explicitly supported by the supplied packet, the definition is not defensible from the provided source.; The field “cognition” is acceptable, but the wording should stay tied to the packet’s specific example rather than extend to an unsupported broad linguistic definition.; The first sentence gives a general dictionary-style definition of “function word” that is not stated in the packet; the packet only gives an example contrasting a determiner with a content word, not a general definition about marking phrase/sentence structure versus adding descriptive content.; The packet only provides an example where a determiner (“that”) is used as the “function word” paired with a noun, but it does not support the claim that function words mainly help mark how words combine rather than adding descriptive content. New packet required. Source: [Schell Marianne; Friederici Angela D.; Zaccarella Emiliano. Neural classification maps for distinct word combinations in Broca’s area. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2022.930849; article XML SHA-256 ee4e979808b5be85ffd0111e6397d47b6652af54c0e1f13e0a07691dfd722e7e. “Neural classification maps for distinct word combinations in Broca’s area” (10.3389/fnhum.2022.930849).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.930849) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- functional analysis [redraft]: Functional analysis has a well-known behaviour-analytic sense; packet defines functional data analysis instead. New packet required. Source: [Forbes Owen; Santos-Fernandez Edgar; Wu Paul Pao-Yen; Mengersen Kerrie. Functional analysis within latent states: A novel framework for analysing functional time series data. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326598; article XML SHA-256 4129538a982643e321ad10e70342734e70f8c8420cec0bff5696a787fc7a6bbe. “Functional analysis within latent states: A novel framework for analysing functional time series data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326598).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326598) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- functional illiteracy [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported framing such as “everyday life and participation in society”; the source defines functional illiteracy more narrowly as inability to use reading, writing, and calculation skills for one’s own and the community’s development.; The definition’s first sentence adds phrasing not explicitly supported in the packet—specifically “for everyday life and participation in society.” The packet instead states that functional illiteracy means a person cannot use reading, writing, and calculation skills for “his/her own and the community’s development.”; The definition’s first sentence says “cannot effectively use … in everyday life,” which is not supported verbatim by the packet (the packet frames inability in terms of use for personal/community development, and discusses negative economic/social effects).; The source presents this as a proposed working definition from a review, not as established clinical consensus, so the diagnostic wording should not be generalized beyond what the packet supports.; While the definition’s second sentence largely aligns with the packet’s proposed working definition (difficulty understanding complex texts despite adequate schooling/age/language/elementary reading skills/IQ, and not fully explained by sensory, domain-general cognitive, neurological, or mental disorders), the overall definition is not fully defensible because the first sentence contains unsupported wording. New packet required. Source: [Vágvölgyi Réka; Coldea Andra; Dresler Thomas; Schrader Josef; Nuerk Hans-Christoph. A Review about Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617; article XML SHA-256 08758ca76ea4ecfc8f8cd7a9084961413877855323c1b87e850c2d83d39bffb9. “A Review about Functional Illiteracy: Definition, Cognitive, Linguistic, and Numerical Aspects” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01617) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Functional Independence Measure [redraft]: The definition adds a narrower “commonly used to evaluate bowel-related functioning” claim that is more specific than the packet’s wording and is not directly supported.; The packet states that the Functional Independence Measure (FIM) subscale is “the most common scale used to assess neurogenic bowel disease,” but it does not support that the FIM is used to “gauge how independently a person manages bowel function.”; The packet supports that the Functional Independence Measure (FIM) subscale is used to assess neurogenic bowel dysfunction, but it does not state that this is a bowel-specific subscale or that it measures how independently a person manages bowel function. New packet required. Source: [Zandalasini Matteo; Pelizzari Laura; Ciardi Gianluca; Giraudo Donatella; Guasconi Massimo; Paravati Stefano; Lamberti Gianfranco; Frizziero Antonio. Bowel dysfunctions after acquired brain injury: a scoping review. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1146054; article XML SHA-256 db9a622dfb72095ddba7460e543ddadf1c539823fa988d351520752535313baf. “Bowel dysfunctions after acquired brain injury: a scoping review” (10.3389/fnhum.2023.1146054).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2023.1146054) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- functional plateau [redraft]: The definition is about diabetic macular edema, which is a medical/ophthalmology concept, so the requested field "cognition" is not defensible from the packet.; The packet supports the idea of “functional plateau” as “poor vision despite resolved edema” in diabetic macular edema, but the definition is not aligned with the supplied field label (“cognition”).; The packet supports the phrase "functional plateau" as "poor vision despite resolved edema," but the definition’s broader framing as a general mismatch between anatomical and functional recovery is only indirectly supported in this source and should not be generalized beyond the DME context.; The provided definition describes diabetic macular edema (an ophthalmology/vision concept), not something in the field of cognition as requested. New packet required. Source: [You Zichao; Jiang Li; Liu Ying-rui; Yang Ming Ming. Phenotype-driven management of diabetic macular edema: multimodal imaging biomarkers and individualized therapy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fmed.2026.1859928; article XML SHA-256 b6f299b88887f2c9835903db109cb81a5daf336217a7d3f2a9a5858e557c58af. “Phenotype-driven management of diabetic macular edema: multimodal imaging biomarkers and individualized therapy” (10.3389/fmed.2026.1859928).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2026.1859928) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- fundamental rule [redraft]: The definition broadens the packet’s claim from conversation to social interaction generally; the packet only supports turn-taking as a fundamental rule in conversation.; The explanation of the term is otherwise supported, but the broader organizing-principle wording is an unsupported generalization.; The packet does not define “fundamental rule” as a “basic organizing principle of social interaction”; it only states that “turn-taking is a fundamental rule in conversation.”; The packet supports turn-taking being a fundamental rule, but it does not explicitly claim that “people normally alternate when they speak.” New packet required. Source: [Landman Rogier; Sharma Jitendra; Hyman Julia B.; Fanucci-Kiss Adrian; Meisner Olivia; Parmar Shivangi; Feng Guoping; Desimone Robert. Close-range vocal interaction in the common marmoset ( Callithrix jacchus ). 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0227392; article XML SHA-256 ddd90e3451818fc66a7cdfa2af99e4e90b68e156079657c56c70525066e8e2c2. “Close-range vocal interaction in the common marmoset ( Callithrix jacchus )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0227392).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227392) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- G protein [redraft]: The first sentence (“A G protein is a signaling molecule involved in regulating cell activity through G-protein-coupled receptor pathways”) is not explicitly supported by the supplied source packet text.; The first sentence adds a broad general definition (“a signaling molecule involved in regulating cell activity through G-protein-coupled receptor pathways”) that is not stated in the supplied source packet.; The packet only describes specific effects of G-protein-coupled receptors on CaV2.2 N-type Ca2+ channels via fast/slow pathways and does not provide the general definition of what a “G protein” is as a standalone signaling molecule.; The packet supports only the specific role of G-proteins in regulating CaV2.2 N-type Ca2+ channels via fast voltage-dependent and slow voltage-independent pathways; it does not support the broader generalization about cell activity regulation. New packet required. Source: [Thomas Jessica R.; Sun Jinglang; De la Rosa Vazquez Juan; Lee Amy. Complex regulation of Ca v 2.2 N-type Ca 2+ channels by Ca 2+ and G-proteins. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314839; article XML SHA-256 eab1ec0327acd1914e6562fe0693d0a6cc1b29ef4d215b26d22b8a194e8b356b. “Complex regulation of Ca v 2.2 N-type Ca 2+ channels by Ca 2+ and G-proteins” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314839).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314839) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gain score [redraft]: Because the definition’s explanation of gain scores as a change-over-time measure is not explicitly supported by the provided packet, the definition contains an unsupported substantive claim.; The packet only shows that ‘gain score analyses’ were used to test between-group improvement differences; it does not define a gain score as a general measure of change over time or as a before/after score difference.; The packet states that “Gain score analyses” showed differences between the groups, but it does not define what a “gain score” is (e.g., that it measures how much a person’s score changes over time from before to after).; The phrasing ‘in this context’ and the implied explanation of how gain scores work go beyond the packet’s evidence and add unsupported generalization. New packet required. Source: [Plotnikova Valeriya; Veraksa Aleksandr; Sukhikh Vera. Group play as a buffer against stress in preschoolers: reductions in externalizing but not internalizing symptoms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1874167; article XML SHA-256 51c24c141f1c1c25ed377269b7b427deee5bdd5e608513c656d806be119bc474. “Group play as a buffer against stress in preschoolers: reductions in externalizing but not internalizing symptoms” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1874167).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1874167) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gait [redraft]: The claim about “timing of phases within the walking cycle” is broadly consistent with the packet’s focus on detecting gait cycle phases, but the overall definition still includes unsupported phrasing as noted above.; The definition says it is “commonly examined” as an indicator of mobility and overall health; the packet does not support the word “commonly” (it only states that gait is a key indicator in the study context).; The definition states that gait is a person’s “pattern of walking,” but the provided packet does not define gait in those terms (it mainly discusses gait as an indicator and the detection of gait-phase timing).; The mention of “the timing of phases within the walking cycle” is supported only in relation to gait cycle phase detection, not as a general definition of gait.; The packet supports gait as an indicator used in gait analysis, but it does not explicitly support the core definitional claim that gait means a person’s pattern of walking. New packet required. Source: [Choi Wonseok; Choi Mun-Taek. Deep learning-based gait phase detection using shank-mounted IMU data: Classification approach. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344002; article XML SHA-256 9e5ce2a97b047ef098c07ec2bb418eaf2ba0012a9438361de886851c665da86d. “Deep learning-based gait phase detection using shank-mounted IMU data: Classification approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344002).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344002) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- game theory [redraft]: Well-known term redefined as an ML feature/model comparison tool 'in this source'; no general sense given. New packet required. Source: [Chakraborty Pritam; Bandyopadhyay Anjan; Parui Sricheta; Swain Sujata; Banerjee Partha Sarathy; Si Tapas; Qin Hong; Mallik Saurav. OptiSelect and EnShap: Integrating machine learning and game theory for ischemic stroke prediction. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328967; article XML SHA-256 36cd63afb3c24f3a8b1895f0149331664eee5511e72223b523af929c838489ad. “OptiSelect and EnShap: Integrating machine learning and game theory for ischemic stroke prediction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328967).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328967) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gap detection [redraft]: General psychophysics term defined as tactile-only; packet's headword is 'tactile gap detection'. New packet required. Source: [Bultitude Janet H; Juravle Georgiana; Spence Charles. Tactile Gap Detection Deteriorates during Bimanual Symmetrical Movements under Mirror Visual Feedback. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0146077; article XML SHA-256 b02be9b956c3decbad18ca59dab233eeba8ecb926e7fb47a40dc5b907c78d31e. “Tactile Gap Detection Deteriorates during Bimanual Symmetrical Movements under Mirror Visual Feedback” (10.1371/journal.pone.0146077).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146077) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gastrointestinal motility [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define gastrointestinal motility as “the activity of the digestive tract’s smooth muscles that moves contents through the stomach and intestines,” so that portion is unsupported.; The packet supports gastrointestinal motility as something that can be assessed by smooth-muscle myoelectrical activity, but it does not explicitly define it as the smooth muscles’ activity that moves contents through the stomach and intestines.; The source is an animal physiology study about stress-induced changes in pigs; the definition’s broader clinical framing and terminology should not go beyond what this packet directly supports.; While the packet supports that motility can be monitored via “smooth muscle myoelectrical activity” (surface electromyography) and that stress/adrenocorticotropic hormone (via cortisol response) reduces small intestinal smooth muscle activity, the definition’s full wording contains at least one unsupported claim (the “moves contents” description). New packet required. Source: [Csötönyi Orsolya; Béres Gabriella; Baráth Ágnes; Sarkadi László; Szőke Zsuzsanna; Molnár Zsófia; Plank Patrik; Halas Veronika. Surface electromyography as a non-invasive method for detecting stress-induced changes in gastrointestinal motility in pigs. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358481; article XML SHA-256 57151dbdacafa318df098e9c07f8b1434cdf0e6331c26fb9a76c6ac5d0a86773. “Surface electromyography as a non-invasive method for detecting stress-induced changes in gastrointestinal motility in pigs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358481).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358481) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gated channel [redraft]: Describes a study component, not the term; regulating claim unsupported; wrong sense for a headword normally meaning gated ion channel. New packet required. Source: [Ma Yunyan; Ding Zhenwu; Wan Shuang; Li Hui; Xu Yuan. Adaptive Feature Fusion Gate and Gated Channel-Spatial Attention in CNN-Transformer Models for Music Genre Classification. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344606; article XML SHA-256 5bbef2cd99715e10bd72217a20dfca2f0bcc1e5215670768bb053f6fa21cfb71. “Adaptive Feature Fusion Gate and Gated Channel-Spatial Attention in CNN-Transformer Models for Music Genre Classification” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344606).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344606) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gating mechanism [redraft]: The definition’s wording is more general than anything explicitly stated in the packet (the packet is about LSTM-based battery State of Health estimation, not explaining the gating mechanism conceptually).; The packet does not provide a definition of “gating mechanism” or describe it as a “control process” that regulates what information is allowed through; it only states that an LSTM “achieves sequence information estimation through a gating mechanism.”; The packet does not support the broader claim about helping the model handle “changing information over time.”; The packet does not support the claim that the mechanism helps the system “estimate patterns across a sequence”; it only states that LSTM achieves sequence information estimation through a gating mechanism.; The packet does not support the claims that the gating mechanism “regulates what information is allowed through” or that it “helps the model handle changing information over time.”; The packet supports that an LSTM achieves sequence information estimation through a gating mechanism, but it does not support the added explanation that the mechanism “regulates what information is allowed through.” New packet required. Source: [Xu Gengchen; Xu Jingyun; Zhu Yifan. LSTM-based estimation of lithium-ion battery SOH using data characteristics and spatio-temporal attention. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312856; article XML SHA-256 82f59a069527c2e735d93db0ad4014369ba3fd5fd39d1208ac09639b9bd06295. “LSTM-based estimation of lithium-ion battery SOH using data characteristics and spatio-temporal attention” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312856).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312856) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gaze palsy [redraft]: Because the first sentence’s general characterization is not directly supported by the provided packet, the requested definition is not fully defensible.; The definition broadens beyond the packet’s scope by treating gaze palsy as a general neurological diagnosis rather than the specific NPC-related oculomotor sign described in the source.; The opening sentence gives a general definition of gaze palsy as a neurological problem with impaired control of eye direction, but the packet only supports vertical supranuclear gaze palsy in Niemann-Pick type C and does not define gaze palsy generally.; The packet does not explicitly define “gaze palsy” as a general neurological problem involving impaired normal control of eye direction; it only discusses a specific instance described as “vertical supranuclear gaze palsy” in Niemann-Pick type C. New packet required. Source: [Hopf Susanne; Hennermann Julia B.; Schuster Alexander K.; Pfeiffer Norbert; Pitz Susanne. Vertical saccadic palsy and foveal retinal thinning in Niemann-Pick disease type C. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0252825; article XML SHA-256 39728be1398f53ec188aab89d1433152f9833cae66e2be3a07fae19ecf29ffaf. “Vertical saccadic palsy and foveal retinal thinning in Niemann-Pick disease type C” (10.1371/journal.pone.0252825).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252825) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gel electrophoresis [redraft]: Narrows a general lab method to RNA integrity and describes the study's borax finding rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Albaser Abdulhadi. Borax-based gel electrophoresis: A novel approach for RNA integrity analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344092; article XML SHA-256 df751e3bdd1c8c47b1fee17f0e458a4ee13003a8c921a771f7a5ba0c98bd01e1. “Borax-based gel electrophoresis: A novel approach for RNA integrity analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344092).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344092) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- -gen [redraft]: Because the packet does not provide the requested meaning of “-gen,” the definition’s core requested sense is only partially supported at best.; The definition generalizes the term beyond the packet: the source supports First Gen/Cont Gen specifically for medical school applicants, not higher education in general.; The definition’s explanation (“first in their family to pursue this level of education” / “family with prior college experience”) is not clearly supported in the provided packet text; it refers to First Gen as a subgroup and mentions “lived experience,” but does not define First Gen in those family-membership terms.; The packet uses the terms “First-generation (First Gen)” and “continuing generation (Cont Gen)” for medical school applicants, but it does not explicitly state that “-gen” is shorthand for “student’s generation status.”; “Comes from a family with prior college experience” is not directly stated in the packet; the source only contrasts first-generation applicants with continuing-generation peers. New packet required. Source: [Romero Bethsabe; Burbage Amanda K.. First-generation medical school applicants: A quantitative study designed to identify areas of educational support. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342616; article XML SHA-256 3a329cc9cdcb22b30b639095fe984e7a4797588ecc3867d918ec30d8a5fbf204. “First-generation medical school applicants: A quantitative study designed to identify areas of educational support” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342616).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342616) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gender assignment [redraft]: Although the claim that, in compound-word recognition, gender is mainly guided by the compound’s head rather than the modifier is supported (“Head-congruent determiner primes speeded compound recognition… no effects… for modifier-congruent primes” and “head-driven gender assignment”).; The definition mixes a general lexicographic sense with a study-specific experimental finding; the packet supports only the compound-recognition context and the head-vs-modifier effect.; The opening general definition is broader than what the packet supports; the source only shows head-driven grammatical gender assignment during German noun-noun compound recognition, not a general process of linking any noun to a grammatical gender category.; The packet does not explicitly define “gender assignment” as a general process of linking a noun to grammatical gender (masculine/feminine/neuter). It only discusses grammatical gender in the context of determiner primes and noun-noun compound recognition.  New packet required. Source: [Lorenz Antje; Beyersmann Elisabeth. Head-driven gender assignment in noun-noun compound recognition: Evidence from a determiner priming task in German. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348377; article XML SHA-256 e1e8514b93d9f68d44a74e6e94ab1bbd9fb28dc8ec93cd1f36b170ee2dbb93df. “Head-driven gender assignment in noun-noun compound recognition: Evidence from a determiner priming task in German” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348377).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348377) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gender similarities hypothesis [redraft]: The added explanation about ‘men and women showed broadly similar preference distributions despite certain average differences on specific traits’ is a study-specific finding, not a supported dictionary definition of the term.; The definition describes the gender similarities hypothesis as applying broadly to “many psychological or behavioral measures,” but the provided packet only reports findings about sex differences/similarities in sexual attractiveness preferences (aesthetics, resources, personality) across age.; The final sentence (“men and women showed broadly similar preference distributions despite certain average differences…”) is partially supported, but the earlier generalized framing makes the definition more expansive than what the packet supports.; The packet does not define the gender similarities hypothesis; it only says the study’s results ‘align with’ that theory, so the definition’s explanatory claim is unsupported by the source.; The packet supports that the study found “similar distribution patterns” between males and females with statistically significant differences in specific traits, but the definition additionally generalizes to “overall response patterns” across psychological/behavioral measures; this broader characterization is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Whyte Stephen; Brooks Robert C.; Chan Ho Fai; Torgler Benno. Sex differences in sexual attraction for aesthetics, resources and personality across age. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0250151; article XML SHA-256 75d122ad4a83863540d77fac3dc685abecf0c74c7ec1c8bbe67aefcb24e18dce. “Sex differences in sexual attraction for aesthetics, resources and personality across age” (10.1371/journal.pone.0250151).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250151) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gene knockout [redraft]: The definition states that “Gene knockout is the loss or removal of a specific gene,” but the packet only mentions “Ptpn5 gene knockout” and does not provide a definition or description of what “gene knockout” means.; The definition’s extra claims that this method is “used to study effects on behavior, the serotonin system, and brain morphology in mice” are only partially supported: the packet supports effects on behavior and the serotonin system, but the provided text excerpt does not explicitly mention brain morphology (only the provided title/label suggests it, which is outside the excerpt’s text).; The first sentence adds a general definition (“loss or removal of a specific gene”) that is not stated in the supplied packet; the packet only says the study investigated the effects of Ptpn5 gene knockout.; The provided packet content is framed as research on mice and a poorly studied association in mental disorders; it does not support treating “gene knockout” as a term under the field “diagnosis,” making the requested sense/field not defensible from the packet.; The requested field is wrong: gene knockout is a genetics/research term, not a diagnosis term. New packet required. Source: [Moskaliuk Vitalii; Komleva Polina; Khotskin Nikita; Arefieva Alla; Shevelev Oleg; Korablev Alexey; Serova Irina; Battulin Nariman; Kulikov Alexander; Naumenko Vladimir; Bazovkina Darya; Kulikova Elizabeth. Lack of striatal-enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase affected the serotonin system, behavior, and brain morphology in mice. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1730197; article XML SHA-256 7021d1d66092aeb27b7b92c669abe08c49da4cd1ea02a8ac3e716aa9d333450d. “Lack of striatal-enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase affected the serotonin system, behavior, and brain morphology in mice” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1730197).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1730197) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gene therapy [redraft]: The definition states the sense “refers to AAV-mediated gene augmentation … introduced human L-opsin cDNA into cone cells and restored retinal structure and function in a mouse model,” which is supported by the packet, but the initial general framing remains unsupported.; The definition’s general claim that gene therapy is “a biological approach that aims to improve disease” is not directly supported by the provided packet text (the packet describes a specific preclinical rescue experiment rather than a general disease-improvement definition).; The first sentence gives a broad general definition of gene therapy (“delivering a working gene into affected cells so they can make the needed protein”) that is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the source’s specific example.; The source supports only a particular preclinical use case: AAV-mediated delivery of human L-opsin cDNA to cone cells in a mouse model, not a general definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Cahill Marion E.; Chmelik Kathryn; Brothers Brooke A.; Ashcraft Madyson E.; Guan Tongju; Puja Artjola; Xiang Yinxiao; Shaw Lee M.; Du Jianhai; Deng Wen-Tao. Gene therapy rescues cone function in an all-cone retina mouse model with the most common cone opsin C203R missense mutation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332684; article XML SHA-256 cf332c85f9380b2eafdf1e123c2402326cd8e7f36559517ed113c80151e2f71a. “Gene therapy rescues cone function in an all-cone retina mouse model with the most common cone opsin C203R missense mutation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332684).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332684) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- general aptitude [redraft]: The claim that, in this packet, it “refers to the mix of abilities assessed in an admission test” is only indirectly supported: the packet discusses a “Post-Graduate General Aptitude Test (PGAT)” with subtests (verbal, quantitative, logical) and DIF for “PGAT items,” but it does not explicitly define “general aptitude” as that mix.; The definition adds a general psychometric gloss (“overall capacity”) that is not stated in the packet and is broader than the source evidence.; The packet does not provide a definition of “general aptitude” as an “overall capacity to perform across broad ability areas” (that phrasing is not supported in the supplied text).; The packet supports that PGAT/general aptitude testing includes verbal, quantitative, and logical ability areas, but it does not explicitly define “general aptitude” as a person’s overall capacity across broad ability areas rather than a single skill.; The provided definition’s wording includes interpretation (“rather than in one specific skill”) that is not stated in the packet.; The source supports an admission-test context, but not a full dictionary-level definition of the term’s meaning beyond the specific PGAT usage described here. New packet required. Source: [Darandari Eqbal Z; Almeri Muna A. Performance differences with and without differential item functioning in the post graduate admission test in Saudi Arabia based on gender and ability level. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1515316; article XML SHA-256 24bf809d626131d9355d73f8d89d2db14924c1c0980a09f0a13f7b8ad537b599. “Performance differences with and without differential item functioning in the post graduate admission test in Saudi Arabia based on gender and ability level” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1515316).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1515316) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- generalized additive model [redraft]: Packet defines GAMLSS, not the plain GAM headword; distribution scale and shape modelling is GAMLSS-specific. New packet required. Source: [Swenne Annika; Intemann Timm; Moreno Luis A.; Pigeot Iris. Federated generalized additive models for location, scale and shape. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12874-025-02735-7; article XML SHA-256 1d4b9691220519d13e1f654ce372b3f4864fb790d11a6d68df73df7eec7e57f6. “Federated generalized additive models for location, scale and shape” (10.1186/s12874-025-02735-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-025-02735-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- generalized linear model [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the packet by presenting a broad encyclopedic description of generalized linear models rather than limiting the sense to the outbreak-detection context described in the source.; The definition’s first sentence claims that a generalized linear model (GLM) is “a family of statistical methods … to analyze data and estimate expected values.” The packet discusses outbreak detection algorithms and expected vs. observed values, and it mentions “GLM-based methods” in that context, but it does not explicitly define GLMs themselves as “a family of statistical methods” whose purpose is to “estimate expected values.”; The field assignment "cognition" is not supported by the packet, which is about statistical methods for public health surveillance and outbreak detection.; The second sentence’s claim that, in surveillance/outbreak detection algorithms, GLM-based methods “compare expected and observed case counts” is broadly consistent with the packet’s description that outbreak detection algorithms identify intervals where observed counts exceed expected values using statistical tests; however, tying this specifically to “outbreak detection algorithms” within the GLM framework is not clearly stated as a direct definitional property of GLMs in the packet (it is presented as a study topic/context rather than as an explicit definition). New packet required. Source: [Zareie Bushra; Poorolajal Jalal; Roshani Amin; Karami Manoochehr. Outbreak detection algorithms based on generalized linear model: a review with new practical examples. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12874-023-02050-z; article XML SHA-256 a613a4957f5fe6488765e93b738b83305a66a0e1ed1cf1dd09332cda767e64f7. “Outbreak detection algorithms based on generalized linear model: a review with new practical examples” (10.1186/s12874-023-02050-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-023-02050-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- generation [redraft]: The first sentence adds a general dictionary-style definition of “generation” as an age cohort with shared attitudes, values, and information-handling styles, but the packet only discusses Generation Z in a specific consumer-context study and does not support that broader generalization.; The first sentence’s broader framing (“group of people… from a similar age cohort”) is therefore not fully supported by the supplied packet text.; The packet does not explicitly define “a generation” as “a group of people from a similar age cohort,” even though it discusses Generation Z specifically.; The packet supports Generation Z as digital natives with distinct attitudes, values, and information behaviors, and a willingness to disclose personal information in digital consumer contexts, but it does not support the fuller explanatory framing beyond that narrow usage. New packet required. Source: [Shi Mi; Wang Lanxi; Guo Miao; Chen Mengxian. Online shopping self-efficacy and emotional closeness to shopping-circle members as dual pathways: the association between product familiarity and Generation Z consumers’ willingness to disclose. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1851651; article XML SHA-256 a345ff8d9b735ec5afc8bccc7a0e1e66043573ce4c4f799a9b78f744b1ac5f38. “Online shopping self-efficacy and emotional closeness to shopping-circle members as dual pathways: the association between product familiarity and Generation Z consumers’ willingness to disclose” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1851651).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1851651) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- -genesis [redraft]: The definition states that “-genesis is a suffix” meaning origin/beginning/gradual formation. The provided packet does not define “-genesis,” explain it as a suffix, or support that semantic meaning.; The definition’s claim that it is a suffix and its broad lexicographic gloss are not supported by the supplied source text.; The field label (“biological”) is not supported by the packet, which is about ceramic production and ancient branding, creating an additional mismatch between the definition context and the supplied source.; The packet supports ‘genesis’ only in the sense of origin or coming into being of a brand, not as a biological suffix.; The packet’s content uses “genesis” in the phrase “genesis of a brand” and discusses archaeological/branding research, not the general linguistic meaning of the suffix “-genesis.” New packet required. Source: [Luciani Marta; Fragnoli Pamela; Gilstrap William D; Sterba Johannes H; Klainscek Doralice; Greene Joseph A; Bourke Stephen; Donnelly Paul. Creating a brand. Genesis, transformation and diffusion of Qurayyah Painted Ware. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351296; article XML SHA-256 33bcbff13557fb6e7863df4b1fc32176117a0a1e38fd53328fd3cce4d924046f. “Creating a brand. Genesis, transformation and diffusion of Qurayyah Painted Ware” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351296).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351296) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- genetic linkage [redraft]: Genetic linkage has a well-known meaning (co-inheritance of nearby loci); hedged redefinition as shared trait basis is wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [Khan Mousumee; Lkhagva Enkhchimeg; Kim Hae-mi; Zhai Chongkai; Siddiqui Sharif Hasan; Hong Seong-Tshool. Genetic association of intelligence with longevity in Drosophila melanogaster. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325154; article XML SHA-256 cb9054b3e86cbec9e02312ed7f7572665c89d464007340e538d6de85640b241a. “Genetic association of intelligence with longevity in Drosophila melanogaster” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325154).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325154) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- genetic map [redraft]: The answer is not an appropriate dictionary definition for the requested sense in this field because it relies on agricultural genetics content rather than a mental health usage of the term.; The definition adds an unsupported specific claim that the packet describes a genetic map as a 'high-density SNP linkage map used to identify a quantitative trait locus associated with spike length in rye'; the packet describes a rye genetic map and QTL mapping, but the wording is more specific than a dictionary definition and mixes in study-specific details rather than defining the term itself.; The field is not defensible for this packet: the source is about a rye genetics study, not mental health or psychology/counselling.; The provided packet contains plant genetics/QTL mapping for rye spike length, with no mental-health content. Therefore the definition, as supplied under the field “mental health,” is not field-defensible based on the packet. New packet required. Source: [Che Yonghe; Yang Yunjie; Yang Yanping; Wei Lai; Guo Juan; Yang Xinming; Li Xiuquan; Liu Weihua; Li Lihui. Construction of a high-density genetic map and mapping of a spike length locus for rye. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293604; article XML SHA-256 d1cce11d18a1d838f65fa1775e36c5ab3044cc4b7249ac3eb19f0e568ec5195e. “Construction of a high-density genetic map and mapping of a spike length locus for rye” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293604).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293604) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- genetic [redraft]: Because the definition includes the phrase “inherited biology,” which is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text, the requested sense of “genetic” is not defensible from the source.; The definition adds a broader general meaning for the term that goes beyond the packet’s limited statement about one contributing factor in depression.; The packet only says depression may be caused by a combination of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors; it does not define “genetic” as inherited biology or as factors that influence a condition.; The packet states that depression is caused by a combination including “genetic” factors, but it does not define “genetic” as factors connected to a person’s inherited biology. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression in Women: 4 Things to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d7e3878cd110511a1cab8edfc2803470cfecef390d776a8858330f68a78c0fab. “Depression in Women: 4 Things to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression-in-women).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression-in-women) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- genital [redraft]: Hedged narrowing of a general anatomical adjective to the psoriasis site discussed in one paper. New packet required. Source: [Lv Haiying; Chen Haiming; Xu Haowei; He Liya; Wu Huimei; Yao Danni; Lu Chuanjian. Psychosexual burden in adult genital psoriasis: outcome measurement, construct coverage, and clinical recognition gaps. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1890558; article XML SHA-256 b042d35fcb5e88c4484681c9a4ebe41aaf8027bef4b10999ce924f159655c587. “Psychosexual burden in adult genital psoriasis: outcome measurement, construct coverage, and clinical recognition gaps” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1890558).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1890558) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- germ cell [redraft]: The definition’s framing (“In this packet, germ cells… protected by stress-response mechanisms”) is only partially supported: the packet supports that GLA-3 is important for protecting germ cells from heat shock and involves heat-shock-associated condensates, but it does not clearly support the specific phrasing “protected by stress-response mechanisms.”; The field is not defensible here: the packet is a molecular biology/C. elegans article, not a psychology or counselling source.; The heat-shock/stress-response claim is supported by the packet, but it is only a study-specific finding and should not be framed as a general property of germ cells.; The opening gloss broadens the term beyond what the packet states; the packet discusses germ cells in C. elegans germline/gonad, not a general dictionary definition of a germ cell as a reproductive cell line.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “germ cell” as a “reproductive cell line involved in forming eggs or embryos”; it only refers to “oogenic germ cells” and “embryonic lethality,” without explicitly defining germ cells in those terms.; The provided field is “mental health,” but the packet content is about molecular/cellular biology in C. elegans (heat shock response), with no mental-health context to justify applying the definition in that field. New packet required. Source: [Salinas Laura Silvia; Dámazo-Hernández Ángel Armando; Cristino-Miranda Arianne Melisa; Zurita-León Mariana; Morales-Oliva Enrique; Láscarez-Lagunas Laura Ivón; Navarro Rosa Estela. GLA-3 mediates the heat shock response in Caenorhabditis elegans germ cells: A key role for the tristetraprolin (TTP) family. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312069; article XML SHA-256 7827d958e578f7cbf64ea25d4f3088cedcb66e377e96e6c5693cf4c954a269d4. “GLA-3 mediates the heat shock response in Caenorhabditis elegans germ cells: A key role for the tristetraprolin (TTP) family” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312069).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312069) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- geropsychology [redraft]: The definition states that geropsychology is “a branch of psychology,” but the packet describes it as a specialization of a psychologist ("A psychologist who specializes in geropsychology") and does not explicitly characterize it as a “branch.”; The packet text is about a psychologist who specializes in geropsychology, not a definition of geropsychology itself, so the entry appears to use the wrong sense/part of speech.; The phrase “branch of psychology” is not stated in the source and is not directly supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Adult Development and Aging Psychologist” (C204366).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gestalt [redraft]: The definition adds a general account of Gestalt as how the mind organizes sensation into coherent patterns or wholes, but the packet only supports Gestalt principles in the context of music perception as consistencies, boundaries, and segmentations in pieces of music.; The definition’s wording about “notice[ing]… boundaries, and segmentations” is partially supported, but the broader phrasing about organizing “into coherent patterns or wholes” is not substantiated by the supplied text.; The packet mentions that music perception involves “consistencies, boundaries, and segmentations” associated with Gestalt principles, but it does not explicitly support the additional claim that Gestalt refers to “how the mind organizes what it senses into coherent patterns or wholes.”; The phrase about visual or musical material goes beyond the packet, which mentions music perception and a visual perception test but does not define Gestalt broadly across those domains. New packet required. Source: [Hou Jiancheng; Chen Chuansheng; Dong Qi. Early musical training benefits to non-musical cognitive ability associated with the Gestalt principles. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1134116; article XML SHA-256 819c707c22e00cffd3198b99ac8a8685176f3f6a5ebe8fed70d9821a14d9bfb8. “Early musical training benefits to non-musical cognitive ability associated with the Gestalt principles” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1134116).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1134116) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gesture [redraft]: The definition should stay within the packet’s wording and sense; it reads broader than the supported CTCAE finding.; The packet supports a suicide attempt or gesture without intent to die, but it does not support the added generalization to “self-harming act.”; The packet text supports “suicide attempt or gesture without intent to die,” but it does not explicitly mention “self-harming” acts; the definition adds “self-harming” beyond the packet. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Grade 3 Suicide Attempt, CTCAE” (C145649).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- GHQ [redraft]: Second sentence describes what the packet supports rather than defining; misreads the scoring-cutoff caveat. New packet required. Source: [Comotti Anna; Barnini Teresa; Fattori Alice; Paladino Maria Emilia; Riva Michele Augusto; Bonzini Matteo; Belingheri Michael. Rethinking students’ mental health assessment through GHQ-12: evidence from the IRT approach. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s40359-024-01808-4; article XML SHA-256 f9dfb95a5bda5614e56f094e996c22c856662761ffac6f71d22017c6df00614a. “Rethinking students’ mental health assessment through GHQ-12: evidence from the IRT approach” (10.1186/s40359-024-01808-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01808-4) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- girdle sensation [redraft]: The definition claims it is “mentioned as an early symptom.” The packet places “a girdle sensation” in the description of how the disease “breaks out suddenly” and then later “patients on awaking,” but it does not explicitly label “girdle sensation” as an early symptom within that timeline.; The packet does not explicitly define “girdle sensation” as “tightness or pain encircling the body like a belt.” It only lists “a girdle sensation” alongside other symptoms (“pains in the lumbar region”), without further wording that matches “encircling…like a belt.”; The source only lists “a girdle sensation” among symptoms of lathyrism; it does not explicitly define the term as a belt-like feeling of tightness or pain encircling the body.; “Early symptom” is not stated in the passage for girdle sensation specifically, so that timing claim is an interpretation rather than directly supported wording. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-42000-54000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- glabrous skin [redraft]: Glabrous skin means hairless skin; defining it as the hand surface examined in touch research is a wrong, narrow sense. New packet required. Source: [Manfredi Louise R.; Baker Andrew T.; Elias Damian O.; Dammann John F.; Zielinski Mark C.; Polashock Vicky S.; Bensmaia Sliman J.. The Effect of Surface Wave Propagation on Neural Responses to Vibration in Primate Glabrous Skin. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0031203; article XML SHA-256 33c48236d085ce985da38cea961e0350e713f6011d2cc69815990228135da3f5. “The Effect of Surface Wave Propagation on Neural Responses to Vibration in Primate Glabrous Skin” (10.1371/journal.pone.0031203).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0031203) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- globalization [redraft]: The definition’s broad opening generalizes globalization as the worldwide spread of “technologies, products, and ways of living across societies,” but the packet only supports effects on medical technologies and unhealthy lifestyles; it does not support the broader phrasing about products or the general global spread across societies.; The definition’s first sentence (“increasing worldwide spread and connection of technologies, products, and ways of living across societies”) is not explicitly stated or supported in the provided packet text.; The field “learning” is not supported by the packet, which is about climate change, globalization, and non-communicable diseases, not learning or counselling usage.; The packet presents the WHO acknowledgment and related arguments, but the definition presents this as a directly stated, comprehensive description of globalization; that specific framing is not supported beyond the cited arguments.; The packet supports that globalization is argued to increase access to medical technologies and to contribute to unhealthy lifestyle changes (e.g., processed foods and sedentary lifestyles) raising NCD risk, but it does not provide the broader general definitional framing used in the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Siiba Alhassan; Kangmennaang Joseph; Baatiema Leonard; Luginaah Isaac. The relationship between climate change, globalization and non-communicable diseases in Africa: A systematic review. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297393; article XML SHA-256 735af5db6561c3a3fa4ab8884e1a19fec9765ec50dfac2c1117850d989c100bc. “The relationship between climate change, globalization and non-communicable diseases in Africa: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297393).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297393) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- GLS [redraft]: Accounting for the data structure is added; packet only names GLS models and reports noise-chorus estimates. New packet required. Source: [Price Bennett H; Brunetti Dakota; Kirkland Amanda; Cox T Erin; Boyle Kelly S. Impacts of vessel noise on Red Drum ( Sciaenops ocellatus ) spawning choruses in Saint Andrew Bay, Florida, U.S.A.. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344649; article XML SHA-256 5a4f5654bf8d4cd21a800ad4038ad5543ec41670034eccf8f6a2a5ae87c8f132. “Impacts of vessel noise on Red Drum ( Sciaenops ocellatus ) spawning choruses in Saint Andrew Bay, Florida, U.S.A.” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344649).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344649) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- glycogen [redraft]: Defines glycogen as a muscle-only particle and then as a measurement quantity; wrong sense of a well-known term. New packet required. Source: [Hansen Anders A.; Egebjerg Jacob M.; Solem Kristian; Kolnes Kristoffer J.; Wüstner Daniel; Wojtaszewski Jørgen F. P.; Jensen Jørgen; Nielsen Joachim. A semantic segmentation model to predict subcellular glycogen localization using transmission electron microscopy images. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351502; article XML SHA-256 9aa4dd1e891da710a68a9d4a8dfa3fbad50db48b2fdd3640e1f9c8db6bf81e80. “A semantic segmentation model to predict subcellular glycogen localization using transmission electron microscopy images” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351502).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351502) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- goal stimulus [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported equivalence between a “goal stimulus” and information or a location that matches a task goal; the packet only says that goals influence priority maps and selection, not that this is the definition of this term.; The packet does not define or introduce the specific term “goal stimulus,” nor does it state that a “goal stimulus” is an information item or location matching a person’s task goal.; The packet supports goal-driven selection and current goals guiding attention, but it does not define or use the term “goal stimulus” as a distinct concept.; The remainder of the definition (“goal-driven processing” operating alongside stimulus-driven and history-driven influences in deciding what to focus on) is broadly consistent with the packet’s discussion, but because the core definitional sentence is not supported, the definition as a whole cannot be accepted.; The statement that goal-, stimulus-, and history-driven influences are the three parallel processes is broadly supported, but the wording “given higher priority for selection” is an interpretation that is not stated as a definition in the packet.; While the packet discusses goal-driven processes and goal-related attentional priority within spatial priority maps, it does not explicitly support the definition’s claim that the matching information/location should be “given higher priority for selection” specifically under the label “goal stimulus.” New packet required. Source: [Koevoet Damian; Van Moorselaar Dirk; Awh Edward; Van der Stigchel Stefan. Past and present goals are represented concurrently during visual search. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pbio.3003779; article XML SHA-256 bbd490ed9d6593fce26edf261df31e49fa642146ff6d508b4a38756aed791bfa. “Past and present goals are represented concurrently during visual search” (10.1371/journal.pbio.3003779).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3003779) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Golgi apparatus [redraft]: Second sentence recounts the study's Golgi stress and cell-death findings rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Miyata Shingo; Mizuno Tatsunori; Koyama Yoshihisa; Katayama Taiichi; Tohyama Masaya. The Endoplasmic Reticulum-Resident Chaperone Heat Shock Protein 47 Protects the Golgi Apparatus from the Effects of O -Glycosylation Inhibition. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0069732; article XML SHA-256 0d23f669c94933af26c8ad61540645964ce681dba3491ce98bb46ed868e5598b. “The Endoplasmic Reticulum-Resident Chaperone Heat Shock Protein 47 Protects the Golgi Apparatus from the Effects of O -Glycosylation Inhibition” (10.1371/journal.pone.0069732).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069732) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- good shape [redraft]: The packet only uses the phrase “keep the body in good shape” in a fitness/health context; it does not support defining “good shape” as an ethics concept or tying it specifically to ethics.; The source supports that “good shape” refers to being in good physical condition, but it does not support the added claim that this phrase is used as a reason for paying close attention to diet and eating habits; the packet only says fitnessers care more about diet to keep the body in good shape.; While the packet states that “fitnessers concern more about diet than the general people,” it does not explicitly say that “good shape” is “used as a reason” for paying close attention to diet and eating habits; this is an inferential step rather than directly supported. New packet required. Source: [Chen Yuan; Lee Bey-Fen; Lu Yen-Cheng. Fitnesser’s Intrinsic Motivations of Green Eating: An Integration of Theory of Planned Behavior and Hedonic-Motivation System Adoption Model. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.670243; article XML SHA-256 0f3b1a1bd3f0a1d902c9a30f5b1fa7c8388b5d3746358f59e5256e00458f5ffe. “Fitnesser’s Intrinsic Motivations of Green Eating: An Integration of Theory of Planned Behavior and Hedonic-Motivation System Adoption Model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.670243).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.670243) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- GP [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define GP as “general practitioner” or “a doctor working in primary care,” so the first sentence is unsupported by the supplied source.; The packet does not explicitly define “GP” as “a general practitioner, a doctor working in primary care”; it only mentions “GP” and “general practice” without stating the term’s meaning.; The packet supports that general practice/GP is a common last contact for help-seeking related to suicidal thoughts and feelings, but this is not sufficient to substantiate the full definition’s first sentence.; The wording “described as a common professional point of contact” overstates the packet, which says general practice is the “most common last point of contact” and that the study explores talking to a GP about suicide; it does not present GP as a defined role in that form. New packet required. Source: [Fedorowicz Sophia; Dempsey Robert C.; Ellis Naomi; Gidlow Christopher. “Hopeless but supported in that hopelessness”: a qualitative study of how people experience talking to a GP about suicide. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1744949; article XML SHA-256 e4e5f416c8d20cb0a3cb079674c8b1a928a89529640f28bb8ef2481afd0e32f6. ““Hopeless but supported in that hopelessness”: a qualitative study of how people experience talking to a GP about suicide” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1744949).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1744949) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- grade-point average [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported generalization by characterizing GPA as a “summary measure of a student’s academic outcomes or performance”; the packet only shows GPA as engineering grade point average obtained from the university registrar’s office.; The definition’s first claim that GPA is “a summary measure of a student’s academic outcomes or performance” is not explicitly supported in the packet text provided.; The requested sense is too broad relative to the packet: the source supports only this study’s use of engineering students’ university GPA, not a general dictionary definition of GPA across settings.; The second sentence (that, in this packet, GPA refers to engineering students’ university GPA obtained from the university registrar’s office) is supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Taylor Christa L.; Zaghi Arash Esmaili. The interplay of ADHD characteristics and executive functioning with the GPA and divergent thinking of engineering students: A conceptual replication and extension. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.937153; article XML SHA-256 13499b6c3296406cd7a50c19cbc14873c5d565b4e86275c1af05a2365c35038c. “The interplay of ADHD characteristics and executive functioning with the GPA and divergent thinking of engineering students: A conceptual replication and extension” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.937153).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.937153) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gradual withdrawal [redraft]: It generalizes from the study’s older-adult follow-up context to a broader clinical definition without support from the packet.; The definition adds an unsupported interpretation that gradual withdrawal means “increasing difficulty staying engaged or reachable over time”; the packet only describes stages of follow-up difficulty and associated social participation/interaction patterns, not that specific behavioral meaning.; The definition mentions a spectrum (“ranging from lower involvement in groups to social isolation”), while the packet only reports associations with baseline social participation variables across stages/groups and a “social isolation” characterization for the non-respondent group; the full “spectrum” framing is not stated as such.; The packet does not provide a direct definition of “gradual withdrawal”; it describes a study about “gradual withdrawal from society” operationalized via “stages of follow-up difficulty,” but the definition’s phrasing (“progressive pulling back from society,” “difficulty staying engaged or reachable”) is interpretive rather than explicitly supported. New packet required. Source: [Kawai Hisashi; Ejiri Manami; Tsuruta Harukazu; Masui Yukie; Watanabe Yutaka; Hirano Hirohiko; Fujiwara Yoshinori; Ihara Kazushige; Tanaka Masashi; Obuchi Shuichi. Factors associated with follow-up difficulty in longitudinal studies involving community-dwelling older adults. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0237166; article XML SHA-256 c17412b30596d227067dafcfec960bf959b0a43aa58087616c1b2d76f0eb0eec. “Factors associated with follow-up difficulty in longitudinal studies involving community-dwelling older adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0237166).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237166) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- granule cell [redraft]: The definition adds a general anatomical identification that is broader than the packet’s scope, which is limited to reference values for feline hippocampal cytoarchitecture and diagnostic use in hippocampal sclerosis.; The packet discusses the “granule cell layer” and measures neuronal density and layer thickness, but it does not explicitly define a “granule cell” as “a neuron found in the hippocampal granule cell layer.”; The packet supports measuring/defining reference values for granule cell layer parameters in relation to hippocampal cytoarchitecture and pathological diagnosis of hippocampal sclerosis, but it does not explicitly state that “its density is one of the features used…to help assess changes such as hippocampal sclerosis” in the general way described in the definition.; The packet supports the hippocampal granule cell layer and neuronal density measurements, but it does not explicitly support the claim that a granule cell is a neuron found in that layer. New packet required. Source: [Zilli Jessica; Schänzer Anne; Büttner Kathrin; Kressin Monika; Schmidt Martin J. Quantitative and qualitative evaluation of the hippocampal cytoarchitecture in adult cats with regard to the pathological diagnosis of hippocampal sclerosis. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0268010; article XML SHA-256 3f5a1d7ad07bfb2d46e41d1ca1b892d5f105d61f299f1168d69e7568a5792c69. “Quantitative and qualitative evaluation of the hippocampal cytoarchitecture in adult cats with regard to the pathological diagnosis of hippocampal sclerosis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0268010).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268010) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- graph theory [redraft]: The clause about making fast, approximate predictions about epidemic spread on contact networks is supported only for specific classical structural approaches (QMF, KSEL), not for graph theory itself.; The definition’s second sentence claims “spectral graph theory refers to using features of that structure to make fast, approximate predictions about processes such as epidemic spread on contact networks.” The packet supports fast, approximate predictions of the “epidemic threshold τ” using spectral graph theory features/methods (QMF, KSEL), but it does not mention epidemic spread as the relevant process.; The first sentence (“Graph theory is a mathematical way of describing and analysing networks through their structure.”) is not supported by the provided packet text, which does not define graph theory in general terms.; The packet discusses spectral graph theory methods for predicting epidemic thresholds; it does not support a general definition of graph theory as a mathematical way of describing and analysing networks.; The packet does not provide enough support for the specific “epidemic spread” wording or the general “processes such as …” phrasing; it is focused on threshold prediction rather than spread dynamics. New packet required. Source: [Kouokam Etienne. A Hybrid AI-Mathematical approach for epidemic threshold prediction in metapopulation networks: Integrating physics-guided neural networks with spectral graph theory. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344827; article XML SHA-256 8e63bdad2859631f82187e08b52d1fb54921c340151cd1020b731d38cbc6aec2. “A Hybrid AI-Mathematical approach for epidemic threshold prediction in metapopulation networks: Integrating physics-guided neural networks with spectral graph theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344827).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344827) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- graph- [redraft]: The claim that the representation is used for “efficient retrieval” and “analysis” is not supported by the packet; the packet explicitly mentions efficient import and dynamic update, but not retrieval or analysis as the intended functions.; The definition asserts that graph- is “In this packet” a cognition-related concept; the packet content is about a knowledge graph construction method in the water conservancy compliance review domain, and it does not substantively ground the term in psychology/cognition content.; The definition narrows the sense to a general database-backed representation of knowledge; the packet supports a specific knowledge-graph construction workflow, not a broad lexical definition of the prefix term graph-.; The packet does not explicitly claim the approach supports *analysis* of information; it describes structured expression via triples and implementation details, not analysis as an expressed use-case.; The packet does not explicitly state that the graph representation is used to support *efficient retrieval*; it mentions efficient import and dynamic update, and improved review efficiency/accuracy, but not retrieval as a stated purpose.; The packet is about a knowledge-graph construction method for water-conservancy compliance review, not a cognition/psychology term entry, so the field is not supported. New packet required. Source: [Ding Zelin; Fan Zhefei; Hao Yuanfeng; Wang Tao; Du Xin; Zhang Xinhang. A knowledge graph construction method for compliance review of water conservancy project reports. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339575; article XML SHA-256 dcc6428b274dbc7b0a130ff0fc2526686c47e270306e519ab61b8bcb4f8a8498. “A knowledge graph construction method for compliance review of water conservancy project reports” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339575).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339575) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- grapheme [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence claims that a grapheme is “a written symbol in a script.” The packet uses “grapheme system (Thai numerals)” but does not explicitly define “grapheme” as a written symbol in a script.; The packet does not define “grapheme” as a written symbol in a script, so that core sense is unsupported by the source.; The packet shows the study involved Thai and Arabic numerals as stimuli in grapheme-color synesthesia, but it does not support the broader claim that the term covers both familiar and newly learned written forms in general.; The second sentence claims the term is used for “familiar and newly learned written forms that can become linked with color experiences in grapheme-color synesthesia.” The packet refers to acquisition of a “novel grapheme system (Thai numerals)” and to “grapheme-color synesthetes,” but it does not state that graphemes are used to denote “familiar and newly learned” forms or that they “can become linked” with color experiences in the way claimed. New packet required. Source: [Ishikawa Asaka; Katsura Seiichiro; Matsuda Eiko. Transient acquisition process of grapheme-color synesthesia on novel graphemes. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1821750; article XML SHA-256 451b38d643f90a6243d557ba553e69d8e2f321868e4f91857f81652d33d1b08d. “Transient acquisition process of grapheme-color synesthesia on novel graphemes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1821750).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1821750) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- graphesthesia [redraft]: Because of the unsupported “traced on the skin” detail, the definition contains a substantive claim not directly supported by the provided packet.; The field “diagnosis” is not supported by the source text, which frames graphesthesia here as a tactile perspective-taking task in a developmental research study rather than a diagnostic concept.; The packet does not state that the symbols were “traced on the skin”; it only describes “ambiguous tactile symbols (b, d, p and q) presented on their stomach.”; The packet uses “graphesthesia task” as a study method but does not explicitly define graphesthesia as the general ability to recognize traced symbols by touch alone; that sense is only indirectly implied. New packet required. Source: [Xavier Jean; Verley Armand; Cohen David; Pellerin Hugues; Kirsch Louise P.; Auvray Malika. Spatial perspective-taking abilities on ambiguous tactile stimuli: The case of children with autism spectrum disorder or developmental coordination disorder. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355395; article XML SHA-256 efdb3fca8688696d66079e69aa756ecc9b62cee0f0acb9df778001b5c4ceb472. “Spatial perspective-taking abilities on ambiguous tactile stimuli: The case of children with autism spectrum disorder or developmental coordination disorder” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355395).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355395) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gratification [redraft]: The definition is partly circular because it uses the term’s own family of wording (“gratification”) instead of staying grounded in the supplied source phrasing.; The definition’s wording “outward signs of pleasure or satisfaction” is not supported by the packet text, which instead describes “outward manifestations of gratification,” without mentioning “pleasure or satisfaction.”; The packet characterizes gratification as a “Highly pleasant emotion” (happiness-related), whereas the provided field is “cognition,” which is not substantiated by the packet content.; The packet supports “highly pleasant emotion” and outward manifestation, but it does not support the added gloss “of pleasure or satisfaction.” New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Happiness” (D006240).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006240) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- Graves’ disease [redraft]: Women and over-45 figures refer to hyperthyroidism prevalence, not Graves' disease; misattributed. New packet required. Source: [Subekti Imam; Kartiko Gracia Jovita; Suhardi Zahra Farhanni; Muhadi; Wisnu Wismandari. Serum TSH level as predictor of Graves’ disease recurrence following antithyroid drug withdrawal: A systematic review. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0245978; article XML SHA-256 0295604366045283bcd3e529fd15d3425bbd005c1d2a0878b2581bda401d4a20. “Serum TSH level as predictor of Graves’ disease recurrence following antithyroid drug withdrawal: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0245978).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245978) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gray ramus [redraft]: Hedged study description of where activity was recorded rather than a definition of the gray ramus. New packet required. Source: [Hotta Harumi; Iimura Kaori; Watanabe Nobuhiro; Shigemoto Kazuhiro. Maintenance of contractile force of the hind limb muscles by the somato-lumbar sympathetic reflexes. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12576-021-00799-w; article XML SHA-256 173aee12aab7b7064631d83e9607d5f531acc90d6d3c008362eabfeec5a949f7. “Maintenance of contractile force of the hind limb muscles by the somato-lumbar sympathetic reflexes” (10.1186/s12576-021-00799-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12576-021-00799-w) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gray [redraft]: The definition extends the packet’s claim (“identify distinct … abnormality patterns”) into a general statement about gray matter showing “abnormal patterns,” whereas the packet only indicates an investigation of differences/possible differentiation.; The packet states the study sought differences in gray matter (GM) volume among bipolar depression, unipolar depression, and healthy controls, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s phrasing that gray matter “can show different abnormal patterns” in those groups.; The packet supports gray matter volume differences among bipolar depression, unipolar depression, and healthy controls, but it does not explicitly support the broader claim that gray matter volume is a biological measure.; The wording adds interpretive framing (“in this context” / “refers to brain gray matter”) that is plausible from the source but not directly established as a defined sense in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Zhou Li; Wu Guowei; Li Xinchun; Liu Chang. Abnormalities of brain gray matter in bipolar depression and unipolar depression. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1534065; article XML SHA-256 112566b75850f97bf9b0a9218d316d7b3b7953abd53c4acb3e2f571005e20011. “Abnormalities of brain gray matter in bipolar depression and unipolar depression” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1534065).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1534065) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- great man theory [redraft]: The packet contrasts Great man theory with environment-based accounts, but it does not clearly support the broader explanatory wording that major events are understood chiefly by exceptional individuals rather than broader social or environmental forces.; The packet does not explicitly contrast the Great Man theory with “broader social or environmental forces,” nor does it describe major events as chiefly explained by what exceptional individuals do rather than other forces.; The packet supports Great man theory as an individualistic interpretation of history, but it does not directly support the stronger claim that it explains historical change mainly through “outstanding persons or geniuses.”; The packet supports only that “Great Man theory” is an “Individualistic (Lehmann)” interpretation within a classification of theories of history, but it does not state the definition’s claims that it explains historical change mainly through “outstanding persons or geniuses.” New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “History (philosophy of)” (Historyp).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Historyp) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- grievance [redraft]: The claim that grievance procedures are formal ways for concerns to be heard and addressed as part of accountability and error correction goes beyond the packet; the article only lists grievance procedures, external oversight, and transparent error remediation as proposed mechanisms without defining their function in those terms.; The claim that grievance procedures are “formal ways…to be heard and addressed…as part of accountability and error correction” is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet broadly discusses accountability mechanisms and “transparent error remediation,” but does not link this directly to grievance procedures in the manner described.; The definition’s specifics—“concern or complaint raised by a young person” and that it is about “harmful, unfair, or improper treatment within an institution”—are not explicitly supported in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define what a “grievance” is (it only mentions “youth grievance procedures” as an accountability mechanism).; The packet mentions “youth grievance procedures” as an accountability mechanism, but it does not define grievance as a concern or complaint, nor does it specify that it is something raised by a young person about harmful, unfair, or improper treatment. New packet required. Source: [Ramos-Galarza Carlos; Obregón Jennifer; Guerrero Brenda; Cruz-Cárdenas Jorge. Institutional trauma, absence of accountability, and psychopathology in a juvenile serial homicide case. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1855731; article XML SHA-256 e17e83e4e721be36348b2cf187e9877e8e80434d595f8e57a2df4abadf3a14eb. “Institutional trauma, absence of accountability, and psychopathology in a juvenile serial homicide case” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1855731).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1855731) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- GRIT [redraft]: The definition adds a general statement that higher grit is linked with maintaining behavior in pursuit of a goal, but the packet only says self-efficacy is a proximal determinant of initiation and maintenance of behavior and that grit may channel into sustained physical activity; that causal linkage is more specific than the source supports.; The definition frames the construct specifically as applying to “learning contexts,” but the provided packet describes students in relation to physical activity (PA) and self-efficacy, not learning contexts as such.; The packet does not explicitly support the statement that higher grit is “linked with sticking with effort over time” in learning settings; it supports persistence through repeated practice and related mastery-confidence mechanisms, but within the PA/self-efficacy framing shown.; The packet supports grit as persistence through repeated practice and sustained behavior, but it does not establish this as a learning-context definition; the source is about physical activity and exercise-specific self-efficacy, not learning generally.; The phrase about 'building confidence through mastery experiences' is supported only in the narrow sense that repeated practice can accumulate mastery experiences and strengthen self-efficacy; the definition broadens this beyond what the packet states. New packet required. Source: [Chen Bin; Hua Shushu; Tu Zaibin; Hu Chang; Yang Jing. An investigation of the relationship between grit, physical activity, and self-efficacy: a variable-centered and person-centered approach. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1742211; article XML SHA-256 eb95fbf3544689699bd8932a9d5cf1c61eec0f8ed5665a91a245a8421332c46c. “An investigation of the relationship between grit, physical activity, and self-efficacy: a variable-centered and person-centered approach” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1742211).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1742211) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- grounded theory [redraft]: Describes the study rather than the term, and 'hierarchy of needs' misstates the packet's hierarchical demand system. New packet required. Source: [Li Liefeng; Wu Fan; Zang Wangshuang; Fan Lin. Research on the development of Chaozhou woodcarving from the perspectives of grounded theory and biomechanics. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341450; article XML SHA-256 f7edd8998125ebbda34d6654213d689d8d3d34f7eb914972fbcff2cca1ee9dc6. “Research on the development of Chaozhou woodcarving from the perspectives of grounded theory and biomechanics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341450).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341450) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- group climate [redraft]: Hedges with 'in this source' to narrow a general headword onto the packet's socially accepting climate. New packet required. Source: [Curşeu Petru L.; Schruijer Sandra G. L.; Fodor Oana C.. Minority Dissent and Social Acceptance in Collaborative Learning Groups. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00458; article XML SHA-256 16f50143e391a028baa2202dc0501d703e69ed088af85813507129880ac47d24. “Minority Dissent and Social Acceptance in Collaborative Learning Groups” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00458).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00458) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- group counseling [redraft]: Because the definition includes an unsupported general characterization (format definition) in addition to supported study-specific details, the definition cannot be accepted as fully supported.; The packet does not explicitly define “group counseling” as counseling delivered to several people together rather than one person alone; it only describes “virtual group counseling.”; The packet supports a specific study context: virtual group counseling based on health literacy for pregnant women, not a general definition of group counseling as counseling for several people together.; The packet supports that the context is virtual group counseling based on health literacy for pregnant women and that it aims to promote empowerment and self-care, but it does not clearly support the first sentence’s general definition of group counseling.; The phrase “health-literacy-based guidance” is an interpretive paraphrase; the source says “virtual group counseling based on health literacy” and does not define a guidance model.; The wording adds a broader clinical definition and explanatory framing that are not explicitly stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Rezaee Zahra; Bakouei Fatemeh; Adib-Rad Hajar; Khafri Soraya; Shirvani Zeinab Gholamnia; Khorsand Farzaneh. Effect of virtual group counseling based on health literacy on the empowerment and self-care of pregnant women: A randomized controlled trial. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340706; article XML SHA-256 3078bae6b6eaa070bbb798b7f3b0f4e9a0b1247a18d0afbae4e4db1a5258837c. “Effect of virtual group counseling based on health literacy on the empowerment and self-care of pregnant women: A randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340706).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340706) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- group difference [redraft]: Second sentence hedges 'in this packet' and recounts the study's comparisons instead of defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Shanshan; Yao Xintong; Tan Kyle; Wei Chongzheng. Identity centrality as a double-edged sword: mental health mechanisms among lesbian/gay and bisexual university students in China. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1737042; article XML SHA-256 242f4d81389bf3d90dce015a3e09a94b5ee6d24ddd74b2596469fa9667b5f7e5. “Identity centrality as a double-edged sword: mental health mechanisms among lesbian/gay and bisexual university students in China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1737042).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1737042) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- group effect [redraft]: 'In this context' smuggles the study's intervention-vs-control result into a general headword. New packet required. Source: [Ni Mengxue. The effect of structured picturebook narrative intervention on emotional understanding in 5–6-year-old Chinese children. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1853362; article XML SHA-256 15f7248ec0ce466917802c503acc1e4dffca2bd5fe66401d11c5d57b2c5bf229. “The effect of structured picturebook narrative intervention on emotional understanding in 5–6-year-old Chinese children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1853362).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1853362) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- group identification [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“Group identification is the extent to which a person feels aligned with and attached to their group”) is not explicitly supported by the packet text, which only describes group identification as having a moderating role in the study.; The definition’s second sentence is broadly consistent with the packet’s claim that group identification has an “enhancing moderating effect” on the relationship between group relative deprivation and intra-team knowledge sharing, but because the first sentence is unsupported, the overall definition fails the requirement.; The packet does not define group identification as “the extent to which a person feels aligned with and attached to their group,” so the core definitional claim is unsupported.; The result sentence is broadly supported, but the definition as a whole needs direct support from the packet rather than an inferred general psychology meaning. New packet required. Source: [Wan Jin; Qin Mingyue; Zhou Wenjun; Zhou Haiming; Li Pingping. Procedural justice, relative deprivation, and intra-team knowledge sharing: The moderating role of group identification. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.994020; article XML SHA-256 b92c0426adbe0b412ae3b8de0ba137ef52fad3d2f9ee54914e9008585f6abd06. “Procedural justice, relative deprivation, and intra-team knowledge sharing: The moderating role of group identification” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.994020).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.994020) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- group practice [redraft]: The definition claims the service “offers general psychiatric care such as medication management and psychotherapy,” which is supported by the packet’s wording that the practice offered general psychiatric care including medication management and psychotherapy.; The definition’s claim that the practice “may also provide additional treatments within the same practice” is only partially supported: the packet specifically mentions TMS, but it does not support a general “may also” statement about other additional treatments beyond TMS.; The packet does not explicitly define what a “group practice” is in general (e.g., it does not state the setting is “shared” or contrasts it with “a single clinician working alone”).; The source supports a multi-site psychiatric group practice, but it does not state that the setting is “shared” or explicitly contrast it with a single clinician working alone.; The source supports general psychiatric care (medication management and psychotherapy) and an additional treatment (TMS) within the practice, but the first sentence adds unsupported framing not present in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Bastiaens Jesse; Brown Natalie; Bermudes Richard A.; Juusola Jessie L.; Bravata Dena M.; Marton Tobias F.. Utilization and outcomes of transcranial magnetic stimulation and usual care for MDD in a large group psychiatric practice. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05928-4; article XML SHA-256 cc38ea35c54932253cd8494aa7cd76d21a93aa58c1c55c0674cc57fdab308fb7. “Utilization and outcomes of transcranial magnetic stimulation and usual care for MDD in a large group psychiatric practice” (10.1186/s12888-024-05928-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05928-4) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- growth principle [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet describes oscillatory gene expression and metabolism in budding yeast (respiratory activity, mitochondrial growth/catabolism, ATP:ADP ratio), with no support for framing this as a mental-health concept.; The definition adds specific phrasing about "cellular energy state" and coordinated periods of "cell building" and "breakdown processes" that goes beyond the packet’s wording and overstates the source’s mechanistic certainty.; The packet is about yeast physiology and gene regulation, not a mental health/psychology sense of "growth principle," so the field and requested sense are not defensible here.; While the definition’s scientific elements (cellular energy state/ATP:ADP, metabolism, gene activity; coordinated growth/anabolism vs mitochondrial/catabolic stress-response phases) are supported by the packet, the packet does not support applying the term within mental health. New packet required. Source: [Machné Rainer; Murray Douglas B.. The Yin and Yang of Yeast Transcription: Elements of a Global Feedback System between Metabolism and Chromatin. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0037906; article XML SHA-256 95071e88b02243a65ace686ff4c2ac7c62e8dad351d6f5d8f7d32425bd08841a. “The Yin and Yang of Yeast Transcription: Elements of a Global Feedback System between Metabolism and Chromatin” (10.1371/journal.pone.0037906).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0037906) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- guidance program [redraft]: The definition’s general description (“structured set of educational and support activities… increase people’s knowledge, awareness, and follow-through on a recommended behavior”) is not directly supported by the provided packet text; the packet describes a pharmacist-led nutritional guidance intervention and measures of knowledge/awareness/implementation, but does not support the specific general formulation or the “follow-through” framing.; The definition’s generic gloss (“structured set of educational and support activities used to increase people’s knowledge, awareness, and follow-through on a recommended behavior”) is broader than the packet supports; the source only describes a dietary potassium restriction guidance program in community pharmacies and does not define the term that way.; The packet supports a pharmacist-led nutritional guidance intervention for CKD outpatients, not a general development-psychology sense of “guidance program.”; The second sentence adds unsupported specifics: it says the guidance was individualized and aimed to help outpatients with chronic kidney disease follow potassium restriction more effectively, but the packet does not explicitly state an individualized program or that this is the term’s fixed meaning.; The second sentence is largely supported (individualized dietary guidance from community pharmacists to outpatients with CKD to improve potassium restriction knowledge/implementation), but because the first sentence contains unsupported generalizations, the overall definition fails the evidence requirement. New packet required. Source: [Asai Yuki; Muramatsu Asami; Kobayashi Tatsuya; Takasaki Ikuhiro; Murasaka Toshiki; Izukawa Ai; Miyada Kahori; Okazaki Takahiro; Yanagawa Tatsuki; Abe Yasuharu; Takai Yasushi; Iwamoto Takuya. A multicentral prospective cohort trial of a pharmacist-led nutritional intervention on serum potassium levels in outpatients with chronic kidney disease: The MieYaku-Chronic Kidney Disease project. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304479; article XML SHA-256 1f9d65fdea1e18263dbf569785bf661e5d0863850d7fe8a025d22c8b3e506593. “A multicentral prospective cohort trial of a pharmacist-led nutritional intervention on serum potassium levels in outpatients with chronic kidney disease: The MieYaku-Chronic Kidney Disease project” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304479).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304479) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- guidance [redraft]: Because those substantive parts are not evidenced by the supplied packet, the definition is not fully supported by the provided source.; The added context about help for parents supporting a child’s mental health goes beyond the packet, which only mentions children’s mental health information and guidance on working with a child’s school.; The packet supports the phrase "guidance on working with your child’s school," but not the broader dictionary-style claim that guidance means practical advice or direction.; The packet text only mentions “guidance on working with your child’s school,” but does not support the definition’s broader characterization of guidance as “practical advice or direction” or as help “to decide what to do in a situation.” New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Publications about Children and Adolescents. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 65534592e4b4789ce8a6abed463655fcc70631fc41795e74a51b98d0eb13f93d. “Publications about Children and Adolescents” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/children-and-adolescents-listing).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/children-and-adolescents-listing) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- gustatory system [redraft]: The definition generalizes from one insect study to a general biological definition without enough support from the packet alone.; The packet does not state that the gustatory system “detects chemical qualities of food.” It only says it has a “critical function” in selecting food and feeding behaviours, without mentioning chemical qualities.; The packet supports an insect gustatory system involved in selecting food and feeding behaviour, growth, and metabolism, but it does not explicitly support the broader claim that the gustatory system is generally ‘the taste system’ or that it ‘detects chemical qualities of food.’ New packet required. Source: [Liu Jianbai; Wu Han; Yi Jiequn; Jiang Dingxin; Zhang Guren. Identification and functional characterization of D-fructose receptor in an egg parasitoid, Trichogramma chilonis. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0217493; article XML SHA-256 90a8872940974cc5f137d000845ffd13240894b4ddc71c20e3f59f310df4c874. “Identification and functional characterization of D-fructose receptor in an egg parasitoid, Trichogramma chilonis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0217493).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217493) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gustometer [redraft]: The definition claims “help record gustatory event-related brain responses reliably.” The packet supports that the study validated the gustometer’s “functionality and reliability” and that it evoked reliable GERP waveforms, but “help record” is not phrased as the packet’s direct claim (it introduces and uses the gustometer to record GERPs).; The definition slightly overgeneralizes by describing the gustometer as a general tool for clinicians to measure taste responses; the packet supports its use for recording GERP waveforms and its potential clinical and research applications, but not that broad role as stated.; The definition states the device is “used to deliver controlled taste stimuli so researchers or clinicians can measure taste responses.” The packet supports delivery of tastants (e.g., distilled water; sodium chloride solutions) and recording reliable GERP waveforms, but it does not explicitly describe “controlled taste stimuli” or measuring “taste responses” as a stated purpose for researchers/clinicians in general terms.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: this is a neuroscience/gustatory electrophysiology device, not a social psychology term. New packet required. Source: [Chen Zhongyan; Zhou Xiaolin; Li Chunjing; Liu Jianfeng. Advanced gustometer design for reliable recording of gustatory event-related potentials in healthy young adults. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2025.1534296; article XML SHA-256 e06f961b2249d76cef75cee8e259eda6cfd84c6b9626aae7a79aec91562d3b6d. “Advanced gustometer design for reliable recording of gustatory event-related potentials in healthy young adults” (10.3389/fnins.2025.1534296).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2025.1534296) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- gyno- [redraft]: The definition’s wording is broader than the packet’s support: the packet supports gynoecy/gynoecious as female individuals or female-flowering plants in a dioecious population, but not a general definition of the prefix itself as the “female side of sex expression.”; The packet does not support the phrasing “female side of sex expression” as a general meaning of the prefix “gyno-.” It instead supports specific usage: “gynoecy” is described as representing female individuals/trees or female flower types within dioecious/sex-expression categories in Diospyros.; The packet is about plant sexual systems in persimmon, not cognition, so the requested field/sense is not supported.; The provided definition’s content is about plant sexual systems (dioecy/gynoecy in flowering plants), but the requested field is “cognition,” and the packet does not support any psychology/cognition framing for “gyno-.” New packet required. Source: [Sun Peng; Nishiyama Soichiro; Li Huawei; Mai Yini; Han Weijuan; Suo Yujing; Liang Chengzhi; Du Huilong; Diao Songfeng; Wang Yiru; Yuan Jiaying; Zhang Yue; Tao Ryutaro; Li Fangdong; Fu Jianmin. Genetic insights into the dissolution of dioecy in diploid persimmon Diospyros oleifera Cheng. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12870-023-04610-3; article XML SHA-256 391b42d74afb2fab486bbfb37e406062629cd512cc07bd3200d76a91e04eed57. “Genetic insights into the dissolution of dioecy in diploid persimmon Diospyros oleifera Cheng” (10.1186/s12870-023-04610-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-023-04610-3) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- habitability [redraft]: Several details in the definition (e.g., “acceptable quality of life”) are not directly stated in the provided packet text.; The added claim that habitability is used to assess urban living conditions and the risks that can undermine them is broader than the source text, which instead discusses obstacles to ecological urbanism and the quality-of-life impacts of development projects in one case study.; The packet does not define habitability as the degree to which an environment is suitable for people to inhabit with an acceptable quality of life; it only says the paper uses sustainability and habitability to define and measure ecological urbanism in informal settlements.; The packet does not explicitly support the phrase “used alongside sustainability to assess urban living conditions and the risks that can undermine them” as a definition-level characterization of habitability; it describes a specific case study context (La Primavera) and how development projects affect quality of life and risks, but not a general definitional usage of habitability.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “habitability” (e.g., as a “degree” or “suitable … with an acceptable quality of life”); it only states that the paper “employs the concepts of sustainability and habitability to define and measure ecological urbanism.” New packet required. Source: [Valencia Londoño Paula Andrea; Valencia Londoño Diana; Paz Phoenix Storm. Ecological urbanism as a condition underpinning urban life for internally displaced peoples in Colombia. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0291794; article XML SHA-256 e383dbdfb630729eb1317784cdd019ccd226fb8e2430ab404043c2513d1231f5. “Ecological urbanism as a condition underpinning urban life for internally displaced peoples in Colombia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0291794).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291794) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- half-life [redraft]: The first sentence gives a general pharmacokinetic definition of half-life that is not stated in the source packet and is broader than the packet’s specific mention of vitreal half-life.; The packet states that ranibizumab has a “vitreal half-life” (~2.9 days) versus bevacizumab (~4.3 days), but it does not define half-life as the time for a drug level to fall by 50% in the vitreous. Therefore, the definition’s claim about “falls by 50%” is not supported by the supplied text.; The second sentence adds an unsupported interpretation that the level falls by 50%; the packet only states a shorter vitreal half-life (~2.9 days), not that this is defined as a 50% decline. New packet required. Source: [Chowdhury Jabia Mostofa. Computational modeling of intravitreal ranibizumab kinetics: Predicting macular drug concentration and half-life. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348811; article XML SHA-256 487ab228f9e92e7a6ec419c8c6979dafb07e4906cf02f57dc3cf69d0bd55d38f. “Computational modeling of intravitreal ranibizumab kinetics: Predicting macular drug concentration and half-life” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348811).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348811) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hallucinogen-induced mood disorder [redraft]: Defines the paired descriptor 'abuse with induced mood disorder' rather than the headword itself. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hallucinogen Abuse with Hallucinogen-Induced Mood Disorder” (C195756).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- haloperidol [redraft]: "Severe nausea" is not supported by the packet; the packet says haloperidol is a potent antiemetic and is used for intractable hiccups, but it does not specify severe nausea.; "Some movement-related conditions" is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet’s named uses (ballism and the chorea of Huntington disease).; The definition is for a medication (haloperidol) and describes indications/treatment uses rather than providing a term definition in the “diagnosis” field (the term is not itself a diagnostic category).; The packet does not specify “persistent” hiccups (it states it is used for “intractable HICCUPS,” which is not the same wording/sense as “persistent”).; The packet does not specify “severe nausea” (it only states it is a “potent antiemetic”). New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Haloperidol” (D006220).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006220) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- hammer [redraft]: Because the “learning” linkage is not directly supported with the specific wording/claim of “skilled upper-limb behavior,” this substantive element is not defensible from the provided text.; The definition claims it is “part of the skilled upper-limb behavior involved in knapping,” but the packet supports upper-limb biomechanics/anatomy in knapping rather than describing knapping as “skilled” or explicitly tying it to learning in those terms.; The definition is not a standard dictionary-style sense for the term in the requested field and mixes a technical artifact description with an unsupported educational framing.; The packet supports a hand-held stone or synthetic hammerstone used in knapping, but it does not support treating this as a learning term or as part of a psychology/counselling definition.; The second sentence generalizes beyond the source by asserting relevance to learning; the packet only says knapping research relates to upper-limb biomechanics and hominin anatomy, not learning. New packet required. Source: [Barroso-Medina Cecilia; Lin Sam C; Tocheri Matthew W; Sreenivasa Manish. Design and development of a sensorized hammerstone for accurate force measurement in stone knapping experiments. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0310520; article XML SHA-256 8c6827c7c8c5b721d01358408179283bb79cc5b275ae31a1d0cbb54fdbde9c9a. “Design and development of a sensorized hammerstone for accurate force measurement in stone knapping experiments” (10.1371/journal.pone.0310520).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310520) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- happy-puppet syndrome [redraft]: The definition states that “Happy-puppet syndrome” is an older name for Angelman syndrome, but the packet does not explicitly state that it is an older name or synonym; it only presents a syndrome described under an “Angelman Syndrome” source label.; The definition’s “developmental slowing” is not stated in the packet; the packet specifies “motor retardation,” but does not use the phrase or concept of developmental slowing.; The packet supports Angelman syndrome and the listed clinical features, but it does not explicitly support the claim that “happy-puppet syndrome” is an older name for Angelman syndrome.; “Developmental slowing” is not stated in the packet; the packet gives “motor retardation” and related movement findings instead. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Angelman Syndrome” (D017204).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017204) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- hard data [redraft]: Packet only notes little hard data exists; definition invents a general gloss and hedges 'in this context'. New packet required. Source: [Higuchi Masa-aki; Topiol Dan D.; Ahmed Bilal; Morita Hokuto; Carbunaru Samuel; Hess Christopher W.; Bowers Dawn; Ward Herbert E.; Warren Lisa R.; DeFranco Meredith M.; Troche Michelle S.; Kulkarni Shankar J.; Hastings Erin; Foote Kelly D.; Okun Michael S.; Martinez-Ramirez Daniel. Impact of an Interdisciplinary Deep Brain Stimulation Screening Model on Post-Surgical Complications in Essential Tremor Patients. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0145623; article XML SHA-256 d9441db8c4105b87a7cdc56d61a36bcf0cfc15cc249fa6db3d1412b287d91b12. “Impact of an Interdisciplinary Deep Brain Stimulation Screening Model on Post-Surgical Complications in Essential Tremor Patients” (10.1371/journal.pone.0145623).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145623) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hardware [redraft]: Computing-hardware sense is not a psychology dictionary sense and is hedged onto the packet's microcontrollers. New packet required. Source: [Karcz Daniel Patryk; Niemiec Marcin; Kourtis Michail Alexandros; Köppl Tobias. Exploring hardware implementation feasibility of post-quantum cryptography in embedded systems: Evaluation of NIST-standardized ML-KEM, ML-DSA and SLH-DSA on ESP32-C6. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355179; article XML SHA-256 9f9c17bfaa6546f8713985da16af796088514bd912ea1496533ebe0f0d8f0eda. “Exploring hardware implementation feasibility of post-quantum cryptography in embedded systems: Evaluation of NIST-standardized ML-KEM, ML-DSA and SLH-DSA on ESP32-C6” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355179).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355179) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- harmaline [redraft]: Beta-carboline alkaloid class for harmaline is not stated; title names only harmalacidine as the alkaloid. New packet required. Source: [Alossaimi Manal A.; Abdel Bar Fatma M.; Elekhnawy Engy; ElNaggar Mai H.. Antibacterial and antiviral potential of harmalacidine hydrochloride, a β-carboline alkaloid, against respiratory tract pathogens: Staphylococcus aureus and H1N1 influenza virus. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335014; article XML SHA-256 a6c6e4380a9516c0f1060611708b18f332fd51e4bf661e9ba8fa8ab12ab027c0. “Antibacterial and antiviral potential of harmalacidine hydrochloride, a β-carboline alkaloid, against respiratory tract pathogens: Staphylococcus aureus and H1N1 influenza virus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335014).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335014) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- harmonic [redraft]: Second sentence describes what research examines rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Azar Christel; Whittom Alexis; Chauvette Loonan; Couture Florence; Nadeau Claudelle; Bacon Benoit-Antoine; Champoux François; Sharp Andréanne. Effect of fundamental frequency removal on mistuned harmonic separation thresholds. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814083; article XML SHA-256 f58cf7f74d2ac8507f6ba7af16850dd9b9847b85ee6b7bd49a2f10eb4abfa65a. “Effect of fundamental frequency removal on mistuned harmonic separation thresholds” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814083).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1814083) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hazard function [redraft]: The definition claims the hazard function is a characteristic used when “evaluating a probability distribution”; while the packet says mathematical characteristics are studied, it does not support this specific description of how hazard function is used or what “evaluating” entails.; The field label "learning" is not supported by the packet content, which is about a probability distribution and failure-rate modeling rather than psychology or learning.; The packet mentions “TTT… to study the failure rate,” but it does not connect hazard function to failure rate explicitly, so the definition’s causal linkage is unsupported.; The packet only states that “hazard function” is one of the mathematical characteristics studied, but it does not define what a hazard function is or that it “describe[s] the failure rate… over time.”; The packet only supports that hazard function is one of several mathematical characteristics studied for the HL-TEXPD distribution; it does not support the broader general definition as a statistical function describing failure rate or how the chance of failure changes over time. New packet required. Source: [Gul Ahtasham; Sandhu Amjad Javaid; Farooq Muhammad; Adil Muhammad; Hassan Yasir; Khan Faridoon. Half logistic-truncated exponential distribution: Characteristics and applications. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0285992; article XML SHA-256 dffe21586bb4f7fc556c4136eb8abe4f98c37fa9ad07f2fb711334c93acff4a6. “Half logistic-truncated exponential distribution: Characteristics and applications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0285992).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285992) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hazing [redraft]: Second sentence adds a learning-context framing of short-term change that the packet does not state. New packet required. Source: [Lajeunesse Gabrielle; Harshaw Howard W.; St. Clair Colleen Cassady. Urban coyotes were observed rarely and retreated consistently from assertive approaches by volunteers in neighborhoods. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0318127; article XML SHA-256 ce84242fa40c118814dc014392d8413a7f8c52ff7ae2038eb30fdb4532a9bff1. “Urban coyotes were observed rarely and retreated consistently from assertive approaches by volunteers in neighborhoods” (10.1371/journal.pone.0318127).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0318127) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- head injury [redraft]: The added claim that clinicians may consider a head CT scan to check for traumatic intracranial bleeding is only loosely inferred from the study aim and is not stated as a definition in the packet.; The packet supports a narrow emergency-department sense of minor head injury after a ground-level fall, not the broad gloss “harm to the head.”; The provided packet is about emergency department CT-scan use for minor head injury after ground-level falls, not about mental health. The definition’s placement in the “mental health” field is therefore not supported by the packet.; The supplied field is mental health, but the packet is about emergency medicine and head CT use rather than a psychology/counselling concept. New packet required. Source: [Dubucs Xavier; Balen Frederic; Cormicael Pierre-Hugues; Benhamed Axel; Boucher Valérie; Mercier Éric; Charpentier Sandrine; Émond Marcel; IRU EPI-TC group. Variability in head computed tomography use for minor head injury after ground-level falls in the emergency department: A subanalysis of EPI-TC study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334541; article XML SHA-256 fd245486466627495ac9b4252683dc9c09ebd86c1303d2ee64945810fec7f862. “Variability in head computed tomography use for minor head injury after ground-level falls in the emergency department: A subanalysis of EPI-TC study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334541).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334541) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- head-related transfer function [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported generalization by presenting HRTF as a named spatial hearing cue; the packet only says sounds were filtered with an anechoic HRTF to be perceived as externalized.; The packet describes using an anechoic head-related transfer function (HRTF) (and BRIR) to filter sounds so participants perceive them as internalized vs externalized, but it does not explicitly define HRTF as “an acoustic filter.”; The packet refers to “acoustic cues that distinguish” inside vs outside the head and to “spatialization” in the context of internal vs external origin, but it does not support the specific framing that HRTF “represents one of the spatial hearing cues used to simulate sound externalization.”; The requested field is not defensible: the packet is about auditory processing in schizophrenia, but head-related transfer function is not a diagnosis term. New packet required. Source: [Fivel Laure; Lavandier Mathieu; Grimault Nicolas; Perrin Fabien; Mondino Marine; Haesebaert Frédéric. Is it inside my head? Characterization of sound externalization in schizophrenia. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345074; article XML SHA-256 f94c4c6040cf5912f8a535b4f49322e46db167b4babb7c3d5d438deb31f2e1ff. “Is it inside my head? Characterization of sound externalization in schizophrenia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345074).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345074) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- health care proxy [redraft]: The field is not well supported as cognition; the source concerns end-of-life planning and caregiving, not a cognitive concept definition.; The packet does not define a health care proxy as an advance care planning arrangement or say that it names someone to represent a patient’s wishes; it only mentions “a living will or a health care proxy/durable power of attorney” as something patients may have.; The packet only mentions “a living will or a health care proxy/durable power of attorney” as types of advanced care planning preferences/plans; it does not explicitly state that “in this source, it is grouped with a durable power of attorney as part of planning for future care,” beyond that single combined phrase in reporting associations.; The packet supports that caregivers may “represent patients’ wishes and make medical decisions on their behalf” near the end of life, but it does not define a “health care proxy” as an advance care planning arrangement that “names someone” to represent a patient’s wishes.; The statement that the proxy is used to make medical decisions on the patient’s behalf is not directly supported as a definition of the term in the packet; the passage only says caregivers may represent patients’ wishes and make medical decisions as death approaches. New packet required. Source: [Kurita Keiko; Lachs Mark S; Adelman Ronald D; Siegler Eugenia L; Reid M Cary; Prigerson Holly G. Mild cognitive dysfunction of caregivers and its association with care recipients’ end-of-life plans and preferences. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0196147; article XML SHA-256 b15abd24ff83c1c55e762dc95cf7a60834642f472afe38f22735e12099f31479. “Mild cognitive dysfunction of caregivers and its association with care recipients’ end-of-life plans and preferences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0196147).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196147) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- health plan [redraft]: Insurance-coverage gloss is invented, and second sentence hedges 'in this study context' onto the headword. New packet required. Source: [Huang Jingyao; Gupta Diwakar. An evaluation of strategies commonly used by health advocate programs. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350645; article XML SHA-256 dc4f52dff101bcf447e28f2f4e387cb5e897d13da2ae405a4b22d19eb85508a8. “An evaluation of strategies commonly used by health advocate programs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350645).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350645) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- health risk appraisal [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory sense that is broader than the source evidence; the source only identifies a trial of HRA for older people and does not define the term itself.; The definition includes an additional characterization (“version designed for older people”) that is supported, but because the first substantive claim is not directly stated in the packet, the definition is not fully defensible.; The packet does not explicitly define “health risk appraisal” as “an approach for evaluating a person’s health risks”; it only refers to the “health risk appraisal” intervention and a trial of implementing it for older people.; The packet supports that this source concerns health risk appraisal for older people (HRA-O) and its implementation with different methods of reinforcement, but it does not support the general definition of health risk appraisal as “an approach for evaluating a person’s health risks.” New packet required. Source: [Stuck Andreas E; Kharicha Kalpa; Dapp Ulrike; Anders Jennifer; von Renteln-Kruse Wolfgang; Meier-Baumgartner Hans Peter; Iliffe Steve; Harari Danielle; Bachmann Martin D; Egger Matthias; Gillmann Gerhard; Beck John C; Swift Cameron G. The PRO-AGE study: an international randomised controlled study of health risk appraisal for older persons based in general practice. 2007; DOI 10.1186/1471-2288-7-2; article XML SHA-256 5ba60eea6e3ab6b0711f0c61338ba964dfe2aa8f53704cff1adf6e2ffc3e8e0b. “The PRO-AGE study: an international randomised controlled study of health risk appraisal for older persons based in general practice” (10.1186/1471-2288-7-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-7-2) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- health screening [redraft]: Field mismatch: the provided packet discusses mental health screening in athlete settings, but it does not support mapping this term to the requested field of “cognition.”; The packet only supports that an APSQ score determines whether athletes continue with the screening process; the broader explanatory framing is not established by the source.; The packet supports athlete mental health screening, but it does not state that health screening means an initial check of mental health using screening tools or questionnaires. New packet required. Source: [Dragoiu Teodora-Simina; Furtunescu Florentina Ligia; Caramoci Adela; Stancu-Smaranda Alina Maria; Runswick Oliver R.. Global athlete mental health screening: cross-cultural validity of the athlete psychological strain questionnaire. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1761749; article XML SHA-256 13597fa0024aba5f6cc9ec9a87890494ad1af2feb1d3fef78c2b5cbeeac2104d. “Global athlete mental health screening: cross-cultural validity of the athlete psychological strain questionnaire” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1761749).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1761749) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hearing aid [redraft]: Defines the device by one study population and its trial outcomes rather than what a hearing aid is. New packet required. Source: [Lively Sarah; Agrawal Smita; Stewart Matthew; Dwyer Robert T; Strobel Laura; Marcinkevich Paula; Hetlinger Chris; Croce Julia. CROS or hearing aid? Selecting the ideal solution for unilateral CI patients with limited aidable hearing in the contralateral ear. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293811; article XML SHA-256 b991c1f93510d7a837f209d8808b8affc7288054dcfcae56d074f10d991325de. “CROS or hearing aid? Selecting the ideal solution for unilateral CI patients with limited aidable hearing in the contralateral ear” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293811).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293811) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- heat stress [redraft]: The definition adds a general explanatory claim not stated in the source; a citation or broad background phrasing alone is not enough to support that wording.; The definition’s second sentence includes multiple specific effects (“harmful effects on fertility, oxidative stress, immunity, and semen quality”), which are largely consistent with what the packet investigates, but the definition still contains unsupported elements from the first sentence and a field mismatch overall.; The definition’s stated field (“mental health”) is not supported by the packet; the packet discusses animal reproductive physiology and semen/oxidative stress/immune-related measures in rabbit bucks.; The packet does not provide the requested general definition that “heat stress is physical strain caused by exposure to hot environmental conditions.” It only describes that bucks were kept under “heat stress conditions” with specified temperature and humidity.; The packet supports heat stress as a condition imposed by hot, humid housing in rabbits and its effects on fertility, oxidative stress, immunity, and semen quality, but it does not define the term as “physical strain.” New packet required. Source: [El-Ratel Ibrahim T.; Elbasuny Mawada E.; El-Nagar Hamdy A.; Abdel-Khalek Abdel-Khalek E.; El-Raghi Ali A.; El Basuini Mohammed Fouad; El-Kholy Khaled H.; Fouda Sara F.. The synergistic impact of Spirulina and selenium nanoparticles mitigates the adverse effects of heat stress on the physiology of rabbits bucks. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0287644; article XML SHA-256 a3b67ae80bef8307b54a233e2ca2e6bff90e98d712a19f05212dfe26d0ad51e9. “The synergistic impact of Spirulina and selenium nanoparticles mitigates the adverse effects of heat stress on the physiology of rabbits bucks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0287644).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287644) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- helping relationship [redraft]: The definition claims the relationship is “built around the caregiver’s lived experience and psychological needs,” but the packet supports centering on caregivers’ “lived experience” and psychological well-being; it does not explicitly support the phrasing “psychological needs.”; The definition frames this term under the field “diagnosis,” but the packet presents it as part of a qualitative study of a brief intervention/therapeutic relationship for informal caregivers (not a diagnosis).; The definition slightly overgeneralizes by framing the relationship as broadly between a practitioner and a caregiver; the packet specifically describes an informal caregiver–practitioner relationship within the Ensemble program.; The packet supports the listed relational qualities and outcomes, but the definition should not present them as a general dictionary sense outside this specific intervention context.; The supplied field is incorrect: the packet discusses a therapeutic relationship in a brief intervention for informal caregivers, not a diagnostic concept. New packet required. Source: [Wilquin Hélène; Plessis Léa; Bourgade Elora; Rexhaj Shyhrete. Fostering therapeutic relationships in brief interventions: an exploratory qualitative study of the Ensemble program for informal caregivers of adults with psychiatric disorders. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1706122; article XML SHA-256 e60865a1a0da3e861dd611532999e68d1c80b32f7a04b3c9836f3183db18cac3. “Fostering therapeutic relationships in brief interventions: an exploratory qualitative study of the Ensemble program for informal caregivers of adults with psychiatric disorders” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1706122).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1706122) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- helping [redraft]: The definition adds interpretive detail beyond the packet’s wording; the packet only names the steps Ask, Be There, Help Keep Them Safe, Help Them Connect, and Follow Up.; The packet only states that there are “five steps” for helping someone having thoughts of suicide (Ask, Be There, Help Keep Them Safe, Help Them Connect, and Follow Up), but it does not provide the specific explanations included in the definition (e.g., asking about their safety, staying present, reducing immediate danger, checking back afterward).; The source supports a five-step process for helping someone having thoughts of suicide, but it does not support the broader claim that helping means giving “practical and emotional support.”; Therefore, multiple substantive elements of the definition are not supported by the supplied packet text. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Brochures and Fact Sheets in English. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 04baa9a6326771a959006d9c107c544c439971cfd5dae876f95c47ecab426bdc. “Brochures and Fact Sheets in English” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/brochures-and-fact-sheets-in-english).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/brochures-and-fact-sheets-in-english) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- hemicrania [redraft]: Because “nausea” is unsupported by the provided source packet, the definition contains at least one substantive claim not supported for the requested term/sense.; The packet does not explicitly mention “nausea”; it mentions “vaso-motor and digestive disturbances, and vomiting.”; The packet supports hemicrania as an older term for migraine and a one-sided severe headache, but it does not specifically support adding nausea as a symptom; it mentions digestive disturbances and vomiting, not nausea. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Migraine or Megrim” (Migraine).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Migraine) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- hemispheric communication [redraft]: Second sentence hedges 'in this source' and reports the study's aMCI finding instead of defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Luo Xiao; Li Kaicheng; Zeng Qingze; Huang Peiyu; Jiaerken Yeerfan; Qiu Tiantian; Xu Xiaojun; Zhou Jiong; Xu Jingjing; Zhang Minming. Decreased Bilateral FDG-PET Uptake and Inter-Hemispheric Connectivity in Multi-Domain Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment Patients: A Preliminary Study. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00161; article XML SHA-256 d3f8084cfc906b01cd3d181e38fc88c0dd54f08de715200ba79b553b1d9833bd. “Decreased Bilateral FDG-PET Uptake and Inter-Hemispheric Connectivity in Multi-Domain Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment Patients: A Preliminary Study” (10.3389/fnagi.2018.00161).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2018.00161) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hemispheric lateralization [redraft]: The definition stays close to the source, but it is broader than the packet’s supported sense, which is specifically about memory lateralization in mTLE rather than hemispheric differences in mental functions overall.; The definition’s first sentence is overly broad: it states a general “tendency for the two cerebral hemispheres to contribute differently to mental functions,” but the packet only directly discusses hemispheric lateralization in the context of memory (and specifically material-specific memory in mTLE).; The opening claim generalizes beyond the packet: it states that the two cerebral hemispheres contribute differently to mental functions, but the source only supports hemispheric lateralization in the context of memory and the material-specific model. New packet required. Source: [Willment Kim Celone; Golby Alexandra. Hemispheric Lateralization Interrupted: Material-Specific Memory Deficits in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00546; article XML SHA-256 a7c42798d314ee279d0ad0e4004b2bc5a6c57467d33ae72dbf8ff57302887c26. “Hemispheric Lateralization Interrupted: Material-Specific Memory Deficits in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy” (10.3389/fnhum.2013.00546).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00546) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- Henle fiber [redraft]: Defines the ONL/HFL imaging complex, not the Henle fiber itself; no standalone sense given. New packet required. Source: [Arepalli Sruthi; Srivastava Sunil K; Hu Ming; Kaiser Peter M; Dukles Neeley; Reese Jamie L; Ehlers Justis P. Assessment of inner and outer retinal layer metrics on the Cirrus HD-OCT Platform in normal eyes. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0203324; article XML SHA-256 2a7d7a1dfa1422252a7c36050e56328216712be16f8381669f799fe2de875c20. “Assessment of inner and outer retinal layer metrics on the Cirrus HD-OCT Platform in normal eyes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0203324).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203324) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- here and now [redraft]: Second sentence contrasts process with overall outcomes, a framing the packet does not provide. New packet required. Source: [Kupers Elisa; Van Dijk Marijn; Lehmann-Wermser Andreas. Creativity in the Here and Now: A Generic, Micro-Developmental Measure of Creativity. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02095; article XML SHA-256 7ef0145c9763ade6350729b8bb0d61cd7ab817e736280c2c778b1cf82fdcd08e. “Creativity in the Here and Now: A Generic, Micro-Developmental Measure of Creativity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02095).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02095) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hereditary ataxia [redraft]: The definition states that ataxia “means impaired coordination,” but the provided packet does not define ataxia or give that meaning.; The packet supports hereditary ataxia as a heterogeneous monogenic neurodegenerative disorder, with different genes and early/late onset phenotypes, but it does not support defining ataxia here as “impaired coordination.”; The packet supports that hereditary ataxia/spastic paraplegia are “heterogeneous monogenic neurodegenerative disorders” and that causes include different genes with early and late onset, but the definition’s specific phrase equating ataxia with impaired coordination is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Iqbal Zafar; Rydning Siri L.; Wedding Iselin M.; Koht Jeanette; Pihlstrøm Lasse; Rengmark Aina H.; Henriksen Sandra P.; Tallaksen Chantal M. E.; Toft Mathias. Targeted high throughput sequencing in hereditary ataxia and spastic paraplegia. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0174667; article XML SHA-256 872bfbc86c85ca5e3ae8ce843dfaa6d88697119a3b3e385994dee2fbae8e38f0. “Targeted high throughput sequencing in hereditary ataxia and spastic paraplegia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0174667).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174667) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- heroin [redraft]: The packet describes heroin as a “narcotic analgesic” that “may be habit-forming” and an “opium derivative” controlled substance; the definition’s framing as “pain-relieving” is only indirectly supported by “analgesic,” and the definition adds claims not present in the packet.; The packet does not state or support that, specifically in “psychology and learning contexts,” heroin is discussed as a controlled substance tied to “substance use and dependence-related behavior.” That psychology/learning-specific claim is not present in the supplied text.; The second sentence adds unsupported context (“In psychology and learning contexts”) that is not stated in the packet.; The second sentence also adds unsupported content about “substance use and dependence-related behavior”; the packet only says heroin is a controlled substance and may be habit-forming. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Heroin” (D003932).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003932) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- herpes infection [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet and definition describe a virology/clinical topic (HSV-1 causing ocular/genital disease), not cognition.; The definition asserts a specific scope (“In this packet, herpes infection refers to infection with HSV-1…”) but the packet text does not explicitly define “herpes infection” as a term; it only discusses HSV-1 causing ocular infection and genital herpes infection in experimental contexts.; The definition overstates a general clinical definition by presenting specific effects and body sites as if they exhaust the term’s meaning; the packet only describes examples of ocular and genital disease in a vaccine study, not a general dictionary definition.; The packet does not define the term as HSV-1 infection only; it mentions HSV-1 causing severe ocular infection and also refers to genital herpes infection following HSV-1 or HSV-2 challenge, so the proposed sense is too narrow and not supported as the term’s full meaning.; The wording "corneal clouding" is not supported verbatim; the packet uses "corneal opacification" and "herpetic keratitis." New packet required. Source: [Naidu Shan K; Nabi Rafiq; Cheemarla Nagarjuna R; Stanfield Brent A; Rider Paul J; Jambunathan Nithya; Chouljenko Vladimir N; Carter Renee; Del Piero Fabio; Langohr Ingeborg; Kousoulas Konstantin G. Intramuscular vaccination of mice with the human herpes simplex virus type-1(HSV-1) VC2 vaccine, but not its parental strain HSV-1(F) confers full protection against lethal ocular HSV-1 (McKrae) pathogenesis. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0228252; article XML SHA-256 735d36df418e3afb5129ba54582ce518b50dd3d1e58bb6b0b681e4f13af16344. “Intramuscular vaccination of mice with the human herpes simplex virus type-1(HSV-1) VC2 vaccine, but not its parental strain HSV-1(F) confers full protection against lethal ocular HSV-1 (McKrae) pathogenesis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0228252).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228252) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- herpetic neuralgia [redraft]: Openly admits it defines post-herpetic neuralgia instead of the headword, hedging on the packet. New packet required. Source: [Kennedy Peter G. E.; Montague Paul; Scott Fiona; Grinfeld Esther; Ashrafi G. H.; Breuer Judith; Rowan Edward G.. Varicella-Zoster Viruses Associated with Post-Herpetic Neuralgia Induce Sodium Current Density Increases in the ND7-23 Nav-1.8 Neuroblastoma Cell Line. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0051570; article XML SHA-256 371b897f090d59be74446e8bd9bcc3013a70d3b85f1eec60cb50b892d3a7355f. “Varicella-Zoster Viruses Associated with Post-Herpetic Neuralgia Induce Sodium Current Density Increases in the ND7-23 Nav-1.8 Neuroblastoma Cell Line” (10.1371/journal.pone.0051570).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051570) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- heteroscedasticity [redraft]: The definition claims the remaining residual variation is “rather than random noise”; the packet mentions “valuable information remaining in the residual,” but it does not explicitly contrast this with “random noise.”; The definition narrows the term to a residual-pattern concept used for stock prediction; the packet supports that applied meaning, but not as a cognition-field entry.; The definition states a general statistical meaning (“variation in data that remains in a model’s residuals”) that is not directly given in the packet; the packet instead discusses “heteroscedasticity element” and “valuable information remaining in the residual” after an ARCH test, without explicitly defining heteroscedasticity as “variation in data” in general terms.; The definition’s first sentence presents the concept as broadly applicable to residuals; the packet only supports this in the specific study context of forecasting stock volatility using a GARCH-LSTM hybrid, not as an overall definitional characterization.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source is a stock-volatility forecasting paper, not a cognition/psychology source. New packet required. Source: [Sadon Aida Nabilah; Ismail Shuhaida; Khamis Azme; Tariq Muhammad Usman. Heteroscedasticity effects as component to future stock market predictions using RNN-based models. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297641; article XML SHA-256 cf1f2f46f6d21c920accc73ea4f0bda0b7dd36272a63cadb5cd83954750fb94b. “Heteroscedasticity effects as component to future stock market predictions using RNN-based models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297641).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297641) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- heuristic-systematic model [redraft]: The claim that the model explains judgments and decisions generally is broader than the packet, which only says the article uses the model as a perspective for studying information overload in live commerce.; The packet does not define the heuristic-systematic model as a two-process framework with “systematic” versus “heuristic” processing; that theory-level description is not supported by the supplied text.; The packet does not define the “heuristic-systematic model” as involving “two kinds of processing” (systematic vs heuristic) or describe them as “more effortful” vs “shortcut-based.”; The packet only states that the study “introduces information overload from the perspective of ‘Heuristic-systematic model’” and that information overload makes it “difficult for consumers to think systematically,” without stating any broader model mechanism about heuristic responding.; The statement about information overload hindering systematic thought and shifting purchase decisions is only partially supported: the packet says information overload can make consumers think systematically less easily and affect purchase decisions, but it does not substantiate the broader causal framing in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Guihua; Cao Junwei; Liu Dong. Examining the influence of information overload on consumers’ purchase in live streaming: A heuristic-systematic model perspective. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0284466; article XML SHA-256 73f16395f065488df39befd58ce7a23bfe10dbf94aaba0c09cec676e6b75a4fb. “Examining the influence of information overload on consumers’ purchase in live streaming: A heuristic-systematic model perspective” (10.1371/journal.pone.0284466).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284466) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- heuristic value [redraft]: The added explanation about using a definition or concept as a guide for understanding, comparing, or identifying a condition goes beyond the packet’s wording; the packet only supports examining different PNS definitions, their prevalence, and their use in identifying deficit syndrome.; The definition’s second sentence includes interpretive framing (“estimating how common they are”) that is not spelled out in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define “heuristic value” as the practical usefulness of a definition or concept; it only says the study examined the heuristic value of various PNS definitions.; The packet does not provide a definition or explanation of the term “heuristic value” (e.g., “practical usefulness…as a guide”), so that portion of the definition is not supported by the supplied text.; While the packet states that the authors “examined the heuristic value of various PNS definitions and their respective prevalence,” it does not explicitly support the wording that heuristic value refers to “helpful different definitions…for studying them and estimating how common they are,” beyond the general idea of relating definitions to prevalence. New packet required. Source: [Hovington Cindy L; Bodnar Michael; Joober Ridha; Malla Ashok K; Lepage Martin. Identifying persistent negative symptoms in first episode psychosis. 2012; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-12-224; article XML SHA-256 57a9b61703639b3121bbedb93d03b5ec1f0165b5f13c9d06e0ef0463607f5519. “Identifying persistent negative symptoms in first episode psychosis” (10.1186/1471-244x-12-224).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-12-224) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- hierarchical clustering [redraft]: Second sentence describes the H-NGPCA algorithm's design rather than what hierarchical clustering means. New packet required. Source: [Migenda Nico; Möller Ralf; Schenck Wolfram. H-NGPCA: Hierarchical clustering of data streams with adaptive number of clusters and adaptive dimensionality. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339171; article XML SHA-256 98b8d08c57914cdbfc0105f388b89d38bce461a52b192094ade1cda41efc9480. “H-NGPCA: Hierarchical clustering of data streams with adaptive number of clusters and adaptive dimensionality” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339171).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339171) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- high resolution [redraft]: The first sentence is broadly supported by the packet’s mention of “high-resolution neuroimaging techniques,” but the second sentence adds unsupported generalizations about making small structures easier to study and clarifying their relation to cognitive function in general; the packet only says these techniques helped elucidate the locus coeruleus’s role in cognitive function regulation.; The packet does not state that such techniques make “small structures and their features easier to study,” or that they are used to clarify relationships with cognitive function in the specific way described.; The packet does not support the claim that “high resolution” refers to neuroimaging methods that “capture the brain with fine detail.”; While the packet mentions “high-resolution neuroimaging techniques—including neuromelanin-sensitive MRI (NM-MRI) and diffusion MRI,” it provides no definition of “high resolution” or an explanation of what “high resolution” means in imaging terms. New packet required. Source: [Li Xue; Liang Xiaoli; Yuan Xinyu; Dai Ninan; Qian Kun; Li Ke; Zhang Yi; Wang Haiying. Research progress on the role of the locus coeruleus in cognitive function. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830622; article XML SHA-256 748b68285abb2354f22bba9bd7db67624e4c28fbff61ae2c49fc19bb24700d7c. “Research progress on the role of the locus coeruleus in cognitive function” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830622).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830622) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hippocampal formation [redraft]: Describes the study rather than defining the structure; adds brain cell development not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Gomes da Silva Sérgio; de Almeida Alexandre Aparecido; Fernandes Jansen; Lopim Glauber Menezes; Cabral Francisco Romero; Scerni Débora Amado; de Oliveira-Pinto Ana Virgínia; Lent Roberto; Arida Ricardo Mario. Maternal Exercise during Pregnancy Increases BDNF Levels and Cell Numbers in the Hippocampal Formation but Not in the Cerebral Cortex of Adult Rat Offspring. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0147200; article XML SHA-256 b53e9c8b0bb6441fb5be450c1c4f0988ac0758aa4835efe9d940eac75fd0fe1c. “Maternal Exercise during Pregnancy Increases BDNF Levels and Cell Numbers in the Hippocampal Formation but Not in the Cerebral Cortex of Adult Rat Offspring” (10.1371/journal.pone.0147200).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147200) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hippocampus [redraft]: Garbles the packet by listing hippocampus as a part alongside hippocampus proper, subiculum and dentate gyrus. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hippocampus” (D006624).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006624) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- hippotherapy [redraft]: The definition’s framing “In psychology and counselling contexts” is not supported by the packet text, which does not specify psychology/counselling contexts.; The packet supports hippotherapy as therapy assisted by a horse and/or its movement, but it does not support the added claim that hippotherapy in psychology and counselling contexts can include equine-assisted psychotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding.; The source is a broader descriptor for equine-assisted therapy; the definition blurs that broader category with the specific term hippotherapy without support. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Equine-Assisted Therapy” (D056147).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D056147) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- HIV [redraft]: Abbreviation never expanded; defines HIV only as an example of a chronic disease. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Understanding the Link Between Chronic Disease and Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 489ee450e1ae3e7b61ce4423b19d029bd53242764081f23b069db116ed965170. “Understanding the Link Between Chronic Disease and Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/chronic-illness-mental-health).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/chronic-illness-mental-health) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- homework [redraft]: The packet does not define homework as “school-related work completed outside regular class time”; it only says homework is an integral part of most students’ daily life and discusses parental/scholastic homework assistance.; The packet does not explicitly define homework as “school-related work that students complete outside regular class time,” so the “outside regular class time” component is unsupported.; While the packet supports that homework is “an integral part of most students’ daily life” and discusses parental homework assistance/involvement in learning activities at home and institution-supported homework assistance, the definition’s first sentence contains an unverified characterization (outside regular class time).; “Learning support at home” is only indirectly related to the packet’s mentions of parental homework assistance and scholastic homework assistance, so the definition overextends the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [Benckwitz Lisa; Kohl Katharina; Roloff Janina; Lüdtke Oliver; Guill Karin. Reciprocal relationships between parental and scholastic homework assistance and students’ academic functioning at elementary school. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1106362; article XML SHA-256 de02569d666109f1c9b712b131b78274ff32b29cf6ea327548e414ee58d97d86. “Reciprocal relationships between parental and scholastic homework assistance and students’ academic functioning at elementary school” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1106362).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1106362) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- homicide [redraft]: Because the first sentence contains an unsupported general definitional statement, the overall definition cannot be considered fully supported by the packet even though the packet discusses firearm availability being linked to firearm-related suicide/homicide frequency.; The definition mixes a general sense of the term with a narrower firearm-related context, which is not justified by the source packet.; The definition’s first substantive claim—“Homicide is the killing of one person by another”—is not explicitly defined in the provided packet text; the packet references homicide but does not provide that definition.; The packet supports only firearm-related homicide and its association with easier firearm access; it does not support the general definition that homicide is the killing of one person by another.; The phrase ‘a form of violent death’ is an unsupported generalization not stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Muwanguzi Moses; Kule Moses; Nuwamanya Simpson; Kaggwa Mark Mohan. Firearm-related suicides, homicides, and homicide-suicides involving security officers in two East African Countries: a press media review. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05368-6; article XML SHA-256 7d5b4e2a498aeba6eb3361e2c128a370c245072dd7c7cd09bfe2fb49ccc8daf0. “Firearm-related suicides, homicides, and homicide-suicides involving security officers in two East African Countries: a press media review” (10.1186/s12888-023-05368-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05368-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- homogeneous [redraft]: The definition narrows the term to a specific personnel/cultural-background sense that is not established by the packet, which only uses the phrase in passing without defining it.; The definition’s general characterization (“members who are very similar to one another on the characteristic being considered”) is not stated or supported in the supplied packet; the packet only mentions that the authors “screened homogeneous cultural data” without defining what “homogeneous” means.; The definition’s specific interpretation (“cultural data drawn from personnel with a shared or closely similar cultural background”) is only indirectly suggested; the packet does not describe the criteria for “shared or closely similar” cultural background.; The packet provides no explicit, concise dictionary-style definition of the term; therefore the requested sense of “homogeneous” cannot be confirmed from the provided text.; The packet supports that the study used “homogeneous cultural data,” but it does not support the added claim that this means personnel with a shared or closely similar cultural background. New packet required. Source: [Chen Yibo; Ping Yang; Zhou Shuhang; Jojo Caleb. Can LLMs improve the accuracy of behavior prediction for personnel in high-stakes scenarios by predicting emotions? — A fine-tuning study based on scarce homogeneous cultural data in high-pressure environments. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352988; article XML SHA-256 e074bef39efbb9cdc4a12e421c4916e0cb3be8372e65c350303e45d1a6e6c1ef. “Can LLMs improve the accuracy of behavior prediction for personnel in high-stakes scenarios by predicting emotions? — A fine-tuning study based on scarce homogeneous cultural data in high-pressure environments” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352988).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352988) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- homolateral [redraft]: The definition’s specific phrasing (“same side…as the related operation or affected area” and “on the same side as the breast surgery and lymph node removal”) is not supported by any explicit statement in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define the term “homolateral” as occurring on the same side of the body; it only uses “homolateral neuropathic pain (HLNP)” as an outcome term.; The packet does not explicitly define "homolateral" as "occurring on the same side of the body"; that meaning is added from outside the source.; The packet does not explicitly state that HLNP is “nerve-related pain” or describe it as pain “on the same side as the breast surgery and lymph node removal.”; The sentence about "the same side as the breast surgery and lymph node removal" is not supported by the packet, which only says homolateral neuropathic pain occurred after mastectomy and lymph node resection. New packet required. Source: [Kim Asall; Yi Chunghwi; Ji Myungki; Hwang Ui-Jae; Lim Jae-Young; Myung Yujin; Choi Eun Joo; Shin Hee-Chul; Beom Jaewon. Pectoralis minor length index at 1 month postoperative can predict homolateral neuropathic pain 4 months after mastectomy with lymph node resection. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326119; article XML SHA-256 d2699e90ea74b7d998912f4f5bbf0dcda924fda97801fd554e4d99fa28ae85ce. “Pectoralis minor length index at 1 month postoperative can predict homolateral neuropathic pain 4 months after mastectomy with lymph node resection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326119).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326119) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- homology [redraft]: The claim about links between brain activity and behavior is not supported by the packet; it only mentions modeling individual differences in brain function and personalized neuroimaging analysis.; The packet only explicitly mentions “persistent homology” as a “robust and informative framework” for modeling “individual differences in brain function” and suggests “brain–behavior links”; it does not explicitly support the broader phrasing that homology is a “topological approach used to represent patterns in brain function.”; The packet supports persistent homology, not homology in general, so the target sense is misstated.; The packet supports “brain–behavior links” in the source text, but it does not explicitly justify the specific formulation “links between brain activity and behavior in neuroimaging,” beyond that brief mention. New packet required. Source: [Wang Yue; Xian Junxing; Chen Yuanyuan; Yan Yan. Topological signatures of brain dynamics: persistent homology reveals individuality and brain–behavior links. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1607941; article XML SHA-256 30b6856f6009f339d1ef56b34924ac7e549184d16e9683c00e5247f52ba8f684. “Topological signatures of brain dynamics: persistent homology reveals individuality and brain–behavior links” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1607941).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1607941) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- homophone [redraft]: The claim that hearing or reading a homophone can bring more than one meaning to mind is not directly stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source context.; The claim that hearing or reading a homophone “can bring more than one meaning to mind” is not stated in the provided packet.; The definition gives a general dictionary-style account of homophone that is broader than what the packet supports; the packet only discusses homophone pairs in the context of Chinese homophone puns and salience effects.; The definition’s puns-specific sentence goes beyond what is explicitly evidenced in the packet, which focuses on salience during pun comprehension (e.g., graded salience hypothesis) rather than the general mechanism described.; The field label is not defensible from the packet; the source is about psycholinguistics/pun comprehension, not biology.; The packet does not provide a definition of “homophone” as sharing sound with another form; it only discusses “homophone puns” and “homophone-pair” without defining the term itself.; The statement that “In studies of puns, different members of a homophone pair can bias which interpretation is noticed” is not directly supported by the packet text; it mentions a “salience effect” and “salient meaning” but does not make the specific general statement as written. New packet required. Source: [Zheng Wei; Wang Xiaolu. Contextual Support for Less Salient Homophones and Pun Humor Appreciation: Evidence From Eye Movements in Reading Chinese Homophone Puns. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.875479; article XML SHA-256 87e9f0048c9c264ef4b992a6117c3ff99cb22e3ec6a7523e04b9acb4248968c3. “Contextual Support for Less Salient Homophones and Pun Humor Appreciation: Evidence From Eye Movements in Reading Chinese Homophone Puns” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.875479).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.875479) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Hooper Visual Organization Test [redraft]: The definition adds a generalized purpose statement (“assess visuospatial abilities by helping identify brain areas involved in visuospatial processing”) that is only partially supported; the packet supports mapping cortical areas involved in the visuospatial network in this study, not a broader test description.; The provided definition is about a neuroimaging/neurosurgical assessment tool and surgical planning for visuospatial abilities, but it does not contain any ethics-related content (e.g., consent, risk–benefit ethics, ethical approval, patient protections) to match the requested field “ethics.”; The supplied field is "ethics," but the packet supports a neuropsychological test used in preoperative visuospatial mapping, not an ethics term or ethics sense. New packet required. Source: [Raffa Giovanni; Quattropani Maria Catena; Marzano Giuseppina; Curcio Antonello; Rizzo Vincenzo; Sebestyén Gabriella; Tamás Viktória; Büki András; Germanò Antonino. Mapping and Preserving the Visuospatial Network by repetitive nTMS and DTI Tractography in Patients With Right Parietal Lobe Tumors. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fonc.2021.677172; article XML SHA-256 8b74d7ae7492543b154c246c652a0a1f1038fe715d96922a825a89ef48c8499a. “Mapping and Preserving the Visuospatial Network by repetitive nTMS and DTI Tractography in Patients With Right Parietal Lobe Tumors” (10.3389/fonc.2021.677172).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2021.677172) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Hopkins Verbal Learning Test [redraft]: Because the first sentence contains a substantive characterization (“verbal learning measure”) not directly supported verbatim in the packet, the definition is not fully defensible from the supplied source.; The definition compresses the source into a general test description, but the packet supports a specific composite-score variable with 48 possible words, so the sense is slightly off.; The packet does not explicitly describe the test as a “verbal learning measure”; it only states it is a “key variable for composite score” defined as total words correctly recalled over Trials 1–4 out of 48 possible.; The packet supports the revised HD-CAB key variable, not the broader unqualified Hopkins Verbal Learning Test as stated in the definition.; “Verbal learning measure” is not explicitly supported by the packet; the packet only describes a key variable for composite score based on words recalled across Trials 1–4. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “HD-CAB - Hopkins Verbal Learning Test Revised” (C166335).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- horizontal cell [redraft]: The claim that horizontal cells “receive input from photoreceptors” is not directly stated; the packet discusses light-response changes and that rod signals can be introduced into cones, and it labels horizontal cells as postsynaptic, but it does not explicitly describe the general rule that horizontal cells receive input from photoreceptors.; The day/night change in light responses is supported for cone and cone horizontal cells in this study, not as a general property of horizontal cells.; The definition generalizes from the packet’s subtype-specific findings (cone horizontal cells and rod horizontal cells) to horizontal cells overall without support.; The definition’s claim that a horizontal cell is “a retinal nerve cell” is not explicitly supported by the packet text, which names cone and rod horizontal cells but does not describe them as “retinal nerve cells.”; The packet does not support calling a horizontal cell a “retinal nerve cell”; it only describes cone horizontal cells and rod horizontal cells as postsynaptic to cones or rods. New packet required. Source: [Ribelayga Christophe; Mangel Stuart C.. Circadian clock regulation of cone to horizontal cell synaptic transfer in the goldfish retina. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0218818; article XML SHA-256 1295e24fed79b6da10beeff119fcb134f7bae3ee0ff94b19936ab97575c46088. “Circadian clock regulation of cone to horizontal cell synaptic transfer in the goldfish retina” (10.1371/journal.pone.0218818).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0218818) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- horizontal section [redraft]: Because the definition relies on those unsupported anatomical/functional descriptions, the requested sense is not fully defensible from the provided packet text.; The definition presents a broader anatomical/functional description of “horizontal section” that is not given in the source passage and is therefore unsupported by the packet.; The packet explicitly states “Diagram of a horizontal section of the left eye, drawn to scale,” but it does not support the additional claim that a horizontal section is “a view or cut made through the eye along a horizontal plane” or that it is “used to show its internal parts in profile.”; The packet supports only that this is a diagram of a horizontal section of the left eye, drawn to scale; it does not support the added claim that such a section is used to show internal parts in profile. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4357500-4369500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- hormone [redraft]: The definition adds a general statement beyond the supplied source rather than staying within the packet’s specific context.; The definition’s general claim that “a hormone is a body chemical that can affect mental and physical functioning” is not supported by the supplied packet text (the packet only describes melatonin as a hormone).; The packet supports melatonin as a hormone important for maintaining the normal sleep–wake cycle and notes altered levels in relation to seasonal affective disorder, but it does not support the broad general definition of a hormone as a body chemical that affects mental and physical functioning.; The packet supports that “altered levels of melatonin” relate to SAD and specifically that winter-pattern SAD involves producing too much melatonin, but the definition states this as a general linkage (“altered levels are linked with seasonal affective disorder”) without enough explicit support for the full phrasing. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Seasonal Affective Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d89120086a5f01bf70f21f43fbf64f1a5b58f4c35f5185f5dac0c769f3d6317c. “Seasonal Affective Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- hospitalization [redraft]: The added gloss about “a level of service some youths may sometimes need as part of their treatment” goes beyond the packet’s wording and is broader than the source evidence provided.; The definition claims hospitalization is “a level of service some youths may sometimes need,” but the packet only states that youths “sometimes” need “mental health care services, including doctor visits and sometimes hospitalization” and does not describe a “level of service” concept.; The definition labels the statement as “In this mental health context, it refers to a level of service… as part of their treatment,” but the packet does not explicitly frame hospitalization as a “level of service” or explicitly tie it to “their treatment” beyond listing it among care services.; The definition’s field is set to “cognition,” but neither the packet nor the definition indicates a cognition-specific meaning (e.g., attention, memory, thinking processes).; The packet supports only that some youth with DMDD may sometimes require hospitalization as part of mental health care; it does not define hospitalization as “receiving care in a hospital.” New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 2f1e06df6de4eaffe8d6a05ad39220c840ff0b6e8aaec6f86c36cc150507fdf3. “Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- hostile attribution bias [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define “hostile attribution bias” as a tendency to interpret situations or others’ actions as hostile.; The packet supports hostile attribution bias as an aggression-related cognitive factor, but it does not define it as a bias toward interpreting situations or others’ actions as hostile.; The packet supports that hostile attribution bias is an “important cognitive factor of aggression” and examines longitudinal relationships with angry rumination, but it does not provide enough information to support the definition’s specific interpretation-bias wording.; The statement about how it operates over time with angry rumination is only partially supported; the packet reports a longitudinal association and a possible mutual relationship, not a general definitional feature. New packet required. Source: [Wang Yueyue; Cao Shen; Dong Yan; Xia Ling-Xiang. Hostile attribution bias and angry rumination: A longitudinal study of undergraduate students. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0217759; article XML SHA-256 6bfe8f8153caf72734e685b40b20fcbf4a8bb43a277284c0d9f6c561464f4f63. “Hostile attribution bias and angry rumination: A longitudinal study of undergraduate students” (10.1371/journal.pone.0217759).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217759) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- HPA axis [redraft]: Because the packet context is about bupropion and includes only a brief mention of “normalize hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis functioning,” the definition’s broader, general description is unsupported.; The packet context is about bupropion and cancer-related fatigue; the definition should avoid presenting the HPA axis as a standalone clinical description beyond what the source text supports.; The packet only states that HPA axis functioning may be dysregulated in certain cases of cancer-related fatigue; the definition’s opening statement about what the HPA axis is in general is not supported by the packet.; The packet supports the full form “hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis,” but it does not explicitly support the added explanation that it is “a biological system linking the hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands.”; The packet text provided does not define the HPA axis as specifically linking the hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands; that substantive structural description is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Immediate-release Bupropion” (C165676).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- HSPQ [redraft]: Because the packet does not define what HSPQ stands for or characterize the instrument beyond the sociability factor label, the claim that HSPQ “is a personality assessment” is not directly supported by the provided text.; The definition adds a general description of the instrument beyond what this source states; the source only mentions HSPQ as part of the personality traits measured and names its sociability (A) factor.; The packet only states that “Sociability (A factor of HSPQ, sociability) also correlated with resilience levels,” but it does not explicitly describe HSPQ as a “personality assessment.”; The packet supports that an HSPQ sociability factor was correlated with resilience, but it does not explicitly support the broader claim that HSPQ is a personality assessment used with adolescents. New packet required. Source: [Mestre José M.; Núñez-Lozano Juan M.; Gómez-Molinero Rocío; Zayas Antonio; Guil Rocío. Emotion Regulation Ability and Resilience in a Sample of Adolescents from a Suburban Area. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01980; article XML SHA-256 fcf0d3a39f3c7d003dc341ee081ccac327411ea2252fccd31f503ca3eaec2c03. “Emotion Regulation Ability and Resilience in a Sample of Adolescents from a Suburban Area” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01980).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01980) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- human error [redraft]: The definition states that human error is “a person's mistake or action.” The provided packet discusses “human errors” in aviation risk assessment but does not explicitly define human error as a “person’s mistake or action.”; The packet supports human error as a risk to be quantified in aviation safety assessment, but it does not define the term as a person's mistake or action; that wording is an unsupported generalization.; The rest of the definition (that assessment considers human error probability, impact on the system, and severity/consequences) is broadly supported by the packet’s description of a model accounting for “human error probability,” “impacts…on the system,” and “human error consequence,” but the unsupported first-sentence phrasing prevents a full pass.; The source is specific to aviation risk assessment, so the definition should stay anchored to that context rather than presenting a broader general definition of human error. New packet required. Source: [Guo Yundong; Suo Xinshi. Flight safety assessment based on a modified human error risk quantification approach. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302511; article XML SHA-256 3728cdfacaee791546fc5b084e6235f7fdffed86b63448a1d9680d6b1a797ad9. “Flight safety assessment based on a modified human error risk quantification approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302511).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302511) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- human resources [redraft]: Because the core definitional framing (“HR refers to… that manages…”) is not directly stated in the provided text, the requested definition is not fully supported by the packet.; The definition generalizes from one article’s findings about AVIs to a broader definition of HR, which is unsupported by the packet.; The packet describes HR professionals in one recruitment study, but it does not support defining “human resources” as the general part of an organization that manages recruitment and hiring processes.; The packet does not define “human resources (HR)” as a specific part of an organization that manages recruitment/hiring processes; it only discusses participants who are HR professionals in the context of recruitment using asynchronous video interviews.; The packet supports that HR professionals discussed impacts on efficiency, candidate experience, fairness/inclusivity, and organizational goals, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s general characterization that HR “weigh[s] how hiring methods affect” these factors as a definition of the term.; The phrase “part of an organization” is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied evidence. New packet required. Source: [İlhan Ümit Deniz; Güler Burcu Kümbül; Turgut Dilara; Duran Cem. Opportunities and challenges of asynchronous video interviews: Perceptions of human resources professionals from Türkiye. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325932; article XML SHA-256 6154935c4f01d8b43d6b173b24f6f52e7681b6cf53a117165467d69327d29acb. “Opportunities and challenges of asynchronous video interviews: Perceptions of human resources professionals from Türkiye” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325932).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325932) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- human strength [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported claims such as resilience and a general gloss of “positive capacities or advantages in people,” which are not stated in the source packet.; The definition’s claim that the term is “used ethically to frame neurological diversity as something that can contribute valuable abilities and resilience rather than being seen only as pathology” is only partially supported: the packet mentions moving away from “pathological models” and celebrating diversity, but it does not explicitly mention “resilience” or “valuable abilities” as part of the term’s defined sense.; The packet does not define “human strength” as “positive capacities or advantages in people”; it only contains the phrase “celebrating neurological diversity as a source of human strength,” without stating a definitional meaning.; The packet supports a narrower phrasing: neurological diversity is described as a source of human strength, but not as a general ethical definition of human strength itself. New packet required. Source: [Mohammad Suleiman Ibrahim; Azzam Eman Raeed; Vasudevan Asokan; Ismail Sayed M.; Ayaz Hina; Prasad K. D. V.. Precision neurodiversity: personalized brain network architecture as a window into cognitive variability. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1669431; article XML SHA-256 fc3968c90e3a04efc8907aa562f529265abe9c880949b4f30feb1da079245afa. “Precision neurodiversity: personalized brain network architecture as a window into cognitive variability” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1669431).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1669431) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- human systems integration [redraft]: The definition should not present an inferred explanation of the term as a supported source-based meaning when the packet provides only contextual mention, not a definition.; The definition’s first clause (“an aspect of a system or piece of equipment that concerns how well it works with the person using it”) is not explicitly stated in the packet text. The packet only mentions that PPE “introduces an ergonomic, human systems integration, and mass burden to the wearer,” without defining human systems integration in general terms.; The definition’s first sentence is a general definition of “human systems integration” as how well a system or piece of equipment works with the user, but the packet only shows it used as one of several burdens PPE can place on the wearer; it does not support that broader definitional claim.; The packet does not support the claim that human systems integration is specifically ‘described as one of the burdens that personal protective equipment can place on a wearer’; it only lists ‘ergonomic, human systems integration, and mass burden’ together without defining the term itself.; The packet supports the burden/ill-fitting part of the definition (“PPE introduces… burden to the wearer… amplified if PPE is ill-fitting”), but the definition also adds an unverified general description of the term beyond what the packet provides. New packet required. Source: [Brisbine Brooke R; Radcliffe Ceridwen R; Jones Monica L H; Stirling Leia; Coltman Celeste E. Does the fit of personal protective equipment affect functional performance? A systematic review across occupational domains. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0278174; article XML SHA-256 9eaa62c9d4a0be34d3ab1bc24e4ef054a2d7abf762558d5223e011a4afec2529. “Does the fit of personal protective equipment affect functional performance? A systematic review across occupational domains” (10.1371/journal.pone.0278174).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278174) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- humanistic psychology [redraft]: Some emphasized elements in the definition (e.g., “treats … as forces that can undermine peace”) are only partially supported: the packet ties aggressiveness/idolization/emotional numbness to war and discusses alienation/control in relation to “humanized technology,” but it does not state this broader ‘forces that can undermine’ framing for all listed items in the general terms used in the definition.; The field is not well supported as ethics; the packet situates the term in psychology/peace psychology rather than ethics.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that humanistic psychology “puts human needs and values at the center of psychology.”; The packet does not explicitly support the phrasing that alienation/control/aggressiveness/etc. “undermine peace and human flourishing”; it discusses erosion of the psychological foundation for peace, but not “human flourishing.”; The packet supports Fromm’s humanistic peace psychology, but not the broader definition of humanistic psychology as a general view of human life centered on human needs and values.; “Human flourishing” is not stated in the packet; the source speaks instead about peace, positive peace, and the psychological foundation for peace. New packet required. Source: [Wang Yun; Li Peng; Liu Wenyu. Toward a humanized technology: a reinterpretation of Erich Fromm’ s humanistic peace psychology. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1646601; article XML SHA-256 3bd352552b3c7f4f8be85c4e04b71133e0fa207ea06596bf796742b457074469. “Toward a humanized technology: a reinterpretation of Erich Fromm’ s humanistic peace psychology” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1646601).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1646601) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- humanoid [redraft]: The contrast with “a real person physically present” is not supported by the packet and adds an unsupported distinction.; The definition goes beyond the supplied source by supplying a general lexical meaning that is not established in the packet.; The definition’s phrasing “used as a visual social stimulus” and “resembles a person rather than a real person physically present” is not directly supported by the provided packet text.; The packet only shows that the study used “various humanoid figures” in a personal-space judgment task; it does not define humanoid as a human-like visual social stimulus or as an image/representation resembling a person.; The packet only states that the personal-space judgment task “involv[ed] various humanoid figures.” It does not explicitly define “humanoid” as having a human-like form or as a visual social stimulus. New packet required. Source: [Iandolo Giuseppe; López de la Nieta Oscar; Benedicto Carlos; Fong Seraphina; Carollo Alessandro; Esposito Gianluca; Angel Ardiaca Carolina; Alonso Campuzano Cristina; Koeneke Hoenicka Maria Alejandra. Cultural and relational factors in interpersonal distance regulation: evidence from a 2D screen-based task in Spain, Italy, and Japan. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1802960; article XML SHA-256 515e183000b0c18561d3c350341a16b43688df373a2ea5456ba12f0cf86cf30e. “Cultural and relational factors in interpersonal distance regulation: evidence from a 2D screen-based task in Spain, Italy, and Japan” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1802960).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1802960) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- humility [redraft]: The definition claims humility is “less tied to comparison with other people than modesty,” but the packet only says it has “less reference to other persons” than modesty; “comparison” is not explicitly supported.; The definition includes “low in worth” (in addition to “character, or achievement”); the packet specifies “rank oneself low in character and achievements,” but does not use the term “worth.”; The definition should stay closer to the historical wording; the source does not frame humility as low self-worth in general.; “worth” is not supported by the source text, which says only that humility is a disposition to rank oneself low in character and achievements. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Humility” (Humility).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Humility) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- hydration [redraft]: The definition adds a broad generalization about 'body tissues' and 'usual elasticity, lubrication, and ability to absorb and dissipate force' that goes beyond the source’s more specific discussion of soft tissue water content and mechanical properties.; The packet content is about hip soft-tissue biomechanics (viscoelastic properties, muscle/ligament/tendon/skin mechanics) and does not support treating “hydration” specifically within a mental-health field.; The packet supports a biomechanics/soft-tissue sense of hydration, not a mental health dictionary entry; the field is not defensible from the source.; The supplied definition presents a general, cross-tissue account of hydration’s role in “their usual elasticity, lubrication, and ability to absorb and dissipate force,” but the packet only discusses these concepts in the context of hip soft tissues and mechanical outcomes (e.g., energy absorption/dissipation during a fall); it does not establish this as a general definition of hydration for body tissues overall. New packet required. Source: [Khorami Fatemeh; Foroutan Yalda; Sparrey Carolyn J. Investigating the impact of dehydration and hydration on In-Vivo hip soft tissue biomechanics. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328054; article XML SHA-256 7e3da83190e0706632b195cadb2e8aa34068d27fa4fb9694ed08903bc137abae. “Investigating the impact of dehydration and hydration on In-Vivo hip soft tissue biomechanics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328054).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328054) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hydrocortisone [redraft]: Describes study findings on glioblastoma cells rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Moazen Safaei Yasaman; Mahdavian Reza; Soleymani Hossein; Rahimpour Negar; Allahverdi Abdollah; Naderi-Manesh Hossein. A comparative investigation of catecholamines and glucocorticoids impact on glioblastoma invasive behavior via 2D and 3D cell culture. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339764; article XML SHA-256 1ceba2a256631a60bfda37772e4dbb7a040dbb6b0e1a7df77a61a5552d70a463. “A comparative investigation of catecholamines and glucocorticoids impact on glioblastoma invasive behavior via 2D and 3D cell culture” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339764).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339764) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hygiene factors [redraft]: The claim that these factors “can affect exposure to infectious agents” is broader than the packet, which reports an association with type 1 diabetes risk and an interaction with enteroviral indices, not a general exposure definition.; The definition’s final sentence adds a broader causal wording (“harmful effect of low parental contact with sick people on type 1 diabetes risk”)—the packet reports the interaction and synergy index, but the exact phrasing and causal characterization are not directly supported beyond that interaction description.; The packet does not define “hygiene factors” as “cleanliness-related conditions or behaviors,” nor does it explicitly state that they affect exposure to infectious agents.; The packet only provides a specific study finding involving “Lower child hand hygiene” and its interaction with parental occupational social contact; it does not support the more general framing in the definition.; The packet supports only a study-specific child hand-hygiene measure and its interaction with parental occupational contact; it does not define “hygiene factors” generally as cleanliness-related conditions or behaviors. New packet required. Source: [Ponsonby Anne-Louise; Pezic Angela; Cameron Fergus J.; Rodda Christine; Kemp Andrew S.; Carlin John B.; Hyoty Heikki; Sioofy-Khojine Amirbabak; Dwyer Terence; Ellis Justine A.; Craig Maria E.. Higher parental occupational social contact is associated with a reduced risk of incident pediatric type 1 diabetes: Mediation through molecular enteroviral indices. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0193992; article XML SHA-256 035c9e7d571fe3f751991bf8265e20f1f99e0f0d60b37a3b7fd7c3776f5eb709. “Higher parental occupational social contact is associated with a reduced risk of incident pediatric type 1 diabetes: Mediation through molecular enteroviral indices” (10.1371/journal.pone.0193992).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193992) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hygiene [redraft]: The definition is supported by the packet’s WASH passage, but the field is not defensible as mental health; the source is about water, sanitation, and hygiene coverage, not a mental health concept or clinical usage of “hygiene.”; The packet does not define “hygiene” as the “H” in WASH or specify that hygiene refers to the hygiene-related part of WASH access; it only discusses WASH overall (water, sanitation, and hygiene).; The packet supports the general claim that access to WASH is essential for improving public health, advancing economic growth, and enhancing overall well-being, but the definition’s specific requested sense (“H” in WASH) is not supported. New packet required. Source: [Jitu Md Hasibul Islam; Jahan Marufa; Hossain Syed Shahadat. A decade of progress and challenges in Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) coverage in Bangladesh: Insights from Bangladesh demographic and health survey 2011–2022. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354480; article XML SHA-256 fdfd2a47ffa0409e02b82a19809b776038d18af5acebe792a6572e7366559eca. “A decade of progress and challenges in Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) coverage in Bangladesh: Insights from Bangladesh demographic and health survey 2011–2022” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354480).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354480) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hyperactivity [redraft]: Because the packet does not support the first sentence’s characterization of hyperactivity, the overall definition cannot be accepted as fully supported.; The definition adds explanatory wording about how hyperactivity is discussed in psychology that is not supported by the supplied text.; The packet does not define hyperactivity as “unusually high levels of activity”; it only says ADHD is characterized by symptoms including hyperactivity-impulsivity.; The packet does not define “hyperactivity” as “unusually high levels of activity.” It only describes ADHD as characterized by “symptoms of … hyperactivity-impulsivity.” New packet required. Source: [Thimoteo Anna Carolina Pereira; Coelho Manuella S.; Meller Dias De Oliveira Júlia; Polmann Helena; Ronchi Lemos Cintia; Pauletto Patrícia; Stefani Cristine; Bohner Lauren; De Luca Canto Graziela. Association between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and bruxism: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1762324; article XML SHA-256 b1b5e65ffa8777349371bbe2b13ad2b4861b3e9c6d26bd67f4774439a999a7c8. “Association between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and bruxism: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1762324).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1762324) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hypersexuality [redraft]: The definition is not fully supported by the source packet as written, so it should not be accepted in its current form.; The packet does not explicitly define hypersexuality as “marked by excessively driven sexual behavior.”; The packet identifies hypersexuality as an impulse control disorder (as part of ICDs) and a non-motor complication of Parkinson’s disease, but it does not support the specific claim that hypersexuality is “one of the addictive-like … complications.” It only references “addictive-like behaviors” more generally in the study background.; The packet supports hypersexuality as one of the impulse control disorders associated with Parkinson’s disease, but it does not define hypersexuality itself as “marked by excessively driven sexual behavior.”; The wording “addictive-like” is broader than the packet’s direct support; the packet says ICDs are non-motor complications of Parkinson’s disease and mentions addictive-like behaviors in general, but it does not explicitly characterize hypersexuality as an addictive-like complication.; While the packet supports that dopaminergic replacement therapies are a key risk factor for ICDs, it does not support the phrasing “especially in the context of dopaminergic treatment” as part of the term definition. New packet required. Source: [Triscari Sergio; Lenzo Vittorio; Sardella Alberto; Caponnetto Pasquale; Galati Anna; Lupica Patricia; Tasca Domenica; Muratore Stefano; Marano Pietro; Caraci Filippo; Quattropani Maria C. The role of metacognitive beliefs in impulse control disorders and addictive-like behaviors in Parkinson’s disease: an exploratory study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1893510; article XML SHA-256 67343eb235601517c70682230dc25e3b1f34e42ac329a90e502d5dca7f2111ad. “The role of metacognitive beliefs in impulse control disorders and addictive-like behaviors in Parkinson’s disease: an exploratory study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1893510).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1893510) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hyperthyroidism [redraft]: The definition is otherwise supported by the packet, but the field mismatch is enough to reject under the requested scope.; The term defines an endocrine/medical condition (excess thyroid hormone) and does not reference any mental-health or psychology-specific meaning; therefore it is not clearly defensible as a “mental health” dictionary entry based on the provided packet.; The term is a medical/endocrine disorder, not a mental health concept, so the requested field is not defensible from the packet. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hyperthyroidism, CTCAE” (C143560).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hypertonia [redraft]: The final sentence adds a meta-claim about the packet not providing a more detailed clinical explanation; that is not stated in the source and is unsupported by the packet.; The packet does not provide a more detailed clinical explanation beyond listing hypertonia/muscle spasms as a potential adverse effect, so wording implying a clearer clinical characterization (“muscular stiffness or tension”) is not fully supported.; The packet supports hypertonia as a possible adverse effect of bisphosphonate drugs and mentions muscle spasms, but it does not explicitly support the added gloss “increased muscular stiffness or tension.”; The packet supports “hypertonia/muscle spasms” and mentions “possibly stiffness,” but the definition states “likely increased muscular stiffness or tension,” which is stronger than what the packet provides (“possibly”). New packet required. Source: [Jackson Christopher; Freeman Alexandra L J; Szlamka Zśofia; Spiegelhalter David J. The adverse effects of bisphosphonates in breast cancer: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0246441; article XML SHA-256 e015408f800386a2095262d3376c93e07b02d30811613997988dad67d4634a50. “The adverse effects of bisphosphonates in breast cancer: A systematic review and network meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0246441).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246441) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hypnotherapy [redraft]: The definition’s claim that it can be “tailored to a person’s symptoms and combined with other psychotherapy to address related emotional or trauma-related problems” is only supported by the packet in “severe cases”/“in these cases” for IBS (e.g., targeting mental comorbidities, unresolved emotional conflicts, traumatic events), not as a general feature of hypnotherapy across settings.; The packet discusses hypnotherapy specifically in the context of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and gut-directed hypnosis, but the definition presents hypnotherapy as a general form of psychotherapy without any IBS limitation.; The packet supports psychotherapy in trance and the involvement of a trained therapist, but it does not clearly define hypnotherapy as being carried out in hypnosis as well as trance.; The second sentence adds a general description of tailoring to symptoms and addressing emotional or trauma-related problems; the source only gives this as an example in severe IBS cases and clinical experience, not as a general definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Häuser Winfried. Gut-directed hypnosis and hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome: a mini-review. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1389911; article XML SHA-256 b4fc7c9658f7aaf7aac6abae0131742ecf724ff81d4035d9e868ef06efa9e558. “Gut-directed hypnosis and hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome: a mini-review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1389911).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1389911) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hypnotic induction [redraft]: The claim that hypnotic induction refers to producing a non-ordinary state of consciousness is not directly supported; the packet only says such a state may occur during a mind–body intervention and may be similar to hypnotic induction.; The packet describes this as a *hypothesis* in an experimental study (“test the hypothesis that a non-ordinary state of consciousness may occur”), but the definition states definitively that induction “refers to producing” a non-ordinary state.; The packet does not define hypnotic induction as a process of guiding a person into a hypnotic or trance-like state; it only says mind–body interventions may include elements of trance induction and hypnosis while directing focus to the body and inner experiences.; The packet does not explicitly define hypnotic induction as a “process of guiding a person into” a trance; it instead notes that mind–body interventions “include elements of trance induction and hypnosis” with attention directed to body/inner experience.; The wording presents the brain-activity point as part of the term’s meaning, but the source only reports this as an experimental hypothesis about a mind–body intervention, not as a general definition of hypnotic induction. New packet required. Source: [Zech Nina; Busch Martin; Jaeger Veronika; Hansen Ernil. Trance states during a mind–body intervention monitored by BIS. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1728381; article XML SHA-256 95b1db970f52b62ba3251a35c427b48225ba2e34b757a62422bf7fa739ef4c59. “Trance states during a mind–body intervention monitored by BIS” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1728381).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1728381) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hypnotic susceptibility [redraft]: The definition adds a broader clinical/general characterization that is not stated in the source packet; the source only describes how the test is administered and used for measurement.; The definition’s first substantive claim—that hypnotic susceptibility is a person’s *tendency* to show hypnotic responses during a standardized hypnosis procedure—is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text.; The packet supports the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility as a standardized hypnosis test with a trance induction followed by 12 hypnotic phenomena, but it does not explicitly define hypnotic susceptibility as a person’s general tendency to show hypnotic responses.; While the packet states that the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (HGSHS) begins with a standardized trance induction followed by 12 hypnotic phenomena, it does not provide wording that directly frames “hypnotic susceptibility” as a general “tendency” definition. New packet required. Source: [Zech Nina; Seemann Milena; Hansen Ernil. Hypnosis measured with monitors of anesthetic depth – EEG changes during the test for Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1267658; article XML SHA-256 94114751129d946712a4b2ccd239003c0d7e209440ef370673280358d9f5abb4. “Hypnosis measured with monitors of anesthetic depth – EEG changes during the test for Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1267658).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1267658) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hypnotizability [redraft]: The clause about greater pain relief during hypnosis is only supported in the specific study context of highly hypnotizable participants and should not be presented as a general definition.; The definition’s first sentence (“a person’s tendency to respond to hypnosis, including how strongly hypnosis can change experience or behavior”) is not explicitly defined in the provided packet; the packet discusses “highly hypnotizable participants” and effects observed during hypnosis but does not supply the requested general definition wording or an explicit description of hypnotizability as a tendency/degree to respond.; The packet supports hypnotizability as a study variable related to response to hypnosis, but it does not define it broadly as a person’s general tendency to respond to hypnosis or as how strongly hypnosis changes experience or behavior.; The second sentence (“In this context, people with higher hypnotizability showed greater pain relief during hypnosis.”) is only partially supported: the packet states that in “highly hypnotizable participants” placebo treatment produced significant reductions “in both waking and hypnosis condition,” but it does not clearly establish that higher hypnotizability *specifically during hypnosis* produced greater pain relief relative to lower hypnotizability (the text provided does not provide that comparative effect statement). New packet required. Source: [De Pascalis Vilfredo; Scacchia Paolo. Hypnotizability and Placebo Analgesia in Waking and Hypnosis as Modulators of Auditory Startle Responses in Healthy Women: An ERP Study. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0159135; article XML SHA-256 de039e83e1aa5a1359989528de7d93336beae28fcf4538bc505d92a91ee6ef49. “Hypnotizability and Placebo Analgesia in Waking and Hypnosis as Modulators of Auditory Startle Responses in Healthy Women: An ERP Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0159135).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159135) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hypofunction [redraft]: The definition’s claim that “in this source, it refers specifically to … NMDAR activity being too low” is only implied; the packet does not explicitly define “hypofunction” as “activity being too low,” nor does it state a general meaning for the term.; The opening general definition (“reduced or abnormally low functioning of a biological system or target”) is broader than the supplied passage, which only supports NMDAR hypofunction in the schizophrenia context.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “hypofunction” as a general term meaning “reduced or abnormally low functioning of a biological system or target.” It only uses the concept in the specific context of “hypofunction of NMDARs.”; The passage supports NMDAR hypofunction as a proposed contributor to schizophrenia symptoms and synaptic plasticity deficits, but not the fully general dictionary sense stated first. New packet required. Source: [Bygrave Alexei M.; Kilonzo Kasyoka; Kullmann Dimitri M.; Bannerman David M.; Kätzel Dennis. Can N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Hypofunction in Schizophrenia Be Localized to an Individual Cell Type?. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00835; article XML SHA-256 3b47b206bbc004a8c5b420d7edd9417454b366f39a70a1fa602fa0518b602fbe. “Can N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Hypofunction in Schizophrenia Be Localized to an Individual Cell Type?” (10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00835).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00835) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hypogeusia [redraft]: The definition’s claim that hypogeusia “refers broadly to difficulty with the sense of taste” is not directly supported by the supplied text.; The packet does not explicitly define hypogeusia as a broad difficulty with the sense of taste; it only lists it among taste-related impairments accompanying persistent COVID-19-related smell/taste problems.; The packet mentions that persistent COVID-19–related anosmia/hyposmia/parosmia can be accompanied by “ageusia, hypogeusia or dysgeusia,” but it does not define what hypogeusia specifically means (e.g., “difficulty with the sense of taste”).; The wording turns an example/association in the source into a general definition, which is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet. New packet required. Source: [Kumari Veena; Chauhan Satyam; Vakani Krupa; Antonova Elena; Bryant Jacky. Camera-based visual feedback learning aid for recovering sense of smell and taste in COVID-19 survivors: a proof-of-concept study. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1213254; article XML SHA-256 1324b6c68c02bbe866c4aba6a34034013b2ed75f7c13269499459c6f4af79e76. “Camera-based visual feedback learning aid for recovering sense of smell and taste in COVID-19 survivors: a proof-of-concept study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1213254).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1213254) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hyposmia [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define hyposmia as a reduced ability to smell; it mentions olfactory dysfunction and later uses the term hyposmia without defining it.; The packet does not explicitly define “hyposmia” as “a reduced ability to smell,” so this substantive part of the definition is unsupported.; The statement that hyposmia is a common non-motor feature of Parkinson’s disease and may appear years before motor symptoms is only supported for olfactory dysfunction generally, not specifically for hyposmia in the supplied text.; While the packet supports that olfactory dysfunction is common and can sometimes predate motor complaints by several years, it does not clearly establish “hyposmia” (specifically) as the common non-motor feature in the same way as it discusses “olfactory dysfunction,” so the phrasing is not fully supported. New packet required. Source: [Larsson Victoria; Hall Sara; Blennow Kaj; Hansson Oskar. Olfactory dysfunction and amyloid-positivity in Parkinson’s disease—longitudinal analysis of cognitive decline and cerebrospinal fluid markers. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325560; article XML SHA-256 f2af219c822d8332faac9d00a58ccb47ab78d0fb86853451b115350a42ef4417. “Olfactory dysfunction and amyloid-positivity in Parkinson’s disease—longitudinal analysis of cognitive decline and cerebrospinal fluid markers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325560).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325560) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hypothalamic syndrome [redraft]: The packet does not define “hypothalamic syndrome” as a “problem involving the hypothalamus”; it only mentions “hypothalamic syndrome” as an example of a clinical sign in the context of CNS leukemia.; The packet supports only that hypothalamic syndrome can be present as a clinical sign with “no other explanation,” but it does not substantiate the added phrasing/characterization that it is a problem involving the hypothalamus.; Unsupported generalization: the packet only identifies hypothalamic syndrome as a clinical sign of CNS leukemia without another explanation; it does not define it as a general “problem involving the hypothalamus.” New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “NCCN ALL Response Criteria for CNS Disease CNS Relapse” (C172175).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hypothetico-deductive reasoning [redraft]: Because the key aspects of the requested sense (how the reasoning proceeds, and the direct comparison to induction) are not stated in the packet, the overall definition is not fully defensible from the supplied source.; The claim that it “may miss some variable patterns that were not specified in advance” is close to the packet’s point about overlooking certain combinations of variables, but the added generality and wording go beyond the source’s narrower statement.; The contrast with induction is only partly supported: the packet says an inductive approach studies data without predefined structures, but it does not explicitly characterize hypothetico-deductive reasoning as “less exploratory.”; The packet does not define hypothetico-deductive reasoning as starting from pre-existing hypotheses or a model and testing them against observed data; that formulation is an unsupported generalization from the source text.; The packet does not explicitly define hypothetico-deductive reasoning as “start[ing] from pre-existing hypotheses or a model and test[ing] them against observed data,” so the definition’s first substantive claim is unsupported by the provided text.; The packet supports only that hypothetico-deductive reasoning “may overlook the existence of certain combinations of variables,” but it does not provide support for the claim that this makes it “less exploratory than an inductive approach” (beyond a general mention of an inductive method used elsewhere). New packet required. Source: [Noble Julien; Jardin Antoine. Patterns of fear of crime: A mixed-methods exploration of the model of experiential and expressive fear of crime. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329493; article XML SHA-256 54005be09401d69a43631ce1b3412f466e82a6a95529ac0296d5071325f96ac3. “Patterns of fear of crime: A mixed-methods exploration of the model of experiential and expressive fear of crime” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329493).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329493) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- hypoxia [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported claim that hypoxia can affect behavior; the packet only supports reduced oxygen in the body and symptoms such as impaired judgment, memory loss, impaired motor coordination, seizures, and coma.; The definition claims hypoxia “can affect thinking and behavior,” but the packet only specifies cognitive/motor impairments (impaired judgment, memory loss, impaired motor coordination) and does not support a general claim about “behavior.” New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hypoxia” (C3890).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Hz [redraft]: Hz never expanded as hertz, the unit of frequency; defined only as a label in one compound term. New packet required. Source: [Yasumoto Mai; Miyagishi Yoshiaki; Hirosawa Tetsu; Ono Yasuki; Soma Daiki; Osaka Yoko; Kameya Masafumi; Yuasa Keigo; Sano Masuhiko; Takeuchi Ryota; Niu Ye; Yoshimura Yuko; Shiota Yuka; Tanaka Sanae; Hasegawa Chiaki; Kikuchi Mitsuru. Functional brain network organization during the 40-Hz auditory steady-state response in children with and without autism spectrum disorder. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804124; article XML SHA-256 0294ddbdeea60e338ead3be5bd8707a5dfff25c3f4d984fda49a8ba021ebc09e. “Functional brain network organization during the 40-Hz auditory steady-state response in children with and without autism spectrum disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804124).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804124) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- iatrogenic [redraft]: Because that main definitional claim is not explicitly present in the supplied packet, the requested sense of the term is not fully defensible from the provided source.; The field label ‘ethics’ is defensible, but the definition goes beyond the supplied source by generalizing the term’s meaning instead of staying within the packet’s usage.; The packet only mentions iatrogenic risks in the context of false-positive labeling, but it does not support the broader, general definition that “iatrogenic describes harm caused by an intervention or helping process itself rather than by the original problem.”; The packet supports only that false-positive labeling may trigger iatrogenic risks; it does not support the broader definition that iatrogenic means harm caused by an intervention or helping process itself rather than by the original problem. New packet required. Source: [Xu Yan; Chen Hang; Wei Mu-Mu; Zhang Yi; Cui Hong-Tao; Liu Fang. From “quantifying the child” to “supporting the caregiver”: a paradigm evaluation and ethical pathway selection for AI applications in child development. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1682555; article XML SHA-256 52a26ab5d9d699dd119bf0a40fe143307562d880c583a0198f6bfe6c162dec2b. “From “quantifying the child” to “supporting the caregiver”: a paradigm evaluation and ethical pathway selection for AI applications in child development” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1682555).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1682555) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ICD [redraft]: ICD's normal sense is International Classification of Diseases; redefined as the narrower sense the packet discusses. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Impulse-Control Disorder” (C34723).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ICF [redraft]: The packet does not provide the expansion of the acronym “ICF” as “International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health.”; The packet supports that ICF stands for the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health, but it does not explicitly support the added description that it is a framework used to organize and analyze factors related to functioning and social participation.; The packet supports that the ICF framework is used in the context of analyzing influencing factors of social participation in stroke rehabilitation, but the definition also claims “organize and analyze factors related to functioning and social participation,” which is not explicitly stated in the provided packet.; The source only says the study used the ICF framework in relation to social participation and functional status; it does not define the framework’s purpose in the broader way stated in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Choi Jinhee; Han Junhee; Lee Hae In; Sohn Min Kyun; Lee Jongmin; Kim Deog Young; Oh Gyung Jae; Lee Yang-Soo; Joo Min Cheol; Lee So Young; Song Min-Keun; Ahn Jeonghoon; Kim Yun-Hee; Min Ji Hong; Ko Sung-Hwa; Chang Won Hyuk; Shin Yong-Il. Functional-level analysis of post-stroke social participation: A nationwide cohort study using the ICF framework. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354691; article XML SHA-256 313b52be45973fd4411b27ba4513956348294dcb60e8b7e10a4a19c077603c2a. “Functional-level analysis of post-stroke social participation: A nationwide cohort study using the ICF framework” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354691).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354691) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- identification test [redraft]: Headword is not a term in the packet; defines a CDISC terminology set rather than an identification test. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “CDISC Questionnaire AUDIT-SR Test Name Terminology” (C119059).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- identification [redraft]: Well-known psychological headword redefined as learning-disability identification using an in-this-context hedge. New packet required. Source: [Vogt Michaela; Bandodker Bhumika; Neuhaus Till; Viteri Paredes María José; Waitoller Federico; Erşan Özge; Polenghi Simonetta; Debè Anna. On the contemporary history of learning disability identification procedures—a systematic literature review (1960–2000). 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748297; article XML SHA-256 3e166f045e8f09f246671b3de275c318178d27814a5897549c50930dda5ba77f. “On the contemporary history of learning disability identification procedures—a systematic literature review (1960–2000)” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748297).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748297) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- identity confusion [redraft]: The added explanation about emerging adulthood being a period of active identity exploration and psychological vulnerability is supported, but the definition as a whole goes beyond what the packet states.; The claim that the packet “described” identity confusion as “a period marked by active identity exploration and psychological vulnerability” is only partially supported: the packet describes emerging adulthood as characterized by identity exploration and psychological vulnerability, and separately notes that college students frequently experience stress, identity confusion, and mental health challenges, but it does not directly link identity confusion to that period in a definitional way.; The definition’s core meaning (“uncertainty or difficulty in forming a clear sense of who one is”) is not explicitly stated in the packet text; the packet only mentions “identity confusion” generally as something college students frequently experience, without defining it in those terms.; The packet mentions identity confusion as a challenge experienced by college students, but it does not define it as uncertainty or difficulty in forming a clear sense of who one is. New packet required. Source: [Zhou Jiabing; Zheng Cheng; Hu Mengmeng; Liu Yali. Martial arts practice and self-identity development among college students: evidence from an embodied psychological perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811149; article XML SHA-256 917260946718c292552727bada9b34a1440d7faa05fd92cb2ec4441cd788d151. “Martial arts practice and self-identity development among college students: evidence from an embodied psychological perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811149).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811149) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- identity style [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the packet by treating normative identity style as if it were the only identity style described, whereas the packet only states that older individuals are more likely to endorse a normative identity style and describes it as emphasizing conformity and tradition.; The definition is not strictly limited to what the packet specifies (normative identity style’s emphasis on conformity and tradition); the provided definition adds an unsupported general characterization.; The first sentence is an unsupported standalone definition for the requested term; the packet provides no direct support for that general construct or wording.; The packet does not define the broader term "identity style" as a person’s characteristic way of shaping and expressing their sense of self; it only mentions the subtype "normative identity style."; The packet does not define “identity style” overall; it only references normative identity style, so the definition’s claim about “the only identity style described” being normative is not clearly supported with an explicit statement that this is the only sense in the packet (the rest is implied rather than directly supported).; The packet does not support the first sentence’s general definition of “identity style” as “a person’s characteristic way of shaping and expressing their sense of self.” It only mentions “normative identity style” and describes it as emphasizing conformity and tradition. New packet required. Source: [Liu Yingjuan; Lu Lin; Kaviani Hossein; Bao Qingxiang; Li Junjie. Empathy and citizen’s social-political attitude: age as a moderator. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1663652; article XML SHA-256 77795da7f3f23cc3809c38246a46a28bcd0b4627779376d3c83e49a48c9fe5e1. “Empathy and citizen’s social-political attitude: age as a moderator” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1663652).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1663652) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- identity theory [redraft]: Because the packet never explicitly states that “identity theory” means the “double aspect/single unity with parallel mind and body” position, the provided definition risks assigning the requested sense of “identity theory” without direct support from the packet.; The definition compresses the doctrine into a modern-sounding identity view; the source emphasizes parallelism/concomitance and explicitly denies causal interaction, rather than simply equating mind and body in the way the term “identity theory” suggests.; The packet does not provide a standalone definition of “identity theory” as a term; it only notes that the German “psychophysischer Parallelismus” is “not an adequate equivalent, unless connected with the identity theory of mind and body,” without defining identity theory itself.; The packet supports Double Aspect Theory / psychophysical parallelism, not identity theory as the primary term; it only mentions “the identity theory of mind and body” in passing and does not establish identity theory as the sense to define. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Double Aspect Theory” (Double Aspect Theory).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Double Aspect Theory) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- idiom [redraft]: The definition asserts “a particular kind of Greek diction that developed through contact between Jewish and Hellenic culture,” but the packet specifies this development for “the Greek idiom or diction” only as applying to “Hellenistic,” not as an independent definition of “idiom.”; The definition should stay within the packet’s narrower sense; the source does not define idiom broadly in general usage.; The definition’s first sentence (“An idiom is a characteristic form of language or style of expression”) is a general linguistic claim not stated in the packet.; The opening general definition (“a characteristic form of language or style of expression”) is not supported by the packet, which only gives a source-specific historical sense of Hellenistic Greek idiom or diction.; The packet does not define the term “idiom” itself; it uses the phrase “Greek idiom or diction” as part of an explanation of “Hellenistic,” so the requested sense (“in this source”) for “idiom” is not directly supported. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Hellenistic (Civilization, &c.) or Hellenism” (Hellenistic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H2defs.htm#Hellenistic) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- idiopathic epilepsy [redraft]: The definition states that idiopathic epilepsy is “diagnosed without an identified underlying cause,” but the provided packet does not define idiopathic epilepsy in that way (it only discusses “Canine idiopathic epilepsy (IE)” and investigates immune correlates).; The definition’s wording is broader than the packet regarding treatment response: the packet describes a “subpopulation of dogs with IE” that “does not respond to antiseizure drugs,” but does not support the implication as a general property of “some affected dogs” without additional context.; The immune-related part is only presented as a hypothesis/possible mechanism: the packet says “Non-responder might have an abnormal immune response,” so the definition’s framing (“may show abnormal immune activity”) is not fully supported as an established finding.; The packet supports canine idiopathic epilepsy as a neurological disease in dogs, but it does not explicitly support the broader definitional claim that it is a seizure disorder diagnosed without an identified underlying cause.; The source only proposes a hypothesis about a Th17 cell-mediated immune response or abnormal immune response in some dogs; it does not state as fact that affected dogs may show abnormal immune activity involving the central nervous system. New packet required. Source: [Knebel Anna; Kämpe Annika; Carlson Regina; Rohn Karl; Tipold Andrea. Th17 cell-mediated immune response in a subpopulation of dogs with idiopathic epilepsy. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0262285; article XML SHA-256 9d3669f9006cacbfded07f2753da7836c564d63bc0e4adb951d7f7dd10e6ff98. “Th17 cell-mediated immune response in a subpopulation of dogs with idiopathic epilepsy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0262285).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262285) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- idiophrenic [redraft]: Hedges with appears to and comments on the packet rather than defining; packet entry is ideophrenia. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3706500-3718500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- IDS [redraft]: Hedged 'in this context' equates IDS with the IDS-SR variant; second sentence describes the source rather than defining. New packet required. Source: [Wang Jingru; Chen Meirong; Jin Yanping; Xie Xiangqing; Yang Yun; Huang Lin; Cui Liang; Ma Huizhi; Ma Jun; Guo Qihao; He Yingzi. Validity of the Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology Self-Report (IDS-SR) in Older Adults With Subjective Cognitive Decline (SCD) and Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04514-5; article XML SHA-256 59c1d98fe8e40fef74f22eac509115375c628e818a5001e86de8d46646b21594. “Validity of the Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology Self-Report (IDS-SR) in Older Adults With Subjective Cognitive Decline (SCD) and Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI)” (10.1186/s40359-026-04514-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04514-5) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- IEP [redraft]: Includes an unsupported example: the packet mentions providing a tape recorder for taking notes, not general help with note-taking.; The definition slightly broadens the packet’s wording by presenting the IEP itself as something a school may consider as an accommodation, whereas the source says accommodations such as an individualized education program may be appropriate.; The definition states that an IEP is used “to support learning needs,” but the packet only mentions asking the school about whether accommodations such as an IEP are appropriate and gives examples of specific accommodations (tape recorder for taking notes, more time for tests, adjusting seating). It does not explicitly state that the purpose is “to support learning needs.” New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Children and Mental Health: Is This Just a Stage?. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 831beee5043409ab9dc62704c00da2d043348bf2cba3bb19cb65f5e0cf750158. “Children and Mental Health: Is This Just a Stage?” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/children-and-mental-health).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/children-and-mental-health) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- illness [redraft]: The definition asserts a general meaning of “illness” as “a disorder or health condition that a person has,” but the packet only uses “the illness” to refer to schizophrenia and does not explicitly define illness as a “disorder or health condition.”; The definition says the condition is “marked by symptoms”; the packet supports that people “who are showing symptoms” should get treatment, but it does not directly state that the term “illness” is “marked by symptoms” as a definitional characteristic.; The packet only uses “the illness” as a reference to schizophrenia in that passage; it does not support the broader definitional claim that illness means any disorder or health condition marked by symptoms and possibly needing treatment.; The sentence about schizophrenia being “the condition being discussed” is supported, but the added general definition is not. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Schizophrenia. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 43270b4941f013ac9885be92f3b32f1ed64375ff1fb44d589f3cc1975e5a59a1. “Schizophrenia” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- illusion of control [redraft]: The definition states that illusion of control involves “overestimates how much control they have over outcomes,” but the packet does not provide or substantiate this specific description of the construct.; The packet mentions illusion of control as one of the cognitive distortions studied, but it does not define the term as overestimating control over outcomes.; The packet supports a relationship with online gambling and gambling severity/risk, but not the broader definitional sentence presented here.; While the packet supports that illusion of control is studied as a cognitive distortion and is significantly associated with gambling severity and risk, it does not explicitly justify the particular “overestimates control over outcomes” wording used in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Suriá-Martínez Raquel; García-Castillo Fernando; López-Sánchez Carmen; García del Castillo José A.. Between inclusion and risk: participation in online gambling and cognitive distortions in young people with motor disabilities. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859781; article XML SHA-256 f85281b058684780dde216c9b706997d4b262e958908a114a3a31529c1484dc1. “Between inclusion and risk: participation in online gambling and cognitive distortions in young people with motor disabilities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859781).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859781) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- imaginal exposure [redraft]: The definition adds a specific functional role for imaginal exposure that is broader and more specific than what the packet states, which discusses the energy psychology protocol as a whole rather than defining imaginal exposure on its own.; The definition claims it is used “in some counselling approaches”; the packet only presents it in the context of “Energy psychology” and does not support a broader “some counselling approaches” claim.; The definition mentions “alongside methods such as cognitive restructuring,” which is supported, but the inclusion of the extra unsupported breadth (“some counselling approaches”) prevents passing the definition.; The definition says imaginal exposure is “an evidence-based psychotherapeutic exposure procedure”; the packet describes energy psychology integrating imaginal exposure with “cognitive restructuring, and other evidence-based psychotherapeutic procedures,” but it does not explicitly label imaginal exposure itself as “evidence-based.”; The packet supports imaginal exposure as one of several evidence-based psychotherapeutic procedures used with cognitive restructuring, but it does not directly support the claim that imaginal exposure itself is a conventional exposure approach used to reduce arousal linked to trauma-based triggers. New packet required. Source: [Feinstein David. Uses of Energy Psychology Following Catastrophic Events. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.856209; article XML SHA-256 0db2dc162e12527fddf9cf99f2c304353618d4025094cda1d8d0d44f3666a892. “Uses of Energy Psychology Following Catastrophic Events” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.856209).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.856209) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- immune response [redraft]: General headword redefined via 'in this source' as a plant defense reaction with rhamnolipid-specific ROS details. New packet required. Source: [Stanek Juliette; Fernandez Olivier; Boudsocq Marie; Aggad Dina; Villaume Sandra; Parent Laetitia; Dhondt-Cordelier Sandrine; Crouzet Jérôme; Dorey Stéphan; Cordelier Sylvain. Role of AtCPK5 and AtCPK6 in the regulation of the plant immune response triggered by rhamnolipids in Arabidopsis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346370; article XML SHA-256 1e77814658359faf2bdc816640c0dbdafe5b86721c091d5cc1597ca4dcd4c6d7. “Role of AtCPK5 and AtCPK6 in the regulation of the plant immune response triggered by rhamnolipids in Arabidopsis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346370).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346370) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- impairment [redraft]: Hedge 'in this context' narrows the general headword impairment to cognitive impairment in post-COVID syndrome. New packet required. Source: [Matias-Guiu Jordi A.; Arelin Katrin; Serrano Paula Jiménez; Wacker Anna; Sória Marília Grando; Burkart Martin; Zifko Udo. A randomised, placebo-controlled, triple-blind clinical trial to investigate the efficacy of Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761 ® in cognitive impairment associated with post COVID-19 syndrome—the EGb COCOS protocol. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1658342; article XML SHA-256 25bb6fa8c79eb81ffa16d53ab55078d47dddb28e5ca3c62a069911e708cde369. “A randomised, placebo-controlled, triple-blind clinical trial to investigate the efficacy of Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761 ® in cognitive impairment associated with post COVID-19 syndrome—the EGb COCOS protocol” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1658342).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1658342) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- implantation [redraft]: General headword implantation narrowed via 'in this source' to ICD/CRT-D device placement; second sentence describes the study. New packet required. Source: [Jing Pan; Pang Shaoshan; Yu Lirui; Lu Si; Cai Hongyan; Hu Zhao; Zhang Min. High social support is associated with reduced cardiac events in patients following ICD/CRT-D implantation: a one-year follow-up study in China. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03912-5; article XML SHA-256 520de3875f83e2e03b9e95108bec23562bb5965b2706832eeeef033f9df6275d. “High social support is associated with reduced cardiac events in patients following ICD/CRT-D implantation: a one-year follow-up study in China” (10.1186/s40359-025-03912-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03912-5) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- implicit cognition [redraft]: The definition claims implicit cognition operates outside “conscious explanation,” but the provided packet only contrasts implicit cognition with explicit cognition and mentions self-reports (via “extrinsic prosocial cognition”)—it does not explicitly mention conscious explanation.; The definition is slightly overextended beyond the packet by presenting a general characterization of implicit cognition rather than the article’s narrower description in relation to prosocial cognition and music exposure.; The phrase “outside direct self-report or conscious explanation” is not supported by the packet’s wording; the packet only contrasts implicit cognition with explicit cognition and notes a self-report measure for extrinsic prosocial cognition. New packet required. Source: [Xu Qiujian; Liu Siqi; Li Meihui; Wang Xiaoyu; Li Junrui; Yuan Xinran; Yang Miaomiao; Yang Mingyi; Jiang Zhenxu; Gou Qiaoqiao; Liu Ningning; Han Jiaqi; Yang Dan; Ren Xiubo. The impact of songs with prosocial lyrics on implicit cognition and prosocial behavior: a prospective event-related brain potential study. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1426891; article XML SHA-256 840565791d82e6fe40769ace7229021fab042d52fc8fae8b30ebcea5915aa920. “The impact of songs with prosocial lyrics on implicit cognition and prosocial behavior: a prospective event-related brain potential study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1426891).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1426891) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- implicit knowledge [redraft]: The claim about ‘limited meaning knowledge’ is only partially supported; the packet says some word meanings were identified relatively well and that different levels of semantic knowledge exist, but it does not support the broader definitional phrasing as written.; The definition adds unsupported generalities not stated in the packet, including that the knowledge develops through repeated exposure, without formal instruction, and without conscious awareness.; The definition claims implicit knowledge “develops … without formal instruction or conscious awareness,” but the provided packet text does not state or support that characterization (it only describes participants being “regularly exposed” to Māori).; The packet supports familiarity with Māori word-forms and phonotactic/morphological knowledge from exposure, but it does not define implicit knowledge itself as a general learning concept in the way the definition states.; The rest of the definition is only partially supported: the packet supports that non-Māori-speaking people exposed to Māori develop knowledge of word forms/patterns (proto-lexicon; phonotactic/morphological knowledge) and that the “without semantics” claim may be oversimplified, implying some semantic-related differences across words; however, the unsupported “without formal instruction or conscious awareness” clause prevents a full pass. New packet required. Source: [Mattingley Wakayo; Panther Forrest; Todd Simon; Hay Jennifer; King Jeanette; Keegan Peter J.. Exploring the role of meaning in non-Māori speakers’ ‘proto-lexicon’. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339325; article XML SHA-256 a8283e9655e0871cad41d8302cf217d61004827ce9692879ad8a5a316fd8471f. “Exploring the role of meaning in non-Māori speakers’ ‘proto-lexicon’” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339325).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339325) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- implicit learning [redraft]: The definition overstates the source by saying implicit learning “produces identifiable patterns in brain activity”; the packet instead says the study proposes a method to detect implicit learning events and reports selected features/biomarkers in the prefrontal cortex.; The packet does not explicitly state that implicit learning “produces identifiable patterns in brain activity”; it describes identifying biomarkers/features for detection/validation, but the specific claim about “identifiable patterns in brain activity” is not directly supported by the provided text.; The rest of the definition (“basic/fundamental cognitive process that contributes to human cognition” and “signals linked to the prefrontal cortex”) is broadly consistent with the packet’s description of neurophysiological validation in the prefrontal cortex, but the unsupported “identifiable patterns in brain activity” wording prevents passing.; “Basic cognitive process” is broader than the packet’s wording, which calls implicit learning a “fundamental cognitive process” and does not specifically support the extra generalization. New packet required. Source: [Chaiyanan Chayapol; Phukhachee Tustanah; Iramina Keiji; Kaewkamnerdpong Boonserm. Toward practical BCIs: a BMNABC-based feature selection and sensor optimization framework for implicit learning detection from multimodal EEG-fNIRS data. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1778884; article XML SHA-256 adcd3e453291331805d661d405cb32cd23dff98121563d8248d0e210d7af1a2c. “Toward practical BCIs: a BMNABC-based feature selection and sensor optimization framework for implicit learning detection from multimodal EEG-fNIRS data” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1778884).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1778884) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- implicit measure [redraft]: "Semantic associations" is not directly supported by the packet; the source describes automatic associations between mental illness/physical illness and psychosocial/biogenetic causal attributes.; Generalizes beyond the packet by saying implicit measures are "usually" based on sorting speed and accuracy rather than self-report; the source only describes one Implicit Association Test and its latency/accuracy modeling.; The definition claims implicit measures “assess[ ] automatic associations indirectly” and contrast this with “direct self-report,” but the packet does not mention self-report or directly describe indirectness versus self-report.; The definition states it is “usually” done via sorting stimuli; the packet describes categorizing stimuli within an IAT, but does not support the “usually” qualifier.; The packet supports that the implicit measure is operationalized via an Implicit Association Test (IAT) and that response latency is analyzed (including decomposition of latency parameters), but it does not provide enough support for the first sentence’s general characterization beyond the specific IAT/categorization and latency framing. New packet required. Source: [Mannarini Stefania; Boffo Marilisa. An Implicit Measure of Associations with Mental Illness versus Physical Illness: Response Latency Decomposition and Stimuli Differential Functioning in Relation to IAT Order of Associative Conditions and Accuracy. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0101911; article XML SHA-256 be9c48ac2971a5c4cb2560d4de92c83f99b899f7c60212e67ff32a613c38c07d. “An Implicit Measure of Associations with Mental Illness versus Physical Illness: Response Latency Decomposition and Stimuli Differential Functioning in Relation to IAT Order of Associative Conditions and Accuracy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0101911).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0101911) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- implicit personality theories [redraft]: The definition speaks generally about “people’s” underlying beliefs, but the packet’s discussion and empirical test specifically concern children (sixth through eighth grades).; The packet supports beliefs about social characteristics, not the broader claim that the term covers both social and personality characteristics.; The second sentence overgeneralizes from the packet’s study context: it links children’s social cognitions to interpretation and control beliefs, but not specifically to all children or to social outcomes in general.; While the packet supports that implicit personality theories concern whether social characteristics/outcomes are fixed or changeable and that this relates to perceived control in an internal condition, the definition’s phrasing “shape how children understand social situations” is only indirectly supported via a broader statement that children’s social cognitions interpret social situations (the link to implicit personality theories is not stated explicitly in that sentence). New packet required. Source: [Lavallee Kristen L.; Parker Jeffrey G.. Beliefs about the controllability of social characteristics and children’s jealous responses to outsiders’ interference in friendship. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209845; article XML SHA-256 7c71230135851f04be211d4fd3d2287749d059f5b440b38a072b41fa465cf093. “Beliefs about the controllability of social characteristics and children’s jealous responses to outsiders’ interference in friendship” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209845).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209845) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- implicit prejudice [redraft]: The definition is more than one or two concise sentences? It is two sentences, which is acceptable, but the first sentence contains unsupported generalization.; The definition’s first substantive claim—that the term refers to prejudice that operates at a “less conscious/underlying” level rather than only through openly stated views—is not stated or supported in the provided packet text.; The definition’s reference to “lower caste” is supported, but the consciousness/awareness-level contrast is not, so the overall sense is only partially supported.; The packet supports that the study measured and reduced implicit prejudice against the lower caste, but it does not define implicit prejudice as prejudice that operates at an underlying or less conscious level.; The source-specific clause adds contextual details from the article, but it does not establish a general dictionary sense for the term.; While the packet supports that caste prejudice against a lower caste is measured and that an awareness TV social program reduces “implicit prejudice” over time, the definition additionally generalizes beyond the packet by describing the mechanism as “less conscious level.” New packet required. Source: [Banerjee Ritwik; Datta Gupta Nabanita. Awareness Programs and Change in Taste-Based Caste Prejudice. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0118546; article XML SHA-256 2b40889875f9b89246a39d9e93dc07629e42434b90199883b7d943821ccd8516. “Awareness Programs and Change in Taste-Based Caste Prejudice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0118546).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118546) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- impoverished [redraft]: The packet does not define “impoverished” in general as “reduced or weakened in quality or richness.” It only describes “impoverished EFT” in terms of reduced specificity, detail, and novelty of the imagery.; The packet supports only the specific phrase “impoverished EFT,” described as having marked reductions in specificity, detail, and novelty; it does not support the broader general definition “reduced or weakened in quality or richness.”; The requested sense should be limited to the article’s context of episodic future thinking, but the definition adds a generalized meaning that is not established by the source packet. New packet required. Source: [Dubois Jalyn R.; Kim Esther; Pando-Bravo Jennifer; Martin Laura E.; Yi Richard. Scoping review of episodic future thinking and delay discounting observed in Alzheimer’s disease, depression, and PTSD. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1764387; article XML SHA-256 13cf97e853cf4e3483b6b3dd76d1697747d49694d73ca938e85548cf0626ef3a. “Scoping review of episodic future thinking and delay discounting observed in Alzheimer’s disease, depression, and PTSD” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1764387).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1764387) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- imprinting [redraft]: Well-known ethological headword redefined via hedge as organizational imprinting theory about CEO backgrounds. New packet required. Source: [Qi Bao; Hu Fan; Zhang Chen. The impact of CEOs’ academic backgrounds on corporate financialization. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346327; article XML SHA-256 e8abe3ceedd97bb5f2a86e476fbe909af7bb1f8cd19326c385cdad26bdafc823. “The impact of CEOs’ academic backgrounds on corporate financialization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346327).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346327) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- improvement rate [redraft]: The definition adds “across repeated testing or training sessions,” which is broader than the packet’s specific 2-day training/test setup and is not stated as a general sense of the term.; The definition’s first sentence (“speed or amount of performance gain over time with practice or training”) is a general conceptualization that is not explicitly stated or directly supported in the provided packet text.; The packet supports improvement in vocoded speech recognition with training, but it does not define “improvement rate” as a general measure of the speed or amount of performance gain over time.; While the packet discusses “rapid improvement” and “with training, vocoded speech recognition improvement rates” in repeated training/testing over two days, it does not provide a clear, explicit definition of “improvement rate” as ‘speed or amount’ of gain. New packet required. Source: [Goupell Matthew J.; Draves Garrison T.; Litovsky Ruth Y.. Recognition of vocoded words and sentences in quiet and multi-talker babble with children and adults. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0244632; article XML SHA-256 4ff005e9079c17afbfff83c9d259d57d1c605a74ad4196b9ea925f2cd1cadf8b. “Recognition of vocoded words and sentences in quiet and multi-talker babble with children and adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0244632).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244632) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- IMPS [redraft]: Because multiple substantive descriptors (“small,” “evil helper spirits,” “attendants”) are not explicitly present in the provided packet, the definition overreaches beyond the supplied source.; The packet does connect imps with the witch/devil context (e.g., testimony of accused dancing “with imps” or “with the devil”), but the definition’s specific phrasing “attendants associated with witches and the devil” is not fully supported as such.; The packet supports that witches’ “behests were carried out by imps and familiars,” but it does not describe imps as “small,” “evil,” or as “helper spirits.”; “Attendants associated with witches and the devil” is only loosely implied, not stated as a definition, so the wording goes beyond the packet’s support.; “Evil helper spirits” overstates the source, which does not define imps as a class of spirits or explicitly as helpers; it only mentions them in witchcraft accounts.; “Small” is not supported by the packet; the source only says witches’ behests were carried out by “imps and familiars.” New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4599000-4611000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- impulse control [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“ability to hold back urges…”) provides a general characterization of impulse control that is not supported anywhere in the packet. The packet discusses impulse control disorders in Parkinson’s disease, but does not define impulse control in terms of resisting urges or rewarding behaviors.; The examples listed are supported only as ICDs in this source; presenting them as “problems with impulse control” in general overextends the packet’s scope.; The packet supports impulse control disorders (ICDs) in Parkinson’s disease, not a general definition of “impulse control” as a person’s ability to resist urges or rewarding behaviors. New packet required. Source: [Triscari Sergio; Lenzo Vittorio; Sardella Alberto; Caponnetto Pasquale; Galati Anna; Lupica Patricia; Tasca Domenica; Muratore Stefano; Marano Pietro; Caraci Filippo; Quattropani Maria C. The role of metacognitive beliefs in impulse control disorders and addictive-like behaviors in Parkinson’s disease: an exploratory study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1893510; article XML SHA-256 67343eb235601517c70682230dc25e3b1f34e42ac329a90e502d5dca7f2111ad. “The role of metacognitive beliefs in impulse control disorders and addictive-like behaviors in Parkinson’s disease: an exploratory study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1893510).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1893510) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- inborn [redraft]: The definition presents a general dictionary sense, while the source only uses the term in one medical compound phrase; that is not enough to support the wider semantic claim as written.; The packet supports that “inborn errors of immunity” are “genetically caused,” but it does not explicitly support the additional claim that the condition “originates from a person’s inherited biology rather than being acquired later.”; The packet supports “genetically caused” for the phrase “inborn errors of immunity,” but it does not support the broader generalization that inborn means a condition arising from “inherited biology” or specifically contrasts it with being “acquired later.” New packet required. Source: [Wolff Luca J; Witte Torsten; Kahl Kai G; Meinecke Anna; Ahrenstorf Gerrit; Sogkas Georgios; Hillmer Stefanie; Thiele Thea. Frequency of depression and anxiety in patients with inborn errors of immunity: a cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08654-1; article XML SHA-256 f87f690d419ce7ffc3a61e26907b16d2d8e89bb3e112bafe339de1a42348f12f. “Frequency of depression and anxiety in patients with inborn errors of immunity: a cross-sectional study” (10.1186/s12888-026-08654-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08654-1) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- incantation [redraft]: The packet does not state that an incantation is a “spoken magical formula”; it only says that “incantation rather than prayer figures prominently” in the context of spirit-worship/propitiation.; The packet supports incantation only as something that figures prominently in demonolatry, not as a general “spoken magical formula.”; The packet supports the contrast with prayer and the connection to propitiation over adoration, but it does not explicitly support the added phrasing about “trying to appease or influence spirits” as a defining characterization.; “Influence spirits” is broader than the packet’s wording; the source supports propitiation of spirits and minor adoration, not a general influence claim. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Demonolatry” (Demonolatry).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Demonolatry) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- incentive value [redraft]: The claim that a stimulus with no incentive value does not by itself encourage approach or meaningfully influence the behavior being studied goes beyond the packet’s wording and generalizes beyond the article’s findings.; The definition includes explanatory criteria (“If a stimulus has no incentive value…”) that are not described in the packet.; The packet only states that previous studies found certain stimuli (“USVs”) have “no incentive value” for rats, but it does not support the specific functional meaning in the definition (e.g., “encourage approach” or “meaningfully influence” behavior).; The packet only supports a narrow, study-specific usage in rats and copulatory behavior; it does not establish a general dictionary definition of "incentive value" as a broad motivator or attractor for behavior.; The provided packet does not define “incentive value” or any “degree to which something acts as a motivator or attractor for behavior.”; The source says previous studies found USVs have no incentive value for rats and that they play no important role in rat copulatory behavior; it does not support the broader explanatory framing in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Ågmo Anders; Snoeren Eelke M. S.. Silent or Vocalizing Rats Copulate in a Similar Manner. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0144164; article XML SHA-256 db5858e393f7e4090b67b32eaefd7d1e64979444d42cfee06185571c0ec81d57. “Silent or Vocalizing Rats Copulate in a Similar Manner” (10.1371/journal.pone.0144164).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0144164) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- incest [redraft]: General headword incest narrowed via 'in this packet' to sibling sexual contact only. New packet required. Source: [Babchishin Kelly M.; Holmes Emma J.; Banse Rainer; Huppertz Lisa; Seto Michael C.. Characteristics and risk factors for sibling incest. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314550; article XML SHA-256 1ecd59caaf290a2a16e5d9cf2713093bdb99061102421d4ae1ff93cc5cc70c03. “Characteristics and risk factors for sibling incest” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314550).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314550) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- incidental memory [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence claims a general meaning: “encountered without deliberately trying to learn or remember them.” The provided packet text discusses “incidental memory” and “incidental memory for real-world objects,” but it does not explicitly state this definition-level criterion about not deliberately trying to learn or remember.; The packet supports incidental memory in the context of later recognition of real-world objects encountered in a conference-room traversal, but it does not explicitly support the broader gloss that it is memory for information or objects encountered without deliberately trying to learn or remember them.; The packet supports that the studied “incidental memory” involves later recognition of real-world objects encountered while moving through an everyday setting (traversing a conference room), but it does not provide enough support for the broader, explicit definitional phrasing used in the first sentence.; “Everyday setting” is an unsupported generalization from the packet’s specific conference-room context. New packet required. Source: [Qin Xiaoyan; Bochsler Tiana M.; Aizpurua Alaitz; Cheong Allen M. Y.; Koutstaal Wilma; Legge Gordon E.. Incidental Memory of Younger and Older Adults for Objects Encountered in a Real World Context. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0099051; article XML SHA-256 05fcc877d7aa7f7bf31bb8c1a52bd670918980c989c45f301d6da7ed5423f011. “Incidental Memory of Younger and Older Adults for Objects Encountered in a Real World Context” (10.1371/journal.pone.0099051).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0099051) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- incompetence [redraft]: Hedge narrows general headword incompetence to the 'subjective incompetence' component of demoralization. New packet required. Source: [Baziliansky Svetlana; Sowan Wafaa. Demoralization syndrome among women exposed to war: comparing breast cancer survivors and those with no breast cancer history. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1812342; article XML SHA-256 06511551ad1971ae3ada42fb1f33efb6eaa2fab45afeccacbf03a250a178a220. “Demoralization syndrome among women exposed to war: comparing breast cancer survivors and those with no breast cancer history” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1812342).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1812342) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- incontinence [redraft]: The definition adds an unstated gloss: the packet says urinary incontinence is a prevalent health issue among older adults, but it does not define it as difficulty controlling urination.; The definition’s stated field is “cognition,” but the packet describes associations/mediation among urinary incontinence, sleep quality, and depressive symptoms; it does not support that this is specifically a cognition definition.; The phrasing suggests a general clinical definition rather than the packet’s study-specific association with sleep quality and depressive symptoms; the packet supports only that urinary incontinence was associated with poorer sleep quality and depressive symptoms in one sample. New packet required. Source: [Choi Seo-Yun; Kim Ju Hyun; Chung Soondool; Jang Yuri. The mediating role of sleep quality in the association between urinary incontinence and depressive symptoms: A study with older Korean Americans Living in Subsidized Senior Housing. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354131; article XML SHA-256 f8950c4765b04706f5e22667ebc5c38361a256bf17fa0d2fca07f4892d2468f3. “The mediating role of sleep quality in the association between urinary incontinence and depressive symptoms: A study with older Korean Americans Living in Subsidized Senior Housing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354131).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354131) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- incremental [redraft]: Hedge 'in this cognition context' narrows a general adjective to stimulus manipulation; 'small step-by-step' not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Ma Xinpo; He Jiaheng; Yu Haomiao; Wang Chenfei; Wang Rui. Effects of constant and incremental modes of music volume and odor concentration on vigilance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810615; article XML SHA-256 4983cc59dad4daf9bf14a9ed13e212dbe4b3fc7bfda23b1cbbe2f63c2d3ef21c. “Effects of constant and incremental modes of music volume and odor concentration on vigilance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810615).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1810615) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- independent phenomena [redraft]: The definition narrows the phrase to a general conceptual meaning, but the packet supports only its specific use in describing PCOS abnormalities as not independent phenomena within a redox-endocrine network.; The packet does not provide an explicit, general definition of “independent phenomena” as “events or abnormalities understood as separate and unrelated”; it only uses the phrase in contrast (“are not independent phenomena but components of a … network”).; The rest of the provided definition adds a characterization (“separate and unrelated” and “parts of a connected process that influence one another”) that is not stated in the packet as the dictionary-style meaning of the term.; The supplied field is not defensible: the packet is about PCOS/endocrinology, not cognition or a psychology/counselling sense.; The “field: cognition” label is not supported by the packet content, which is focused on PCOS biology and oxidative/redox mechanisms rather than cognition. New packet required. Source: [Subakathulla Sumayyah; Manoj Norwin; Patanwala Azima Muzzammil; Premvignesh Prasanna Appiya; Maher Alobaid Yamen; Majie Ankit; Gorain Bapi; Dutta Sulagna; Sengupta Pallav; Rosas Israel Maldonado; Roychoudhury Shubhadeep. Redox-endocrine triad in PCOS: can vitamin D, myo-inositol, and melatonin synergize as bioactive cocktails?. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fendo.2026.1825853; article XML SHA-256 e6a6e28c6a26d67493752f44134d2298da8c7fdd4d1d9988d6d76f763d51c129. “Redox-endocrine triad in PCOS: can vitamin D, myo-inositol, and melatonin synergize as bioactive cocktails?” (10.3389/fendo.2026.1825853).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2026.1825853) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- independent random variables [redraft]: The clause “so the value or behavior of one does not change the probability pattern of the other” is not supported anywhere in the supplied packet text.; The definition adds an application-specific sentence (“stress and strength are assumed to vary independently of each other”) that is true in the packet’s article, but the entry is not supported as a mental-health sense of the term.; The definition’s first sentence claims a general meaning of “independent random variables” (that one value/behavior does not change the other’s probability pattern). The packet only states, in this specific modeling context, that “stress (T) and strength (Q) are independent random variables,” but it does not provide or justify the broader probability-pattern explanation. ; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source is a reliability/statistics article about a stress–strength model, not a mental health/counselling context. New packet required. Source: [Alyami Salem A; Hassan Amal S; Elbatal Ibrahim; Albalawi Olayan; Elgarhy Mohammed; El-Saeed Ahmed R. Bayesian and non-bayesian analysis for stress-strength model based on progressively first failure censoring with applications. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312937; article XML SHA-256 90608828910e1599ea08fb430d25134c0e241c99565093cfbfe8aebb81727f3b. “Bayesian and non-bayesian analysis for stress-strength model based on progressively first failure censoring with applications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312937).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312937) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- independent variable [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define an “independent variable” as “a factor whose effect is being examined.”; The packet supports ANOVA interaction effects, but it does not explicitly define an independent variable as “a factor whose effect is being examined.”; The rest of the definition is broadly supported, but the first sentence adds a definitional gloss that goes beyond the supplied text.; While the packet does discuss “the effect of one independent variable” depending on “the level of another” and studying interactions, it does not provide the specific baseline definition requested in the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Savieri Perseverence; Stas Lara; Barbé Kurt. Integrating decision trees with ANOVA for enhanced interaction visualisations. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357663; article XML SHA-256 ea38296e625801025f47fe6b46a5033036fce678a7d421892c401f043fef6ebf. “Integrating decision trees with ANOVA for enhanced interaction visualisations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357663).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357663) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- indirect speech act [redraft]: Most of the definition is broader than what the packet provides: the packet describes an experiment about children’s comprehension of indirect requests, but it does not give a general definitional characterization of indirect speech acts beyond that context.; The field is not defensible here: the packet is about pragmatic language comprehension in autism research, not diagnosis.; The packet does not explicitly define “indirect speech act” as depending on the speaker/situation “rather than the words alone,” nor does it state that this is the specific defining property of the term.; The packet supports indirect requests in a specific experimental context, but it does not define the broader linguistic term in full generality.; The “field” is marked as diagnosis, but the definition does not actually support or describe any diagnostic concept; it only discusses pragmatic/comprehension performance in autism within the study. New packet required. Source: [Kissine Mikhail; Cano-Chervel Julie; Carlier Sophie; De Brabanter Philippe; Ducenne Lesley; Pairon Marie-Charlotte; Deconinck Nicolas; Delvenne Véronique; Leybaert Jacqueline. Children with Autism Understand Indirect Speech Acts: Evidence from a Semi-Structured Act-Out Task. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0142191; article XML SHA-256 7a8ce1d1269157dfa9ff0d287a3bdadb343c70a7ab8c992a62d3b0d971d63466. “Children with Autism Understand Indirect Speech Acts: Evidence from a Semi-Structured Act-Out Task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0142191).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142191) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- individual accuracy [redraft]: The claim that Baldwin contrasts this with personal inaccuracy or variation in pronunciation is not directly supported by the packet as stated.; The definition attributes an explicit contrast (“Baldwin contrasts it with personal inaccuracy or variation in pronunciation”), but the packet mentions “individual inaccuracies of pronunciation” without clearly framing a contrast between defined terms “individual accuracy” and “personal inaccuracy.”; The definition states that “individual accuracy means the exactness with which a person reproduces speech sounds,” but the packet only says that sound-changes originate in “individual inaccuracies of pronunciation”; it does not define accuracy as “exactness” or describe reproduction of speech sounds in that way.; The packet does not support defining "individual accuracy" as the exactness with which a person reproduces speech sounds; the source instead refers to "individual inaccuracies of pronunciation" and to "individual accuracy or aberration in reproduction" without defining the term as exactness.; The statement that such variants spread through a community and contribute to broader sound change is broadly supported, but the requested sense of the term itself is not securely established by the source.; While the packet supports that individual inaccuracies can spread and contribute to broader sound change/tendency (“Only when these become frequent enough…to influence the community does a phonetic tendency develop…”), the definition’s wording includes additional concepts (exact reproduction; explicit contrasting framing) that are not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Language” (Language).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L1defs.htm#Language) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- individualized reading [redraft]: The definition narrows the term to a specific intervention for persistent developmental dyslexia; that sense is treatment-oriented rather than diagnostic.; The definition states “one-on-one reading instruction … as part of an intervention for persistent developmental dyslexia,” which is broadly supported, but the “tailored to the person” element is not supported by the supplied text.; The packet supports that the intervention included a one-on-one 30-min reading intervention administered by a trained reading specialist, but it does not explicitly describe the reading instruction as “tailored to the person” (i.e., individualized in the sense of personalization).; The requested field is not defensible here: the source uses “individualized reading instruction” as a treatment/intervention component, not as a diagnosis-related term. New packet required. Source: [Arrington C. Nikki; Harrington Rachael M.; Herrera-Diaz Adianes; Ralph Kennedy; Moquete Narciso; Morris Robin. Combined accelerated theta burst stimulation and reading instruction for the treatment of persistent developmental dyslexia: methodology and preliminary findings. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1758532; article XML SHA-256 00acef6044b640215683ee2862effbf1c14ebadc0a7cb32aa7e108f8f7234a37. “Combined accelerated theta burst stimulation and reading instruction for the treatment of persistent developmental dyslexia: methodology and preliminary findings” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1758532).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1758532) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- induced hypothermia [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly state that induced hypothermia involves the *deliberate lowering of body temperature*; it only states that therapeutic hypothermia is a neuroprotective strategy for neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy and that induced hypothermia is associated with certain symptoms.; The packet supports shivering, cold pain, agitation, and distress, but the wording is a bit more specific than the source and includes an added explanatory framing not present in the packet.; The packet supports therapeutic hypothermia as a neuroprotective strategy for neonates with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s claim that induced hypothermia is the deliberate lowering of body temperature or that it is a component of therapeutic hypothermia. New packet required. Source: [Joshi Mahima; Muneer Javed; Mbuagbaw Lawrence; Goswami Ipsita. Analgesia and sedation strategies in neonates undergoing whole-body therapeutic hypothermia: A scoping review. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0291170; article XML SHA-256 7d98b3481c405edc3aeac2da3001c7d6534d71c157c16749525ea5cdd8c55478. “Analgesia and sedation strategies in neonates undergoing whole-body therapeutic hypothermia: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0291170).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291170) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- inductive reasoning [redraft]: The definition adds ‘patterns in specific examples,’ which is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source text.; The definition’s phrase “broader category-based or conceptual information” is only partially supported (category-based development is supported), but the specific framing as “conceptual information” is not directly evidenced in the packet.; The packet only states that inductive reasoning “develops from similarity-based to category-based processes” and that linguistic labels may facilitate this shift; it does not support the definition’s claim that inductive reasoning is “the process of drawing a more general conclusion from similarities or patterns in specific examples.”; The packet supports a shift in inductive reasoning from similarity-based to category-based processes, but it does not explicitly support the added generalization that it is the process of drawing a more general conclusion from specific examples. New packet required. Source: [Wang Xiaoxi; Hu Na; Ma Ruimin; Cai Xiaoying; Huang Xuan. From similarity to conceptual—how pictophonetic Chinese characters facilitate inductive reasoning in 5–10-year-old children. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1652249; article XML SHA-256 29924fde7d72ccd2f15317ede437e9713317258913b3ea8d27de4532bc3b20f2. “From similarity to conceptual—how pictophonetic Chinese characters facilitate inductive reasoning in 5–10-year-old children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1652249).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1652249) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- infant test [redraft]: Non-term headword defined via 'in this packet' as the CHOP INTEND instrument; describes the study rather than a term. New packet required. Source: [Dansuk Emre; Van Den Berg Ayşe Nur Tunalı; Ata Görkem; Yıkılmaz Seval Kutluturk; Oktem Sedat. The effect of thoracolumbosacral orthosis on scoliosis progression and chest deformity in children with type 1 spinal muscular atrophy: A randomized controlled trial. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323341; article XML SHA-256 19e4f14f19c5d28e8f230c0d981528a9ccb107d399dfc286b5d35ddeb1af2f2b. “The effect of thoracolumbosacral orthosis on scoliosis progression and chest deformity in children with type 1 spinal muscular atrophy: A randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323341).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323341) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- infantile paralysis [redraft]: The definition claims the condition is “occurring in children,” but the packet only labels “chronic anterior poliomyelitis” as occurring in adults and does not explicitly state that “infantile paralysis” occurs in children.; The definition goes beyond the packet by stating that the condition is “presented as a diseased condition of the spinal cord occurring in children.” The source only says poliomyelitis occurs as “infantile paralysis” and does not frame it in that full way.; The packet does not describe a “front horns” spinal-cord mechanism; it describes a “degenerative atrophy of the anterior cornea,” and provides other general pathology of the spinal cord.; The packet supports that “infantile paralysis” is a historical name for poliomyelitis, but it does not support the added explanation “degenerative wasting of the front horns of the spinal cord.” The source wording is “degenerative atrophy of the anterior cornea,” which is not the same phrase.; The packet supports that “infantile paralysis” is a name used for poliomyelitis (it states: “Poliomyelitis, or degenerative atrophy of the anterior cornea, occurs as 'infantile paralysis'…”), but the definition’s added phrasing “degenerative wasting of the front horns of the spinal cord” is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Myelitis” (Myelitis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M5defs.htm#Myelitis) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- inferior temporal gyrus [redraft]: Describes what the study found (ReHo, HAMD correlation) rather than defining the brain region. New packet required. Source: [Liu Shihua; Zhu Xudong; Chen Yan; Zhang Chao; Zhu Xiaowei; Zhang Rumeng; Chen Lei; Li Bin; Zhong Ping. An exploratory study of altered regional homogeneity in Parkinson’s disease with depression. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1771679; article XML SHA-256 29ef6f0eebca8b58e6eae66d8310b43e7c3d3dd3c0d04022cad7f25fe4259a25. “An exploratory study of altered regional homogeneity in Parkinson’s disease with depression” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1771679).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1771679) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- infertility [redraft]: The definition adds a broader generalization about “major social and health effects” and “emotional difficulties” beyond what is directly supported by the source, which is limited to social stigma, financial hardship, physical and mental health problems, depression, anxiety, and problems adapting to married life.; The definition includes “stress within married life,” but the packet only supports “problems adapting to married life” and does not specifically mention stress.; “Stress” is not supported by the packet; it mentions depression, anxiety, and problems adapting to married life, but not stress. New packet required. Source: [Niu Changmin; Gao Yuxin; Xu Qiulian; Yang Fan; Ma Shikun; Shen Nuo; Zhu Wenxuan; Kong Yidi; Chen Lu; Wang Guiqin. Associations of anxiety and depression with sexual health among infertility patients: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823084; article XML SHA-256 93d05ce960278f764fde1824e9e2a4bb7a6ebea888a98b884d13be056c6f0e29. “Associations of anxiety and depression with sexual health among infertility patients: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823084).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1823084) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- information technology [redraft]: General headword redefined as digital tools used to support learning; narrows a well-known term to the packet's context. New packet required. Source: [Tang Bin; Cheng Zeming; Lin Xiaoli; Cao Yunxuan; Xiao Siyi; Ma Yunhui; Gao Kaixuan. Does digital access translate into human capital gains? Assessing information technology use effects on cognitive and non-cognitive development of students in Western Rural China. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349438; article XML SHA-256 37092fa617fc4f66f38c823e0b87195d27ff93f8dc6602b42139130a11e6d788. “Does digital access translate into human capital gains? Assessing information technology use effects on cognitive and non-cognitive development of students in Western Rural China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349438).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349438) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- information test [redraft]: Headword is a truncation; definition actually defines the Concealed Information Test, not an 'information test'. New packet required. Source: [Kawashima Tomoya; Kabata Takashi. No evidence for the utility of negative cues in a visual search-based concealed information test. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04594-3; article XML SHA-256 a9f8c27e7232f5d2955888cf16729c8908afd954f3990555d9803d391dac4974. “No evidence for the utility of negative cues in a visual search-based concealed information test” (10.1186/s40359-026-04594-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04594-3) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ingroup [redraft]: The added explanation about how shared identity shapes judgments, concern, and support is a generalization beyond the source text, which only says these intersections influence social concern and desires for institutional support in this study context.; The definition includes contextual interpretations (“in this context”) that are not directly described in the packet’s provided excerpt.; The definition’s specific claims about ingroup/outgroup being used to contrast judgments, concern, and support for others are not supported by the packet text, which only mentions “ingroup/outgroup racial identity intersections” in relation to stigmatizing attributions and media-message recall.; The packet does not explicitly define “ingroup” or state that it is a social category made up of people sharing the same racial identity as oneself.; The packet only uses “ingroup/outgroup” in the specific context of racial identity intersections in recalled targets; it does not support the broader definitional claim that an ingroup is a social category of people sharing the same racial identity as oneself. New packet required. Source: [Riles Julius Matthew; Adediran Abigail; Akheituame Esther; Madrigal Guadalupe; Behm-Morawitz Elizabeth. Memorable media messages of mental illness and implications for policy support: examining the influences of racial ingroup/outgroup recall. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1568155; article XML SHA-256 55307464665c14e7e08cc101fcb2f73fc7c352c19a393120a0d29e477c15b314. “Memorable media messages of mental illness and implications for policy support: examining the influences of racial ingroup/outgroup recall” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1568155).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1568155) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- INH [redraft]: Packet abbreviation is C1-INH, not INH; definition misassigns the headword to a different abbreviation. New packet required. Source: [Blomberg Linnea; Raba Leonora; Bengzon Johan; Osther Kurt; Nittby Redebrandt Henrietta. Overexpression of key complement regulators in glioblastoma. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349101; article XML SHA-256 76ec0f69db6775191624ff610b4fc5adf35ff449056becd7071e20e86961a514. “Overexpression of key complement regulators in glioblastoma” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349101).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349101) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- inheritance [redraft]: Well-known headword inheritance redefined as cultural transmission of folk sports, a narrower sense the packet discusses. New packet required. Source: [Jin Xiaobin; Hou Yu. A comparative study on folk sports inheritance in China and South Korea: Influencing factors and mediating roles. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336798; article XML SHA-256 b09bdb46429c1432026faf2489131bfe0c7d5cbabd73fcfcd641d748347a7d2b. “A comparative study on folk sports inheritance in China and South Korea: Influencing factors and mediating roles” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336798).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336798) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- inhibitory neurotransmitter [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported generalization about what an inhibitory neurotransmitter does (“reduces or restrains neural signaling”); the packet only states that GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.; The packet does not provide a general definition of the term; it only discusses GABA in relation to autism spectrum disorder, so the requested sense is not fully grounded in the supplied text.; The packet does not support the general characterization that an “inhibitory neurotransmitter” “reduces or restrains neural signaling”; it only states that GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.; The second sentence is supported for GABA specifically, but the first sentence is not fully grounded in the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [Wang Peng; Sun Jin. A comprehensive review of GABA in autism spectrum disorders: associations, mechanisms, and therapeutic implications. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1587432; article XML SHA-256 2988af0d4dc8ba5cd3be75b0a7f6b7422ee29264637d009e4583a1a16de39a93. “A comprehensive review of GABA in autism spectrum disorders: associations, mechanisms, and therapeutic implications” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1587432).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1587432) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- injury feigning [redraft]: The claim that injury feigning is used to “reduce the risk of nest predation” is supported by the packet, but the definition includes additional descriptive details not evidenced in the provided text.; The packet does not state that the bird “appears injured” or that the purpose is specifically to “draw a predator’s attention away from its nest.” It only mentions that ground-nesting birds use “deceptive behaviours such as injury-feigning” and calls this “active deception.”; The packet supports injury-feigning as a deceptive nest-defence behavior that reduces nest predation, but it does not explicitly say the bird appears injured to draw a predator’s attention away from the nest.; The source does not define injury feigning in terms of a specific attention-diversion mechanism; that element is an unsupported elaboration. New packet required. Source: [Smith Paul A; Edwards Darryl B. Deceptive nest defence in ground-nesting birds and the risk of intermediate strategies. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0205236; article XML SHA-256 905127537d737291765ea7bb6416866e93d134c1f02b3d14ca9be7f909f8c773. “Deceptive nest defence in ground-nesting birds and the risk of intermediate strategies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0205236).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205236) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- innate [redraft]: The added explanation about “a memory-like change in the body’s early immune response” goes beyond what is stated in the packet and is not directly supported there.; The only usage in the packet is “trained immunity, a form of innate immune memory,” which supports that “innate” is associated with immune memory, but it does not support the definition’s general wording about responding being built-in rather than learned.; The packet does not define “innate” as “a built-in form of responding” or contrast it with “newly learned or acquired.”; The packet provides no support for the definition’s specific phrasing about “memory-like change in the body’s early immune response.”; The packet shows the phrase “innate immune memory,” but it does not define “innate” as meaning built-in, newly learned, or acquired, so the core gloss is unsupported by the supplied text alone.; The source content is immunology-focused, so the cognition field label is not clearly supported by the packet itself. New packet required. Source: [Nauman Richard W.; Greer Peter A.; Craig Andrew W.; Cotechini Tiziana; Siemens D. Robert; Graham Charles H.. Differential effects of BCG-Russia and BCG-TICE on trained immunity: Potential implications for bladder cancer immunotherapy. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357950; article XML SHA-256 950adc91ea34f0d4141e19549a08d5a492e1cf73b0bda548b048145dde72c87b. “Differential effects of BCG-Russia and BCG-TICE on trained immunity: Potential implications for bladder cancer immunotherapy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357950).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357950) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- innovative therapies [redraft]: The definition makes a general glossary claim about what the term means, but the packet only supports its use in a specific research-ethics context about consent in clinical trials.; The definition’s wording goes beyond what is explicitly present in the packet (e.g., “new or experimental,” “in this context,” and “being studied in research”), and these elements are not evidenced by the supplied text.; The packet does not provide support for the specific ethical linkage in the definition: “ethical issues around informed consent for participants.” It mentions improving the consent process, but does not substantiate the broader framing as an “informed consent” ethical issues context in the way stated.; The packet provides only a single background claim: an “urgent need to assess and improve the consent process” in clinical trials of “innovative therapies” for neurodegenerative disorders. It does not support that innovative therapies are “new or experimental treatments being studied in research” generally, nor that the definition is “such as clinical trials” (beyond the neurodegenerative context).; The phrase "new or experimental treatments" is not supported by the packet; the source only places innovative therapies in the context of clinical trials. New packet required. Source: [Cleret de Langavant Laurent; Sudraud Sophie; Verny Christophe; Krystkowiak Pierre; Simonin Clémence; Damier Philippe; Demonet Jean-François; Supiot Frédéric; Rialland Amandine; Schmitz David; Maison Patrick; Youssov Katia; Bachoud-Lévi Anne-Catherine. Longitudinal Study of Informed Consent in Innovative Therapy Research: Experience and Provisional Recommendations from a Multicenter Trial of Intracerebral Grafting. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0128209; article XML SHA-256 1d0b043f5722bfc6fd43c272e14cc5693f485d703765ca47e02e68b3ac83ff0d. “Longitudinal Study of Informed Consent in Innovative Therapy Research: Experience and Provisional Recommendations from a Multicenter Trial of Intracerebral Grafting” (10.1371/journal.pone.0128209).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0128209) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- inpatient services [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported specifics not stated in the source, including that inpatient services are hospital-based and that people are admitted for care.; The definition’s framing about the required infection-control “while continuing care” is not stated in those terms; the packet only mentions offering acute psychiatric care alongside strict infection control measures during the pandemic.; The packet states that “Inpatient services” faced the challenge of offering “acute psychiatric” care while implementing “strict infection control measures,” but it does not explicitly define inpatient services as “hospital-based mental health services where people are admitted.”; The source supports acute psychiatric care and strict infection-control measures, but not the fuller two-sentence gloss as written. New packet required. Source: [Wullschleger Alexandre; Gonçalves Leonel; Royston Maya; Sentissi Othman; Ambrosetti Julia; Kaiser Stefan; Baggio Stéphanie. Admissions to psychiatric inpatient services and use of coercive measures in 2020 in a Swiss psychiatric department: An interrupted time-series analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0289310; article XML SHA-256 0bae611239927726ec5cbf569199e3b94125a6c371c74f21a4f943ffb29a8f9d. “Admissions to psychiatric inpatient services and use of coercive measures in 2020 in a Swiss psychiatric department: An interrupted time-series analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0289310).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289310) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- inpatient [redraft]: Adds an unsupported contrast (“rather than being seen only during visits”) that is not supported by the packet.; The definition’s claim that psychiatric inpatient hospitalisation specifically means “staying in hospital while receiving mental health care” is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet discusses consequences of psychiatric hospitalisation but does not define the term in those terms.; The definition’s wording (“a person admitted to a hospital or psychiatric ward for care and treatment”) is not directly supported by the packet’s text.; The packet does not explicitly define what “inpatient” means (e.g., admitted for care/treatment rather than only attending visits). It only mentions “psychiatric inpatient admissions” and “hospitalisation,” without stating the general definition or the contrast with outpatient/visits.; Uses a broader general definition of inpatient than the packet supplies; the source only supports psychiatric inpatient admissions/hospitalisation, not the full hospital/ward sense across settings. New packet required. Source: [Dunn Abby; Elsby-Pearson Chloe; Kalus Luise; Oliver Mark; Ratcliffe Eleanor; Cartwright-Hatton Sam. Mixed methods investigation into provision of family rooms and support for parents admitted to psychiatric inpatient units and their children: Study protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355693; article XML SHA-256 10696aa5bfc65fe9ce9222e255b27946453d7f5a423bfc5b0e7a84d663444dd6. “Mixed methods investigation into provision of family rooms and support for parents admitted to psychiatric inpatient units and their children: Study protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355693).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355693) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- input-process-output model [redraft]: The definition’s wording adds “linking … starting conditions and interventions” to processes; only interventions and psychological safety mechanisms are directly supported in the provided text.; The packet does not explicitly support the “starting conditions” part of the definition (it references an “interpersonal team intervention” and an “applied input–process–output model,” but not team starting conditions).; The packet supports an input–process–output model of team effectiveness, but it does not state that the model links “starting conditions and interventions” as inputs.; The phrasing “starting conditions and interventions” adds a specific interpretation of the model’s inputs that is not established in the supplied text. New packet required. Source: [Dietl Johanna Elisa; Derksen Christina; Keller Franziska Maria; Lippke Sonia. Interdisciplinary and interprofessional communication intervention: How psychological safety fosters communication and increases patient safety. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1164288; article XML SHA-256 55355ec0ba788c16dd6a58107edaa3d7bf4651d57186391405c357cd6c71c0f8. “Interdisciplinary and interprofessional communication intervention: How psychological safety fosters communication and increases patient safety” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1164288).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1164288) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- insight therapy [redraft]: The definition is acceptable on content about MERIT’s aims, but it does not correctly identify the term being defined.; The opening framing “In this packet, insight therapy refers to…” is unsupported by the source text and conflates a specific therapy name with the dictionary term.; The packet does not state that the term “insight therapy” refers to “Metacognitive Reflection and Insight Therapy (MERIT)”; it only describes MERIT by name without equating it to the broader term requested.; The packet supports Metacognitive Reflection and Insight Therapy (MERIT), not the generic term “insight therapy,” so the requested sense is not established. New packet required. Source: [Wiesepape Courtney N; Leonhardt Bethany L; Hamm Jay A; Faith Laura A. Metacognitive reflection and insight therapy: a mini-review of advances, challenges, and future directions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1746025; article XML SHA-256 e505f3a3272aba88c00ffbcef5d9f3318df25b4b69e919b2fc561b0153609f59. “Metacognitive reflection and insight therapy: a mini-review of advances, challenges, and future directions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1746025).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1746025) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee [redraft]: The definition’s first substantive claim—that the committee “reviews and approves studies involving animals”—is not explicitly stated anywhere in the provided packet text. The packet only mentions that the study “was approved by our Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee,” without describing what the committee does.; The packet only shows that the study was approved by an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee; it does not support the broader definition that this is an organization within a research institution that reviews and approves animal studies.; The second sentence adds a specific “rabbit experiment” approval role, but the packet supports only that this study was approved, not the fuller contextual gloss as written.; While the second sentence is supported (the packet says the study was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee), the overall definition contains an unsupported functional description. New packet required. Source: [Choi Woosun; Kwak Byung Kook; Jung Jisung; Park Serah; Hong Soon Auck; Choi Sang Lim. Feasibility of rabbit auricular VX2 tumor model as an experimental model for intra-arterial embolization. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316282; article XML SHA-256 e24c2ad0f7de1533efc02b5796c2641c363aa5146b6bbd678757a5a91baf97ea. “Feasibility of rabbit auricular VX2 tumor model as an experimental model for intra-arterial embolization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316282).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316282) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- instrumental aggression [redraft]: Because the “achieve a goal” component is unsupported by the provided packet, the definition contains an unsupported substantive claim.; The definition states the term as the opposite of retaliatory aggression too strongly; the packet gives a research distinction, not a formal opposite/definition.; The packet supports a distinction between proactive/instrumental aggression and retaliation (defined as aggression in response to provocation), but it does not support the added claim that instrumental aggression is “used to achieve a goal.”; The packet supports only that instrumental aggression is contrasted with retaliation/aggression in response to provocation; it does not support the added claim that it is aggression used to achieve a goal. New packet required. Source: [Emmerling Franziska; Schuhmann Teresa; Lobbestael Jill; Arntz Arnoud; Brugman Suzanne; Sack Alexander Thomas. The Role of the Insular Cortex in Retaliation. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0152000; article XML SHA-256 ff631b8e47934d94fc7cddb5188d8f902897e26e6cdbcf329ebde8a78cfd2522. “The Role of the Insular Cortex in Retaliation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0152000).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152000) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- instrumental [redraft]: Because of that missing support, the first sentence contains an unsupported definitional claim rather than a claim directly present in the packet.; The packet does not explicitly define “instrumental” as “music teaching or learning that involves playing a musical instrument.” It only mentions “instrumental music teachers” and does not state that instrumental refers to instruction involving playing an instrument.; The packet supports “instrumental music teachers” in music education, but it does not define the word “instrumental” as music teaching or learning that involves playing a musical instrument.; The wording “playing a musical instrument” is an added gloss not stated in the packet, which instead mentions physical instructions and aesthetic judgement.; “Learning” is not supported by the source; the packet only refers to teachers. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Yijie; Niu Shuhui. Instrumental music teachers’ perceptions and acceptance of Al integration in teaching: a mixed-methods study based on the UTAUT2 model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887153; article XML SHA-256 fd8b6394f38d97b0c2c0e78c0c6c70371ab15d536699de9c82346db949a1b0b4. “Instrumental music teachers’ perceptions and acceptance of Al integration in teaching: a mixed-methods study based on the UTAUT2 model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887153).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887153) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- integrative behavioral couples therapy [redraft]: The definition’s framing (“in this context, it is used to help with romantic relationship conflict…”) is partially supported by the study outcomes for the OR program, but the packet does not directly support attributing these purposes to Integrative Behavioral Couples Therapy as a standalone approach beyond the OR program linkage.; The outcome description is incorrect: the source reports reductions in negative affect/anger during conflict scenarios, not increases in negative emotional reactions.; The packet only states that the OurRelationship (OR) program is based on “Integrative Behavioral Couples Therapy,” but it does not explicitly describe Integrative Behavioral Couples Therapy itself as a “couples-focused psychological approach.”; The source supports that the OurRelationship program was based on Integrative Behavioral Couples Therapy, but not that the term itself is defined as a basis for that program. New packet required. Source: [Karantzas Gery C.; Staiger Petra K.; Romano Daniel A.; Curtis Ashlee; Bruscella Courtney; Miller Peter G.; Gruenert Stefan; Toumbourou John W.; Doss Brian D.; Christensen Andrew. A group version of the OurRelationship program within residential substance use treatment: preliminary evidence for improving responses to romantic relationship conflict for those dealing with substance misuse. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1307640; article XML SHA-256 b2b2245ffe3cb55bb64b46aa532ce976a0da0f259076c31829c7c8f5f290527c. “A group version of the OurRelationship program within residential substance use treatment: preliminary evidence for improving responses to romantic relationship conflict for those dealing with substance misuse” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1307640).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1307640) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- integrity versus despair [redraft]: The definition’s description of “despair” (that it involves “struggling to reach that sense of meaning or completion”) is not explicitly supported by the supplied packet text. The packet discusses ego integrity and related qualities (e.g., evaluating life as coherent/meaningful; accepting successes and failures; self-acceptance; inner peace; integrated narrative), but it does not provide a corresponding explanation of despair.; The description of despair is not directly supported by the packet; the source explains ego integrity as accepting one’s life as valuable, coherent, and meaningful, but it does not define despair as “struggling to reach that sense of meaning or completion.” New packet required. Source: [Talu Ertuğrul. Life satisfaction, regret, and death reflection among older adults in Turkey: a qualitative study within Erikson’s framework of ego integrity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745222; article XML SHA-256 c570716f4c33e1b5f8fc9f10f51d6343efa6941b5db28e08af6eb336b47f5b06. “Life satisfaction, regret, and death reflection among older adults in Turkey: a qualitative study within Erikson’s framework of ego integrity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745222).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745222) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- intellectualization [redraft]: The definition says the threat is “engaged rather than pushed out of awareness”; the packet contrasts intellectualization with “repression” involving “unconscious denial in avoiding the stimulus,” which does not explicitly support the phrase “pushed out of awareness.”; The definition states that the person deals with the threat “through thinking, analysis, or attempts at mental control,” but the packet only specifies intellectualization as involving “approaching or controlling the stimulus” and does not mention thinking/analysis as the mechanism.; The final clause about the threat being “engaged rather than pushed out of awareness” is not supported by the packet; the source only contrasts intellectualization as an approach/control response with repression as an avoidance response. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Repression-Sensitization” (D012095).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012095) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- intensity [redraft]: Because the definition’s core generalization (“strength or power level of something”) is not directly supported by the provided packet text, the requested sense of the term is not defensibly grounded in the source.; The example adds a general explanatory sense that is not established by the source text; the source is about rTMS, not a general definition of the term.; The packet does not explicitly define “intensity” as “the strength or power level of something”; it only uses the phrase “low-intensity pulses” in describing rTMS without stating a general definition of intensity.; The packet supports only the phrase about repeated low-intensity pulses in rTMS, not the broad dictionary claim that intensity means the strength or power level of something. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: When Unwanted Thoughts or Repetitive Behaviors Take Over. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 55e1a877f9b3c1e5dfa4238ba211333dd27035fe9365df5859e35bec980907c0. “Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: When Unwanted Thoughts or Repetitive Behaviors Take Over” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-when-unwanted-thoughts-or-repetitive-behaviors-take-over).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-when-unwanted-thoughts-or-repetitive-behaviors-take-over) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- intensive psychotherapy [redraft]: Defines a specific trial's MDMA-assisted protocol as the headword and adds 'highly structured'. New packet required. Source: [O’Donnell Kelley C.; Okano Lauren; Alpert Michael; Nicholas Christopher R.; Thomas Chantelle; Poulter Bruce; Mithoefer Ann; Mithoefer Michael; Ot’alora G Marcela. The conceptual framework for the therapeutic approach used in phase 3 trials of MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1427531; article XML SHA-256 d8b57eb089e29113d7e2d903bb5ce5b0a2ac5ef538486ee21eaeebcf83719121. “The conceptual framework for the therapeutic approach used in phase 3 trials of MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1427531).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1427531) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- intention movement [redraft]: Defines 'movement intention' as a brain state, not the headword 'intention movement'. New packet required. Source: [Kang Byeong Keun; Kim June Sic; Ryun Seokyun; Chung Chun Kee. Prediction of movement intention using connectivity within motor-related network: An electrocorticography study. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0191480; article XML SHA-256 63689d77cd11416fb0de5a77a9abacd2645a9365bfd8d1fe661ce432aac67d8e. “Prediction of movement intention using connectivity within motor-related network: An electrocorticography study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0191480).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191480) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- interaction analysis [redraft]: The definition narrows the term to testing pairs of genetic variants; that wording is supported by the packet, but the packet does not establish this as the requested dictionary sense for cognition.; The packet supports a genetic SNP-SNP interaction analysis in colorectal cancer prognosis, not a cognition/psychology sense, so the field is not defensible from the source.; The provided field is “cognition,” but the packet describes genome-wide SNP–SNP interaction analysis in colorectal cancer outcomes (prognostic genetic research), not cognition. This makes the field association unsupported/defensible.; The second sentence is source-meta phrasing rather than a standalone definition and does not add a supported clinical or counseling meaning. New packet required. Source: [Curtis Aaron A.; Yu Yajun; Carey Megan; Yilmaz Yildiz E.; Savas Sevtap. A genome-wide SNP-SNP interaction analysis exploring novel interacting loci associated with the risk of recurrence in colorectal cancer. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321967; article XML SHA-256 1013a866a8ddedfa6ec4d27bfd9adb58fa42d0cb913d7c29f7d8c7c76ab5c815. “A genome-wide SNP-SNP interaction analysis exploring novel interacting loci associated with the risk of recurrence in colorectal cancer” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321967).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321967) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- interactive sport [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported specifics such as “multiple players” and “changing game conditions”; the packet only says handball is a collective, complex, dynamic, and interactive sport that requires attention to context and interaction among factors and variables.; The definition’s wording goes beyond the packet by generalizing from the handball example to an abstract account of how play is shaped and why, without the packet providing explicit statements for those exact mechanisms or terms.; The packet supports that handball is described as a “collective, complex, dynamic, and interactive sport” and that performance analysis should take into account “context and interaction between different factors and variables,” but it does not explicitly support the definition’s claims that performance and play are “continually shaped” by “multiple players,” or that this is due to “changing game conditions.”; “Performance and play are continually shaped” is a broader explanatory claim not directly stated in the packet and goes beyond the source’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Prudente João Nunes; Cardoso Américo Ramos; Rodrigues Ana Jose; Sousa Duarte Filipe. Analysis of the Influence of the Numerical Relation in Handball During an Organized Attack, Specifically the Tactical Behavior of the Center Back. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02451; article XML SHA-256 5b56aceaa1e18c4c01de433e00d11eca937907c8e983612ceb47a79ac1fc03a9. “Analysis of the Influence of the Numerical Relation in Handball During an Organized Attack, Specifically the Tactical Behavior of the Center Back” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02451).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02451) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- interdependence theory [redraft]: The definition adds a broader theoretical explanation and causal framing that goes beyond the packet’s stated findings and model.; The packet does not provide a definition stating that “people’s intentions and behavior are shaped by how much their outcomes depend on one another”; it only describes the study’s constructs (team reward interdependence and task interdependence) and their measured relationships to innovation intention and innovative behavior.; The packet explicitly frames the study as based on “Social Interdependence Theory (SIT),” not a general “interdependence theory,” so the definition’s wording (“Interdependence theory, as used here…”) is not tightly supported by the provided text.; The packet supports that the study uses Social Interdependence Theory and examines team reward interdependence and task interdependence, but it does not explicitly support the general definition that people’s intentions and behavior are shaped by how much their outcomes depend on one another.; While the packet does support that the study’s dependence constructs include “team reward interdependence” and “task interdependence,” it does not explicitly equate these to “shared rewards and task links” in the way the definition states. New packet required. Source: [Li Xinchun; Wang Zhi; Xu Xianzhi. Research on the impact of team reward interdependence on employees’ innovative behavior in enterprises: a cross-level moderated mediation model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736513; article XML SHA-256 64b8b89fd441add0a78c4c90132edea09ca39486c2d93730e34f3e120080fb93. “Research on the impact of team reward interdependence on employees’ innovative behavior in enterprises: a cross-level moderated mediation model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736513).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1736513) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- interestingness [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported general gloss for “interestingness” as something “experienced as engaging or appealing to a person”; the packet only uses “information interestingness” as an experimental stimulus variable and does not define it that way.; The definition’s first sentence frames interestingness as applied to “information, such as a recommendation,” but the packet only refers to “recommendation information” and “information interestingness” as variables; it does not provide the specific “such as a recommendation” wording or the general “degree” framing as a supported concept.; The packet does not define “information interestingness” as a person’s degree of “engaging or appealing” to them; the provided text only lists “information interestingness” as an experimental stimulus variable without a definitional description of engaging/appealing experiences.; The phrase “such as a recommendation” is not supported as a general example in the packet; the article discusses recommendation information only within a specific privacy-attitude experiment.; While the packet includes “information interestingness” as a stimulus variable and reports results involving higher propensity for privacy disclosure under conditions including “highly information interestingness,” it does not explicitly support that interestingness “can shape ambivalent privacy attitudes” (it states the study explores the internal cognitive mechanism of privacy attitude ambivalence and disclosure behavior, but does not directly attribute the shaping of ambivalent privacy attitudes to interestingness). New packet required. Source: [Zhu Qiuhua; Sun Rui; Lv Dong; Shen Yiyang; Qin Shukun. Research on the “Privacy Paradox” behaviors of online users from the perspective of attitude ambivalence: ERPs evidence. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330438; article XML SHA-256 baf13507ebdae49ce65c1a31268812a55cc23f598e9281f2b9fb72e0f9bfa31a. “Research on the “Privacy Paradox” behaviors of online users from the perspective of attitude ambivalence: ERPs evidence” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330438).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330438) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- intergroup dynamics [redraft]: Although the second sentence is partly supported (the packet discusses odors functioning as contextual priors that bias social inference and prejudice), the definition as a whole includes an unsupported general characterization of the term.; The definition adds a broader conceptual explanation that is not explicitly supported by the source packet, which focuses on olfactory influences on social cognition, prejudice, and social judgments rather than defining the term itself.; The definition’s first sentence (“ways people think, feel, judge, and behave in relation to members of different social groups”) is not explicitly defined or described in the provided packet; the packet focuses on olfactory influences on social cognition/emotions/prejudice rather than giving a general definition of intergroup dynamics.; The packet does not define “intergroup dynamics” as the general pattern of how people think, feel, judge, and behave toward members of different social groups; it only mentions the phrase in passing in a future-research sentence. New packet required. Source: [Alemanno Michela; Migliore Simone; Massimino Simona; Ferraioli Francesca; Schito Andrea; Vicario Carmelo M.; Invitto Sara; Curcio Giuseppe. The influence of olfactory stimuli on social cognition, prejudice and emotions: a systematic review of the literature. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1883832; article XML SHA-256 f86d56d31521f59b801aacf409a3a680f909c7b08a6622371564418c1eb0d077. “The influence of olfactory stimuli on social cognition, prejudice and emotions: a systematic review of the literature” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1883832).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1883832) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- interhemispheric transfer [redraft]: The definition’s claim that the term refers specifically to transfer of auditory information “as part of listening performance” is supported only insofar as the study evaluates dichotic listening and other auditory tasks and concludes that advantages may be attributable to “transfer of auditory information between the two hemispheres,” but the packet does not provide a standalone meaning of the term limited to that context.; The definition’s first sentence (“the passing of information from one cerebral hemisphere to the other”) is not explicitly stated or formally defined in the packet; the packet only mentions “transfer of auditory information between the two hemispheres” without giving this general definition.; The packet supports a narrower, auditory-specific usage, but the first sentence gives a broader general definition of interhemispheric transfer that is not stated in the source.; The source describes transfer of auditory information between the two hemispheres as a proposed explanation for listening-performance findings; it does not define the term as a general brain-processing mechanism or say both sides contribute to processing in that way. New packet required. Source: [Bae Eun Bit; Jang Hyunsook; Shim Hyun Joon. Enhanced Dichotic Listening and Temporal Sequencing Ability in Early-Blind Individuals. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.840541; article XML SHA-256 31b42306f008910adcdeb05cb754fe8438e619bd5b12a567660e85fc30948ba4. “Enhanced Dichotic Listening and Temporal Sequencing Ability in Early-Blind Individuals” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.840541).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.840541) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- intermission [redraft]: The packet does not support the additional framing that the illness “progress[es] with breaks rather than in one continuous, unchanging state,” beyond the brief mention of “periods of intermission.”; The packet only states that the disorder “progresses usually with periods of intermission”; it does not define intermission as a time when “symptoms lessen or are absent.”; The packet supports that the disorder “progresses usually with periods of intermission,” but it does not explicitly support the added claim that symptoms “lessen or are absent before returning.”; The phrasing “in this historical psychiatric usage” is acceptable, but the definition slightly generalizes beyond the source by turning a course description into a fuller clinical gloss that the packet does not state directly. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Doubting Mania” (Doubting Mania).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Doubting Mania) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- internal conflict [redraft]: Because the first sentence contains an additional substantive specification (“competing motives or reactions”) not evidenced in the provided text, the overall definition is not fully supported by the packet.; The contrast with “a fixed, consistent pattern of behavior” is broader than the packet’s wording, which only says “rather than stable offending trajectories.”; The definition adds unsupported detail by equating internal conflict with “competing motives or reactions”; the packet only explicitly supports internal conflict, fluctuating control, and context-dependent behavior.; The packet does not explicitly support the specific claim that internal conflict is “competing motives or reactions within themselves.” It only mentions “internal conflict” alongside “fluctuating control” and “context-dependent behavior.” New packet required. Source: [Nemcová Lucia; Schreier Adam; Karousová Tereza; Kalenská Lucie; Bianchi Gabriel; Breide Maria; Lindegren Stina; Ballester-Arnal Rafael; Briken Peer; Chovanec Michal; Dixelius Sophie; Elipe-Miravet Marcel; Högström Lisann; Holmberg Johan; Korkutan Tarik; Metenko Jozef; Prantner Sabine; Zakreski Ellen; Rahm Christoffer; Klapilová Kateřina. Identity under threat: internal conflict and stigma in undetected child sexual abuse material users. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830667; article XML SHA-256 42aedaaff50d22947628d60c32af6c38a7cee363508d7f7be3d7d1a93358b143. “Identity under threat: internal conflict and stigma in undetected child sexual abuse material users” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830667).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1830667) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- internal object [redraft]: Redefines a known psychodynamic term as any attentional mental focus; wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [Jalal Baland. How to Make the Ghosts in my Bedroom Disappear? Focused-Attention Meditation Combined with Muscle Relaxation (MR Therapy)—A Direct Treatment Intervention for Sleep Paralysis. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00028; article XML SHA-256 3c60c115d67770aa3323a02aa90165cb20e04699858d148758e0e3f520bb6490. “How to Make the Ghosts in my Bedroom Disappear? Focused-Attention Meditation Combined with Muscle Relaxation (MR Therapy)—A Direct Treatment Intervention for Sleep Paralysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00028).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00028) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- interobserver reliability [redraft]: The definition’s claims (e.g., consistency of judgments across observers, classification about a case, and dependability of a method across raters) are not stated or supported anywhere in the supplied packet excerpt.; The packet does not define interobserver reliability as the consistency of judgments or classifications across different observers; it only mentions it as an investigated tool in a trauma-scoring study.; The packet only mentions that “interobserver reliability” was investigated in a specific study context (polytraumatized patient identification/trauma scoring) and does not substantiate the general, cross-observer consistency framing used in the definition.; The packet text does not provide a definition of “interobserver reliability” or explain what the term means.; The phrase about a method producing similar results across raters is not supported by the supplied text and goes beyond what the packet states. New packet required. Source: [Pothmann Carina Eva Maria; Baumann Stephen; Jensen Kai Oliver; Mica Ladislav; Osterhoff Georg; Simmen Hans-Peter; Sprengel Kai. Assessment of polytraumatized patients according to the Berlin Definition: Does the addition of physiological data really improve interobserver reliability?. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0201818; article XML SHA-256 bb68f0d68033d08be7d61deb7f1bdf5b2f8578c67adfa9516c554ce91850a9dc. “Assessment of polytraumatized patients according to the Berlin Definition: Does the addition of physiological data really improve interobserver reliability?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0201818).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201818) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- interoceptive stimulus [redraft]: The added claim that such a stimulus can be experienced as emotionally meaningful or pleasant is broader than the source text supports; the source only explicitly describes affective touch as pleasant and discusses emotional awareness in relation to touch perception.; The definition claims “In this source, affective touch is described as a pleasant interoceptive stimulus linked to the C-tactile system,” which is partly supported, but the rest of the definition contains additional substantive claims not supported by the packet.; The definition mixes a general glossary-style sense with a source-specific example, rather than staying tightly supported by the packet.; The only directly supported characterization in the packet is that affective touch is described as a “pleasant interoceptive stimulus associated with activation of the C-Tactile (CT) system”; the definition’s broader framing goes beyond what the packet states.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “interoceptive stimulus” as a “bodily sensory signal arising from within the body,” nor does it support the claim that such signals “can be experienced as emotionally meaningful or pleasant.”; The packet supports that affective touch is described as a pleasant interoceptive stimulus associated with the C-tactile system, but it does not define interoceptive stimulus generally as a bodily sensory signal arising from within the body. New packet required. Source: [Cazzato Valentina; Sacchetti Sofia; Shin Shelby; Makdani Adarsh; Trotter Paula D.; McGlone Francis. Affective touch topography and body image. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243680; article XML SHA-256 2173efde559cce282c3cbade2c27a60d96309cb239eb5d6ef14452defef5c5a8. “Affective touch topography and body image” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243680).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243680) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- interpersonal influence [redraft]: The claim that interpersonal influence is the effect of others/social environment on “attitudes, preferences, or behavior” is not stated or supported in the provided packet text.; The definition’s claims about affecting a person’s attitudes, preferences, or behavior are not stated in the packet and go beyond the supplied text.; The packet does not define or directly use the term “interpersonal influence”; it only mentions the construct “susceptibility to interpersonal influence” (SUSCEP).; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “interpersonal influence”; it only mentions the construct “susceptibility to interpersonal influence (SUSCEP)” without defining the term itself.; The sentence “In this source, it refers to...” asserts a source-specific sense that is not supported by the packet.; The statement that “it refers to the social side of how people can be shaped by others” is a restatement/interpretation that is not directly supported by the packet’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Bai Shizhen; Yin Yue; Yu Yubing; Wei Sheng; Wu Rong. Effects of Self-Expressive Brand and Susceptibility to Interpersonal Influence on Brand Addiction: Mediating Role of Brand Passion. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.602023; article XML SHA-256 7450189b7f6732d89b710c51fc1812acc9fff734ee024a17fdc0d43f8072854b. “Effects of Self-Expressive Brand and Susceptibility to Interpersonal Influence on Brand Addiction: Mediating Role of Brand Passion” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.602023).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.602023) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- interpret [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“to interpret means to assign meaning to a situation, event, or other information”) is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text, which discusses ‘negative interpretation bias’ but does not provide a general definition of ‘interpret.’; The definition’s second sentence is only partially supported: the packet supports the idea that negative interpretation bias involves interpreting ambiguous situations as negative or threatening, but it does not support the broader phrasing about interpretation generally being shaped by cognitive bias beyond that specific construct.; The packet supports a specific sense of interpretation bias—interpreting ambiguous situations as negative or threatening—but not the broad general definition ‘to assign meaning to a situation, event, or other information.’; The second sentence generalizes from the packet’s negative interpretation bias finding to cognitive bias shaping interpretation more broadly; that wider claim is not established by the source. New packet required. Source: [Gawlik Emily; Coifman Karin. Negative interpretation bias and emotional responses to positive contexts. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353912; article XML SHA-256 09497738748d3a0bd9cf8faee3be8040673cdf6a91fce5c1b8d82421815cafc6. “Negative interpretation bias and emotional responses to positive contexts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353912).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353912) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- interval estimate [redraft]: The definition adds that it “expresses an estimate as an interval rather than as a single number.” The packet does not state this distinction.; The definition claims the interval is likely to include the “true parameter,” but the packet only says the interval is a range of scores likely to contain the “estimated parameter,” without mentioning “true.”; The packet supports that an interval estimate is a range of scores likely to contain the estimated parameter, but not the added contrast with a single-number estimate.; The packet uses the phrase “range of scores likely to contain the estimated parameter,” while the definition rephrases it as “range of values” and “true parameter being estimated,” which is not directly supported by the packet wording.; The second sentence (“It expresses an estimate as an interval rather than as a single number.”) is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source text. New packet required. Source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Interval Estimate” (interval_estimate.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/interval_estimate.html) ([public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html))

- interval of uncertainty [redraft]: The added claim that it is identified alongside ROC-based methods to improve prediction is only partially supported and is stated too generally; the source mentions two-graph ROC in a specific study, not a general definitional relationship for the term.; The definition’s attribution to being “identified alongside ROC-based methods” is only partially supported: the packet mentions ROC/“two-graph ROC” thresholds of uncertainty, but does not describe this as “diagnostically uncertain” or as an identifiable “range” for diagnosis.; The definition’s claims about “a range of test decision thresholds” and “not clear enough to support a confident classification” are not stated or supported in the supplied packet.; The packet does not define the term as a range of test decision thresholds where the result is not clear enough to support a confident classification; it only says the interval of uncertainty was used to identify thresholds of uncertainty and enhance prediction.; The packet does not provide a definition of “interval of uncertainty”; it only mentions “thresholds of uncertainty … and the interval of uncertainty” in the context of enhancing prediction.; The packet does not support the wording that the interval is “used … to improve prediction by marking values that are diagnostically uncertain.” It only indicates it was used “to enhance prediction” and mentions uncertainty thresholds, without the described diagnostic-certainty rationale. New packet required. Source: [Peredo Rossana; Hébert Marc; Mérette Chantal. Developing a clinical decision tool based on electroretinogram to monitor the risk of severe mental illness. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-04375-3; article XML SHA-256 18c63081b5453736e34965d94d6445ed7789e0e8794340106b8995e05367605b. “Developing a clinical decision tool based on electroretinogram to monitor the risk of severe mental illness” (10.1186/s12888-022-04375-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-04375-3) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- interview schedule [redraft]: The definition’s claim that this term refers to a brief, standardised format used to measure depressive symptoms or relapse over a defined recent period is only supported for the rCIS-R, not for the term itself.; The definition’s wording (“used to measure depressive symptoms or relapse”) is not directly supported as a defining description of “interview schedule” in the packet; the packet instead focuses on assessing relapse of depression with rCIS-R.; The first sentence’s general explanation (“a structured set of questions used to assess a person in a consistent way during an interview”) is not stated in the packet and is broader than the source evidence.; The packet does not define the general term “interview schedule”; it discusses a specific instrument called the “retrospective Clinical Interview Schedule Revised (rCIS-R).”; The packet supports a specific instrument, the retrospective Clinical Interview Schedule Revised (rCIS-R), not a general definition of “interview schedule.”; While the packet supports that rCIS-R is a structured retrospective clinical interview used to assess depression relapse over the previous 12 weeks, it does not support the broader framing that an “interview schedule” refers to a “brief, standardised format” for measuring depressive symptoms/relapse in general. New packet required. Source: [Duffy Larisa; Marston Louise; Lewis Gemma; Lewis Glyn. Reliability of the retrospective Clinical Interview Schedule Revised (rCIS-R) to assess relapse in depression in primary care patients. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0280997; article XML SHA-256 564f49a9ad8b5f9b04bd45509710a074a087ecf0ed1ada89e40e68501b8b92c8. “Reliability of the retrospective Clinical Interview Schedule Revised (rCIS-R) to assess relapse in depression in primary care patients” (10.1371/journal.pone.0280997).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280997) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- interview [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence and the stated general “psychology and psychiatry” scope are not explicitly grounded in the supplied packet, which focuses on clinicians’ experiences implementing the CFI rather than defining the term “interview” itself.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “interview” as a clinician-led conversation to gather information from a patient during a clinical encounter; it only discusses the Cultural Formulation Interview (CFI) in terms of clinicians eliciting sociocultural information.; The packet shows that the CFI elicits sociocultural information, but it also emphasizes that clinicians may fail to recognize or use that information; it does not support the definition’s framing of the CFI as straightforwardly used to elicit a person’s social and cultural context and experiences as a settled purpose of the instrument.; The packet supports that CFI elicits sociocultural information (e.g., family obligations, financial pressures, relational worlds) but does not explicitly state that the CFI is “used to elicit information about a person’s social and cultural context and experiences.”; The packet supports the Cultural Formulation Interview (CFI), not the general dictionary sense of “interview” as any clinician-led conversation in psychology or psychiatry.; The statement that an interview is used to gather information from a patient during a clinical encounter is broader than what is established in the packet and is not supported as a definition of the term itself. New packet required. Source: [Deshmukh Ankita; Lakhani Sheetal; Paralikar Vasudeo. Culture hidden in plain sight: a framework-based secondary qualitative analysis of clinicians’ experiences with the cultural formulation interview. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1895098; article XML SHA-256 4ad1345c1df0e40d82854eae04b068bf5d32e3ca0f7cec234e6828281c22ae72. “Culture hidden in plain sight: a framework-based secondary qualitative analysis of clinicians’ experiences with the cultural formulation interview” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1895098).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1895098) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- interviewer training [redraft]: The definition adds a generalized explanatory gloss about what interviewer training is, beyond what the source explicitly supports.; The definition’s framing goes slightly beyond what the packet says: the packet attributes interview-outcome variations to insufficient interviewer training and lack of standardization, but it does not clearly define the purpose of interviewer training as producing consistent, standardized ratings.; The packet does not explicitly state that interviewer training is meant to help interviewers use “more consistent, standardized rating approaches”; it only mentions “absence of standardization, such as insufficient interviewer training,” and “divergent rating strategies.”; The packet supports that insufficient interviewer training can contribute to non-standardized, inconsistent interview outcomes and bias, but it does not define interviewer training as preparation that produces more consistent standardized rating approaches. New packet required. Source: [Tsikas Stefanos A.; Dauer Karina. Examining interviewer bias in medical school admissions: The interplay between applicant and interviewer gender and its effects on interview outcomes. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0309293; article XML SHA-256 592a407ecccb4d70f2af76e177b7a3ed34fdf2c2216d425ef0bba02984e13beb. “Examining interviewer bias in medical school admissions: The interplay between applicant and interviewer gender and its effects on interview outcomes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0309293).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309293) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- introjective personality [redraft]: Second sentence comments on what the source lacks instead of defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Werbart Andrzej; Byléhn Linda; Jansson Tuva Maja; Philips Björn. Loss of Rituals, Boundaries, and Relationship: Patient Experiences of Transition to Telepsychotherapy Following the Onset of COVID-19 Pandemic. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835214; article XML SHA-256 ba31f4439419e78214b5c544adf40bb6bfb6b456a687f1b75309dafd420cfce1. “Loss of Rituals, Boundaries, and Relationship: Patient Experiences of Transition to Telepsychotherapy Following the Onset of COVID-19 Pandemic” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835214).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.835214) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- intron [redraft]: The definition adds a broad general description of introns as a section of precursor RNA; the packet supports RPL22 intronic RNA in a specific yeast splicing context, but not a general dictionary sense beyond that source.; The definition’s reference to the field ‘cognition’ is unsupported/misaligned because the packet describes yeast RPL22 introns and splicing, not cognition.; The field is not defensible from the packet: the source is about yeast RPL22 intronic RNA and splicing, not cognition or psychology/counselling.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that splicing ‘edits the RNA before it is fully used’ (this phrasing is general and not stated in the provided text).; The packet supports intron-mediated effects on splicing and Rpl22–intron binding, but the definition’s wording (“shapes and binding sites”) is not directly phrased that way; it is only indirectly supported via RNAfold-predicted features/conformations and binding experiments.; The wording about 'shapes and binding sites' is only loosely supported; the packet describes predicted structures, stem loops, and Rpl22 binding affecting splicing, not a general definition of intron structure across contexts. New packet required. Source: [Abrhámová Kateřina; Gredová Alexandra; Navrátilová Karolína; Boumaiza Mohamed; Folk Petr. Intronic RNA of yeast RPL22 paralogs acts as an allosteric switch. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359197; article XML SHA-256 4d240b22364d763406ee64c0a1654f708b2dccaf3c1fe3aa0723c6a96739c9cb. “Intronic RNA of yeast RPL22 paralogs acts as an allosteric switch” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359197).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359197) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- intuitionism [redraft]: Never defines intuitionism; only reports that such theories are called individualistic. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Individualistic” (Individualistic).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Individualistic) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- invariant feature [redraft]: The definition’s phrasing (“detectable pattern in an image,” “remains recognizable”) is not explicitly stated in the packet; support is indirect via SIFT being used for recognition/tracking and described as invariant to rotation.; The packet does not provide a definition or direct support for the term “invariant feature” itself; it discusses SIFT features and claims about SIFT’s rotation invariance, but it does not define what an “invariant feature” is in general cognition terms.; The packet only supports rotation invariance for SIFT features, not the broader claim that the feature remains recognizable when the target changes in position as well as orientation.; The packet supports use in target recognition and tracking, but it does not establish the general definition of an “invariant feature” as a detectable image pattern with that behavior across motion or rotation. New packet required. Source: [Pan Qingya; Luan Shengjie; Zhang Fuke; Tian Linzhao; Wu Guishu; Fan Yizhong. An improved Scale-Invariant Feature Transform-based method for detecting tumor tissue motion induced by respiration. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330578; article XML SHA-256 5f10a42cc1e1fb15635f1e07d8b3595f2e0f62a339ea56fe05c6782811bc24cd. “An improved Scale-Invariant Feature Transform-based method for detecting tumor tissue motion induced by respiration” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330578).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330578) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- invariant sequence [redraft]: Hedges 'in this context' to narrow a general term to order of post-anesthesia recovery. New packet required. Source: [Maier Kaitlyn L.; McKinstry-Wu Andrew R.; Palanca Ben Julian A.; Tarnal Vijay; Blain-Moraes Stefanie; Basner Mathias; Avidan Michael S.; Mashour George A.; Kelz Max B.. Protocol for the Reconstructing Consciousness and Cognition (ReCCognition) Study. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00284; article XML SHA-256 81300d8780c84f89d6ab1b2237f2a687acea0adac5aaebb7f06f61dedaa6712b. “Protocol for the Reconstructing Consciousness and Cognition (ReCCognition) Study” (10.3389/fnhum.2017.00284).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00284) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- inventory [redraft]: The packet does not support the general claim that, in psychological assessment, an “inventory” is broadly “a structured measure used to evaluate a set of symptoms or traits.”; The packet supports only a specific instrument, the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (QIDS), as a validated measure of depressive symptoms; it does not support a general definition of an "inventory" as a structured measure of symptoms or traits.; The statement that “in this packet, it refers to a validated self-report measure for depressive symptoms” is only partially supported: the packet calls QIDS validated and describes DSM-IV coverage, but does not explicitly state “self-report” in the provided text (it mentions a “self-reported version” only for the Japanese translation).; The wording "In this packet, it refers to a validated self-report measure for depressive symptoms" overgeneralizes from the specific QIDS description and does not establish the broader term sense requested.; While the packet supports that the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (QIDS) is a “validated measure” of depressive symptoms, it does not justify the broader dictionary-style definition of “inventory” given in the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Kashimura Masami; So Mirai; Sekizawa Yoichi. Assessing depression among the Japanese population: psychometric properties of the Japanese version of Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology-self-reported version. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04974-9; article XML SHA-256 3f8ee8ccd0e4da504c3e830dd2ee3237303c52c31d26c0f1263efae3be57ac2c. “Assessing depression among the Japanese population: psychometric properties of the Japanese version of Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology-self-reported version” (10.1186/s40359-026-04974-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04974-9) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- inverse kinematics [redraft]: The definition generalizes inverse kinematics beyond what the packet explicitly supports; the packet only supports its use in modeling the flexible Stewart platform’s forward and inverse kinematic solutions and rod/piezoelectric displacement calculations.; The provided packet content is about a flexible Stewart platform for high-precision positioning (robotics/engineering), not biological/psychology; the field label “biological” is not supported by the packet.; The requested field is not defensible for this source; the packet is about robotics/mechanical engineering (a flexible Stewart platform), not biology. New packet required. Source: [Su Liyun; Hou Linke; Liu Jiaodi. Modeling and analysis of forward and inverse kinematics for a flexible Stewart platform. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353154; article XML SHA-256 3c004a2cb71b9d70bdbdeea0a090d4a0434881578c70ec3453634023a05b0110. “Modeling and analysis of forward and inverse kinematics for a flexible Stewart platform” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353154).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353154) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- inverse transformation [redraft]: Defines a general term solely as one graphics pipeline's 2D-to-3D back-projection step. New packet required. Source: [Kim Jong-Hyun; Kim YoungBin. Efficient learning representation of noise-reduced foam effects with convolutional denoising networks. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0275117; article XML SHA-256 2649fe218bf9b140805020d25363be2b2427e62c4be68f1f555aca696cd9b566. “Efficient learning representation of noise-reduced foam effects with convolutional denoising networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0275117).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275117) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- involuntary hospitalization [redraft]: Defines the general term as Japan's administrative scheme for offenders with mental disorder. New packet required. Source: [Shiina Akihiro; Sudo Yusuke; Suzuki Yodai; Kamata Yu; Niitsu Tomihisa; Fujii Chiyo. Developing a training program of knowledge and skills in the context of administrative involuntary hospitalization: a pilot trial. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1644958; article XML SHA-256 911eca587ea41cd35c62be326f57340a46fb27ac3fcc813f5162afecdb03c8e1. “Developing a training program of knowledge and skills in the context of administrative involuntary hospitalization: a pilot trial” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1644958).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1644958) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- involuntary [redraft]: Uses 'in this mental health context' to narrow a general adjective to non-consensual admission. New packet required. Source: [Shiina Akihiro; Sudo Yusuke; Suzuki Yodai; Kamata Yu; Niitsu Tomihisa; Fujii Chiyo. Developing a training program of knowledge and skills in the context of administrative involuntary hospitalization: a pilot trial. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1644958; article XML SHA-256 911eca587ea41cd35c62be326f57340a46fb27ac3fcc813f5162afecdb03c8e1. “Developing a training program of knowledge and skills in the context of administrative involuntary hospitalization: a pilot trial” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1644958).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1644958) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- involutional [redraft]: Wrong sense: redefines the adjective as an overcompetitive attitude from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Ding Yan; Sun Changan; Dong Bo. Effect of parental rearing styles on adolescent ego identity: the mediating role of involutionary attitudes. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1292718; article XML SHA-256 baacfee2f422e9cdb0740f7e39902e6bab0830da295070af1857c4ea2a0d4e08. “Effect of parental rearing styles on adolescent ego identity: the mediating role of involutionary attitudes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1292718).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1292718) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ion pump [redraft]: Narrows a general headword to one astrocyte Na+/K+-ATPase isoform discussed in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Iyer Abhirami K; Schoch Kathleen M; Verbeck Anthony; Galasso Grant; Chen Hao; Smith Sarah; Oldenborg Anna; Miller Timothy M; Karch Celeste M; Bonni Azad. Targeted ASO-mediated Atp1a2 knockdown in astrocytes reduces SOD1 aggregation and accelerates disease onset in mutant SOD1 mice. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0294731; article XML SHA-256 4a6f958e64c4667cc141437dee286c9ee43e3f0d86a2390e80b3236c11b3b7a8. “Targeted ASO-mediated Atp1a2 knockdown in astrocytes reduces SOD1 aggregation and accelerates disease onset in mutant SOD1 mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0294731).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294731) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- IRT [redraft]: The definition states that IRT “treats measurement error as varying across levels of the trait,” but the packet instead says IRT models “measurement error as a function of the latent trait assuming it is constant,” which does not match the “varying across levels” characterization.; The packet supports that IRT is an item-level method for assessing how items relate to a latent trait, with item parameters such as difficulty and discrimination.; The statement that IRT models measurement error as varying across levels of the trait is not supported by the supplied text; the packet’s wording is internally inconsistent and does not clearly establish this claim. New packet required. Source: [Sergi Maria Rita; Balsamo Michela; D’Ignazio Giorgia; Terrei Michela; Palumbo Rocco; Salvatore Gianpaolo; Carlucci Leonardo. Investigating the factor structure of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment: a qualitative review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1727202; article XML SHA-256 e64087f5db2f33b70dfd849724ade91ca5bcd996fb07fde56f3030735a088eea. “Investigating the factor structure of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment: a qualitative review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1727202).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1727202) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ischemia [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define ischemia as “a state in which brain tissue has too little blood supply.” It discusses ischemia/hypoxia in the context of ischemic stroke and uses a middle cerebral artery occlusion-reperfusion model, but the “too little blood supply” phrasing is not directly supported as a definition.; The packet supports associations with hypoxia, glutamate accumulation, and brain injury, but it does not explicitly state that these are defining features of ischemia itself.; The packet supports cerebral ischemia/reperfusion in stroke research, but it does not define ischemia as specifically a state of too little blood supply in brain tissue; that narrows the term beyond the supplied source.; The phrase about blood flow being interrupted and then restored is supported only in the specific ischemia/reperfusion context, not as a general definition of ischemia.; While the packet supports connections between ischemia/hypoxia and glutamate accumulation/excitotoxicity and describes brain injury in ischemia/reperfusion, the specific first-sentence wording about blood supply is not evidenced in the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Li Qiuling; Yu Yiwen; Deng Huan; Li Biao; Zhao Hao; Lei Dong; Li Mi; Xie Shansha; Yu Jingmei; Zhao Yuping; Yin Shubin; Ji YiFei. The mTOR/Akt pathway is involved in regulating astrocyte growth and GLT-1 expression during cerebral ischemia-reperfusion. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351107; article XML SHA-256 88101353dfd4ab458a95df8763be5ab1d3d0a15b4e1e60eb22a4b01d99560c63. “The mTOR/Akt pathway is involved in regulating astrocyte growth and GLT-1 expression during cerebral ischemia-reperfusion” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351107).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351107) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- isolated brain [redraft]: Not a term; packet phrase is isolated brain-based pathologies, hedged with in this context. New packet required. Source: [Bautista Jhommara; Hidalgo-Tinoco Camila; Di Capua Delgado Miranda; Viteri-Recalde Juliana; Guerra-Guerrero Antonio; López-Cortés Andrés. The gut–brain–circadian axis in anxiety and depression: a critical review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1697200; article XML SHA-256 8505b8a97099bc74d92cfc928c56fb54ec108ee147d85ce64614136f7f93fdff. “The gut–brain–circadian axis in anxiety and depression: a critical review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1697200).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1697200) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- isomers [redraft]: The definition overgeneralizes beyond the packet by stating a general biological-behavior claim about isomers; the source only discusses Gd-A and Gd-B isomers of gadoxetate.; The definition’s first sentence gives a broad, general characterization of isomers ("different forms of the same substance" and "biological behavior") that is not explicitly stated in the provided packet.; The packet supports a chemistry/imaging sense of isomers, not a psychology or learning sense, so the requested field/term pairing is not defensible here.; The packet supports specifics only for Gd‑A vs Gd‑B (differences in albumin binding, inferred pharmacokinetic behaviors, imaging efficacy, slow conversion in solution, and eventual racemic mixture), not the general cross-domain claims in the first sentence.; “Imaging performance” is broader than the source’s wording and is not directly supported as stated; the packet refers to differences in imaging efficacy and liver MRI imaging, not a general performance claim. New packet required. Source: [Chang Yiling; Li Qilin; Yi Man; Li JiGen; Yuan Xiaodong. Purification and pharmacokinetic study of gadoxetate isomers for enhanced rabbit liver MR imaging. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343927; article XML SHA-256 1671c08902d91809f00a484ce320bbe9443248b834a8fb3e07ea3a9d88bc46a6. “Purification and pharmacokinetic study of gadoxetate isomers for enhanced rabbit liver MR imaging” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343927).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343927) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- isotretinoin [redraft]: Describes pharmacovigilance findings rather than defining what isotretinoin is. New packet required. Source: [Chen Qian; Li JinYue; Zhang Mao; Kang XueDong; Han LiZhu; Bian Yuan; Luo HongLi. Signal mining and analysis of adverse events associated with Isotretinoin: A 20-Year real-world pharmacovigilance study based on FAERS and EudraVigilance databases. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329161; article XML SHA-256 17546457f32ddf652308fcf100a73fcdc6a181b86a88aaa3fc146383a133a75b. “Signal mining and analysis of adverse events associated with Isotretinoin: A 20-Year real-world pharmacovigilance study based on FAERS and EudraVigilance databases” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329161).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329161) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ISSP [redraft]: The expansion International Social Survey Programme is supported, but the claim that ISSP is a dataset used to compare social and wellbeing-related responses across countries is broader than the packet states.; The packet does not explicitly define ISSP as a “cross-national survey dataset.” It only states that the “International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) dataset from 2017” is used for seven countries.; The packet does not support the claim that ISSP is “used to compare social and wellbeing-related responses across countries.” It describes analyses of subjective well-being using the ISSP dataset, but it does not state that ISSP is used for that general purpose (i.e., as a comparative cross-national instrument).; The packet only says the ISSP dataset from 2017 was used in a study of subjective well-being; it does not support the general description of the dataset’s purpose or scope. New packet required. Source: [Indelicato Alessandro; Martín Juan Carlos; Marinello Vincenzo. Regional disparities in subjective wellbeing across Europe: A fuzzy hybrid TOPSIS approach. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341119; article XML SHA-256 15282d8c658f4e421c486b1369fbaccfec5ae842a79c10ae2e4cc6702c81b31f. “Regional disparities in subjective wellbeing across Europe: A fuzzy hybrid TOPSIS approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341119).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341119) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ITBS [redraft]: Acronym inconsistency: the packet uses “intermittent Theta burst stimulation (iTBS)”, while the definition is written as “ITBS”; the exact acronym form is not directly supported by the supplied text.; Although the expansion of ITBS is supported, the definition adds a generalized characterization (“patterned brain stimulation method”) that is not stated in the source text.; Field mismatch: the provided source and definition concern a brain-stimulation intervention and neuroinflammation/neurorecovery after stroke in rats, not learning as a psychological construct.; The supplied source is a neuroscience/stroke article, so the requested field of “learning” is not defensible from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Huang Yingying; Zhao Yining; Zhang Xingyu; Bi Xia. Single-cell RNA sequencing identifies microglial state changes associated with iTBS after ischemia–reperfusion injury. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346888; article XML SHA-256 058991076b360218bc508da87819e76e12f95315636ef481c6e5bbbc9111a67c. “Single-cell RNA sequencing identifies microglial state changes associated with iTBS after ischemia–reperfusion injury” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346888).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346888) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- itch [redraft]: The claim that itch “may be eased by certain kinds of gentle touch” is only supported in the specific experimental context of affective touch reducing histamine-induced itch; the definition generalizes this beyond the packet’s evidence.; The packet supports itch as a commonly experienced symptom and that people can rate its severity, but it does not support describing itch as an “unpleasant bodily sensation.”; The packet supports that itch is commonly experienced in skin diseases such as eczema and that participants rated itch severity, but it does not explicitly state that itch “varies in perceived severity.” New packet required. Source: [Ali Syed Hasan; Fallon Nicholas; Giesbrecht Timo; Stancak Andrej; Roberts Carl A. Affective touch reduces histamine evoked itch experience. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319006; article XML SHA-256 1dc306c0b0cee3319d669b8693348a1f82b023303f734de9d5785a3301db4ae1. “Affective touch reduces histamine evoked itch experience” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319006).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319006) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- iterative design [redraft]: The definition includes “using simulation, prediction, and experimental comparison” to guide repeated design changes; while the packet mentions finite element modeling (simulation), neural-network predictions, and a “rigorous comparison between the experimental results and simulation results,” it does not explicitly define iterative design as fundamentally composed of these three activities.; The definition states that iterative design is a “step-by-step method” and involves “repeatedly testing” design features; the packet describes simulations guiding “iterative design improvements,” but does not explicitly support a step-by-step method or the characterization of repeated testing as the core definition.; The definition’s second sentence narrows the term to a source-specific method involving simulation, prediction, and experimental comparison, which is not presented as the general meaning of ‘iterative design’ in psychology/learning.; The packet supports iterative design in an engineering/design context for soft actuators, not in the learning field; the requested field is therefore not defensible from this source.; The phrase “toward better function” is a general outcome claim not explicitly supported by the packet’s description of bending-angle optimization and validation. New packet required. Source: [Elsamanty Mahmoud; Badr Karim; Akl Basem; Ibrahim Abdelkader; Yang Hongbo; Guo Kai; Orban Mostafa. Design and optimization of soft finger actuators for rehabilitation applications: A combined finite element and neural network approach. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334011; article XML SHA-256 3aee6691c0650300c05bb195ad7d17d3ab1d1dcdd1e8fe21f182da887f788c51. “Design and optimization of soft finger actuators for rehabilitation applications: A combined finite element and neural network approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334011).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334011) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- IV [redraft]: Packet never gives intravenous or into a vein; definition adds the sense and hedges in this context. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Perinatal Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 da7c7019e90c70c4e547cffa57eb80d317ecfea814e3e8f0f83cec7e04211841. “Perinatal Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/perinatal-depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/perinatal-depression) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- jackknife [redraft]: Packet only names jackknife replicate weights; resampling method is added and sense is hedged to this source. New packet required. Source: [Quansah Ama Gyesiwaa; Baffoe Helena; Eshun Solomon. Helpful or harmful? How cancer beliefs and information seeking relate to depression in U.S. adults. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346262; article XML SHA-256 e3f7468546ad67222eb1fa6b035e37080142f0d822268c64b8218d1366f28349. “Helpful or harmful? How cancer beliefs and information seeking relate to depression in U.S. adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346262).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346262) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- James–Lange theory [redraft]: The definition adds that the theory treats emotion as related to its “bodily, outward expression,” but the packet only states it is a “peripheral” or “effect theory” concerning the relation of emotion to its “so-called expression” and does not explicitly mention “bodily” or “outward.”; The definition should stay strictly within the historical source wording and not add an extra characterization not found there.; The definition’s phrase “peripheral or effect theory of emotion” is supported in substance, but the added bodily/outward wording is not directly supported by the packet.; The phrase “bodily, outward expression” goes beyond the packet, which only says the theory concerns emotion and its so-called expression; “bodily” is not supported. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “James-Lange Theory” (James-Lange).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/J1defs.htm#James-Lange) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- jargon [redraft]: However, the definition adds that jargon refers to a “severe loss of clear expression rather than merely specialized language.” The packet does not contrast jargon with “specialized language,” nor does it provide any basis for that distinction.; The contrast with “rather than merely specialized language” is unsupported by the source packet.; The packet supports only that speech may end in an “unintelligible jargon” amid omissions and repetitions; it does not explicitly define jargon as a historical term meaning this kind of speech.; The packet supports that “jargon” can be an “unintelligible jargon” arising with “precipitate and tumultuous hurry” and involving “omissions” and “repetitions,” plus general speech “disorder/entanglement” and “disordered” incoherence. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3055500-3067500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- job description [redraft]: The added claim that the wording can include or exclude social groups is only partly supported; the packet supports gender-exclusive language affecting women, but not a general definition about social groups.; The packet does not define a job description as the written wording used to describe a job; it only refers to a job description in the context of gender-inclusive/exclusive language.; The packet does not support the claim that a job description is “the written wording used to describe a job”; it only discusses job descriptions containing gender-inclusive vs. gender-exclusive language in relation to women’s responses.; The packet supports that gender-exclusive (vs. inclusive) language in job descriptions can be interpreted as exclusionary/sexist and can affect outcomes such as anticipated ostracism, perceived sexism, and lower motivation and identification, but it does not support the broader phrasing that the language “can include or exclude social groups” or that it specifically “shap[es] how welcomed, motivated, or targeted applicants expect to feel” as a general, standalone statement.; “Welcomed” and “targeted applicants expect to feel” are not supported by the packet; the packet mentions anticipated ostracism, perceived sexism, motivation, and identification instead. New packet required. Source: [Rosenberger Erika J; Claypool Heather M. The impact of gender-exclusive language on women’s anticipated ostracism: A preregistered replication of Stout and Dasgupta (2011). 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0290709; article XML SHA-256 3cf16d88e3af45966cc7a4524811665cf6e82d77a14ca45081f658b0dfea373d. “The impact of gender-exclusive language on women’s anticipated ostracism: A preregistered replication of Stout and Dasgupta (2011)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0290709).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290709) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- job design [redraft]: The claim that job design is a factor that influences how traits and capabilities “show up in performance” is an interpretation broader than the packet’s wording, which only says performance emerges from traits, capabilities, and contextual conditions.; The packet does not define “job design” as “the way a job is structured within the work setting.”; The packet supports job design only as a contextual condition in the TCC model; it does not define it as “the way a job is structured within the work setting.”; While the packet supports that “contextual conditions (job design…)” are part of a model where “performance emerges…from traits…capabilities… and contextual conditions,” it does not specifically state the definition’s claim that job design is “a contextual factor that can influence how a person’s traits and capabilities show up in performance.” New packet required. Source: [Alnafisah Abdulelah. Personality, capability, and context: a 30 year integrative review and theoretical expansion of the Big Five framework. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766680; article XML SHA-256 23a39e41b48020463d72c4174168127989d92db118205daac8ea8c30818199ad. “Personality, capability, and context: a 30 year integrative review and theoretical expansion of the Big Five framework” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766680).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766680) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- job interview [redraft]: Although the packet does support that job interviews are a major barrier to employment for individuals with autism spectrum disorders, the definition adds additional wording beyond what is supported (the “meeting used … to assess” framing).; The definition’s first substantive claim—that a job interview is “a meeting used in the employment process to assess a person for work”—is not explicitly stated in the packet text provided.; The packet supports that job interviews are a major barrier to employment for individuals with autism spectrum disorders, but it does not support the general definitional claim that a job interview is a meeting used in the employment process to assess a person for work.; The requested field is diagnosis, but the packet describes an employment-related barrier and interview training program, not a diagnostic concept or diagnostic use of the term.; The term “job interview” is not supported in the packet as a “diagnosis” (it is discussed as a barrier to employment and as a target for training, not as a diagnostic concept). New packet required. Source: [Yoshikawa Yuichiro; Muramatsu Taro; Sakai Kazuki; Haraguchi Hideyuki; Kudo Azusa; Ishiguro Hiroshi; Mimura Masaru; Kumazaki Hirokazu. A new group-based online job interview training program using computer graphics robots for individuals with autism spectrum disorders. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1198433; article XML SHA-256 217286da3b36e938a8dceb64dd09286f794966474fdef2816f1c96570cea1914. “A new group-based online job interview training program using computer graphics robots for individuals with autism spectrum disorders” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1198433).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1198433) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- job requirements [redraft]: The packet does not support the definition’s additional claim that job requirements “mark the boundary” between required work and withholding “extra involvement or effort.” That boundary framing is not stated in the provided text.; The packet never defines “job requirements” as “formal duties and level of effort.” It only mentions that quiet quitting involves “restriction of effort to formal job requirements.”; The packet supports the phrase “formal job requirements” as part of the definition of quiet quitting, but it does not define the term “job requirements” itself as a boundary between required work and withholding extra involvement.; The wording “level of effort that a job officially calls for” and the boundary interpretation go beyond what is stated in the source, which only mentions restricting effort to formal job requirements. New packet required. Source: [Atiq Anum; Sullman Mark J. M.; Apostolou Menelaos; Lajunen Timo. The psychological architecture of employee disengagement: a structural model of the antecedents and behavioral outcomes of quiet quitting. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813041; article XML SHA-256 108d0b69b159c61c2867d8fdb557028e239fc4931088a852d80719c043912ac1. “The psychological architecture of employee disengagement: a structural model of the antecedents and behavioral outcomes of quiet quitting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813041).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813041) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- job rotation [redraft]: The claim that it is used to reduce work-related problems such as musculoskeletal strain is broader and more specific than the source, which only says it is an intervention to address underlying issues in bank workers with musculoskeletal disorder.; The definition’s specific wording (“reduce work-related problems such as musculoskeletal strain”) is only partially supported: the packet refers to work-related musculoskeletal disorder, but does not use the term “musculoskeletal strain” or clearly state that job rotation reduces it.; The packet only mentions “job rotation” as an example of an intervention; it does not define job rotation as a workplace practice that moves workers between different job tasks or roles.; The packet supports job rotation only as one of several intervention measures for work-related musculoskeletal disorder; it does not define job rotation as moving workers between different tasks or roles. New packet required. Source: [Geto Abebe Kassa; Mekonnen Hussien; Yemane Tesfalem Tilahun; Andargie Endalew Minwuye; Sewunet Birhanu; Natnael Tarikuwa; Daba Chala. Work-related musculoskeletal disorder and its associated factors among bank workers in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323958; article XML SHA-256 d4a4a2f797037af49360fc270dd91bfed0d8f751b88ef3c298f76ca6dcf1c545. “Work-related musculoskeletal disorder and its associated factors among bank workers in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323958).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323958) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- job satisfaction [redraft]: The definition adds that job satisfaction is “influenced by factors such as … aspects of personal relationships.” The packet supports marital relationship effects (personal relationships), but it does not frame this as a general “aspects of personal relationships” influence beyond marital relationship; the wording is broader than what is directly supported.; The definition should stay within the packet’s scope and not present a broader standalone definition as if it were established from the source.; The definition’s first sentence (“the degree to which a person feels positively about their work and work situation”) is not explicitly stated in the packet text; the packet discusses job satisfaction as a critical factor and measures/associations but does not provide this definitional wording.; The opening gloss generalizes job satisfaction as “the degree to which a person feels positively about their work and work situation,” but the packet only supports job satisfaction as a measure/factor used to estimate the quality of university teachers’ work; it does not define the term that broadly.; “Work situation” is not supported in the packet, which focuses on university teachers’ job satisfaction and related factors in that study context. New packet required. Source: [Feng Linlin; Zhang Xiaohan; Zhong Hao; Zhang Wenqing. Relationships and mediating mechanisms between university teachers’ marital relationship, work values, and social support on job satisfaction. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1665141; article XML SHA-256 c5f2ff9e9d163eeade3ead13b6e5ec9924ef17e47526ce225fb8238a7e554497. “Relationships and mediating mechanisms between university teachers’ marital relationship, work values, and social support on job satisfaction” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1665141).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1665141) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- job specification [redraft]: Packet only mentions worker-job specification; the definitional content is invented. New packet required. Source: [Swart Lyndsey; Buys Tania; Claassen Nicolaas. Development of an interdisciplinary consensus statement for assessing fitness for work at heights in the South African construction industry: a virtual Modified Nominal Group Technique study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12995-026-00500-0; article XML SHA-256 3f9a3ca210fe118918f8303e3b45448922a99db75859fb61bbcadfa1f53e0edb. “Development of an interdisciplinary consensus statement for assessing fitness for work at heights in the South African construction industry: a virtual Modified Nominal Group Technique study” (10.1186/s12995-026-00500-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12995-026-00500-0) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- joke [redraft]: The definition adds a broader interpretive gloss that goes beyond the historical wording in the packet.; The definition claims the joke is “treated as an example of the capacity to recognize and respond to certain kinds of mental amusement,” but the packet does not mention “recognize,” “respond,” “mental amusement,” or any capacity framed this way.; The packet only states that “Esthetic Feelings” include “understanding a pun or joke,” along with “the incongruous” as something appreciated; it does not define a joke as “something understood or appreciated through a person’s sense of the incongruous.”; The phrase about being “an example of the capacity to recognize and respond to certain kinds of mental amusement” is not supported by the source packet; the packet only links joke to the power of appreciating the incongruous in the context of aesthetic feelings. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1029000-1041000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- jouissance [redraft]: The definition states that jouissance is “an intense form of satisfaction that can exceed ordinary pleasure,” but the packet does not explicitly support the claim that it exceeds ordinary pleasure.; The opening gloss that jouissance is “an intense form of satisfaction that can exceed ordinary pleasure” is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source.; The packet supports the distinction between phallic jouissance within the symbolic order and the jouissance of the Other beyond symbolization, but the definition adds a broader general characterization that is not directly supported by the text.; The remaining elements are broadly supported: the packet distinguishes phallic jouissance as operating within the symbolic order tied to signifiers (and the phallic function) with quantifiable/achievable aims (e.g., a data threshold and transient satisfaction), and the jouissance of the Other as beyond symbolization outside the signifying system, marked by an extreme jouissance “often tinged with a painful bodily satisfaction.” New packet required. Source: [Fan Qiuyu. The unattainable other: a Lacanian psychoanalytic perspective on digital laborers’ traffic anxiety. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870187; article XML SHA-256 9ae7a46ab265203dc8ba52d85b61e895abaee9312715768e9d5339396c99570c. “The unattainable other: a Lacanian psychoanalytic perspective on digital laborers’ traffic anxiety” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870187).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1870187) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Judgment of Line Orientation [redraft]: The definition adds functional description of the test that is not stated in the source packet, so the sense is not fully supported by the supplied evidence.; The packet does not define “Judgment of Line Orientation” or describe what the task requires (e.g., asking someone to judge the orientation of lines).; The packet does not provide enough information to support the definition’s wording about the term’s sense (it is not explicitly defined as the requested “Judgment of Line Orientation” test, nor are task specifics provided).; The packet only mentions that the Benton Judgment of Line Orientation Test (BJLOT) was included as a neuropsychological measure; it does not support the definition’s claim about assessing visuospatial ability via line-orientation judgments.; The packet only shows BJLOT as one of several neuropsychological measures and reports group score differences; it does not support the definition’s claim that Judgment of Line Orientation is a test of visuospatial ability that asks a person to judge line orientation. New packet required. Source: [Ohlhauser Lisa; Kwan Heather; Casey Hayley; MacDonald Stuart; Gawryluk Jodie R.. Sex similarities and differences in cognition: A longitudinal study of healthy control participants from the Parkinson Progression Markers Initiative. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334358; article XML SHA-256 be96147b283b07153a6109b64d06156a3dbf1806de5a47120c83c7e1585d1a57. “Sex similarities and differences in cognition: A longitudinal study of healthy control participants from the Parkinson Progression Markers Initiative” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334358).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334358) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- justification [redraft]: Claims about which specific related views (social dominance orientation, speciesism, masculinity) are tied to “justifications” are only indirectly supported; the packet only says it replicates associations between meat-eating, “its justifications,” and those constructs, without supporting the additional phrasing about what “justifications” are (e.g., beliefs).; The definition mixes a generic social-psychology sense with a source-specific finding; the packet only supports the latter.; The first sentence (“In social psychology, justification means the reasons people use to explain, defend, or make sense of a behavior or attitude”) is not supported by the provided packet text.; The packet does not state that justifications for meat-eating are “psychologically meaningful beliefs”; it only describes “meat-eating justification scales” and associations.; The packet supports meat-eating justifications and their associations with meat-eating, social dominance orientation, speciesism, and masculinity, but it does not support the broad general definition of justification as reasons people use to explain, defend, or make sense of behavior or attitudes.; The phrase "psychologically meaningful beliefs" is an unsupported characterization not stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Sayat Ruşen Ali; Bozo Özlem. Meat-eating justifications in Türkiye: cultural adaptation, validation, and correlates of the MEJ and 4Ns scales. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03490-6; article XML SHA-256 fe64e6acbe6e68d056a1340502c9f14d6b72079e4a8050008a4515263e384d9e. “Meat-eating justifications in Türkiye: cultural adaptation, validation, and correlates of the MEJ and 4Ns scales” (10.1186/s40359-025-03490-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03490-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- KAI [redraft]: Headword is KAI but the definition defines En kai pan. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “En kai pan” (En).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#En) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- kainate receptor [redraft]: The definition adds a broader functional claim about disturbed oscillatory activity across both disorders that is not fully supported by the packet.; The definition states that changes in kainate receptor function are linked to “disturbed oscillatory activity” “discussed in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.” The packet explicitly links kainate receptor involvement and gamma synchronization/abnormal oscillatory rhythms to schizophrenia (SZ) subjects, but it does not provide parallel support that disturbed oscillatory activity is discussed for bipolar disorder (Bipolar disorder is mentioned regarding GluR5/6 changes, but oscillatory disturbance is not tied to bipolar disorder in the provided text).; The final sentence overgeneralizes the evidence: the packet links abnormal GABAergic neurotransmission to schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, but it only connects abnormal oscillatory rhythms to schizophrenia, not bipolar disorder.; The packet supports involvement of kainate receptor subunits (including GluR5 and GluR6/7) in hippocampal GABAergic interneuron firing, but the wording about how they regulate firing in response to glutamatergic input is more specific than the packet states. New packet required. Source: [Gisabella Barbara; Bolshakov Vadim Y.; Benes Francine M.. Kainate Receptor-Mediated Modulation of Hippocampal Fast Spiking Interneurons in a Rat Model of Schizophrenia. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0032483; article XML SHA-256 b05da0d896d2bf164097d53a3142b04fb2fbda2c4d9042dbd01c729ed1a5e66b. “Kainate Receptor-Mediated Modulation of Hippocampal Fast Spiking Interneurons in a Rat Model of Schizophrenia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0032483).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0032483) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- KBS [redraft]: Packet uses KB and KBQA, not KBS; definition hedges between two expansions. New packet required. Source: [Zheng Hai-Tao; Fu Zuo-You; Chen Jin-Yuan; Sangaiah Arun Kumar; Jiang Yong; Zhao Cong-Zhi. Novel knowledge-based system with relation detection and textual evidence for question answering research. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0205097; article XML SHA-256 1d7b4f186aa49ddaddc6326b6a71e9b0ee99b7e8143d1a8982042a25946aca34. “Novel knowledge-based system with relation detection and textual evidence for question answering research” (10.1371/journal.pone.0205097).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205097) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ketamine [redraft]: Field issue: the packet describes analgesic/anesthetic effects, mechanism (NMDA, opioid receptors, biogenic amine uptake), pain perception, and sedation, but it does not support linking ketamine to the cognition field specifically.; The definition is supported by the packet’s pharmacology content, but the requested field ‘cognition’ is not defensible for ketamine here; the source describes a pharmacologic substance, not a cognition term.; The entry should not be treated as a psychology/counselling dictionary sense without a clearer, field-appropriate framing. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Ketamine” (C61797).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- keyboard [redraft]: The definition mixes a general dictionary-style sense with a study-specific referent, but the packet only supports the study-specific use and does not support the broader claim as written.; The definition’s first sentence claims a general meaning of “keyboard” as “the piano-style set of keys,” but the provided packet only mentions “a digital piano keyboard” and “an iPad virtual piano” and does not support the general “set of keys” characterization.; The opening general definition of “keyboard” as a piano-style set of keys used for musical learning and performance is broader than what the packet states; the packet only describes a study setting in which participants learned keyboard performance skills on a digital piano keyboard and an iPad virtual piano. New packet required. Source: [Chmiel Anthony; Dean Roger T; Stevens Catherine J; MacRitchie Jennifer. Objective demonstration and quantitation of musical learning in older adult novices across a 12-month online study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320055; article XML SHA-256 2282036067e2104c687f1666ac59ff0706ffe25de900c82c988c034b3d072d15. “Objective demonstration and quantitation of musical learning in older adult novices across a 12-month online study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320055).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320055) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- kindness [redraft]: The claim that kindness is “presented as simpler and more immediately actionable than… empathy or compassion” is only partially supported: the packet contrasts kindness with empathy/compassion being “complex and… daunting,” but does not explicitly state “more immediately actionable.”; The packet does not define kindness as an action “to benefit or support another person”; it only describes kindness as a “simple, time-sensitive behavior.”; The packet says empathy and compassion are complex and daunting and that kindness is simpler, but it does not support the claim that kindness is “more immediately actionable.”; The packet supports kindness as a simple, time-sensitive behavior in healthcare, but it does not explicitly support the added framing that it is a straightforward action shown to benefit or support another person.; The phrase “especially in healthcare learning” is not explicitly supported in the packet; the packet mentions healthcare trainees/healthcare setting but does not frame kindness as being presented specifically for “learning” in that comparative way.; The source is about kindness in the healthcare setting; it does not support the definition’s specific emphasis on “healthcare learning.” New packet required. Source: [Hake Austin B.; Post Stephen G.. Kindness: Definitions and a pilot study for the development of a kindness scale in healthcare. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288766; article XML SHA-256 00fe3852c4140e3e0b084483078e29a841499fb2fe36b23947d5717ca883de86. “Kindness: Definitions and a pilot study for the development of a kindness scale in healthcare” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288766).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288766) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- kissing [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define “kissing” as “an act involving the lips meeting and then parting”; it only contains the comparison phrase “as when lips from kissing disunite,” which supports lips separating, but not the full act description (meeting then parting) as stated.; The packet supports only the historical phrase “as when lips from kissing disunite”; it does not support the broader definitional claim that kissing is an act involving the lips meeting and then parting.; The statement that the passage mentions kissing “only to describe a sound” is stronger than the source, which compares several noises and separately gives the kissing simile; the source does not explicitly state that the phrase is about a sound like lips separating after a kiss. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3066000-3078000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- kyphosis [redraft]: General headword redefined as cervical kyphosis with hedge marked here. New packet required. Source: [Eichenlaub Emily K; Gelinne Aaron; Bhowmick Deb; Franz Jason R. The effects of cervical spine posture on susceptibility to walking balance perturbations. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354125; article XML SHA-256 9e6229285f6f14ce6b4bd135f5ca300994bf932b435f72ce1daac232f9cd0d5b. “The effects of cervical spine posture on susceptibility to walking balance perturbations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354125).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354125) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- labeling [redraft]: Food-package labeling is the wrong sense for the psychology headword labeling. New packet required. Source: [Matos Juliana de Paula; Araújo Breenda Lorranny Santos Gonçalves; Ribeiro Mariana; Mais Laís Amaral; Horta Paula Martins. Applying Brazilian front-of-pack nutrition labeling and PAHO nutritional criteria to digital food advertising: regulatory implications for protecting children and adolescents. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354180; article XML SHA-256 ceccc52fca1a99939366bd24b6457604bdfa8c338b1229cd9cd818d3260c12c1. “Applying Brazilian front-of-pack nutrition labeling and PAHO nutritional criteria to digital food advertising: regulatory implications for protecting children and adolescents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354180).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354180) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- labia [redraft]: "Labia are parts of the external genital anatomy, including the labia minora and labia majora" is not stated in the packet and goes beyond what the source supports.; Because the key requested sense/description of the term is not directly supported by the packet, the definition cannot be accepted under the requirement that substantive claims be supported by the supplied source packet only.; The definition is partly supported by the study, but it should not present the anatomical generalization as if it came from the supplied source.; The definition’s anatomical claim—“Labia are parts of the external genital anatomy, including the labia minora and labia majora”—is not explicitly supported in the supplied packet text (the packet mentions “labia minora” and “labia majora” but does not define labia as external genital anatomy or describe labia as their category).; The field is incorrect: the packet is about genital anatomy and sexual dysfunction after FGM/C, not cognition. New packet required. Source: [Lock Emily; Ades Veronica. Sexual dysfunction after female genital mutilation/cutting: A retrospective cross-sectional study of associations with organ-specific genital anatomy, trauma history, and psychiatric comorbidity. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356761; article XML SHA-256 c78af0653d780aa7707cb4d8a6ba768d2de3da0665fb4bae6f177490e03b65d2. “Sexual dysfunction after female genital mutilation/cutting: A retrospective cross-sectional study of associations with organ-specific genital anatomy, trauma history, and psychiatric comorbidity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356761).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356761) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- labile [redraft]: General adjective hedged with in this source onto memory traces; packet gives no sense. New packet required. Source: [Béroule Dominique G. The irreplaceable role of sleep in building long-term memories: offline integration of free cortical units and its possible implication in autism. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1777687; article XML SHA-256 a9ca48e91948e03a91c124ff88bc9c9216b68c65f5a4ad33e88ee2916f9062e8. “The irreplaceable role of sleep in building long-term memories: offline integration of free cortical units and its possible implication in autism” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1777687).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1777687) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- labor union [redraft]: The added workplace-centered description is unsupported by the source packet and goes beyond the requested source-based sense.; The definition includes wording (“in this source, it is described as one kind of group…”) that is directionally supported, but the initial descriptive sentence adds unsupported content from outside the packet.; The packet does not define a labor union as an organized worker group within or around a workplace; it only mentions a labor union as one example of a group that may help strengthen followers’ unity and cohesion.; The packet does not support the claim that a “labor union” is “an organized worker group within or around a workplace.” It only mentions “setting up a labor union” as an example of a group used to strengthen followers’ unity and cohesion. New packet required. Source: [Li Hua; Li Yifan. Inquiry of the Practice of Leadership in Chengguan: A Study Based on the Ethnographic Research of Z City. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.857043; article XML SHA-256 927e58c4f52bab11f56866130e89057fe987fa954265893926e08fb8a6a9d823. “Inquiry of the Practice of Leadership in Chengguan: A Study Based on the Ethnographic Research of Z City” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.857043).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.857043) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- -lalia [redraft]: The example description should stay within the packet’s wording: echolalia is the repetition of words and tones addressed to the subject, not a broader claim about repeated spoken words in general.; The packet does not support the claim that “it is used in terms describing forms of speaking” in general; it only explicitly provides the element’s use in the single term *echolalia* (and *echophasia*).; The packet supports Greek lalia as “prattle,” but not the added gloss “speech.”; The packet supports that “lalia” (in the etymology of *echolalia*) means “prattle” (shown as “[Gr. … + lalia, prattle]”), but it does not support the expanded meaning “prattle or speech.”; The statement that -lalia is “used in terms describing forms of speaking” is too general; the packet only shows it in echolalia. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Echolalia (also Echophasia)” (Echolalia (also Echophasia)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Echolalia (also Echophasia)) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- Lamarckism [redraft]: Packet never names Lamarckism; it ties Neo-Lamarckism to inner tendency, not use-inheritance. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Determinate (in biology)” (Determinate (in biology)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D2defs.htm#Determinate (in biology)) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- Langerhans cells [redraft]: Narrows a general cell type to ocular surface and recounts study findings as definition. New packet required. Source: [Choi Eun Young; Kang Hyun Goo; Lee Chul Hee; Yeo Areum; Noh Hye Mi; Gu Nayeong; Kim Myoung Joon; Song Jong Suk; Kim Hyeon Chang; Lee Hyung Keun. Langerhans cells prevent subbasal nerve damage and upregulate neurotrophic factors in dry eye disease. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0176153; article XML SHA-256 c945c91efb96ee7d2a1ca7ad0c201aa358714681cf3de3e3a1ce708bc1d37b5e. “Langerhans cells prevent subbasal nerve damage and upregulate neurotrophic factors in dry eye disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0176153).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176153) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- language maintenance [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence claims that language maintenance means the “continued keeping up” of a heritage language. The packet discusses “attitudes, practices and challenges toward heritage language maintenance” and contexts (home/community/heritage language school), but it does not define language maintenance as “continued keeping up.”; The packet mentions home, community, and heritage-language-school contexts and attitudes/practices/challenges, but it does not support the broader wording about a heritage language being maintained “within a population or setting” as a general definition.; The packet supports a research domain on heritage language maintenance, not a direct definition of the term as “continued keeping up” of a language.; The second sentence shifts from defining the term to describing this article’s specific scope (Chinese and its varieties in Inner Circle countries), which is narrower than the term itself. New packet required. Source: [Song Xinrui. Heritage language maintenance in the Inner Circle: a scoping review of Chinese and its varieties. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1719014; article XML SHA-256 f98ca8b6a7587222d43bdea285aa7fda6faaa244d50656f946bcf86b66286ab6. “Heritage language maintenance in the Inner Circle: a scoping review of Chinese and its varieties” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1719014).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1719014) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- language pathology [redraft]: The claim that assessment and intervention affect access to education and health services is broader than the packet’s support, which discusses educational barriers, misidentification, and wellbeing outcomes but does not establish this as a general definitional feature of the field.; The definition overgeneralizes from a Canadian scoping-review background into a field-wide statement about how the area is defined and practiced.; The packet supports speech-language pathology practice, not a distinct term or sense of "language pathology" as named in the definition.; The packet uses the term “Speech‑Language Pathology” / “S‑LP” and does not define or explicitly support “language pathology” as a term or as the intended scope of the field. New packet required. Source: [Komeili Mariam; Robinson Jessi; Akrigg Hannah. From cultural awareness to safety in Canadian speech‑language pathology practice: A scoping review protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347949; article XML SHA-256 8983e2f20e9458dd56a0b52bf0347e9c28f9e8dab048b4adf55ef4592fc3953e. “From cultural awareness to safety in Canadian speech‑language pathology practice: A scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347949).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347949) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- language transfer [redraft]: Wrong sense; language transfer normally means cross-linguistic influence, not a translation task. New packet required. Source: [Keller Laura; Viebahn Malte C.; Hervais-Adelman Alexis; Seeber Kilian G.. Unpacking the multilingualism continuum: An investigation of language variety co-activation in simultaneous interpreters. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0289484; article XML SHA-256 de6991a05b74c15bd4e60cd5d2508aa7a85b47024ab966b23223a8b956482acb. “Unpacking the multilingualism continuum: An investigation of language variety co-activation in simultaneous interpreters” (10.1371/journal.pone.0289484).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289484) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- large-sample method [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“used when the number of observations is sufficiently large”) is not explicitly supported anywhere in the provided packet text; the packet only mentions “large sample method” as one referenced method without stating the condition about large observation counts.; The opening general definition (“a statistical approach used when the number of observations is sufficiently large”) is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the source text.; The packet does support that the discussion involves “testing the equality and constructing CI for the difference of two correlated proportions in the presence of incomplete paired binary data,” but the definition adds an additional general characterization of when it is used (“sufficiently large”) that is not evidenced in the packet.; The packet supports only the specific use in the article’s background: a large-sample method for testing equality of two correlated proportions and constructing confidence intervals for their difference with incomplete paired binary data; the definition broadens this into a general statistical category without support.; The requested field is not well supported by the source, which is a statistics/methods article rather than a cognition reference. New packet required. Source: [Li Hui-Qiong; Tang Nian-Sheng; Yi Jie-Yi. Confidence intervals construction for difference of two means with incomplete correlated data. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12874-016-0125-3; article XML SHA-256 fff70f94f53e343fa601523d4efb153ee48f7a32fe2f2e0495d641a548e02b0a. “Confidence intervals construction for difference of two means with incomplete correlated data” (10.1186/s12874-016-0125-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-016-0125-3) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Larodopa [redraft]: Packet is a levodopa record and never mentions Larodopa; synonym claim unsupported. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Levodopa” (C611).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- LAT [redraft]: The packet supports “Latvian language” and the article’s focus on Latvian-as-heritage-language learning, but it does not show that the acronym “LAT” itself is the term used in the article; the text uses “LAT-HL.”; The packet uses the term explicitly as “LAT-HL” (Latvian as a heritage language). It does not define “LAT” by itself as referring to Latvian, so the requested sense of “LAT” is not fully supported.; The statement that LAT is discussed in relation to students’ participation and choice is broadly supported, but the definition overstates the acronym’s usage by folding in a specific sense not established for “LAT” alone. New packet required. Source: [Burr Solvita. “Why can’t we speak in Latvian sometimes?”: learner agency in the language classroom in Latvian diaspora schools. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1670007; article XML SHA-256 2edae0a7a665300c3f1a71b0d91096aa7b2bd33e5b36917def36649408cafdce. ““Why can’t we speak in Latvian sometimes?”: learner agency in the language classroom in Latvian diaspora schools” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1670007).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1670007) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- late bilingualism [redraft]: The claim that late bilingualism is ‘shaped by age and plasticity’ is broader than the packet’s wording, which says age is a modulating factor and discusses plasticity/variability in relation to bilingualism, not late bilingualism alone.; The claim that, “In this research context, it is discussed as varying across individuals and being shaped by age and plasticity” is broadly consistent with the packet, but because the core definitional sentence (later acquisition in life) is not supported, the overall definition is not defensible.; The packet does not explicitly define “late bilingualism” as “bilingualism that develops when a second language is acquired later in life rather than early on.” It only mentions “early and late bilingualism” as categories without providing the requested definitional meaning.; The packet supports that the topic concerns early and late bilingualism, variability, plasticity, and age, but it does not explicitly define late bilingualism as acquiring a second language later in life rather than earlier. New packet required. Source: [Birdsong David. Plasticity, Variability and Age in Second Language Acquisition and Bilingualism. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00081; article XML SHA-256 9f23336ca5e92ad9ba9834ce4051cd836726c4a58f3ac03c16765e21e05e5de4. “Plasticity, Variability and Age in Second Language Acquisition and Bilingualism” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00081).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00081) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- latent inhibition [redraft]: The definition’s second sentence claims that latent inhibition “reflects the tendency for familiar, previously irrelevant stimuli to attract less attention when they later become important for learning,” but the packet does not explicitly state this “less attention when later become important” phrasing. It discusses a “leaky” attentional style and difficulty inhibiting irrelevant information, plus associations with creativity/peripheral details, but not the specific general attention-to-importance mechanism described in the definition.; The first sentence is broadly supported, but the second sentence adds an interpretive claim about familiar, previously irrelevant stimuli attracting less attention when they later become important for learning; the packet instead says latent inhibition is a retardation in learning after prior exposure without explicit consequences and discusses attentional style in relation to reduced latent inhibition, not this exact formulation. New packet required. Source: [Badiola-Lekue Ixone; Arriola Naiara; Rodríguez Gabriel. The relationship between latent inhibition, divergent thinking, and eyewitness memory: A study on attention to irrelevant stimuli. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315158; article XML SHA-256 d05d67d307e87a0fd4eb060d56e043ba3832b9ee7b7def4385748252c3576215. “The relationship between latent inhibition, divergent thinking, and eyewitness memory: A study on attention to irrelevant stimuli” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315158).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315158) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- lateral corticospinal tract [redraft]: The definition slightly overstates the packet by turning a measurement description into a clinical interpretation that is not explicitly supported in the supplied text.; The definition states that the lateral corticospinal tract is “a tract in the side of the spinal cord, including the cervical region,” but the packet only mentions measuring “within the lateral corticospinal tract in the cervical region” and does not explicitly support the broader anatomical description (“tract in the side of the spinal cord”).; The rest of the definition is largely supported by the packet (MRI diffusion metrics/FA and magnetization transfer ratio in the lateral corticospinal tract, and assessing tract changes as a possible marker of motor neuron degeneration and progression in ALS), so the rejection hinges on the unsupported anatomical phrasing.; The second sentence adds an unsupported study conclusion: the packet only says imaging metrics were measured in the lateral corticospinal tract and compared with clinical scales; it does not state that tract changes were assessed as a marker of motor neuron degeneration or disease progression in ALS. New packet required. Source: [El Mendili Mohamed-Mounir; Cohen-Adad Julien; Pelegrini-Issac Mélanie; Rossignol Serge; Morizot-Koutlidis Régine; Marchand-Pauvert Véronique; Iglesias Caroline; Sangari Sina; Katz Rose; Lehericy Stéphane; Benali Habib; Pradat Pierre-François. Multi-Parametric Spinal Cord MRI as Potential Progression Marker in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0095516; article XML SHA-256 3cd8c787e9700654ce8ac13fbbfd4a5266735056c2bfcebfefb712f1832aeff8. “Multi-Parametric Spinal Cord MRI as Potential Progression Marker in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0095516).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0095516) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- lateral fissure [redraft]: Because the first substantive claim (“deep groove”) is not supported by the provided packet, the definition as given cannot be accepted.; The definition adds a general anatomical description that is not supported by the supplied source packet.; The packet does not define the lateral fissure as a “deep groove in the brain”; it only states that the insula is “located in the deep part of the lateral fissure.”; The packet supports that the insula is located in the deep part of the lateral fissure, but it does not state that the lateral fissure itself is a deep groove in the brain. New packet required. Source: [Hu Lan; He Hui; Roberts Neil; Chen Jiajia; Yan Guojian; Pu Li; Song Xufeng; Luo Cheng. Insular dysfunction of interoception in major depressive disorder: from the perspective of neuroimaging. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1273439; article XML SHA-256 792669cfdc7bc3b552913dc92f141fc2d03d3024a2e1d4bfabba58dded679c12. “Insular dysfunction of interoception in major depressive disorder: from the perspective of neuroimaging” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1273439).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1273439) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- lateral lemniscus [redraft]: Second sentence reports what the VNLL study found rather than defining the term; 'pathway' framing not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Spencer Martin J.; Nayagam David A. X.; Clarey Janine C.; Paolini Antonio G.; Meffin Hamish; Burkitt Anthony N.; Grayden David B.. Broadband Onset Inhibition Can Suppress Spectral Splatter in the Auditory Brainstem. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0126500; article XML SHA-256 ac32280571c594a87b08e0149a13fbd837dc72d39d1d21addff6629c0602ff2c. “Broadband Onset Inhibition Can Suppress Spectral Splatter in the Auditory Brainstem” (10.1371/journal.pone.0126500).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0126500) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- lateral sulcus [redraft]: The definition claims the lateral sulcus was measured for “cortical thickening”; the packet reports “relatively prominent expansion” of cortical strata in the floor of the lateral sulcus, but it does not explicitly describe this as “cortical thickening.”; The definition states that the lateral sulcus is “a groove on the surface of the cerebral cortex,” but the provided packet text does not explicitly define the lateral sulcus (or sulci) as a “groove.”; The field provided is “diagnosis,” but the packet describes an anatomical measurement in ferrets after valproic acid exposure; no diagnostic sense is supported in the packet.; The packet does not explicitly define the lateral sulcus as a groove on the cerebral cortex; that anatomical gloss is not stated in the supplied text.; The packet supports that the lateral sulcus showed a larger surface area after neonatal/developmental VPA exposure, but it does not explicitly support that this study measured the lateral sulcus for changes in cortical thickening. New packet required. Source: [Sawada Kazuhiko; Kamiya Shiori; Aoki Ichio. Neonatal valproic acid exposure produces altered gyrification related to increased parvalbumin-immunopositive neuron density with thickened sulcal floors. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0250262; article XML SHA-256 39dfec25300c6b53058e031348fdecc0b35eafff8fba89019309c0eac543aa43. “Neonatal valproic acid exposure produces altered gyrification related to increased parvalbumin-immunopositive neuron density with thickened sulcal floors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0250262).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250262) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- law of large numbers [redraft]: Because the core defining mechanism (“settle toward stable values” / convergence to stable values) is not explicitly supported by the packet, the provided definition includes an unsupported substantive claim.; The first sentence is a general statistical definition that is not established by the supplied text, which discusses the issue only in the context of length-of-stay data and subexponential tails.; The packet does not state the general law of large numbers idea that “as more observations are collected… sample-based quantities such as the mean tend to settle toward stable values.” It only mentions “slow convergence of the Law of Large Numbers” in relation to empirical estimates (e.g., mean, variance) being unreliable.; The packet only supports that the law of large numbers converges slowly in this setting and that empirical estimates of moments may be unreliable; it does not define the law of large numbers itself as sample quantities settling toward stable values with more observations. New packet required. Source: [Dehouche Nassim; Viravan Sorawit; Santawat Ubolrat; Torsuwan Nungruethai; Taijan Sakuna; Intharakosum Atthakorn; Sirivatanauksorn Yongyut. Hospital length of stay: A cross-specialty analysis and Beta-geometric model. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288239; article XML SHA-256 f3d557cb1ed2a68e802f1935d27b363556f4af43229cebe488c1c4f987d5ddc8. “Hospital length of stay: A cross-specialty analysis and Beta-geometric model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288239).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288239) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- LBW [redraft]: The definition adds an unsourced gloss (“a baby is born weighing less than expected”) rather than staying within the packet’s wording; the packet only supports the term low birthweight and that an integrated intervention package substantially reduced LBW.; The definition states that LBW “can be reduced” through “combined health, nutrition, psychosocial, and sanitation-related support,” which is broadly consistent with the packet’s claim that an integrated package including WaSH reduced LBW, but this does not compensate for the unsupported definition/meaning sentence.; The field is not defensible from the packet: the source is a public-health/obstetric article about low birthweight, not a cognition term.; The packet does not explicitly define “LBW” as “a baby is born weighing less than expected,” nor does it provide a threshold or equivalent wording for that meaning.; The phrasing “combined health, nutrition, psychosocial, and sanitation-related support” is a paraphrase of the packet’s “health, nutrition, psychosocial and water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) interventions”; the source does not establish this as the definition of the acronym.; The provided field is “cognition,” while the packet describes maternal undernutrition/anaemia/low birthweight as public health challenges and an intervention study protocol; this mismatch is not supported by the packet’s content. New packet required. Source: [Jadaun Arun Singh; Kumar Jaideep; Gadapani Pathak Barsha; Devi Sudha; Thakur Pradeep Kumar; Beri Gopal; Dutt Mohan; Thakur Seema; Verma Sanjiv Kumar; Mankotia Sanjay; Chauhan Anjali; Kumar Ravinder; Chaudhary Ankit; Kalia Richa; Sharma Devinder; Chowdhury Ranadip; Dhabhai Neeta; Anand Vinod Kumar; Taneja Sunita; Bhandari Nita; Mazumder Sarmila. Implementation research to scale up the women and infants integrated interventions for growth study (WINGS) in Himachal Pradesh: Protocol for a quasi-experimental, mixed-methods study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341048; article XML SHA-256 ba76a560250ecd757ff75c204993319ea3ebddb4074291d63f22c1c77108db0a. “Implementation research to scale up the women and infants integrated interventions for growth study (WINGS) in Himachal Pradesh: Protocol for a quasi-experimental, mixed-methods study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341048).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341048) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- leader [redraft]: Redefines the general headword 'leader' as the study's health-oriented-leadership construct via 'in this context'. New packet required. Source: [Kowalski Sofija; von Gehlen Johannes Günther. From self-care to motivation: health-oriented leadership and basic psychological need satisfaction at work. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1807780; article XML SHA-256 ba2f99ded8638bc2bfcebc8210a502d645f77ff373b5d97149f973746a6562d8. “From self-care to motivation: health-oriented leadership and basic psychological need satisfaction at work” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1807780).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1807780) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- leadership role [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“selected or preferred to act as a leader”) is not supported by the provided packet text, which discusses hypothetical elections and voice-pitch preferences rather than defining what makes a “leadership role.”; The definition’s wording that “some [roles] are commonly viewed as more feminine and more often held by women” is only partially supported by the packet’s parenthetical (“i.e., feminine leadership roles”) and “typically held by women,” but the packet does not support the broader claim about “commonly viewed” roles.; The packet does not define “leadership role” as a general position in which someone is selected or preferred to act as a leader; it only discusses selecting leaders in an experiment.; The packet does not explicitly describe leadership roles as varying by “social domain” in the way the definition states; it only uses the phrase “specific context of leadership positions that are typically held by women (i.e., feminine leadership roles).”; The second sentence overgeneralizes the source’s study context into a broad definition of leadership roles varying by social domain. New packet required. Source: [Anderson Rindy C.; Klofstad Casey A.. Preference for Leaders with Masculine Voices Holds in the Case of Feminine Leadership Roles. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0051216; article XML SHA-256 050351b399b64aae8aba867ef81c1b4ae75ff6fc5d611ea679708cdd4c73245b. “Preference for Leaders with Masculine Voices Holds in the Case of Feminine Leadership Roles” (10.1371/journal.pone.0051216).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051216) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- leadership style [redraft]: The definition broadens beyond the packet by presenting a general dictionary-style meaning of leadership style; the source packet only supports a specific coaching leadership context and its democratic orientation, not a general claim about leadership style overall.; The definition’s first sentence (“Leadership style is the characteristic way a leader relates to and guides others”) is a general characterization that is not explicitly stated in the packet text you provided.; The packet supports democratic leadership as open communication, emotional concern, and structured guidance, and it links this to perceived support, stress buffering, and engagement, but it does not directly support the added claim that leadership style affects motivation in this sense. New packet required. Source: [Li Jingjing; Xing Suxuan. Direct and indirect effects of coaching leadership style on athlete engagement. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1531049; article XML SHA-256 def5b2618d14a7ed4cfd4c2d24c2170dca487d2ab97bae49b5ab9a0bdddd63cd. “Direct and indirect effects of coaching leadership style on athlete engagement” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1531049).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1531049) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- leakage [redraft]: General headword 'leakage' narrowed to post-hepatectomy bile leak with an 'in this context' hedge. New packet required. Source: [Hanaki Takehiko; Shibata Yuji; Sunada Hiroshi; Noma Hisashi; Ueki Masaru; Fujiwara Yoshiyuki. ICG fluorescence imaging-guided bile leak detection to reduce clinically relevant bile leakage after hepatectomy: A protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346089; article XML SHA-256 f1036179ec70abdf1abeb571c5cb9d0ad4686ccf49d3c23b18028ebbaa54f9fe. “ICG fluorescence imaging-guided bile leak detection to reduce clinically relevant bile leakage after hepatectomy: A protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346089).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346089) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- learned response [redraft]: The definition adds an extra claim about the response becoming effective in the changed conditions; the packet only says detour performance improved across constant-orientation trials after inhibiting the previously learned response, not that the new response itself is the general dictionary meaning of the term.; The definition’s first sentence provides a general characterization of “learned response” (e.g., “acquired through prior experience,” “tends to be repeated in the same situation”) that is not stated in the provided packet.; The packet discusses a detour task in which elephants inhibit a “previously learned response (i.e., a direction in which they had previously detoured)” when conditions change, but it does not explicitly use or define the term “learned response” in the broad way described in the definition.; The packet supports a specific experimental sense of a previously learned detour direction that had to be inhibited after the box orientation changed, but it does not support the broad general definition of a learned response as any behavior pattern acquired through prior experience and repeated in the same situation.; The second sentence adds interpretation (“previously used detour direction that had to be suppressed when conditions changed”) which is broadly consistent with the packet, but the definition presents it as the requested meaning of the term without the packet supplying a formal definition of “learned response.” New packet required. Source: [Hope Sydney F.; Jacobson Sarah L.; Dittakul Sangpa; Schmitt Gillian; Pla-ard Mananya; Yindee Marnoch; Angkawanish Taweepoke; Plotnik Joshua M.. Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus ) demonstrate inhibitory control in a detour task. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356549; article XML SHA-256 47ce2a34672faed8b125a5ff659c84d2d7eda01fb4359a47f0f2875961cddf05. “Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus ) demonstrate inhibitory control in a detour task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356549).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356549) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- learning center [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence provides a general characterization (“A learning center is a brain region involved in acquiring a particular kind of learned behavior”), but the packet does not explicitly define or support this general meaning of “learning center.”; The opening generic definition (“a brain region involved in acquiring a particular kind of learned behavior”) is not stated in the packet and is broader than the source supports.; The packet supports only a specific parrot vocal-learning center (MMSt); it does not define a general sense of “learning center” as a term.; While the packet mentions “a parrot vocal learning center, the magnocellular nucleus of the medial striatum (MMSt),” it does not explicitly state that this specific center is “linked to learning new vocalizations” in those exact terms; it only describes measuring FoxP2 expression in that region during a 20-day learning period and assessing vocal learning ability more broadly.; “Linked to learning new vocalizations” is only indirectly supported and should not be presented as a general definitional claim. New packet required. Source: [Moussaoui Bushra; Ulmer Kennedy; Araya-Salas Marcelo; Wright Timothy F. Persistent vocal learning in an aging open-ended learner reflected in neural FoxP2 expression. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12868-024-00879-8; article XML SHA-256 bcfdaba1253ac32a93fa10e9cb35151928fd32c94f472569a0f24b3315228c5e. “Persistent vocal learning in an aging open-ended learner reflected in neural FoxP2 expression” (10.1186/s12868-024-00879-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-024-00879-8) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- learning skills [redraft]: The link to executive functioning and academic attainment is only presented as a study aim to evaluate relationships, not as a settled definitional statement.; The packet does not define learning skills as “the abilities used to learn”; it only reports a study about impairments in executive functions and learning skills.; The packet does not define “learning skills” as “the abilities used to learn,” nor does it explicitly state that they “can vary in strength.”; The packet supports that the study examines impairments in executive functions and learning skills, and evaluates relationships between executive functions, learning skills, and academic attainment; however, it does not explicitly state that learning skills are “related to executive functioning” and “to academic attainment” in the definitional sense used.; The packet supports the idea that “mild to moderate deficits have a significant impact on learning skills” (as a hypothesis), but the remainder of the definition includes claims not directly supported by the provided text.; “May be affected by mild to moderate deficits” is not supported as a general definition; the packet says the authors hypothesized that mild to moderate deficits in executive functioning have a significant impact on learning skills. New packet required. Source: [Farooqi A.; Adamsson M.; Serenius F.; Hägglöf B.. Executive Functioning and Learning Skills of Adolescent Children Born at Fewer than 26 Weeks of Gestation. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0151819; article XML SHA-256 2ca16642412656d9cce16daa78f804bd076b0611c664f8def853403dbfbc172e. “Executive Functioning and Learning Skills of Adolescent Children Born at Fewer than 26 Weeks of Gestation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0151819).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151819) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- learning trial [redraft]: The definition adds a broader explanatory gloss (“to show how well a person learns the material at that point”) that is not explicitly supported by the packet.; The definition’s characterization of a “learning trial” as “a single round or attempt within a learning or memory task” is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text.; The packet only specifies that “memory performance was measured with the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) using performance on learning trial 1” and does not define what a learning trial is in general (e.g., as a round/attempt).; The packet uses “learning trial 1” as a task-specific measure but does not define “learning trial” as a general single round or attempt within a learning or memory task. New packet required. Source: [Barber Nicolette; Valoumas Ioannis; Leger Krystal R.; Chang Yu-Ling; Huang Chih-Mao; Goh Joshua Oon Soo; Gutchess Angela. Culture, prefrontal volume, and memory. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298235; article XML SHA-256 6d7aa2ffc3736669443e1ac740e74fb58d36c3eb8ba3416fcca4925ccc10c06a. “Culture, prefrontal volume, and memory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298235).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298235) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- least squares criterion [redraft]: It slightly overgeneralizes the source by presenting the criterion as a general model-fitting rule without limiting it to the packet’s stated filtering context.; The definition adds ‘prediction error,’ which is not supported by the packet; the packet only mentions minimizing filtering error.; The definition adds “while fitting the model,” but the packet describes an adaptation algorithm for a filtering method rather than model fitting in that phrasing.; The definition claims the criterion is “minimizing the squared error”; the packet does not explicitly describe it as squared error (it only names “least-squares criterion”).; The packet only states that parameters “are adapted on the basis of a least-squares criterion to minimize the filtering error”; it does not mention prediction error. New packet required. Source: [Wada Tomoya; Fukumori Kosuke; Tanaka Toshihisa; Fiori Simone. Anisotropic Gaussian kernel adaptive filtering by Lie-group dictionary learning. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0237654; article XML SHA-256 bf8c1c6e8106940667a395426912234fa0d2f3b8e715cd905461ebd2b5d4aace. “Anisotropic Gaussian kernel adaptive filtering by Lie-group dictionary learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0237654).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237654) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- legibility [redraft]: The only directly supported usage is that “legibility will depend on the speed with which the fork is pulled” in a vibration-recording apparatus; the definition’s broader explanation is not present in the supplied text.; The packet does not define “legibility” as the clearness of a recorded trace or as being easily read or interpreted; it only says the legibility of the tuning-fork record depends on the speed with which the fork is pulled.; The packet does not explicitly define “legibility” as “the clearness of a recorded trace” or as “markings [being] easily read or interpreted.”; “Here, it refers to how plainly the vibration record appears” is an unsupported gloss beyond the source passage. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-1680000-1692000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- lens model [redraft]: It adds a generalized description of the model as a system for understanding deception, but the packet presents it specifically as the Brunswik Lens Model of Deception in autistic adulthood rather than a broad clinical framework.; The definition is about a theoretical framework for deception research, not a diagnosis-related concept, so the field is not defensible from the packet.; The definition omits the “Brunswik” qualifier present in the packet, while the packet’s substantive description is tied to that specific named model.; The provided packet frames the term specifically as the “Brunswik Lens Model of Deception” and discusses deception processes in autistic adulthood; it does not support presenting “lens model” as a term used in the field of “diagnosis.” New packet required. Source: [Blackhurst Tiegan; Warmelink Lara; Roestorf Amanda; Hartley Calum. The Brunswik Lens Model: a theoretical framework for advancing understanding of deceptive communication in autism. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1388726; article XML SHA-256 eca1bc599ad33b00cf87e02b33e6eaa7578ba3dc19c64ac4cdf6d1546576e080. “The Brunswik Lens Model: a theoretical framework for advancing understanding of deceptive communication in autism” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1388726).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1388726) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- level of analysis [redraft]: Well-known headword (unit/level of analysis) given only the latent-vs-descriptive sense; 'usually' overgeneralises one study's justification. New packet required. Source: [BMC: Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies. Version of record 2018-11-21; DOI 10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7. “Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency” (05ea0554db4e6d0f11b4).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- level of significance [redraft]: The definition’s claim that results below the cutoff are “treated as changes that were in the expected direction but not strong enough to count as significant” is loosely consistent with the packet’s phrasing that “Most other changes were in expected direction, but did not reach level of significance,” but the packet does not provide enough information to support the full “cutoff used in a study” explanation.; The packet does not define what a “level of significance” is (e.g., it does not state it is a cutoff such as an alpha threshold).; The packet only shows the phrase in a results sentence; it does not define ‘level of significance’ as a study cutoff or explain the concept in general.; “If findings do not reach this level, they are treated as changes that were in the expected direction but not strong enough to count as significant” overgeneralizes a single study’s wording into a general rule. New packet required. Source: [Västhagen Maja; Özdemir Metin; Kimber Birgitta; Ghaderi Ata; Place Vanessa; Enebrink Pia. A brief universal parenting program for recently settled immigrants in Sweden: a feasibility study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04026-2; article XML SHA-256 45c6065caa05e1fdb900d603ea180b39cdca92d18904ef980147f516b8bf5c1c. “A brief universal parenting program for recently settled immigrants in Sweden: a feasibility study” (10.1186/s40359-026-04026-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04026-2) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- life coaching [redraft]: Describes that life coaching has been studied rather than saying what it is; no definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Aboalshamat Khalid; Al-Zaidi Duha; Jawa Duha; Al-Harbi Hanouf; Alharbi Raghad; Al-Otaibi Shahad. The effect of life coaching on psychological distress among dental students: interventional study. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s40359-020-00475-5; article XML SHA-256 fe17c560a4455aaa7f12d2de53b2bbe1b0c399b61e358d557f00e7347ac7b55f. “The effect of life coaching on psychological distress among dental students: interventional study” (10.1186/s40359-020-00475-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-020-00475-5) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- life crisis [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the packet by presenting a broad, generic meaning of “life crisis,” while the source only states that prematurity is a significant life crisis for families in this study context.; The packet only provides an example context (prematurity for families/fathers) and does not explicitly support the general wording that a “life crisis” is any “major stressful event or situation” that can “overwhelm … expectations and demands.”; The packet supports psychological changes, self-evaluation, and the possibility of positive transformations in response to such crises, but it does not provide support for the full definition’s more general formulations about expectations/demands being overwhelmed.; The positive-change part is supported, but the wording still goes beyond the packet’s limited context of fathers of preterm infants and should not be presented as a general consensus definition.; “Overwhelm a person’s or family’s expectations and demands” is only loosely implied by “exceeding their expectations” and is not directly supported as a general definition. New packet required. Source: [Yin Lina; Liu Yanli; Sunzi Kejimu; Huang Dandan; Huang Jing; Tang Liangmei; Liu Minghui. The posttraumatic growth of fathers of preterm infants: protocol for a qualitative study in China. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1444226; article XML SHA-256 42a47de4fb656e4c6580de49d98ed09b849b6b5dca7d9665f9c7c95d4ffdc061. “The posttraumatic growth of fathers of preterm infants: protocol for a qualitative study in China” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1444226).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1444226) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- life space [redraft]: Because the definition includes unsupported substantive claims beyond what is evidenced in the provided packet excerpt, the overall definition is not defensible.; The claim that life space can become constricted over time is not stated in the packet as a definition of the term, only as part of the study’s research focus on life space constriction.; The definition adds an explanatory pathway claim in a way that goes beyond the source’s wording and should not be presented as a settled definition.; The packet only supports that life space constriction was evaluated as a possible mediator between physical/cognitive decline and incident dementia risk; it does not support defining life space itself as a person-level aspect of functioning.; The packet text does not define “life space” as a “person-level aspect of functioning,” nor does it state that it “can become constricted over time.” The only provided support is that the study evaluates “life space constriction” as a mediator.; While the packet does support that life space constriction has a mediating role in the pathway between physio-cognitive aging trajectories (physical and cognitive decline) and “incident dementia risk,” the definition’s additional wording about life space being a specific person-level functioning aspect is not supported by the supplied excerpt. New packet required. Source: [Wang Shiyi; Wang Xiaoke; Zhou Jun; Zhou Lin. Joint trajectories of objective physical function and cognition and risk of incident dementia: a population-based cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804952; article XML SHA-256 ddc022624042952297241fb61221566ec5d37a73cb151328711f51b2a1eedb05. “Joint trajectories of objective physical function and cognition and risk of incident dementia: a population-based cohort study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804952).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1804952) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- life stress [redraft]: The causal phrasing should stay closer to the study’s model: it proposed that work-related life stress may indirectly increase depressive symptoms via sleep disturbance, rather than stating a general settled effect on sleep problems and depression.; The definition describes life stress as strain from stressors in “everyday life, including work-related pressures,” but the packet specifically operationalizes and measures “work-related stressors” and does not support the broader “everyday life” framing.; The packet supports work-related life stress/stressors, not the broader gloss “stressors in everyday life.”; While the packet supports that work-related life stressors are modeled to increase depressive symptoms indirectly by worsening “sleep disturbance,” it does not explicitly describe this as “a factor that may worsen sleep problems” in the general sense used by the definition. New packet required. Source: [Matsuda Eiko; Kikutani Mariko. Impacts of sleep disturbance and work-related life stress on depression among Japanese and Chinese workers. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305936; article XML SHA-256 902b5c5180dd5fada8335d873626f3fbe88b20d92835679bff7922a6d4bd263c. “Impacts of sleep disturbance and work-related life stress on depression among Japanese and Chinese workers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305936).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305936) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Lifetime of Experiences Questionnaire [redraft]: The definition should not generalize the instrument beyond the study context provided in the packet.; The packet does not support the general description that LEQ is used “to capture experiences across different stages of life”; it only states that lifetime musical activity was operationalized using LEQ with early, middle, and late life stages.; The packet provides evidence for LEQ’s role in this study (self-reported musical instrument playing across early, middle, late life), but does not support broader claims about what kinds of “experiences” the questionnaire captures beyond musical activity in this context.; The packet supports the LEQ as a self-report measure for lifetime musical activity, specifically participation in playing a musical instrument across early, middle, and late life stages; it does not support the broader claim that it captures “experiences across different stages of life” in general. New packet required. Source: [Liebscher Maxie; Dell’Orco Andrea; Doll-Lee Johanna; Buerger Katharina; Dechent Peter; Ewers Michael; Fliessbach Klaus; Glanz Wenzel; Hetzer Stefan; Janowitz Daniel; Kilimann Ingo; Laske Christoph; Lüsebrink Falk; Munk Matthias; Perneczky Robert; Peters Oliver; Preis Lukas; Priller Josef; Rauchmann Boris; Rostamzadeh Ayda; Roy-Kluth Nina; Scheffler Klaus; Schneider Anja; Schott Björn H.; Spottke Annika; Spruth Eike; Teipel Stefan; Wiltfang Jens; Jessen Frank; Düzel Emrah; Wagner Michael; Röske Sandra; Wirth Miranka; On behalf of DELCODE study group. Short communication: Lifetime musical activity and resting-state functional connectivity in cognitive networks. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299939; article XML SHA-256 57124aaa14c367bd197849bdd41a89876c2df4296e0e900b9cfb5ee38f2dd685. “Short communication: Lifetime musical activity and resting-state functional connectivity in cognitive networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299939).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299939) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- light reflex [redraft]: The definition adds a general modern gloss that is not supported by the supplied historical passage, which is about pupillary signs in general paralysis rather than defining the term itself.; The packet does not explicitly define “light reflex” as the normal narrowing (constriction) of the pupil to light; it only discusses “loss of pupillary light reflex” as a sign.; The packet does not explicitly define “light reflex” as the normal narrowing of the pupil to light; it only mentions loss of the pupillary light reflex and related pupil reactions. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2845500-2857500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- light sensitivity [redraft]: The definition states that light sensitivity “can appear with … neurological conditions such as migraine and meningitis,” but the packet does not characterize migraine or meningitis as “neurological” conditions; it only lists them among disorders associated with photophobia.; The packet supports abnormal sensitivity to light/photophobia, but it does not support the broad category “neurological conditions”; it only lists eye diseases, migraine, subarachnoid hemorrhage, meningitis, and other disorders.; “Can appear with eye and neurological conditions” is broader than the source text and adds an unsupported clinical grouping. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Photophobia” (D020795).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020795) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- lightness constancy [redraft]: Parts of the definition are not supported by the packet, including the claim about “changes in viewing conditions” altering the light reaching the eye; the packet discusses depth perception and retinal-image invariance in specific experiments rather than changes in viewing conditions.; The definition adds a broad generalization about stable appearance across changing viewing conditions that is not stated in the packet; the packet specifically discusses depth inversion and perceived spatial position, not lightness constancy under viewing-condition changes in general.; The definition’s phrasing about “relatively stable” perceived surface shade/reflectance is not directly stated in the packet; the packet discusses principles/assumptions (e.g., coplanar ratio) and empirical findings, not a concise behavioral definition of constancy.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “lightness constancy” as a general “tendency” to perceive surface shade/reflectance as stable; it only notes that some studies interpreted depth-inversion results “in terms of lightness constancy.”; The second sentence is awkwardly framed as an in-packet claim rather than a definition, and it is not clearly original to the source packet’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Arai Tetsuya; Masuda Tomohiro; Igarashi Yuka; Omori Keiko; Aizawa Yasunori; Masuda Naoe. Depth inversion with a 3D structure influences brightness perception. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0224192; article XML SHA-256 b488fbc8af795442bad5c423e1903f75599ac51cbd248ef2f18382ccfcb798d4. “Depth inversion with a 3D structure influences brightness perception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0224192).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224192) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- likelihood [redraft]: General headword 'likelihood' narrowed to elevated likelihood for autism with an 'in this context' hedge. New packet required. Source: [Conti E; Ieri F; Calderoni S; Apicella F; Chericoni N; Costanzo V; Marchi Viviana; Guzzetta A; Colombi C. Parent-mediated early intervention in infants and toddlers at elevated likelihood for autism: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1676968; article XML SHA-256 de7733bc6a799c462de2743cd8f7d59a4ca6d67d7fa1eb8fb3e4a0c3ba4bd59f. “Parent-mediated early intervention in infants and toddlers at elevated likelihood for autism: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1676968).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1676968) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- limbic epilepsy [redraft]: The definition adds a broader explanatory characterization that is not stated in the source packet; the source is not enough to support that anatomical description.; The definition claims limbic epilepsy “involv[es] the brain’s limbic circuits,” but the packet text does not state that limbic epilepsy is defined by involvement of limbic circuits (it only mentions “absence and limbic epilepsy including temporal lobe epilepsy” and discusses HCN channels’ role).; The packet supports a mention of limbic epilepsy in relation to seizure susceptibility and temporal lobe epilepsy, but it does not define limbic epilepsy as involving the brain’s limbic circuits. New packet required. Source: [Nakamura Yuki; Shi Xiuyu; Numata Tomohiro; Mori Yasuo; Inoue Ryuji; Lossin Christoph; Baram Tallie Z.; Hirose Shinichi. Novel HCN2 Mutation Contributes to Febrile Seizures by Shifting the Channel's Kinetics in a Temperature-Dependent Manner. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0080376; article XML SHA-256 4b3544de8dde17c2b9042e22136fd525828aa943cb28b25a33b18c2451173f2f. “Novel HCN2 Mutation Contributes to Febrile Seizures by Shifting the Channel's Kinetics in a Temperature-Dependent Manner” (10.1371/journal.pone.0080376).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0080376) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- limen [redraft]: The meaning “the point at which something reaches the threshold” is not stated in the packet; the packet only gives an equivalence (“equivalent to THRESHOLD”) without defining it as a “point.”; The remaining related forms (liminal, subliminal, supraliminal) are supported, but the definition includes unsupported wording and is not fully faithful to the source.; The source supports that limen is equivalent to “threshold,” but not the added gloss “meaning the point at which something reaches the threshold.”; “Older term for threshold” is not explicitly supported by the packet; the packet states it is “equivalent to THRESHOLD … and is preferred,” but does not describe it as “older.”; “Older term” is not stated in the source; the packet only says limen is equivalent to threshold and that threshold is already current and preferred.; “Related forms are liminal … subliminal … supraliminal …” is supported in substance, but because the definition includes unsupported phrasing (“older term,” “point at which”), the overall definition is not defensible. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Limen” (Limen).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/L3defs.htm#Limen) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- limited responsibility [redraft]: The definition claims a “reduced sense of duty to assess and manage these patients compared with other emergency patients,” but the packet does not provide this specific comparison or an explicit duty/assessment/management reduction wording.; The packet supports that staff assumed “limited responsibility” for patients with mental illness and viewed them as inappropriate ED users, but it does not explicitly support that this means patients are “not really belonging in the emergency department,” nor that staff take “partial ownership” of their care.; The packet supports that staff saw patients with mental illness as inappropriate ED users and assumed limited responsibility, but it does not support the added contrast that this was less than for other emergency patients.; The phrase “not really belonging in the emergency department” is stronger and more specific than the packet’s wording and is not directly supported. New packet required. Source: [Orr Zvika; Jackson Levi; Alpert Evan Avraham; Fleming Mark D. Experiences providing care to patients with mental health conditions in a tertiary care hospital emergency department in Jerusalem. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340973; article XML SHA-256 8cf422189df43631737c041a7a6e7d0a647076d050cfb1604c2f364d7d0b0fb4. “Experiences providing care to patients with mental health conditions in a tertiary care hospital emergency department in Jerusalem” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340973).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340973) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- linear correlation [redraft]: The example (“physical activity level and depressive symptoms”) is mentioned in the packet, but the added general characterization is not supported by the provided source text.; The packet does not define “linear correlation” as a “measured straight-line relationship between two variables,” nor does it state that the purpose is to quantify a straight-line association.; The packet only indicates that the study aimed to “quantify the linear correlation between physical activity level and depressive symptoms,” but it does not support the definition’s general wording about “how changes in one variable are associated with changes in the other.”; The packet only shows that a study aimed to quantify the linear correlation between two variables; it does not define linear correlation as a measured straight-line relationship.; The statement that it is used to quantify how changes in one variable are associated with changes in the other goes beyond the packet’s wording and is not directly supported there. New packet required. Source: [Wang Yu; Mao Haiyu; Zhang Xueyun; Li Dekun; Liu Zhenkai; Shang Wei; Song Guoqiang. Association between physical activity and depression in university students: a systematic review and meta-analysis with public health implications. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850043; article XML SHA-256 48193d249767ad331571f9fe4ee165f231de503474aa99d7e5d2f1bb3d224f58. “Association between physical activity and depression in university students: a systematic review and meta-analysis with public health implications” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850043).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850043) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- linearizing [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet describes a Twin Rotor Aerodynamic System (TRAS) for control/optimization, not biological psychology-related content.; The definition’s first claim (“reworking a complex nonlinear system into a simpler, more nearly linear form… so its behavior can be analyzed and controlled more easily”) is not explicitly supported in the packet; the packet only states that the authors “analyz[ed] and lineariz[ed] the dynamic model,” without describing linearization as making behavior “more easily analyzed and controlled.”; The definition’s second claim (“simplifying a coupled model so it can be treated as separate subsystems”) is only partially supported: the packet says that after linearizing, TRAS is “decoupled into two… systems,” but it does not explicitly frame this as “simplifying a coupled model” or define it as the mechanism of linearization.; The requested field ‘biological’ is not supported by the packet; the source is about control of a twin rotor aerodynamic system and inverse neural control, which is an engineering/control-systems context rather than a biological one. New packet required. Source: [Al-Talabi Ahmad; Fahad Taqwa Oday; Mohammed Aqeel Abdulazeez; Mary Ali Hussien. Inverse modeling, analysis and control of twin rotor aerodynamic systems with optimized artificial intelligent controllers. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322999; article XML SHA-256 1b98cc24074c62d4660dc88ef9483bd6590835bfc4e6a17d4e475a2d6aeafddf. “Inverse modeling, analysis and control of twin rotor aerodynamic systems with optimized artificial intelligent controllers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322999).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322999) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- lingua franca [redraft]: The definition’s general wording that a lingua franca is “a common language people use to communicate when they do not share the same first language” is not stated in the provided packet.; The only substantiated part from the packet is that “English is widely used as a lingua franca in academic settings,” but the definition adds additional context (the “no shared first language” condition) that is not supported by the packet.; The packet supports that English is widely used as a lingua franca in academic settings, but it does not explicitly support the broader definitional claim that a lingua franca is a common language used when people do not share a first language. New packet required. Source: [Liu Wei; Zhao Pengfei. Chinese first-year undergraduates’ strategy use in the English writing from sources task: influences from genders, critical thinking, and L2 proficiency. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1290312; article XML SHA-256 813bd3382a347e04ff94880f6ed34b862ea669ba497976f0818cab13996c9ca4. “Chinese first-year undergraduates’ strategy use in the English writing from sources task: influences from genders, critical thinking, and L2 proficiency” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1290312).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1290312) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- lingual [redraft]: Because the packet lacks substantive support for the definition’s claims (what “lingual” means and how it is used to describe one vs multiple languages), the definition is not defensible based on the provided source.; The definition broadens the source beyond what is stated in the packet by generalizing from one English–Chinese benchmark description to a general lexical meaning.; The only related support in the packet is the use of terms like “cross-lingual” and “bilingual” in describing a benchmark; it does not support the requested general semantic definition of “lingual.”; The packet does not provide a definition or explicit statement that “lingual” means “related to language.”; The packet does not support the claim that “lingual” is used especially to distinguish whether something involves one language or more than one in general; that framing is an unsupported extrapolation.; The packet only supports the use of “cross-lingual” and “bilingual” to describe a benchmark setting; it does not define “lingual” as a general term meaning “related to language.” New packet required. Source: [Du Guang; Ma Biyuan; Liu Yan. CA-MuSiC: a Culture-Aware Multilingual Skill Cognition Model for MOOC review understanding. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1841361; article XML SHA-256 483b8bacbf0a072d41a921975a637b06d19da28ebabcd0cbb624af80ab03f45f. “CA-MuSiC: a Culture-Aware Multilingual Skill Cognition Model for MOOC review understanding” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1841361).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1841361) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- linguistic minority [redraft]: The claim that perceiving one’s group as a linguistic minority "can shape social identity" goes beyond the packet, which says social identification is associated with well-being and community participation and may offset negative effects, not that minority perception itself shapes identity.; The definition’s first sentence provides an explicit definitional characterization (“a group seen as being in the minority because of the language its members speak”), but the packet only refers to “perceiving one’s own group as a linguistic minority” and does not define what qualifies as a linguistic minority.; The packet does not define the term in general; it only discusses Basque speakers and the effect of perceiving one’s own group as a minority, so the first-sentence gloss is not directly supported as a dictionary definition. New packet required. Source: [Zabala Jon; Conejero Susana; Pascual Aitziber; Alonso-Arbiol Itziar; Amutio Alberto; Torres-Gomez Barbara; Padoan De Luca Sonia; Telletxea Saioa. Basque Ethnic Identity and Collective Empowerment: Two Key Factors in Well-Being and Community Participation. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.606316; article XML SHA-256 e7ff285cc4b073571c231fe01342de3f0b62706749b157d7ae76b72c81b329c2. “Basque Ethnic Identity and Collective Empowerment: Two Key Factors in Well-Being and Community Participation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.606316).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.606316) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Lioresal [redraft]: Packet is a baclofen record and never mentions Lioresal; the brand-name link is added, not supported. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Baclofen” (C28858).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- lip pursing [redraft]: The packet supports lip pursing as a dynamic facial movement measured in four-dimensional imaging, but it does not define the movement as lips being drawn together and tightened into a protruded shape.; The provided definition describes a facial movement/dynamic facial expression measured in four-dimensional imaging, which is not supported as being within the field of “cognition” by the packet (it is presented in an imaging/orthodontic monitoring context rather than cognitive processes).; The requested field, cognition, is not supported by the source; the term appears in an orthodontic/facial-motion imaging context rather than a cognition context. New packet required. Source: [Janssen Tim-Boyke; Mouchoux Jérémy; Wiechens Bernhard; Schliephake Henning; Meyer-Marcotty Philipp; Quast Anja. Four-dimensional imaging in teleorthodontics – analysis of accuracy in patients with dentofacial deformities compared with controls. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12903-025-07169-7; article XML SHA-256 2a220fa37ad21320774fa4ec7292e20facd38a4b8b7e4012223b07ca69b3e6a7. “Four-dimensional imaging in teleorthodontics – analysis of accuracy in patients with dentofacial deformities compared with controls” (10.1186/s12903-025-07169-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-025-07169-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- liquid [redraft]: General headword 'liquid' narrowed to a liquid form of antipsychotic medication via 'in this context'. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Schizophrenia. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 43270b4941f013ac9885be92f3b32f1ed64375ff1fb44d589f3cc1975e5a59a1. “Schizophrenia” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- LMX theory [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported generalization that LMX theory concerns exchange quality between a “leader or teacher” and a “member or student”; the packet only supports student-LMX in a higher-education setting and does not define the theory that broadly.; The packet does not explicitly define LMX theory as a “relationship-focused perspective” or describe it as examining “the quality of the exchange” between a leader/teacher and a member/student.; The packet supports that “student-LMX” moderates effects involving perceived risk and perceived benefit on feedback seeking, but it does not support the definition’s framing that this is what LMX theory itself is “used to explain” in general terms; the packet presents LMX theory as the basis for a study hypothesis/boundary condition rather than a general definition of the theory.; The study context is only partly supported: the packet says LMX moderated the risk pathway in feedback seeking, but it does not support the broader claim that stronger or weaker relationships generally change how people weigh risk and act on feedback-seeking. New packet required. Source: [Xie Han; Cheng Li. The effect of self-efficacy on feedback seeking among undergraduate students: the role of perceived risk cost and student-LMX. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847026; article XML SHA-256 d1f1dd48fa0a3d86bb50f4cfa9ab542a899337b01d120525aef524590a5a777b. “The effect of self-efficacy on feedback seeking among undergraduate students: the role of perceived risk cost and student-LMX” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847026).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1847026) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- loci [redraft]: The definition adds a broader genetics explanation and trait/disorder framing that is only partly supported by the packet and is not stated in the source.; The packet does not explicitly define “loci” as specific positions on chromosomes, nor does it state how loci are used to study genetic variation for links to traits/disorders.; The packet mentions “genome-wide significant loci” associated with PPH and describes polygenic architecture, but it does not support the definition’s broader claims about loci being “specific positions” and about studying genetic variation for disorder/trait links in general terms.; The packet supports GWAS-identified loci associated with pregnancy-related bleeding, but it does not define loci as specific positions on chromosomes.; The phrase about a locus showing a strong association on its own versus many loci contributing small effects is only indirectly suggested; the packet does not provide a general definition of loci. New packet required. Source: [Ji Deyu; Wang Xianjin; Zhao Meng; Liu Chunchen; Sun Kai. Multi-trait GWAS identifies pleiotropic loci shared between early pregnancy bleeding and psychiatric traits. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1911755; article XML SHA-256 a3ace38f299e845892b6d9ae8c582b5d479941c7d29443e2a3b9f5ff28d40eb8. “Multi-trait GWAS identifies pleiotropic loci shared between early pregnancy bleeding and psychiatric traits” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1911755).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1911755) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- locked ward [redraft]: The packet does not define what a “locked ward” is (e.g., as a specific type of inpatient psychiatric ward); it only mentions “open or locked ward” as categories in the study parameters.; The packet does not explicitly state that a locked ward is “distinguished from an open ward” as a treatment setting; it only refers to “duration of treatment in open or locked ward.”; The packet mentions “legally accommodated patients” and “duration of treatment in open or locked ward,” but it does not explicitly describe the locked ward as “a place where legally accommodated patients may spend part of their treatment.”; The packet supports that treatment occurred in an open or locked ward and involved legally accommodated patients, but it does not explicitly support defining a locked ward as a psychiatric inpatient ward.; The phrase 'as a treatment setting' is only partly supported; the source mentions duration of treatment in an open or locked ward, not a definitional statement about what a locked ward is. New packet required. Source: [Wolf Theresa; Fabel Philine; Kraschewski Adrian; Jockers-Scherübl Maria C.. From Wish to Reality: Soteria in Regular Care—Proof of Effectiveness of the Implementation of Soteria Elements in Acute Psychiatry. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.685779; article XML SHA-256 423b42777c3fdff90951a49c19a48c6394321d63549451eae582191cf8c363bc. “From Wish to Reality: Soteria in Regular Care—Proof of Effectiveness of the Implementation of Soteria Elements in Acute Psychiatry” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.685779).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.685779) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- lockout [redraft]: The definition is otherwise close to the packet, but the requested sense is a medical analgesia term rather than a cognition term.; The packet describes lockout/“lockout interval” as part of patient-controlled analgesia (a pharmacologic/medical pain-management mechanism), not as something in the domain of cognition (the packet does not support placing this term under the requested field: cognition).; The packet supports patient-controlled analgesia, but it does not support the field label "cognition" for this sense of "lockout". New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Analgesia, Patient-Controlled” (D016058).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016058) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- locomotion [redraft]: The general gloss “the act of moving from place to place” is not stated in the packet and is broader than the source’s focus on bipedal locomotion and adaptive gait.; The packet does not explicitly define “locomotion” as “the act of moving from place to place.” It only discusses “bipedal locomotion” and upper-limb haptic interactions during locomotion, without providing a general definition of the term.; The packet supports upper-limb haptic interactions during locomotion and their role in sensory information and control, but it does not define locomotion itself as a behavior shaped by body control and sensory input in the way stated here. New packet required. Source: [MacLellan Michael J.; Ivanenko Yury; Avaltroni Priscilla; Lacquaniti Francesco; Sylos-Labini Francesca. Sophisticated use of upper limb haptic interactions during adaptive locomotion. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1648450; article XML SHA-256 a3b6fb48d772fb4ca27b3e42299d4d710d099dd245072c11ef827c0dee4ceb39. “Sophisticated use of upper limb haptic interactions during adaptive locomotion” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1648450).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1648450) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- locomotor ataxia [redraft]: Headword given only the swayback-in-lambs sense via 'in this packet'; locomotor ataxia is a general gait disorder. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Swayback” (D013540).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013540) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- log-likelihood ratio [redraft]: The claim that it was “used … to identify statistically significant differences in word use” is only indirectly supported by the packet’s statement about statistically significant lexical differences, without explicit phrasing about “word use” broadly.; The definition should stay tightly within the supplied source’s wording and scope; the broader explanation of how the statistic works is an unsupported generalization.; The first sentence gives a general statistical definition (“tests how strongly data fit one pattern versus another”) that is not supported by the packet; the packet only says the log-likelihood ratio test (G2) was used in keyness analysis and revealed statistically significant lexical differences.; The packet only states that keyness analysis was performed via the log-likelihood ratio test (G2) to reveal statistically significant lexical differences; it does not support the definition’s general characterization that it “tests how strongly data fit one pattern versus another.” New packet required. Source: [Texidor Maldonado Carlos Obed; Dykeman Cass. Recidivism treatment manuals: a corpus-based examination for public offender counselors. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1564018; article XML SHA-256 92e5077dbec382a0da2ed4391246c2a4e88d611526404cc603c85c60438dff07. “Recidivism treatment manuals: a corpus-based examination for public offender counselors” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1564018).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1564018) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- logical-mathematical intelligence [redraft]: Reports the study's association with STEM motivation instead of saying what the intelligence is. New packet required. Source: [Dere Zeynep. Do scientific attitude and intelligence affect motivation towards STEM? Structural equation modelling. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1481229; article XML SHA-256 1915eea00c355ac0eeb3680e2f1ebdb6a340fef3739035646705f2e446c76c54. “Do scientific attitude and intelligence affect motivation towards STEM? Structural equation modelling” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1481229).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1481229) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- logical thinking [redraft]: Packet lists logical thinking, verbal concept formation and verbal abstract reasoning as three separate things measured; definition conflates them. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Similarities Subtest (WPPSI-IV)” (C205249).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- logo- [redraft]: The claim “can shape how consumers think about a product” is a broad generalization not stated in the packet in those terms (the packet specifically reports effects on perceived product quality).; The definition adds a general dictionary-style claim that a logo is a visual company mark used in branding and that it can shape consumer thinking; the packet only supports that a successful logo can boost consumer awareness and does not define the term that broadly.; The definition is more than 1–3 concise sentences (it includes multiple clauses explaining branding impact and mechanism).; The definition’s term sense is not supported: the packet discusses “logo symmetry” and “logos” generally, but does not define or explain “logo-” (e.g., as a prefix/sense) specifically.; The entry is for the term "logo-", but the definition treats it as the noun "logo" rather than the supplied form, so the requested sense is not clearly matched.; The mechanisms are only partially supported: the packet says perceived stability mediated the effect, and that the effect occurs only under low cognitive load, but the definition’s phrasing that symmetry “convey[s] stability under low cognitive load” is an extra, interpretive restatement beyond the packet’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Wu Xianghu. Beauty of symmetry ‐ The impact of logo symmetry on perceived product quality. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317229; article XML SHA-256 037d456ab36b6ce7ffd83c94004cd41b66f8bbfbeec5f34eac7f56824895c460. “Beauty of symmetry ‐ The impact of logo symmetry on perceived product quality” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317229).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317229) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- LOS [redraft]: The definition introduces a general glossary-style meaning that is not established in the supplied source, which only says LOS/NLOS identification is important for accurate UWB positioning and a binary classifier target.; The definition’s claim that LOS means a “direct, unobstructed path between a signal source and a receiver” is not stated or supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet supports LOS as the acronym in NLOS/LOS identification, but it does not state that LOS means a direct, unobstructed path between a signal source and a receiver.; While the packet supports that distinguishing NLOS from LOS is crucial for accurate UWB positioning and that it is used for binary classification (NLOS/LOS identification, LightGBM binary classifier), it does not provide the requested plain-language meaning of “LOS” as a line-of-sight path. New packet required. Source: [Yang Xiaofeng; Wu Zhao; Mo Danlei. NLOS/LOS identification with LightGBM ensemble. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353288; article XML SHA-256 4ffe0336ab952191231fae7f87b677a4c40a01d00d4126cd58ae987c40dd60e6. “NLOS/LOS identification with LightGBM ensemble” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353288).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353288) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- loss of consciousness [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence presents a general definition of “loss of consciousness” (unconsciousness because the brain is not getting enough blood or oxygen), but the packet only discusses this mechanism in the specific context of G-force–induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC), not loss of consciousness in general.; The mechanism “because the brain is not getting enough blood or oxygen” is only indirectly supported via “cerebral hypoxia” and “disturbing blood supply to the brain” in relation to high G-force, rather than stated as the general cause of loss of consciousness.; The packet supports gravity-induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC), not the general term “loss of consciousness”; the definition generalizes beyond the source context.; “Because the brain is not getting enough blood or oxygen” is only loosely supported by the packet’s statement that high G-force can cause cerebral hypoxia and disturb blood supply; it is not presented as a general definition of loss of consciousness. New packet required. Source: [Park Jinhee; Yun Chul; Kang Seungcheol. Physical Condition Does Not Affect Gravity-Induced Loss of Consciousness during Human Centrifuge Training in Well-Experienced Young Aviators. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0147921; article XML SHA-256 9d3b2f900980745d5f7c9b4a95f619a382a0bb301eafd3712c3701d0d1609554. “Physical Condition Does Not Affect Gravity-Induced Loss of Consciousness during Human Centrifuge Training in Well-Experienced Young Aviators” (10.1371/journal.pone.0147921).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147921) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- loudness [redraft]: Definition describes hyperacusis, not the headword 'loudness'. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Hyperacusis” (D012001).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012001) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- low vision [redraft]: The definition is framed as applying to the field “cognition,” but the supplied packet concerns visual function/testing (e.g., visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, depth perception, indoor navigation) rather than cognition.; The definition’s claim that “Low vision is reduced visual functioning” is not explicitly stated or defined in the packet; the packet only refers to “individuals with low vision (>20/60)” and describes measurements.; The field is not defensible from the packet: the source is about visual impairment/visual function, not cognition.; The threshold statement is not securely supported as written: the packet only says “low vision (>20/60)” and does not clearly establish the definition “visual acuity worse than 20/60.”; While the packet includes distance and near visual acuity/contrast sensitivity and tests related abilities (contrast sensitivity, color vision, depth perception, indoor navigation), it does not provide a definition sentence matching the proposed wording, particularly the broad framing of “reduced visual functioning.” New packet required. Source: [Gopalakrishnan Sarika; Kartha Arathy; Schuchard Ronald; Fletcher Donald. Comparison of visual function analysis of people with low vision using three different models of augmented reality devices. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332085; article XML SHA-256 3b67d4d9fc504bcc9d3ecfb6a16c38abcd6c86c44361db5841e463a798f79c5f. “Comparison of visual function analysis of people with low vision using three different models of augmented reality devices” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332085).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332085) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- loyalty [redraft]: The definition claims that the source indicates loyalty is “not a single simple trait” and is “shaped by trust as well as broader social and institutional influences”; the packet supports that NPS as a proxy for loyalty is “not a monolithic construct” and that trust should be interpreted in a “broader socio-psychological and institutional context,” but the definition’s wording also ties this to “loyalty” directly beyond what the packet explicitly asserts.; The definition says loyalty is “often estimated indirectly through measures such as the Net Promoter Score”; the packet does state that “NPS, as a proxy for customer loyalty,” so this part is supported.; The definition’s core claim—“a customer’s ongoing positive attachment to a business”—is not stated or supported anywhere in the provided packet, which focuses on trust and NPS rather than explicitly defining “loyalty” as attachment.; The packet supports NPS as a proxy for customer loyalty, but it does not define loyalty as “a customer’s ongoing positive attachment to a business.”; The source discusses loyalty/NPS in a customer-trust context, but the wording “ongoing positive attachment” adds an unsupported explanatory gloss not stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Yarza Navarro-Schär Vanessa Gabriela; Eller Eric; Schulz Marco; Lermer Eva. The trust–NPS correlation: The role of trust in promoting customer loyalty in Swiss financial institutions. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334423; article XML SHA-256 373125f112ab6f27bfc6a26f874db3ad19176138de72c8b012cf18512cc3cf66. “The trust–NPS correlation: The role of trust in promoting customer loyalty in Swiss financial institutions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334423).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334423) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Ludiomil [redraft]: The packet identifies Ludiomil as the hydrochloride salt form of maprotiline, not as a brand name.; The packet text supports that the substance is maprotiline hydrochloride and that it is a tetracyclic antidepressant related to tricyclic antidepressants, but it does not state that “Ludiomil” is a brand name for maprotiline hydrochloride.; “Brand name” is unsupported by the supplied source text. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Maprotiline Hydrochloride” (C47594).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- lumen [redraft]: The first sentence generalizes lumen as the open inner space of a blood vessel or aneurysm where blood flows, but the packet only supports use of the term in recanalized coiled aneurysms and does not define lumen generally or mention blood flow.; The packet does not define “lumen” as the “open inner space of a blood vessel or aneurysm where blood flows.” It only mentions that the method segments “recanalized lumen.”; The packet does not support the phrase “A recanalized lumen is the channel that has reopened within a previously coiled aneurysm.” It reports that treated aneurysms can experience recanalization and that “recanalized lumen” is segmented, but it does not explicitly define recanalized lumen as a reopened channel.; The packet supports recanalized lumen as a reopened channel within a recanalized coiled aneurysm, but the broader anatomical definition is not supported by the source text. New packet required. Source: [Coupet Matthieu; Meftah Manel; Lopez Camille; Maintier Ludivine; Guezou-Philippe Aziliz; Ognard Julien; Gentric Jean-Christophe; Burdin Valérin; Magro Elsa; Dardenne Guillaume. Segmentation and morphological analysis of recanalized coiled aneurysms: Towards an automatic tool for clipping planning in microsurgery. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358945; article XML SHA-256 15e11d15d407668d44b9fae65443cb8ecded0702f2898b79d015045bbdbc6699. “Segmentation and morphological analysis of recanalized coiled aneurysms: Towards an automatic tool for clipping planning in microsurgery” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358945).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358945) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- luminance [redraft]: The definition’s general statement that luminance is “measurable lightness or brightness of a colour” is not explicitly stated anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet describes how “shell colour luminance” differs among snail color morphs (including that dark bands decrease luminance values) but does not define luminance’s meaning as a property of “lightness/brightness” in general terms.; The packet supports luminance as a measurable lightness/brightness value used in shell-colour analysis, but it does not support the requested field label “learning” or any psychology/learning sense for this term.; The provided definition includes an interpretation framed as a definition (“expressed as higher values for lighter appearances and lower values for darker ones”) that is not explicitly defined as such in the packet; the packet only reports relative luminance values for specific shell morphs under image-taking conditions. New packet required. Source: [Gordillo-Pérez Mario Juan; Beenaerts Natalie; Sánchez Dunia L.; Smeets Karen; Arias-Sosa Yaumel Calixto; Reyes-Tur Bernardo. Shell colour luminance of Cuban painted snails, Polymita picta and Polymita muscarum (Gastropoda: Cepolidae). 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314008; article XML SHA-256 cce12788f937e348d933305d84356919fa5164c8df1fc7f2b4d07e1d4fc1fd11. “Shell colour luminance of Cuban painted snails, Polymita picta and Polymita muscarum (Gastropoda: Cepolidae)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314008).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314008) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Lunesta [redraft]: Because the brand-name equivalence is not supported by the packet, the first substantive claim of the definition is not defensible from the provided source.; The definition adds a brand-name relationship that is not supported by the supplied source text; a citation/term match alone is not enough.; The packet does not explicitly state that “Lunesta” is the brand name for eszopiclone; it only provides information about “Eszopiclone.”; The packet supports eszopiclone and its hypnotic/sedative mechanism, but it does not explicitly state that Lunesta is the brand name for eszopiclone. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Eszopiclone” (C65545).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- -lysis [redraft]: Field mismatch: the supplied source content concerns intracerebral hemorrhage clot lysis (medical/biological), not cognition in the psychology sense.; The definition adds a generalized explanatory claim beyond the packet’s text rather than staying within the supported source context.; The packet supports only the specific phrase “blood clot lysis” in a medical article; it does not support a dictionary sense that -lysis is a general suffix meaning “breaking down or dissolving.”; The requested field is cognition, but the source context is biomedical/surgical and does not justify classifying this term as a cognition entry.; Unsupported general claim: the packet does not support that “-lysis” is a suffix referring broadly to “breaking down or dissolving of something.” The packet only uses “lysis” in the context of blood clot lysis. New packet required. Source: [Xu Lei; Yang Qiang; Gong Jian; Wang Jia; Xiong Weiming; Liu Liu; Liu Yang; Zhou Weiduo; Sun Chao; Liang Yidan; Wang Yanglingxi; Xiang Yi; Deng Yongbing; Cui Min. Ultrasound combined with urokinase under key-shaped bone window enhances blood clot lysis in an in vitro model of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304398; article XML SHA-256 121fd727aa187a1a68fb99b61eb69bbdb3b7227c524db23013a4ffe1a310bee1. “Ultrasound combined with urokinase under key-shaped bone window enhances blood clot lysis in an in vitro model of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304398).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304398) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- macro- [redraft]: Combining form defined via 'in this context' as the paper's macro-level factors; 'small-group' contrast not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Straub Gloria Ch.; Prinz Wolfgang H.; Lueger-Schuster Brigitte. Soldiers’ resilience? A systematic review of micro-, meso-, and macro-level resilience factors in the military. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857328; article XML SHA-256 7581bed4e7e836d39f6838605f8d9f565b35f4f635f33d1412a915c51e74f345. “Soldiers’ resilience? A systematic review of micro-, meso-, and macro-level resilience factors in the military” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857328).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1857328) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- macroglia [redraft]: The contrast with microglia is only implicit in the packet; the definition states it as an explicit distinguishing claim without direct support.; The packet provided does not support the claim that macroglia are “the larger glial cells.”; The packet supports that astrocytes and oligodendrocytes together form the macroglia, but it does not support the added claim that macroglia are the “larger” glial cells.; While the packet indicates that astrocytes and oligodendrocytes together form “the macroglia,” and that microglia are a separate (third) type of glial cell, it does not explicitly describe macroglia as “larger,” which is a substantive distinction in the definition. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Microglia” (D017628).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017628) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- macrosystem [redraft]: The added contrast with “beyond immediate family, community, or policy settings” is not supported; the packet places policy at the exosystem level, but does not define macrosystem by excluding those settings or by extending the sense to broader mental-health coping in that phrasing.; The definition’s phrasing about “shared cultural values and wider belief systems” is partly consistent with “cultural values and systemic belief structures,” but the added claims about scope (“beyond immediate family, community, or policy settings”) are not substantiated by the provided text.; The packet only explicitly characterizes the macrosystem as “cultural values and systemic belief structures.” The definition adds additional framing not supported in the packet, including that it is “the broadest level of influence,” and that it shapes people’s experiences/responses “beyond immediate family, community, or policy settings.”; The packet supports macrosystem-level cultural values and systemic belief structures, but it does not explicitly support calling this the broadest level or stating that it shapes people’s experiences and responses in that general way. New packet required. Source: [Sharif Naubahar; Chen Wenjin; Niu Mengyuan. Mental health problems among ethnic minorities during public crises: a systematic review of coping strategies during the COVID-19 pandemic. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpubh.2026.1822085; article XML SHA-256 2d51a2bf23cb3ce69013289c7d0723ad2375ab259740a4d465ff1682bfa670e8. “Mental health problems among ethnic minorities during public crises: a systematic review of coping strategies during the COVID-19 pandemic” (10.3389/fpubh.2026.1822085).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2026.1822085) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- maculopathy [redraft]: Maculopathy is any macular disease; definition narrows it to age-related macular degeneration (older adults, dry/wet forms). New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Macular Degeneration” (D008268).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008268) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- MAF [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet describes MAF-Net as a machine-learning model for cardiovascular disease classification, not something within the cognition domain.; The definition’s expansion to MAF-Net is supported, but the entry as written does not fit the supplied field scope.; The definition’s framing as “improve recognition” is somewhat imprecise relative to the packet, which emphasizes improving cardiovascular disease diagnostic accuracy rather than general “recognition” in a cognition context.; The packet is about a multimodal cardiovascular disease classification model (MAF-Net), not a cognition/psychology concept, so the requested field is not defensible. New packet required. Source: [Qu Chang; Zhang Xin; Lu Yansong; Wang Yi; Su Chengzhi. MAF-Net: Multimodal cross-attention-based fusion network for cardiovascular disease classification. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345238; article XML SHA-256 fac74f3edc07e63f3d9a1662d0159c00f2851e8f71a1e202c0d3e83d9f6a1d5f. “MAF-Net: Multimodal cross-attention-based fusion network for cardiovascular disease classification” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345238).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345238) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- magical number [redraft]: Packet only names Miller's Seven and Cowan's Four; capacity-limit sense is added, hedged 'in this context', and second sentence describes the article. New packet required. Source: [Kazerounian Sohrob; Grossberg Stephen. Real-time learning of predictive recognition categories that chunk sequences of items stored in working memory. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01053; article XML SHA-256 d820e6e4a969bbbbac560d11e6a6e1f11c934435aace132be936b37e6e212be7. “Real-time learning of predictive recognition categories that chunk sequences of items stored in working memory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01053).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01053) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- MAGL [redraft]: "Enzyme marker" is not supported by the packet; the source describes MAGL as one of the metabolic enzymes mapped across CNS regions.; The definition attributes the study to “examin[ing] how chronic cannabidiol changed endocannabinoid signaling”; while the packet says chronic CBD “restructured the eCB signaling landscape,” it does not clearly support the narrower phrasing that this change was specifically what was examined “across several brain regions and the spinal cord” in the same way.; The definition describes MAGL as “an enzyme marker of endocannabinoid metabolism,” but the packet only states that MAGL was measured as a “metabolic enzyme (FAAH, MAGL)”—it does not support the specific phrasing “enzyme marker.”; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: MAGL is presented as a metabolic enzyme in a neuroscience study, not as a term in learning/psychology.; The sentence is close to the source but overstates the study aim as if MAGL itself was used to examine cannabidiol effects, rather than being one of several measured endocannabinoid-system components. New packet required. Source: [Yadav-Samudrala Barkha J; Johnson Morgan L; Ale Ashima; Jiang Katherine Xiaofan; Lee William W Y; Nguyen Amy; Ho Dorian; Acquah Essie B; Orsucci Isabella C; Sawaqed Laith E; Boyer Gabriella; Poklis Justin L; Jiang Wei; Fitting Sylvia. Chronic CBD treatment differentially modulates neurobehavioral outcomes and endocannabinoid signaling in an aged HIV-1 Tat transgenic mouse model. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353267; article XML SHA-256 60628472a56bb06307f100bba41e263f187d5564826cf90625ff1a7e93580dd7. “Chronic CBD treatment differentially modulates neurobehavioral outcomes and endocannabinoid signaling in an aged HIV-1 Tat transgenic mouse model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353267).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353267) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- main clause [redraft]: The definition adds a broad grammar claim about main clauses that is not established by the supplied source; the source only uses the term in a discourse example.; The definition’s claim that the subordinate clause “connects indirectly to the preceding main clause” is supported, but the rest of the characterization (primary part/comes before/definition of main clause) is not explicitly given in the packet.; The packet does not support that a main clause is “the primary part of a sentence that comes before” a subordinate clause; it only describes the subordinate although-clause as forming an indirect relationship with the preceding main clause.; The packet supports that an although-clause forms an indirect relationship with the preceding main clause, but it does not support the general definition of a main clause as “the primary part of a sentence.” New packet required. Source: [Lyu Siqi; Wang Luming. Implicit Causality and Pronoun Resolution in Intersubjective Discourse Relations. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.866103; article XML SHA-256 bac2af0381a64cda031d267c9b4bc218463efb824b47dcc4f348b41fd4e7dfd8. “Implicit Causality and Pronoun Resolution in Intersubjective Discourse Relations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.866103).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.866103) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- main diagonal [redraft]: Second sentence restates a study finding about codeword frequency as if it were a property of the term. New packet required. Source: [Pražnikar Jure; Attygalle Nuwan Tharanga. Quantitative analysis of visual codewords of a protein distance matrix. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0263566; article XML SHA-256 50896c505b8303f9fae4612c440be3601b690e1984179d6f40a0ade05de64b16. “Quantitative analysis of visual codewords of a protein distance matrix” (10.1371/journal.pone.0263566).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263566) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mainstreaming [redraft]: The definition adds a specific operational description rather than the broader, source-supported sense of mainstreaming in this article context.; The definition adds concrete, detailed context (“routine breast cancer clinic practice,” “standard patient care”) that is not directly stated in the provided packet.; The packet mentions that HCPs are not always familiar with nor confident about genetic counselling and describes an educational programme to improve knowledge and communication in the context of mainstreaming, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s claim that professionals “discussing testing and related counselling as part of standard patient care.”; The packet states there are “calls worldwide for the mainstreaming of genetic testing in breast cancer clinics,” but it does not define mainstreaming as “integration into routine…practice rather than keeping it separate from usual care.”; The packet supports that mainstreaming concerns genetic testing in breast cancer clinics, but it does not define it as integration into routine practice or contrast it with “usual care.”; The statement that clinic healthcare professionals discuss testing and related counselling as part of standard patient care is not supported by the supplied text. New packet required. Source: [Jenkins Valerie; Habibi Ruth; Hall Virginia; Leonard Pauline; Lawn Anneliese; Naik Jay; Papps-Williams Rachel; Fallowfield Lesley. Roll-out of an educational workshop to improve knowledge and self-confidence of healthcare professionals engaged in mainstreaming of breast cancer genetics. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307301; article XML SHA-256 ddb88ec2f07c4f3de1160847b741612de3d0bc7da1abbc35b648f42ed0e732ad. “Roll-out of an educational workshop to improve knowledge and self-confidence of healthcare professionals engaged in mainstreaming of breast cancer genetics” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307301).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307301) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- major depressive disorder [redraft]: The definition omits a key criterion in the packet: the disorder requires five or more symptoms during the same 2-week period, not just a 2-week period with some listed symptoms.; The packet states that the disorder requires “five (or more) of the following symptoms” during the same 2-week period, but the definition does not include this requirement (it only requires at least two weeks with depressed mood or loss of interest/pleasure).; The packet’s symptom descriptions include frequency qualifiers (e.g., “most of the day, nearly every day”), whereas the definition summarizes symptoms more generally without matching those qualifiers—making it less defensible relative to the packet.; The symptom list is only partly supported as written because the packet specifies additional qualifying frequency/threshold wording (for example, nearly every day for several symptoms), which the definition leaves out. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Depressive Disorder, Major” (D003865).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003865) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- majority-minority [redraft]: Packet only mentions 'different majority/minority groups'; definition is vague, hedged 'in this context', and field is wrong. New packet required. Source: [Werner Perla; Ulitsa Natalie; AboJabel Hanan. Exploring the Motivations for Completing Advance Care Directives: A Qualitative Study of Majority/Minority Israeli People Without Dementia. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.864271; article XML SHA-256 088b86bb6b0090e81236db57b79be50175257a197f99ec0857cc61b4b90c2f25. “Exploring the Motivations for Completing Advance Care Directives: A Qualitative Study of Majority/Minority Israeli People Without Dementia” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.864271).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.864271) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- maladjustment [redraft]: The packet does not describe maladjustment as “an overall pattern of academic difficulty.”; The packet does not explicitly define maladjustment as “poor adjustment to the academic environment”; it only mentions “overall academic maladjustment” and the issue of first-year academic dropout.; The packet does not support the specific wording that maladjustment has “harmful effects” for the individual, institution, and society as a consequence of maladjustment itself (it only notes dropout’s consequences).; The packet links first-year academic dropout to “negative consequences on individual, institutional and social level,” but it does not state that this is “associated with…academic maladjustment” or specify maladjustment as the mechanism/construct behind dropout in the way the definition claims.; The packet text provided does not explicitly define “maladjustment” as “poor adjustment to the academic environment.”; “An overall pattern of academic difficulty” is stronger than the source text, which does not describe a difficulty pattern or give that formulation. New packet required. Source: [Cazan Ana-Maria; Stan Maria Magdalena; Clinciu Aurel Ion; Truţa Camelia; Maican Catalin Ioan. Validation study for the Academic Maladjustment Questionnaire on a Romanian sample. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1275939; article XML SHA-256 bc32d1aa00497f70f82269f2a1bf5bfc5b71ba94498c1babb2a3d372e1550f27. “Validation study for the Academic Maladjustment Questionnaire on a Romanian sample” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1275939).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1275939) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- malfunction [redraft]: Because the definition’s first sentence introduces a specific general meaning (breakdown in normal functioning) not evidenced in the supplied text, the definition is partly unsupported.; The claim that “malfunction means …” is therefore not directly supported by the packet’s wording, which discusses “dysfunction” and contrasts “adaptive signaling” with “pathological malfunction,” but does not define malfunction itself.; The packet does not provide a definition of the term “malfunction” as “a pathological failure or breakdown in normal functioning”; it only uses the phrase “pathological malfunction” as a contrast in the argument.; The packet does not support defining “malfunction” here as a pathological failure or breakdown; it explicitly contrasts anxiety-related physiological activation with “pathological malfunction” and instead frames it as adaptive signaling.; The term sense is off for this source: the article is about music performance anxiety and cognitive appraisal, not a general cognition definition of malfunction as normal-function breakdown. New packet required. Source: [Goodman Donald M.. Anxiety as signal: a practitioner framework for reframing music performance anxiety. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884849; article XML SHA-256 6e51fefdddbfe4cc43c81eefc3231ce4fac3f69e40a8e3dee83430c65b8356d1. “Anxiety as signal: a practitioner framework for reframing music performance anxiety” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884849).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884849) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- malignant [redraft]: 'In this packet' hedge smuggles a bone-tumor sense onto the general headword; 'lower quality of life' is also added. New packet required. Source: [Li Rui; Zhang Chun-yan; Wu Yue; Wang Yao; Li Yi-fan; Fan Xiao-juan; Song Hong. Change trajectory of dyadic coping and subjective well-being in patients with malignant bone tumors based on cross-lagged panel model and latent growth model: a longitudinal study. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1563458; article XML SHA-256 92795ea28616c9ea731eb344c1b21274f830b94836dbc33b90353286d73d62ad. “Change trajectory of dyadic coping and subjective well-being in patients with malignant bone tumors based on cross-lagged panel model and latent growth model: a longitudinal study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1563458).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1563458) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- maltreatment [redraft]: 'In this packet' hedge narrows the general headword to elder abuse; the packet defines elder abuse, not maltreatment. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Elder Abuse” (D004552).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004552) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- management information systems [redraft]: Claims about “health records, stock monitoring, and supply chain tracking” are only supported within the context of vaccine management systems; the packet supports features such as longitudinal health records and automated inventory/stock monitoring for immunization, but does not substantiate these as general, defining features of MIS broadly.; The added examples of health records, stock monitoring, and supply chain tracking are only partially supported in the vaccine/immunization context; the definition overgeneralizes them beyond the source’s scope.; The asserted purposes “improve record-keeping, reduce waste, and support more efficient service delivery” are only supported in the packet as outcomes of implementing the vaccine management information systems (e.g., reducing wastage, enhancing record-keeping, optimizing supply chain efficiency), not as general MIS aims.; The citation-specific examples (e.g., “in the source material, they include…”) are consistent with the packet’s vaccine context, but the definition’s wording broadens beyond what the packet explicitly establishes.; The definition’s general characterization of management information systems as “organized digital or paper-based systems used to collect, track, and share information needed to manage services and resources” is not clearly supported by the provided packet, which focuses on vaccine management/logistics management information systems in LMICs rather than a general MIS definition.; The packet supports vaccine management/digital logistics management information systems in immunization, not the broad general definition of management information systems across services and resources.; “Paper-based systems” is not supported by the source packet, which discusses digital, electronic, online/offline, and integrated systems. New packet required. Source: [Qadeer Amatullah Sana; AY Nirupama; Paulson Winnie; Rachel Jennifer; Nanda Lipika; Dutta Ambarish; Rout Sarit Kumar. Vaccine management systems with a focus on cold chain management and delivery of immunization services in low- and middle-income countries: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350231; article XML SHA-256 dc95eb3761ff912aa69dae5927ec819e327be9448cd1a94fae051ee02975ddc3. “Vaccine management systems with a focus on cold chain management and delivery of immunization services in low- and middle-income countries: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350231).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350231) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- manifest content [redraft]: The claim that manifest content analysis looks at explicit language “rather than looking for hidden meanings” is not supported by the supplied source.; The definition adds a broader research-methods generalization that is not established by the packet alone.; The packet does not provide a definition of “manifest content” as “directly stated and observable” material in communication.; The packet does not support the claim that manifest content analysis “examines and codes … rather than looking for hidden meanings.”; The packet only describes that the authors used a “manifest content analysis approach” to code language in consent documents, without stating what “manifest content” means conceptually.; The packet supports that manifest content analysis codes the language in documents, but it does not define the term as “material in communication that is directly stated and observable” or as the actual words used in a document. New packet required. Source: [Wolf Leslie E.; Kench Samantha; Ledford Christy J. W.. A taxing problem: The impacts of research payment practices on participants and inclusive research. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0303112; article XML SHA-256 b0e10e34d0596e958ce2ac913a697cf04afcb746d9c5386e86d7167066fdf258. “A taxing problem: The impacts of research payment practices on participants and inclusive research” (10.1371/journal.pone.0303112).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303112) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- manifest variable [redraft]: The definition’s claim that manifest variables “reflect differences across individuals that are not directly observed” is reversed relative to the packet’s description (the packet attributes across-individual differences to the latent-variable level, not to manifest variables).; The first sentence generalizes beyond the source text by giving a broader methodological definition that is not stated in the packet.; The packet does not define a manifest variable as a “directly observed measure”; it only contrasts relationships “across individuals (at the latent variable level)” with relationships “within individuals (at the manifest variable level).; The packet supports a within-individual, manifest-variable level relationship after controlling for across-individual relationships, but it does not explicitly define a manifest variable as a directly observed measure or define latent variables as unobserved differences across individuals.; The specific phrasing about the “within-person relationship between planning time and execution time … at the manifest-variable level after accounting for across-person relationships” is supported only at a high level (within- vs across-individual relationship), but the broader measurement/observation claims are not supported. New packet required. Source: [Li Zhaojun; De Boeck Paul; Li Jian. Does planning help for execution? The complex relationship between planning and execution. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0237568; article XML SHA-256 791422a6151b2df7b61981645a216ba3c700c4d51166e87b7d796eb48cbc9fb3. “Does planning help for execution? The complex relationship between planning and execution” (10.1371/journal.pone.0237568).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237568) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Mann–Whitney U test [redraft]: The packet does not provide the definition or general description of the Mann–Whitney U test (e.g., that it “examines whether two groups differ on a measured variable”); it only states that the Mann–Whitney U test was “used to analyze the data.”; The packet does support that the Mann–Whitney U test was used in this study involving “body shape perceptions and fat phobia,” but the definition also adds additional general claims about what the test does that are not explicitly supported by the provided packet.; The packet supports that the Mann–Whitney U test was used to analyze the study data and to examine group differences, but it does not define the test as a general method for determining whether two groups differ on a measured variable.; The second sentence is supported in substance, but the first sentence adds an unsourced general definition rather than staying strictly within the packet. New packet required. Source: [Sayin Temur Canan; Koc Mustafa Can; Iconomescu Teodora Mihaela; Talaghir Laurentiu-Gabriel. Analysis of the relationship between physical education majors’ perceptions of their body shape and fatphobia. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1709560; article XML SHA-256 0d12fd54cd9e6646b44f804a4df6adb20c3be9a2c71f362e3fc5d1d616ba1bc1. “Analysis of the relationship between physical education majors’ perceptions of their body shape and fatphobia” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1709560).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1709560) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- manualized therapy [redraft]: The definition’s claims about “a structured therapy manual,” “standardized form of treatment,” and “specified intervention approach” are not explicitly stated or supported in the provided packet text.; The packet does not explicitly support the broader gloss that the term refers to a standardized form of treatment based on a specified intervention approach.; The packet mentions that patients “passed through manualized therapy,” but it does not define “manualized therapy” as being delivered via a structured therapy manual versus ad hoc planning.; The packet shows only that participants received “manualized therapy” delivered by licensed psychotherapists; it does not support the added explanation that this means treatment is structured by a therapy manual rather than planned ad hoc. New packet required. Source: [Kühne Franziska; Hobrecker Lea Kathrin; Heinze Peter Eric; Meißner Claudia; Weck Florian. Exposure therapy tailored to inhibitory learning principles in a naturalistic setting: an open pilot trial in obsessive-compulsive outpatient care. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1328850; article XML SHA-256 d1f64fba8dc5c9d5f7e4d69e6f8b24c1159754423323c5d5a83d07079a74be71. “Exposure therapy tailored to inhibitory learning principles in a naturalistic setting: an open pilot trial in obsessive-compulsive outpatient care” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1328850).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1328850) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- marginal frequency [redraft]: The claim that it "captures the frequency-related part of a spectro-temporal response while leaving out the time dimension" is an unsupported extrapolation; the source only says the comparisons were made "on the basis of their marginal frequency distributions."; The definition’s comparison purpose (to compare tuning patterns from different signal types) is not explicitly stated in the packet for the term itself; the packet describes comparisons of marginal frequency distributions between spike-based and LFP-based signals but does not provide a definitional statement of what the term means.; The packet mentions “marginal frequency distributions” but does not define “marginal frequency” as a summary across sound frequencies, nor state that it “leaves out the time dimension.”; The packet supports that marginal frequency distributions are used in comparisons between spike-based STRFs and filtered LFPs, but it does not define the term as a general summary of neural response activity across sound frequencies. New packet required. Source: [Eggermont Jos J.; Munguia Raymundo; Pienkowski Martin; Shaw Greg. Comparison of LFP-Based and Spike-Based Spectro-Temporal Receptive Fields and Cross-Correlation in Cat Primary Auditory Cortex. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0020046; article XML SHA-256 b1a892581e8d8d71661b32e51d58f71ecc62c63c7876751e97f64766716f8221. “Comparison of LFP-Based and Spike-Based Spectro-Temporal Receptive Fields and Cross-Correlation in Cat Primary Auditory Cortex” (10.1371/journal.pone.0020046).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0020046) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- marital adjustment [redraft]: Although the second sentence’s claim that marital adjustment is a couple-related outcome positively linked with dyadic coping is partially supported (the study reports dyadic coping positively correlated with marital adjustment), the definition as a whole is not defensible because the core definitional wording is unsupported.; The definition is partly interpretive rather than strictly supported by the source; the packet supports only that marital adjustment is a measured couple-related variable positively associated with dyadic coping and mediating the relation with posttraumatic growth.; The definition’s first sentence (“how well spouses adapt to life together… quality and stability of their relationship”) is not explicitly defined in the provided packet; the packet mentions “marital adjustment” as a measured construct (Locke-Wallace scale) and references related ideas like “marital stability”/“relationship satisfaction,” but it does not provide the stated definition of marital adjustment.; The field label "learning" is not supported by the packet; the source is a psychology/health article about dyadic coping and marital adjustment, not a learning-context term.; The first sentence gives a general definition of marital adjustment as how well spouses adapt to life together and as reflecting relationship quality and stability, but the packet does not define the term that way. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Qi; Cao Heng. Relationships between dyadic coping, marital adjustment, and post-traumatic growth in patients with maintenance hemodialysis patients and their spouses. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1487355; article XML SHA-256 f450d7e8ba07fc1e888563ac754c778b1bebe81dca15f6b6cd1a075757a48cf6. “Relationships between dyadic coping, marital adjustment, and post-traumatic growth in patients with maintenance hemodialysis patients and their spouses” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1487355).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1487355) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- marital counseling [redraft]: The definition adds a broader service characterization that is not directly supported by the source text and goes beyond the packet’s limited statement about counseling centers.; The definition’s opening phrase is not directly supported by the packet’s wording or claims beyond the outcomes listed later.; The packet supports only that “qualified marital counseling centers” may improve marital satisfaction, decrease negative consequences of spousal violence, and ensure the value of independence for new families; it does not explicitly define marital counseling as “support focused on problems within a marriage or new family relationship.”; The packet supports that marital counseling centers may improve marital satisfaction, reduce negative consequences of spousal violence, and support independence for new families, but it does not state that marital counseling is generally support focused on problems within a marriage or new family relationship. New packet required. Source: [Osman Doaa Mohamed; Ahmed Gellan K; Farghal Manal Mukhtar; Ibrahim Ahmed K. Prevalence and predictors of depressive symptoms among married Egyptian women: a multicenter primary healthcare study. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-04239-w; article XML SHA-256 d74f8e88bea13ea209f80b8104827587fffdb7b563cf1b99ff7a78a961677e20. “Prevalence and predictors of depressive symptoms among married Egyptian women: a multicenter primary healthcare study” (10.1186/s12888-022-04239-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-04239-w) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- marital separation [redraft]: Second sentence reports what the study's participants experienced (loss, anger, letting go) rather than what the term means. New packet required. Source: [Daly Siobhán C; MacNeela Pádraig; Sarma Kiran M. The female spouse: A process of separation when a husband 'comes out' as gay. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0203472; article XML SHA-256 8679334cb5017c4ce9a510ab6120d2a1a862dd28589c05058d9a8538af484505. “The female spouse: A process of separation when a husband 'comes out' as gay” (10.1371/journal.pone.0203472).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203472) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- marsupial [redraft]: The claim about Thylacinus is supported only as an example of a carnivorous marsupial; the packet does not support the broader definitional wording in the first sentence.; The definition’s taxonomic framing (order/affiliation) and the claim about marsupials as one of several separate mammalian orders are not supported by the provided text.; The packet does not define “marsupial” as such; it only mentions “Marsupialia” as one of three mammalian orders in an example about convergent resemblance.; The packet does not define “marsupial” as “a mammal belonging to the distinct order Marsupialia,” nor does it state that marsupials are a taxonomic order.; The packet mentions “carnivorous marsupial Thylacinus” only as an example within a discussion of biological resemblance (mimicry/convergence), not as a definition of the term “marsupial.”; The statement that marsupials are “a mammal belonging to the distinct order Marsupialia” is an unsupported dictionary-style definition rather than something established in the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mimicry (in biology)” (Mimicry).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Mimicry) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- mass media [redraft]: 'In this context' hedge redefines the general headword as public health campaigns; packet is about campaign failure, not mass media. New packet required. Source: [Kite James; Thomas Margaret; Bellew Bill; Bauman Adrian; Grunseit Anne. Mass media campaigns and the ‘file drawer problem’: A mixed methods study of how to avoid campaign failure. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0294372; article XML SHA-256 181b6547b698197a14c678010e0ba6b634d761c8e3eb88567cb61a4f3031d84b. “Mass media campaigns and the ‘file drawer problem’: A mixed methods study of how to avoid campaign failure” (10.1371/journal.pone.0294372).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294372) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mastery orientation [redraft]: The definition claims that mastery orientation is “presented as the pattern linked to incremental beliefs … in contrast to a helpless orientation linked to entity beliefs.” While the packet supports the contrast between mastery and helpless orientations in relation to incremental and entity beliefs, the definition’s broader formulation of what mastery orientation entails (learning/improving/personal growth focus) is not supported by the packet.; The definition describes mastery orientation as “a tendency to approach personal growth and challenges with a focus on learning, improving, and developing competence and autonomy,” but the packet only states that incremental beliefs are associated with a “mastery orientation” and that autonomy and competence motives mediate relationships with well-being; it does not explicitly define mastery orientation in terms of approaching personal growth/challenges or “learning/improving” as the focus.; The first sentence adds unsourced glosses (“personal growth and challenges,” “learning, improving, and developing competence and autonomy”) that are not stated in the packet.; The packet supports only the narrower point that mastery orientation is associated with incremental beliefs about change, contrasted with helpless orientation and entity beliefs; the broader behavioral definition is not established here. New packet required. Source: [Cypryańska Marzena; Nezlek John B.. Satisfaction of basic needs mediates relationships between incremental mindsets and well-being. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0309079; article XML SHA-256 85042163ac3ea3fab413361d0390c741f0006c263dd093dfe86e8cd682968093. “Satisfaction of basic needs mediates relationships between incremental mindsets and well-being” (10.1371/journal.pone.0309079).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309079) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- matched-pairs t test [redraft]: The example about 'the same students’ questionnaire results before and after an educational activity' is consistent with the study’s pre/post questionnaire design, but the broader explanatory definition goes beyond what the packet explicitly states.; The packet shows a pretest-posttest analysis with matched pairs, but it does not define a matched-pairs t test or support the claim that it tests whether an average within-pair difference is likely to reflect real change rather than chance.; The packet states that a matched-pairs t-test was used to analyze pretest–posttest (paired) questionnaire scores, but it does not support the definition’s explanation that the test “tests whether the average difference…is likely to reflect a real change rather than chance.” New packet required. Source: [Craig Stephanie; Barry Heather E; Carter Gillian; Stark Patrick; Mitchell Gary; Clarke Sonya; Wilson Christine Brown. Evaluation of a dementia awareness game for health professions students in Northern Ireland: a pre-/post-test study. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12909-024-05656-z; article XML SHA-256 69f784cdd05bee71aa04151b763310570b1bcd1837a439b3ca7e36093e640368. “Evaluation of a dementia awareness game for health professions students in Northern Ireland: a pre-/post-test study” (10.1186/s12909-024-05656-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05656-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- matching [redraft]: 'In this sensory-assessment context' hedge narrows the general headword to one tactile-visual task; describes a study measure. New packet required. Source: [Chounan Yukie; Suzuki Kyoko. Active-touch texture/material matching and caregiver-reported sensory reactivity in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: a pilot study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1826858; article XML SHA-256 f8db189e2bcc813ce57091138b8f9fd575cd0b8efc1e6696a010a0544858ec99. “Active-touch texture/material matching and caregiver-reported sensory reactivity in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: a pilot study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1826858).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1826858) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mathematical ability [redraft]: The first sentence (“Mathematical ability is a cognitive capacity for representing and working with numbers.”) is not directly supported by the provided packet text, which does not define mathematical ability in those terms; it only discusses a predictive relation between finger gnosis and mathematical ability and proposes redeployment for representing numbers.; The packet does not define mathematical ability as a general “cognitive capacity for representing and working with numbers”; it only says the paper discusses a predictive relation between finger gnosis and mathematical ability.; The source supports a hypothesis about overlapping neural substrates and a redeployed circuit for representing numbers, but not the broader definitional claim as written. New packet required. Source: [Penner-Wilger Marcie; Anderson Michael L.. The relation between finger gnosis and mathematical ability: why redeployment of neural circuits best explains the finding. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00877; article XML SHA-256 783053c6a0138f38f49de18d5fcc98b7d2d6e2960ee5cdf052c461412601c2c9. “The relation between finger gnosis and mathematical ability: why redeployment of neural circuits best explains the finding” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00877).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00877) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- mathematical model [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the supplied description by introducing a specific educational application rather than staying with the supported general sense of a theoretical representation that simulates systems, processes, or phenomena.; The packet definition does not state that the representation “uses mathematics,” only that it is a “theoretical representation” that “simulate[s]” behavior/activity.; The packet does not mention “learning contexts” or describe any use in learning for patterns/processes; that portion of the definition is unsupported by the provided text.; The second sentence adds a learning-context use that is not supported by the packet’s source text. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Mathematical Model” (C16870).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mathematics disorder [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly state that “mathematics disorder” involves difficulties in mathematics; it only lists “mathematics disorder” as one type within specific learning disorders without defining its core symptom content in these terms.; The packet supports that DSM-5 integrates different LD types (including mathematics disorder) into a single specific learning disorder category, but it does not clearly support the specific phrasing that “older diagnostic approaches” treated it as a distinct disorder beyond the general reference to “former versions.”; The packet supports that mathematics disorder was formerly treated as a distinct learning-disorder entity and that DSM-5 folds it into the single specific learning disorder category, but it does not explicitly support the added definitional claim that it is a disorder “involving difficulties in mathematics.” New packet required. Source: [Brandenburg Janin; Huschka Sina S.; Visser Linda; Hasselhorn Marcus. Are Different Types of Learning Disorder Associated With Distinct Cognitive Functioning Profiles?. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.725374; article XML SHA-256 60db64306a8bc96dc3e8158496383f6cb43b110f5b80b65e23d81fee50c438c6. “Are Different Types of Learning Disorder Associated With Distinct Cognitive Functioning Profiles?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.725374).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.725374) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Maxwellian view [redraft]: The definition adds a specific purpose (“In this context, it is used to present light stimuli reliably during visual and pupillary testing”) that is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet mentions testing and constant retinal irradiance delivery, but does not directly characterize it as being used to ensure stimulus reliability in that way.; The definition adds a usage claim (“in this context”) that is broader than the packet’s specific statement about delivering stimuli at constant retinal irradiance with a Maxwellian view system or pupil restriction.; The field is not defensible from the packet: the source is about visual/circadian retinal testing, not learning.; The packet supports that stimuli are delivered at constant retinal irradiance using a “Maxwellian view system,” but it does not state that this approach specifically “help[s] control for changes in pupil size.” The packet separately mentions “artificially restricting pupil size,” without attributing that control to the Maxwellian view. New packet required. Source: [Heinrichs Hannah Sophie; Spitschan Manuel. Within-subjects ultra-short sleep-wake protocol for characterising circadian variations in retinal function. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300405; article XML SHA-256 167a7dbea87504f9d9d9f0fc317d6b0f82c97353707c8955446ac4764da89770. “Within-subjects ultra-short sleep-wake protocol for characterising circadian variations in retinal function” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300405).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300405) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- maze task [redraft]: General headword narrowed to one ADAS-Cog summary score; packet is a score record, not a definition of maze task. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “ADAS-COG Date 30th June 2015 Version - Maze Task/Executive Function: Score” (C214425).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- maze [redraft]: 'In this psychology research context' hedge smuggles an animal-task sense onto the general headword; packet never defines maze. New packet required. Source: [Karlsson Isak; Malfatti Thawann; Kullander Klas; Siwani Samer; Ciralli Barbara. Y-maze performance predicts refined motor learning in mice. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352676; article XML SHA-256 2493bf1b15d9001f45ac2c377b87043157f5c90557b8d2a32b2b0e6669a3d481. “Y-maze performance predicts refined motor learning in mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352676).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352676) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- MBT [redraft]: The definition adds a general explanation of Mentalization-Based Treatment as a psychological approach focused on strengthening mentalizing; the packet only says complex trauma can impair mentalizing capacities and describes a pilot study of MBT-TF, not a full definitional statement of MBT.; The definition assigns the term to the specific field “diagnosis”; the provided packet discusses a pilot study and a clinically complex population, but does not support using “MBT” as a diagnostic term or listing it under diagnosis as such.; The definition’s description that MBT “focus[es] on strengthening mentalizing” is not stated as MBT’s purpose in the provided packet text (the packet describes that complex trauma impairs mentalizing capacities, but does not explicitly characterize the treatment as strengthening mentalizing).; The packet does not explicitly define “MBT” as “Mentalization-Based Treatment” (it mentions “Mentalization-Based Treatment for Trauma (MBT-TF)” but does not state that “MBT” by itself refers to Mentalization-Based Treatment).; The packet supports an adaptation of Mentalization-Based Treatment for Trauma (MBT-TF), not the standalone acronym MBT, so the requested sense is not exactly supported.; The supplied field is diagnosis, but the packet is about a treatment/intervention, not a diagnosis. New packet required. Source: [Bales Dawn. L.; Kouijzer Mirjam E. J.. Mentalizing in the margins: a pilot study of group-based MBT-TF for underserved neurodiverse late adolescents. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1743200; article XML SHA-256 34682ef3d12d16d2da003da1a956fa839c18cfead5f452a4f0948445c1c28e1e. “Mentalizing in the margins: a pilot study of group-based MBT-TF for underserved neurodiverse late adolescents” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1743200).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1743200) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- M–C SDS [redraft]: The definition’s phrasing that it is “an assessment used to measure a person’s tendency to give socially desirable responses” is therefore unsupported by the provided packet text.; The packet does not define what the M–C SDS measures (e.g., “tendency to give socially desirable responses”); it only names it as the “Short form of Social Desirability Scale (M-C SDS)” and reports that it was included in the study.; The packet only identifies M-C SDS as the Short form of Social Desirability Scale; it does not state that it measures a person’s tendency to give socially desirable responses.; The second sentence is broadly supported, but the first sentence adds an interpretive function that is not explicitly supported by the source packet. New packet required. Source: [Molinero Clara; Kasprzak Agata; Bonete Saray; Gallo-Giunzioni Karla. Assessing self-forgiveness through the Enright Self-Forgiveness Inventory in the Spanish population: a validation study. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1179826; article XML SHA-256 666c6dbf39fcf79ac812867f04c047d13177a7919ba7fb7ffdc87d4538ac700e. “Assessing self-forgiveness through the Enright Self-Forgiveness Inventory in the Spanish population: a validation study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1179826).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1179826) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- MCS [redraft]: Packet abbreviates Military Chaplains as MCs; MCS is never expanded as Military Soul Care, so the headword mapping is wrong. New packet required. Source: [Grimell Jan. Preserving the human character in an inhuman situation: the contributions and meanings of military soul care in the Swedish armed forces. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1693657; article XML SHA-256 edf8c5c90525e4c43a9bd378f666c83f5c770d9e8b7ddb4dea7ae07faa14faf6. “Preserving the human character in an inhuman situation: the contributions and meanings of military soul care in the Swedish armed forces” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1693657).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1693657) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mean square residual [redraft]: The definition adds a general psychometric explanation that is not directly supported by the packet and may conflate the term with a related but different statistic.; The packet only mentions "standardized root mean square residual" (SRMR) as a CFA fit index, not "mean square residual" itself.; The packet supports only the standardized root mean square residual as a confirmatory factor analysis fit index, not the term mean square residual itself. New packet required. Source: [Mozumder Muhammad Kamruzzaman. Reliability and validity of the Perceived Stress Scale in Bangladesh. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0276837; article XML SHA-256 c68d7523ef08393846bac7900104ec4f04dd353c3a3186dbc58b73504046d13b. “Reliability and validity of the Perceived Stress Scale in Bangladesh” (10.1371/journal.pone.0276837).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276837) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- meaningful learning [redraft]: Not a definition of the term; restates one study's finding that collaboration and feedback were experienced as meaningful. New packet required. Source: [Karim Abdul; Al Mamun Md Abdullah; Sultana Shahin; Kabilan Muhammad Kamarul. Teaching persuasive essay writing online to first-year undergraduates: A phenomenological study of instructional design and learning experiences. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353171; article XML SHA-256 8dcd0723370f26b1ba7adad3cfafa25c93d3010d13605f4beb941eaa0864e3b7. “Teaching persuasive essay writing online to first-year undergraduates: A phenomenological study of instructional design and learning experiences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353171).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353171) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- measure [redraft]: The clause “developed and validated way of assessing embodied cognition in dance training” is supported by the packet (“develop and validate a measure of embodied cognition for dance training”).; The definition adds general assessment language that goes beyond the supplied source text, rather than staying narrowly grounded in the source’s specific sense of ‘measure.’; The generic first-sentence gloss (“a tool used to evaluate a specific construct or experience”) is not supported by the packet; the source only states that the study aimed to develop and validate a measure of embodied cognition for dance training.; The packet does not support the general claim that “in assessment, a measure is a tool used to evaluate a specific construct or experience.” The provided text only states that the study aimed to develop and validate “a measure of embodied cognition for dance training,” without defining what a “measure” is. New packet required. Source: [Wang Yu; Zheng Ziyu; Ran Chenlu; Liu Qing. Development and psychometric validation of a multidimensional measure of embodied cognition in dance training. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861862; article XML SHA-256 033b5ce5e136aa23eb1ad377c814516e01437016c9246a6bd34f365a8b138fcb. “Development and psychometric validation of a multidimensional measure of embodied cognition in dance training” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861862).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1861862) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- measurement level [redraft]: 'Measurement level' normally means scale of measurement; definition adopts one review's physiological/behavioral/cognitive categorization. New packet required. Source: [Kaneko Daisuke; Toet Alexander; Brouwer Anne-Marie; Kallen Victor; van Erp Jan B. F.. Methods for Evaluating Emotions Evoked by Food Experiences: A Literature Review. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00911; article XML SHA-256 405900cdbacf10b8431e83bc7785bada224afba3e6d7893ef2ea15740e4aa69a. “Methods for Evaluating Emotions Evoked by Food Experiences: A Literature Review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00911).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00911) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- measurement model [redraft]: The claim about checking whether it “works the same way across groups, such as by gender or age” is supported only insofar as the packet reports measurement invariance across gender and age groups (strict invariance), but this does not cover the definition’s first-sentence characterization.; The claim that the measurement model can be examined “overall” is only indirectly supported (the packet says it was “examined globally”), but the first sentence’s broader definition is still not supported.; The definition overgeneralizes from this single study by presenting overall evaluation and group comparison as the meaning of the term itself, rather than as one application in this article.; The definition’s general wording (“the way a scale’s scores or dimensions are evaluated to see how well the measure functions”) is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet only describes that a study evaluated psychometric properties and examined a measurement model globally and for measurement invariance.; The packet does not define a measurement model as “the way a scale’s scores or dimensions are evaluated” or as a general way to judge how well a measure functions; it only reports that the study examined the French UMCS-22’s measurement model globally and for measurement invariance across gender and age groups. New packet required. Source: [Burakova Marina. Validation and utility of the French version of the Unified Multidimensional Calling Scale (UMCS-22) for stipended volunteer firefighters. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350184; article XML SHA-256 50bf45acbc8cea3b6ff7d177e06ed787336d46450ec632ca76b4a9ff06d1eb5e. “Validation and utility of the French version of the Unified Multidimensional Calling Scale (UMCS-22) for stipended volunteer firefighters” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350184).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350184) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- measures of intelligence [redraft]: Second sentence reports the study's predictor finding and socioeconomic caveat rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Border Richard; Corley Robin P.; Brown Sandra A.; Hewitt John K.; Hopfer Christian J.; Stallings Michael C.; Wall Tamara L.; Young Susan E.; Rhee Soo Hyun. Predictors of adult outcomes in clinically- and legally-ascertained youth with externalizing problems. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0206442; article XML SHA-256 a0fd58cee2444e199b2ea89087c4edcad6d86606376b986bd8e051181f4e08e2. “Predictors of adult outcomes in clinically- and legally-ascertained youth with externalizing problems” (10.1371/journal.pone.0206442).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206442) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mechanism [redraft]: 'In this psychology context' hedge smuggles one paper's transdiagnostic mechanism onto the general headword; second sentence describes the paper. New packet required. Source: [Sağlam Betul. Beyond diagnostic categories: sensory processing as a transdiagnostic mechanism in autism, ADHD, and PTSD – a neuropsychoanalytic conceptual analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871344; article XML SHA-256 708ebc0289d9fd70b7f3803995cc9f3b3f236c095ccb500e2b11512dd2705b41. “Beyond diagnostic categories: sensory processing as a transdiagnostic mechanism in autism, ADHD, and PTSD – a neuropsychoanalytic conceptual analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871344).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871344) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mechanistic theory [redraft]: The definition attributes particular explanatory scope to the mechanistic theory (“explains how words and concepts are acquired”) beyond what the packet explicitly supports, since the packet does not provide a concrete description of what processes the mechanistic theory uses to explain acquisition.; The definition specifies that bodily experience is grounded “across external and internal modalities.” While the packet discusses grounding in external modalities and the importance of interoceptive/internal features, it does not directly tie this particular “mechanistic theory” to grounding across external and internal modalities in those exact terms.; The packet does not state that the proposed mechanistic theory specifically “explains how words and concepts are acquired by describing the processes involved.” It only says the authors “present a mechanistic theory of conceptual representation” that can account for groundability and for variability in age of acquisition, in addition to existing variables.; The packet only says the authors “present a mechanistic theory of conceptual representation” that can account for groundability and existing variables in concept acquisition; it does not support the definition’s claim that this theory specifically explains how words and concepts are acquired by detailing the processes involved.; The packet supports grounding in external and internal modalities as part of the paper’s broader argument, but not as the defining content of “mechanistic theory” itself.; The phrasing overgeneralizes the theory into a broader account of conceptual representation and embodiment than the source explicitly provides. New packet required. Source: [Thill Serge; Twomey Katherine E.. What's on the Inside Counts: A Grounded Account of Concept Acquisition and Development. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00402; article XML SHA-256 fc9aa5657b62006a7a2c7ce780d870ddbcb6227b223ae9efe4b7841d1ee9411e. “What's on the Inside Counts: A Grounded Account of Concept Acquisition and Development” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00402).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00402) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- media richness [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory characterization of the construct that is not stated in the source text and goes beyond the packet’s support.; The definition claims that media richness is specifically “the extent to which an online learning platform offers communication and media features.” The provided packet discusses “three dimensions of media richness” but does not describe media richness in terms of communication/media features, so this part is not supported.; The definition says media richness “relates to social presence.” While the packet supports a mediating role of social presence between media richness and continuance intention, it does not explicitly frame media richness as generally “relating to” social presence in those terms; the definition is close, but the first (communication/media features) element is the main unsupported substantive claim.; The packet supports media richness as a technological-environment-related variable in online learning and links it to social presence and continuance intention, but it does not define it as the extent to which a platform offers communication and media features or as creating a richer user experience.; The remaining elements about it being a technological-environment-related variable, involving social presence, and influencing users’ intention to keep using the platform are consistent with the packet (e.g., mediating role of social presence; antecedent of continuance intention/retention). New packet required. Source: [Wang Zhen. Media Richness and Continuance Intention to Online Learning Platforms: The Mediating Role of Social Presence and the Moderating Role of Need for Cognition. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.950501; article XML SHA-256 bdd2d395a6fae426a87627446707848bf94c7fbdf8a35d16a9be93e6dcd6fd77. “Media Richness and Continuance Intention to Online Learning Platforms: The Mediating Role of Social Presence and the Moderating Role of Need for Cognition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.950501).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.950501) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- medial geniculate nucleus [redraft]: Because the first sentence includes an unsupported functional claim, the overall definition contains at least one substantive claim not supported by the supplied packet.; The definition adds a general description of the term that is not stated in the packet, so the entry goes beyond the supplied source.; The definition’s first sentence claims the medial geniculate nucleus “helps carry and process sound-related information,” but the packet does not explicitly describe its function in that way; it only notes altered integrity of auditory pathways including the medial geniculate nucleus.; The packet only supports that the medial geniculate nucleus is mentioned as part of altered auditory pathways in hyperacusis; it does not support the broader anatomical/functional claim that it is a brain structure that carries and processes sound-related information. New packet required. Source: [Alkahtani Rania; Elbeltagy Reem; Hamd Zuhal Y; Abdoelrahman Hassan A B. Structural and functional brain alterations in patients with hyperacusis: MRI systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1785826; article XML SHA-256 0a2c5de9e0ca563d9714691cf12918c924a20851fcc30dcabd73537eb1453758. “Structural and functional brain alterations in patients with hyperacusis: MRI systematic review” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1785826).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1785826) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- medial lemniscus [redraft]: Claims that it is “an ascending route” and “carries somatosensory signals from the spinal cord to the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus” are not explicitly supported as the definition’s referent; the packet supports the pathway-to-VPL idea, not the independent definition of the medial lemniscus component.; The field label "learning" is not defensible from the packet, which is a neuroscience/neuroanatomy article about tactile reward and thalamic inactivation rather than learning.; The packet mentions the dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway and the VPL receiving somatosensory inputs, but it does not directly support the specific claim that the medial lemniscus itself is the ascending relay carrying signals from the spinal cord to the ventral posterolateral nucleus.; The packet only states that the VPL “receives somatosensory inputs from the spinal cord via the dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway”; it does not define “medial lemniscus” itself as a specific anatomical part or component.; The statement that it is “a relay in touch-related sensory processing” is not directly supported by the packet (it provides no explicit “relay” role wording or touch-processing description tied specifically to the medial lemniscus). New packet required. Source: [Shimoju Rie. Muscimol injection into the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus impairs tactile reward-seeking behavior but preserves affective vocalization in male rats. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351495; article XML SHA-256 3b9fbf8ceb3950db0fa969e32f36f3eabf13596c6f2d473669bf765b5dba58f1. “Muscimol injection into the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus impairs tactile reward-seeking behavior but preserves affective vocalization in male rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351495).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351495) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- medial preoptic area [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet describes regulation of singing behavior in birds (molecular changes in the mPOA linked to gregarious song), but the provided definition is framed under the field “learning,” which is not supported by the packet.; The definition slightly overstates the source by saying the mPOA "shows molecular activity" involving glutamate and dopamine pathways; the packet only says transcriptome analyses found these pathways were highly enriched with gregarious song.; The requested field of "learning" is not supported by the packet content, which is about singing behavior in birds and molecular changes in the medial preoptic area rather than learning. New packet required. Source: [Stevenson Tyler J.. The molecular architecture of a complex social behavior: gregarious song. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12868-023-00833-0; article XML SHA-256 c61ef9e3b0d1d5be54ef72ba1506fb1c7d995b33a517eb1b8bb89eb4953f6a4b. “The molecular architecture of a complex social behavior: gregarious song” (10.1186/s12868-023-00833-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-023-00833-0) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- medial temporal amnesia [redraft]: The definition’s explanatory claims go beyond what is explicitly stated in the provided packet text.; The packet does not explicitly state that learning and memory are disrupted in medial temporal amnesia; it only places the term in a broader discussion of learning, memory, and vigilance control.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that medial temporal amnesia “involv[es] the medial temporal region.”; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that “learning and memory are disrupted” in medial temporal amnesia (it only mentions vigilance remaining low in that disorder in the provided text).; The packet supports that medial temporal amnesia involves low vigilance under tonic acetylcholine control, but it does not say the condition is an abnormal memory disorder involving the medial temporal region.; The packet supports that medial temporal amnesia is associated with “dynamic breakdowns of tonic control” and that vigilance remains low, but the definition adds a specific framing of “tonic acetylcholine-based vigilance control” and its mechanism (“breakdown” causing “vigilance stays too low”) in a way that is only partially supported by the provided excerpt. New packet required. Source: [Grossberg Stephen. Acetylcholine Neuromodulation in Normal and Abnormal Learning and Memory: Vigilance Control in Waking, Sleep, Autism, Amnesia and Alzheimer’s Disease. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fncir.2017.00082; article XML SHA-256 40953dc7aa4539d48f358288e198b621b216ae6bf94d3a96b27d3ff0692648da. “Acetylcholine Neuromodulation in Normal and Abnormal Learning and Memory: Vigilance Control in Waking, Sleep, Autism, Amnesia and Alzheimer’s Disease” (10.3389/fncir.2017.00082).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fncir.2017.00082) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- medial temporal lobe [redraft]: Packet only says MTL is implicated in declarative memory; defining declarative memory as facts and events adds content not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Ben-Zvi Feldman Shir; Soroker Nachum; Levy Daniel A.. Brain substrates of visual scene memory: a lesion-behavior mapping study. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1606051; article XML SHA-256 d8cf59fe4c08c95103f0dab7081f73932a45c68043cedb294320eac71815907b. “Brain substrates of visual scene memory: a lesion-behavior mapping study” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1606051).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1606051) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mediation process [redraft]: The definition blends mediation with moderated mediation; the packet supports that empathic capacity moderates the indirect effect, but it does not define “mediation process” as such on its own.; The first sentence gives a general definition of “mediation process” as “a pathway in which one variable affects another through an intermediate factor rather than only directly,” but the provided packet does not explicitly define mediation in general terms (it only describes the specific mediation tested in the study).; The packet supports a psychology study on belief in a just world, prosocial behavior, resilience, and empathic capacity, not the field label “development.”; The requested term sense for “mediation process” is not fully supported by an explicit statement that matches the packet’s wording; the packet supports the study’s moderated mediation claim (BJW → psychological resilience → prosocial behavior tendency, moderated by empathic capacity), but not the standalone general mediation definition. New packet required. Source: [Liu Cong; Fan Wenshu; Tan Qiuyu; Yun Kai; Huang Wei. The relationship between belief in a just world and prosocial behavior: the role of psychological resilience and empathic capacity. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1520451; article XML SHA-256 a6a2c7b0436d6f9de31509084fb1b1cc931f95577d85f7b054eca6c15aa88b0d. “The relationship between belief in a just world and prosocial behavior: the role of psychological resilience and empathic capacity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1520451).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1520451) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mediator [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the source packet by presenting a broad methodological/psychological definition rather than a source-supported sense statement.; The definition’s first sentence contains an unsupported generalization about the meaning of mediator beyond what is explicitly stated in the packet.; The example portion is partially supported (psychological resilience is described as the mediator linking boredom proneness to short-video addiction), but the overall definition still fails due to the unsupported general conceptual description.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “mediator” as “a factor that helps explain how or why one variable is related to another”; it only states that the study examined a mechanism linking two variables “with psychological resilience as a mediator.”; The packet only shows psychological resilience being used as a mediator in one study; it does not define the general concept of a mediator as a factor that explains how or why one variable is related to another. New packet required. Source: [Hui Xueli; Wang Yan; Cheng Wenfeng; Shi Yantao. Boredom proneness and short-video addiction among Chinese vocational college students: psychological resilience as a mediator and gender as a moderator. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889736; article XML SHA-256 dcd80b58cecd6eaeba97cc115753f0d95a5ce2b83004d6f811ef35bb516d0f56. “Boredom proneness and short-video addiction among Chinese vocational college students: psychological resilience as a mediator and gender as a moderator” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889736).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889736) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- medication [redraft]: The packet only lists medication as one treatment option for OCD; it does not explicitly support the broader definition that medication is the use of medicine as a treatment option.; The packet text only states that OCD treatment options include “psychotherapy and medication,” but it does not define “medication” as “the use of medicine as a treatment option,” so the first substantive claim is not supported by the provided source packet.; The sense is acceptable, but the definition adds an explanatory gloss that goes beyond the source text. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Publications about Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD). HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 c53b38acfde2ca9d41610cd050f555738292cb1983dc4138480ca49dfa25335f. “Publications about Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/ocd-listing).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/ocd-listing) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- melioration [redraft]: The claim that melioration is a "usable English form" is only a suggestion in the historical note, not a supported current or settled definition.; The claim that melioration is a “usable English form” is only implied by the packet’s remark about possible usage; the packet does not explicitly describe it as usable/usual or provide that framing for the term’s meaning.; The definition gives the meaning of "melioration" as "improvement" and "the process of making something better," but the supplied source only says that the English word "melioration" might well be used in connection with meliorism; it does not define melioration itself.; The packet does not define “melioration” as “improvement” or “the process of making something better.” It only notes that the English words “meliorate and melioration” “might well be used” in connection with “meliorism,” without giving a general definition for melioration itself.; The second sentence attributes the meliorism idea to the term "melioration," but in the packet that idea is the definition of meliorism, not melioration, so the requested sense is wrong/misattributed. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Meliorism” (Meliorism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M2defs.htm#Meliorism) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- memorize [redraft]: Because the definition contains at least one substantive component not supported by the packet’s text, the overall definition is not fully defensible from the provided source.; The added explanation about remembering features of objects is only partially supported; the source asks how object information and features are memorized during perspective taking, but it does not define memorize as a general memory process or establish this as the term’s meaning beyond the study context.; The definition’s first claim (“encode and retain information in memory so it can be remembered later”) is not stated in the supplied packet; the packet only frames the study as investigating “memorize object information” and “allocentric encoding,” without defining memorization as encoding/retention in memory.; The packet supports a narrow study-specific sense of memorizing object information from another person’s viewpoint, not the general dictionary definition “to encode and retain information in memory so it can be remembered later.”; The packet supports that the study concerns memorizing object information during adopting another’s viewpoint (including visual/perspective taking) at a general level, but it does not explicitly support the specific phrasing that it “refers to remembering features of objects … including when taking another person’s visual perspective.” New packet required. Source: [Wang Nanbo; Huang Shuo; Cai Junyang; Huang Ruiyi; Geng Haiyan. How the brain memorizes the world from others’ perspectives: investigating allocentric encoding of object features during perspective taking. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03022-2; article XML SHA-256 4eb8dd4b938ced8500e0741bb591645fa3ee6f197e92b74f7af8f6e0a37e8282. “How the brain memorizes the world from others’ perspectives: investigating allocentric encoding of object features during perspective taking” (10.1186/s40359-025-03022-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03022-2) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ménage à trois [redraft]: Hedges 'used here' to smuggle a microbiology metaphor onto the general headword; not a psychology sense. New packet required. Source: [Bereswill Stefan; Fischer André; Plickert Rita; Haag Lea-Maxie; Otto Bettina; Kühl Anja A.; Dashti Javid I.; Zautner Andreas E.; Muñoz Melba; Loddenkemper Christoph; Groß Uwe; Göbel Ulf B.; Heimesaat Markus M.. Novel Murine Infection Models Provide Deep Insights into the “Ménage à Trois” of Campylobacter jejuni , Microbiota and Host Innate Immunity. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0020953; article XML SHA-256 11637728c681ac895d62697e185600aa19ef2a863def9a6f9c023d7976de0b69. “Novel Murine Infection Models Provide Deep Insights into the “Ménage à Trois” of Campylobacter jejuni , Microbiota and Host Innate Immunity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0020953).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0020953) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Mendelian inheritance [redraft]: The definition shifts the term toward “forms of Parkinson’s disease,” which is narrower than the term itself; the packet describes an inheritance pattern seen in some PD families, not a definition of PD forms.; The definition’s first sentence claims that Mendelian inheritance is “according to the inheritance of a single gene,” but the provided packet does not state or define Mendelian inheritance in those terms; it only says that Parkinson’s disease “exhibit[s] Mendelian inheritance in some families.”; The definition’s remainder (“forms of Parkinson’s disease seen in some families, including autosomal dominant transmission”) is partially supported, but the overall definition is not fully supported because of the unsupported “single gene” claim.; The packet supports that Parkinson’s disease can show Mendelian inheritance in some families and that one family had autosomal dominant PD, but it does not state that Mendelian inheritance means transmission of a single gene trait or disorder. New packet required. Source: [Sebate Boiketlo; Cuttler Katelyn; Cloete Ruben; Britz Marcell; Christoffels Alan; Williams Monique; Carr Jonathan; Bardien Soraya. Prioritization of candidate genes for a South African family with Parkinson’s disease using in-silico tools. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0249324; article XML SHA-256 5a3b42376568a5478ab1d16cb3b27d93fc564ba17af6fb4e061d003107c5d592. “Prioritization of candidate genes for a South African family with Parkinson’s disease using in-silico tools” (10.1371/journal.pone.0249324).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249324) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- menstrual cycle [redraft]: Menstrual cycle is not 'a point in a woman's life'; definition is built from the depression packet rather than the term's sense. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 5e865d35b1103be91b52db38911aadcdf861e23a0de4e1b3e1eeb01399b987b8. “Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- mental confusion [redraft]: The definition broadens the source claim beyond the packet’s wording and presents an unsupported cognitive characterization for this term.; The definition’s first sentence (“unclear or disorganized thinking,” “mentally muddled”) provides a conceptual description of “mental confusion” that is not supported anywhere in the packet text.; The packet only treats “mental confusion” as a listed mood state (high levels of tension/anger/mental confusion) associated with social isolation periods; it does not define the term’s meaning or cognitive characteristics.; The packet supports only that “mental confusion” was listed among adolescents’ negatively accentuated mood states during COVID-19 social isolation; it does not support the added gloss of unclear/disorganized thinking or feeling mentally muddled.; The second sentence is partially supported (greater pronounced mood state during social isolation), but since the core definition/meaning is unsupported, the overall definition fails the requirement that the requested sense be supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Andrade Alexandro; D’Oliveira Anderson; dos Santos Keyla Mara; Falese Lavinia; Mancone Stefania; Diotaiuti Pierluigi; Stabile Luca; Buonanno Giorgio. Mood states of active and insufficiently active adolescents related to sleep quality, gender, academic performance and guidelines for the post-COVID-19 scenario. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1494456; article XML SHA-256 8915fdb183bc4ef87d7ba264312866dcff8e2d365f61eb465aa6ad155e3f9f65. “Mood states of active and insufficiently active adolescents related to sleep quality, gender, academic performance and guidelines for the post-COVID-19 scenario” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1494456).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1494456) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mental effort [redraft]: Packet defines recollection; mental effort is redefined as memory retrieval, a wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Recollect” (C122669).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mental health clinic [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence states that people with mental illness “receive psychiatric and behavioural health care,” but the packet only explicitly describes an intervention delivered by psychiatrists and refers to a “community mental health clinic” within an “urban behavioural health system”; it does not clearly support that this is the routine scope of services (i.e., psychiatric + behavioural health care) in general terms.; The packet supports a community mental health clinic for patients with serious mental illness, but not the broader claim that it is a setting where people with mental illness in general receive psychiatric and behavioural health care.; The second sentence adds that preventive health screening “can be integrated into routine mental health treatment.” While the packet evaluates a preventive screening intervention at a community mental health clinic, it does not directly support the phrasing about integration into “routine mental health treatment” as a general property of mental health clinics.; The statement that preventive health screening can be integrated into routine mental health treatment goes beyond the source; the packet describes a preventive screening intervention in the clinic, not a general definition of the clinic as an integrated-treatment setting. New packet required. Source: [Hwong Alison R.; Chagwedera D. Nyasha; Thomas Marilyn; Niu Grace; Quan Judy; Vittinghoff Eric; Schillinger Dean; Newcomer John W.; Gonzalez Ana; Essock Susan; Mangurian Christina. CRANIUM: a quasi-experimental study to improve metabolic screening and HIV testing in community mental health clinics compared to usual care. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-04293-4; article XML SHA-256 9037ececff0d77e4b3576f2f79ccec7546b51fc5de5d0dc930d02d841980ffb7. “CRANIUM: a quasi-experimental study to improve metabolic screening and HIV testing in community mental health clinics compared to usual care” (10.1186/s12888-022-04293-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-04293-4) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mental health consultation [redraft]: First sentence circular, second describes the study population rather than the term. New packet required. Source: [Youn Hin Moi; Kang Soo Hyun; Jang Sung-In; Park Eun-Cheol. Association between social participation and mental health consultation in individuals with suicidal ideation: a cross-sectional study. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12888-020-02724-8; article XML SHA-256 d50fc1addd3331295cdf8bb07dc3f70852e1fd9545f4745c603a4f9bb0f924f6. “Association between social participation and mental health consultation in individuals with suicidal ideation: a cross-sectional study” (10.1186/s12888-020-02724-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02724-8) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mental health services [redraft]: The definition contains two substantive claims; only the online-locator/find-in-your-area aspect is supported by the packet text.; The packet only says an online treatment locator helps you find mental health services in your area; it does not support the added definition that these are local services related to mental health care or treatment.; The packet only states that an online treatment locator can help people find “mental health services in your area.” It does not explicitly define mental health services as “local services related to mental health care or treatment.”; The second sentence is meta-commentary about the source rather than part of the term’s definition, and it is not supported as a definitional claim. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression in Women: 4 Things to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d7e3878cd110511a1cab8edfc2803470cfecef390d776a8858330f68a78c0fab. “Depression in Women: 4 Things to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression-in-women).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression-in-women) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- mental measurement [redraft]: The claim that the term specifically refers to questionnaires made up of individual items is not supported by the source text.; The packet does not define “mental measurement” as a general assessment of psychological or mental characteristics; it only discusses mental measurement questionnaires and missing-item handling.; The packet does not explicitly support the definition’s claim that “mental measurement” is the assessment of “psychological or mental characteristics.” It only references “mental measurement questionnaires” and missing-item effects, without defining the term that way.; The packet does support the second sentence’s general point that incomplete or missing questionnaire items can influence/affect measurement accuracy (“Incomplete data are of particular important influence in mental measurement questionnaires” and the study compares methods for handling missing items). However, because the first sentence is not supported, the overall definition is not defensible.; The statement about accuracy being affected when questionnaire items are left unanswered is supported in substance, but the overall definition includes additional unsupported generalization. New packet required. Source: [Xu Xueying; Xia Leizhen; Zhang Qimeng; Wu Shaoning; Wu Mingcheng; Liu Hongbo. The ability of different imputation methods for missing values in mental measurement questionnaires. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12874-020-00932-0; article XML SHA-256 c97c02d55c1600b99626edc8cc0225e7ce7d98e6de3fdfc1a813d2444f447e3d. “The ability of different imputation methods for missing values in mental measurement questionnaires” (10.1186/s12874-020-00932-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-020-00932-0) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mental representation [redraft]: The packet provides support only for a motor-learning framing (movement patterns/strategies via “cognitive primitives” representing specific movement patterns and strategies), not for the broader cognition-wide description used in the definition.; The packet text does not explicitly define “mental representation” as an “internal structuring of information” that “supports action and learning”; it only mentions “mental representation structures” in relation to motor learning/performance.; The phrase “internal structuring of information that supports action and learning” is broader than the packet supports; the packet only says the study examines mental representation structures and introduces “cognitive primitives” as units representing movement patterns and strategies.; “Mental representation” is not defined in the packet as the way movement patterns and strategies are “mentally organized”; that wording goes beyond the source’s description of their relation to performance. New packet required. Source: [Cienfuegos Miguel; Naceri Abdeldjallil; Maycock Jonathan; Kõiva Risto; Ritter Helge; Schack Thomas. Comparative analysis of motor skill acquisition in a novel bimanual task: the role of mental representation and sensorimotor feedback. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1425090; article XML SHA-256 671853936bf4fe8d69bf479fe4bf4899b9057aed4b29710fe82b8f02125c32b1. “Comparative analysis of motor skill acquisition in a novel bimanual task: the role of mental representation and sensorimotor feedback” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1425090).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1425090) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mental retardation [redraft]: The definition states that “Mental retardation is an older term for intellectual disability,” but the provided packet does not mention this synonym/terminology relationship.; “Older term for intellectual disability” is not supported by the packet; the packet only provides the descriptor/source label “Intellectual Disability” and the term itself, not historical status. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Intellectual Disability” (D008607).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008607) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- mental set [redraft]: The claim that “Shifting mental set means changing that approach when circumstances change” is only partially supported (the packet links mental-set shifting to cognitive inflexibility with changing circumstances, but does not provide the specific explanatory wording about “approach the mind uses”).; The definition adds an explanatory gloss about what shifting mental set means that is broader than the source packet and is not directly supported there.; The packet does not define “mental set” as “the current pattern or approach the mind uses to guide thinking and behavior”; it only mentions “shift mental set” in relation to cognitive inflexibility.; The packet supports mental set only in the phrase “shift mental set or update behavior when circumstances change”; it does not support defining mental set as a “current pattern or approach the mind uses to guide thinking and behavior.”; “Reduced ability to do this reflects cognitive inflexibility” is supported by the packet (cognitive inflexibility is described as reduced capacity to shift mental set/update behavior). New packet required. Source: [Guo Wei; Neo Phoebe Suat-Hong; McNaughton Neil. Neural mechanisms underlying cognitive inflexibility in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1795436; article XML SHA-256 7fddb72539b2c0e9642c73ca74e57c9426b4de8cda4f9a49a41b56f56271e95a. “Neural mechanisms underlying cognitive inflexibility in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1795436).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1795436) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mental status examination [redraft]: The definition adds a broad characterization of the mental status examination as assessing “current mental functioning,” but the packet only supports affect classification within the mental status examination, not that wider scope.; The definition claims the examination involves the clinician judging a person’s “current mental functioning” and “aspects” more broadly than affect; the packet only provides explicit support for affect classification as a pivotal part of the mental status examination.; The definition should not present the reliability point as a general established property without qualification beyond the packet’s specific statement that ratings of affect were often inconsistent between raters.; The “including their affect” component is supported, but the broader framing (“current mental functioning” and multiple aspects) is not directly supported by the packet text provided.; “Commonly based on observation during an interview” is not directly supported as a general feature of the mental status examination; the packet only mentions videotaped semi-structured psychiatric interviews in one study. New packet required. Source: [Barzilay Ran; Israel Nadav; Krivoy Amir; Sagy Roi; Kamhi-Nesher Shiri; Loebstein Oren; Wolf Lior; Shoval Gal. Predicting Affect Classification in Mental Status Examination Using Machine Learning Face Action Recognition System: A Pilot Study in Schizophrenia Patients. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00288; article XML SHA-256 1357f999298d36e8f4e6ab9c3d7d5722a445bf14c6cb709e665b14b5038fe016. “Predicting Affect Classification in Mental Status Examination Using Machine Learning Face Action Recognition System: A Pilot Study in Schizophrenia Patients” (10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00288).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00288) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mental [redraft]: Although the core phrasing is supported by the packet, the entry should not be accepted under the provided term because the source label and text identify a different concept.; The packet supports the term/sense “affect,” not “mental”; the definition appears to define affect, so the requested term-sense is mismatched.; The provided definition describes **affect** (emotion/feeling-tone accompaniment of an idea), but the term to define is **“mental,”** so the requested sense does not match the source packet’s content for the given term.; While the affect-related claims in the definition are largely supported by the packet text (“feeling-tone accompaniment of an idea or mental representation” and “most direct psychic derivative of instinct…bodily changes”), the definition is not actually a definition of “mental” as such. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Affect” (D000339).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000339) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- metabolic equivalent [redraft]: Vague first sentence plus a methods summary of how the study grouped participants. New packet required. Source: [Alkhamis Batool Abdulelah; Reddy Ravi Shankar; Alshahrani Mastour Saeed; Al Salim Zuhair; Alyazedi Faisal M.; Elshiwi Ahmed Mohamed; Koura Ghada Mohamed; Sangadala Devika Rani; Mukherjee Debjani; Al Adal Saeed Y.; Ghulam Hussain Saleh H.. Association between physical activity levels and functional recovery, quality of life, and psychological well-being in patients undergoing physiotherapy for musculoskeletal disorders: A cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341335; article XML SHA-256 3aff30b24e32bc2f2d30856606d5670dd4f5b1f593fcb2fbb4a041498dcadaed. “Association between physical activity levels and functional recovery, quality of life, and psychological well-being in patients undergoing physiotherapy for musculoskeletal disorders: A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341335).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341335) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- metabolic tolerance [redraft]: It overgeneralizes a study-specific description of a subset with MC4R minor alleles into a broad definition of “metabolic tolerance.”; The definition’s claim that “low metabolic tolerance means being more prone to obesity from overeating, particularly during stress” is only indirectly supported (it says increased obesity risk, especially when under stress), but the causal framing (“from overeating”) and the implied mechanism are not explicitly established in the provided text.; The packet does not define “metabolic tolerance” as a general measure of “how well a person’s body can handle excessive energy intake”; it only uses the phrase to describe a hypothesized subgroup (“a human subset of people with a low metabolic tolerance for excessive energy intake”), without an explicit definition.; The packet only suggests a possible association (“might be associated,” “might identify”), but the definition states the relationship as settled fact.; The packet’s emphasis is on genotype/obesity risk (“MC4R minor allele… increased risk of obesity”) rather than cognition, so assigning the term to the field “cognition” is not supported by the packet.; “Low metabolic tolerance means being more prone to obesity from overeating” is broader and more categorical than the packet’s wording about increased obesity risk with excessive energy intake, especially under stress. New packet required. Source: [Park Sunmin; Daily James W; Zhang Xin; Jin Hyun Seok; Lee Hye Ja; Lee Yong Hyun. Interactions with the MC4R rs17782313 variant, mental stress and energy intake and the risk of obesity in Genome Epidemiology Study. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12986-016-0096-8; article XML SHA-256 81d5063a5af690cc4c0d35f6429dab4d7a487ba8988f92f74a321208880cc482. “Interactions with the MC4R rs17782313 variant, mental stress and energy intake and the risk of obesity in Genome Epidemiology Study” (10.1186/s12986-016-0096-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12986-016-0096-8) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- metric [redraft]: Claims about how metric equivalence “relates its items to the underlying trait in the same way,” or that it “suggests scores can be compared across groups because the scale’s measurement pattern is consistent,” are not explicitly supported anywhere in the provided packet.; The claim that metric equivalence means scores can be compared across groups because the scale’s measurement pattern is consistent is an unsupported explanatory generalization not stated in the packet.; The definition includes conditional wording (“When supported in factor invariance testing…”) that is not itself explained in the packet beyond the existence of metric equivalence results.; The packet states that the study found evidence of “metric” (along with configural and scalar) equivalence across sex and age groups, but it does not define what “metric equivalence” means.; The packet supports that factor invariance analyses found metric equivalence across sex and age groups, but it does not define metric equivalence as items relating to the trait in the same way across groups. New packet required. Source: [Troncoso-Tejada Gustavo; Gálvez-Nieto José; Norambuena-Paredes Ignacio; Casas David González. Psychometric study of the political violence support scale in a sample of Chilean university students. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04416-6; article XML SHA-256 8267328f8103e15e0d986543d4be95da438d2ffc377e1b2d7404fc7a1692eaaf. “Psychometric study of the political violence support scale in a sample of Chilean university students” (10.1186/s40359-026-04416-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04416-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Meyer’s loop [redraft]: Because the definition’s phrase “brain’s visual pathway” is not directly stated or clearly equivalent in the provided text, the definition contains an unsupported substantive characterization.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that Meyer’s loop is “a part of the brain’s visual pathway”; it only links it to “visual field defects” and describes its “curving” and “fanning” shape.; The packet supports Meyer’s loop as having a curving, fanning shape, but it does not explicitly support calling it a “part of the brain’s visual pathway.”; The packet supports importance for guiding anterior temporal epilepsy surgery, but the wording “brain surgery, especially in the anterior temporal region” is broader than the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [Shan Yong-Zhi; Wang Zhen-Ming; Fan Xiao-Tong; Zhang Hua-Qiang; Ren Lian-Kun; Wei Peng-Hu; Zhao Guo-Guang. Automatic labeling of the fanning and curving shape of Meyer’s loop for epilepsy surgery: an atlas extracted from high-definition fiber tractography. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s12883-019-1537-6; article XML SHA-256 d7ee700f7af0c5ba839b0963e668978b7ad2eb980721c069705a04bfc3be2f97. “Automatic labeling of the fanning and curving shape of Meyer’s loop for epilepsy surgery: an atlas extracted from high-definition fiber tractography” (10.1186/s12883-019-1537-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-019-1537-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- MHA [redraft]: The definition claims that MHA “lets a system attend to multiple parts of input information at the same time,” but the packet only refers to “Multi-Head Attention (MHA)” and does not describe this “attend to multiple parts … at the same time” mechanism.; The definition describes MHA as “a traditional attention-based approach,” but the packet specifically characterizes MHA-based methods as “computationally intensive,” with “quadratic complexity” and “high memory demands,” without explicitly framing it as a general “traditional attention-based approach.”; The definition slightly overgeneralizes beyond the source by presenting a generic functional explanation rather than sticking to the source’s wording about MHA as a traditional attention-based method used in spoof detection.; The packet content is about spoof detection for automatic speaker verification (audio systems), not cognition; the provided field label “cognition” is not supported by the packet.; The packet supports that MHA refers to multi-head attention and that it is computationally intensive with quadratic complexity and high memory demands, but it does not explicitly support the claim that it 'lets a system attend to multiple parts of input information at the same time.' New packet required. Source: [Wang Xinwei; Tan Zhicheng; Li Guo. Spoof detection with dynamic learnable sparse attention and tri-modal fusion in resource-constrained audio systems. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335240; article XML SHA-256 c0da39b309ba116934f5cac70cacbf66cd80eb8ba8473cc5b76f39eb31b8abaa. “Spoof detection with dynamic learnable sparse attention and tri-modal fusion in resource-constrained audio systems” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335240).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335240) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- microdata [redraft]: The definition claims that microdata are “detailed records about individual people or households,” but the packet does not explicitly define microdata in those terms; it only refers to “census microdata” and “detailed microdata” being unavailable.; The packet supports that census microdata are used in population synthesis, but it does not explicitly define microdata as detailed records about individual people or households.; The phrase "used to build realistic synthetic populations for modelling" is broader than the packet’s wording about enabling synthetic populations for agent-based models; it should not generalize beyond that context.; While the packet supports that census microdata are “infrequently collected,” “privacy-restricted,” and “usually available only as small public-use samples at coarse geographic scales,” it does not explicitly connect microdata to being “often used to build realistic synthetic populations,” only that synthetic populations provide demographic foundations for agent-based models and that synthesis methods rely on census microdata. New packet required. Source: [Jones Michael; Dawson Richard; Mills Jon. A large language model framework for sample-free population synthesis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341704; article XML SHA-256 79ab85a3fdd257f76047e6e5439d3add7db692f0e25a060d0421da1996c390d0. “A large language model framework for sample-free population synthesis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341704).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341704) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- microsleep [redraft]: Because the requested definition includes this unsupported characterization, the definition is not fully supported by the provided packet.; The packet does not define microsleep as “a brief episode of sleep or near-sleep”; it only mentions microsleep as occurring alongside fatigue (without describing its duration or “near-sleep”).; The packet supports microsleep as something associated with fatigue-related driving situations and a dangerous decrease in vigilance, but it does not define microsleep as a “brief episode of sleep or near-sleep.”; The phrase “near-sleep” is not supported by the supplied text, and the definition adds an ungrounded characterization beyond the packet’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Moessinger Michèle; Stürmer Ralf; Mühlensiep Markus. Auditive beta stimulation as a countermeasure against driver fatigue. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0245251; article XML SHA-256 26e367b271902bf1d5b2f52c246d3daac8d645824df44788e97db294149f4443. “Auditive beta stimulation as a countermeasure against driver fatigue” (10.1371/journal.pone.0245251).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245251) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- micturition reflex [redraft]: Because the core definition of the term (beyond the idea that it can be suppressed) is not stated in the packet, the first sentence’s characterization is not fully supported by the provided text.; The added description about reduced bladder contraction and increased bladder capacity is presented as an effect of flavoxate in the packet, not as a defining property of the reflex.; The packet does not define the micturition reflex itself; it describes flavoxate, a drug that suppresses the reflex.; The packet does not explicitly define what the “micturition reflex” is as a body reflex involved in urination; it only describes how flavoxate suppresses “the micturition reflex.”; The statement that it is a ‘body reflex involved in urination’ is not supported by the supplied text. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Flavoxate” (C61765).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- micturition [redraft]: Because the first substantive claim is not directly supported by the packet’s text, the definition as a whole is not defensible to the provided source.; The first sentence adds a general definitional gloss that is broader than what the packet explicitly supports.; The packet does not explicitly define “micturition” as “voiding urine from the bladder”; it only uses the term within “abnormally slow and/or incomplete micturition.”; “From the bladder” is not stated in the packet; the source only supports micturition/voiding in the context of urine flow and voiding dysfunction. New packet required. Source: [Babazadeh-Zavieh Seyedeh Saeideh; Karshenas Fahimeh; Tayebi Sona; Rabiei Niloofar; Haeri Seyed Mohammad Jafar. Effects of interferential stimulation on clinical symptom and urodynamic findings in women with voiding dysfunction: A protocol of randomized clinical trial. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330610; article XML SHA-256 86b7a05a35a846eed85cadf9016e74468a104fbe8260aab370ff755be39e0dcb. “Effects of interferential stimulation on clinical symptom and urodynamic findings in women with voiding dysfunction: A protocol of randomized clinical trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330610).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330610) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- middle class [redraft]: Narrow asylum fee-paying sense is smuggled onto a general social headword. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-2068500-2080500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- midparent [redraft]: The added gloss about ‘studying how ancestry contributes to an offspring’ is a broader interpretation of the surrounding heredity theory rather than a statement supported directly by the supplied text.; The packet does not explicitly define “midparent” as “an averaged or mean parent formed from the two parents.” It only says the passage is “modifying Mr. Galton’s definition of midparent” and then describes “a sort of mean of the ancestry in the s th generation,” which is not the same wording or sense as averaging two parents into a midparent.; The packet supports a historical ‘midparent’ concept and later a generalized ‘mid-s-th parent’ as a mean of ancestry, but it does not explicitly define midparent as an averaged parent formed from exactly two parents. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Galton's Law” (Galton's).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Galton's) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- midpoint [redraft]: General headword redefined as one pathway enzyme's position; wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [Summers Benjamin S.; Milham Luke; Bustamante Sonia; Gondal Krishan; Rentsch Peggy; Sundaram Gayathri; Lovelace Michael D.; Vissel Bryce; Brew Bruce J.. Renal and hepatic function is preserved following inducible knockout of kynurenine pathway enzymes KMO or QPRT in adult mice. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335906; article XML SHA-256 48502a2881fc8e5ba9352c1055d3509a310a31eb51b42d54d18f766152392b33. “Renal and hepatic function is preserved following inducible knockout of kynurenine pathway enzymes KMO or QPRT in adult mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335906).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335906) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- migratory restlessness [redraft]: The definition adds a general characterization (“seasonal period in migratory birds when activity and responding increase as migration approaches or occurs”) that is only partly supported; the packet supports increased responding and reduced sleep during a migratory period, but does not itself define the term in that general form.; The definition’s first sentence makes a general claim that migratory restlessness is a “seasonal period” in “migratory birds” with activity/responding increasing “as migration approaches or occurs”; the packet only describes this in White-crowned Sparrows and does not explicitly support the “as migration approaches” phrasing or the broader cross-species/general definition.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source is about avian migratory behavior and sleep, not the psychology/counselling sense of learning.; The second sentence is supported: the packet states the White-crowned Sparrow “decreases sleep by 60% during a period of migratory restlessness relative to a non-migratory period.” New packet required. Source: [Jones Stephanie G; Paletz Elliott M; Obermeyer William H; Hannan Ciaran T; Benca Ruth M. Seasonal influences on sleep and executive function in the migratory White-crowned Sparrow ( Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii ). 2010; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-11-87; article XML SHA-256 7093246fb98cc548c8d814c4ab728e53c2760e8d5386eecdb9bd5d52cf9352ae. “Seasonal influences on sleep and executive function in the migratory White-crowned Sparrow ( Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii )” (10.1186/1471-2202-11-87).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-11-87) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- minority group [redraft]: The added explanatory sentence about Black UK members being minorities relative to a White majority goes beyond the source’s wording and narrows the term in a way the packet does not explicitly define.; The definition contains substantive claims that are not directly supported by the supplied packet text.; The definition’s specific contextualization (“Black UK group members as minorities in relation to the wider White majority”) is not stated in the packet as an explicit definition of the term; it is only implied by the study background/aim.; The packet does not define the term as a general social-category concept; it only refers to “Black UK minority group members” in the context of one study, so the broad dictionary-style definition is an unsupported generalization.; The packet does not provide a general definition of the term “minority group” (e.g., based on proportion of population or dominance/status); it only uses the phrase “Black UK minority group members” in describing participants.; “Make up less of the population” is not supported by the packet; the source only supports a relative minority/majority status framing. New packet required. Source: [Dierckx Kim; Van Hiel Alain; Johnson James D.; Lecci Len; Valcke Barbara; Sekwena Eva Kefilwe. Adaptation and validation of the Johnson-Lecci scale to assess anti-white bias among black UK minority group members. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0277077; article XML SHA-256 fd195c2ee88f7e4ade6a58c7ee0640abbcdba0b9a6f23a8085796d8a1f82fa1c. “Adaptation and validation of the Johnson-Lecci scale to assess anti-white bias among black UK minority group members” (10.1371/journal.pone.0277077).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277077) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- minority stress [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the packet’s scope: the source is specifically about sexual-identity minority stress in adult LGBQ populations, not minority stress in stigmatized minority groups generally.; The definition includes “internalized negative attitudes,” but the packet specifically names “internalized homophobia”/internalized homonegativity rather than internalized negative attitudes in general.; The packet does not provide a general definition of minority stress as “the added stress experienced by people from stigmatized minority groups”; it discusses sexual-identity minority stress and measurement/instruments rather than defining minority stress in that broad way.; The packet supports specific processes (stigmatization, discrimination, victimization, expectations of rejection, identity concealment, internalized homophobia) and health inequities, but the definition’s first sentence makes an extra, more general framing not directly stated in the provided text.; “Internalized negative attitudes” is broader than the source wording, which refers to internalized homophobia/homonegativity rather than a generic internalized-negative-attitudes formulation. New packet required. Source: [Misevic-Kallenbach Maria; Conrad Susann; Freitag Simone; Jacobs Anja; Schirm Jacqueline; Sixtensson Madlen; Warschburger Petra. Measurement instruments for sexual identity minority stress in adults: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342420; article XML SHA-256 4b7bb83a34a9d35e68eeceb04efd92fb9659c8a6dc123d99e8cf09d69f21ccab. “Measurement instruments for sexual identity minority stress in adults: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342420).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342420) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- misattribution [redraft]: The definition claims the packet “specifically describes free will as a subjective experience built on this mistaken sense of authorship”; the packet supports that free will is an illusory/experiential phenomenon based on subjective experience and misattribution of causality, but it does not mention “authorship” or a “sense of authorship.”; The definition is somewhat over-specific for the packet: it presents a particular causal explanation of conscious intention that is not directly supported as written.; The packet does not explicitly support the phrase that the “person experiences their will as the cause of an action” (it mentions misattribution of causality, but not this specific authorship/experienced-will-as-cause formulation).; The packet supports misattribution as a misattribution of causality underlying the experience of free will, but it does not specifically support the added claim that causality is wrongly assigned to one’s conscious intention or that the ‘actual causal processes are elsewhere.’; ‘Mistaken sense of authorship’ is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the source’s wording; the packet instead frames free will as an experiential phenomenon shaped by conditioning and causal determinism. New packet required. Source: [Kansala Cooper; Cicek Emre; Nkansah-Okoree Vanessa B.; Golding Andrew W.; Murugan Nirosha J.; Rouleau Nicolas. Superstitious conditioning shapes the illusory experience of free will under causal determinism. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1832135; article XML SHA-256 e3b3d0be5edf3b2cd223b3009a3606459a7534ac73db87f12a28938720db2896. “Superstitious conditioning shapes the illusory experience of free will under causal determinism” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1832135).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1832135) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- misogyny [redraft]: The overall definition includes claims not stated as definitions within the packet, beyond reporting that teachers referenced certain behaviours they attributed to online misogyny.; The packet does not provide an explicit general definition of misogyny as “prejudiced, demeaning, or discriminatory attitudes and behaviour directed at girls or women.”; The packet does not support the definitional generalization beyond the school-based examples of misogynistic comments, praise of misogynistic influencers, and discriminatory behaviour toward female peers and staff.; The packet supports online misogyny in schools, but not the broader dictionary claim that misogyny is generally prejudiced, demeaning, or discriminatory attitudes and behaviour directed at girls or women.; The packet uses the phrase “online misogyny” but does not substantiate the specific wording that it is “directed at girls or women.”; The second sentence adds specific elements (“influencer praise” and “harmful treatment of female peers or staff”) that are only described indirectly by teachers’ examples; the packet does not define these as the core components of misogyny itself (it reports perceptions/examples in schools). New packet required. Source: [Over Harriet; Bunce Carl; Baggaley Jonathan; Zendle David. Understanding the influence of online misogyny in schools from the perspective of teachers. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299339; article XML SHA-256 a7503cf118280eab36e5f6b56d1f15e882663bc151773197ee68bb51b4ec7b06. “Understanding the influence of online misogyny in schools from the perspective of teachers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299339).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299339) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mitigating factor [redraft]: The added clause about self-compassion being linked with lower aggression partly through reduced perceived stress is supported by the packet, but it is presented as if it were part of the term’s definition rather than a study-specific finding.; The definition generalizes beyond the source by defining a mitigating factor as something that lessens any negative psychological outcome; the packet only supports self-compassion as a mitigating factor against aggression in this study.; The definition specifies self-compassion is a mitigating factor “because it is linked with lower aggression, partly through reduced perceived stress.” While the packet does support reduced aggression and perceived stress as a mediator, the packet does not explicitly frame self-compassion in the precise “frequency/strength/impact” terms used in the first sentence.; The definition’s general description (“helps lessen the strength, frequency, or impact of a negative psychological outcome”) is not stated in the provided packet; the packet only discusses self-compassion in relation to lower aggression. New packet required. Source: [Guan Fang; Zhan Chengqing; Li Shanyin; Tong Song; Peng Kaiping. Effects of self-compassion on aggression and its psychological mechanism through perceived stress. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s40359-024-02191-w; article XML SHA-256 76d87e0cd57ff50cd2ade58807c0e24778e6246b7fd6d28edbf2cc6bb4e8b86e. “Effects of self-compassion on aggression and its psychological mechanism through perceived stress” (10.1186/s40359-024-02191-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-02191-w) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mixed distribution [redraft]: The definition adds a general statistical explanation not supported by the source text; the packet only ties the term to passenger patience in this study.; The definition’s first sentence claims a “model that combines more than one statistical distribution,” but the packet does not define mixed distributions in that way or state that the model combines multiple statistical distributions.; The packet does support that a “mixed distribution model of passenger patience” was “constructed through survival analysis” and “calibrated to reflect empirical data accurately,” but the definition adds an unverified rationale/description about “represent variation within a population” and the specific modeling mechanism of combining multiple distributions.; The packet supports that a mixed distribution model of passenger patience was constructed through survival analysis, but it does not state that a mixed distribution is a model combining more than one statistical distribution. New packet required. Source: [Yang Fangyi. Modelling taxi drop-off decisions in FIFO lanes via survival and discrete choice analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331664; article XML SHA-256 4bd458576c84491089785dca40a9cf2e8f504e3437335e9abc18a3e3606113f3. “Modelling taxi drop-off decisions in FIFO lanes via survival and discrete choice analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331664).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331664) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mobbing [redraft]: The packet does not define mobbing as “a form of harmful workplace mistreatment, similar to workplace bullying.” It only mentions mobbing in relation to administrative pressures and educational settings.; The packet supports mobbing as a harmful workplace issue in educational settings, but it does not establish that mobbing is the same as or specifically similar to workplace bullying.; The packet supports that mobbing can occur in educational/workplace contexts and relates it to outcomes (teachers’ mental health, job performance, job satisfaction, organizational commitment), but the “similar to workplace bullying” framing in the definition is not explicitly supported by the provided text.; The packet uses “sometimes reached the level of mobbing” and discusses context, but the definition presents broader general wording (“can arise from pressures within an organization such as a school”) without clear, explicit support for that generalization beyond administrators’ pressures in schools.; The phrase “pressures within an organization such as a school” is only loosely supported; the packet refers to pressures exerted by administrators and the prominence of mobbing in educational contexts, not a general organizational definition. New packet required. Source: [Ergen Hüseyin; Giliç Fahrettin; Yücedağlar Asena; İnandi Yusuf. Leadership styles and quiet quitting in school context: unveiling mobbing as a mediator. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1538444; article XML SHA-256 88dd582c623009192eb131cd684a308410be431aee9b728134aa41644a6b1408. “Leadership styles and quiet quitting in school context: unveiling mobbing as a mediator” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1538444).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1538444) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- moderator [redraft]: The definition’s explanation (“how the relationship between two other variables appears or how strong it is”) is not supported by any explicit language in the provided packet text.; The definition’s specific example about boredom proneness, short-video addiction, and gender is not actually provided in the packet beyond a single statement that gender is a moderator; the packet does not support the described interpretation in the definition text.; The example sentence is broader than the packet because it introduces the specific relationship between boredom proneness and short-video addiction as if it were part of the definition rather than a study-specific usage.; The packet does not state a general definition of “moderator” (e.g., that it affects the form or strength of a relationship); it only mentions that gender is used as a “moderator.”; The packet supports only that gender was used as a moderator in one study; it does not define a moderator as a variable that changes the strength or appearance of a relationship between two variables. New packet required. Source: [Hui Xueli; Wang Yan; Cheng Wenfeng; Shi Yantao. Boredom proneness and short-video addiction among Chinese vocational college students: psychological resilience as a mediator and gender as a moderator. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889736; article XML SHA-256 dcd80b58cecd6eaeba97cc115753f0d95a5ce2b83004d6f811ef35bb516d0f56. “Boredom proneness and short-video addiction among Chinese vocational college students: psychological resilience as a mediator and gender as a moderator” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889736).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889736) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- modern racism [redraft]: The definition’s claim that “Modern racism is a form of racist attitude” is not explicitly supported in the provided packet; the packet only states that “modern racism” was related to certain perceptions (it does not define the term as a specific kind of racist attitude).; The packet does not define modern racism as a general “form of racist attitude”; it only reports that modern racism was related to specific perceptions and expectations in the studies.; The packet supports the linked relations (modern racism → perceptions that Indigenous peoples psychologically benefitted from IRS → greater expectations of moral obligation), but the definition’s wording extends to a broader characterization (“shape how people think about a harmed group’s experience”) that is not directly stated as the term’s definition in the packet.; The phrase “can shape how people think about a harmed group’s experience” is broader than the source text, which limits the finding to perceptions of psychological benefit finding and moral obligation in relation to the Indian Residential School context. New packet required. Source: [Doiron Mackenzie J.; Branscombe Nyla; Matheson Kimberly. Non-Indigenous Canadians’ and Americans’ moral expectations of Indigenous peoples in light of the negative impacts of the Indian Residential Schools. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0252038; article XML SHA-256 0e6c56656250bd2c6624cd0912281ae7b33611332a6a687d2e458876c3ce4f37. “Non-Indigenous Canadians’ and Americans’ moral expectations of Indigenous peoples in light of the negative impacts of the Indian Residential Schools” (10.1371/journal.pone.0252038).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252038) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- modulatory site [redraft]: The definition’s general statement that a “modulatory site” is “a part of a receptor where a substance can act to change how that receptor functions” is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text.; The first sentence is an unsupported generalization: the packet only supports the specific "glycine modulatory site" on the NMDA-type glutamate receptor and its role in promoting receptor function, not a general definition of any modulatory site.; The packet does not explicitly support the phrase that the glycine modulatory site “can be stimulated to enhance receptor activity,” beyond stating that drugs promote receptor function by stimulating that site; the requested wording is partially more general than what’s shown.; The packet supports the narrower, specific claim that NMDA-type glutamate receptor function can be promoted by stimulating a “glycine modulatory site,” but it does not provide the broader generic definition of the term as stated.; The requested field is not defensible for this term; "modulatory site" here is a receptor-binding/pharmacology concept, not a diagnosis term. New packet required. Source: [Takiguchi Kazuo; Uezato Akihito; Itasaka Michio; Atsuta Hidenori; Narushima Kenji; Yamamoto Naoki; Kurumaji Akeo; Tomita Makoto; Oshima Kazunari; Shoda Kosaku; Tamaru Mai; Nakataki Masahito; Okazaki Mitsutoshi; Ishiwata Sayuri; Ishiwata Yasuyoshi; Yasuhara Masato; Arima Kunimasa; Ohmori Tetsuro; Nishikawa Toru. Association of schizophrenia onset age and white matter integrity with treatment effect of D-cycloserine: a randomized placebo-controlled double-blind crossover study. 2017; DOI 10.1186/s12888-017-1410-3; article XML SHA-256 f3dc4ef08bafe524291d27e0eb11d5c68da93d2105f6d8bfd4b3d754c063172c. “Association of schizophrenia onset age and white matter integrity with treatment effect of D-cycloserine: a randomized placebo-controlled double-blind crossover study” (10.1186/s12888-017-1410-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1410-3) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- module [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory gloss about what a module is that is not stated in the source packet; a supported diagnostic sense should stay within the packet’s evidence.; The packet does not explicitly define what an “ADOS-2 module” is (e.g., that it is a specific version or section of ADOS-2). It only states that ADOS-2’s diagnostic performance is heterogeneous “particularly across modules.”; The packet supports that ADOS-2 performance varies across modules and that module-specific diagnostic accuracy was studied, but it does not define a “module” as a specific version or section of ADOS-2.; While the packet supports that module-specific diagnostic accuracy varies in real-world clinical referral populations (“particularly across modules”), the definition’s explanation of what a module means is not supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Kılıncel Senay; Bulut Furkan; Goksel Pelin; Usta Mirac Baris; Kilincel Oguzhan. Module-specific diagnostic accuracy of ADOS-2 in real-world clinical referral populations: an updated systematic review and HSROC meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1840734; article XML SHA-256 6667e56e6c1cfd2a1e348cb60c327fd319b7a5211696dd8179a4c3c353f41d7c. “Module-specific diagnostic accuracy of ADOS-2 in real-world clinical referral populations: an updated systematic review and HSROC meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1840734).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1840734) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- MOE [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet describes an MoE-based deep learning model (for steel surface defect detection), not a cognition/psychology concept.; The definition’s claim about MOE is only partly supported: the packet supports conditional expert routing and improved diversity/discriminability of feature representations, but not the broader framing as a general cognition concept.; The source is about a steel surface defect detection model, not a psychology/counselling or cognition topic, so the requested field is not defensible from the packet.; While the packet supports that an ES-MoE uses a conditional expert routing mechanism to improve diversity/discriminability of feature representations, it does not provide evidence framing this as “cognition” or as a cognition-related term. New packet required. Source: [Yang Haiyan; Wang Peng; Liu Yangyang. EMamba: A MoE-enhanced state space network for robust steel surface defect detection. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358866; article XML SHA-256 13595df32cd177b50b953eda15b85f37b19aafb19457e8a2befd5dd9345d42ae. “EMamba: A MoE-enhanced state space network for robust steel surface defect detection” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358866).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358866) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mon- [redraft]: Combining form defined as one trial's monitoring arm; not a combining-form sense. New packet required. Source: [Feibus Isabella; Mahiques Marta Borrego; Costello Meghan; Potter Kevin; Bentley Kate H.; Hoeppner Bettina B.; Liu Luwei; Evohr Bryn; Yan Lynn; Gilman Jodi; Evins A. Eden; Kossowsky Joe; Schuster Randi M.. Characterizing proximal risk for depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation with acute cannabis use and withdrawal among adolescents using ecological momentary assessment: Study protocol. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338790; article XML SHA-256 b7561dc510de301b2fb7d13546157b2864322eb57fad40fdad19ef0fcdb52cc4. “Characterizing proximal risk for depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation with acute cannabis use and withdrawal among adolescents using ecological momentary assessment: Study protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338790).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338790) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- monocular deprivation [redraft]: The definition’s claim that monocular deprivation “is used to study how visual experience shapes brain circuits” is not explicitly supported by the packet text; the packet describes experiments and mechanisms but does not directly state this purpose in that form.; The final clause, “used to study how visual experience shapes brain circuits,” is broader than the packet supports; the source discusses ocular-dominance plasticity and excitatory/inhibitory conductances in visual cortex, but does not establish this as the general research use of monocular deprivation.; “Poorer spatial vision” is supported only as “degraded spatial vision (amblyopia)” in the packet; the definition should avoid extending that into a general clinical statement without the packet’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Iurilli Giuliano; Olcese Umberto; Medini Paolo. Preserved Excitatory-Inhibitory Balance of Cortical Synaptic Inputs following Deprived Eye Stimulation after a Saturating Period of Monocular Deprivation in Rats. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0082044; article XML SHA-256 eb08b3616dd28889412969c408b497685ded667d7c7a0d5fdd2c769c5c633f4f. “Preserved Excitatory-Inhibitory Balance of Cortical Synaptic Inputs following Deprived Eye Stimulation after a Saturating Period of Monocular Deprivation in Rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0082044).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082044) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- monogamy [redraft]: The definition adds that genetic monogamy is “one of several adaptive reproductive strategies”; the packet only states that “both of these extremes represent alternative adaptive strategies” (it does not support “several”).; The definition narrows the term to "genetic monogamy" without clearly matching the packet’s wording; the packet specifically discusses genetic monogamy as one pole of mating-system variation, not monogamy in general.; The packet supports the general idea of ecological/biological conditions favoring “both extremes,” but the phrasing “can evolve under particular ecological and biological conditions” is not explicitly framed as “particular” in the packet, which instead describes “discrete ecological and biological conditions.”; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source is about mating-system variation in sharks and rays, not a cognition/psychology or counselling sense of "monogamy". New packet required. Source: [Gayford Joel H; Flores-Flores Estefanía M. No evidence for population-level benefits of polyandry in sharks and rays. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308141; article XML SHA-256 bfbe5a4a3bc0661b544094e6c9a550bf134782a591ebf4d8ce2caba23c022924. “No evidence for population-level benefits of polyandry in sharks and rays” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308141).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308141) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- monosymptomatic [redraft]: General single-symptom headword narrowed to one syndrome's variant; wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Melkersson-Rosenthal Syndrome” (D008556).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008556) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- mood-as-information theory [redraft]: Claims in the definition (people use mood as information; negative situations shift evaluations; examples like rating life satisfaction) are not explicitly supported by the packet content provided.; The only provided text mentions an aim to test whether “bringing the pandemic to salience” (a “prime”) affects life satisfaction reports, but it does not state the general mechanism described in the definition (unconscious use of mood/emotion as information; folding feelings into judgments).; The packet does not provide the requested conceptual definition of “mood-as-information theory” (e.g., using current mood or emotionally salient context as information for judgments).; The packet only supports salience of the pandemic during life-satisfaction evaluations and unconscious effects on reported satisfaction; it does not support the broader claim that people use their current mood as information in general.; The phrase about ‘bringing a negative situation to mind’ shifting evaluations because ‘that feeling is folded into the judgment’ is an unsupported elaboration beyond the source text.; The source is a study framing/extrapolation of the theory, not a full definition establishing the theory’s scope as written. New packet required. Source: [O’Donnell Alice; Wilson Lydia; Bosch Jos A.; Borrows Richard. Life satisfaction and happiness in patients shielding from the COVID-19 global pandemic: A randomised controlled study of the ‘mood as information’ theory. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0243278; article XML SHA-256 a5168ebf6c553d64258ef2aef7dae53e1f4c4a39eae6c9ab696b4fd853f03247. “Life satisfaction and happiness in patients shielding from the COVID-19 global pandemic: A randomised controlled study of the ‘mood as information’ theory” (10.1371/journal.pone.0243278).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243278) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mood stabilizer [redraft]: Does not say what a mood stabilizer is; 'in this context' hedge turns one clinical caution into the definition. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 340e646cd122c31f2ae7dd7aa7041a63efb2312a91d487d37080bcfec38efea9. “Bipolar Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- moral philosophy [redraft]: Well-known headword narrowed to one paper's framing and tied to relativism via 'in this source' hedge. New packet required. Source: [Shahab Hina; Zahur Hafsah; Akhtar Naveed; Rashid Sobia. Characteristics of Ethical Leadership: Themes Identification Through Convergent Parallel Mixed Method Design From the Pakistan Context. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.787796; article XML SHA-256 40846317bf9e0c399231fee95fe53635e75373ece91e6f9ea70dece10c7ee3c4. “Characteristics of Ethical Leadership: Themes Identification Through Convergent Parallel Mixed Method Design From the Pakistan Context” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.787796).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.787796) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- morbid obesity [redraft]: Because the definition’s “growing global public health problem” wording goes beyond what is stated in the provided excerpt, the definition is not fully supported by the packet.; The packet supports morbid obesity as an extreme phenotype/extreme form of obesity, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that it is a “growing” global public health problem. The source says it “has ... become a global problem” and that obesity is a public health issue worldwide, which is weaker than the definition’s wording.; The packet supports that morbid obesity is an “extreme phenotype” and that it “has … become a global problem,” but it does not explicitly support the specific wording “growing” (i.e., an increase in growth over time) as part of the definition. New packet required. Source: [Chang Heng-Cheng; Yang Hsin-Chou; Chang Hsing-Yi; Yeh Chih-Jung; Chen Hsin-Hung; Huang Kuo-Chin; Pan Wen-Harn. Morbid obesity in Taiwan: Prevalence, trends, associated social demographics, and lifestyle factors. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0169577; article XML SHA-256 e49dc2ff3d6ffacd449bb42fd777213385a8043805ab267900191c013e7df7f7. “Morbid obesity in Taiwan: Prevalence, trends, associated social demographics, and lifestyle factors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0169577).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169577) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mores [redraft]: The added sentence about customary norms that behavior may follow or disregard is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet.; The claim that mores are “traditional social standards or expectations about how people should behave” is not supported by the supplied source text and shifts the term to a different part of speech/sense.; The definition gives a general dictionary sense of “mores,” but the packet supports a different concept: an attitude of accepting or tolerating behaviors that may disregard traditional social mores (source label: Permissiveness).; The definition’s claim that mores are “customary norms that behavior may follow or disregard” is only partially supported: the packet mentions disregard, but does not support the idea that behavior “may follow” mores.; The packet does not define what “mores” are; it only describes an attitude (permissiveness) that is tolerant of behaviors that may disregard “traditional social mores,” without explicitly stating that mores are “traditional social standards or expectations about how people should behave.” New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Permissiveness” (C16971).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- morning sickness [redraft]: The packet does not define morning sickness as such (e.g., as a pregnancy-related problem); it only uses the phrase “morning sickness” as something pregnant women experience and try to alleviate.; The packet only states that pregnant women consume kola nut during the first trimester to “alleviate morning sickness and dizziness”; it does not support the claim that morning sickness is a problem that “commonly occurs during the first trimester.”; The packet supports that pregnant women may consume kola nut during the first trimester to alleviate morning sickness, but it does not explicitly support the broader definitional claim that morning sickness is a pregnancy-related problem that commonly occurs during the first trimester. New packet required. Source: [Atiba Foluso A.; Fatokun Amos A.; Imosemi Innocent O.; Malomo Adefolarin O.. Kola nut from Cola nitida vent. Schott administered to pregnant rats induces histological alterations in pups’ cerebellum. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0247573; article XML SHA-256 b56aeef3b4cb4cd358aed7f54bb0816cfa722e13edadb90cd990d395de7e4049. “Kola nut from Cola nitida vent. Schott administered to pregnant rats induces histological alterations in pups’ cerebellum” (10.1371/journal.pone.0247573).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247573) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- morpheme [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence claims general linguistics content (e.g., “meaning-bearing part of a word” and “verb element… shared between forms”), but the provided packet does not explicitly define “morpheme” in those terms; it only uses the term in describing the study’s design.; The packet shows only that a morpheme was a verb element used in morpheme-mediated semantic priming; it does not define morpheme as a general meaning-bearing part of a word or expression.; The second sentence is a study-specific description rather than a dictionary definition of the term, and it narrows the sense to this article without supporting the broader term meaning from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Lei Qianqian; Wang Jianqin; Yang Xingang. Inhibitory reversal of morpheme-mediated semantic priming in L2 Chinese: embodiment conflicts in conventional action metaphor processing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778678; article XML SHA-256 0a8bbd10b3a5ed433482745771506c3511411136ef2c0e3dfde322a9c2e50ba8. “Inhibitory reversal of morpheme-mediated semantic priming in L2 Chinese: embodiment conflicts in conventional action metaphor processing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778678).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778678) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mortality rate [redraft]: The definition claims that in mental health research it “can refer specifically to deaths from a cause such as suicide”; the packet supports the specific study of suicide mortality rates, but it does not explicitly support the phrasing that this is how the term is used “in mental health research” in general.; The definition claims that mortality may be “age-standardized to allow fairer comparisons between populations with different age distributions.” The packet mentions “age-standardized mortality rates (ASMRs)” but does not state that this is to allow fairer comparisons between differing age distributions.; The definition says that comparisons are “often compared across groups such as age, sex, or marital status.” The packet supports comparison by marital status and age groups and stratification by sex for suicide mortality, but it does not substantiate the broader wording “often” or the generalization to age/sex/marital status as common examples.; The definition states a general characterization of mortality rate as “the frequency of deaths in a population over a given time period”; the provided packet does not include this definition or an equivalent statement.; The opening general definition of mortality rate as the frequency of deaths in a population over a given time period is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source.; The packet supports suicide mortality rates and age-standardized mortality rates in a study by age, sex, and marital status, but it does not support presenting this as a general definition of mortality rate across populations.; The phrase 'In mental health research' is broader than the packet, which is a specific suicide-mortality study; the definition should not generalize beyond that source. New packet required. Source: [Okui Tasuku. Difference in trends in suicide mortality rates by marital status and age groups from 2000 to 2020 in Japan. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342843; article XML SHA-256 f9db206153c6704fc330ccb01766a65065bcd23fc1f95f1e2e916fbedf4e04dd. “Difference in trends in suicide mortality rates by marital status and age groups from 2000 to 2020 in Japan” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342843).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342843) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mortality salience [redraft]: Because the first sentence’s definition-level characterization of “having thoughts about death or fatal risk” is not directly supported by the provided text, the overall definition is not fully supported by the packet.; The packet does not explicitly define mortality salience as “the state of having thoughts about death or fatal risk.” It only uses the term to describe an experimental manipulation/condition (MS vs control) tied to death/fatal risks (e.g., microplastics fatal health risks).; The packet supports mortality salience as an experimental condition involving reminders of fatal health risks, but it does not explicitly support the broader dictionary-style claim that it is the state of having thoughts about death.; The requested field is not well supported by the source packet, which is about attitudes and intentions in a psychology/public-health experiment rather than learning.; The second sentence adds an explanatory gloss about “making mortality more noticeable” and generalizes to “death or fatal risk” beyond what is stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Chiu Hsiao-Ling; Wang Kung-Jeng; Wang Tsang-Hsien. The impact of mortality salience and explicit self-esteem on plastic reduction intention: A moderated mediation model. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320059; article XML SHA-256 b8ff3cf62878619ffdcb22b71a8bd985c1d238ce5979fb50763ce2756e51bb35. “The impact of mortality salience and explicit self-esteem on plastic reduction intention: A moderated mediation model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320059).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320059) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mothering [redraft]: 'Offspring survival' adds specificity; packet only says cognitive abilities essential for survival. New packet required. Source: [Cservenák Melinda; Darai Luca; Kállai Tamara Cecília; Záhonyi Bori; Lukács András; Bencsik Norbert; Détári László; Dobolyi Arpád. Postpartum enhancement of spatial learning and cognitive flexibility: an IntelliCage study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12993-026-00340-2; article XML SHA-256 2cb2f4d97cbece2d476058ddbd046f0e02e3f3db6d5b9ae78ab2be4531122504. “Postpartum enhancement of spatial learning and cognitive flexibility: an IntelliCage study” (10.1186/s12993-026-00340-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-026-00340-2) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- motion parallax [redraft]: The first sentence gives a general definition of motion parallax that is not stated in the packet; the packet only shows motion parallax used as a depth cue in an experiment, not its full explanatory definition.; The packet does not provide a definition of “motion parallax” or describe it as “a visual depth cue based on changes in the image as viewing position or movement provides information about how far away surfaces are.”; The phrase about viewing position or movement providing information about how far away surfaces are is also not supported verbatim or in equivalent detail by the packet.; The second sentence is broadly consistent with the packet’s findings (adding motion parallax depth cues led to significantly greater discounting in lightness judgments), but the definition as a whole fails because the core definition/wording is unsupported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Kitazaki Michiteru; Kobiki Hisashi; Maloney Laurence T.. Effect of Pictorial Depth Cues, Binocular Disparity Cues and Motion Parallax Depth Cues on Lightness Perception in Three-Dimensional Virtual Scenes. 2008; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0003177; article XML SHA-256 b50bf113dd161863f359de951f719352039246675f03e6cdf942521a1763e466. “Effect of Pictorial Depth Cues, Binocular Disparity Cues and Motion Parallax Depth Cues on Lightness Perception in Three-Dimensional Virtual Scenes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0003177).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0003177) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- motivation research [redraft]: Established term given a generic gloss, then the second sentence describes one study rather than the term. New packet required. Source: [Sullivan-Toole Holly; Richey John A.; Tricomi Elizabeth. Control and Effort Costs Influence the Motivational Consequences of Choice. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00675; article XML SHA-256 e91c354051246bbe6888ac4d39405146f116f8767777a3a1b473d700a53ac51c. “Control and Effort Costs Influence the Motivational Consequences of Choice” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00675).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00675) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- motor aphasia [redraft]: The claim about the term’s sense and the lesion localization are not fully tied to ‘motor aphasia’ in the packet; the left frontal/beneath-Broca’s-area lesion description is given for typical TCMA, not for motor aphasia as such.; The claim that motor aphasia is “marked mainly by reduced, nonfluent speech” is not supported by the packet as a definition of “motor aphasia.” The packet describes features of other syndromes (e.g., TCMA vs CA) but does not provide that characterization for “motor aphasia” itself.; The packet does not define “motor aphasia” as “Broca’s aphasia.” It discusses syndromes including transcortical motor aphasia (TCMA) and conduction aphasia, but does not equate “motor aphasia” with Broca’s aphasia.; The packet does not support identifying motor aphasia as Broca’s aphasia; it instead explicitly names transcortical motor aphasia/dynamic aphasia as the syndrome discussed, with Broca’s aphasia appearing only as a separate comparison point.; The packet does support the idea that TCMA is linked with left frontal lesions beneath the Broca’s area disconnecting it from the supplementary motor area, but the provided definition attributes this to “motor aphasia” while also incorrectly stating it is Broca’s aphasia. New packet required. Source: [Berthier Marcelo L.; Froudist Walsh Seán; Dávila Guadalupe; Nabrozidis Alejandro; Juárez y Ruiz de Mier Rocío; Gutiérrez Antonio; De-Torres Irene; Ruiz-Cruces Rafael; Alfaro Francisco; García-Casares Natalia. Dissociated repetition deficits in aphasia can reflect flexible interactions between left dorsal and ventral streams and gender-dimorphic architecture of the right dorsal stream. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00873; article XML SHA-256 459bb129017403c7454edeeeabdaf09528ae5ad0386615158c0de1d79a6149d5. “Dissociated repetition deficits in aphasia can reflect flexible interactions between left dorsal and ventral streams and gender-dimorphic architecture of the right dorsal stream” (10.3389/fnhum.2013.00873).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00873) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- motor cortex [redraft]: The definition adds a broader generalization about movement-related activity that is not stated in the source packet.; The packet does not support the claim that the motor cortex is “a set of brain areas…that show movement-related neuronal activity”; it only mentions premotor and primary motor cortices in the context of oscillatory activity.; The packet supports references to the primary motor cortex and premotor cortex, and that their activity/interaction may influence motor memory consolidation, but it does not support defining the motor cortex as a set of brain areas or describing them as showing movement-related neuronal activity.; The packet supports that motor memory consolidation may be influenced by offline non-invasive brain stimulation to the primary motor cortex (M1) and that this involves oscillatory neuronal activity and interaction, but the definition generalizes beyond what is stated (e.g., defining the motor cortex as a set of areas with movement-related activity). New packet required. Source: [Dabbagh Alhuda; Idaji Mina Jamshidi; Tzvi Elinor; Nikulin Vadim; Rumpf Jost-Julian; Classen Joseph. Absence of evidence for post-training tDCS effects on motor memory consolidation and premotor–primary motor cortex interaction: a resting-state EEG study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1698460; article XML SHA-256 a78a21a3ccd09be7466f10a3ba9026dc40c35651ae1d2018d77167b1ddb3f710. “Absence of evidence for post-training tDCS effects on motor memory consolidation and premotor–primary motor cortex interaction: a resting-state EEG study” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1698460).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1698460) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- motor evoked potential [redraft]: The definition is placed under the field “diagnosis,” but the packet presents MEPs as part of neurophysiological assessment of excitability in a stimulation study, not as a diagnostic concept or criterion.; The definition is slightly overgeneralized in saying the response is produced when the motor cortex is stimulated; the packet only supports measurement of MEP amplitudes via single- and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation protocols, without defining the phenomenon that broadly.; The field is not defensible from the packet: motor evoked potential is described as a TMS-derived physiological measure of corticospinal excitability, not a diagnosis-related term.; The packet does not support the claimed sense that an MEP is “the measured muscle response produced when the motor cortex is stimulated”; it only describes measuring “motor-evoked potential (MEP) amplitudes” after stimulation, without stating that it is specifically a muscle response in the packet text provided.; While the packet links increased MEP amplitudes to “enhanced corticospinal excitability,” it does not explicitly support the broader statement that “amplitude is used as an index of corticospinal excitability” as a general characterization of MEPs within this packet. New packet required. Source: [Cheng Shu; Chen Moxian; Liang Shan; Zhao Yanpin; Long Xiaojing; Meng De; Zhu Feifei; Zhang Jing; Bai Zhongfei; Ao Lijuan. Immediate excitatory effect of transcranial ultrasound intensity on the human primary motor cortex: a double-blind, sham-controlled and crossover study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1884060; article XML SHA-256 91f29c9efea14c0d821efa2e057318adc50bbce4c01b3f45e4bf5eef23409e72. “Immediate excitatory effect of transcranial ultrasound intensity on the human primary motor cortex: a double-blind, sham-controlled and crossover study” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1884060).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1884060) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- motor function [redraft]: Because the first sentence contains substantive definitional content not supported by the provided packet, the definition as a whole is not fully defensible from the supplied source.; The packet does not explicitly define “motor function” as a person’s ability to carry out physical movement and related functional activities; it only discusses that “scales measuring motor function” exist and are used in neuromuscular diseases.; The packet supports that motor function is assessed with scales to document changes in functional ability, but it does not directly define motor function as a person’s ability to carry out physical movement and related functional activities.; The second sentence broadens the source beyond what is stated: the packet says these scales monitor disease progression and quantify treatment efficacy/adapt rehabilitation, not that motor function itself is measured in healthcare and research to track response to interventions in general.; While the packet supports that motor function measures/scales are used to objectively document changes in functional ability and to monitor disease progression and track progression in clinical trials, it does not specifically substantiate the definition’s phrasing about “response to interventions.” New packet required. Source: [Vincent-Genod Dominique; Verroul Manon; Rippert Pascal; Tachibana Shotaro; Vuillerot Carole; MFM-Play Study Group. Barriers and levers to using an app for motor function assessment by therapists in hospitals: A qualitative study of the MFM-Play app. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352856; article XML SHA-256 4c2b0da04876282ca9cc8227a322a74eecdaaf2ed2387e9b0a1bf28b96a5d613. “Barriers and levers to using an app for motor function assessment by therapists in hospitals: A qualitative study of the MFM-Play app” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352856).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352856) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- motor imitation [redraft]: The definition adds an extra general claim about what motor imitation is without support from the packet; the packet supports only the perspective-taking/body-transformation aspect.; The definition frames motor imitation as a “diagnosis” term, but the packet provides background about impairments in neurodevelopmental disorders and tasks; it does not support defining the term specifically in a diagnostic sense or as a diagnostic concept.; The definition’s first substantive claim—“copying another person’s movements”—is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text, which discusses perspective-taking/body transformation in motor imitation rather than copying movements.; The first sentence (“Motor imitation is copying another person’s movements.”) is not supported by the supplied text, which only says that in motor imitation taking a partner’s perspective often involves a mental body transformation. New packet required. Source: [Gauthier Soizic; Anzalone Salvatore M.; Cohen David; Zaoui Mohamed; Chetouani Mohamed; Villa François; Berthoz Alain; Xavier Jean. Behavioral Own-Body-Transformations in Children and Adolescents With Typical Development, Autism Spectrum Disorder, and Developmental Coordination Disorder. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00676; article XML SHA-256 dacde21ecd510e293c10e0729240f8ad78f3806f55cb42f29fbb157f3f0d541b. “Behavioral Own-Body-Transformations in Children and Adolescents With Typical Development, Autism Spectrum Disorder, and Developmental Coordination Disorder” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00676).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00676) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- motor nerve [redraft]: Does not say what a motor nerve is; describes a conduction-study procedure and adds stimulation not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Mansiz-Kaplan Basak; Pervane-Vural Secil; Gursoy Koray; Nacir Baris. Median nerve conduction studies in rabbits. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12868-020-00584-2; article XML SHA-256 da41982b1d20b5a1b52f5e31b411b1c351e89da558ad64b049996e31a19f87ce. “Median nerve conduction studies in rabbits” (10.1186/s12868-020-00584-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-020-00584-2) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- motor set [redraft]: Because the definition includes these unsupported general characterization claims, the requested term sense is not fully defensible from the packet.; The packet does not define “motor set” as a “state of readiness or organization” of the motor system; this phrasing is not supported by the provided text.; The packet supports that a particular motor set is influenced by cognitive aspects of the task, but it does not define motor set itself as a “state of readiness or organization” of the motor system.; The packet supports that an “implicit coupling between eye and hand motor systems is contingent upon the particular motor set determined by the cognitive aspects of the performed oculomotor task,” but it does not explicitly support the broader wording that motor set is “shaped by the cognitive demands and context of an action.”; “How movement systems are coupled” is only indirectly implied; the source speaks specifically about contingent implicit eye-hand coupling in one task, not a general definition of motor set. New packet required. Source: [Falciati Luca; Maioli Claudio. Dynamic Changes in Upper-Limb Corticospinal Excitability during a ‘Pro-/Anti-saccade’ Double-Choice Task. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00624; article XML SHA-256 d6d3e151035734a096843f95bffc82cd80acb81fe770486a82dcce20934a57f1. “Dynamic Changes in Upper-Limb Corticospinal Excitability during a ‘Pro-/Anti-saccade’ Double-Choice Task” (10.3389/fnhum.2017.00624).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00624) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- motor system [redraft]: The claim that the system “can show abnormalities after acute ischemic stroke” is supported, but the overall definition contains unsupported definitional content.; The packet does not explicitly define the motor system as “the nerve system involved in movement.”; The packet mentions spinal cord ventral horn neurons as part of the lower motor system, but it does not support the broader wording about the motor system including lower motor parts in general.; The packet supports abnormalities in the lower motor system after acute ischemic stroke, but it does not define the motor system generally as the nervous system involved in movement.; While the packet mentions “lower motor system” abnormalities after stroke and refers to “spinal cord ventral horn (VH) neurons,” it does not explicitly state that the motor system “includes lower motor parts such as spinal cord ventral horn neurons” as part of its definition. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Lei; Liu Jingwen; Liu Mingsheng. Transsynaptic degeneration of ventral horn motor neurons exists but plays a minor role in lower motor system dysfunction in acute ischemic rats. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298006; article XML SHA-256 ecd989d458a4f72901c04435f1b5fb63b4aded44450bbd3f1cc2fe76bac37575. “Transsynaptic degeneration of ventral horn motor neurons exists but plays a minor role in lower motor system dysfunction in acute ischemic rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298006).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298006) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- motor tension [redraft]: The packet defines catatony as “a psychosis with motor tension symptoms, catalepsy, tetanoid rigidity,” and notes that the motor side is marked, but it does not explicitly define “motor tension” as “abnormal tension on the movement or muscular side.”; The packet does not define the term "motor tension" directly; it only says catatony is a psychosis with "motor tension symptoms," so the definition infers a sense that is not explicitly supported.; The packet does not mention “rigid tightening” wording; while “tetanoid rigidity” is present, the specific phrasing and implied meaning in the definition are not directly supported.; The phrase "shown by symptoms such as catalepsy and rigid tightening" is only partly supported by the source’s list of motor-side features (catalepsy, tetanoid rigidity) and should not be presented as a full definition from this packet.; The references to catalepsy and being part of the motor features of catatony are supported, but the definition contains additional explanatory content not stated in the provided text.; The wording "abnormal tension on the movement or muscular side of a disorder" goes beyond the packet’s phrasing and is not established there as a definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1039500-1051500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- motor tract [redraft]: The definition’s wording that “the motor tract refers to the part of the brain associated with large ganglionic motor cells” is only partially supported: the packet says there is a “large ganglionic … of the motor tract” but it does not clearly define the motor tract as a specific “part of the brain” beyond that reference.; The epilepsy sentence overstates the source: it reports diseased changes in cells of the motor tract in some cases of epileptic insanity, not that the motor tract as such is a site where these cells may undergo disease changes in epilepsy.; The packet only says there are “large ganglionic cells of the motor tract”; it does not support defining the motor tract itself as a specific part of the brain or as having movement-related function.; The phrase “movement-related function” is not explicitly supported by the packet text; the excerpt mentions “large ganglionic cells of the motor tract” but does not directly describe movement-related function in these terms.; While the packet supports that these cells are discussed as having a “diseased condition” in relation to epilepsy (“in the brains of the epileptic insane,” and “diseased condition … of the … large ganglionic cells of the motor tract”), the definition includes additional interpretive phrasing (“movement-related function,” “part of the brain associated with”) that goes beyond what is stated. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-1071000-1083000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- movement learning [redraft]: The handwriting-specific gloss goes beyond the source by stating that movement learning refers to learning movement patterns for forming and linking letters; the packet says letters were taught by demonstrating correct writing movements, but it does not define the term in that way.; The packet does not define “movement learning” as a general process of learning any skill through practicing and understanding body movements; it only mentions that “movement learning becomes more valuable” in the specific context of children learning cursive writing and connecting letters.; The packet supports that cursive handwriting instruction used demonstrations of “correct writing movements” and is based on the idea that “movement learning” becomes more valuable when children connect letters, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s phrasing that movement learning is “learning a skill through practicing and understanding the body movements needed to perform it correctly.” In particular, the packet does not clearly substantiate the component of “understanding the body movements.” New packet required. Source: [Semeraro Cristina; Coppola Gabrielle; Cassibba Rosalinda; Lucangeli Daniela. Teaching of cursive writing in the first year of primary school: Effect on reading and writing skills. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0209978; article XML SHA-256 6ff65f3c33bd6a7526092ad3229780f8c5b42330f06df7f32f939af752c86866. “Teaching of cursive writing in the first year of primary school: Effect on reading and writing skills” (10.1371/journal.pone.0209978).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209978) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- movement therapy [redraft]: The definition is placed in the cognition field, but the packet does not link movement therapy to cognition specifically—only to mental and physical function more generally.; The field label is not the main issue, but the definition should be supported by the packet’s wording and sense; here it is not.; The packet content supports that a dance/movement therapy practitioner uses dance/movement therapy to improve mental and physical function, but it does not support that this is a “therapeutic approach” in the abstract (it describes an occupation/discipline: “A health professional who uses dance/movement therapy…”).; The packet supports a health professional (Dance Therapist), not the therapy itself, so the definition targets the wrong sense of the term.; “Therapeutic approach that uses dance or movement” is broader and differently framed than the supplied source text, which only states that the professional uses dance/movement therapy to improve mental and physical function. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dance Therapist” (C205543).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- MTG [redraft]: Abbreviation never expanded to middle temporal gyrus; vague first sentence and second sentence reports study findings. New packet required. Source: [Bethmann Anja; Brechmann André. On the definition and interpretation of voice selective activation in the temporal cortex. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00499; article XML SHA-256 8aeccfdeb3273d7f94faf70e579ed6341026e0cb5c361dd62fb370278f533953. “On the definition and interpretation of voice selective activation in the temporal cortex” (10.3389/fnhum.2014.00499).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00499) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- multidisciplinary approach [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence claims that a multidisciplinary approach is “combining input from several healthcare areas or specialties,” but the provided packet does not describe “several healthcare areas or specialties” or explicitly state that idea—only that the study is a multidisciplinary approach and covers acute and long-term phases.; The packet does not explicitly support the generic definition that a multidisciplinary approach means combining input from several healthcare areas or specialties; it only shows a study described as a multidisciplinary approach to healthcare research.; The remainder of the definition (coordination across acute and long-term care; improving diagnosis; personalised acute therapy/treatment; neurorehabilitation/rehabilitation; and prevention) is broadly consistent with the packet, but the unsupported first sentence is a substantive, required component of the definition.; The source supports coordination across acute and long-term phases and goals of diagnosis, personalised acute therapy, neurorehabilitation, and prevention, but not the broader framing of studying or managing health problems. New packet required. Source: [Gerstl Lucia; Lieftüchter Victoria; Jung Eva; Heinen Florian; Bakker Dewi; Berweck Steffen; Dzietko Mark; Liebig Thomas; Olivieri Martin; Seidl Rainer; Sträter Ronald; Haacke Clara; Lippert Barbara; Glatter Sarah; Fusiak Jakub; Christ Jonathan; Lauseker Michael; PRiSMA study group. Protocol for the establishment of the Pediatric Registry for Stroke as a Multidisciplinary Approach to healthcare research (PRiSMA) study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341646; article XML SHA-256 76da539e2a35daa6c8cea72b3275bc70f0acd9c4b9036f7108da85ed15a2f2dd. “Protocol for the establishment of the Pediatric Registry for Stroke as a Multidisciplinary Approach to healthcare research (PRiSMA) study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341646).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341646) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- multimethod approach [redraft]: 'Interview-based ratings' is not in the packet; PCL:SV is never described there as an interview. New packet required. Source: [Sörman Karolina; Nilsonne Gustav; Howner Katarina; Tamm Sandra; Caman Shilan; Wang Hui-Xin; Ingvar Martin; Edens John F.; Gustavsson Petter; Lilienfeld Scott O; Petrovic Predrag; Fischer Håkan; Kristiansson Marianne. Reliability and Construct Validity of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised in a Swedish Non-Criminal Sample – A Multimethod Approach including Psychophysiological Correlates of Empathy for Pain. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0156570; article XML SHA-256 8c13b82aa027974bdb60253173a6f79cc46e7dcb5e47a24bd2b130204f70aabb. “Reliability and Construct Validity of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised in a Swedish Non-Criminal Sample – A Multimethod Approach including Psychophysiological Correlates of Empathy for Pain” (10.1371/journal.pone.0156570).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0156570) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- multinomial [redraft]: Adjective redefined as 'a model' for freight mode choice under an 'in this source' hedge; not the normal sense. New packet required. Source: [Wei Siyuan; Xia Liu. The effect of the China-Thailand railway on Thailand’s trade with China Guangxi Province. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350972; article XML SHA-256 58b0270f7c8c18774086266a142fb99892248608070f2bd590543b712be6e0ba. “The effect of the China-Thailand railway on Thailand’s trade with China Guangxi Province” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350972).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350972) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- multiple classification [redraft]: Well-known developmental headword redefined as a statistical random-effects structure the packet happens to use. New packet required. Source: [Arreola Elsa Vazquez; Wilson Jeffrey R. Bayesian multiple membership multiple classification logistic regression model on student performance with random effects in university instructors and majors. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0227343; article XML SHA-256 454ee0b69b1179c10fea0982f8fea653d0f17899c1b992cbfd3e373b37b8aaf3. “Bayesian multiple membership multiple classification logistic regression model on student performance with random effects in university instructors and majors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0227343).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227343) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- multiple comparisons [redraft]: The definition’s reference to “treatment-effect heterogeneity analyses” and the linkage to type I error risk are not stated in the provided packet text beyond acknowledging that multiple comparisons is widely acknowledged as a statistical challenge.; The packet does not explicitly state that multiple comparisons increase the risk of type I errors/false positives in the way the definition claims.; The packet does not provide a definition of “multiple comparisons” (it mentions multiple comparisons as one statistical challenge but does not define the term as doing several tests/subgroup comparisons).; The packet supports that multiple comparisons are a recognized challenge in heterogeneity-of-treatment-effects analyses and that they can increase type I error risk, but it does not define the term as making several statistical tests or subgroup comparisons within the same study.; The requested field is not supported by the packet content; the source is a statistics/methods article about heterogeneity of treatment effects in cluster-randomized trials, not a cognition-specific source. New packet required. Source: [Hyun Noorie; Idu Abisola E; Cook Andrea J.; Bobb Jennifer F.. Increased risk of type I errors for detecting heterogeneity of treatment effects in cluster-randomized trials using mixed-effect models. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12874-025-02744-6; article XML SHA-256 ae25d4d042af962ae065e9e4dbb511754a1347e0aaa3dc9e1241ec9c85943587. “Increased risk of type I errors for detecting heterogeneity of treatment effects in cluster-randomized trials using mixed-effect models” (10.1186/s12874-025-02744-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-025-02744-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- multiple mating [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet describes genetic evidence of multiple mating in a breeding population of a bird species (parentage/kinship and breeding system), not cognition.; The definition’s added gloss about the source packet referring to the behavior in both males and females is supported, but the overall entry is misclassified for the requested field.; The source packet supports a biological/ecological use in a breeding population of Veeries, not a cognition/psychology/counselling sense of the term. New packet required. Source: [Halley Matthew R; Heckscher Christopher M; Kalavacharla Venugopal. Multi-Generational Kinship, Multiple Mating, and Flexible Modes of Parental Care in a Breeding Population of the Veery ( Catharus fuscescens ), a Trans-Hemispheric Migratory Songbird. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0157051; article XML SHA-256 7e47ec539ce0f21da2ce4493109a18ffc6ca609acff4b7fa04f4fc34eae6b813. “Multi-Generational Kinship, Multiple Mating, and Flexible Modes of Parental Care in a Breeding Population of the Veery ( Catharus fuscescens ), a Trans-Hemispheric Migratory Songbird” (10.1371/journal.pone.0157051).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157051) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- multivariate normality [redraft]: Although the packet mentions “distributional assumptions, such as multivariate normality” in the context of bootstrap usage, it does not support the specific framing that “some statistical methods may require” multivariate normality beyond that example.; The definition adds interpretive detail beyond the packet rather than staying tightly within the source-supported sense.; The definition’s first sentence gives a general meaning that is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet does not state what “multivariate normality” means (e.g., no description of a joint normal distribution across multiple variables).; The packet supports only that multivariate normality is a distributional assumption that bootstrap-based GSCA can avoid; it does not support the fuller explanation that several variables jointly follow a normal distribution or the contrast with examining variables one at a time. New packet required. Source: [Jung Kwanghee; Lee Jaehoon; Gupta Vibhuti; Cho Gyeongcheol. Comparison of Bootstrap Confidence Interval Methods for GSCA Using a Monte Carlo Simulation. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02215; article XML SHA-256 45a4f43a96b2a9a165e6e1df63ae0873b3e58d8bd3798cff7dd787f7398cefd0. “Comparison of Bootstrap Confidence Interval Methods for GSCA Using a Monte Carlo Simulation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02215).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02215) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- multivariate test [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the packet by giving a general statistical explanation that is not stated there and is only indirectly inferable from the source text.; The definition’s first sentence contains general statistical characterization that is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text.; The packet does not provide a definition of “multivariate test” or state the general meaning (e.g., “used to see whether groups differ… when several related outcomes are considered together rather than one at a time”).; The packet supports use of a MANOVA/multivariate test for group differences, but it does not clearly support the added claim that it was used across both multiple cognitive and biochemical measures at once; the biochemical analyses are described separately.; While the packet indicates that a multivariate approach (MANOVA/multivariate test) was used to test outcomes across multiple measures (e.g., biochemical markers and multiple cognitive parameters), this does not supply the missing general definition content required by the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Elsharkawy Amal M; Hassanein Faika; Abouelkheir Samia S; Masoud Inas M; Felefel Wael; Darwish Inas E. An experimental study of the dual modulation of the colchicine-induced rat model of Alzheimer’s disease by superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) and the soluble product of Dipylidium caninum adult worm. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324191; article XML SHA-256 615171a37611ac16fb9d01c7c14b3edf51f37efd5a8e5e570457e95c83c7cdc4. “An experimental study of the dual modulation of the colchicine-induced rat model of Alzheimer’s disease by superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) and the soluble product of Dipylidium caninum adult worm” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324191).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324191) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- muscarine [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported inference that muscarine has a role in modulating cortical activity linked to consciousness and working memory research; the packet only says muscarine was bath-applied to partly mimic an “aroused-like” state and that layer 2/3 pyramidal cells are important in theories of those functions.; The definition’s concluding claim that the results “indicat[e] a role in modulating cortical activity linked to consciousness and working memory research” goes beyond what the packet explicitly supports. The packet states that the authors used muscarine to partly mimic an “aroused-like” state and that L2/3 pyramidal cells are important for access consciousness and working memory according to leading theories, but it does not explicitly conclude that muscarine itself “indicates” that role.; The phrasing shifts from the packet’s specific in vitro slice preparation to a broader claim about a brain state and cortical activity that is not directly supported. New packet required. Source: [Fleiner Anne S; Kolnier Daniel; Hagger-Vaughan Nicholas; Ræder Johan; Storm Johan F. Effects of ketamine and propofol on muscarinic plateau potentials in rat neocortical pyramidal cells. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316262; article XML SHA-256 861a42284523f0d72f71cfca144feaef7e7161ea40e93020f4dc1347ace1c8f7. “Effects of ketamine and propofol on muscarinic plateau potentials in rat neocortical pyramidal cells” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316262).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316262) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- muscle action potential [redraft]: The claim that this is “the electrical response recorded from a muscle when its nerve is stimulated” is not stated in the packet as a definition; the packet only says CMAPs were recorded after peroneal nerve stimulation and used in MUNE.; The definition centers on the term “muscle action potential,” but the packet discusses “compound muscle action potential (CMAP)” and “surface-recorded motor unit potential (SMUP)” in the context of motor unit number estimation; it does not define “muscle action potential” as such or equate the two terms.; The packet does not explicitly state that the CMAP “reflects the combined activity of the muscle’s functioning motor units” in those exact terms (it describes using maximal CMAP size within a premise/ratio for MUNE, but not that specific phrasing of combined motor-unit activity).; The packet supports compound muscle action potential (CMAP), not the broader term “muscle action potential,” so the entry appears to use the wrong sense/term.; While the packet supports that CMAP size is used in motor unit number estimation (MUNE) by relating maximal CMAP size to mean SMUP size, the definition’s overall “muscle action potential → CMAP” framing is not directly supported.; “Reflects the combined activity of the muscle’s functioning motor units” is an unsupported paraphrase; the packet says MUNE estimates motor units by dividing maximal CMAP size by mean surface-recorded motor unit potential size, but does not define CMAP this way. New packet required. Source: [Klein Cliff S; Liu Hui; Xiong Yuan. Estimation of the number of motor units in the human extensor digitorum brevis using MScanFit. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302214; article XML SHA-256 c837527d05a85919b968ec8d41e25f61ace48dc2aed01142af8b648bfb406254. “Estimation of the number of motor units in the human extensor digitorum brevis using MScanFit” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302214).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302214) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- muscle dysmorphia [redraft]: The association with bulimia nervosa and exercise addiction is supported, but the wording 'sometimes appearing alongside' is a weaker generalization than the packet’s 'several disorders can be present concomitantly.'; The packet does not define muscle dysmorphia as a disorder involving distress related to muscularity or body build; it only says it is a common psychological disorder present in Lebanese adolescents.; The packet does not state that muscle dysmorphia involves distress specifically related to muscularity or body build; it only describes it as a “common psychological disorder” in Lebanese adolescents.; While the packet supports that other disorders (including bulimia nervosa and exercise addiction) can be present concomitantly with muscle dysmorphia, it does not provide wording that specifically matches “sometimes appearing alongside” in the way the definition implies. New packet required. Source: [Rahme Deema; Dabbous Mariam; Malaeb Diana; Hallit Souheil; Obeid Sahar. The mediating effect of body appreciation between muscle dysmorphia and bulimia nervosa among Lebanese adolescents. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-04772-2; article XML SHA-256 3c694840a0dbb7a60bd5022aeea9ae18e73ca9906390d289c8ae507bcb0ccb7e. “The mediating effect of body appreciation between muscle dysmorphia and bulimia nervosa among Lebanese adolescents” (10.1186/s12888-023-04772-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04772-2) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- muscle relaxation [redraft]: The claim that it is used to reduce psychological distress and improve comfort is broader than the packet supports; the packet reports only preliminary effects and a trend in reducing anxiety, depression, and stress in one small trial.; The definition adds that muscle relaxation is used to “help people reduce psychological distress and improve comfort,” but the packet only reports effects and measurements related to anxiety, depression, stress, and quality of life, without mentioning “psychological distress” in those exact terms or “comfort.”; The definition states “reduce psychological distress” and “improve comfort” as general aims; these are not substantiated by the provided packet text.; The packet does not define muscle relaxation in general; it only describes progressive muscle relaxation as a skill taught in a specific study.; The statement about benefits on anxiety, depression, stress, and quality of life is presented as studied findings, not as an established or general definition. New packet required. Source: [Nguyen Khanh Thi; Hoang Huong T X; Bui Quang V; Chan Dorothy N S; Choi Kai C; Chan Carmen W H. Effects of music intervention combined with progressive muscle relaxation on anxiety, depression, stress and quality of life among women with cancer receiving chemotherapy: A pilot randomized controlled trial. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293060; article XML SHA-256 ddee362b2b5f68197fb0ebc5b9d63070320cfd79d56cce0d6b46c89f35e13bfb. “Effects of music intervention combined with progressive muscle relaxation on anxiety, depression, stress and quality of life among women with cancer receiving chemotherapy: A pilot randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293060).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293060) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- mutilation [redraft]: The definition adds a restrictive sense statement about what the packet does not define more broadly; that meta-claim is not supported by the packet itself and is not a dictionary definition of the term.; The definition claims the packet “does not provide enough information to define mutilation more broadly beyond this specific context,” but the packet text does not explicitly address whether “mutilation” has other meanings or whether broader definition is possible; this is unsupported.; The definition states “mutilation refers specifically to female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), a culturally traditional practice…”. While the packet discusses FGM/C and references “traditional cultural values,” it does not explicitly define FGM/C (or “mutilation”) as “a culturally traditional practice,” so that characterization is not directly supported.; The packet supports discussion of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) and its medicalization, but it does not establish the standalone term “mutilation” as specifically referring to FGM/C in this source. New packet required. Source: [Ortensi Livia Elisa; Farina Patrizia; Carrillo Daniela; Ripamonti Enrico. Exploring support for medicalized female genital mutilation/cutting: A study on migrant women living in Italy. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322774; article XML SHA-256 977b5c4fa87825b9f7186edf7b2d31d02d632b348b39b9c20c263f6da9f95e8f. “Exploring support for medicalized female genital mutilation/cutting: A study on migrant women living in Italy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322774).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322774) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- myoclonic [redraft]: Adjective redefined as a group of epilepsy syndromes under an 'in this packet' hedge; wrong sense of headword. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Epilepsies, Myoclonic” (D004831).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004831) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- myofascial pain syndrome [redraft]: The claim about “lower day-to-day functioning” is a looser paraphrase of decreased functional capacity/daily activities and is not stated as such in the source.; The definition adds unsupported anatomy detail by saying trigger points occur in “nearby tissues”; the packet only mentions palpable trigger points in skeletal muscles and associated facial structures.; The definition states that trigger points are “sensitive” and that pain involves “nearby tissues,” but the packet only describes “palpable trigger points” and “associated facial structures,” without directly supporting the wording “sensitive” or the general phrase “nearby tissues.”; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: this is a medical/musculoskeletal pain term, not a development/psychology sense.; While the packet supports the general concepts of regional pain, muscle spasm, limited range of motion, and decreased functional capacity, the definition’s phrasing (“lower day-to-day functioning”) is not stated verbatim or as an exact construct in the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Erkin Yüksel; Ozduran Erkan; Özbek İlhan Celil; Hancı Volkan. Readability, quality, and reliability of AI-generated ınformation on myofascial pain syndrome: A comparative analysis of ChatGPT, Gemini, and Perplexity. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0350402; article XML SHA-256 0a562dcf5db13c213b7e32b1a847bb3c88689bd160b25cbe2ad82a88aca5803d. “Readability, quality, and reliability of AI-generated ınformation on myofascial pain syndrome: A comparative analysis of ChatGPT, Gemini, and Perplexity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0350402).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0350402) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- myography [redraft]: The definition adds a general sense and wording about physiological signals linked to muscle contraction that is not explicitly supported by the source packet.; The definition’s first sentence gives a general meaning of “myography” (recording/measurement of muscle activity using physiological signals linked to muscle contraction) that is not explicitly supported in the provided packet. The packet only directly discusses force myography (FMG) in relation to predicting hand gestures from axial forces at the skin surface.; The packet supports force myography (FMG), not the broader term myography as the recording or measurement of muscle activity.; The packet supports the idea that force myography uses pattern recognition to predict hand gestures from axial forces at the skin surface created by underlying muscle contractions, but because the general first sentence is unsupported, the overall definition cannot be accepted.; The sentence about force myography estimating hand gestures from forces at the skin surface is supported, but it is only one narrower technique and does not justify defining myography itself that way. New packet required. Source: [Young Peyton R; Hong Kihun; Winslow Eden J; Sagastume Giancarlo K; Battraw Marcus A; Whittle Richard S; Schofield Jonathon S. The effects of limb position and grasped load on hand gesture classification using electromyography, force myography, and their combination. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321319; article XML SHA-256 fab20084c463a2ae66a2062e83450088938dd634ae7f51954ba275ea0dff0b0d. “The effects of limb position and grasped load on hand gesture classification using electromyography, force myography, and their combination” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321319).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321319) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- N-of-1 design [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly state the contrast “within one person rather than across a group,” so that wording goes beyond the supplied source.; The packet does not state, in the definition’s terms, that an “N-of-1 design” is an approach that evaluates an intervention “within one person rather than across a group.” It only describes an “N-of-1, single-case experimental design evaluation” for a subset of three participants.; The packet mentions “within-case and start-point randomization,” but it does not explicitly support the definition’s claim of “randomization of timing and conditions.”; The packet supports that the study uses an embedded randomized N-of-1, single-case experimental design with within-case and start-point randomization, but it does not specifically support the added claim that randomization includes “timing and conditions.”; The source describes a subset of three participants and an N-of-1 single-case design, but it does not support the definition as a general clinical explanation of the term beyond this study context. New packet required. Source: [Hannigan Caoimhe; Lemercier Antoine; McDermott Garret; Lydon Helena; Kennelly Sean P; Kelly Michelle. Study protocol for an observational research study with an embedded N-of-1 design: Increasing the availability of goal-oriented cognitive rehabilitation for people living with dementia in Ireland. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322121; article XML SHA-256 a6af39093b398e0c90bf62a35606579f26b0c5ed6ade0f3e72343119d31c09a8. “Study protocol for an observational research study with an embedded N-of-1 design: Increasing the availability of goal-oriented cognitive rehabilitation for people living with dementia in Ireland” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322121).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322121) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test [redraft]: The definition adds a general description of the test’s purpose and format that is not stated for the NNAT-I in the packet; the packet only gives a general background description of nonverbal intelligence tests, not this named instrument specifically.; The packet does not state that it is “used to measure cognitive ability” in general terms; it only indicates it was used to evaluate criterion-related validity alongside TONI-3.; The packet does not support the claim that the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test “measure[s] cognitive ability without relying on language.” It only refers to the test as a criterion-related validity measure (NNAT-I) used for correlations.; The packet supports that the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test–I (NNAT-I) was used as a comparison measure in criterion-related validity analyses, but it does not define the test itself as a nonverbal assessment for measuring cognitive ability without language reliance.; While the packet does support that NNAT-I was used as a comparison/validity measure (criterion-related validity) in the study context, the definition also contains unsupported descriptive claims about what the test measures and how (language reliance). New packet required. Source: [Bildiren Ahmet; Kavruk Sevinç Zeynep. Psychometric properties of the test of nonverbal intelligence–third edition (TONI-3) in Turkish middle school students. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497; article XML SHA-256 a4a096a40e0edce8af562b432fc016fa30766ad5e78fb72ab4200f955ac5df50. “Psychometric properties of the test of nonverbal intelligence–third edition (TONI-3) in Turkish middle school students” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828497) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- naloxone [redraft]: Vague non-definition that never says what naloxone is; adds a mental-health context the packet lacks. New packet required. Source: [Lee Shin Hyung; Agley Jon; Sharma Vatsla; Williamson Francesca; Zhang Pengyue; Seo Dong-Chul. Opioid overdose and naloxone administration knowledge and perceived competency in a probability sample of Indiana urban communities with large Black populations. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328444; article XML SHA-256 b56fa2a8a1d9933b5d2342afaea937ef4fbd09eb1881871e13493011f96a3086. “Opioid overdose and naloxone administration knowledge and perceived competency in a probability sample of Indiana urban communities with large Black populations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328444).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328444) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Narcissistic Personality Inventory [redraft]: Calls the inventory itself a multidimensional construct and describes the study's findings rather than the term. New packet required. Source: [Braun Stéphanie; Kempenaers Chantal; Linkowski Paul; Loas Gwenolé. French Adaptation of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory in a Belgian French-Speaking Sample. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01980; article XML SHA-256 88ca7ddd0e364e71df79d855f6a012bb45e66c412744a86cf49f2e6e93a6e7ed. “French Adaptation of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory in a Belgian French-Speaking Sample” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01980).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01980) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- narcotic analgesic [redraft]: "Act through opioid-related receptors" is an unsupported generalization from a study of the delta opioid receptor, not a source-backed definition of the term as a class of drugs.; The definition’s framing as “the opioid or opiate group” and acting “through opioid-related receptors” is not explicitly stated in the packet as the definition of the term “narcotic analgesic,” only as the study’s receptor/ligand context.; The packet does not define or support the term "narcotic analgesic" directly; it only discusses the opioid receptor group, opiates/opioid peptides, and "non-narcotic analgesic" alternatives.; The packet does not provide a definition for the term “narcotic analgesic” or state that “narcotic analgesic” is specifically a general category of “pain-relieving drug.”; The wording "narcotic" is not supported by the packet, which uses the contrasting phrase "non-narcotic analgesic" rather than defining narcotic analgesics.; While the packet mentions the δ opioid receptor (DOR) and interactions with “opiates and opioid peptides” in the context of pain relief, it does not support the claimed sense that narcotic analgesics are “used for pain relief” as a definitional component of the term. New packet required. Source: [Goode-Romero Guillermo; Dominguez Laura. Descriptive molecular pharmacology of the δ opioid receptor (DOR): A computational study with structural approach. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304068; article XML SHA-256 757c2b643c09a40912548c845d4c9d0979fa97324a49b249bf0b214c72f4a7c9. “Descriptive molecular pharmacology of the δ opioid receptor (DOR): A computational study with structural approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304068).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304068) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- narrative analysis [redraft]: The field label is only loosely supported: the packet places the term in a media/mental-health analysis context, but does not establish “cognition” as the defining field for narrative analysis.; The first sentence (“a way of studying stories… to understand how meaning is built through a narrative”) is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text, which describes narrative analysis in terms of specific study aims (e.g., examining narrative probability and fidelity) rather than providing a general definitional description of meaning-building.; The first sentence gives a general definition of narrative analysis (“a way of studying stories…to understand how meaning is built”) that is not stated or supported in the packet, which only says the study uses narrative analysis to examine a specific TV mental-health portrayal. New packet required. Source: [Tenzek Kelly E.; Lattimer Tahleen A.; Heneveld Kyle; Lapan Emily; Neurohr Madison; Gillis Stephanie. Mediated depictions of mental health, chronic care and literacy: a narrative analysis of Randall’s mental health journey in the television series, This is Us. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1204973; article XML SHA-256 dfa42e055f205542743b647ecac568fddaa6b79a136bebfc4b1441c93bbef718. “Mediated depictions of mental health, chronic care and literacy: a narrative analysis of Randall’s mental health journey in the television series, This is Us” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1204973).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1204973) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- narrative psychology [redraft]: The definition claims narrative psychology focuses on “interpretive, story-like ways people make sense” of experiences; the packet describes “interpretive processes” and “context-sensitive operationalizations,” but it does not explicitly support the “story-like” phrasing.; The definition presents narrative psychology as a broader established approach rather than limiting the sense to the packet’s specific, preliminary framing of reflective selfhood and rural woman identity reinterpretation in one study.; The packet supports a context-sensitive, narrative-informed account of selfhood and agency under structural constraint, but it does not explicitly support the “story-like ways people make sense of their lived experiences” formulation.; The remainder of the definition (context-sensitive perspective; interpretive meaning-making; selfhood and agency; structurally unequal conditions/structural constraint) is broadly consistent with the packet, but the unsupported “story-like” component is a substantive claim. New packet required. Source: [Yang Wenyuan; Zhu Xiaomin. Beyond vulnerability: reflective selfhood, rural woman identity reinterpretation, and agency under structural constraint. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893046; article XML SHA-256 2f7598fd49a571560ca30b2b253a3df729ae5f81b4a70500b4a20c4126b4c105. “Beyond vulnerability: reflective selfhood, rural woman identity reinterpretation, and agency under structural constraint” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893046).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893046) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- narrative theory [redraft]: Several parts of the definition (e.g., “understanding how presenting information as a narrative can shape audience…”) are not stated in the packet as what narrative theory specifically is, making the requested sense of the term only indirectly implied rather than supported.; The definition generalizes from a broader statement about how linguistic presentation can affect attention, emotion, and cognition, but the packet does not explicitly equate that effect with narrative theory or say that message form is the key feature of the term.; The definition’s claim that narrative theory treats “the form of a message, not just its content” as important is not directly supported as a description of narrative theory; the packet instead provides a general statement that linguistic presentation can affect responses even when content remains unchanged, without tying this specifically to narrative theory.; The packet does not define narrative theory itself; it only says the study integrates elements of the Elaboration Likelihood Model and narrative theory, so attributing this specific framework to the term is unsupported.; The packet does not explicitly define “narrative theory” as a framework for understanding narrative-shaped attention, feelings, and thinking; it only mentions narrative theory as an element integrated into another model (A-ELM) without giving a definition. New packet required. Source: [Feng Guangchao Charles; Luo Yiwen; Yu Zhenwei; Wen Jinlang. Effects of rhetorical devices on audience responses with online videos: An augmented elaboration likelihood model. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0282663; article XML SHA-256 0a7fc605889235f07e71d105ae0c659459d0c7a80022b13dee3d2a4bd3958222. “Effects of rhetorical devices on audience responses with online videos: An augmented elaboration likelihood model” (10.1371/journal.pone.0282663).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282663) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- NAS [redraft]: Abbreviation expanded correctly but the content is liver histopathology, not a psychology term; field indefensible. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Activity Score” (C181472).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nasal cavity [redraft]: Anatomy term padded with the paper's lesion-frequency findings; describes the study more than the term. New packet required. Source: [Kwon Kyung Won; Park Seong Hyeon; Lee Dong Hoon; Kim Dong-Young; Park Il-Ho; Cho Hyun-Jin; Kim Jong Seung; Kim Joo Yeon; Hong Sang Duk; Kim Shin Ae; Yoo Shin Hyuk; Park Soo Kyoung; Heo Sung Jae; Kim Sung Hee; Won Tae-Bin; Choi Woo Ri; Kim Yong Min; Kim Yong Wan; Kim Jong-Yeup; Kwon Jae Hwan; Yu Myeong Sang. Deep learning algorithm for the automated detection and classification of nasal cavity mass in nasal endoscopic images. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297536; article XML SHA-256 404fbd7bcc2f0cbd930d957b515420adbcc544c50be6f7e954010d0c4c20b927. “Deep learning algorithm for the automated detection and classification of nasal cavity mass in nasal endoscopic images” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297536).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297536) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- National Alliance on Mental Illness [redraft]: Defines the organization only as a place parents may find encouragement; field tag also indefensible. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 2f1e06df6de4eaffe8d6a05ad39220c840ff0b6e8aaec6f86c36cc150507fdf3. “Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder: The Basics” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/disruptive-mood-dysregulation-disorder) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- native speaker [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“A native speaker is a person who naturally speaks a particular language”) is not supported by the provided packet text.; The first sentence gives a general lexicographic definition that is not supported by the supplied source passage.; The packet supports only the review function of a native speaker in manuscript preparation; it does not define a native speaker as someone who “naturally speaks” a particular language.; While the second sentence about using a native speaker to review writing for correctness and accuracy is supported by the packet (Rule 7: “If you are not a native speaker… make sure to have a native speaker go over the final draft to ensure correctness and accuracy”), the definition as a whole includes an unsupported substantive claim. New packet required. Source: [PLOS: Ten Simple Rules for Writing Research Papers. 2014-01-30; DOI 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003453. “Ten Simple Rules for Writing Research Papers” (b73df5f1d0f65d4b2e62).](https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003453) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- native [redraft]: The contrast to ‘non-native’ as a language that is not the listener’s first language is not supported by the supplied text.; The definition’s specific claim that “native refers to a person’s own first language” is not explicitly stated in the packet text. The packet mentions “native and non-native languages” and “native English and Korean speaker,” but does not clearly define native as a speaker’s first language.; The packet supports an opposition between native and non-native language processing in speech perception, but it does not state that ‘native’ means a person’s first language. New packet required. Source: [Quan Luong Do Anh; Trang Le Thi; Choi Inyong; Woo Jihwan. Differential electroencephalography responses in speech perception between native and non-native speakers. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1661010; article XML SHA-256 112522a1454f51b86ad5ad02638ec064208bf747556c79f137ee43d7e4a8b57e. “Differential electroencephalography responses in speech perception between native and non-native speakers” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1661010).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1661010) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- natural group [redraft]: The contrast with an 'arranged household role' is not supported by the source packet; the passage defines family as a natural group and separately notes a household as partly natural, partly artificial, but does not frame the term in terms of an arranged role.; The definition adds an interpretive gloss ('joined by family relationship') that is acceptable, but the unsupported contrast makes the overall sense exceed the packet’s wording.; The packet does not support the claim that a natural group is “joined … rather than by an arranged household role”; it only contrasts “natural” (family) with “artificial” elements in a household, explicitly including “servants.”; The packet supports that “natural group” can mean father, mother, and children, and more broadly includes grandparents/grandchildren/relatives, but the provided definition adds wording (“arranged household role”) not present in the supplied text. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Family (household)” (Family).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F1defs.htm#Family) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- natural language [redraft]: Because the definition’s first sentence (“ordinary language people use to communicate, in spoken or written form”) is unsupported by the provided packet, the overall definition cannot be accepted as fully supported.; The definition goes beyond the source by introducing a broader general-language definition that is not stated in the packet.; The packet does not define “natural language” as the ordinary spoken or written language people use; it only discusses NLP as enabling computers to interpret and process “natural language.”; The packet supports only the NLP sense: language that computers can be designed to interpret and process. It does not support the added claim that natural language means the ordinary language people use to communicate, whether spoken or written. New packet required. Source: [Cook Darren; Cook Elizabeth A; Roy Sumanta; Thiara Ravi; Selvarajah Rani. A collaborative approach to applying Natural Language Processing (NLP) to Domestic Homicide Reviews (DHRs): A study protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348948; article XML SHA-256 6356d08e58b232f248f20859a2c825b32921e5e845ceffebb7a482dd2bb20eb3. “A collaborative approach to applying Natural Language Processing (NLP) to Domestic Homicide Reviews (DHRs): A study protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348948).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348948) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- naturalistic environment [redraft]: Claims like “a person’s usual real-world setting” and “outside a controlled laboratory or clinic” are not stated in the packet.; The definition shifts from defining the environment to describing a research approach (“studying experiences and responses”), which is only indirectly supported by the packet’s example of wearable/EMA assessment in everyday life.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “naturalistic environment”; it only uses the phrase in describing a study context (remote assessment in everyday life).; The packet does not support the general statement that, “In mental health research,” the term specifically refers to studying “experiences and responses as they happen in everyday life.” It instead describes using wearable technology to quantify physiological response to psychosocial stress during exams in everyday settings.; The phrase “person’s usual real-world setting” is broader than the packet, which only supports stressors encountered “in the naturalistic environment” or “in everyday life.”; “Outside a controlled laboratory or clinic” is not stated in the packet and adds an unsupported contrast to laboratory/clinic settings. New packet required. Source: [Pakhomov Serguei V S; Thuras Paul D; Finzel Raymond; Eppel Jerika; Kotlyar Michael. Using consumer-wearable technology for remote assessment of physiological response to stress in the naturalistic environment. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0229942; article XML SHA-256 a798fd774bf91c4b38592d900049a73facb184e6cf45c43a6fa7042c2aac553e. “Using consumer-wearable technology for remote assessment of physiological response to stress in the naturalistic environment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0229942).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229942) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nature–nurture [redraft]: The definition adds a general traditional contrast framing that is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source’s discussion of sex/gender categories and the nature-nurture dichotomy.; The definition claims the source “described as an outdated opposition that can oversimplify development by treating causes as if they were separate rather than intertwined.” The packet does support that invoking the nature/nurture debate can bring “outdated metaphors and assumptions,” and it discusses separating vs entangling ("bucket" vs "knot"), but it does not explicitly state that the oversimplification is specifically about “development” being treated as separate causes rather than intertwined.; The definition says nature–nurture is “the traditional contrast between innate or biological influences and environmental or social influences.” The packet does not provide this description or an explicit definition of nature–nurture in those terms.; The packet states that nature–nurture is regarded oppositionally and that this framework has been rejected in biological and developmental sciences, but it does not directly support the specific phrasing about “innate/biological vs environmental/social influences,” nor the precise oversimplification mechanism asserted in the definition.; The source supports that the nature/nurture framework is an outdated opposition linked to assumptions about innateness and causation, but it does not explicitly support the broader gloss about environmental or social influences or about explaining human traits and behavior. New packet required. Source: [Maney Donna L.; Duchesne Annie; Grossi Giordana. Sex/gender entanglement: A problem of knots and buckets. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s13293-025-00758-9; article XML SHA-256 7d834172c36309f015f41bf4b372bf83ae4ca2df3a6da2031a77f38a0d1ad485. “Sex/gender entanglement: A problem of knots and buckets” (10.1186/s13293-025-00758-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13293-025-00758-9) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- near miss [redraft]: The definition adds a causal purpose claim that studying these cases may help reduce illness and death; the packet says further study can inform practices to reduce maternal morbidity and mortality, but not that this is why the term itself is used.; The packet does not explicitly state that a near miss is a “survived” severe event; it refers to monitoring severe events in the obstetrical population (maternal near miss/severe maternal morbidity) and consequences, but survival is not directly supported.; The packet supports that maternal near miss is discussed with severe maternal morbidity and used in monitoring obstetrical events, but it does not explicitly define the term as a severe event that is survived. New packet required. Source: [England Natalie; Madill Julia; Metcalfe Amy; Magee Laura; Cooper Stephanie; Salmon Charleen; Adhikari Kamala. Monitoring maternal near miss/severe maternal morbidity: A systematic review of global practices. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0233697; article XML SHA-256 197f20c0ccc7c44348acb132e670cf1eed34c9359efa383bc15e7fef2147b34c. “Monitoring maternal near miss/severe maternal morbidity: A systematic review of global practices” (10.1371/journal.pone.0233697).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233697) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- need for affiliation [redraft]: The definition adds a broad motivational description not stated in the packet; the packet is a leadership study, not a full dictionary definition of the term.; The definition characterizes need for affiliation as an “implicit motive that can shape how effectively a person relates to and leads others.” The packet supports that implicit motives (including affiliation) relate to leadership behaviors/outcomes, but the specific phrasing about “how effectively a person relates to” others is not directly supported in the provided excerpt.; The definition claims that need for affiliation is a “motivational tendency to value close, positive relationships with other people”; the provided packet excerpt does not define it in terms of valuing close/positive relationships.; The definition states it includes “show concern for others’ needs.” While the packet reports that need for affiliation was related to leaders’ ratings of concern for followers’ needs, this specific “concern for others’ needs” element is only evidenced in the leadership context described, not as a general definitional feature across people generally.; The packet supports that need for affiliation is an implicit motive and that it is related to concern for followers’ needs and leadership effectiveness, but it does not define it as a general tendency to value close, positive relationships with other people. New packet required. Source: [Steinmann Barbara; Ötting Sonja K.; Maier Günter W.. Need for Affiliation as a Motivational Add-On for Leadership Behaviors and Managerial Success. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01972; article XML SHA-256 ab413055c17d7c6f6193e49f76751be18e33d16dd56231169d74c2ed2a724afe. “Need for Affiliation as a Motivational Add-On for Leadership Behaviors and Managerial Success” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01972).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01972) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- need for control [redraft]: Because the first sentence’s characterization of the sense of “need for control” is not explicitly supported by the packet, the definition as a whole does not defensibly match the supplied source.; The definition claims that “need for control” is an urge to “keep situations or behaviour tightly managed or predictable,” but the provided packet only references “the importance of control” as a theme in participants’ experiences and does not specify this particular meaning (tight management/predictability).; The packet uses “need for control” as a study theme tied to participants’ eating experiences, not as a general definition of a person’s urge to keep situations or behaviour tightly managed or predictable.; The second sentence adds specific study details (“this study,” “participants,” “their eating difficulties,” “alongside obsessive-compulsive symptoms and strong emotions”) that are only partially supported and overstate the source’s wording; the packet says eating difficulties often emerged in response to heightened emotions, the need for control, and/or OCD symptoms, not that these motives were specifically linked in that exact formulation. New packet required. Source: [Kucukterzi-Ali Sonay; Ludlow Amanda K; Gutierrez Roberto; Fineberg Naomi A; Gale Tim M. Understanding atypical eating behaviours in women with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A qualitative study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328500; article XML SHA-256 2787b9aa20f8446a38b27d2aaf1e57a2539ae56628e1572abe3aed0a8c132738. “Understanding atypical eating behaviours in women with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A qualitative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328500).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328500) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- need for intimacy [redraft]: The definition also attributes the meaning to “participants’ expressed wish for intimacy” being “sometimes harder to achieve because of mental health difficulties and medication side effects.” While the packet does support mental health and medication side effects as barriers to achieving the desired level of sexual activity, it does not explicitly frame that barrier as difficulty achieving “intimacy” specifically.; The definition claims “felt desire for close, fulfilling connection with another person,” but the packet only states that participants “feel the need for intimacy” and do not describe intimacy as “close, fulfilling connection” in those terms.; The definition states that this is “often linked with wanting more sexual activity and relationship closeness.” The packet only reports that these participants “want to engage in sexual activity more often,” and it does not support the broader wording “often” or the specific idea of “relationship closeness.”; The packet supports participants’ expressed need for intimacy and a desire for more sexual activity, but it does not define need for intimacy as a general felt desire for “close, fulfilling connection” or as something “often linked” with relationship closeness.; The second sentence narrows the sense to this study’s participants, which is supported, but the overall definition still adds unsupported generalization beyond the packet’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Brand Elnike; Nagaraj Dinesh; Ratsch Angela; Heffernan Edward. A Qualitative Study on Sexuality and Sexual Experiences in Community Forensic Mental Health Patients in Queensland, Australia. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.832139; article XML SHA-256 78fbd660ad2c101f3436452310008637e6650fca02d882da17d3fb2491e6402a. “A Qualitative Study on Sexuality and Sexual Experiences in Community Forensic Mental Health Patients in Queensland, Australia” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.832139).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.832139) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- need for power [redraft]: The packet supports that power motivation/need for power is expressed in dominant vs prosocial forms in leadership, but it does not explicitly define “need for power” as “a motivation to have influence or impact.” That specific wording is not directly supported by the provided text.; “Especially in leadership” is supportable, but the definition should not present that as the core sense without making clear the packet is about leadership behavior rather than the general term across contexts.; “Motivation to have influence or impact” goes beyond the packet’s wording; the source supports power motivation in leadership and its expression in dominant or prosocial ways, but not the broader “impact” framing. New packet required. Source: [Friederichs Katja M; Waldenmeier Karla; Baumann Nicola. The benefits of prosocial power motivation in leadership: Action orientation fosters a win-win. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0287394; article XML SHA-256 c99ad818be554be16e0796008e9c6162a5a5c1af13977bf14c0e05162616dcf6. “The benefits of prosocial power motivation in leadership: Action orientation fosters a win-win” (10.1371/journal.pone.0287394).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287394) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- negative acceleration [redraft]: Hedged 'in this EEG context' definition plus an unsupported bending-downward gloss; describes the study's method. New packet required. Source: [Sano Misako; Nishiura Yuko; Morikawa Izumi; Hoshino Aiko; Uemura Jun-ichi; Iwatsuki Katsuyuki; Hirata Hitoshi; Hoshiyama Minoru. Analysis of the alpha activity envelope in electroencephalography in relation to the ratio of excitatory to inhibitory neural activity. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305082; article XML SHA-256 6414f28bb0bef71eef37e8290816a2f803178950d2ffed33722e31194e26453b. “Analysis of the alpha activity envelope in electroencephalography in relation to the ratio of excitatory to inhibitory neural activity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305082).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305082) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- negative affect [redraft]: Although the packet supports the mediation idea (negative news exposure → increase in negative affect → increased attention to food and alcohol cues), that support is for the hypothesis framing, not for the definitional wording in the first sentence.; The definition’s first sentence (“Negative affect is a more negative feeling state”) is not supported by the provided packet text, which only describes negative affect as an outcome/mediator of negative news exposure rather than defining its nature as a “more negative feeling state.”; The packet does not define negative affect as “a more negative feeling state”; it only says negative news exposure may increase negative affect.; The source presents a hypothesis about a possible mediation pathway, not a confirmed description that negative affect increases attention to food and alcohol cues. New packet required. Source: [Brand John; Stanger Catherine; Borowy Caroline; Shelto Elizabeth; Carlson Delaina; Yang Min-Jeong; Gilbert-Diamond Diane. Negative affect mediates the association between negative news exposure and eye-tracking measures of attentional bias to food and alcohol cues among college students. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342572; article XML SHA-256 766b22eaf0db7a53f63fcb27b62173f80d9994792c332b6fc13e5b7abd45e700. “Negative affect mediates the association between negative news exposure and eye-tracking measures of attentional bias to food and alcohol cues among college students” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342572).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342572) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Nelson–Denny Reading Test [redraft]: Second sentence reports what the study found rather than defining the test. New packet required. Source: [Lee Charlotte E; Godwin Hayward J; Drieghe Denis. The jingle fallacy in comprehension tests for reading. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0306466; article XML SHA-256 695a9c43207fc4cbfc6ca49996c967da51872acdf310f951377aafefba552ae1. “The jingle fallacy in comprehension tests for reading” (10.1371/journal.pone.0306466).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306466) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nerve block [redraft]: The definition includes “usually,” while the packet does not support that frequency qualifier.; The definition’s “control or treat pain” is broadly consistent with the packet’s “manage or treat pain,” but the unsupported “temporarily” and “usually” prevent a full match.; The packet defines nerve block as “interruption of neural conduction” via injection, but it does not explicitly state that this interruption is temporary; the definition’s “temporarily stops” claim is therefore not directly supported.; The packet supports interruption of neural conduction in peripheral nerves or nerve trunks by injection to manage or treat pain, but it does not explicitly support the claim that the block is temporary. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nerve Block” (D009407).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009407) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- nerve ending [redraft]: The definition adds an anatomical characterization of “nerve ending” that is not stated in the source packet.; The definition claims a “nerve ending” is the part of a nerve cell that can provide excitatory input; the packet only states that dendritic spiny processes receive excitatory input from “nerve endings,” not what cellular part a nerve ending is.; The packet supports that each dendritic spine receives excitatory input from one nerve ending, but it does not support the claim that a nerve ending is a part of a nerve cell. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dendritic Spines” (D049229).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D049229) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- nerve trunk [redraft]: The definition’s claim that this “refers to the mixed nerve stem that carries fibres onward into other branches” is an interpretive gloss; the packet does not define the term or state this referral in definitional form.; The definition’s wording (“through which fibres pass together before dividing into particular branches or destinations”) is not explicitly stated in the supplied passage.; The field requirement (history) is not the issue; however, the definition is not supported by the packet’s text closely enough to justify each substantive claim.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “nerve trunk” as “the main stem of a nerve.” It only mentions “the mixed nerve trunk” in a description of fibre course.; The packet only shows the term in context (“mixed nerve trunk”) and does not explicitly support the generalized definition that a nerve trunk is the “main stem of a nerve” through which fibres pass before dividing.; “In this passage, it refers to the mixed nerve stem that carries fibres onward into other branches” is plausible from context, but the wording still goes beyond what the source explicitly states. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-976500-988500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- nerve [redraft]: Defines a nerve as a measurable conduction site rather than a nerve; wrong sense, hedged with 'in this context'. New packet required. Source: [Almuklass Awad M.; Al Mutlaq Omar M.; Alharbi Muhannad; Alojaymi Ibrahim; AlSharif Abdullah; Alhazmi Qusai. The nerve conduction variables in relation to academic performance among male medical students at King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences: an exploratory observational study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1855183; article XML SHA-256 d547d7a641a4555ba4f1c3fb7c92a268f501db22f9bec49431e3f4093b2a8cf9. “The nerve conduction variables in relation to academic performance among male medical students at King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences: an exploratory observational study” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1855183).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1855183) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nervous impulse [redraft]: Defines cellifugal and cellipetal rather than nervous impulse; wrong headword sense. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Cellifugal” (Cellifugal).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C2defs.htm#Cellifugal) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- network sampling [redraft]: The definition attributes the method as “network sampling” and describes it generally as studying hard-to-reach populations via social network information gathered during a survey; the packet specifically ties this approach to PNS in the context of estimating female sex workers’ population size.; The definition’s final clause (“using respondent-driven sampling”) is only supported insofar as the packet states that the BBS used respondent-driven sampling; however, the definition frames this within a broader “network sampling” label that is not what the packet defines or uses.; The definition’s opening generalization about studying hard-to-reach populations is broader than what is explicitly defined in the packet and should stay tied to the specific PNS use described in the study.; The packet discusses “privatized network sampling (PNS)” used to estimate population size using network information collected within a bio-behavioral survey (BBS) that used respondent-driven sampling (RDS), but it does not provide a general definition of “network sampling” as a term.; The source supports privatized network sampling (PNS), a population size estimation method, not the broader term ‘network sampling’ as defined here. New packet required. Source: [Tuyishime Elysée; Kayitesi Catherine; Remera Eric; Malamba Samuel Sewava; Kabano Ignace Habimana; Chukwu Angela Unna. Estimating the size of hard to sample populations: A comprehensive study on female sex workers and sexually exploited minors in Rwanda using privatized network sampling in 2023. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329772; article XML SHA-256 097dc76226ed326ce587f4b98896d23e2c27c71de1567d3817da67ec9ef7c4b3. “Estimating the size of hard to sample populations: A comprehensive study on female sex workers and sexually exploited minors in Rwanda using privatized network sampling in 2023” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329772).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329772) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neur- [redraft]: Combining form defined as the Neuralized protein; a combining form must be defined as such. New packet required. Source: [Koo Bon-Kyoung; Yoon Mi-Jeong; Yoon Ki-Jun; Im Sun-Kyoung; Kim Yoon-Young; Kim Cheol-Hee; Suh Pann-Ghill; Jan Yuh Nung; Kong Young-Yun. An Obligatory Role of Mind Bomb-1 in Notch Signaling of Mammalian Development. 2007; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0001221; article XML SHA-256 a7241421ba3ce19cb5914408dc709b040a501e5e4eb826f8a12de56d1bc39a53. “An Obligatory Role of Mind Bomb-1 in Notch Signaling of Mammalian Development” (10.1371/journal.pone.0001221).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0001221) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neural arc [redraft]: Hedged 'in this context' definition tied to one baroreflex study; also claims augmentation raises SNA. New packet required. Source: [Tohyama Takeshi; Saku Keita; Kawada Toru; Kishi Takuya; Yoshida Keimei; Nishikawa Takuya; Mannoji Hiroshi; Kamada Kazuhiro; Sunagawa Kenji; Tsutsui Hiroyuki. Impact of lipopolysaccharide-induced acute inflammation on baroreflex-controlled sympathetic arterial pressure regulation. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0190830; article XML SHA-256 bf5b27cdca4528a884d988d17e82b2ac36dcfb028f5ed819eab27b99083fbb66. “Impact of lipopolysaccharide-induced acute inflammation on baroreflex-controlled sympathetic arterial pressure regulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0190830).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190830) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neural correlate [redraft]: Because the packet does not support the general definitional wording, the requested sense of the term is not fully supported.; The first sentence gives a general definition of “neural correlate” (a brain-/nervous-system feature associated with a psychological/behavioral phenomenon), but the provided packet does not explicitly define the term in these terms—only discusses “peripheral and neural correlates” in relation to self-harm.; The note about the evidence being ‘not yet mature and often conflicting’ is supported, but the definition mixes that research-status statement into the term’s meaning in a way the packet does not define.; The packet supports only that neural correlates were studied in relation to self-harm; it does not support the broader definitional claim that a neural correlate is any brain- or nervous-system feature associated with a psychological or behavioral phenomenon. New packet required. Source: [Sparrow-Downes Victoria M.; Trincao-Batra Sara; Cloutier Paula; Helleman Amanda R.; Salamatmanesh Mina; Gardner William; Baksh Anton; Kapur Rishi; Sheridan Nicole; Suntharalingam Sinthuja; Currie Lisa; Carrie Liam D.; Hamilton Arthur; Pajer Kathleen. Peripheral and neural correlates of self-harm in children and adolescents: a scoping review. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-03724-6; article XML SHA-256 9e1616f5d67295e82846274637ae244c7534cd7a27dac7fe649101d8913f298a. “Peripheral and neural correlates of self-harm in children and adolescents: a scoping review” (10.1186/s12888-022-03724-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-03724-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neural induction [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported general biology (“cells guided to become neural progenitors, the early cells that give rise to brain and nervous system tissue”); the packet only shows a longer neural induction and regional patterning period in an iPSC-based midbrain neural progenitor model.; The packet does not define “neural induction” as a stage that guides stem cells to become neural progenitors, nor does it state that these early cells give rise to brain and nervous system tissue.; The packet does not support the specific claim that a longer neural induction period produced midbrain neural progenitors with “different receptor expression” in the general terms used; it only provides receptor-expression results (OPRM1/OPRK1) for that longer vs shorter period.; The packet only supports that “a longer neural induction and regional patterning period” increases expression of OPRM1 (mu) and OPRK1 (kappa) in midbrain neural progenitors compared to a shorter protocol, rather than supporting the broader characterization about neural induction in general.; The packet supports that a longer neural induction period was compared with a shorter protocol and affected receptor expression, but it does not define neural induction itself as a stem-cell developmental stage that produces neural progenitors. New packet required. Source: [Sullivan Rhea; Ahrens Quinn; Mills-Huffnagle Sara L.; Elcheva Irina A.; Hicks Steven D.. A human iPSC-derived midbrain neural stem cell model of prenatal opioid exposure and withdrawal: A proof of concept study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319418; article XML SHA-256 c2b4d26b09e1033c8e20bee70bd28307cbba7647f86b2298e7bc3e2ddb7eb1ce. “A human iPSC-derived midbrain neural stem cell model of prenatal opioid exposure and withdrawal: A proof of concept study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319418).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319418) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neural integration [redraft]: The definition’s broad claim that neural integration is the brain’s general combining of different kinds of information into a coordinated response is not supported by the packet, which only discusses reduced neural integration of letters and speech sounds.; The first substantive claim (“the brain’s combining of different kinds of information into a coordinated response”) is not explicitly supported anywhere in the supplied packet text.; The packet does not support the added general description about a “coordinated response.”; The packet supports “reduced neural integration of letters and speech sounds in dyslexic children and adults,” but the definition phrases it more generally (“found to be reduced in dyslexia”) without additional support beyond that specific neuroimaging finding context.; The source supports a specific reading-related use of the term in dyslexia, but the definition presents it as a general brain process without enough textual support.; While the packet does support the specific sense that neural integration is reduced for “letters and speech sounds” in dyslexic children and adults, the definition adds an additional generalized characterization of neural integration that the packet does not provide. New packet required. Source: [Žarić Gojko; Fraga González Gorka; Tijms Jurgen; van der Molen Maurits W.; Blomert Leo; Bonte Milene. Reduced Neural Integration of Letters and Speech Sounds in Dyslexic Children Scales with Individual Differences in Reading Fluency. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0110337; article XML SHA-256 7937e77cd995ac6996d97b634e70e7e76bc5c04462591fbc49209e83f7231d82. “Reduced Neural Integration of Letters and Speech Sounds in Dyslexic Children Scales with Individual Differences in Reading Fluency” (10.1371/journal.pone.0110337).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0110337) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neural parenchyma [redraft]: Defines the tissue only through a mechanical compliance gloss plus the study's craniometric finding. New packet required. Source: [Knowler Susan P; Kiviranta Anna-Mariam; McFadyen Angus K; Jokinen Tarja S; La Ragione Roberto M; Rusbridge Clare. Craniometric Analysis of the Hindbrain and Craniocervical Junction of Chihuahua, Affenpinscher and Cavalier King Charles Spaniel Dogs With and Without Syringomyelia Secondary to Chiari-Like Malformation. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0169898; article XML SHA-256 30369cc52be845b2d254ad8f3ed6d77e44911dcd89a66bbe940867a16e0f000d. “Craniometric Analysis of the Hindbrain and Craniocervical Junction of Chihuahua, Affenpinscher and Cavalier King Charles Spaniel Dogs With and Without Syringomyelia Secondary to Chiari-Like Malformation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0169898).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169898) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neural receptor [redraft]: The first sentence also generalizes to “signaling substances such as hormones.” While glucocorticoids (hormones) are discussed, the packet does not support that neural receptors (as used here) broadly “allow cells to respond” to signaling substances in general; it specifically frames glucocorticoid signaling via GR/MR.; The first sentence claims a general definition: “found in brain or other nervous-system tissue.” The packet discusses receptor expression in brain (and mentions vertebrate tissues overall) but does not support the “other nervous-system tissue” portion as part of the term’s meaning in this source.; The first sentence is broader than the source, which supports receptor-mediated transcriptional effects and stress response, but not the general definitional claim about receptors enabling cells to respond to signaling substances in nervous tissue.; The packet does not define or use the term as a general “receptor found in brain or other nervous-system tissue”; it discusses glucocorticoid receptors (MR and GR) in the brain and other vertebrate tissues, not a broad class called “neural receptor.”; “In this source, neural receptors refer to glucocorticoid-binding receptors in the brain” overstates the article’s wording: the source mentions “neural receptor patterns” and specific receptors (MR and GR), but does not establish that ‘neural receptor’ is the term for those receptors. New packet required. Source: [Senft Rebecca A; Meddle Simone L; Baugh Alexander T. Distribution and Abundance of Glucocorticoid and Mineralocorticoid Receptors throughout the Brain of the Great Tit ( Parus major ). 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0148516; article XML SHA-256 83a62b0642d5f7ff6b7e4de495fe623728aa512b4442f1a6e3caada8881eddf1. “Distribution and Abundance of Glucocorticoid and Mineralocorticoid Receptors throughout the Brain of the Great Tit ( Parus major )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0148516).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148516) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neural regeneration [redraft]: Because the definition is required to be supported for every substantive claim, the lack of explicit support for the stated “repair or restoration” wording prevents a pass.; The definition’s first sentence (“repair or restoration of nervous-system tissue”) is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet discusses “neural repair” and “neural regeneration,” but does not define neural regeneration as restoration/repair of nervous-system tissue in these exact terms.; The packet supports neural repair/regeneration and support after transplantation, but it does not explicitly define the term as the general repair or restoration of nervous-system tissue.; The phrase “recovery” is not supported by the packet; the source only says some cells may support neural regeneration after transplantation and are being considered for neural/neurological repair and regeneration. New packet required. Source: [Urrutia Daniela N; Caviedes Pablo; Mardones Rodrigo; Minguell José J; Vega-Letter Ana Maria; Jofre Claudio M. Comparative study of the neural differentiation capacity of mesenchymal stromal cells from different tissue sources: An approach for their use in neural regeneration therapies. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0213032; article XML SHA-256 51f2966c3a1916d70ff84c326ce57fa4bdff35692fae285b7a4ec56acc2eaa1c. “Comparative study of the neural differentiation capacity of mesenchymal stromal cells from different tissue sources: An approach for their use in neural regeneration therapies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0213032).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213032) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neural substrate [redraft]: Because the packet provides no explicit basis for the general, mental-function/behavior framing, the requested sense of “neural substrate” cannot be fully justified from the packet.; The definition adds an explanatory gloss (“meaning it supports allocentric spatial representation”) that is acceptable only for the specific example, but the broader generic claim is still unsupported as written.; The definition’s first sentence (“…underlies and supports a particular mental function or behavior”) is not supported anywhere in the supplied packet; the packet only uses the phrase “neural substrate” in relation to the hippocampus for a specific spatial-learning representation.; The first sentence gives a broad general definition (“brain structure or neural system that underlies and supports a particular mental function or behavior”) that is not stated in the packet; the packet only supports the hippocampus as the neural substrate of viewpoint-invariant cognitive maps/allocentric spatial representations. New packet required. Source: [Webb Jordan A; Paquette Sebastien; Fournier Neil M; Reynolds Michael G; Brown Liana E; Lehmann Hugo. Evidence of allocentric spatial learning in male rats with large lesions of the hippocampus. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344593; article XML SHA-256 a7f54f7ffb6211915e020624e5c18761fc9f50262cef475d894c3222129c8693. “Evidence of allocentric spatial learning in male rats with large lesions of the hippocampus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344593).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344593) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neuroblastoma [redraft]: The definition describes the origin as “immature nerve-related cells,” but the packet specifically says it arises from “neural crest cells” in the sympathetic nervous system; the “immature nerve-related cells” phrasing is not supported by the packet.; The definition is a bit broader than the packet on origin and does not stay fully close to the supplied source wording.; The packet does not use the wording “usually develops,” so the “usually” modifier in the definition is not explicitly supported by the packet text (even though early childhood is supported).; “Immature nerve-related cells” is not supported by the packet’s wording; the packet says the tumor arises from neural crest cells in the sympathetic nervous system. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuroblastoma” (D009447).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009447) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- neurocognition [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory characterization that goes beyond the source wording rather than staying tightly anchored to the packet’s described relationships.; The definition’s statement that neurocognition refers to “general cognitive abilities linked to brain-based information processing” is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text.; The packet supports neurocognition as an important determinant of real-life functioning and notes a strong association with negative symptoms and a weaker one with positive symptoms, but it does not explicitly support the broader gloss “general cognitive abilities linked to brain-based information processing.”; The remainder of the definition (association with negative vs. positive symptoms, and relevance to real-world functioning/variability in real-life behavior) is supported, but the unsupported first claim is substantive.; While the packet supports that neurocognition is strongly associated with negative symptoms and weakly with positive symptoms, it does not define neurocognition in those terms (i.e., as general, brain-based information-processing abilities) in the excerpt provided. New packet required. Source: [Brasso Claudio; Colli Gianluca; Bellino Silvio; Bozzatello Paola; Montemagni Cristiana; Rocca Paola. Assessing directional connections between symptoms, cognition, insight, and real-life functioning in schizophrenia: a partial ancestor graphs analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1782281; article XML SHA-256 5a7936fac11fcdfa52992dd7065b1bd4aa82edb11e4c32b35b2b4c3328b26280. “Assessing directional connections between symptoms, cognition, insight, and real-life functioning in schizophrenia: a partial ancestor graphs analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1782281).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1782281) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neurohormone [redraft]: The packet does not support the general phrasing that a neurohormone is “a hormone-like signaling substance” or that it “controls body functions” in general terms; it only specifically states that reproductive function is under control of GnRH and that GnRH activates a receptor (GnRHR) expressed in pituitary gonadotrope cells.; The packet supports GnRH as a neurohormone that regulates reproductive function and acts via GnRHR in pituitary gonadotrope cells, but it does not support the broader general definition of neurohormone as a “hormone-like signaling substance” that controls body functions.; “Specific receptors in target cells” is only indirectly supported for GnRH; the source gives one receptor (GnRHR) in pituitary gonadotrope cells, not a general definition of neurohormones. New packet required. Source: [Avet Charlotte; Denoyelle Chantal; L’Hôte David; Petit Florence; Guigon Céline J.; Cohen-Tannoudji Joëlle; Simon Violaine. GnRH regulates the expression of its receptor accessory protein SET in pituitary gonadotropes. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0201494; article XML SHA-256 09997b125cd86d9f8747a3b2df51309f3c3088501b52ea9b4fc4fe248dcd78aa. “GnRH regulates the expression of its receptor accessory protein SET in pituitary gonadotropes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0201494).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201494) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neurokinin [redraft]: Packet is neurokinin B; the generic headword is defined as that one peptide, so the sense is wrong. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neurokinin B” (D015287).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015287) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- neuroleptic malignant syndrome [redraft]: The claim that the syndrome is “rare” is not supported by the supplied source packet.; The definition states the syndrome is “rare,” but the provided packet does not describe it as rare.; “Thinking changes” is an imprecise paraphrase of the packet’s “cognitive dysfunction”; the rest is broadly supported, but the unsupported rarity claim prevents approval. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome” (D009459).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009459) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- neuromuscular disorder [redraft]: The definition is imprecise about the sense of the term: the source describes “a group of disorders,” not “any condition in a group of disorders.”; The packet defines the term as “a group of disorders” affecting the neuromuscular system, but the provided definition says “any condition in a group of disorders,” which is not the same phrasing/scope as the packet.; “Often worsen over time” is acceptable paraphrase of “tend to be progressive,” but the phrasing is awkward and not as clear or direct as required. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neuromuscular Disorder” (C189005).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neuron doctrine [redraft]: Packet never says what the doctrine holds; the cell-to-cell content is borrowed from an unrelated sentence. New packet required. Source: [Parker David. Neurobiological reduction: From cellular explanations of behavior to interventions. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.987101; article XML SHA-256 9ee3c11c039af3ba8d67b2b81140974fa2a642a15fe935c7240d544c40209f3c. “Neurobiological reduction: From cellular explanations of behavior to interventions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.987101).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.987101) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Neurontin [redraft]: The definition claims “Neurontin is a brand name for gabapentin,” but the provided packet text does not explicitly state that Neurontin is a brand name for gabapentin (it only describes gabapentin as a synthetic analogue of GABA).; The packet identifies gabapentin as a synthetic analogue of gamma-aminobutyric acid, with anticonvulsant activity, analgesic properties, and an unknown exact mechanism that appears to inhibit excitatory neuron activity; it does not support the claim that Neurontin is a brand name for gabapentin. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Gabapentin” (C1108).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neuroprotective [redraft]: The definition adds a broad general meaning (“protect nerve tissue and brain-related functions from damage or degeneration”) that is not stated in the packet and is broader than the supplied usage.; The definition’s phrase “having the potential to protect nerve tissue and brain-related functions from damage or degeneration” is a general neuroprotection gloss that is not explicitly stated in the packet text (the packet instead frames results as “neuroprotective potential” assessed via docking/dynamics).; The packet supports only a specific research-context sense: neuroprotective potential of natural ligands against VaD-associated proteins and pathways, not a general clinical or physiological definition.; “Amyloid buildup” is not the same wording as the packet’s “amyloid aggregation,” so the specific claim is not directly supported as stated.; “Blood-brain barrier disruption” is stronger than the packet’s wording, which mentions effects on blood-brain barrier integrity, not confirmed disruption. New packet required. Source: [Wang Zhizhong; Xu Sen; Lin Ailong; Wei Chunxian; Li Zhiyong; Chen Yingchun; Bie Bizhou; Liu Ling. Targeting vascular dementia: Molecular docking and dynamics of natural ligands against neuroprotective proteins. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331787; article XML SHA-256 ee98f53021af4564e5e86b27d95a3d056c393a8fbbf3dc78b1eb66132022f4f8. “Targeting vascular dementia: Molecular docking and dynamics of natural ligands against neuroprotective proteins” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331787).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331787) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neuroscience [redraft]: The definition describes a monosynaptic reflex, not the term "neuroscience."; The definition does not match the requested term sense: the packet supports the descriptor 'Reflex, Monosynaptic,' not 'neuroscience.'; The definition is a one-sentence description of a reflex pathway, which is unrelated to the term 'neuroscience' as provided.; The supplied packet content is specifically about the reflex "MONOSYNAPTIC" (afferent neurons synapsing directly on efferent neurons without intercalated neurons), and provides no support that "neuroscience" is defined this way. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Reflex, Monosynaptic” (D012023).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012023) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- neurotherapy [redraft]: Near-empty definition; the packet never says what neurotherapy does beyond being grouped with psychosocial therapies. New packet required. Source: [Li Miaomiao; Miao Deyu; Mo Qingcong; Chen Qinghua; Lu Liming. Comparative efficacy of non-pharmacological interventions for individuals with cannabis use disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355941; article XML SHA-256 d56c49e9433ba9504bd814c3e55a683f741b0c0e12b2f800f6740f929b3c15f4. “Comparative efficacy of non-pharmacological interventions for individuals with cannabis use disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355941).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355941) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neurotic depression [redraft]: The packet supports that the term refers to depression “not psychotic,” but it does not support the claim that “Neurotic depression” is an “older term.”; “Older term” is not supported by the packet; the source only says it is “a term used for any state of depression that is not psychotic.” New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Neurotic Depression” (C35369).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- neutral color [redraft]: Hedges with 'in this attention-task context' to redefine a general headword as a task-specific cue type. New packet required. Source: [Barras Caroline; Kerzel Dirk. Nogo Stimuli Do Not Receive More Attentional Suppression or Response Inhibition than Neutral Stimuli: Evidence from the N2pc, P D , and N2 Components in a Spatial Cueing Paradigm. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00630; article XML SHA-256 e311ca5a80afb5060754ca519a0835913d1f82865399c71ca8573137f39dcdf0. “Nogo Stimuli Do Not Receive More Attentional Suppression or Response Inhibition than Neutral Stimuli: Evidence from the N2pc, P D , and N2 Components in a Spatial Cueing Paradigm” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00630).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00630) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- niacin [redraft]: Redefines the vitamin as 'the substance used to measure' a test, hedged by context, plus meta-commentary about the packet. New packet required. Source: [Lyu Xuening; Goperma Rimsa; Wang Dandan; Wan Chunling; Zhao Liang. An open dataset and machine learning algorithms for Niacin Skin-Flushing Response based screening of psychiatric disorders. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07196-2; article XML SHA-256 b5c6da785b93aa4c6772f202e660c793fc1445fa78a499c9ab90d1ca048dde28. “An open dataset and machine learning algorithms for Niacin Skin-Flushing Response based screening of psychiatric disorders” (10.1186/s12888-025-07196-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07196-2) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nicotine dependence [redraft]: Because the packet does not supply diagnostic-definition language for “nicotine dependence,” the overall definition is partly definitional rather than merely descriptive of what the packet covers (prevalence in schizophrenia and relevance to smoking cessation).; The claim that nicotine dependence is “most often through regular tobacco smoking” is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the source text.; The clause “most often through regular tobacco smoking” is not directly supported by wording in the packet (the packet reports high rates of regular tobacco smoking in schizophrenia, but does not define nicotine dependence as occurring “most often” through regular smoking).; The definition’s first substantive claim (“tobacco-related disorder” with a person dependent on nicotine) is not explicitly defined in the provided packet text; the packet discusses prevalence and studies of nicotine dependence but does not provide a definitional statement.; The packet supports nicotine dependence as a problem discussed in relation to schizophrenia and smoking cessation, but it does not define the disorder as a general tobacco-related diagnosis in the way the definition states. New packet required. Source: [Ward Heather Burrell; Brady Roscoe O.; Halko Mark A.; Lizano Paulo. Noninvasive Brain Stimulation for Nicotine Dependence in Schizophrenia: A Mini Review. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.824878; article XML SHA-256 b1f7ac5a1599a88991dce1bdfc291e8e6598a298347af43a998751fee3fceb0a. “Noninvasive Brain Stimulation for Nicotine Dependence in Schizophrenia: A Mini Review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.824878).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.824878) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nigrostriatal tract [redraft]: Because the core composition claim in the first sentence is not directly supported by the supplied text, the definition contains at least one unsupported substantive detail.; The definition claims the nigrostriatal tract is “made up of dopaminergic neurons,” but the packet only mentions that MPTP is “selective for dopaminergic neurons” and induces “nigrostriatal injury”; it does not explicitly state that the nigrostriatal tract itself is composed of dopaminergic neurons.; The packet does not explicitly define the nigrostriatal tract as being made up of dopaminergic neurons; it only says the tract’s diffusion values were compared in macaques with nigrostriatal injury induced by a toxin selective for dopaminergic neurons.; The second sentence is supportable, but the definition should not add an unsupported structural description beyond what the source states. New packet required. Source: [Shimony Joshua S; Rutlin Jerrel; Karimi Morvarid; Tian Linlin; Snyder Abraham Z; Loftin Susan K; Norris Scott A; Perlmutter Joel S. Validation of diffusion tensor imaging measures of nigrostriatal neurons in macaques. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0202201; article XML SHA-256 0e07a03afc330975c4b67ce3897776497c8f0266958ad9abd4d8511c4901b5ac. “Validation of diffusion tensor imaging measures of nigrostriatal neurons in macaques” (10.1371/journal.pone.0202201).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202201) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ninth cranial nerve [redraft]: The definition states that the ninth cranial nerve carries signals involved in swallowing; the packet describes motor fibers to the stylopharyngeus muscle but does not explicitly mention swallowing or swallowing-related functions.; “Salivary gland activity” is broader than the packet’s support for parasympathetic fibers to the parotid glands.; “Swallowing” is not stated in the packet; the source only supports motor fibers to the stylopharyngeus muscle, parasympathetic fibers to the parotid glands, and sensory/taste afferents from specified regions. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Glossopharyngeal Nerve” (D005930).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005930) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- nitrous oxide [redraft]: The definition claims that “in mental health-related contexts” nitrous oxide “may be referred to” for anti-anxiety/calming effects; the packet does not discuss mental health contexts or such referential use, only that nitrous oxide has analgesic, sedative, and anti-anxiety properties and has been studied for pain management in medical settings.; The packet supports nitrous oxide as an inhalational agent with analgesic, sedative, and anti-anxiety properties, but it does not support the added framing that it is referred to specifically in “mental health-related contexts.”; “Calming effects during medical procedures” is broader wording than the source supports; the packet mentions anti-anxiety properties and use in medical settings, but not a distinct mental-health usage. New packet required. Source: [Wang Ziyang; Wang Fei; Xing Yihui; Jiang Xiaochen; Ding Zhiguo; Li Yuxiang; Tang Lu. Efficacy of nitrous oxide in adults undergoing puncture biopsy: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0286713; article XML SHA-256 83acdc082df4e7651c4e7b40d9f1b7ca13dba86c3512353b6eb0f1bac8c55ecf. “Efficacy of nitrous oxide in adults undergoing puncture biopsy: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials” (10.1371/journal.pone.0286713).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286713) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nm [redraft]: The definition introduces a generic “radionuclide imaging” explanation, but the packet’s term is specifically “Radionuclide Imaging” and should not be treated as a psychology/counselling entry without clear field support.; The provided field is "mental health", but the packet only supports diagnostic imaging of cancer growth, trauma, infection, or degenerative disorders; it does not provide any mental-health context or application.; The requested field is mental health, but the packet identifies this as a diagnostic procedure, not a mental health term.; The term is given as "nm", but the packet content describes an imaging technique called "Radionuclide Imaging"; the definition does not establish what "nm" specifically refers to. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Radionuclide Imaging” (C62667).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- NMHA [redraft]: The definition adds interpretive detail (“unhealthy overactivity” and the broader-network mechanism) that is not stated in the supplied source text.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that NMHA operates “across broader brain networks” (it only states NMHA proposes exercise as a systemic regulator of LHb pathology, without detailing network scope beyond that).; The packet supports NMHA as the “Network-Mediated Habenular Attenuation” model and says it proposes exercise as a systemic regulator of lateral habenula pathology, but it does not support the added claim about “broader brain networks involved in depression.”; The packet supports that LHb hyperactivity is involved in depression (“pathological lateral habenula (LHb) hyperactivity”), but it does not explicitly phrase this as “unhealthy overactivity,” so that wording is not directly supported. New packet required. Source: [Ferreira-Vorkapic Camila; Ferreira Diego Moura; Coelho Renato Ramos; Wiech Monika Anna; Dantas Estélio Henrique Martin. Exercise-induced attenuation of the lateral habenula: a multi-axial quantitative synthesis of circuit-level resilience in depression. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1887822; article XML SHA-256 7fb7b8175c23591117d7dd9d38d6d960fb10602a6bd736e3617c96b9ae4991a9. “Exercise-induced attenuation of the lateral habenula: a multi-axial quantitative synthesis of circuit-level resilience in depression” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1887822).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1887822) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nocebo [redraft]: The packet supports nocebo effects in pain as being driven by negative expectations and involving anticipatory/top-down processing, but it does not define nocebo generally as a “harmful or symptom-worsening effect.”; The packet supports that nocebo effects on pain are driven by negative expectations and involve anticipatory/top-down processing that augments sensory perception, but it does not explicitly describe nocebo as a “harmful or symptom-worsening effect.”; The wording “can make pain feel stronger before the sensation occurs” goes beyond the packet’s phrasing; the source says top-down processes augment sensory perception based on negative expectations before sensation occurs, not that pain is made stronger in that exact sense. New packet required. Source: [Blythe Joseph S.; Peerdeman Kaya J.; Veldhuijzen Dieuwke S.; Karch Julian D.; Evers Andrea W. M.. Electrophysiological markers for anticipatory processing of nocebo-augmented pain. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288968; article XML SHA-256 915ae1ae0f7eef699f666e3c98506d6d7fd2f1846f03caf0f16fdf3f7d3827a6. “Electrophysiological markers for anticipatory processing of nocebo-augmented pain” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288968).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288968) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nociceptor [redraft]: The definition’s claim that a nociceptor “can be activated when depolarization reaches a high enough level to trigger action potentials” is not stated as a general definition in the packet. The packet discusses VGSC NaV1.7 facilitating action potential generation upon slow depolarization, but it does not describe this as the defining activation threshold for nociceptors.; The packet does not explicitly define a nociceptor as a “pain-related sensory nerve fiber.” It uses the term “nociceptors” and discusses relevance to pain clinically, but it does not provide that definitional phrasing.; The packet does not support the broad claim that nociceptors, as such, are C-fibers; it only mentions heat-mechanosensitive polymodal nociceptors (C-HT) in this study.; The packet supports a study of pig C-HT nociceptors/C-fibers, but it does not establish as a general source definition that nociceptors are pain-related sensory nerve fibers.; The parts of the definition about nociceptors being C-fibers and including heat- and mechanosensitive polymodal fibers are consistent with the packet, but the above unsupported definitional elements prevent a full pass. New packet required. Source: [Soares Sabrina; Schmelz Martin; Carr Richard; Sohns Kyra; Rukwied Roman. Assessing NaV1.7 during tonic firing in pig C-nociceptors. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335081; article XML SHA-256 7c80dc4ea310577fe6401f43555ac3adeca10c5fa2e6f4e6b03803996f3ffc98. “Assessing NaV1.7 during tonic firing in pig C-nociceptors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335081).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335081) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nocturnal myoclonus [redraft]: The definition includes “brief” jerks, but the packet does not describe them as brief.; The definition is a bit more interpretive than the source wording; the packet describes contractions of a muscle or group of muscles and does not specifically say “muscle jerks.”; The packet describes irregular rhythm and amplitude, but does not explicitly frame this as “vary in timing,” so that phrasing is not directly supported.; The packet excerpt does not explicitly state that the shock-like contractions occur “during the night,” even though it discusses “NOCTURNAL MYOCLONUS SYNDROME.”; The packet supports involuntary, shock-like contractions that are irregular in rhythm and amplitude and are followed by relaxation, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that they occur “during the night.” New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Myoclonus” (D009207).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009207) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- noise abatement [redraft]: Packet only mentions policymakers responsible for noise abatement; settings, purpose and policy-measure framing are added. New packet required. Source: [Klatte Maria; Bergström Kirstin; Lachmann Thomas. Does noise affect learning? A short review on noise effects on cognitive performance in children. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00578; article XML SHA-256 bb0d2920600e7ce510eaa39a152290fed22ebb16cbe6458ec063da6be3fde2fb. “Does noise affect learning? A short review on noise effects on cognitive performance in children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00578).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00578) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- noise dose [redraft]: The definition’s broad framing (“especially when discussing its effects on hearing”) is not stated as part of a term definition in the packet; hearing effects are discussed, but not as definitional context for the term.; The opening generalization (“the amount or level of noise exposure being received or given”) is broader than the packet supports; the source only refers to a single sub-traumatic noise dose used in an animal study.; The packet does not support the claim that “noise dose” is an amount/level of noise “being received or given” (the text only describes a specific experimental “sub-traumatic noise dose,” not both received/given in general).; The requested field is not well supported by the source text, which is a hearing/biomedical article rather than a social or counselling context. New packet required. Source: [Patel Sally; Shah Lisa; Dang Natalie; Tan Xiaodong; Almudevar Anthony; White Patricia M.. SIRT3 promotes auditory function in young adult FVB/nJ mice but is dispensable for hearing recovery after noise exposure. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0235491; article XML SHA-256 8c50395654582d963f33fd6bbdc0d926fc8540243c87988b7de36a3fd3305413. “SIRT3 promotes auditory function in young adult FVB/nJ mice but is dispensable for hearing recovery after noise exposure” (10.1371/journal.pone.0235491).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235491) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nomothetic [redraft]: Packet only says generalizability was conceived in nomothetic terms; the definition's content is inferred, not supported. New packet required. Source: [BMC: Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies. Version of record 2018-11-21; DOI 10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7. “Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency” (05ea0554db4e6d0f11b4).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- non-REM sleep [redraft]: Defines the term by a study's hypothesis and findings rather than what non-REM sleep is. New packet required. Source: [Steinig Jana; Bazan Ariane; Happe Svenja; Antonetti Sarah; Shevrin Howard. Processing of a Subliminal Rebus during Sleep: Idiosyncratic Primary versus Secondary Process Associations upon Awakening from REM- versus Non-REM-Sleep. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01955; article XML SHA-256 c9f475471ae617c779ef31c0e866a49f9aebb42f117e65bae5fcc53974cd8f69. “Processing of a Subliminal Rebus during Sleep: Idiosyncratic Primary versus Secondary Process Associations upon Awakening from REM- versus Non-REM-Sleep” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01955).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01955) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nonaccidental properties [redraft]: Packet gives no content; definition is a tautology built from 'shapes differed in nonaccidental properties', not the term's sense. New packet required. Source: [Kalfas Ioannis; Vinken Kasper; Vogels Rufin. Representations of regular and irregular shapes by deep Convolutional Neural Networks, monkey inferotemporal neurons and human judgments. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006557; article XML SHA-256 bd1a5d36e03d8fa47a70f42130d6362134e72597020975cf98201a5b17d83776. “Representations of regular and irregular shapes by deep Convolutional Neural Networks, monkey inferotemporal neurons and human judgments” (10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006557).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006557) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nonfluent aphasia [redraft]: The definition narrows the term to a specific subtype without support from the packet’s wording; the source only states that FTLD includes primary progressive nonfluent aphasia among its syndromes.; The definition’s wording “as supported here” for the equivalence between “nonfluent aphasia” and “primary progressive nonfluent aphasia” is not directly supported by the provided packet text.; The packet does not state that the term “nonfluent aphasia” (by itself) refers to “primary progressive nonfluent aphasia”; it only lists “PRIMARY PROGRESSIVE NONFLUENT APHASIA” as one syndrome within FTLD.; The packet supports PRIMARY PROGRESSIVE NONFLUENT APHASIA as a clinical syndrome within frontotemporal lobar degeneration, but it does not establish nonfluent aphasia itself as that exact term or synonym. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration” (D057174).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D057174) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- noninvasive [redraft]: Second sentence is meta-commentary about the packet, not a definition; outside-the-body sense is not in the packet. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: When Unwanted Thoughts or Repetitive Behaviors Take Over. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 55e1a877f9b3c1e5dfa4238ba211333dd27035fe9365df5859e35bec980907c0. “Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: When Unwanted Thoughts or Repetitive Behaviors Take Over” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-when-unwanted-thoughts-or-repetitive-behaviors-take-over).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-when-unwanted-thoughts-or-repetitive-behaviors-take-over) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- nonlinear transformation [redraft]: Hedged 'in this psychology context' to redefine a general term as the paper's passion/efficacy/satisfaction mechanism. New packet required. Source: [Kunyan Wang; Miao Tan. The threshold moderating effect of self-efficacy: a nonlinear transformation mechanism of work passion on job satisfaction among sports practitioners. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1667520; article XML SHA-256 f9f91eefd35f64875b4d05f9d15aba8ffa89ddb4f06bd5a9df18c55230ac643d. “The threshold moderating effect of self-efficacy: a nonlinear transformation mechanism of work passion on job satisfaction among sports practitioners” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1667520).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1667520) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nonlinear [redraft]: 'In learning and other natural systems' smuggles a learning frame the packet never mentions; field is wrong. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nonlinear Dynamics” (D017711).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D017711) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- nonmetric [redraft]: The definition’s specific examples (“anatomical tooth characteristics or anomalies instead of size-based measurements”) are only partially suggested by the source label; the packet text provided does not substantiate that “nonmetric” specifically corresponds to “instead of” numerical measurement.; The first sentence adds a general semantic definition that is not directly stated in the source packet.; The packet does not explicitly define “nonmetric” as features described by form/pattern/presence rather than numerical measurement.; The packet mentions “metric and nonmetric traits” of primary molars but does not provide a clear stated contrast with size-based or numerical measurement.; The packet supports that the term is used for anatomical dental traits or anomalies contrasted with metric traits, but it does not explicitly define nonmetric as features described by form, pattern, or presence rather than numerical measurement. New packet required. Source: [Ghorbanyjavadpour Fataneh; Jamali Kosar; Roayaei Ardakani Maryam; Rakhshan Vahid. Morphometric variations and nonmetric anatomical traits or anomalies of the primary molar teeth, plus the molars' size thresholds for sex identification. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12903-024-03908-4; article XML SHA-256 5213a690a8f5bab71581d072d3c8ee706128ae9c96251fa2a05ffad70efe269a. “Morphometric variations and nonmetric anatomical traits or anomalies of the primary molar teeth, plus the molars' size thresholds for sex identification” (10.1186/s12903-024-03908-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-024-03908-4) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nonprobability sampling [redraft]: The claim that ‘extra methods may be needed to support valid population-level conclusions’ is not stated in the packet; the packet only says poststratification can improve or support valid population-level inferences from nonprobability samples.; The packet does not state or explicitly support the claim that nonprobability sampling “does not rely on probability-based selection.”; The packet supports nonprobability samples/designs and mentions convenience samples and cohort studies, but it does not explicitly define nonprobability sampling as participant selection that ‘does not rely on probability-based selection.’; The rest of the definition (mention of convenience samples and cohort studies, and the idea that additional methods like poststratification relate to making population-level/external-validity inferences from nonprobability samples) is broadly consistent with the packet, but the missing support for the probability-based selection aspect is substantive. New packet required. Source: [Oh Yeon Woo; Lee Dongkyu; Cho Jaelim; Kim Changsoo; Kim Kyoung-Nam. A causal inference framework for poststratification: a method for improving external validity in epidemiological studies. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12874-026-02835-y; article XML SHA-256 fe8f10a4a8696b41c389f96e817901559546659e2f612a52c1fbc414e917548b. “A causal inference framework for poststratification: a method for improving external validity in epidemiological studies” (10.1186/s12874-026-02835-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-026-02835-y) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nonresponse [redraft]: Overall, the definition’s substantive explanations about meaning and implications are not supported by the provided packet.; The packet does not state that nonresponse is treated as a methodological weakness in social/educational research.; The packet does not support the claim that nonresponse can leave the evidence “less complete.”; The packet mentions “nonresponse” as a limitation highlighted by MMAT findings, but it does not define nonresponse as participants failing to respond or failing to provide usable information.; The packet only mentions nonresponse as a limitation in the reviewed studies; it does not define the term as people failing to respond or provide usable data.; The statement that nonresponse is a methodological weakness because it leaves the evidence less complete goes beyond the packet’s wording and adds an unsupported general explanation. New packet required. Source: [Yao Yao. Teacher resilience and adaptation in digital teaching contexts: a systematic review of research trends, psychological constructs, and evidence gaps. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1950412; article XML SHA-256 6003408b80e6f828cb0a8f2f82164e77e9c774b0a509064cdddb592f3e7cf56e. “Teacher resilience and adaptation in digital teaching contexts: a systematic review of research trends, psychological constructs, and evidence gaps” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1950412).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1950412) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug [redraft]: The definition conflates the drug term with the delivery formulation (describing the NSAID as “incorporated into a biodegradable hydrogel”); the packet supports the delivery system, but not a term-level definition of NSAIDs themselves.; The definition narrows the term to the study’s ibuprofen-loaded hydrogel context rather than defining the general class of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.; The packet does not provide a definition of “nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug” as a pharmacologic class; it only uses ibuprofen as a model NSAID for delivery in a hydrogel.; The packet supports that ibuprofen was used as a model NSAID in a biodegradable hydrogel for pH-responsive, diffusion-controlled release, but it does not support redefining NSAID as the incorporated hydrogel formulation itself. New packet required. Source: [Matalqah Sina M; Singamaneni Venkata Ramana; Jahnavi Patibandla; Hani Umme; Fatima Farhat; Vodeti Rajeshwar; Gupta Prem Shankar; Duza Mohammad Badrud; Amin Md Al. Bio-waste derived fluorescent carbon dots based biodegradable mechanically strong hydrogel for stimuli-responsive nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) delivery. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340974; article XML SHA-256 ae7aa788b67d0e6e169a32dd49fd76e17cade6263061b2d32dcede00379c3826. “Bio-waste derived fluorescent carbon dots based biodegradable mechanically strong hydrogel for stimuli-responsive nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) delivery” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340974).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340974) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- norm [redraft]: The definition claims that norms can be followed to “simplify choices,” but the packet only mentions motives of “gaining or avoiding (dis)approval” and an “adaptive heuristic,” plus emotion regulation; “simplify choices” is not supported by the packet.; The packet supports social norms as influences on decision-making, including gaining or avoiding approval, serving as an adaptive heuristic, and reducing negative emotions under uncertainty, but it does not define a norm as a “shared expectation” or “common pattern of behavior.”; The requested sense is about social norms in decision-making; the definition adds a generalized dictionary-style definition that is not directly supported by the supplied source packet. New packet required. Source: [Bergquist Magnus; Ekelund Malin. The role of emotion regulation in normative influence under uncertainty. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03033-z; article XML SHA-256 3fe6bc204acaab0729d442779e188f742cc6192010f82b5d25b249a09dee42cc. “The role of emotion regulation in normative influence under uncertainty” (10.1186/s40359-025-03033-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03033-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- normal distribution [redraft]: 'Bell-shaped' is added; the packet never states the shape label. Everything else matches. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Normal Distribution” (D016011).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016011) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- normative [redraft]: The definition adds a general psychology-research sense that is broader than the source text, which only describes the study’s normative affective ratings for one participant group.; The definition’s first sentence claims a general meaning of “normative” as data collected from a defined reference group to serve as a comparison standard; the provided packet does not state or support that general definition.; The packet supports a specific use of “normative” for affective ratings from middle-aged to older adults with normal hearing, but it does not support the broader dictionary claim that normative means data collected from a defined reference group to serve as a comparison standard.; The second sentence’s claim that the context involves typical affective ratings provided by middle-aged to older adults with normal hearing is broadly supported by the packet, but the overall definition still fails because the first sentence is unsupported. New packet required. Source: [Lelic Dina; Marmel Frederic. Normative emotional responses to environmental sounds in middle-aged to older adults with normal hearing: Stimuli from the Marcell database. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356295; article XML SHA-256 78cd23905e7f8e8bc5a333db92a6cac15ca8e078e71ece34edb4c0c8442c1fda. “Normative emotional responses to environmental sounds in middle-aged to older adults with normal hearing: Stimuli from the Marcell database” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356295).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356295) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- not otherwise specified [redraft]: The claim that the diagnosis is used for patients “considered outside the bipolar disorder and schizophrenia spectrum categories being compared” is not stated in the packet and overinterprets the comparison groups.; The definition’s framing about being “outside” those categories is an unsupported inference beyond the provided text.; The packet does not state that PNOS is used to label patients “considered outside the bipolar disorder and schizophrenia spectrum categories.” It only says PNOS is compared to bipolar disorder and schizophrenia spectrum diagnoses.; The packet supports the specific diagnosis “psychotic disorder not otherwise specified (PNOS),” but not the standalone term “not otherwise specified” as that diagnosis.; The statement that the clinical presentations under this diagnosis are “not yet well understood” is broadly supported by the packet’s “lack of knowledge” wording, but the definition adds unsupported specificity beyond the source text. New packet required. Source: [Widing Line; Simonsen Carmen; Flaaten Camilla B.; Haatveit Beathe; Vik Ruth Kristine; Wold Kristin F.; Åsbø Gina; Ueland Torill; Melle Ingrid. Symptom Profiles in Psychotic Disorder Not Otherwise Specified. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.580444; article XML SHA-256 6d51b7ea4dc48fa1a276ef1f4728610aa3f286656087daab98ec2361434f2b39. “Symptom Profiles in Psychotic Disorder Not Otherwise Specified” (10.3389/fpsyt.2020.580444).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.580444) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- novelty [redraft]: Because the central descriptive phrasing about novelty’s effect (“quality of newness,” “attracts attention,” “arouses curiosity”) is not supported by the provided text, the requested sense of the term is not adequately evidenced.; The contrast in the source is between curiosity/interest in novelty and learning “for the sake of information,” but the definition adds interpretive wording that is not stated in the packet.; The packet distinguishes curiosity from “interest in novelty (Neugier)” and contrasts that with learning “for the sake of information” (Wissbegier), but it does not define novelty as a “quality of newness.”; The packet does not define novelty as “the quality of newness that attracts attention and arouses curiosity or interest”; it only mentions “interest in novelty” as one of two cases under curiosity.; The packet does not explicitly state that novelty “attracts attention and arouses curiosity or interest”; it only labels one case as “interest in novelty (Neugier)” without describing it in those terms. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Curiosity” (Curiosity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C5defs.htm#Curiosity) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- NPC [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet describes “no-prevention couples (NPC)” as a category/type of HIV-serodiscordant heterosexual couples (defined by partners’ serostatus and “no-prevention” context), not as a diagnostic term.; Some elements are only indirectly supported: the packet mentions “psychopathology,” “illness behaviors,” and “psychosocial factors” related to transmission of sexually transmitted diseases, but does not explicitly define NPC as being used specifically to examine “mental health factors” (as distinct from psychopathology) in the way the definition states.; The definition adds a broader framing about “mental health factors linked to sexual health risk” that is only loosely supported; the packet specifically mentions psychosocial factors, health behaviors, psychopathology, and STD transmission, not that exact usage.; The requested field is not defensible here: NPC in the packet is a study abbreviation for “no-prevention couples,” not a diagnosis term. New packet required. Source: [Lazzari Carlo; Rees Jon; Graham Yitka; Owens Rebecca. Psychiatric comorbidities and sexual health risks in HIV-serodiscordant heterosexual couples involving women with borderline personality disorder: a mixed-method study and theoretical modeling. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1775933; article XML SHA-256 14d6422ff5e1b0df36b2cfb4b08008fd6ea7f10a28220ae9a3834efff9643c3c. “Psychiatric comorbidities and sexual health risks in HIV-serodiscordant heterosexual couples involving women with borderline personality disorder: a mixed-method study and theoretical modeling” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1775933).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1775933) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- NREM sleep [redraft]: The first sentence asserts a definition (“NREM sleep is … a sleep–wake state described as being under neural regulation”), but the packet does not provide an explicit definitional description of NREM sleep in those terms; it only discusses neural circuits involved in sleep–wake regulation.; The packet supports that NREM sleep is non-rapid eye movement sleep and that activation of the SCN–HDB pathway increased NREM sleep during the dark phase in mice, but it does not support the added characterization that NREM sleep is a sleep–wake state "described as being under neural regulation."; The requested field is "learning," but the supplied source is a sleep/neuroscience article rather than a learning-related psychology/counselling sense, so the field is not defensible from the packet.; The second sentence’s specific claim about increased NREM sleep during the dark phase in mice via activation of the SCN→HDB pathway is supported, but the overall definition is not purely grounded in the packet because the definitional portion goes beyond what is stated. New packet required. Source: [Chen Lei; Chen Changfeng; Jin Qiaoling; Liang Yue; Wu Jian; Zhang Pingping; Cheng Juan; Wang Liecheng. Efferent pathways from the suprachiasmatic nucleus to the horizontal limbs of diagonal band promote NREM sleep during the dark phase in mice. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12868-024-00881-0; article XML SHA-256 d42a79cd75fada762334fb3f514a0db872cce04731a951bf96ae9d0c0a0f8c7e. “Efferent pathways from the suprachiasmatic nucleus to the horizontal limbs of diagonal band promote NREM sleep during the dark phase in mice” (10.1186/s12868-024-00881-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-024-00881-0) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nuclear magnetic resonance [redraft]: Redefines a general term as a geophysical groundwater method the packet happens to discuss. New packet required. Source: [Chen Hanbo; Xiong Bin; Zhang Chi; Cheng Ziyu. A high precision finite-element forward solver for surface nuclear magnetic resonance incorporating conductivity changes and surface-topography variations. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0264235; article XML SHA-256 10ee337d8da2c62e5a4d972c169246b66e3adc6a12e322e1ffcdd99ccf4e1330. “A high precision finite-element forward solver for surface nuclear magnetic resonance incorporating conductivity changes and surface-topography variations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0264235).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264235) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nuclei [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported biological generalization: the packet discusses nuclei in histology images, but does not define nuclei as the central structures within cells.; The definition claims that nuclei are “central structures within cells”; the provided packet describes nuclei regions in histology images but does not state that nuclei are central structures within cells.; The packet does support automated detection/segmentation and classification of nuclei in histopathology images for cancer detection, but the unsupported “central structures within cells” component makes the overall definition not fully supported by the packet.; The wording narrows to a clinical image-analysis context that is only indirectly supported; the packet supports automated segmentation/classification of nuclei for cancer detection, but not a general dictionary-style definition of nuclei itself. New packet required. Source: [Chowdhury Anjir Ahmed; Mahmud S M Hasan; Uddin Md Palash; Kadry Seifedine; Kim Jung-Yeon; Nam Yunyoung. Nuclei segmentation and classification from histopathology images using federated learning for end-edge platform. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322749; article XML SHA-256 e4c2e63a4a2d12d9d8c65786226df6d6ac7528e174afb6056bdd2220933aec8d. “Nuclei segmentation and classification from histopathology images using federated learning for end-edge platform” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322749).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322749) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nucleus accumbens [redraft]: 'Front lower part of the lateral ventricle' misrenders 'caudal part of the anterior horn'; location claim is wrong. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Nucleus Accumbens” (D009714).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009714) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- null hypothesis significance testing [redraft]: Core meaning not in packet, and a critique is recast as how the method is 'often used' in practice. New packet required. Source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- null result [redraft]: The definition adds a general explanatory gloss beyond the packet’s specific study context, so it is slightly overgeneralized for the supplied source.; The packet supports a null result as no evidence for an expected effect in this study, but it does not support the broader wording about a missing “relationship.”; The packet supports that a null result means no evidence for the expected effect (e.g., “There was no evidence for either effect”), but the definition adds “measurement limits,” which is not mentioned in the packet. The packet only specifies alternative explanations including “reduced statistical power” and “enhanced floor or ceiling effects,” not measurement limits.; “Measurement limits” is not supported by the packet; it only mentions reduced statistical power and floor/ceiling effects as alternative explanations that were ruled out. New packet required. Source: [Makin Alexis David James; Rahman Afzal; Bertamini Marco. No effect of multi-axis dot pattern symmetry on subjective duration. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0238554; article XML SHA-256 8f950963476e5f814749fd02f1fe8cc7b21c079e3281867d069cee76d99ddd21. “No effect of multi-axis dot pattern symmetry on subjective duration” (10.1371/journal.pone.0238554).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238554) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- numerosity perception [redraft]: Because the above parts are not directly supported, the requested sense of the term is not defensibly supported by the supplied source packet.; The definition slightly broadens the source by presenting the concept as a general ability; the packet only describes a simplest model of numerosity perception and does not define the term in that way.; The definition’s claim that it “refers to estimating number rather than simply counting one by one” is not supported by the packet, which does not contrast perception with estimation in those terms (it contrasts Weber’s law vs a counting model).; The packet does not explicitly support the definition’s framing of numerosity perception as an “ability to perceive” number of items/events; it only discusses a “simplest model… one that counts the number of items… (or events in a period of time).”; The packet supports numerosity perception as counting items in a region of space or events in a period of time, but it does not support the added claim that this term specifically means estimating number rather than counting one by one. New packet required. Source: [Yago Malo Jorge; Cicchini Guido Marco; Morrone Maria Concetta; Chiofalo Maria Luisa. Quantum spin models for numerosity perception. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0284610; article XML SHA-256 218fb8a55cb7c7df4a650dab13e630029a565b1da1a5db530f747b33b4d2bf47. “Quantum spin models for numerosity perception” (10.1371/journal.pone.0284610).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284610) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- nursing [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence includes an unsupported meaning (“feeding a baby with breast milk”) that is not present in the packet.; The medication-risk explanation is a usage note, not a definition of the term itself, so the definition overstates the supported sense.; The packet does not define “nursing” as feeding a baby with breast milk; it only uses “nursing” as a status (“pregnant or nursing”) in relation to medication exposure.; The packet uses “nursing” only as a status mentioned alongside pregnancy; it does not define the term as feeding a baby with breast milk.; “Period after pregnancy” is not supported by the source and narrows the sense beyond what is stated. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Perinatal Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 da7c7019e90c70c4e547cffa57eb80d317ecfea814e3e8f0f83cec7e04211841. “Perinatal Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/perinatal-depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/perinatal-depression) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- objective indicator [redraft]: The definition slightly generalizes beyond the packet by presenting a general definition of the term rather than the packet-specific sense only.; The definition’s first sentence gives a general characterization (“measurable sign… without relying on subjective judgment”) that is not stated in the packet.; The packet specifically ties “objective indicator” to distortion-product otoacoustic emissions being an objective indicator of normally functioning cochlear outer hair cells, but it does not support the broader general description in the definition’s first sentence.; The packet supports that distortion-product otoacoustic emissions are an objective indicator of normally functioning cochlear outer hair cells, but it does not explicitly support the broader gloss that an objective indicator is a measurable sign from a test that assesses bodily function without relying on subjective judgment. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Distortion Product Otoacoustic Emissions” (C184951).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- objective reference [redraft]: Contains corrupted non-English text ('գնահատed'); fails plain-words form. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Opinion (in philosophy)” (Opinion (in philosophy)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O1defs.htm#Opinion (in philosophy)) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- objective set [redraft]: Not a term; 'objective set by the WHO' is a phrase fragment, and the field is unrelated. New packet required. Source: [Carrera-Bravo Claudia; Zhou Tianchi; Chu Trang; Hang Jing Wen; Modh Harshvardhan; Huang Chenyuan; Zhang Sitong; Hao Haining; Cabada-García María José; Malleret Benoit; Wacker Matthias G.; Wang Jiong-Wei; Rénia Laurent; Tan Kevin S. W.. Chloroquine induces eryptosis in P. falciparum -infected red blood cells and the release of extracellular vesicles with a unique protein profile. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fcimb.2025.1553123; article XML SHA-256 fa0cb3ecbab02fe210a0ecf246900c4208078fc098e41de7fb950209e3d7aff4. “Chloroquine induces eryptosis in P. falciparum -infected red blood cells and the release of extracellular vesicles with a unique protein profile” (10.3389/fcimb.2025.1553123).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2025.1553123) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- objective [redraft]: The definition refers to “agreement within and across studies,” while the packet emphasizes “methodological rigor and consistency” and “objective and reproducible behavioural classifications” but does not explicitly use or support the specific notion of “agreement.”; The definition states that objectivity is achieved by avoiding dependence on “a researcher's personal judgment,” but the packet does not explicitly mention personal judgment as the contrast.; The packet mentions rigor and consistency, but not 'agreement within and across studies,' so that part is an unsupported generalization.; The packet supports a standardized, objective, reproducible procedure for behavioural classification, but it does not support the added claim that the methods work by avoiding a researcher's personal judgment. New packet required. Source: [Brotier Héloïse; Alba-Gonzalez Pablo; Kannan Prameek; Geffen Eli; Ilany Amiyaal; Koren Lee. Developing objective tools to study rock hyrax ( Procavia capensis ) behaviour in the field. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343302; article XML SHA-256 ae8137704455f3501d329489eeb574a2deced9ba359c6d9898ba3b7faeaa70fb. “Developing objective tools to study rock hyrax ( Procavia capensis ) behaviour in the field” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343302).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343302) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- objectivity [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the source by generalizing from one EEG application to a general psychology definition of objectivity without support in the packet.; The definition’s first sentence defines objectivity as directly reflecting a person’s state rather than depending on subjective reporting, but the packet does not provide that conceptual definition or any explanation comparing objective methods to subjective reporting.; The packet only states that EEG emotion recognition has “strong objectivity and non-forgery.” The definition’s specific phrasing that it is “meaning it is harder to fake” is an unsupported interpretation beyond the packet’s wording.; The packet refers to objectivity specifically in the context of “EEG emotion recognition,” but the definition presents the concept more generally (“in this psychology context”) without support for the broader/general meaning.; The packet supports that EEG emotion recognition is described as having “strong objectivity” and “non-forgery,” but it does not support the added explanation that this means the method reflects a person’s state “in a more direct way” than subjective reporting. New packet required. Source: [Li Jingjing; Liu Xinqi; Wu Xia; Wang Ya; Huang Xin. DSP-MCF: dual stream pre-training and multi-view consistency fine-tuning for cross-subject EEG emotion recognition. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1723907; article XML SHA-256 204fc8ccd4d23bd8dab9528e4f3ab20b637ea00f444a8ef187282dfbddc02770. “DSP-MCF: dual stream pre-training and multi-view consistency fine-tuning for cross-subject EEG emotion recognition” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1723907).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1723907) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- oblique [redraft]: Because the definition includes the unsupported characterization (“slanted or angled”), the overall definition is not fully supported by the provided packet.; The packet supports the specific phrase “obturator oblique radiographic imaging/view,” but it does not explicitly define “oblique” as a generally “slanted or angled radiographic view.”; The packet text supports that “obturator oblique radiographic imaging” is used to evaluate posterior column screws penetration and concerns the acetabulum, but it does not support the claim that “oblique refers to a slanted or angled radiographic view.”; The statement that this is used to assess the acetabulum and posterior column screws is supported, but the broader definitional gloss goes beyond what the packet states. New packet required. Source: [Li Hongtao; Xu Li; An Longxin; Li Xiaojing; Zhang Linjing; Liu Jun; Zhai Kaili; Sun Xuecheng; Feng Naibo. Utilization of the posterior iliac line for visualizing posterior column screws in obturator oblique view. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347522; article XML SHA-256 bac9b58db898e11f058765a780b18563231af7269f29b431aaf77fc4bc8e5d7b. “Utilization of the posterior iliac line for visualizing posterior column screws in obturator oblique view” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347522).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347522) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- observer bias [redraft]: The definition adds a general explanation of the term that is not supported by the supplied source text.; The packet does not support the specific claim that observer bias arises from “judgments or expectations of the person observing performance.” It only mentions “minimize observer bias” in relation to digitally obtained metrics.; The packet only supports that digitally obtained metrics may help minimize observer bias; it does not define observer bias as a distortion caused by an observer’s judgments or expectations.; The second sentence goes beyond the packet’s wording by claiming automatically recorded digital measures can help reduce the bias; the source only says to integrate digitally obtained metrics to minimize observer bias, without specifying automation or the mechanism.; While the packet supports the general idea that digitally obtained measures can help minimize observer bias, it does not explicitly support the rest of the definition’s phrasing or the full description of the distortion mechanism. New packet required. Source: [Koedijk Matthijs; Landman Annemarie; Bottenheft Charelle; Fonken Yvonne M; Binsch Olaf. A virtual reality test to evaluate dismounted soldiers’ cognitive and psychomotor performance in an operationally relevant setting. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1540936; article XML SHA-256 bf09c7f83f6c5145da8a99b71a5901275bfc6112ea2310f504780c94039d8565. “A virtual reality test to evaluate dismounted soldiers’ cognitive and psychomotor performance in an operationally relevant setting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1540936).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1540936) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Occupational Safety and Health Administration [redraft]: The definition adds functional claims about OSHA’s role in evaluating protective equipment that are not stated in the supplied text.; The packet does not support the claim that, “In this context, it serves as a standard-setting body for evaluating protective equipment used on the job.”; The packet only states that subjects performed an “Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)-accepted quantitative fit test”; it does not define OSHA as a “workplace safety and health authority.”; The packet only supports that the study used an OSHA-accepted quantitative fit test; it does not support the broader characterization of OSHA as a workplace safety and health authority or standard-setting body in this context. New packet required. Source: [Strickling Maddison; Zarif Nasheed; Nguyen Hoang; Moradi Khalaj Samira; MacIntyre C Raina; Packard Robert; Selvaduray Guna; Wang Yun. A comparison of fit, heat stress, oxygen saturation and comfort between a novel reusable mask and disposable N95 respirator. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321538; article XML SHA-256 b55619b0e289414eea7cfb56791550ccbb26d473afca7be986be98b46ac2a22f. “A comparison of fit, heat stress, oxygen saturation and comfort between a novel reusable mask and disposable N95 respirator” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321538).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321538) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- occupational status [redraft]: The first sentence is only indirectly supported: the packet refers to “occupational stratification” and “occupational status groups,” but does not explicitly define occupational status as a person’s standing within a social ranking of jobs or occupations.; The packet does not explicitly define “occupational status” as “a person’s standing within the social ranking of jobs or occupations.”; The packet does not explicitly state that occupational status is “used as an indicator of socioeconomic position” (it discusses socioeconomic pathways, but not the definitional use as an indicator).; The second sentence overgeneralizes beyond the packet by stating that occupational status is used as an indicator of socioeconomic position; the packet supports links with health inequality, mortality risk, and intergenerational transmission, but does not explicitly support that definitional role.; While the packet supports that occupational status relates to health outcomes/mortality risks and can transmit disparities intergenerationally, those parts alone do not fully substantiate the definition’s first two sentences. New packet required. Source: [Li Qingxia; Li Yingji. Occupational status and health disparities among workers—An empirical study based on China health and nutrition survey data. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324144; article XML SHA-256 11a9a2cf9fab893ed04b2f5155aea48f9ca6b9f562b68c9946461ccab8d17aae. “Occupational status and health disparities among workers—An empirical study based on China health and nutrition survey data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324144).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324144) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Od [redraft]: Headword 'Od' (capital O, lowercase d) is not the degree abbreviation OD; definition fits a different headword. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Doctor of Optometry” (C39384).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- odds [redraft]: The definition’s explanatory phrasing (“in this context… associated with a higher chance of those problems”) is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet provides no wording equivalent to this general interpretation.; The packet does not define the term “odds” as “how likely an outcome is to happen.” It only uses the phrase “increase the odds of depression and stress” in a study context.; The packet supports the term only in a research-usage context (“increase the odds of depression and stress”); it does not support the broader definitional claim that odds means how likely an outcome is to happen.; The response adds an explanatory gloss about depression/stress risk that is not directly defined in the source packet. New packet required. Source: [Bae Yujin; Song Ye-Seul; Park Eun Hee; Hong Hyun Ju; Kim Hyewon. Associations of weight change with perceived stress and depression: a nationwide population-based study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1941947; article XML SHA-256 a496d6144e19d2d4b9c9c5dcc88b93b5d98dda5bd83763e4bd348abc94d739c2. “Associations of weight change with perceived stress and depression: a nationwide population-based study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1941947).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1941947) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- off response [redraft]: The packet does not say that an off response is the retinal signal occurring when a light stimulus ends; that temporal definition is unsupported.; The packet does not support the claim that an “off response” is “the retinal signal that occurs when a light stimulus ends.” It only discusses an “OFF-response in the electroretinogram (ERG)” in the context of evaluating OFF-pathway functions, without defining the stimulus-ending condition.; The source only supports a positive OFF-response in the electroretinogram and its relation to the OFF pathway, not a broader definitional statement about the response itself.; While the packet mentions a “positive OFF-response in the electroretinogram (ERG)” and relates it to evaluating “OFF-pathway functions,” it does not explicitly state that this is “linked to the retina’s OFF pathway” in the same definitional way used by the definition (it is only implied by the study’s purpose). New packet required. Source: [Lei Bo. Rod-Driven OFF Pathway Responses in the Distal Retina: Dark-Adapted Flicker Electroretinogram in Mouse. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0043856; article XML SHA-256 057f5544feff2286217f6bf537d671f0bf6df4d2f5b1f5bb19961d0c4376d026. “Rod-Driven OFF Pathway Responses in the Distal Retina: Dark-Adapted Flicker Electroretinogram in Mouse” (10.1371/journal.pone.0043856).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0043856) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- officer training [redraft]: Hedged 'in this context' to narrow a general headword to one police anti-stigma programme. New packet required. Source: [Hansson Lars; Markström Urban. The effectiveness of an anti-stigma intervention in a basic police officer training programme: a controlled study. 2014; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-14-55; article XML SHA-256 ab6bfacf08f96403d18828c9b78256e00bb7ada3ced84354dd754b3a2af66a0b. “The effectiveness of an anti-stigma intervention in a basic police officer training programme: a controlled study” (10.1186/1471-244x-14-55).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-14-55) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- olfactory brain [redraft]: The definition adds that the term refers to “brain areas involved in processing smell-related input,” but the packet only states that these basal forebrain and medial temporal lobe areas “receive synaptic inputs from the OLFACTORY BULB,” without mentioning processing of smell-related information.; The final sentence adds a functional gloss (“involved in processing smell-related input”) that is not stated in the source packet.; “Inner part of the temporal lobe” is a looser rewording than the packet’s “medial part of temporal lobe areas,” so the anatomy is not stated with full precision. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Olfactory Cortex” (D066194).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066194) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- olfactory encoding [redraft]: The definition’s claim that the receptors “make sensory neurons respond specifically to different chemicals” is only indirectly supported by the packet’s statement about specificity of olfactory sensory neuron responses; the “different chemicals” phrasing is not clearly stated in that form.; The field requested is “learning,” but the packet describes chemosensory receptor characterization and insect behaviors (host preference, mate choice, oviposition) rather than learning processes.; The packet does not explicitly define “olfactory encoding” as an information-representation mechanism; it only states that odor detection is mediated by odorant/ionotropic receptors and that these ensure specificity of olfactory sensory neuron responses, which does not directly support the wording about “represented … by the smell system.”; The packet says antennal olfaction mediates behaviors such as host preference, mate choice, and oviposition site selection, but it does not state that olfactory encoding itself is linked to those behaviors, so that connection is unsupported.; The packet supports olfactory receptors and odor-specific sensory neuron responses, but it does not define “olfactory encoding” as the general representation of odor information by the smell system in those terms; that framing is an extrapolation. New packet required. Source: [Cao Depan; Liu Yang; Walker William B.; Li Jianhong; Wang Guirong. Molecular Characterization of the Aphis gossypii Olfactory Receptor Gene Families. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0101187; article XML SHA-256 fb2df84540270d0068681a7a9300c976f947cdd59a768021cf1fcc0caada0d15. “Molecular Characterization of the Aphis gossypii Olfactory Receptor Gene Families” (10.1371/journal.pone.0101187).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0101187) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- olfactory tubercle [redraft]: Packet says rostral to the piriform area; definition says above it, a wrong spatial relation. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Olfactory Tubercle” (D066208).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066208) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- one-shot case study [redraft]: Although the second sentence is supported (one semester of teaching/practicing transcreation with an online questionnaire administered afterward), the first sentence contains substantive generic wording not explicitly supported by the packet.; The definition claims that a one-shot case study is “a simple research design” and describes it generically as involving “a single teaching or intervention trial.” The packet only states that “a one-shot case study was adopted” and describes a specific implementation (a one-semester teaching trial followed by an online questionnaire); it does not support the generic characterization “simple research design” or the broader definition phrasing beyond the described context.; The field label is not directly supported by the source text, which is about translator training and translation studies rather than cognition; while it may be adjacent, the packet does not establish a cognition sense for the term.; The packet supports that the study used a one-shot case study with a one-semester trial followed by an online questionnaire, but it does not support the broader definitional claim that this is a “simple research design” with a general pre/post structure; that is an unsupported generalization from the source packet alone.; The source does not say the design was used to evaluate the “effects” of transcreation training. It reports students’ overall perceptions, awareness, and confidence after the trial, so the effect-focused wording is unsupported. New packet required. Source: [Zhu Minghai. Sustainability of translator training in higher education. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0283522; article XML SHA-256 2372fcc78d2584d044f46f088d87f7e60b75e40235f4997c73e229cb6fd55097. “Sustainability of translator training in higher education” (10.1371/journal.pone.0283522).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283522) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- one-trial learning [redraft]: The definition’s claim about performance “changing immediately” and “instead of building up gradually across repeated trials” goes beyond what is stated in the provided text.; The packet supports that the auto-shaped bees showed “one-trial learning” and contrasts this with an “asymptotic approach to a maximal efficiency,” but it does not explicitly define “one-trial learning” as learning appearing after a single experience/trial or as performance changing immediately.; The packet uses the term in an example (“Auto-shaped bees showed one-trial learning”) but does not itself define it as learning after a single experience or training trial.; “slowly approaching maximum efficiency” goes beyond the packet’s wording; the source only contrasts one-trial learning with an asymptotic approach to maximal performance, not a general definition of efficiency. New packet required. Source: [Abramson Charles I; Dinges Christopher W; Wells Harrington. Operant Conditioning in Honey Bees ( Apis mellifera L.): The Cap Pushing Response. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0162347; article XML SHA-256 4277598507c3cbf0e41236779623baaae02d7bdbd2e04d043094520ba5457e4b. “Operant Conditioning in Honey Bees ( Apis mellifera L.): The Cap Pushing Response” (10.1371/journal.pone.0162347).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162347) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- on–off cell [redraft]: The definition adds a generalized cell-state description (“high expression of a regulator” / “low expression”) that is not stated that way in the packet; the packet supports ON and OFF subpopulations tied specifically to RovA and invasiveness/virulence, not this broader formulation.; The definition’s example phrasing (“ON state with high expression of a regulator or an OFF state with low expression”) is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text (the packet mentions RovA ON/OFF subpopulations and high-/low-invasive subpopulations, but does not state that ON/OFF corresponds directly to high vs low regulator expression).; The packet is about bacterial virulence regulation, not the requested psychology/counselling field of learning, so the field is not defensible here.; The provided field is “learning,” but the packet describes a bacterial thermoresponsive bistable switch controlling virulence; this is not supported as belonging to “learning.” New packet required. Source: [Nuss Aaron Mischa; Schuster Franziska; Roselius Louisa; Klein Johannes; Bücker René; Herbst Katharina; Heroven Ann Kathrin; Pisano Fabio; Wittmann Christoph; Münch Richard; Müller Johannes; Jahn Dieter; Dersch Petra. A Precise Temperature-Responsive Bistable Switch Controlling Yersinia Virulence. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006091; article XML SHA-256 50ad4c5fdee6b50fb6e0b0a4b8709b304648fdbb67ac08f56f8712c04fbdf880. “A Precise Temperature-Responsive Bistable Switch Controlling Yersinia Virulence” (10.1371/journal.ppat.1006091).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1006091) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- oocyte [redraft]: The definition adds a broad characterization of how oocytes are studied; the packet specifically reports an experiment on in vitro maturation under methylglyoxal stress and punicic acid treatment, not a general counseling/mental-health sense of the term.; The provided source packet describes in vitro oocyte and embryo development under dicarbonyl (methylglyoxal) stress and antioxidant (punicic acid) effects; it does not provide any mental-health/psychology framing or relevance, so the requested field (“mental health”) is not defensible.; The requested field is mental health, but the packet is a reproductive biology study about mouse oocytes, so the entry is not defensible for this field. New packet required. Source: [Ronasi Shahrzad; Mahdavi Amir Hossein; Varnosfaderani Shiva Rouhollahi; Kowsar Rasoul; Jafarpour Farnoosh; Nasr-Esfahani Mohammad Hossein. Punicic acid alleviates methylglyoxal-induced oocyte dysfunction during in vitro maturation in mouse species. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314602; article XML SHA-256 89d8d0caeedaf098db68a874331eacc4b45612b099419b74002d153c6f4148fa. “Punicic acid alleviates methylglyoxal-induced oocyte dysfunction during in vitro maturation in mouse species” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314602).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314602) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- openness to experience [redraft]: Never says what the trait is; 'personal characteristic' is added and the rest restates a study framing. New packet required. Source: [Liu Yanqiong; Sun Zhaogang. How openness to experience drives R&D staff’s innovative behavior: a nonlinear mediation and moderation perspective on flow experience and emotional intelligence. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1546608; article XML SHA-256 12561abf8b5e19d27790f24ab6f2d05ac79352dbdb128c31395339b3eae247ea. “How openness to experience drives R&D staff’s innovative behavior: a nonlinear mediation and moderation perspective on flow experience and emotional intelligence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1546608).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1546608) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- operandum [redraft]: The definition adds an interpretation of operandum as a general “target” or “response method” beyond what the packet explicitly supports; the packet only shows it as the response act used in the task (for example, nose-poking).; The definition’s suggested examples (“lever-pressing or nose-poking”) are only partially supported: lever-pressing is described as a response method in the study, but “operandum” is explicitly tied to nose-poking only; the packet does not clearly state lever-pressing “as operandum.”; The packet only explicitly uses “operandum” in the phrase “nose-poking as operandum” and does not support the broader claim that “operandum means the … target” (a target is not described as the meaning of operandum in the provided text).; The provided “field” is set to “diagnosis,” but the packet content concerns an animal self-administration paradigm and experimental model details, not diagnosing a condition.; The requested field is not defensible here: the packet uses the term in an animal self-administration research context, not in diagnosis or clinical assessment. New packet required. Source: [Amchova Petra; Kucerova Jana; Giugliano Valentina; Babinska Zuzana; Zanda Mary T.; Scherma Maria; Dusek Ladislav; Fadda Paola; Micale Vincenzo; Sulcova Alexandra; Fratta Walter; Fattore Liana. Enhanced self-administration of the CB 1 receptor agonist WIN55,212-2 in olfactory bulbectomized rats: evaluation of possible serotonergic and dopaminergic underlying mechanisms. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fphar.2014.00044; article XML SHA-256 48f4ba7c2e7acf787736fc6c45d48fb97136a88cafafa6ad83fcd3cafeef178f. “Enhanced self-administration of the CB 1 receptor agonist WIN55,212-2 in olfactory bulbectomized rats: evaluation of possible serotonergic and dopaminergic underlying mechanisms” (10.3389/fphar.2014.00044).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2014.00044) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- operant learning [redraft]: Second sentence reads 'The packet supports that...', describing the source rather than defining the term; form failure. New packet required. Source: [Segers Elien; Beckers Tom; Geurts Hilde; Claes Laurence; Danckaerts Marina; van der Oord Saskia. Working Memory and Reinforcement Schedule Jointly Determine Reinforcement Learning in Children: Potential Implications for Behavioral Parent Training. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00394; article XML SHA-256 102f5118f0f718f149815feb9d106482fb5133f0dcebbd845a0a8d32fb5ff02a. “Working Memory and Reinforcement Schedule Jointly Determine Reinforcement Learning in Children: Potential Implications for Behavioral Parent Training” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00394).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00394) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- opinion leader [redraft]: Restates the study's SOR model path rather than defining what an opinion leader is; packet gives no definition. New packet required. Source: [Li Kun-Feng; Wang Chao; Zhang Yi-Chi; Hua Kai. How key opinion leader characteristics influence women’s participation in soccer referee training. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1938303; article XML SHA-256 46ac39a482ff4d20769ff0dbf5da9ee108c0d60d64585f3be9667f160de8a3d9. “How key opinion leader characteristics influence women’s participation in soccer referee training” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1938303).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1938303) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- opioid use disorder [redraft]: Because the definition’s first sentence is unsupported, the overall definition cannot be considered defensible against the packet.; The claim that it is “associated with opioid withdrawal” is not supported by the packet; the packet only says ketamine may be used as an adjunct during treatment of opioid withdrawal.; The definition adds a general clinical explanation beyond the source and is not limited to the wording and scope provided in the packet.; The packet supports that opioid use disorder is a public health crisis with substantial economic cost, morbidity, and mortality, but it does not define it as a “mental health condition involving disordered use of opioid drugs.”; The packet text does not define opioid use disorder as a “mental health condition” or as “disordered use of opioid drugs,” so those substantive claims in the definition are not supported by the provided source.  New packet required. Source: [Shen Mary R.; Campbell Dylan E.; Kopczynski Anika; Maddams Samuel; Rosenblum Naomi; Nigam Kabir; Suzuki Joji. Ketamine in treating opioid use disorder and opioid withdrawal: a scoping review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1552084; article XML SHA-256 609e41a22e571d38cd45e52888cd925b32fcc90266adf1768fe7200ea4d7c7da. “Ketamine in treating opioid use disorder and opioid withdrawal: a scoping review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1552084).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1552084) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- opium [redraft]: 'Widespread social harm' misreads 'social harm and widespread market'; definition also never says what opium is. New packet required. Source: [Bazmi Sina; Parvaneh Talieh; Mohammadi Zahra; Pishdad Parisa; Ghaedian Mehrnaz; Dehghan Azizallah; Homayounfar Reza; Farjam Mojtaba. Association of prior opium addiction with incident non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A case-control study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326889; article XML SHA-256 cbfb254c7dfc06c1e0a8c9deddf8bbcaa7cbebc25651b12bec23ba829a8ca78c. “Association of prior opium addiction with incident non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: A case-control study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326889).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326889) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- opportunity structure [redraft]: Some parts of the definition go beyond what is explicitly supported in the packet excerpt (e.g., phrasing about “future roles” and the broad, abstract framing of “options and pathways” are not directly stated).; The first sentence defines “opportunity structure” as “the set of real-life options and pathways available to a person in their social setting,” but the packet excerpt does not provide this general definition of the term (it only discusses migration as part of an adolescent girl’s “opportunity structure”).; The migration-specific expansion is only partly supported: the source mentions migration as an aspect of girls’ opportunity structure, plus skills, income, and changing expectations, but it does not support the broader phrasing about 'choices' and 'future roles and relationships' as a definition of the term.; The packet does not define 'opportunity structure' as 'the set of real-life options and pathways available to a person in their social setting'; it only uses the phrase in passing, so that core gloss is unsupported. New packet required. Source: [Engebretsen Sarah; Gueye Mouhamadou; Melnikas Andrea J.; Fofana Sékou; Fané Bourama; Amin Sajeda. Adolescent girls’ migration and its impact on early marriage: Qualitative findings in Mali. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0230370; article XML SHA-256 461c018f181b9ef8535dcd8d5cfa36e76c74430b1dbd6d0af7b69fe39da32c55. “Adolescent girls’ migration and its impact on early marriage: Qualitative findings in Mali” (10.1371/journal.pone.0230370).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230370) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- optimal adjustment [redraft]: General phrase defined only as couples' adaptation to a partner's impairment; narrow study sense put on a general headword. New packet required. Source: [Bertschi Isabella C.; Meier Fabienne; Bodenmann Guy. Disability as an Interpersonal Experience: A Systematic Review on Dyadic Challenges and Dyadic Coping When One Partner Has a Chronic Physical or Sensory Impairment. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624609; article XML SHA-256 f0f5265dff5f8c6c1b13495fbbb30db610e6f11ee3237b02fc63f94bbe18e14f. “Disability as an Interpersonal Experience: A Systematic Review on Dyadic Challenges and Dyadic Coping When One Partner Has a Chronic Physical or Sensory Impairment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624609).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624609) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- optimal outbreeding [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet describes female mate choice in red mason bees (Osmia bicornis) based on odor, thorax vibrations, and relatedness; it does not provide support that this belongs in a “cognition” field.; The definition adds a generalized formulation (“a form of mate choice in which an individual selects a partner partly according to genetic relatedness or distance”) that is broader than the packet’s wording; the packet only presents this as a putative hypothesis for female choice in red mason bees, not as a general definition or current consensus.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source is about insect mating signals and relatedness, not a psychology/cognition definition.; Unsupported generalization: the definition states that partner choice is “partly according to genetic relatedness or distance.” The packet explicitly mentions choice based on “its relatedness to the female,” but it only treats “genetic distance” as a hypothesis/cue to be tested (not established as part of the mate-choice mechanism). New packet required. Source: [Conrad Taina; Paxton Robert J.; Assum Günter; Ayasse Manfred. Divergence in male sexual odor signal and genetics across populations of the red mason bee, Osmia bicornis , in Europe. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0193153; article XML SHA-256 f7d2f296bc9208f2ed7c8f6a03fb8d9754cfcc763a8d3909c0310c7fa91c946e. “Divergence in male sexual odor signal and genetics across populations of the red mason bee, Osmia bicornis , in Europe” (10.1371/journal.pone.0193153).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193153) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- opto- [redraft]: Combining form hedged 'in this context' and narrowed to neural light methods; 'light-sensitive proteins' not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Avery Michael; Nassi Jonathan; Reynolds John. Inferring neural circuit properties from optogenetic stimulation. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0205386; article XML SHA-256 bb53f5074e0b4b509ba4ac0f110a124bd1492b5c4fca12fefec39ab8f2898afc. “Inferring neural circuit properties from optogenetic stimulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0205386).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205386) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- oral contraceptive [redraft]: The definition partly shifts from the term’s meaning to the study context; the packet supports that specific oral contraceptive formulations were examined for olfactory performance and wellbeing, but not that this is the term’s definition.; The definition’s claim that the source “refers to pill formulations such as combined estrogen-progestogen or progestogen-only regimens” is only partially supported: the packet explicitly lists ethinylestradiol-based and progestogen-only pills, but it does not explicitly describe them using the terms “combined estrogen-progestogen” or “progestogen-only regimens” as such.; The packet does not explicitly state that an oral contraceptive is a “birth control” method or that it is “taken by mouth”; it discusses “oral contraceptive (OC) use” and pill formulations, but those specific phrases/senses are not directly supported in the provided text.; The source packet supports oral contraceptive use and pill formulations, but it does not explicitly state the general definitional claim that an oral contraceptive is a hormone-based birth control pill taken by mouth.; “Studied in relation to smell performance and wellbeing” is broadly consistent with the packet’s Sniffin’ Sticks (olfactory performance) and self-report life satisfaction/happiness, but it does not use the exact “smell performance” wording; this is close, yet the earlier missing explicit support on “birth control pill taken by mouth” is sufficient for rejection. New packet required. Source: [Gonçalves Patrícia Maria Rodrigues; de Azevedo Bruna Cestari; Fomin Denilson; Galeazzo Raul Galliano; Veiga César Antônio; Rezende Natália Queiroz; Siba Isadora Pozzetti; Pascarelli Raphaela Goncalves Barros; Dieamant Gustavo; Podgaec Sérgio; Pinheiro Camila Hernandes. Olfactory perception and wellbeing across hormonal contraceptive users and menstrual cycle phases. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1646597; article XML SHA-256 d4f1b9339a134c496430931e8bd95423458cdfb27049fbd07f7a98a62942c536. “Olfactory perception and wellbeing across hormonal contraceptive users and menstrual cycle phases” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1646597).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1646597) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- oral sound [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly support that “oral sound” is specifically “produced through the mouth”; it mentions “oral sound production” but does not define it as mouth-produced sound.; The packet supports bioacoustics and animal communication, but it does not support the added claim about early detection of changes in development.; The packet supports using oral sound production to help with understanding behavior and animal health/early diagnosis, but not the broader claim that it is used to 'support early detection' of development or general health changes in the way stated.; While the packet supports bioacoustics helping understand signaling and supporting early diagnosis/health monitoring, it does not clearly substantiate “early detection of changes in … development” as such (it references failure to thrive/ill health, but “development” as a general target is not explicitly stated in the provided text). New packet required. Source: [Rideout Hannah; Whetton Anthony D.. Leveraging artificial intelligence in bioacoustics for animal health monitoring and early diagnosis in veterinary medicine. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fvets.2026.1816544; article XML SHA-256 8817e8850b5ea50c10e1abfd404e34afc7551d5998d664ec6694cf643de5a395. “Leveraging artificial intelligence in bioacoustics for animal health monitoring and early diagnosis in veterinary medicine” (10.3389/fvets.2026.1816544).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2026.1816544) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- oral–genital contact [redraft]: The field is not defensible from the packet, which is about HPV transmission in head and neck lesions rather than mental health.; The packet does not explicitly define what “oral–genital contact” means (e.g., mouth contacting another person’s genitals); it only lists “oral-genital contact” as a pathway of HPV transmission.; The packet supports only that oral-genital contact is listed as a pathway of HPV transmission; it does not define the term as sexual contact between a person’s mouth and another person’s genitals.; The statement that this is “one possible route for transmitting HPV” is supported, but the added anatomical/behavioral definition (“between a person’s mouth and another person’s genitals”) is not directly stated in the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Chaudhary Ajay Kumar; Singh Mamta; Sundaram Shanthy; Mehrotra Ravi. Role of human papillomavirus and its detection in potentially malignant and malignant head and neck lesions: updated review. 2009; DOI 10.1186/1758-3284-1-22; article XML SHA-256 20a64ddd8e0a4ec522982aff730f1994f533b195ec09443c335b40780e32a812. “Role of human papillomavirus and its detection in potentially malignant and malignant head and neck lesions: updated review” (10.1186/1758-3284-1-22).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1758-3284-1-22) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- oral–lingual dyskinesia [redraft]: The first sentence adds a definitional characterization that is not stated in the source packet, so the definition goes beyond the supplied evidence.; The packet does not define “oral–lingual dyskinesia” as a “movement abnormality involving the mouth and tongue”; it only mentions the term as a “novel feature” reported in GNAO1 encephalopathy.; The packet supports that oral-lingual dyskinesia was reported as a novel feature in GNAO1 encephalopathy, but it does not define the term as a movement abnormality involving the mouth and tongue.; While the packet supports that oral-lingual dyskinesia is reported as a novel feature in people with GNAO1 encephalopathy, the definition’s first substantive claim is not supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Marcé-Grau Anna; Dalton James; López-Pisón Javier; García-Jiménez María Concepción; Monge-Galindo Lorena; Cuenca-León Ester; Giraldo Jesús; Macaya Alfons. GNAO1 encephalopathy: further delineation of a severe neurodevelopmental syndrome affecting females. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s13023-016-0416-0; article XML SHA-256 d2cbd3a1cb90b72769b9a66173dbd87c282558c876c219c30b8e0995c76f4006. “GNAO1 encephalopathy: further delineation of a severe neurodevelopmental syndrome affecting females” (10.1186/s13023-016-0416-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13023-016-0416-0) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Orap [redraft]: The definition is otherwise close to the packet, but the unsupported brand-name claim makes it fail as written.; The packet does not explicitly state that “Orap” is the brand name for pimozide; it only describes a dopamine antagonist/antipsychotic property associated with pimozide.; The packet supports pimozide as a dopamine antagonist with antipsychotic property, but it does not say that Orap is the brand name for pimozide. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Pimozide” (C47672).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- order of magnitude [redraft]: The definition adds a broad general gloss about ‘a very large approximate difference in size’ that is not specifically grounded in the packet’s usage, which only supports the roughly tenfold increase example.; The definition’s claim that “commonly meaning about a tenfold change” is unsupported by the provided packet text.; The field is not defensible from the packet: the source is an AI energy/emissions article, not a cognition or psychology context.; The packet does not define “order of magnitude” as a tenfold (or any specific) change; it only uses the phrase “roughly an order of magnitude” to describe AI electricity demand increasing. New packet required. Source: [Turkay Berke M; Pehlivan Ipek; Onat Nuri C; Kucukvar Murat; Türkay Metin. Scenario-based forecasting of the global energy demand and carbon footprint of artificial intelligence. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343056; article XML SHA-256 c7154a680998875a384008e4386c66aa46c8caf1772ebd3ce432e3b79d447b37. “Scenario-based forecasting of the global energy demand and carbon footprint of artificial intelligence” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343056).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343056) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ordinal variable [redraft]: Defines ordinal variables as showing ranks 'of response intensity', a narrow Likert sense put on a general statistics term. New packet required. Source: [Huh Iksoo; Gim Jungsoo. Exploration of Likert scale in terms of continuous variable with parametric statistical methods. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12874-025-02668-1; article XML SHA-256 0b63885b4c3b5170995e01a5e328fad15a7269262ac34097810d4356c28b90fa. “Exploration of Likert scale in terms of continuous variable with parametric statistical methods” (10.1186/s12874-025-02668-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-025-02668-1) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- organismic [redraft]: The definition’s claim that “organismic” is a “whole-person or whole-organism way of understanding psychological functioning” is not explicitly supported by the packet text provided (the packet only mentions an “organismic–transpersonal framework” and multi-level/structured modeling).; The definition’s phrasing about “development and integration as organized across multiple aspects of experience and functioning” is only partially supported; the packet mentions modeling psychological functioning across “structural resources,” “integration processes,” and “dysregulation-related signals,” but it does not clearly establish the specific wording about development and integration across multiple aspects of experience.; The field specified is “biological,” but the packet content is framed as psychological integration and an organismic–transpersonal model; it does not provide clear biological context to justify the biological field for this definition.; The packet uses “organismic” only as part of the phrase “organismic–transpersonal framework” and does not define it as a whole-person or whole-organism theory of psychological functioning.; “Development and integration are organized across multiple aspects of experience and functioning” is an extrapolation; the packet only supports a multidimensional model of psychological functioning across structural resources, integration processes, and dysregulation-related signals. New packet required. Source: [Bronlet Xavier; Lattuada Pier Luigi. Self-development inquiry (SDi) scale: a process-oriented measure of psychological integration in an organismic-transpersonal framework. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834600; article XML SHA-256 dba8d0e134deaee64c49dd274146cf3c793317fc0f5b0d9db2d22906ddbd022b. “Self-development inquiry (SDi) scale: a process-oriented measure of psychological integration in an organismic-transpersonal framework” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834600).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834600) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- organizational effect [redraft]: The claim that prenatal androgen exposure could help shape later vulnerability to PMDD goes beyond the packet, which does not state vulnerability or causal shaping.; The definition claims the article uses the term to suggest “prenatal androgen exposure could help shape later vulnerability to PMDD,” but the packet only says the research investigates the “possible role of prenatal androgen in the PMDD,” without specifying “later vulnerability.”; The definition contains interpretive phrasing (“in this context, … refers to…”) that goes beyond what is explicitly supported by the packet text provided.; The definition’s core meaning (“lasting influence… on later psychological or bodily development”) is not stated in the provided packet. The packet only notes an “organizational effect of prenatal sex hormones” and aims to study prenatal androgen in PMDD.; The packet only says there is a potential organizational effect of prenatal sex hormones in PMDD and that the study aimed to investigate the possible role of prenatal androgen; it does not define organizational effect as a lasting influence on later psychological or bodily development. New packet required. Source: [Li Zheng; Xu Meng-jiao; Jin Ying; Zhu Bing-gen. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder is associated with the longer length from clitoris to urethra. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12905-021-01403-4; article XML SHA-256 6da2d691490440b4e01d70b2d914d8017a1bcd403830ef70adac0e364cfb4e58. “Premenstrual dysphoric disorder is associated with the longer length from clitoris to urethra” (10.1186/s12905-021-01403-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-021-01403-4) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- organizational structure [redraft]: Hedged 'in this context' and redefines a general term as rules and codes; packet only discusses formalization of structure. New packet required. Source: [Xu Chuang; Chang Yuan-Cheng. Factors affecting faculty conformity in South China universities. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923500; article XML SHA-256 811dd1ecc0801cc22553f54fe25efb956951ddce55be670a1364e9c2b467be07. “Factors affecting faculty conformity in South China universities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923500).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923500) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- originality [redraft]: Hedged 'in this source' and reduces a general word to Institutional Psychotherapy's distinctiveness; packet gives no definition. New packet required. Source: [d’Abbadie de Nodrest Laurie; Piette Manon; Bardi Habib; Gozé Tudi. Institutional psychotherapy: a conceptual review and clinical toolbox. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857183; article XML SHA-256 156ae98715fc4b7a73425b30caa577f1fb804352d327753db16d6bcaa9632e24. “Institutional psychotherapy: a conceptual review and clinical toolbox” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857183).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857183) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- orthogonal [redraft]: The definition claims orthogonal means “mathematically independent,” but the provided packet only states that the method “utilizes the Special Orthogonal Group process to initialize filters, ensuring orthogonality within their internal spatial structure” and does not explicitly define orthogonality as mathematical independence.; The definition generalizes beyond the packet by presenting orthogonal as a general structural independence relation rather than the specific filter-initialization/orthogonality point described in the article.; The source supports orthogonality in the filters’ internal spatial structure, but it does not support the added claim that the parts are “mathematically independent” from one another. New packet required. Source: [Deng Kaixin; Wen Quan; Yang Fan; Ouyang Hang; Shi Zhuohang; Shuai Shiyu; Wu Zhaowang. OS-DETR: End-to-end brain tumor detection framework based on orthogonal channel shuffle networks. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0320757; article XML SHA-256 b48d5c42ea481a2b7612599b0e11bd6f6bafb55f2e7c1468f0ff984079a1ae9f. “OS-DETR: End-to-end brain tumor detection framework based on orthogonal channel shuffle networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0320757).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0320757) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- orthography [redraft]: Because the first sentence is unsupported, the definition as a whole cannot be considered fully supported by the packet.; The definition adds a broader generalization about orthography’s role in speech research that is only partially supported by the packet and is phrased more generally than the source text.; The definition’s first sentence (“Orthography is a language’s writing system or spelling-based form”) is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text, which only mentions “orthographic interference” and “orthography-independent” methods without defining orthography.; The packet supports an “orthography-independent” paradigm and describes it as decoupling speech perception from orthographic interference, but it does not define orthography itself as a language’s writing system or spelling-based form. New packet required. Source: [Yang Jing; Chen Yufeng. Beyond orthography: a refined perceptual assimilation task paradigm for measuring cross-linguistic phonetic similarity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859283; article XML SHA-256 0e6e42e9df9ed65bd3b09d155754d44cd3885b5fe66f001945bfeaf10b192472. “Beyond orthography: a refined perceptual assimilation task paradigm for measuring cross-linguistic phonetic similarity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859283).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1859283) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- osmoregulation [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“controlling the balance of water and dissolved substances in an organism”) is not directly supported by the provided packet text.; The packet supports that osmoregulation is related to urea synthesis and to urea, ammonia, and water transport, but it does not explicitly support the broader definitional claim that osmoregulation is the general process of controlling the balance of water and dissolved substances in an organism.; The packet supports that urea/ammonia/water transport and urea synthesis are involved and “crucial in osmoregulation,” but the definition includes an extra generalization beyond what is stated in the packet.; While the packet links osmoregulation research to “urea synthesis and urea, ammonia and water transport,” it does not explicitly support the broader formulation that this is the general “biological process of controlling the balance of water and dissolved substances.” New packet required. Source: [Chana-Munoz Andres; Jendroszek Agnieszka; Sønnichsen Malene; Kristiansen Rune; Jensen Jan K; Andreasen Peter A; Bendixen Christian; Panitz Frank. Multi-tissue RNA-seq and transcriptome characterisation of the spiny dogfish shark ( Squalus acanthias ) provides a molecular tool for biological research and reveals new genes involved in osmoregulation. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0182756; article XML SHA-256 8599431e3c53271194bc4d37cf42967b67242c5041d1d5dae0da0dbb63a9f6af. “Multi-tissue RNA-seq and transcriptome characterisation of the spiny dogfish shark ( Squalus acanthias ) provides a molecular tool for biological research and reveals new genes involved in osmoregulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0182756).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182756) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- osteomalacia [redraft]: The definition adds a generalized description of osteomalacia as having 'excess unmineralized bone tissue and altered mineralization,' which is only partly supported; the packet specifically describes GX-induced high bone turnover with hyperosteoidosis and increased mineralization, and says it differed from typical osteomalacia.; The definition asserts “altered mineralization” and “abnormal bone changes” in general terms, but the packet’s support is specific to the GX rat model findings (high turnover, hyperosteoidosis, increased mineralization) and does not support the broader phrasing about unmineralized bone tissue.; The definition claims osteomalacia involves “excess unmineralized bone tissue,” but the provided packet does not state that specific feature; it only reports “hyperosteoidosis” and “prominent increase of mineralization.”; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: osteomalacia is a bone disorder in a medical article, not a cognition term.; While the packet does support that the gastrectomy-related form is thought to be due to Vitamin D and Ca deficiencies and is “different from a typical osteomalacia,” the definition’s reference to typical osteomalacia characteristics (via unmineralized bone) is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Ueyama Takashi; Yamamoto Yuta; Ueda Kazuki; Yajima Aiji; Maeda Yoshimasa; Yamashita Yasunobu; Ito Takao; Tsuruo Yoshihiro; Ichinose Masao. Is Gastrectomy-Induced High Turnover of Bone with Hyperosteoidosis and Increase of Mineralization a Typical Osteomalacia?. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0065685; article XML SHA-256 3c3da573fc89214680f06692eaa1ca0ca2901446569f5ecb9070cfa4680664ef. “Is Gastrectomy-Induced High Turnover of Bone with Hyperosteoidosis and Increase of Mineralization a Typical Osteomalacia?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0065685).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065685) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- otolith [redraft]: Never says what an otolith is; 'a structure in a fish' misses the inner-ear sense and only restates the microchemistry study. New packet required. Source: [Bernatchez Simon; Landry-Massicotte Louis; Paradis Yves; Morissette Olivier; Fortin Anne-Lise; Villeneuve Sabrina; L’Italien Léon; Sirois Pascal. Comparative evaluation of otolith and fin ray as tools for assessing population differentiation in Atlantic sturgeon ( Acipenser oxyrinchus ). 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343989; article XML SHA-256 1eedbc566f0dbf4d0701df68e5968824d8ce6ba85c5f9cf0dd494f257c19cb7a. “Comparative evaluation of otolith and fin ray as tools for assessing population differentiation in Atlantic sturgeon ( Acipenser oxyrinchus )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343989).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343989) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- OTR [redraft]: The packet describes OTR as an overtraining protocol in mice (“overtrained by running without inclination”), but it does not explicitly support the claim that OTR is “rather than a mental health diagnosis or counseling term.”; The packet supports OTR as an overtraining protocol in mice running without inclination, but it does not support the added claim that it is ‘rather than a mental health diagnosis or counseling term.’ New packet required. Source: [da Rocha Alisson L.; Pereira Bruno C.; Pauli José R.; Cintra Dennys E.; de Souza Claudio T.; Ropelle Eduardo R.; R. da Silva Adelino S.. Downhill Running-Based Overtraining Protocol Improves Hepatic Insulin Signaling Pathway without Concomitant Decrease of Inflammatory Proteins. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0140020; article XML SHA-256 e4a6bddfd6597196c5fd9549f1e2e25e7f0a95701bda300900433741b319beee. “Downhill Running-Based Overtraining Protocol Improves Hepatic Insulin Signaling Pathway without Concomitant Decrease of Inflammatory Proteins” (10.1371/journal.pone.0140020).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0140020) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- outpatient services [redraft]: The definition’s examples and scope (“such as autism diagnostic evaluations” and “everyday diagnostic work”) are not explicitly supported by the packet text provided.; The packet describes a specific context (autism diagnostics and an investigation related to autism outpatient services) rather than supporting a general, field-agnostic definition of “outpatient services.”; The packet does not define what “outpatient services” are in general (e.g., that they are clinical services where people come to seek assessment/diagnosis); it only references “autism outpatient services.”; The packet only supports outpatient services as a setting for autism diagnostics; it does not support the broader generalization that these are clinical services for assessment or diagnosis in general.; “Everyday diagnostic work is carried out” is not stated in the source and reads as an unsupported extrapolation. New packet required. Source: [Jarvers Irina; Sommer Monika; Ullmann Manuela; Simmel Verena; Blaas Lore; Gorski Stefanie; Krüger-Lassen Saskia; Vogel Matthias; Langguth Berthold. Reading between the lines: exploring the discriminative ability of the Short-Story Task in identifying autistic individuals within autism outpatient services. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1500396; article XML SHA-256 1bf6d46875956055188b5a63e065873713b35468de06de76abe223b4115a701a. “Reading between the lines: exploring the discriminative ability of the Short-Story Task in identifying autistic individuals within autism outpatient services” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1500396).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1500396) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- outreach [redraft]: The claims about improving awareness, early detection, and access to care are broader interpretations not directly supported by the packet’s wording.; The packet does not provide a definition of “outreach” as a “planned effort … to find, inform, and connect with people,” so that phrasing is not directly supported.; The packet supports outreach as part of a specialist service’s implementation and performance, but it does not define outreach as the planned effort to find, inform, and connect with people who may need help.; While the packet mentions “outreach strategies” and “referral pathways required” to implement a prevention service (which relates to early detection and access), it does not explicitly describe outreach as building “referral links with other services” or using the specific “find, inform, and connect” formulation.; “Build referral links with other services” is not stated in the packet; the text only mentions referral pathways as an implementation issue and referrals received by the service. New packet required. Source: [Melillo Antonio; De Micheli Andrea; Nandha Sunil; Gadelrab Romayne; Jauhar Sameer; Young Allan; Azis Matilda; Manchia Mirko; Pfennig Andrea; Mucci Armida; Galderisi Silvana; Fusar-Poli Paolo. Outreach and Support in South London for Bipolar At-Risk States: pilot implementation of a specialist preventive service for adolescents and young adults at risk of developing bipolar disorders. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1773189; article XML SHA-256 81fd6862957fd45e6358a69bdcc902908c7cb3bc2c882b7e9b16963c83eef4ef. “Outreach and Support in South London for Bipolar At-Risk States: pilot implementation of a specialist preventive service for adolescents and young adults at risk of developing bipolar disorders” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1773189).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1773189) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- overconfidence [redraft]: The definition claims overconfidence involves “overstating their own abilities or knowledge,” but the packet does not explicitly state that overconfidence specifically manifests as overstating one’s abilities/knowledge (it only defines confidence as trust/faith in one’s capabilities or knowledge, and overconfidence as arising from inaccuracies leading to “excessive estimation”).; The definition’s contrast with confidence is mostly supported, but phrases like “overstating their own abilities or knowledge” and “inaccurate and inflated self-assessment” go beyond the packet’s wording and are not directly stated there.; The definition’s phrasing “inaccurate and inflated self-assessment” is not directly stated in the packet; while it says overconfidence comes from inaccuracies in one’s confidence judgment and is “excessive estimation,” it does not use or clearly support the specific concept of “inflated self-assessment.”; The packet supports overconfidence as a cognitive and behavioral bias involving excessive estimation or inaccuracies in confidence judgment, but it does not support placing this entry in the field of learning; the source context is managerial decision-making and corporate behavior, not learning. New packet required. Source: [Jin Yi; Chen Chuxin; Liu Bo. Benefits of managerial overconfidence for corporate digital transformation: Evidence from China. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314231; article XML SHA-256 a355377d9136d7d334847e5f7bf23df68f37a64558d57a805e4ed4661a2d7fd9. “Benefits of managerial overconfidence for corporate digital transformation: Evidence from China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314231).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314231) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- overdispersion [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the packet by turning a specific RNA-seq description into a broader statistical definition without support from the source context.; The definition is framed as applying to “mental health,” but the provided packet discusses RNA-seq differential expression methodology (mRNA-seq read counts, genes), not mental health concepts or measures.; The definition’s first sentence claims overdispersion means observed variability is greater than would be expected if the variance matched the mean; the packet only states that overdispersion refers to empirical variance of read counts being larger than the mean, and does not support the “greater than would be expected if … variance matched the mean” phrasing.; The field assignment is not well supported by the source text: the packet is about RNA-seq differential expression analysis, not a psychology/counselling or mental-health concept. New packet required. Source: [Yuan Yubai; Xu Qi; Wani Agaz; Dahrendorff Jan; Wang Chengqi; Shen Arlina; Donglasan Janelle; Burgan Sarah; Graham Zachary; Uddin Monica; Wildman Derek; Qu Annie. Differentially expressed heterogeneous overdispersion genes testing for count data. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300565; article XML SHA-256 f9cb3c54de5af53788e73071f1d0ebd01bd987fbbadd6b6d36107a6e6805da21. “Differentially expressed heterogeneous overdispersion genes testing for count data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300565).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300565) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- overidentification [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported meaning by saying internal thoughts are treated as if they fully define reality or the self; the packet only states that cognitive fusion is overidentification with internal thoughts.; The definition’s first sentence adds content not supported by the packet: specifically, “treated as if they fully define reality or the self” is not stated in the provided text.; The packet supports cognitive fusion as a construct linked to reduced psychological flexibility and maladaptive emotion regulation, but not the full explanatory wording used here for overidentification.; While the packet does support that cognitive fusion involves overidentification with internal thoughts and that this compromises psychological flexibility and contributes to maladaptive emotion regulation, the definition’s elaboration about defining reality/self is not evidenced. New packet required. Source: [Bergmann Niklas; Conell Ingmar; Hahne Inge; Zierhut Marco; Ta Thi Minh Tam; Hahn Eric; Böge Kerem. Validation of the cognitive fusion questionnaire in regular meditators and persons with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748422; article XML SHA-256 e58136ff7a48fd3fd14873a3ed7b28ad97ca897b1de448728b8a18eca8879041. “Validation of the cognitive fusion questionnaire in regular meditators and persons with schizophrenia spectrum disorders” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748422).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1748422) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- overload [redraft]: The multimedia-language-learning emphasis is supported, but the core definitional phrasing is an unsupported generalization rather than a statement found in the packet.; The packet does not explicitly define cognitive overload as “having more mental demands than attention can effectively handle during learning,” so this part of the definition is unsupported by the provided text.; The packet states cognitive overload is a major barrier to second-language acquisition and mentions multimedia language learning, but it does not explicitly support the claim that overload is “especially” a barrier specifically in multimedia language learning.; The packet supports cognitive overload as a major barrier to second-language acquisition, but it does not support the added definition that overload means “having more mental demands than attention can effectively handle during learning.” New packet required. Source: [Qi Yan. Cognitive overload in multimedia language learning: a review of attention limits and instructional design strategies. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850074; article XML SHA-256 e21747a817283e99b6673308874a690753f95978aba7e90f6f4847305d826f2c. “Cognitive overload in multimedia language learning: a review of attention limits and instructional design strategies” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850074).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1850074) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- overmedication [redraft]: Narrows a general term to psychotropics in intellectual disability; packet only mentions reducing overmedication, no definition. New packet required. Source: [Deb Shoumitro; Jarkovský Jiří; Melicharová Hana; Holub David; Limbu Bharati; Třešňák Petr. A whole population-based cohort study of the trajectory of the prevalence and the incidence of mental illness, challenging behaviour, and psychotropic medication prescribing in adults with intellectual disabilities in the Czech Republic between 2010 and 2022. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s12888-025-07620-7; article XML SHA-256 c753e5e543ccc56bc328c610c99bf8143f1ddcf34f7698dee031f5deb6d70b4d. “A whole population-based cohort study of the trajectory of the prevalence and the incidence of mental illness, challenging behaviour, and psychotropic medication prescribing in adults with intellectual disabilities in the Czech Republic between 2010 and 2022” (10.1186/s12888-025-07620-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07620-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- overprotection [redraft]: Overall, multiple substantive elements of the definition (notably “overly sheltering,” “keep them dependent,” and the added causal nuance) are not fully supported by the packet text.; The packet does not substantiate the claim that this “can keep them dependent.”; The packet explicitly mentions “parental overprotection” with a “pattern of upbringing resulting in infantilization and prevention of independent behavior,” but it does not support the specific phrasing that the child is “treated in an overly sheltering way.”; The packet supports parental overprotection as a pattern of upbringing that can result in infantilization and prevention of independent behavior, but it does not support the added claim that it “can keep them dependent.”; The packet supports the presence of “infantilization” and the “prevention of independent behavior,” but your definition adds “encourage infantilization” and “limit the development of independent behavior” as causal/intentional effects that are not stated in the packet beyond “resulting in”/“prevention of.”; “Overly sheltering” is not stated in the source text and is an unsupported elaboration beyond the packet wording. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Encounter due to Parental Overprotection” (C183450).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- overreaction [redraft]: The definition attributes a specific source-material sense to “overreaction” as an amplified inflammatory response, but the packet uses the word only in passing and does not define it as the term’s sense.; The only clear packet support is that CD14 “may sometimes lead to overreaction and tissue and organ injury,” which is framed in an inflammatory/immunologic context rather than cognition.; The packet does not support the definitional wording that an overreaction is “stronger than is helpful” or “going beyond what is needed for the situation.”; The packet does not support the general definition of “overreaction” as a response that becomes stronger than is helpful; it only says CD14 can amplify inflammatory responses and may sometimes lead to overreaction and tissue and organ injury.; The provided source text is about atibuclimab/CD14 and preventing an inflammatory cascade; the definition’s focus on a general response in the cognition field is not explicitly supported by the packet.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source record is about atibuclimab/CD14 as a pharmacologic substance and immunologic factor, not a cognition term. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Atibuclimab” (C172657).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- overt behavior [redraft]: The added contrast with internal self-concept or identity is only implied by the article’s framing, not stated as a definition of overt behavior.; The claim that, “In this source, it is contrasted with internal self-concept or identity” is only partially supported (self-concept is mentioned), but the packet does not explicitly frame the contrast in the way the definition states.; The packet only indicates a shift “from overt behavior to leaders’ self-concept” and that internal identity can become a perceivable social cue; it does not support the specific definitional wording about “actions or conduct that others can directly notice.”; The packet only mentions “overt behavior” as a contrasting research focus; it does not define the term as outward, observable actions or conduct.; The packet text does not define “overt behavior” as “outward, observable behavior” or state that it is directly noticeable by others. New packet required. Source: [Gou Jinan; Shen Yuzhao. The impact of department chair leadership identity on faculty thriving in comprehensive university reform: the cross-level moderating role of work arrangement flexibility. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722813; article XML SHA-256 f274f354b58ca88cdb587fd28735aaac69f3ca868e5c68ef69a2bf64abd87175. “The impact of department chair leadership identity on faculty thriving in comprehensive university reform: the cross-level moderating role of work arrangement flexibility” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722813).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722813) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- overt [redraft]: Because the packet only provides an eye-movement contrast for covert attention (not a positive description of overt attention), the definition’s first sentence contains a substantive claim that is not directly supported by the supplied text.; The definition adds a generalized explanation of overt attention that is not directly supported by the supplied text; the packet only states that covert attention occurs without moving the eyes and that overt attention is the contrasting condition.; The packet explicitly states that covert attention can occur “without the need to move their eyes,” but it does not explicitly define overt attention as involving “visible gaze direction” or “eye movement toward” the stimulus.; The packet supports a contrast between covert attention and overt attention, but it does not explicitly define overt attention as attention accompanied by visible gaze direction or eye movement toward the stimulus. New packet required. Source: [İşcan Zafer. Evaluation of long-range temporal correlations during overt and covert attention in a steady state visual evoked potential based brain-computer interface. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345793; article XML SHA-256 47ae1667d0021ab253e95c74143435400445e2642a5e1a9c7f491ec0f0a400a2. “Evaluation of long-range temporal correlations during overt and covert attention in a steady state visual evoked potential based brain-computer interface” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345793).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345793) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- overweight [redraft]: The packet does not define overweight as a “health condition” or a “classified body-weight status”; it only discusses overweight/obesity as conditions in relation to risk and prediction/classification in a study.; The packet supports that “overweight/obesity” is strongly associated with elevated risk of diabetes, stroke, cardiovascular disorders, and certain types of cancer, but it does not provide an explicit definition of “overweight” as a “classified body-weight status.”; The phrasing “overweight is a health condition” is not stated directly; the packet describes “overweight/obesity” as a “critical global health issue” and discusses prediction/classification, but does not define “overweight” itself as a health condition in the requested terms.; The source supports an association with diabetes, stroke, cardiovascular disease/disorders, and certain cancers, but the definition adds a standalone definitional framing that is not stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Biswas Suman; Islam Md Mahamudul; Islam Nusrat; Mia Md Abdur Rahim. National data meets AI: Machine learning for predicting overweight/obesity among ever-married Bangladeshi women. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341821; article XML SHA-256 91b96026ad002f2e76a0737112bb37416f87aa64f72b27ce3289c2fbc70a4dd2. “National data meets AI: Machine learning for predicting overweight/obesity among ever-married Bangladeshi women” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341821).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341821) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- P200 [redraft]: Defines P200 by a training finding and 'in this study' results rather than as an ERP component; describes the paper. New packet required. Source: [Ren Yanna; Gao Binyue; Xue Heyuan; Yang Mengmeng; Gao Yulin. Adaptive visuospatial n-back training improves audiovisual integration and executive control in older adults. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1801385; article XML SHA-256 7c740414280ad348dc369a3aadc1d32600fcd38d4fc94b062f8a02a10620ff56. “Adaptive visuospatial n-back training improves audiovisual integration and executive control in older adults” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1801385).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1801385) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- P3 component [redraft]: The definition contains 4 sentences, but the instructions require the definition to be one to three concise sentences.; The definition says the NoGo-P3 was used as an index of inhibitory control and that larger amplitudes were linked to better response inhibition, but the packet reports correlations with NoGo accuracy and an interpretation of altered brain–behavior coupling, not a direct statement that amplitude indexes inhibition or that larger amplitudes equal better response inhibition.; The definition says “larger NoGo-P3 amplitudes were linked here to better response inhibition”; the packet reports positive correlations between NoGo accuracy and NoGo-P3 amplitude and a group difference in brain–behavior coupling, but it does not directly state “better response inhibition” as such (it is inferred from inhibitory accuracy).; The definition’s phrase “It is used as an index of inhibitory control” is not phrased that way in the packet; the packet reports correlations/interaction with NoGo accuracy and interprets the findings as related to inhibitory control, but “used as an index” is an added characterization.; The packet supports a late positive NoGo-condition ERP at about 400–600 ms, but it does not support the broader claim that the P3 component itself generally is an EEG event-related potential; it only defines the NoGo-P3 in this study.; The wording “suggesting it may reflect effortful executive processing” is broadly consistent with the packet, but the definition compresses several study-specific interpretations into a general definitional claim rather than clearly limiting them to this article's findings.; “P3 component” in the packet is described specifically as the late positive ERP in the NoGo condition (hereafter termed “NoGo-P3”); the definition presents it as the P3 component more generally (even though it tries to narrow to NoGo-P3). New packet required. Source: [Zhang Lei; Lu Fang; He Yuxin; Tang Lin; Zhang Li; Xiang Jing; Gu Chun rong; Guo Su wan; Yu Zheng hong. Altered brain–behavior coupling during inhibitory control in ankylosing spondylitis: ERP evidence from NoGo-P3 component. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351397; article XML SHA-256 189c15a10a844fe024ffd4e77a9fc59c69d1accaff88fc65d49f4d667bc674ed. “Altered brain–behavior coupling during inhibitory control in ankylosing spondylitis: ERP evidence from NoGo-P3 component” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351397).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351397) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pain mechanisms [redraft]: The opening definition of pain mechanisms as “the underlying processes by which pain is produced and experienced” is not stated or clearly defined in the source packet.; The packet does not define or describe what “pain mechanisms” are (the definition’s first sentence claims they are “underlying processes by which pain is produced and experienced,” which is not supported by the provided text).; The packet supports that pain mechanisms are under-addressed in antenatal education and that pain-focused education may help with labour and postpartum pain, but it does not support the broader explanatory definition given in the first sentence.; The packet supports that “pain mechanisms and postpartum pain remain under-addressed” and that pain neuroscience principles may enhance antenatal education and support more effective pain management, but it does not specifically state that “better understanding of how pain works” may directly support coping and confidence during labour/after birth. New packet required. Source: [Sloyan Elliot; Leddy Elizabeth; Clark Carol; Dufour Sinéad; Harper Rosie; Dunford Alex; Elma Ömer. Antenatal education for labour and postpartum pain: A scoping review of content, delivery approaches, evidence gaps, and lived experiences. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330399; article XML SHA-256 6b7d7515628e805c7120b262a6bb12fd9ae7eb2dd2f588b6e3f35bc005b67b01. “Antenatal education for labour and postpartum pain: A scoping review of content, delivery approaches, evidence gaps, and lived experiences” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330399).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330399) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- paired-associates learning [redraft]: Because the definition includes substantive details not explicitly supported by the packet, it cannot be accepted under the requirement that every substantive claim be supported.; The added claim that the visuo-spatial form means learning associations between visual patterns and their locations is not stated in the packet.; The final clause about task performance reflecting visuo-spatial learning is only partly supported; the packet says eventual accuracy is a measure of visuo-spatial learning during the task, but not the broader definition given here.; The packet does not define “paired-associates learning” generally as “learning to link two items together so that one helps recall the other,” nor does it provide this requested sense of the term outside the visuo-spatial task context.; The packet does not state that the visuo-spatial form specifically involves “associations between visual patterns and their locations”; it only describes “visuo-spatial paired associates learning (vsPAL)” and refers to performance/accuracy as reflecting “visuo-spatial learning,” without specifying the visual-pattern-and-location pairing.; The packet only supports visuo-spatial paired associates learning as a task and as a measure of visuo-spatial learning; it does not define paired-associates learning generally as learning to link two items so one helps recall the other. New packet required. Source: [Weed Michael R.; Polino Joseph; Signor Laura; Bookbinder Mark; Keavy Deborah; Benitex Yulia; Morgan Daniel G.; King Dalton; Macor John E.; Zaczek Robert; Olson Richard; Bristow Linda J.. Nicotinic alpha 7 receptor agonists EVP-6124 and BMS-933043, attenuate scopolamine-induced deficits in visuo-spatial paired associates learning. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0187609; article XML SHA-256 4d8f21f6234d80a0591d649eb4c49486c7c1f4b6ca5e9d2ec250456b6f5d4103. “Nicotinic alpha 7 receptor agonists EVP-6124 and BMS-933043, attenuate scopolamine-induced deficits in visuo-spatial paired associates learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0187609).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0187609) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pairing [redraft]: Second sentence restates the study question as the term's meaning; hedges with 'in this context'. New packet required. Source: [Sharma Krishan K; Chang Yuchiao; Miloslavsky Eli M. Pairing medical students on the wards: A multi-site analysis of pairing effect on clerkship performance. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0277898; article XML SHA-256 453624400066428e6d56c9d1f26c5ba22dac101cd8fa801adec73872d502ae80. “Pairing medical students on the wards: A multi-site analysis of pairing effect on clerkship performance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0277898).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277898) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pairmate [redraft]: The definition adds contextual gloss (“especially the dam he has co-housed and reproduced with”) that is not stated in the source and goes beyond the packet’s wording.; The definition’s claims about influencing “the male’s parental behavior toward their pups” and “signals” are partially supported (it discusses induced maternal-like care/pup retrieval when separated by pairmate-dam signals), but the additional definitional framing about breeding/reproducing is not supported by the packet text.; The packet supports that a pairmate dam provides signals that can induce paternal retrieval behavior, but it does not explicitly define pairmate as the male’s breeding partner or as the dam he has co-housed and reproduced with.; The packet supports that “signals from the pairmate dam” can elicit pup retrieval behavior in male mice, but it does not explicitly define “pairmate” as a “female breeding partner.”; The packet uses “pairmate dam,” “biological pups,” and “co-housed” (e.g., with an unrelated non-pairing dam), but it does not state that the dam was “the male’s paired mate, especially the dam he has co-housed and reproduced with,” nor that reproduction is part of the definitional sense of the term.; The source uses the term in the compound “pairmate dam” and “pairmate-dependent paternal behavior,” so the standalone sense of pairmate is only indirectly supported. New packet required. Source: [Liang Mingkun; Zhong Jing; Liu Hong-Xiang; Lopatina Olga; Nakada Ryusuke; Yamauchi Agnes-Mikiko; Higashida Haruhiro. Pairmate-dependent pup retrieval as parental behavior in male mice. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2014.00186; article XML SHA-256 0889c3fdd858080ef8e7cc882e6ea211861f63083a298e0fdfa32dc53d23cf0e. “Pairmate-dependent pup retrieval as parental behavior in male mice” (10.3389/fnins.2014.00186).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2014.00186) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- pairwise comparison [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory generalization (“each analysis looks at one pair at a time”) that is not stated in the packet, which only mentions that three pairwise comparison groups were established.; The definition’s first sentence (“comparing things in sets of two…each analysis looks at one pair at a time”) is a general description not explicitly stated in the packet.; The packet is a plant metabolomics article, so the requested field “mental health” is not defensible from the source.; The provided source packet is about plant/chestnut red mite infestation and leaf metabolomics; it contains no mental-health context, so the requested field (“mental health”) is not supported.; While the packet mentions that “three pairwise comparison groups were established” using resistance levels, it does not support the implied interpretation that these were “two-group comparisons” in the way described in the definition’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Xinfang; Zhang Shuhang; Li Ying; Guo Yan; Liu Jinyu; Liu Jiayi; Fan Liying; Wang Guangpeng. Comprehensive metabolomic characterization of defense reprogramming in Castanea mollissima under Oligonychus ununguis feeding stress. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338168; article XML SHA-256 8a323396aec7e46a52becb3366579837faa17b5c7d25a1cc465be98400660b78. “Comprehensive metabolomic characterization of defense reprogramming in Castanea mollissima under Oligonychus ununguis feeding stress” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338168).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338168) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- paleopallium [redraft]: The definition claims Paleopallium is an “older” cortical region, but the packet does not include the word “older” or any age-related/ancestry sense of the term.; The packet states “Basal forebrain and medial part of temporal lobe areas that receive synaptic inputs from the OLFACTORY BULB,” but does not explicitly phrase this as an “older cortical region,” nor does it explicitly state “part of the olfactory cortex” in the definition text itself (it is only indirectly suggested by the packet’s source label/category).; The packet supports that this is a basal forebrain and medial temporal lobe area receiving synaptic inputs from the olfactory bulb, but it does not support the added claim that it is an "older cortical region."; The statement that it "is part of the olfactory cortex" is not stated in the packet text; the source label alone is not enough to support that as a substantive claim. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Olfactory Cortex” (D066194).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D066194) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- pancreatitis [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet definition is purely medical (inflammation of the pancreas, acute vs chronic based on CT/ERCP, causes like alcohol and gallstones) and does not relate to mental health as a field.; The definition is otherwise supported by the packet, but the field mismatch fails the requested sense/context requirement.; The requested field is not defensible: the packet defines pancreatitis as a medical condition of the pancreas, not a mental health term. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pancreatitis” (D010195).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010195) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- pandemic [redraft]: The definition is partly supported by the packet’s description of the COVID-19 pandemic, but it mixes a general dictionary sense with packet-specific findings, so it is not fully supported as written.; The first sentence (“a disease outbreak that spreads globally and brings broad public-health responses”) is not explicitly stated as a definition in the packet; the packet mentions a “global spread and response phase,” but does not clearly define “pandemic” in those terms.; The opening sentence gives a general definition of “pandemic” as a globally spreading disease outbreak with broad public-health responses, but the packet only discusses the COVID-19 pandemic and does not support that standalone definition.; The remainder of the definition refers to specific content (COVID-19 worldwide spread associated with worsening mental health in middle-aged and older adults, followed by a transition toward an endemic phase), which is supported, but the unsupported definitional first sentence prevents a pass.; “Broad public-health responses” is not explicitly supported by the packet; it mentions a “global spread and response phase,” but not the broader definitional claim. New packet required. Source: [Sharma Shristi; Elhassan Hiba; Anderson Kelly K.; Heisel Marnin J.; Wilk Piotr; Gagnier Joel. Changes in mental health outcomes of middle-aged and older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342140; article XML SHA-256 afdd04a511fa9dafa19c2a30c4b2e7e94774b7932c6c11aad2534ee8c4fbb087. “Changes in mental health outcomes of middle-aged and older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342140).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342140) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- panic attack [redraft]: 'Brief' is a duration claim the packet does not make. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Panic Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 ce43f2b6abfacd0fc7080a4c735434c92c7c9223822c428dafe4ddf9f8731cf7. “Panic Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/panic-disorder-when-fear-overwhelms).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/panic-disorder-when-fear-overwhelms) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- Papez circuit [redraft]: Describes what the study recorded rather than what the circuit is; 'described here' and 'in this source' hedging. New packet required. Source: [Stanslaski Scott R.; Case Michelle A.; Giftakis Jonathon E.; Raike Robert S.; Stypulkowski Paul H.. Long Term Performance of a Bi-Directional Neural Interface for Deep Brain Stimulation and Recording. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2022.916627; article XML SHA-256 24276296d08f1f3cbd6b41d631d1929e5683f2be396b5112b7e61cd0698b666b. “Long Term Performance of a Bi-Directional Neural Interface for Deep Brain Stimulation and Recording” (10.3389/fnhum.2022.916627).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.916627) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- para I [redraft]: 'Para I' is an OCR fragment, not a term; the packet entry is paralalia. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-913500-925500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- paradigm [redraft]: Because the first substantive claim of the definition (“structured research setup or task”) is not directly supported by the provided packet text, the definition is not fully defensible from the source.; The definition adds a generalized claim about what paradigms are that is not stated in the source; the source only describes VR-based stress paradigms in one study context.; The packet supports stress paradigms and their characteristics affecting response systems, but it does not support the broader learning-field sense or a general definition of paradigm as a research setup used to study any psychological process.; The packet uses the term “stress paradigms” in the context of VR-based research, but it does not explicitly define a paradigm as a “structured research setup or task.” New packet required. Source: [Singeap-Tiron Mara S; Onita Cristiana Amalia; Matei Daniela Viorelia; Dobrin Petru Romeo; Gotca Ioan; Radeanu Mihaela-Alina; Petrescu-Miron Diana I; Mocanu Veronica. Virtual reality-based stress paradigms and early adversity: a scoping review of mechanisms and stress-response systems. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1881373; article XML SHA-256 91b4803c5bef77e9c0f60880ca923b88229d440af55f895db66336b6d6009d55. “Virtual reality-based stress paradigms and early adversity: a scoping review of mechanisms and stress-response systems” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1881373).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1881373) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- parafovea [redraft]: The definition is close to the packet’s reading-research context, but it overgeneralizes beyond what is explicitly supported by the source text.; The definition’s reading-specific phrasing (“nearby words may be partly processed at the same time”) is broadly consistent with the packet’s description that semantic information can be extracted from the parafovea in parallel with the fixated/foveal word, but the first sentence’s “just outside the center of gaze” element is unsupported.; The packet does not support the claim that the parafovea is “the area just outside the center of gaze.” It only operationalizes parafovea as a location where a simultaneously presented word (W2) is processed relative to a foveal word (W1).; The packet supports parafovea as the region outside the fovea used in reading experiments, but it does not support the broader general description “the area just outside the center of gaze” or the claim about attention being focused on a word at fixation.; The packet supports parallel semantic processing of a parafoveal word and a foveal word, but it does not specifically support the phrasing that nearby words are “partly processed at the same time as the directly fixated word” as a general definition. New packet required. Source: [Bandiera Valentina; Arduino Lisa S; Daini Roberta; Martelli Marialuisa; Primativo Silvia. Distribution of visuo-attentional resources while reading multiple words. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341917; article XML SHA-256 d9edce83852b9426205e1d29977e049f2b7fc3b237e14dfacf374f4cab15b3de. “Distribution of visuo-attentional resources while reading multiple words” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341917).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341917) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- parallax [redraft]: Defines parallax as image-stitching mismatch, a narrow sense the packet discusses, not the headword's normal sense. New packet required. Source: [Chen Jun; Tang Honghua; Yan Dongmei; Chen Shuo; Wang Jie; Li Jianhui. Unsupervised seamless UAV image stitching via dense prediction. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348616; article XML SHA-256 0087767b9ef773016bf252fb3f704f99a10045587f7e93c15c3af1cb618ad21d. “Unsupervised seamless UAV image stitching via dense prediction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348616).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348616) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- parallel play [redraft]: The claim that it was “apparently when fewer familiar play partners were available” is not stated in those exact terms; the packet only says the difference “appears to be a function of available play partners” and that children “are not comfortable playing with children they do not know,” which does not fully substantiate the “fewer familiar play partners” phrasing.; The definition adds an explanatory generalization about the play pattern itself that is not stated in the supplied source.; The definition’s description of parallel play as “children play alongside other children without much direct interaction or shared activity” is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text (the packet mentions parallel play levels by setting but does not define what parallel play involves).; The packet supports that children showed more parallel play on the community playground and that this appears related to available/familiar play partners, but it does not define parallel play as children playing alongside others without direct interaction or shared activity. New packet required. Source: [Stanton-Chapman Tina L.; Schmidt Eric L.. How Do the Children Play? The Influence of Playground Type on Children’s Play Styles. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.703940; article XML SHA-256 f75713385dd4ae7d10e4c416e7bede1c5445b51d34e5856a6960c2c322908bb9. “How Do the Children Play? The Influence of Playground Type on Children’s Play Styles” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.703940).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.703940) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- paralysis agitans [redraft]: 'Older name' for Parkinson disease is a historical fact the packet never states. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Parkinson Disease” (D010300).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010300) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- parasitism [redraft]: 'Parasitism here means the rate...' smuggles a study-specific measure onto a general headword. New packet required. Source: [Wang Huixian; Zhu Wenya; Guo Ruifeng; Zhang Ye. Influence of egg card color preference, inoculation time, generational succession, and learning experience on the parasitism of Trichogramma ostriniae. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0315970; article XML SHA-256 9599f2d8aa25aaeb7948676fb79d4d81c17f5cbcaeb9a5cbfb0a6f8811e19fea. “Influence of egg card color preference, inoculation time, generational succession, and learning experience on the parasitism of Trichogramma ostriniae” (10.1371/journal.pone.0315970).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0315970) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- parasomnia [redraft]: The added general description of parasomnia as an unwanted sleep condition involving unusual behaviors or activities is not supported by the packet text.; The definition shifts from the requested term to SRED and its consequences, which are not a valid definition of parasomnia from this source.; The definition’s general first sentence (“Parasomnia refers to an unwanted condition that occurs during sleep and involves unusual behaviors or activities”) is not supported by the provided packet; the packet discusses sleep-related eating disorder as a non-REM parasomnia but does not provide a general definition of “parasomnia.”; The packet does not define parasomnia in general; it only states that sleep-related eating disorder (SRED) is a non-REM parasomnia.; The second sentence contains supported elements about SRED being a non-REM parasomnia and having potentially significant negative health effects, but the overall definition cannot be accepted because the general parasomnia description is unsupported. New packet required. Source: [Vasiliu Octavian. Current evidence and future perspectives in the exploration of sleep-related eating disorder–a systematic literature review. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1393337; article XML SHA-256 bc1d7fc80c49a624c0b89ff1101d6e914f256b73b60032d87605e014e7e345e0. “Current evidence and future perspectives in the exploration of sleep-related eating disorder–a systematic literature review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1393337).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1393337) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- parathyroid hormone [redraft]: Defines a hormone as a drug; packet's drug framing does not make that the headword's normal sense. New packet required. Source: [Lu Yongtao; He Jintao; Zhu Hanxing; Wang Yongxuan. Effect of parathyroid hormone on the structural, densitometric and failure behaviors of mouse tibia in the spatiotemporal space. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0219575; article XML SHA-256 2b95d9c313e624e55fcef926de7c62fbb085a2f86da6a6e915e6960602c577cb. “Effect of parathyroid hormone on the structural, densitometric and failure behaviors of mouse tibia in the spatiotemporal space” (10.1371/journal.pone.0219575).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219575) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- paraventricular nucleus [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported detail by describing the nucleus as a "group of nerve cells"; the packet only says it is a nucleus in the anterior part of the hypothalamus.; The definition’s “front part” is consistent with “anterior part,” but the unsupported “group of nerve cells” prevents passing.; The packet states only that it is a “Nucleus in the anterior part of the HYPOTHALAMUS.” It does not explicitly describe it as “a group of nerve cells,” so that substantive wording is not directly supported.; The wording "front part" is acceptable for "anterior part," but the rest of the definition should not go beyond the packet-supported location claim. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Paraventricular Hypothalamic Nucleus” (D010286).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010286) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- parental investment [redraft]: Second sentence redefines the term as the study's question about family structure and growth. New packet required. Source: [Lauringson Velda; Veldre Gudrun; Hõrak Peeter. Adolescent Cranial Volume as a Sensitive Marker of Parental Investment: The Role of Non-material Resources?. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.602401; article XML SHA-256 df08e3306417ee9af0e1deef904d85d8fc6e9403f4d706dea6ad5dd7207aad13. “Adolescent Cranial Volume as a Sensitive Marker of Parental Investment: The Role of Non-material Resources?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.602401).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.602401) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- parental leave [redraft]: The definition adds a general explanatory framing not grounded in the source packet’s psychology-context usage, which focuses specifically on men’s parental leave-taking intentions and childcare engagement.; The packet does not explicitly define parental leave as “time away from work … around the transition to parenthood to provide care,” so this substantive definitional wording is unsupported by the provided text.; The packet supports parental leave as leave-taking around the transition to parenthood and as a gateway to greater men’s childcare engagement, but it does not explicitly support the broader gloss “time away from work” or the claim that it is for parents generally to provide care.; While the packet supports discussing parental leave as a gateway/route to increasing men’s childcare engagement and focuses on fathers’ intentions, the overall definition includes the unsupported general description from the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Scheifele Carolin; Van Laar Colette; Steffens Melanie C.. Predictors of expectant fathers’ parental leave-taking intentions before birth: masculinity, fatherhood beliefs, and social support. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1247193; article XML SHA-256 826b9acfa7118356261c68f311cd3295ca44cc6786540f2d1995726d4c9ef294. “Predictors of expectant fathers’ parental leave-taking intentions before birth: masculinity, fatherhood beliefs, and social support” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1247193).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1247193) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- parental rejection [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the source by presenting a broader contextual interpretation rather than the source’s narrower association with emotional eating in youngsters.; The packet states that parental rejection is characterized by a lack of parental warmth/acceptance and/or physically and psychologically hurtful behaviors toward the child, but it does not explicitly describe parental rejection itself as “an important stressor for youngsters.” The packet mentions “other stressors” and separately emphasizes the importance of parental rejection for emotional eating, but the specific “important stressor” wording for parental rejection is not directly supported.; The packet supports the characterization of parental rejection as lacking warmth/acceptance or involving hurtful behavior, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that it is an “important stressor for youngsters.” New packet required. Source: [Vandewalle Julie; Mabbe Elien; Debeuf Taaike; Braet Caroline; Moens Ellen. The Daily Relation between Parental Rejection and Emotional Eating in Youngsters: A Diary Study. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00691; article XML SHA-256 27f7fe2259ef9655387bfffb92bff78bc668d723ead28c570ec38fa38507967e. “The Daily Relation between Parental Rejection and Emotional Eating in Youngsters: A Diary Study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00691).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00691) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- parent–child interaction therapy [redraft]: The definition claims PCIT is “described as a treatment whose effectiveness can be compared with usual care in child and adolescent mental health clinics.” This comparison is supported by the packet (“compare … PCIT with treatment as usual (TAU) … referred to regular child and adolescent mental health clinics”), but the overall definition contains unsupported elements beyond this comparison.; The definition states that parent–child interaction therapy is “used with young children and their parents,” but the provided packet text only states that the effectiveness of “Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT)” was compared with treatment as usual in “young children” referred to clinics, without explicitly mentioning parents.; The definition’s description that children are “particularly for children referred for behavior problems” is only supported in part: the packet says the children “were referred … for behavior problems,” but it does not support the “particularly” emphasis.; The packet only supports that PCIT was studied as a treatment for young children referred to child and adolescent mental health clinics for behavior problems; it does not support the broader definitional claim that it is a therapeutic approach used with young children and their parents.; The requested sense is only partially supported: the behavior-problem/young-children context is present, but the definition adds unsupported generalization about routine use and effectiveness in clinics.; The second sentence reports a study aim (comparing PCIT with treatment as usual), not a stable description of what the term means, so the definition overstates the source. New packet required. Source: [Bjørseth Åse; Wichstrøm Lars. Effectiveness of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) in the Treatment of Young Children’s Behavior Problems. A Randomized Controlled Study. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0159845; article XML SHA-256 600f70589c6110bdf330a92c3c5bebf37a55c436a3701540d448a8ce94b7b97d. “Effectiveness of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) in the Treatment of Young Children’s Behavior Problems. A Randomized Controlled Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0159845).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159845) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Pareto principle [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence states a general formulation (“a relatively small subset of items can account for most of the total importance or effect in a system”), but the packet does not provide an explicit general statement of the Pareto principle; it only reports that the authors used it to select sustainability indicators that capture “more than 80% of the total strength.”; The packet supports using the Pareto principle to select a limited set of sustainability indicators that account for more than 80% of total strength, but it does not explicitly support the broader general definition that a small subset of items accounts for most of the total importance or effect in a system.; The phrase “importance or effect” and the wording “items” are not directly supported by the provided source text.; The phrasing extends beyond the source by generalizing from the specific sustainability-indicator example to a universal definition of the Pareto principle. New packet required. Source: [Vázquez Pável; del Río Jesús A.; Cedano Karla G.; Martínez Manuel; Jensen Henrik J.. An Entangled Model for Sustainability Indicators. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0135250; article XML SHA-256 41faffbfd993af592f62a3b4d56cfca8a5444280229a9737c4cc3894b83b212a. “An Entangled Model for Sustainability Indicators” (10.1371/journal.pone.0135250).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0135250) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- paroxysm [redraft]: The added gloss “such as an abrupt involuntary contraction of muscles” is not the meaning of paroxysm here; it is the surrounding definition of convulsion, where paroxysm is used as a near-synonym for a muscular contraction.; The definition overgeneralizes from one historical occurrence and should not present that historical usage as a broad dictionary sense without support from the packet.; The example in the definition (“abrupt involuntary contraction of muscles”) is broadly consistent with the packet’s wording, but the packet does not explicitly characterize the contraction as “sudden” or “outburst,” so that added phrasing is not directly supported.; The packet does not support the general sense of “paroxysm” as a “sudden violent attack or outburst”; it only uses “paroxysm” as part of the phrase “A violent and purposeless contraction or paroxysm of a group of muscles.”; The packet supports only a medical sense in this source: “a violent and purposeless contraction or paroxysm of a group of muscles.” It does not support the broader general sense “sudden violent attack or outburst.” New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Convulsion” (Convulsion).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Convulsion) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- parse [redraft]: 'In this context' hedge; separating into meaningful parts is a general gloss the packet does not give. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Xiaolin; Zhou Yan; Hu Luming; Yan Jingwen; Yin Xuntao. Structural and functional coupling alterations in autism spectrum disorder with and without comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1704170; article XML SHA-256 a342b5ac29d66947d66e4af6fa3592c8b1048962d973050b2fcd5b95a59803dc. “Structural and functional coupling alterations in autism spectrum disorder with and without comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1704170).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1704170) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- parsimony [redraft]: Narrows a general headword to variable-selection methods; 'fewer or simpler features' not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Bain Catherine M; Shi Dingjing; Banad Yaser M; Boness Cassandra L; Loeffelman Jordan E. Comparing the use of supervised machine learning variable selection methods in the context of two-group classification in the psychological and health sciences. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1819366; article XML SHA-256 6db8b8369c7825ea9f09691cbeee689376b67ec925e4c73b25e658b0d6777918. “Comparing the use of supervised machine learning variable selection methods in the context of two-group classification in the psychological and health sciences” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1819366).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1819366) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- partial agonist [redraft]: General mechanism of limited receptor activation is added; packet only labels AT121 a partial agonist. New packet required. Source: [Elawy Baraa E; Soukkarieh Chadi E; Abbady Abdul Q; Allaham Shaza A; Deeb Georges M. Evaluation of AT121 versus morphine on cortical neurons electrophysiology and dopamine concentrations in hippocampal cells. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347529; article XML SHA-256 1da32c01a89ac07f05f9348b2be7a4784052ab57db94f7ac75a4788be4f71b86. “Evaluation of AT121 versus morphine on cortical neurons electrophysiology and dopamine concentrations in hippocampal cells” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347529).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347529) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- participative decision making [redraft]: The definition adds "workplace" as a setting, but the source context is limited to higher-education teachers and school climate factors; workplace is not supported by the packet.; The definition claims the term is a “school or workplace climate factor”; the packet only clearly frames participative decision-making as one of the “school climate factors” (no workplace context is supported).; The definition’s description of participative decision making (i.e., people are involved in making decisions rather than authority making decisions) is not stated or defined in the provided packet text.; The definition’s specific link (“linked with greater teacher enjoyment”) is supported as a positive direct effect, but other substantive parts of the definition are not supported, so the overall definition cannot pass.; The packet supports participative decision-making as a school climate factor and reports a direct positive effect on teacher enjoyment, but it does not define the term as people being involved in decisions rather than decisions being made by those in authority. New packet required. Source: [Bing Xiaoyi; Cai Jianqiao. Unpacking the role of school climate factors in fostering teacher enjoyment and self-efficacy in higher education. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329001; article XML SHA-256 f8fdafc8cebb1c39984223a63da17143b5f3bb7d21531789973ac62d4f8f76bb. “Unpacking the role of school climate factors in fostering teacher enjoyment and self-efficacy in higher education” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329001).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329001) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- participative research [redraft]: The claim that it helps make findings or interventions better matched to people’s needs and preferences is broader than the packet supports, which only says the study was designed to tailor interventions to individual needs and preferences.; The definition says participative research “often” uses qualitative data; the packet mentions qualitative data in this specific study but does not establish that this is an “often” general characteristic of the approach.; The packet only states that “participative research will contribute valuable qualitative data” and that the study includes “patients’ views on falls prevention.” It does not explicitly support the claim that participative research “helps make findings or interventions better matched to people’s needs and preferences.”; The packet supports only that participative research will contribute qualitative data; it does not define the term as including participants’ own views and experiences. New packet required. Source: [Stuckenschneider Tim; Koschate Jessica; Dunker Ellen; Reeck Nadja; Hackbarth Michel; Hellmers Sandra; Kwiecien Robert; Lau Sandra; Levke Brütt Anna; Hein Andreas; Zieschang Tania. Sentinel fall presenting to the emergency department (SeFallED) – protocol of a complex study including long-term observation of functional trajectories after a fall, exploration of specific fall risk factors, and patients’ views on falls prevention. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12877-022-03261-7; article XML SHA-256 6728acf7138fc619603f3b7b95abd28aa89eab1550bde59be56508fcebce5a0c. “Sentinel fall presenting to the emergency department (SeFallED) – protocol of a complex study including long-term observation of functional trajectories after a fall, exploration of specific fall risk factors, and patients’ views on falls prevention” (10.1186/s12877-022-03261-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-022-03261-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- passive avoidance [redraft]: The definition adds a use/purpose claim beyond the source’s description of the task itself.; The definition adds that the task is "used in the study of learning and memory," but the provided packet text only describes the task structure (negative stimulus during training; omitted during testing) and does not explicitly support the claim about its use in learning-and-memory research.; The final sentence, “It is used in the study of learning and memory,” is not supported by the packet text. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Passive Avoidance Task” (C226113).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- passive learning [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported general meaning for “passive learning” (“students mainly receive material rather than actively use language skills”); the source only says language teaching had been focused on the passive learning of the alphabet.; The packet mentions that research on teaching listening and speaking skills was limited, which is related to the comparison, but it does not explicitly state the full framing that the alphabet-centered instruction is “instead of more active work on listening and speaking” as a definition of passive learning.; The packet supports that “language teaching has been focused on the passive learning of the alphabet,” but it does not define passive learning in general as students mainly “receive material rather than actively use language skills.”; The source supports a contrast with listening and speaking, but it does not define passive learning itself as that broader instructional mode. New packet required. Source: [Yin Sheng-Kai. A study of the effects of thematic language teaching on the promotion of multimedia design students’ listening and speaking skills. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.915145; article XML SHA-256 438e89b62b90a45cc3cb5a27dfbec176c5a635bddc0f83fb7238fd02d3084ada. “A study of the effects of thematic language teaching on the promotion of multimedia design students’ listening and speaking skills” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.915145).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.915145) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- passive resistance [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported wording and implications: the packet says “passive resistance to demands for adequate performance” and “indirect expression of hostility,” but it does not explicitly support “avoiding demands” or “rather than opposing them openly.”; The definition’s claim that the term “appears as part of a broader pattern of … reduced cooperation in social and work situations” is not supported by the packet text. The packet mentions negativistic attitudes and indirect hostility/passive resistance to demands for adequate performance, but does not mention reduced cooperation.; “Reduced cooperation in social and work situations” is not stated in the packet; the packet instead says “negativistic attitudes and passive resistance to demands for adequate performance in social and occupational situations.” New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder” (C34904).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- patho- [redraft]: Because the definition’s key claims about what the prefix “patho-” denotes are not stated or supported in the provided text, the definition cannot be considered field-defensible within the supplied packet.; The added explanation that it marks mechanisms as involving pathological processes rather than normal function goes beyond what is stated in the source text.; The packet does not provide an explicit dictionary or etymological definition of the prefix “patho-” (e.g., that it means disease/abnormal bodily functioning).; The packet only shows “(patho-) physiological mechanisms” used in context, but it does not explain the prefix’s meaning, its intended sense, or how it should be interpreted in general terms.; The packet only uses the form in the phrase “(patho-) physiological mechanisms” and does not explicitly support the broader dictionary claim that the prefix means a link to disease or abnormal bodily functioning. New packet required. Source: [Eberle Claudia; Fasig Teresa; Brüseke Franziska; Stichling Stefanie. Impact of maternal prenatal stress by glucocorticoids on metabolic and cardiovascular outcomes in their offspring: A systematic scoping review. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0245386; article XML SHA-256 be927e0808ef657f63011154f2de5153f6e77a4076aee353d7b441cddf1e4676. “Impact of maternal prenatal stress by glucocorticoids on metabolic and cardiovascular outcomes in their offspring: A systematic scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0245386).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245386) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pathological aggression [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence claims a specific contrast—“aggression occurring in clinical or patient populations, rather than the normal range…in healthy people”—but the provided packet does not supply a corresponding definition or clear support for this characterization beyond mentioning “patient populations presenting with pathological aggression.”; The packet does not define pathological aggression as aggression in clinical or patient populations, nor does it contrast the term with the “normal range” of aggressive traits in healthy people; that framing is an unsupported generalization.; The source supports a research association between aggression and altered OFC-amygdala connectivity, but not that this is the defining sense of the term as stated. New packet required. Source: [Beyer Frederike; Münte Thomas F.; Wiechert Juliana; Heldmann Marcus; Krämer Ulrike M.. Trait Aggressiveness Is Not Related to Structural Connectivity between Orbitofrontal Cortex and Amygdala. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0101105; article XML SHA-256 ee119300eceb755c2b446b539d33bedaa5d928763e06dfc1a7fd243725323c6a. “Trait Aggressiveness Is Not Related to Structural Connectivity between Orbitofrontal Cortex and Amygdala” (10.1371/journal.pone.0101105).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0101105) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pathological aging [redraft]: The definition adds a general explanatory contrast with “healthy aging” that is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supported wording.; The packet does not explicitly state that, “in this packet, it is used to describe aging associated with cognitive impairment in Alzheimer’s disease.” While the study compares cognitively impaired AD patients to controls and mentions “pathological aging,” the packet does not explicitly equate the term’s meaning to that stated definition.; The packet does not provide or support the claim that “pathological aging refers to aging that is affected by disease-related decline rather than typical healthy aging.” It only uses the phrase “pathological aging” without defining it.; The packet uses the phrase “pathological aging” in the context of cognitively impaired Alzheimer’s disease patients, but it does not define it as aging affected by disease-related decline rather than typical healthy aging. New packet required. Source: [Kliem Elisabeth; Forster Michael; Leder Helmut. Aesthetic Preference for Negatively-Valenced Artworks Remains Stable in Pathological Aging: A Comparison Between Cognitively Impaired Patients With Alzheimer's Disease and Healthy Controls. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.879833; article XML SHA-256 1dd18a635aeb3ccde573c437b6f04fc381673131895fe1b335a44e89b1b33b0b. “Aesthetic Preference for Negatively-Valenced Artworks Remains Stable in Pathological Aging: A Comparison Between Cognitively Impaired Patients With Alzheimer's Disease and Healthy Controls” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.879833).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.879833) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pathophysiology [redraft]: 'In this source' hedge narrows a general headword to brain-circuit processes. New packet required. Source: [Lauro Peter M; Palmer Charles F; Nambiar Marshall M; Muller Ully; Qiu Liming; Halpern Casey H; Scangos Katherine W. Circuit-based neuromodulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review of prior and emerging methods. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828620; article XML SHA-256 abb584ae7745ca91cf96bffdef1ddd58ed7cda26475f21993089cb87561fa676. “Circuit-based neuromodulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review of prior and emerging methods” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828620).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1828620) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- patient abuse [redraft]: The claim that this applies “within a care setting” is supported only insofar as the packet discusses psychiatric hospitals; it is not explicitly generalized beyond that setting in the provided text.; The packet does not explicitly define “abusive or harmful behavior” as the nature of the behavior; it refers to “abuse” without stating that it is “abusive or harmful behavior” directed at the patient.; The packet only mentions nurse-to-patient abuse; it does not support extending the perpetrator to “caregiver” generally.; The packet supports nurse-to-patient abuse in Japanese psychiatric hospitals, but the definition generalizes to any healthcare worker or caregiver in any care setting.; The second sentence is only partly supported: the packet mentions individual and workplace factors, but not the broader claim that this applies generally to mental health services.; “Harmful behavior” is broader than what the packet states; the source only refers to abuse. New packet required. Source: [Matoba Kei; Yayama So; Teshima Taiki; Miki Akiko. Nurse-perpetrated abuse in Japanese psychiatric hospitals: a cross-sectional study of prevalence and correlates. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1624859; article XML SHA-256 4ad05b017a0bce3130f8af06f509c79832866dfd477fdb8ab3ad805b651c1512. “Nurse-perpetrated abuse in Japanese psychiatric hospitals: a cross-sectional study of prevalence and correlates” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1624859).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1624859) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- patient history [redraft]: Because “gathers symptom information” is not directly supported by the provided packet text, the definition includes an unsupported substantive claim.; However, the claim that it "gathers symptom information" is not stated in the packet and is an unsupported addition.; The packet states that the instrument has two parts (patient history completed by the patient, and a physical exam completed by a health professional), but it does not explicitly say that the patient history “gathers symptom information.”; The packet supports that the first part is a patient history completed by the patient and that the second part is a physical exam completed by a health professional. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Michigan Neuropathy Screening Instrument Questionnaire” (C100771).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- patients’ rights [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the packet by defining patients’ rights broadly as “legal or formal protections” and as information all people receiving care are entitled to be told about; the packet only supports rights information being given to involuntary psychiatric patients upon admission in British Columbia.; The definition’s first sentence contains substantive claims (“legal or formal protections” and entitlement for people receiving care) that are not directly stated in the supplied packet.; The packet only describes clinicians’ responsibility to provide “rights information” to involuntary psychiatric patients upon admission and an Ombudsperson investigation about that responsibility; it does not explicitly support the broader wording that patients’ rights are “legal or formal protections” or that they apply generally to “people receiving care.”; The specific sense needed here is too narrow and context-specific in the packet to support the broader first-sentence definition as written. New packet required. Source: [Cheung Iva W.; Silva Diego S.; Miller Kimberly J.; Michalak Erin E.; Goldsmith Charles H.. A qualitative study of clinicians’ perspectives on independent rights advice for involuntary psychiatric patients in British Columbia, Canada. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0247268; article XML SHA-256 fdd1938f1bb0e33b59d0d967eea9ffed2b041f830dc6ad00a89532239b0e449b. “A qualitative study of clinicians’ perspectives on independent rights advice for involuntary psychiatric patients in British Columbia, Canada” (10.1371/journal.pone.0247268).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247268) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pattern discrimination [redraft]: Restricts a general term to auditory patterns, a narrower sense the packet happens to discuss. New packet required. Source: [Bijeljac-Babic Ranka; Serres Josette; Höhle Barbara; Nazzi Thierry. Effect of Bilingualism on Lexical Stress Pattern Discrimination in French-Learning Infants. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0030843; article XML SHA-256 8b401af9452b2ee6ccddefdf344989196b2ce5c1fe3ab64a60712e9f20706db9. “Effect of Bilingualism on Lexical Stress Pattern Discrimination in French-Learning Infants” (10.1371/journal.pone.0030843).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030843) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Paxipam [redraft]: Because “Paxipam” is not supported by the provided packet, the definition’s requested term sense (“Paxipam is…”) is not defensible from the supplied source.; The mechanism is more specific than the packet warrants: the packet supports benzodiazepine-GABA-A receptor binding and increased chloride-channel opening, but not the definition’s exact wording about Paxipam or its stated receptor-complex phrasing as written.; The packet content is for “Halazepam” (source_label: Halazepam) and does not explicitly provide information establishing that “Paxipam” is the same substance or even mentions “Paxipam.”; The packet text is for Halazepam, not Paxipam, so the requested term/sense is not supported by the source packet. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Halazepam” (C61780).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- PCIT [redraft]: The definition leans on source-label/background framing for the acronym expansion rather than the source text itself, which only supports the intervention description.; The field is not defensible: PCIT is a therapy/intervention, not a diagnosis term.; The term PCIT is described in the packet as an “approach”/therapy, not as a diagnostic concept; the provided field is “diagnosis,” which is not defensible based on the packet. New packet required. Source: [Seçer İsmail; Ulaş Sümeyye; Tatlı Eda; Çimen Fatmanur; Bülbül Burcu; Tosunoğlu Beyzanur. Investigation of the effectiveness of parent-child interaction therapy on adjustment and behavioral problems in children with subthreshold autism. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1408847; article XML SHA-256 ceb261d29adfe025e1a9bb1109b3d8f14937a45341b9b3c83cff70d22ae6bfbc. “Investigation of the effectiveness of parent-child interaction therapy on adjustment and behavioral problems in children with subthreshold autism” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1408847).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1408847) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Pcs [redraft]: The definition adds a broader functional explanation of PCS that goes beyond the source, which only says perceptual-cognitive skills are a strong predictor of future expert performance and are relevant for informing selection/development decisions in football.; The definition claims that “PCS refers to perceptual-cognitive skills” and specifies that these are abilities involved in “taking in information and using it to think and make effective decisions.” The provided packet does not define PCS in terms of information intake, thinking, or decision-making.; The gloss “abilities involved in taking in information and using it to think and make effective decisions” is not stated or clearly supported by the packet.; The packet supports that perceptual-cognitive skills (PCS) are “a strong predictor of future expert performance in football” and that knowledge of PCS can “inform (de)selection and development decisions,” but the first sentence adds definitional detail not supported by the packet.; The sense of “Pcs” is supported only insofar as it maps to “Perceptual-cognitive skills (PCS),” but the added cognitive-mechanism phrasing (“taking in information…make effective decisions”) is not evidenced in the supplied text. New packet required. Source: [Triggs Andrew O; Causer Joe; McRobert Allistair P; Reeves Matthew J; Andrew Matthew. Perceptual-cognitive skills in talent development environments: a survey of academy football coaches in the United Kingdom. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1751602; article XML SHA-256 47b4b81db3213bbd2994e8823ee89629f1eae5155167c6660351ff1bb3fe5c5e. “Perceptual-cognitive skills in talent development environments: a survey of academy football coaches in the United Kingdom” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1751602).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1751602) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- PDE [redraft]: PDE abbreviates phosphodiesterase; 'in this packet' hedge narrows it to PDE-5. New packet required. Source: [Elzupir Amin O; Almahmoud Sondos A J. Unveiling of phosphodiesterase-5 hot residues binding to xanthine derivatives for erectile dysfunction therapy: A computational drug repurposing approach. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336267; article XML SHA-256 0d020d6dc896c3122d87c8dccb8c01bcc4dac00d04623f1193251bdb79b3a012. “Unveiling of phosphodiesterase-5 hot residues binding to xanthine derivatives for erectile dysfunction therapy: A computational drug repurposing approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336267).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336267) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- peak experience [redraft]: The comparison with a calmer, more enduring “plateau experience” is only partly supported; the packet says plateau experiences are more calm and persistent, but it does not present this as a formal definitional contrast for peak experience.; The packet does not explicitly support that a peak experience is “short-lasting” or “intense”; it only contrasts peak experiences with plateau experiences as more calm/persistent (with plateau described as effects lasting at least 1 year).; The packet supports that many traditional meditation techniques aim at peak experiences, but it does not directly support defining a peak experience itself as a “short-lasting, intense state of self-transcendence.”; The packet supports that peak experiences are linked to altered self-transcendence and are an aim/goal of some meditation techniques, but the added specifics about duration and intensity are unsupported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Garcia-Campayo Javier; Hijar-Aguinaga Rinchen; Barceló-Soler Alberto; Fernández-Martínez Selene; Aristegui Roberto; Pérez-Aranda Adrián. Examining the Relation Between Practicing Meditation and Having Peak Experiences and Lucid Dreams. A Cross-Sectional Study. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.858745; article XML SHA-256 f92cc75d19a3f768dd52d71ee89e531e726f65f5cc45564f454eb9920c2788ed. “Examining the Relation Between Practicing Meditation and Having Peak Experiences and Lucid Dreams. A Cross-Sectional Study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.858745).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.858745) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- peer counseling [redraft]: The claim that peer counseling is a 'promising, low-cost way' to improve breastfeeding outcomes is broader than the packet support; the source says peer counseling is promising and separately discusses low-cost, high-yield primary prevention interventions, but does not specifically state that peer counseling itself is low-cost.; The definition adds an unsupported generalization that peer counseling is a community-based support approach where people receive guidance from peers rather than only from formal health services; the packet only describes breastfeeding peer counseling as a community-based strategy.; The packet supports that “BF peer counseling” is a promising, community-based strategy and that combining health systems and community-based services has larger effects, and it states the interventions are “Low-cost.” However, it does not support the claim that peer counseling provides guidance “rather than only from formal health services.”; The packet text does not explicitly define peer counseling as guidance “from peers” (it uses the term “peer counseling” in the context of breastfeeding outcomes, but the requested first-sentence mechanism/contrast is not stated). New packet required. Source: [Martinez-Brockman Josefa L.; Granner Josephine R.; Buchanan Brice; Acosta Lisbette; Lonczak Marilyn; Goeschel Lori; Xu Xiao; Curry Leslie; Nunez-Smith Marcella; Pérez-Escamilla Rafael. Evaluation and adaptation of a two-way text messaging intervention in the WIC breastfeeding peer counseling program: A qualitative analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313779; article XML SHA-256 5d7332b3cb527236c27ebb66e6bf4d0df2162d8e55d9d6310336fc6ca7ab9943. “Evaluation and adaptation of a two-way text messaging intervention in the WIC breastfeeding peer counseling program: A qualitative analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313779).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313779) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- percept [redraft]: The packet is an entry for “Idea,” not “Percept,” and it does not directly define percept as “an object as actually perceived through present sensation.”; The packet states that “objects as perceived by means of actual sensations are included under the term [‘idea’],” which contradicts the supplied definition’s claimed strict contrast between “percept” (present sensation) and “idea” (reproduced image).; The packet supports that idea is a reproduction of an object not actually present to the senses and that some broader usages (e.g., German Vorstellung) can cover both perception and idea, but it does not support the full contrastive definition of percept given here.; The provided definition defines “percept,” but the packet contains an “Idea” entry and does not give a definition of the term “percept.”; The statement that some writers used broader terms is supportable, but the definition’s framing as a historical-psychology term for percept goes beyond the supplied text.; While the packet discusses distinctions between “perceptual experiences” (called impressions) and “ideas,” it does not define “percept” as an object actually perceived through present sensation. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Idea” (Idea).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I1defs.htm#Idea) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- perceptron [redraft]: 'In this packet' hedge; perceptron defined only via multilayer perceptron classifier in one study. New packet required. Source: [Laib Abderrzak; Ouagueni Fayssal; Herizi Abdelghafour; Djeriou Salim; Ahmed Hafiz; Chedjara Zakaria; Dahmane Saida. Vibration-based bearing fault diagnosis in noisy conditions using matrix pencil mean frequency and multilayer perceptron neural networks. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345870; article XML SHA-256 48a72eef1036c4a1682eb0edf0c395dc2f463fd553764ef2e1360dbb9fc74dcd. “Vibration-based bearing fault diagnosis in noisy conditions using matrix pencil mean frequency and multilayer perceptron neural networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345870).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345870) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- perceptual classification [redraft]: Restricts a general term to sounds; human-judged sorting of quoll calls is one study's use. New packet required. Source: [Dorph Annalie; McDonald Paul G. The acoustic repertoire and behavioural context of the vocalisations of a nocturnal dasyurid, the eastern quoll ( Dasyurus viverrinus ). 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0179337; article XML SHA-256 18462d87986814e9465634457ebfc00d9018d849ee51fff69501784120800866. “The acoustic repertoire and behavioural context of the vocalisations of a nocturnal dasyurid, the eastern quoll ( Dasyurus viverrinus )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0179337).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179337) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- perceptual disturbance [redraft]: The definition adds a broad characterization of perceptual disturbance as a general problem in sensory-information processing separate from thoughts or feelings; the packet only discusses a possible additional perceptual component in body-size estimation.; The definition asserts that the sense “refers to altered perception…beyond body image concerns alone.” While the packet supports independent/additive effects of body image concerns and a perceptual component (contraction bias) in body size estimation, it does not explicitly equate “perceptual disturbance” with that perceptual component in the way the definition does.; The definition claims perceptual disturbance is “separate from a person’s thoughts or feelings about the body,” but the packet does not state this separation in those terms; it only discusses additive/independent effects of body image concerns versus a perceptual component.; The packet discusses “a perceptual component known as contraction bias,” but does not use the phrase “perceptual disturbance” as a named concept or directly define it; thus part of the definition goes beyond what is explicitly supported.; The packet supports body-size overestimation and a perceptual component such as contraction bias, but not the general wording about "altered perception" as a standalone definition of the term.; The phrase "separate from a person’s thoughts or feelings about the body" overstates the source, which contrasts body image concerns with a perceptual component only in the context of eating-disorder body-size estimation. New packet required. Source: [Brokjøb Lise Gulli; Cornelissen Piers L; Gumančík Jiří; McCarty Kristofor; Tovée Martin J; Cornelissen Katri K. Evidence for a specific distortion in perceptual body image in eating disorders: A replication and extension. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313619; article XML SHA-256 81f0ccd28d0cca50359051543d5d4388691438c964e5204a10b6970784751fbe. “Evidence for a specific distortion in perceptual body image in eating disorders: A replication and extension” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313619).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313619) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- perceptual fluency [redraft]: The packet does not define perceptual fluency as “the ease with which something is perceived or identified”; it only discusses its effects on judgments of learning.; The packet does not explicitly define “perceptual fluency” as “the ease with which something is perceived or identified.”; The packet supports that perceptual fluency affects judgments of learning both non-analytically and analytically via beliefs about the relationship between perceptual fluency and memory performance, but the first sentence of the definition goes beyond what is stated in the packet.; “Automatically” is a slight overstatement of the source’s wording. The source says perceptual fluency affects judgments of learning “non-analytically,” not that it acts automatically. New packet required. Source: [Wang Zhiwei; Yang Chunliang; Zhao Wenbo; Jiang Yingjie. Perceptual Fluency Affects Judgments of Learning Non-analytically and Analytically Through Beliefs About How Perceptual Fluency Affects Memory. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.552824; article XML SHA-256 25aa630d6e177525d86f14cf2aaa8f7de52c24889cf4c6b9f0ab942d23f2adcd. “Perceptual Fluency Affects Judgments of Learning Non-analytically and Analytically Through Beliefs About How Perceptual Fluency Affects Memory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.552824).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.552824) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- perceptual set [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence ("expectations or readiness" shaping what aspects of a scene can be noticed) is not stated or defined in the supplied packet; the packet only says the effect depended on “perceptual set.”; The definition’s second sentence is partially supported, but it extends beyond the packet’s wording: the packet specifies that increasing “certainty with which participants simultaneously tracked multiple depth planes” reduced TOJ thresholds, not that a “stronger perceptual set for tracking multiple depth planes” changed detection of timing differences in the general way described.; The packet supports a study-specific effect of perceptual set on temporal order judgments, but it does not define perceptual set as a general psychological readiness or expectation that shapes perception.; The phrase "how accurately people detected small differences in timing" is a loose paraphrase of the article’s temporal order judgment thresholds and may overgeneralize the specific experimental task. New packet required. Source: [Matthews Nestor; Welch Leslie; Festa Elena K.; Bruno Anthony A.; Schafer Kendra. Global depth perception alters local timing sensitivity. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0228080; article XML SHA-256 a8fcf44e40e926651e6df056cd5144a805749ff2a3949d064ccb86e92e5d44bb. “Global depth perception alters local timing sensitivity” (10.1371/journal.pone.0228080).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228080) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- perceptual [redraft]: The first sentence gives a general definition of “perceptual” as “processes involved in noticing and telling apart sensory information,” but the packet does not provide an explicit general definition of “perceptual”; it discusses “perceptual learning” and discrimination in a specific task context.; The packet supports implicit, automatic learning that affects later discrimination, but not the definition’s framing of “perceptual” itself as that process.; The packet supports perceptual learning, not the general adjective/perceptual sense defined here; the requested sense is therefore mismatched.; The second sentence’s restriction (“In this packet, it especially concerns implicit, automatic learning that improves later discrimination after exposure”) is supported, but the definition contains an additional broader claim not evidenced by the packet.; “Processes involved in noticing and telling apart sensory information” is an unsupported broad generalization beyond the packet’s discussion of one experimental perceptual-learning paradigm. New packet required. Source: [Arriola Naiara; Marin-Garcia Eugenia; Mera Yeray; Rodríguez Gabriel. ADHD and perceptual learning: insights from the intermixed-blocked effect. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1645399; article XML SHA-256 c2d31165b58434e6ec8bcd9fbc78209f9ab078cf86fbb02f5f9467aea47086c9. “ADHD and perceptual learning: insights from the intermixed-blocked effect” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1645399).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1645399) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- perceptual–motor coordination [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly support the meaning that this refers to “coordination needed to carry out more complex physical skills and tasks”; it only uses the phrase in a generalized way within an interpretation about wrestling-technique demands, without defining the term.; The packet does not provide a definition of “perceptual–motor coordination,” nor does it state that it is “the ability to use perceptual information to organize and control movement.”; The packet does not support the general definition that perceptual–motor coordination is the ability to use perceptual information to organize and control movement.; The packet only supports a narrower contextual use: techniques that demand higher perceptual-motor coordination and greater task complexity in school physical education; it does not establish the broader explanatory statement in the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Gürsoy Salih; Zekioglu Aylin. Peer-mediated instruction improves acquisition of complex wrestling techniques in school physical education. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348070; article XML SHA-256 4d0d02fe1c61a67418823fd701ca0496edfa93386597f187ee7872564018b267. “Peer-mediated instruction improves acquisition of complex wrestling techniques in school physical education” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348070).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348070) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- percipient [redraft]: Percipient simply means the perceiver; definition hedges 'in this historical usage' to bake the eject context into the headword. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Eject and Ejective” (Eject and Ejective).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Eject and Ejective) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- performance evaluation [redraft]: Redefines the general headword as self-judgment of one's own performance, the packet's narrow 'subjective sport performance evaluation' sense. New packet required. Source: [Tian Jingchao; Zhang Huiying; Sun Junjun. Perceived autonomy support and subjective sport performance evaluation: serial mediation via exercise self-efficacy, autonomous exercise motivation, behavioral engagement, and concentration ability. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826081; article XML SHA-256 9adf0b7844c09069b79c9b8357b6936b7ed41d196c371f48ffae31acd2756e0d. “Perceived autonomy support and subjective sport performance evaluation: serial mediation via exercise self-efficacy, autonomous exercise motivation, behavioral engagement, and concentration ability” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826081).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1826081) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- performance goal [redraft]: Several elements of the first sentence (e.g., “achievement focus,” “behavior is directed by expectations of success,” and “value placed on outcomes or external incentives”) are only indirectly supported via broader discussion of achievement motivation/expected value theory and the broader “achievement goal orientation” construct, not a direct definition of “performance goal” as such.; The definition adds a generalized theory-style description of motivation and external incentives that is broader than what the packet explicitly defines for this term.; The final sentence overstates the source by attributing lower self-efficacy, greater concern about failure, and maladaptive avoidance specifically to “weaker performance goals”; the packet only discusses poor achievement goals and performance goal orientation more generally.; The packet repeatedly discusses **“performance goal orientation”** (and “poor achievement goals / poor mastery of goals in performance goal orientation”), but it does not define **“performance goal”** as a standalone term; the definition’s requested sense may not match what the packet supports.; The packet supports “performance goal orientation,” not the standalone term “performance goal,” so the requested sense is not securely established.; While the packet links poor achievement goals to lower self-efficacy and maladaptive failure-avoidance, the definition’s specific phrasing “weaker performance goals” is not clearly mapped as the same construct label within the packet, which uses related but not identical wording (e.g., poor mastery, poor achievement goals, performance goal orientation). New packet required. Source: [Guan Jinliang; Yu Peng; Liu Chengzhen; Ma Wangyan. Cumulative ecological risk and problematic smartphone use among Chinese college students: the roles of performance goal orientation, learning goal orientation and psychological resilience. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1467653; article XML SHA-256 d9900d7729c55d22562cda1b1627d5af1f392ad4d3cd5bdc639c2a3bd1c997ec. “Cumulative ecological risk and problematic smartphone use among Chinese college students: the roles of performance goal orientation, learning goal orientation and psychological resilience” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1467653).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1467653) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- performative [redraft]: Defines 'performative relationality', not the adjective 'performative'; hedged narrow sense on a general headword. New packet required. Source: [Reed Nicole M.; Vogus Timothy J.. All the workplace is a stage: extending the double empathy problem through performative relationality. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893333; article XML SHA-256 e5e0b6f2f97d14a3f73f301965e289fa89b5f72c118345a87fbe96e3b9106f7d. “All the workplace is a stage: extending the double empathy problem through performative relationality” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893333).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893333) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Periactin [redraft]: Packet never links Periactin to cyproheptadine; the brand-name claim is added fact outside the packet. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Cyproheptadine Hydrochloride” (C28949).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- perimetry [redraft]: Packet only lists perimetry among diagnostic tests; that it assesses the visual field is added knowledge, not a plain reading. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Sarcoma of the Orbit Clinical TNM Finding v7” (C88823).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- periphery [redraft]: General headword narrowed to the visual field with 'in this context'; second sentence describes the study's findings. New packet required. Source: [Bansal Ambika; Guo Hongyi; Allison Robert S.; Harris Laurence R.. Differences in perceived travel distance from central versus peripheral optic flow are the same when standing and walking. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348803; article XML SHA-256 1a6ea0574d0bc57e95635f4c2d2bc1663c41012cca3be7ddee7a1277d0c2352b. “Differences in perceived travel distance from central versus peripheral optic flow are the same when standing and walking” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348803).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348803) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- periventricular white matter [redraft]: Although the packet supports that a scoping review reported “volume loss” in selected brain regions including “periventricular white matter” after traumatic brain injury in children and youth, the definition’s first sentence contains an unsupported substantive claim.; The definition adds an anatomical gloss that is not stated in the supplied source packet.; The packet does not provide a definition of “periventricular white matter” as white matter around the brain’s ventricles; this anatomical description is unsupported by the supplied text.; The packet supports that periventricular white matter is among the brain regions reported to show volume loss after traumatic brain injury in children and youth, but it does not define the term as white matter around the ventricles. New packet required. Source: [Keightley Michelle L.; Sinopoli Katia J.; Davis Karen D.; Mikulis David J.; Wennberg Richard; Tartaglia Maria C.; Chen Jen-Kai; Tator Charles H.. Is there evidence for neurodegenerative change following traumatic brain injury in children and youth? A scoping review. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00139; article XML SHA-256 573d7be964b29c58e59d815d2b74e191e57215ed1a473a73b1d7fee64b555760. “Is there evidence for neurodegenerative change following traumatic brain injury in children and youth? A scoping review” (10.3389/fnhum.2014.00139).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00139) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- permeability [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define permeability as “the extent to which a material… allows water to pass through it.” It only mentions “permeability” alongside seepage and soil properties, without stating a definitional meaning.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source is about geotechnical/soil engineering, not learning or psychology/counselling content.; The second sentence overstates support by presenting compaction energy as an established factor affecting permeability; the packet says this coupling is inadequately investigated and absent from many prediction models, not established as settled fact.; The statement that permeability is affected by “dry density and compaction energy” is partly supported by the packet (it says moisture content and dry density have pronounced effects on soil properties including permeability, and that the study investigates permeability evolution under varying compaction energies), but the overall definition includes an unsupported definitional characterization in the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Lyu Haibo; Wei Dongcheng; Gu Jianxiao; Fan Liyun. Study on the influence of compaction energy and moisture content on the permeability and compression characteristics of granite-weathered soil. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352684; article XML SHA-256 cafcdca528d09e930443a18f3d88dbf11ba51e983978763e698fe041b2b8f5ea. “Study on the influence of compaction energy and moisture content on the permeability and compression characteristics of granite-weathered soil” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352684).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352684) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- persecutory delusion [redraft]: The definition blends a modern diagnostic-style summary with the historical account; the packet is a historical OCR passage, so the wording should not present unsupported general clinical phrasing as if it were supplied by the source.; The definition says persecutory delusion is “part of a more organised suspicious mental state” in which ordinary events are taken as signs of conspiracy and referring personally; while the packet does describe persecutory delusions as “highly organised,” “grouped and systematised,” and says the person sees “ominous signs of conspiracy in the most ordinary events” and that “everything tends to refer to him,” this support applies within the packet’s discussion of “true insane delusions of the paranoic type,” not as a general formulation matching the definition’s first-sentence specifics.; The definition’s first sentence claims a “fixed false belief that one is being plotted against, harmed, or watched by others”; the packet supports persecutory delusions as relating to persecution/conspiracy and being a “persecute,” but it does not explicitly support the specific contents “plotted against,” “harmed,” or “watched by others.”; The packet supports the historical description of persecutory delusions as highly organised, systematised, and involving suspicion that ordinary events and the questioner may be part of a conspiracy, but it does not explicitly support the opening clinical gloss “a fixed false belief.” New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2929500-2941500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- persistence [redraft]: 'In this context' narrows a general headword to exercise; the contrast with stopping early is not in the packet. New packet required. Source: [An Junhua; Tai Pengfei; Peng Jiahui; Zhou Deqiao. Impact of body image on women’s fitness persistence: the chain mediation role of self-efficacy and exercise motivation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1737243; article XML SHA-256 9ecc00e6169187a7d0ff38a30f8fd4a201679fab67231fe4a74adb1ae636f9c7. “Impact of body image on women’s fitness persistence: the chain mediation role of self-efficacy and exercise motivation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1737243).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1737243) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- person-centered planning [redraft]: Packet only names a PCP approach; definition borrows the study's own aims and never says what person-centred planning is. New packet required. Source: [Moir Taryn; Johnson Jayne. Ensuring Quality Transitions From Early Years’ Establishments Into Primary Schools: Putting Research Into Practice. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.499917; article XML SHA-256 c45ccf2318eb7cd6e6fa99071c4435870f6b6e8af3d272dd9786e9970ed394a3. “Ensuring Quality Transitions From Early Years’ Establishments Into Primary Schools: Putting Research Into Practice” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.499917).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.499917) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- personal disposition [redraft]: The claim that the term is “an individual factor related to self-control” is only indirectly suggested by the study’s mention of dispositional differences among people differing in self-control; that is not a clear source-supported definition of the term itself.; The packet does not define personal disposition as a general psychological trait with the broad sense of “characteristic tendencies or differences” that shape decision-making and behavior; it only reports a study finding that personal disposition was strongly related to fraud tendency.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “personal disposition” as “a person’s characteristic tendencies or differences”; it only mentions “dispositional differences” in the context of self-control and fraud tendency.; The packet supports connections to self-control and fraud tendency, but the broad definitional phrasing in the first sentence is not directly stated in the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Sun Xiaonan; Chen Yan. Why do people with similar levels of internal control differ in their likelihood to commit fraud? Analysis of the moderating effect of perceived opportunity to commit fraud. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.999469; article XML SHA-256 9ed9b5f8157b3bb6eee38a1c63e347863ce9250314c8ce5ac98d3411ba5134b6. “Why do people with similar levels of internal control differ in their likelihood to commit fraud? Analysis of the moderating effect of perceived opportunity to commit fraud” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.999469).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.999469) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- personal documents [redraft]: The claims about helping to understand lived experience, identity, and life story go beyond what the packet explicitly states about personal documents.; The packet does not explicitly define what “personal documents” are (e.g., that they “originate from a person’s own life”); it only states that “personal documents” were among the data-generation methods used.; The packet only shows that ‘personal documents’ were used as one data source alongside interviews, participant observation, and photographs; it does not define the term as materials originating from a person’s own life or as a general narrative/qualitative research method construct.; The portion stating they are “one source of information used alongside interviews, observation, and photographs” is supported (personal documents were generated alongside those methods), but this alone is not enough for all substantive claims in the definition.; While the packet indicates personal documents were used in a qualitative life-story identity study (supporting their use in such work), it does not directly support the full phrasing that they “can be used in narrative or qualitative work to help understand lived experience, identity, and life story.” New packet required. Source: [Arellano Araceli; Carrica-Ochoa Sarah; Lizasoain Olga. Life Story Work as an inclusive methodology to explore identity in intellectual disability. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1784316; article XML SHA-256 fb99b23464bcd851935ffb96056c2053b3beb9a3c69c96aedb91ea49be544999. “Life Story Work as an inclusive methodology to explore identity in intellectual disability” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1784316).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1784316) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- personal equation [redraft]: General term (individual bias in judgment) redefined as specific to historians; packet only applies it to historians. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “History (philosophy of)” (Historyp).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#Historyp) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- personality deterioration [redraft]: The added description that Pick disease is a dementia ‘linked to circumscribed atrophy in the frontal and temporal lobes’ goes beyond the term being defined and turns the entry into a disease summary rather than a supported definition of ‘personality deterioration.’; The first sentence (“a decline or worsening of a person’s usual personality”) is not explicitly supported by the packet text, which only lists “personality deterioration” among clinical features without defining it as “decline/worsening” relative to a usual baseline.; The packet lists personality deterioration only as a clinical feature of Pick disease; it does not define it as a decline or worsening of a person’s usual personality.; While the second sentence is broadly supported (the packet states Pick disease clinical features include personality deterioration, and describes circumscribed atrophy of the poles of the frontal and temporal lobes), the unsupported definition of what “personality deterioration” means prevents a fully defensible match to the provided source packet. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pick Disease of the Brain” (D020774).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020774) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- personality profile [redraft]: The claim that it is “one factor that may be linked to vulnerability to mental crisis” goes beyond the packet’s wording and adds interpretive framing not explicitly stated.; The comparison across groups is only indirectly supported by the source’s statement that people with depressive symptoms and those at significant risk of suicide show differences in personality profile; the definition overgeneralizes this into a broader risk-group claim.; The definition’s framing of the term as belonging to “cognition” is not supported by the packet; the excerpt discusses personality profile in relation to mental crisis risk rather than cognition.; The packet does not define “personality profile” as a person’s overall pattern of personality characteristics; it only mentions personality profile as one factor related to mental crisis risk.; The packet does not support the claim that a “personality profile” is specifically “a person’s overall pattern of personality characteristics.” The provided text only mentions “a personality profile” as a factor, without defining it.; While the packet supports that personality profile is among factors related to mental crisis risk and that groups (e.g., depression/high suicide risk) show differences, it does not substantiate the detailed first sentence definition. New packet required. Source: [Deska Kacper; Mirocha Grzegorz; Bąk Bartłomiej; Mirgos-Wierzchowska Anna; Kosmalski Marcin; Różycka-Kosmalska Monika; Pietras Tadeusz. People with symptoms of depression and those at significant risk of suicide show differences in their personality profile and sense of meaning in life. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1508791; article XML SHA-256 287e81b5771d9f921d943e94f5e6227900808a8e15494a239cea6d8a8a58f1de. “People with symptoms of depression and those at significant risk of suicide show differences in their personality profile and sense of meaning in life” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1508791).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1508791) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- personification [redraft]: The definition claims that personification is “linked with … the rise of beliefs in supernatural beings,” but the packet does not support a claim about any “rise” (historical development) of such beliefs; it only states that “the personification of cosmic phenomena (animism) must be cited as the origin of all such conceptions.”; The definition slightly overextends the source by framing personification as treating phenomena as having personal agency; the packet supports human-like interpretation, not agency as such.; The packet supports personification of cosmic phenomena as an anthropomorphic/anthropathic standpoint, but it does not explicitly support the added claim about the “rise” of beliefs in supernatural beings. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Demon” (Demon).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D1defs.htm#Demon) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- personnel [redraft]: The packet does not support the claim that “personnel” specifically refers to “human members of an organization or operational setting”; it only refers to “personnel in high-stakes roles” without describing organizational/operational membership.; The packet supports personnel as people in high-stakes roles within high-pressure scenarios, but it does not support the broader gloss “human members of an organization or operational setting.”; “Behavior can be predicted or analyzed” is supported in the study context, but the definition overgeneralizes the source’s research setting into a general term sense without clear lexical support. New packet required. Source: [Chen Yibo; Ping Yang; Zhou Shuhang; Jojo Caleb. Can LLMs improve the accuracy of behavior prediction for personnel in high-stakes scenarios by predicting emotions? — A fine-tuning study based on scarce homogeneous cultural data in high-pressure environments. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352988; article XML SHA-256 e074bef39efbb9cdc4a12e421c4916e0cb3be8372e65c350303e45d1a6e6c1ef. “Can LLMs improve the accuracy of behavior prediction for personnel in high-stakes scenarios by predicting emotions? — A fine-tuning study based on scarce homogeneous cultural data in high-pressure environments” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352988).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352988) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- perspective [redraft]: General headword narrowed to spatial frame of reference with 'in this context'; egocentric/decentred detail is study-specific. New packet required. Source: [Xavier Jean; Verley Armand; Cohen David; Pellerin Hugues; Kirsch Louise P.; Auvray Malika. Spatial perspective-taking abilities on ambiguous tactile stimuli: The case of children with autism spectrum disorder or developmental coordination disorder. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355395; article XML SHA-256 efdb3fca8688696d66079e69aa756ecc9b62cee0f0acb9df778001b5c4ceb472. “Spatial perspective-taking abilities on ambiguous tactile stimuli: The case of children with autism spectrum disorder or developmental coordination disorder” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355395).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355395) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- persuasion [redraft]: The added gloss about messages shaping responses is not supported by the packet; the source only says the study examines persuasion mechanisms of AI-generated rumors and human information processing.; The packet excerpt does not explicitly define “persuasion” as a psychological process that influences a person’s thinking or attitudes.; The packet only mentions “human persuasion” and “information processing” in the context of examining AI-generated rumors; it does not support the specific description that messages influence “information processing” to “shape responses.”; The packet supports persuasion as relating to human persuasion and information processing, but it does not directly define persuasion as a psychological process through which information influences thinking or attitudes. New packet required. Source: [Hou Zhengdong. Analyzing the persuasion mechanism of AI-generated rumors via the elaboration likelihood model. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1679853; article XML SHA-256 ac16a15b3c9ba605b9a768129ef9ccd5f4b6dea38f217221970c269d70a90852. “Analyzing the persuasion mechanism of AI-generated rumors via the elaboration likelihood model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1679853).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1679853) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- perturbation [redraft]: General term defined only as altered auditory feedback in speech via 'in this context'; sense smuggled from one paper. New packet required. Source: [Ronayette Elodie; Cignetti Fabien; Perrier Pascal; Garnier Maëva. Articulatory effort modulates speech adaptation to auditory perturbations. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1756554; article XML SHA-256 28e4d8e36a37982131c3fbc9b0b513da84bb831dcd41174a98d258edfab31eee. “Articulatory effort modulates speech adaptation to auditory perturbations” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1756554).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1756554) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- PET [redraft]: Headword is the abbreviation PET, which must be defined as what it abbreviates; definition describes a household animal. New packet required. Source: [Jonkoski Dara S; Lorig Nicole M; Delzio Molly C; Klensin Alyssa; Marsters Abigail; Li Huashi; Bernal Amanda M; Mehl Matthias R; Rodriguez Kerri E; Bray Emily E. Cross-species conversations: the development of the AURAL-Pet coding system to capture how people talk to pets in daily life. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1881870; article XML SHA-256 8c2dceb1a62bf425f6cde637f3456b58952a90d99a591e524b0bbc257ba19cd3. “Cross-species conversations: the development of the AURAL-Pet coding system to capture how people talk to pets in daily life” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1881870).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1881870) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- phallus [redraft]: The definition claims the discussion compares phallus length across species and uses differences to study patterns of forced mating and hybrid offspring; while the packet links forced copulations to phallus-length asymmetries and relates this to F1 hybrids, it does not explicitly frame the intent as “used to study patterns… across species,” nor does it clearly state a cross-species comparative study of phallus length in those terms.; The definition states that phallus is the male copulatory organ in ducks; the packet text mentions “phallus-length asymmetries” and “phallus length,” but does not explicitly define “phallus” as the male copulatory organ.; The definition’s field is not defensible from the packet: the source is an ornithology/evolution article about duck hybrids, not a learning-psychology sense of the term.; The definition’s phrasing (“in this source”) is partially supported, but the core requested sense and the stated rationale are not directly supported with the necessary specificity by the provided packet.; The source supports that phallus length asymmetries were used in analyses of forced copulations and hybrid siring, but it does not explicitly define phallus as the male copulatory organ in ducks. New packet required. Source: [Rohwer Sievert; Wood Christopher S; Peters Jefferey L; Miller Eliot Trimarchi; Cagley David; Butcher Bronwyn G; Epperly Kevin L; Campagna Leonardo. Interspecific forced copulations generate most hybrids in broadly sympatric ducks. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0274059; article XML SHA-256 077e59366e1cf777339e93005e545e65deb92cde30ae165b091724edb6331138. “Interspecific forced copulations generate most hybrids in broadly sympatric ducks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0274059).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0274059) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pharmacotherapy [redraft]: It adds a broad content claim that pharmacotherapy 'includes hormone therapy and antidepressant medicines' as if this were a general defining feature; the packet only gives these as examples within one study context.; The definition generalizes beyond the packet’s scope: the source discusses pharmacotherapy specifically for mental disorders in perimenopausal women, not mental disorders in general.; The definition states that pharmacotherapy is a “common approach for mental disorders,” but the source only describes it as the most prevalent intervention method for treating mental disorders in *perimenopausal women* (not “mental disorders” in general).; The definition’s ethical field framing is not supported: the source provides clinical/safety and efficacy information, not ethics-specific claims relevant to the requested field.; The phrase 'because it can act quickly' and the mention of longer-term risks/adverse effects are supported in the packet, but the overall wording mixes supported details with unsupported generalization. New packet required. Source: [Zhuang Jiamei; Zhou Yan; Yu Guangbin; Cheng Honghui; Chen Xiong; Qian Rui. Pharmacotherapy, acupoint stimulation, and psychotherapy for perimenopausal women with anxiety, depression, and panic disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1845876; article XML SHA-256 fa4d91bb981b8543478833710745f46464fa36e31917bb740eb73ae3d6587cc8. “Pharmacotherapy, acupoint stimulation, and psychotherapy for perimenopausal women with anxiety, depression, and panic disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1845876).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1845876) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- phenomena [redraft]: The definition shifts from the term “phenomena” to a narrower construct (“dissociative phenomena”) without the packet establishing that this is the intended sense of the headword itself.; The definition’s first sentence states a general meaning: “phenomena refers to the experiences or symptoms being observed and measured.” The provided packet does not give this general definition of “phenomena.”; The definition’s second sentence claims a specific interpretation: “dissociative phenomena means dissociative experiences whose severity can be assessed … in people with non-affective psychosis.” The packet supports that the review quantifies “dissociative phenomena severity” across instruments in non-affective psychosis, but it does not explicitly define “dissociative phenomena” as “dissociative experiences whose severity can be assessed,” nor does it directly equate “phenomena” with that phrase.; The packet supports the phrase “dissociative phenomena” in non-affective psychosis, but it does not support a general definition of “phenomena” as “the experiences or symptoms being observed and measured.” New packet required. Source: [O’Neill Adam; Haddock Gillian; Stalker Kate; Barnett Kim; Pearson Amelia; Edge Dawn; Laftah Omar; Millard-Brewer Leah; Mulligan Lee D. The severity of dissociation and dissociative phenomena in non-affective psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analyses. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08424-z; article XML SHA-256 370a973371b98412b4ab4ae92bcb8de3445584dbb8e6ca5e0552422781b2bc2b. “The severity of dissociation and dissociative phenomena in non-affective psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analyses” (10.1186/s12888-026-08424-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08424-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- phenomenology [redraft]: Because the first sentence is not directly supported by the packet, the overall definition cannot be accepted under the requirement that every substantive claim be supported by the supplied source.; The definition broadens the term beyond the packet’s specific sense in this article, which is about computational phenomenology of altered states rather than phenomenology as a standalone diagnosis-related entry.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that “phenomenology is the description and study of first-person subjective experience”; it mentions “first-person experience” and “phenomenological differences,” but does not provide a definitional statement matching the wording requested.; The packet supports computational phenomenology as a bridge between first-person experience and computational models, but it does not define phenomenology in general as the description and study of subjective experience. New packet required. Source: [Suzuki Keisuke. Beyond the reducing valve: towards a computational neurophenomenology of altered states via deep neural networks. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1819038; article XML SHA-256 dbb0abeaff47ce2c1ff2ac1fc12efa37100cbd8bea52029109c052851c9a28b4. “Beyond the reducing valve: towards a computational neurophenomenology of altered states via deep neural networks” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1819038).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1819038) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- phenotype [redraft]: The definition should stay within the source’s specific sense of non-dipping/dipping blood pressure phenotypes, rather than presenting a general biological definition.; The definition’s first sentence (“phenotype is an observable pattern or form”) is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text.; The field is not supported: the packet is a biomedical article about blood pressure phenotypes, not a psychology/counselling sense in learning.; The first sentence is an unsupported broad generalization about phenotype as any observable biological pattern or form; the packet only supports blood pressure phenotype usage.; The packet supports use of “dipper phenotype” and “non-dipper phenotype” in relation to nocturnal blood pressure reduction, but it does not explicitly define them as “normal” vs “reduced” nighttime decline as stated. New packet required. Source: [Layton Anita T. Temporal misalignment of renal sodium transport promotes non-dipping blood pressure phenotypes. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355222; article XML SHA-256 154b6b3efea25132024c256f2a344bd47d378a4f4dfddf02a0e5c7b37d75a8a5. “Temporal misalignment of renal sodium transport promotes non-dipping blood pressure phenotypes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355222).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355222) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- philosophy of science [redraft]: The packet does not provide a general definition of “philosophy of science” as “a way of examining how a scientific idea is formed…whether its assumptions are plausible, and how it comes to be accepted as empirically supported.” It only states that the author “use[s] a philosophy of science framework to track the initial thinking, the plausibility, and the acceptance of ADHD.”; The packet supports the idea of using a “philosophy of science framework” to assess “scientific integrity” of ADHD, but it does not explicitly justify the broader framing in the definition (e.g., “before and alongside research evidence” or “empirically supported”) as characteristics of the term itself.; The phrase “how it comes to be accepted as empirically supported” is not supported by the packet; the source says ADHD was accepted in DSM-III through bias and compromise and concludes it is not empirically confirmed.; “Before and alongside research evidence” goes beyond the packet, which supports examining initial thinking and plausibility prior to empirical investigation, but does not state that the framework is used alongside research evidence in general. New packet required. Source: [Mills Sheelah. The scientific integrity of ADHD: A critical examination of the underpinning theoretical constructs. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1062484; article XML SHA-256 c519fad793654b7d6b548782f78b86e0015970a0e5d374f7d578d4831e05f476. “The scientific integrity of ADHD: A critical examination of the underpinning theoretical constructs” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1062484).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1062484) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- phoneme [redraft]: The definition’s claims about “recognition, perception, and pronunciation,” “language learning,” and “units people must identify and produce” are not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define what a phoneme is (e.g., as a unit of speech sound) and provides no description of phonemes as recognizable/produced units.; The packet only mentions “phoneme recognition” and “cognitive load tracking” in an EEG-based context; it does not support the broader framing of pronunciation tasks or cognitive-load examination through those processes.; The packet supports phoneme recognition/perception/pronunciation in a Korean language-learning context, but it does not support the broader definitional claim that a phoneme is a general “speech sound element” or that people must identify and produce these units.; The reference to cognitive load is only that the paper tracks cognitive load during phoneme recognition; it does not support the broader claim that phoneme processing is examined through cognitive load in general.; “Processing them can be examined through cognitive load” is only partially aligned: the packet discusses cognitive load modeling in phoneme recognition, but does not support the specific causal/measurement linkage phrased in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Yuwen. Analysis of cognitive mechanisms in phoneme perception and pronunciation errors among Korean language learners. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774068; article XML SHA-256 0b064a092c44078b74ce4145a035ecbfead73e2ac28813627790a7bf3aeb0dae. “Analysis of cognitive mechanisms in phoneme perception and pronunciation errors among Korean language learners” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774068).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774068) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- phonological store [redraft]: The claim that the store is “a part of verbal working memory” and specifically “speech-based information briefly” is an unsupported generalization not directly stated in the provided packet text.; The definition adds unsupported framing such as "part of verbal working memory" and "speech-based information briefly so it can be mentally rehearsed" beyond what is explicitly stated in the packet.; The definition’s description of “contents that are refined during this rehearsal process within brain circuits” is only partially supported (the packet mentions a “corrective signal that refines the process of rehearing the contents of the phonological store”), but the full, explicit phrasing about what the store holds and for how long is not supported.; The packet mentions that phonological store contents are “rehearing”/refined in neural circuits for verbal working memory, but it does not define the phonological store as “holding speech-based information briefly” or as a component “within verbal working memory” in those explicit terms.; The phrase "within brain circuits supporting verbal working memory" overstates the source, which only says the regions are important in verbal working memory and that the process may be refined by a corrective signal; it does not define the term that way.; The requested field is not defensible for this term: "phonological store" is a cognitive/psychology concept, not a diagnosis term. New packet required. Source: [Puri Basant K; Counsell Serena J; Saeed Nadeem; Bustos Marcelo G; Treasaden Ian H; Bydder Graeme M. Regional grey matter volumetric changes in forensic schizophrenia patients: an MRI study comparing the brain structure of patients who have seriously and violently offended with that of patients who have not. 2008; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-8-s1-s6; article XML SHA-256 01612d69eb06c28f25018949925b1580b99a3e1be7f7e824d311bb5d524b2d43. “Regional grey matter volumetric changes in forensic schizophrenia patients: an MRI study comparing the brain structure of patients who have seriously and violently offended with that of patients who have not” (10.1186/1471-244x-8-s1-s6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-8-s1-s6) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- phonosurgery [redraft]: The definition’s statement about what the packet lacks (“does not provide more detail about the specific procedures involved”) is not supported as a substantive, source-anchored claim about the term itself.; The packet does not explicitly define *phonosurgery* as “surgery related to the voice”; it only discusses “quality control after phonosurgery” and uses voice-related outcomes (e.g., hoarseness, voice failure) to measure questionnaires.; The packet supports postoperative quality control after phonosurgery and mentions hoarseness, voice failure, and quality-of-life questionnaires, but it does not explicitly define phonosurgery as “surgery related to the voice.”; The sentence adds a meta-comment about what the packet does not provide; that is not part of the term’s definition and is not supported as a definitional claim. New packet required. Source: [Hansen Aleksander Grande; Zhang Chi; Loven Jens Øyvind; Berdal-Sørensen Hanne; TarAngen Magnus; Haye Rolf. A questionnaire using vocal symptoms in quality control of phonosurgery: vocal surgical questionnaire. 2018; DOI 10.1186/s12901-018-0057-0; article XML SHA-256 6264dd8d8b3ae0b042431f3389e5f907a6b06255cb98a012d85c268f4025ffd6. “A questionnaire using vocal symptoms in quality control of phonosurgery: vocal surgical questionnaire” (10.1186/s12901-018-0057-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12901-018-0057-0) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- photo- [redraft]: Portions about “biological contexts” and “structures activated or altered by illumination” are only indirectly implied by the packet’s discussion of light-driven cellular/electrical effects, but the packet does not provide a clear, sourced definition for the prefix “photo-” in the requested sense.; The broader claim that photo- means an “effect produced by light” is unsupported by the packet.; The definition’s broad claims (“prefix meaning light or an effect produced by light”) are not explicitly supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define the linguistic prefix “photo-” or state its general meaning (e.g., “light”); it discusses “photoelectrical” stimulation mechanisms but not the definition of the prefix itself.; The packet does not define the prefix “photo-” as meaning “light”; it only uses photo- in compound scientific terms such as photoelectrical, photo-induced, and photocapacitive.; The second sentence generalizes to “biological contexts” and “light-driven electrical changes in cells,” which goes beyond the packet’s specific discussion of photovoltaic stimulation and neuronal modulation in an article context. New packet required. Source: [Mohammadiaria Mohammad; Rathbun Daniel L.; Kamita Moses; Srivastava Shashi Bhushan. Mechanistic insights into excitonic and electrostatic stimulation of cells by photovoltaic substrates/nanocrystals and through light polarization modulation. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335978; article XML SHA-256 99b9d01cd9c8da85d5c0d422bf3c8da6f4cc928e6654129dee6fc0ddaed46be6. “Mechanistic insights into excitonic and electrostatic stimulation of cells by photovoltaic substrates/nanocrystals and through light polarization modulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335978).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335978) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- phrase [redraft]: The definition’s opening claim that a phrase “can mean a short spoken expression” is too broad and not established by the packet as the intended sense.; The packet does not support redefining the general term “phrase” as a caregiver-child communication unit; it specifically studies “parenting phrases” used in caregiver-child situations.; The packet frames the work as investigating “phrases frequently used in parenting situations,” rather than providing a general definition of “phrase” in developmental psychology.; The packet supports a specific research topic about “parenting phrases” in caregiver-child communication, not the general dictionary sense of the term “phrase” in developmental psychology.; The second sentence claims research relates parenting phrases to warmth and control, but the packet only states they were contextualized within warmth/control research dimensions; it also reports that parental warmth and control were not significantly associated with self-esteem, so the “relate to dimensions” wording is not well-supported as a finding.; The wording “such as common statements parents say in everyday situations” is only partly supported; the source discusses frequently used parenting phrases, but not a general definitional sense for phrases overall. New packet required. Source: [Kljucak Erika; Alazza Nourat N.; Hemme Pia; Kulke Louisa. “Because I said so.” – Collection and evaluation of parenting phrases in German-speaking samples. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346718; article XML SHA-256 8fc2e1ba6048830c5093cc75c4030745a608eef17104daba5012c2e4f39c4084. ““Because I said so.” – Collection and evaluation of parenting phrases in German-speaking samples” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346718).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346718) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- physiological measure [redraft]: Because of that added generality, not every substantive claim in the definition is supported by the packet’s wording and scope.; The definition’s first sentence (“reflect biological processes or strain”) is more general than the packet, which specifically defines the concept as the cumulative burden of stress on the body (and does not describe it as reflecting “biological processes or strain” in general terms).; The opening sentence adds a broad general definition (“body-based indicator used to reflect biological processes or strain”) that is not supported by the packet; the packet only defines a specific stress-related physiological measure.; The requested sense is not well matched to the packet: the source record labels the concept as “Allostatic Load,” so the definition should not present the term “physiological measure” as if it were the named concept without that distinction. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Allostatic Load” (C219641).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- physiology [redraft]: Context sentence redefines physiology as tracking bodily changes; packet uses it for bodily processes, not monitoring. New packet required. Source: [Melhorn Susan J; Valencia Ana P; Schenk Jeannette M; Garcia Jose M; Beatty Sarah J; Konchan Anne; Brandao Arthur F; Acosta-Vega Natalia L; Marcinek David J; Tong Jenny; Neuhouser Marian L; Schur Ellen A. Assessing the physiology of weight loss based on real-time weight monitoring: The ADAPT behavioral weight loss study protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354678; article XML SHA-256 32925858b1153b37cbc5b8236334567e23ced643c8607c0fa7bd609c452b87fd. “Assessing the physiology of weight loss based on real-time weight monitoring: The ADAPT behavioral weight loss study protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354678).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354678) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Pierre Robin sequence [redraft]: The definition adds an outcome-oriented clinical claim about breathing support/intubation difficulty in babies that is supported only in the packet’s anesthesia/airway-management context, not as a general dictionary sense for a mental health entry.; The field is not defensible: Pierre Robin sequence is a congenital airway/anatomical condition, not a mental health term.; The term “Pierre Robin sequence” in the packet is described as a rare congenital syndrome/medical airway condition (micrognathia, glossoptosis, airway obstruction), not as something within “mental health,” so the provided field is not defensible based on the packet. New packet required. Source: [Irouschek Andrea; Moritz Andreas; Kremer Sven; Fuchte Tobias; Danzl Anja; Schmidt Joachim; Golditz Tobias. An approach to difficult airway in infants: Comparison of GlideScope ® Spectrum LoPro, GlideScope ® Spectrum Miller and conventional Macintosh and Miller blades in a simulated Pierre Robin sequence performed by 90 anesthesiologists. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288816; article XML SHA-256 c80494f237d16db95c8994ea49db72c3ce6919fb3941ffcbd6fa9ac6fae293f5. “An approach to difficult airway in infants: Comparison of GlideScope ® Spectrum LoPro, GlideScope ® Spectrum Miller and conventional Macintosh and Miller blades in a simulated Pierre Robin sequence performed by 90 anesthesiologists” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288816).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288816) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- place learning [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define “place learning” as “learning and remembering a specific location or place,” nor does it directly equate the term to spatial learning in those exact conceptual terms; it only discusses “spatial learning” performance in tasks (e.g., IntelliCage).; The packet shows place learning as a measured task within spatial learning, but it does not support the general definitional claim that place learning is a form of learning a specific location or place.; The packet supports the idea that the study’s “better” performance involved “faster adaptation and superior retention,” but the first sentence’s definitional framing is not clearly supported by the provided text.; The phrase 'stronger retention of location information' goes beyond the packet, which only says 'superior retention of information' without specifying location information. New packet required. Source: [Cservenák Melinda; Darai Luca; Kállai Tamara Cecília; Záhonyi Bori; Lukács András; Bencsik Norbert; Détári László; Dobolyi Arpád. Postpartum enhancement of spatial learning and cognitive flexibility: an IntelliCage study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12993-026-00340-2; article XML SHA-256 2cb2f4d97cbece2d476058ddbd046f0e02e3f3db6d5b9ae78ab2be4531122504. “Postpartum enhancement of spatial learning and cognitive flexibility: an IntelliCage study” (10.1186/s12993-026-00340-2).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12993-026-00340-2) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- placement test [redraft]: The definition adds a specific function for the test’s results as a placement score; that use is not established in the source text.; The definition claims the test is “before being assigned to a school placement” and that “results [are] used” for placement; while T1 precedes T3, the packet does not explicitly describe the test’s role in assignment.; The packet does not explicitly state that placement test results are used “as a score related to where they are placed” or that the test directly determines school placement assignment; it only mentions that students later “learn their school placement” (T3) and that they have “placement test scores (T1+).”; The packet supports that placement test scores were collected during a secondary school transition, but it does not state that the results were used to determine where students were placed.; The packet supports that the placement test occurs during a secondary school transition and that placement test scores are used alongside prior grades, but the definition’s placement-assignment mechanism is not clearly supported. New packet required. Source: [Burbidge Alysia; Zhu Shimin; Cheung Sing-Hang; Oyserman Daphna. Believing that difficulty signals importance improves school outcomes by bolstering academic possible identities, a recursive analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308376; article XML SHA-256 2e4d5e4237d5a15690f167de80029db47465a501b97c93c23426d53bc237b261. “Believing that difficulty signals importance improves school outcomes by bolstering academic possible identities, a recursive analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308376).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308376) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- planned behavior [redraft]: The definition equates “perceived social pressure” with “subjective norms,” but the packet does not provide that mapping in words.; The definition includes the claim that planned behavior “describ[es] action … rather than as purely spontaneous,” which is not supported by the packet text provided.; The definition slightly overextends the source by presenting “planned behavior” as a defined term in this sense, whereas the packet supports the Theory of Planned Behavior and its components, not a standalone definition of planned behavior itself.; The definition states that planned behavior “explains a person’s intention to act” using attitude, perceived social pressure, and perceived control. The packet only mentions TPB being used to decompose “the three core TPB dimensions—attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control”—without explicitly stating “intention to act.”; The second sentence adds an unsupported generalization: the packet only says the study uses the Theory of Planned Behavior to examine audience intention and its three core dimensions; it does not support the broader claim that this sense contrasts with behavior being “purely spontaneous.” New packet required. Source: [Chang Yuan-Ming; Wu Juan; Hu Yan-Xin; Chen Shih-Chih. Cross-dimensional cultural identity: a multi-dimensional empirical investigation of VTuber audience behavior through the lens of theory of planned behavior. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1675447; article XML SHA-256 c9442a122ac7e2f65dc1079fd69d0e7daa4184d4c2f6a162dba49c699bd9e3a4. “Cross-dimensional cultural identity: a multi-dimensional empirical investigation of VTuber audience behavior through the lens of theory of planned behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1675447).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1675447) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- playfulness [redraft]: The definition should stay closer to the packet’s wording about playfulness as an adult personality trait and its links to attachment and jealousy; the current wording adds interpretive detail that is not explicitly supported.; The definition states playfulness “involv[es] a tendency to reframe or reinterpret experiences,” but the packet frames reframing as a discussed mechanism (“whether the reframing process that characterizes playfulness might be less active…”), not as a directly supported tendency in the sense claimed.; The packet supports associations between playfulness facets and romantic attachment, but it reports “negligible associations with jealousy,” so the definition’s claim that playfulness is “linked to differences in … jealousy” overstates what is supported.; The phrase “other-directed, lighthearted, intellectual, and whimsical ways of approaching situations” goes beyond the packet: the source names these four facets of playfulness but does not define them that way. New packet required. Source: [Brauer Kay; Proyer René T. Localizing adult playfulness in dimensions of romantic attachment and jealousy in singles. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776141; article XML SHA-256 d055625483b834ae1440feb9c79bbf2485f3afece9256f85126de90421eeb33e. “Localizing adult playfulness in dimensions of romantic attachment and jealousy in singles” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776141).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776141) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- plethysmography [redraft]: The definition narrows plethysmography to breathing mechanics and optoelectronic thoracoabdominal assessment in this specific study, which is not a general dictionary sense for the term.; The packet supports that optoelectronic plethysmography quantified ribcage and abdomen contributions to tidal volume during treadmill exercise, but it does not support presenting this as a mental health usage.; The provided definition describes a respiratory/biomechanics measurement method, but the requested field is “mental health,” and the packet does not support any mental-health context or linkage for plethysmography as used here.; The term is used in a respiratory/exercise physiology study, not as a mental health or counselling concept, so the field is not supported. New packet required. Source: [Bahenský Petr; Mrkvička Tomáš; Marko David; Malátová Renata; Krajcigr Miroslav; Harbour Eric. Respiratory pattern change in female and male runners by respiratory tract restriction using a respirator. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353784; article XML SHA-256 ce73bf731ae61360acd1c2d16136429e8fc1711e5158bbd1a494e42df7a9ef52. “Respiratory pattern change in female and male runners by respiratory tract restriction using a respirator” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353784).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353784) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- plexiform layer [redraft]: The packet does not define “plexiform layer” as a retinal layer or as the inner plexiform layer; it only mentions “ganglion cell inner plexiform layer” in the context of glaucoma imaging.; The packet does not define “plexiform layer” or state that it refers to the inner plexiform layer in the retina.; The packet does not support the claim that the thickness (or related measurements) of the inner plexiform layer can be assessed with optical coherence tomography (OCT).; The packet only indicates that ganglion cell inner plexiform layer and retinal nerve fiber layer parameters were measured with Cirrus HD OCT for evaluating glaucoma diagnostic performance; it does not explicitly support the broader statement about “glaucoma evaluation” or OCT assessing thickness/measurements of the plexiform layer.; The statement about assessing its thickness with optical coherence tomography for glaucoma evaluation is only loosely supported by the packet’s mention of OCT-measured parameters, and not as a direct definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Abera Addishiwot; W. Gessesse Girum. Diagnostic performance of optical coherence tomography macular ganglion cell inner plexiform layer and retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in glaucoma suspect and early glaucoma patients at St. Paul’s hospital millennium medical college, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0263959; article XML SHA-256 8e3fbf9689c5a16edd2c66c9247d02fe7c2d14741676f44a8501e7ef61dc36fa. “Diagnostic performance of optical coherence tomography macular ganglion cell inner plexiform layer and retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in glaucoma suspect and early glaucoma patients at St. Paul’s hospital millennium medical college, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0263959).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263959) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- POI [redraft]: The definition adds explanatory detail about what POI mix means that is not established by the supplied source packet.; The definition’s claim that POI mix was “treated as an environmental factor related to traffic injury risk” is partly implied by its being an influential factor in a traffic injury risk model, but the packet excerpt does not explicitly describe it as being “treated as” an environmental factor.; The packet does not define what “POI mix” means (e.g., as the variety/combination of nearby destination types). It only states that “point of interest (POI) mix” was an influential factor and that greater POI mix was generally associated with lower injury risk.; The packet supports that POI means “point of interest” and that POI mix was an influential environmental factor in traffic injury risk analysis, but it does not define POI mix as the “variety or combination of nearby destination types in an area.” New packet required. Source: [Li Wenfang; Zhang Xingchen; Cao Sen. Effects of 5D built environment and non-built-environment factors on injury crash risk: An interpretable machine learning analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353205; article XML SHA-256 04b156b5571e1077bf9050b299aa2cbe2fa32e794a857c47711d92f85db1cec5. “Effects of 5D built environment and non-built-environment factors on injury crash risk: An interpretable machine learning analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353205).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353205) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- point-light display [redraft]: The definition adds a general use claim about studying recognition from dynamic cues alone; the packet supports isolating kinematic contributions to facial expression processing and recognizing facial emotions, but does not establish that broader generalization as a definition of the term.; The definition claims point-light displays are made from light points on “key parts of the face or body,” but the provided source discusses point-light stimuli using markers on facial features specifically (eyebrows, mouth corners, nose), not body parts.; The packet supports facial point-light displays for facial expression recognition, not a general description extending to the body; “face or body” is broader than the source. New packet required. Source: [Costa Sara; Schiano Lomoriello Arianna; Straulino Elisa; Betti Sonia; Ghislandi Anita; Maffei Antonio; Caruana Fausto; Ferrari Pier Francesco; Sartori Luisa; Sessa Paola. Recognition of facial expressions from minimal five-point-light displays. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813559; article XML SHA-256 884de43e2b042999360ba4078c919d2238655410bf10b4a37a2a0c2727f46308. “Recognition of facial expressions from minimal five-point-light displays” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813559).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813559) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- policy research [redraft]: The claim that the source specifically discusses policy research as an area where consumer engagement is examined for its impact on relevance and outcomes overgeneralizes from the review’s findings about health policy, research, and services.; The definition is not well-supported for the “field: cognition” constraint: the packet concerns consumer engagement in health care policy/research/services and related trial outcomes, not cognition in a psychology sense.; The definition’s requested sense is partly anchored to a “health care context,” which is consistent with the packet, but the overall term-level definition (“study of how health policy is developed, carried out, or evaluated”) is not explicitly provided or clearly implied as the term’s definition in the packet.; The packet does not define policy research as the study of how health policy is developed, carried out, or evaluated; it only describes trials assessing consumer engagement in developing health care policy, research, or services and their effects.; The packet does not support the claim that “policy research” broadly refers to studying “how health policy is developed, carried out, or evaluated.” The text describes a systematic review assessing effects of consumer engagement in health care policy/research/services, with outcomes measured in included trials, but it does not define policy research in that general way.; The packet’s relevant support is specifically about consumer engagement in health care policy/research/services and its effects (e.g., relevance and outcomes). The definition’s framing goes beyond what is explicitly stated in the packet by presenting a general definition of policy research as such. New packet required. Source: [Wiles Louise K; Kay Debra; Luker Julie A; Worley Anthea; Austin Jane; Ball Allan; Bevan Alan; Cousins Michael; Dalton Sarah; Hodges Ellie; Horvat Lidia; Kerrins Ellen; Marker Julie; McKinnon Michele; McMillan Penelope; Pinero de Plaza Maria Alejandra; Smith Judy; Yeung David; Hillier Susan L. Consumer engagement in health care policy, research and services: A systematic review and meta-analysis of methods and effects. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0261808; article XML SHA-256 34c0289b83249650abd6dae313c437e5dbf393a8f94f3ce0d9bc2b6fc97643a1. “Consumer engagement in health care policy, research and services: A systematic review and meta-analysis of methods and effects” (10.1371/journal.pone.0261808).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261808) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- polygenic [redraft]: Headword is the adjective polygenic; definition describes a polygenic risk score instead. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Genetic Risk Score” (D000096442).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000096442) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- polygyny [redraft]: Because the provided definition includes a general definition plus an additional “female-defence form” description, the portion that frames polygyny broadly is not directly supported by the packet’s text.; The definition is broader than the packet’s context and presents an explanatory detail as if established by the source without direct support.; The packet does not explicitly define “polygyny” in general terms (i.e., it does not state the broad definition that “males compete for access to females” as the definition of polygyny).; The packet only provides support for the specific phrase “female defence polygyny mating system” in polar bears, stating that males compete for access to females; it does not support extending this to a general, universally applicable definition of polygyny.; The packet supports that polygyny is a female-defence mating system in which males compete for access to females, but it does not explicitly support the added mechanism that males gain mating opportunities by defending access to females. New packet required. Source: [Tremblay Simonne S; McGeachy David; Lunn Nicholas J; Richardson Evan S; Derocher Andrew E. Patterns and temporal trends in canine breakage and scarring in Western Hudson Bay polar bears ( Ursus maritimus ). 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319753; article XML SHA-256 0405325d20f2151e9c5910213c2e8f742c7f9ddc78708e06c80bbec40805f6dc. “Patterns and temporal trends in canine breakage and scarring in Western Hudson Bay polar bears ( Ursus maritimus )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319753).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319753) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- polysemy [redraft]: The definition’s content is otherwise supported by the packet, but the mismatched field makes the entry fail the requested sense/context check.; The field is not defensible: the packet discusses polysemy in Mandarin verb-direction constructions and semantic networks, not a biological concept.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “polysemy” as a general property of words or constructions having multiple meanings organized around a prototype meaning; it only uses the term “polysemy” in describing how the constructions’ meanings vary relative to prototype meaning.; The provided packet is about Mandarin Chinese verb-direction constructions (“V+ Xia / Xialai / Xiaqu”) and their semantic organization; it does not support framing polysemy as a concept in the requested field of “biological.”; While the packet mentions prototype meanings and semantic network structures (e.g., gradient continuum vs. discrete/clustered organization), it does not clearly support the specific wording of the definition’s general claims about “multiple meanings” and how closely non-prototype meanings relate to a “core sense.” New packet required. Source: [Tan Tian; Li Jiangcai. Quantitative comparative study on the verb-direction constructions “V+ Xia (下)”, “V+ Xialai (下来)” and “V+ Xiaqu (下去)” in mandarin Chinese. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354793; article XML SHA-256 278e0e1fc589990a5743bed169c1f63b1e59a264569901d34a16b5dd5d4354ec. “Quantitative comparative study on the verb-direction constructions “V+ Xia (下)”, “V+ Xialai (下来)” and “V+ Xiaqu (下去)” in mandarin Chinese” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354793).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354793) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- population mean [redraft]: The packet does not define “population mean” as the average value for an entire population; it only mentions “the population mean” in the statement that “The sample mean is an unbiased estimate of the population mean.”; The packet supports that the sample mean is an unbiased estimate of the population mean, but it does not explicitly define the population mean as “the average value for an entire population.”; The packet supports the idea that the sample mean estimates the population mean, but the definition’s first sentence (about what the population mean is) is unsupported by the provided packet.; The phrase “in research methods” adds a field-specific framing that is not stated in the source text, even though the term fits the field. New packet required. Source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Bias” (bias.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/bias.html) ([public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html))

- population variance [redraft]: No content in the packet explicitly links the term “population variance” to the described research use in the definition.; The definition’s claim that a bias correction is applied because a sample does not include the whole population is not stated in those terms in the supplied packet.; The packet discusses Bessel’s correction and estimation in the context of effect size calculations (and standardized mean differences), not “sample variance used to estimate population variance” in general.; The packet only mentions population variance in the context of Bessel’s correction for estimating it; it does not define population variance as the variance of an entire population or explain it as variation around the population mean.; The packet text does not define “population variance” or explain its meaning as variance across an entire population around a population mean.; The statement that sample variance is used to estimate population variance with a bias correction is partly supported, but the definition adds broader explanatory content that is not supported by the packet and goes beyond the cited passage. New packet required. Source: [Frontiers: Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science. 2013 volume 4; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863. “Calculating and reporting effect sizes” (9b939b04f5240b5c5c85).](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863/full) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Positive and Negative Affect Schedule [redraft]: The definition adds “general tendency” language that is broadly consistent with trait affectivity, but the packet does not state this as a general tendency in those terms; it frames PANAS as measuring trait positive affect and trait negative affect.; The packet excerpt states PANAS is designed to measure two distinct temperamental/personality traits (trait positive affect and trait negative affect), and it provides examples of the PA and NA affective states; however, it does not explicitly describe PANAS as a “self-report measure” in the supplied text.; The packet supports PANAS as a measure of trait positive affect and trait negative affect, but it does not explicitly support describing it as a self-report measure.; The wording “used to assess” and the examples of enthusiastic, alert, anxiety, anger, fear, and guilt are supported, but the full definition combines supported and unsupported claims in a way that is not fully grounded in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Hovmand Oliver Rumle; Reinholt Nina; Christensen Anne Bryde; Eskildsen Anita; Bach Bo; Arendt Mikkel; Poulsen Stig; Hvenegaard Morten; Arnfred Sidse M.. Affectivity in danish patients with emotional disorders: assessing the validity of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05450-z; article XML SHA-256 a4c254b810cbe98f16f8e0b9976872090fcc0866a751fbe64ec452215e4c6f15. “Affectivity in danish patients with emotional disorders: assessing the validity of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)” (10.1186/s12888-023-05450-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05450-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- positive attitude [redraft]: Narrow sense smuggled in: defines a sportsmanship component, not the headword. New packet required. Source: [Aldabbas Hazem; Elamin Abdallah M; Ahmed Ahmed Z E; Gernal Liza. Building positive workplace behaviors: how trust in the manager enhances sportsmanship behaviors through organizational trust. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828581; article XML SHA-256 f7d76a98d7cc0f94ee01d5b1ae7242e25748ed603627ddd8b11b2cbd1b629921. “Building positive workplace behaviors: how trust in the manager enhances sportsmanship behaviors through organizational trust” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828581).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1828581) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- positive contrast [redraft]: The definition slightly overstates the mechanism by presenting a general MRI method description rather than the packet’s narrower point about distinguishing susceptibility artefacts/voids from proton-free structures.; The definition’s phrasing “empty because of susceptibility effects or lack of protons” is only partially supported: the packet explicitly contrasts “susceptibility voids” with “proton-free structures,” but does not describe “empty” areas in those exact terms.; The packet does not support the specific claim that implants/devices are made to “stand out as visible bright” signals; it only says implants/devices can be delineated and that “positive contrast techniques” were implemented to discriminate susceptibility voids from proton-free structures.; The packet supports using positive contrast techniques to visualize or delineate implants/devices and to discriminate susceptibility voids from proton-free structures, but it does not support the added claim that they create “bright” signals. New packet required. Source: [Ciritsis Alexander; Truhn Daniel; Hansen Nienke L; Otto Jens; Kuhl Christiane K; Kraemer Nils A. Positive Contrast MRI Techniques for Visualization of Iron-Loaded Hernia Mesh Implants in Patients. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0155717; article XML SHA-256 21d96f0a71e70f37a74941fffdf077acd513ace908ec4b4a6ec1824da8b1e223. “Positive Contrast MRI Techniques for Visualization of Iron-Loaded Hernia Mesh Implants in Patients” (10.1371/journal.pone.0155717).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155717) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- positive emotion [redraft]: The definition adds a general dictionary-style characterization (“such as enjoyment or interest”) that is only partially supported by the packet’s examples and predictors, so the wording is broader than the source warrants.; The definition’s first sentence says positive emotion is a “pleasant emotional state”; the provided packet only mentions enjoyment and interest in relation to predictors of continued engagement and intention to use, but does not explicitly define positive emotion as “pleasant.”; The definition’s mention of “favorable use outcomes, including judging learning gains positively and wanting to keep using a technology over time” is largely supported by the packet (appraisal of learning gains; intention/continued use), but because the core definition sentence is not supported, the overall definition cannot be accepted as written.; The packet supports positive emotion as a positive emotional state and links it to outcomes such as appraisal of learning gains and continued use, but it does not explicitly support the gloss ‘a pleasant emotional state.’ New packet required. Source: [Mi Ning; Fan Cunying. Task–technology fit and digital textbook usage outcomes: The mediating role of positive emotion within an S–O–R framework. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344382; article XML SHA-256 307d3453283800396823dd72072cb0f599eb4001fe88b5723f32a726b281731d. “Task–technology fit and digital textbook usage outcomes: The mediating role of positive emotion within an S–O–R framework” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344382).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344382) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- positive family history [redraft]: The definition adds a general gloss and a contextual explanation that go beyond the supplied text; the source only indicates ‘positive family history’ in an MDD study, not the broader meaning stated here.; The packet does not define what “positive family history” means (e.g., relatives having the condition).; The packet only mentions “positive family history (PFH)” in relation to first-episode major depressive disorder, but it does not state the meaning of PFH or that it refers specifically to major depressive disorder occurring in the family.; The packet shows the abbreviation PFH used with first-episode major depressive disorder, but it does not explicitly support the general definition that a person has relatives with the condition being discussed. New packet required. Source: [Li Zhiyong; Pan Min; Zhang Xulai; Wang Anzhen; Fang Wenmei; Guan Jianjun; Zhang Boyu; Cheng Xialong. Neurocognitive risk markers in first-episode major depressive disorder with positive family history: a large-scale case–control study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1662007; article XML SHA-256 a97a7947d9abd8d9baeb0614a266135dc6cd49201084877894e754df3b8ba731. “Neurocognitive risk markers in first-episode major depressive disorder with positive family history: a large-scale case–control study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1662007).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1662007) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- positive motivation [redraft]: The definition’s general phrasing (“greater tendency to mentally and behaviorally approach it”) is not explicitly supported by the packet text; the packet reports enhanced liking/representational/evoked responses but does not describe “mentally and behaviorally approach” as the operational meaning of positive motivation.; The first sentence gives a general definition of “positive motivation” as a favorable motivational response involving liking and mental/behavioral approach, but the packet only supports a study-specific use tied to adults’ motivational responses to infant faces; it does not provide that broader definitional meaning.; The packet does support that the study’s relevant effects involve adults’ increased positive motivational responses (liking/evoked/representational) to infant faces after secure-attachment priming, but the definition’s broader first sentence contains unsupported claims.; The packet supports infant-face-specific positive/approach motivation in adults, but not the full generalized phrasing about “a stimulus” or the specific claims about “mental” approach and “behavioral” approach as a dictionary definition.; “Positive motivation is a favorable motivational response toward a stimulus” is not directly defined in the packet; the packet discusses motivational responses/enhancement for infant faces but does not provide this as a definitional characterization of the term. New packet required. Source: [Ding Fangyuan; Jia Yuncheng; Cheng Gang; Wu Lili; Hu Tianqiang; Zhang Dajun. Secure Attachment Priming Amplifies Approach Motivation for Infant Faces Among Childless Adults. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.736379; article XML SHA-256 42058b1ed5851b703205463c44971e03078b1def47c3e465a6c2928e9903cea2. “Secure Attachment Priming Amplifies Approach Motivation for Infant Faces Among Childless Adults” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.736379).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.736379) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- positive regard [redraft]: The definition shifts the sense from an assessment instrument to a personal attitude, which is not the same term sense supported by the source.; The packet defines this as a rating scale in the Behavior Assessment System for Children, not as the underlying feelings themselves.; The packet supports measuring a subject’s “positive regard towards parents” and feeling “esteemed” by them, but it does not explicitly support the wording “valued and respected.” In particular, “respected” is not stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Relations with Parents Scale” (C121287).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- positive reinforcement [redraft]: Adds unsupported detail that positive reinforcement involves giving a reward after the behavior; the packet only says it is for a desired action, behavior, or response.; Because key elements of the definition (timing “after” and intent “to encourage”) are not present in the provided packet text, the definition is not fully supported.; The explanatory phrase 'to encourage it' is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied wording.; The packet does not explicitly support the claims that the purpose is “to encourage it.”; The packet only defines “Positive reinforcement for a desired action, behavior or response” and does not explicitly state that it involves “giving a reward after” the action/behavior. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Reward” (C99754).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- positive relationship [redraft]: Because the definition’s first sentence includes that specific interpretation (directional ‘higher with higher’), that substantive claim is not directly supported by the provided packet.; The definition generalizes from the packet’s statement about perfect positive relationship to a broader definition of positive relationship without direct support.; The packet states that Pearson’s correlation ranges from -1 (perfect negative) to +1 (perfect positive) and that it measures the strength of the linear relationship, but it does not explicitly define a positive relationship as “higher values of one go with higher values of the other.”; The packet supports that +1 represents a perfect positive relationship, but it does not explicitly define a general positive relationship as a linear association where higher values of one variable go with higher values of the other. New packet required. Source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Pearson's r” (pearson_r.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/pearson_r.html) ([public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html))

- positive self-talk [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported framing by describing the term as “inner speech” and as thoughts people “direct toward themselves”; the packet only supports spontaneous self-talk in sport, not those specific characterizations.; The packet does not explicitly define “positive self-talk” as “inner speech with a positive tone”; it only describes “positive and negative spontaneous self-talk” in the context of sports.; The packet supports links between positivity and self-confidence and between positive situational self-talk in competition and performance, but the definition’s phrasing “when it occurs in the competitive situation” is not directly supported as a single combined claim tying positive self-talk (as defined in the first sentence) to improved performance in that exact way.; The performance/self-confidence relationship is misstated: the source says positive self-talk in sport predicted self-confidence, which then predicted positive situational self-talk in competition, and that positive situational self-talk predicted performance. It does not support the claim that the term itself is linked with greater self-confidence and better performance when it occurs in the competitive situation. New packet required. Source: [Santos-Rosa Francisco J.; Montero-Carretero Carlos; Gómez-Landero Luis Arturo; Torregrossa Miquel; Cervelló Eduardo. Positive and negative spontaneous self-talk and performance in gymnastics: The role of contextual, personal and situational factors. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0265809; article XML SHA-256 9d0449227186e3674dbd9424c65fa6dce5030cc170ac9090b66eafea3acfffc6. “Positive and negative spontaneous self-talk and performance in gymnastics: The role of contextual, personal and situational factors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0265809).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265809) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- postconventional level [redraft]: The definition introduces a classification and comparative interpretation that are not stated in the source text; the source only reports group differences in how often the postconventional level appeared.; The packet does not provide a definition or explanation of what the “postconventional level” means in moral reasoning, nor does it explicitly describe it as a “more advanced form of moral reasoning than people placed at lower levels.”; The packet only reports differences in the percentage of subjects categorized as being at the postconventional level across groups; this does not substantiate the definition’s characterization of postconventional as more advanced.; The packet supports that the term refers to a level in moral reasoning, but it does not support the added claim that this level is inherently a more advanced form of reasoning than lower levels. New packet required. Source: [Jean-Tron M G; Ávila-Montiel D; Márquez-González H; Chapa-Koloffon G; Orozco-Morales J A; Ávila-Hernández A V; Valdés-Pérez O; Garduño-Espinosa J. Differences in moral reasoning among medical graduates, graduates with other degrees, and nonprofessional adults. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12909-022-03624-z; article XML SHA-256 93b49afb2dc8330e6c2fc1871833e6f864bb6e296048be4f8a40f99b8aa4af67. “Differences in moral reasoning among medical graduates, graduates with other degrees, and nonprofessional adults” (10.1186/s12909-022-03624-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-022-03624-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- posterior nucleus [redraft]: Defines the lateral thalamic nuclei group, not the posterior nucleus. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Lateral Thalamic Nuclei” (D020647).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D020647) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- posterior [redraft]: The added imaging/surgery gloss (“located toward the back”) is not supported by the supplied text.; The definition’s broad claims about “anatomical term” and “back or rear side” are not explicitly supported by the supplied source packet.; The packet uses “posterior” only in a specific anatomical phrase (“posterior column,” “posterior cortical surface”) and does not explicitly define the term as meaning the back or rear side of a body structure.; The provided packet text does not give a general definitional statement of “posterior” as “back/rear side” or an anatomical directional meaning; it only uses “posterior” in specific contexts (e.g., “posterior column,” “posterior cortical surface,” “posterior iliac line”). New packet required. Source: [Li Hongtao; Xu Li; An Longxin; Li Xiaojing; Zhang Linjing; Liu Jun; Zhai Kaili; Sun Xuecheng; Feng Naibo. Utilization of the posterior iliac line for visualizing posterior column screws in obturator oblique view. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347522; article XML SHA-256 bac9b58db898e11f058765a780b18563231af7269f29b431aaf77fc4bc8e5d7b. “Utilization of the posterior iliac line for visualizing posterior column screws in obturator oblique view” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347522).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347522) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- postlingually deafened [redraft]: Because one substantive claim is unsupported, the definition as a whole cannot be passed.; The definition adds a general explanatory gloss that is not supported by the supplied source text.; The definition’s first claim (“became deaf after language had already developed”) is not supported by the provided packet text; the packet only states that cochlear implants are a standard treatment for “postlingually deafened individuals” without defining what “postlingually” means. ; The packet supports that cochlear implants are standard treatment for postlingually deafened individuals, but it does not state that ‘postlingually deafened’ means becoming deaf after language had already developed. New packet required. Source: [Wagner Franca; Wimmer Wilhelm; Leidolt Lars; Vischer Mattheus; Weder Stefan; Wiest Roland; Mantokoudis Georgios; Caversaccio Marco D.. Significant Artifact Reduction at 1.5T and 3T MRI by the Use of a Cochlear Implant with Removable Magnet: An Experimental Human Cadaver Study. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0132483; article XML SHA-256 a21e6b37024f44278690e4f8d0388750094e0acfdaa79f499f84078599836c1a. “Significant Artifact Reduction at 1.5T and 3T MRI by the Use of a Cochlear Implant with Removable Magnet: An Experimental Human Cadaver Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0132483).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132483) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- posttest [redraft]: The claim that the posttest is compared with the pretest to estimate change is only indirectly supported by the packet’s discussion of pretest-posttest designs and normalized gains; the definition goes beyond the packet in presenting this as the core definition of posttest.; The packet does not explicitly define *posttest* as “a measurement taken after a learning period, intervention, or other study interval.” It only references “pretest-posttest designs” and “pretest and posttest scores” without stating the timing/meaning of the posttest itself.; The packet supports a posttest in pretest-posttest designs, but it does not mention interventions or the broader phrase “other study interval.”; While the packet supports the idea of using pretest and posttest (e.g., normalized gains) to “estimate group-level change/learning rates,” it does not provide support for the specific general definition wording about what a posttest is and when it is taken. New packet required. Source: [Navarrete-Ulloa Jairo A.; Giaconi Valentina; Contador Gonzalo. Normal gains: estimators of learning rates in pretest-posttest settings. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901493; article XML SHA-256 e5947923d1dfb222da21b15dd8959fe1ea26069634089a83e6ad64a06410efa9. “Normal gains: estimators of learning rates in pretest-posttest settings” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901493).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901493) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- posttreatment follow-up [redraft]: The definition mixes a general glossary-style meaning with a study-specific usage; the study-specific 12-week follow-up is supported, but the broader explanatory claim is not explicitly supported by the source.; The packet states there was an “immediate posttreatment” assessment and a “12-week posttreatment follow-up,” but it does not explicitly define posttreatment follow-up as an assessment point “used to see whether changes in symptoms are maintained over time.”; The packet supports a 12-week posttreatment follow-up in this study, but it does not define the term generally as an assessment point used to determine whether symptom changes are maintained over time.; “In this study, it referred to checking outcomes again 12 weeks after the intervention” is supported by the packet, but the definition’s first sentence includes an unsupported rationale (“maintained over time”). New packet required. Source: [Ip Agnes Ka-Yan; Ho Fiona Yan-Yee; Yeung Wing-Fai; Chung Ka-Fai; Ng Chee H; Oliver Georgina; Sarris Jerome. Effects of a group-based lifestyle medicine for depression: A pilot randomized controlled trial. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0258059; article XML SHA-256 ad89eb4fa3c7f4efd0223c18d96baaebbb4ed73a29e683ab65ddf74d735ea8ff. “Effects of a group-based lifestyle medicine for depression: A pilot randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0258059).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258059) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- potency [redraft]: The definition claims a specific meaning and framing (“how strong … especially … THC content”) that are not directly evidenced as a definition within the supplied packet text.; The packet does not provide a definitional statement of “potency” (e.g., that it “means how strong a cannabis product is” or that it is “especially in terms of its THC content”).; The packet mentions “high-potency THC products” and associations with psychiatric presentations, but it does not explicitly support the specific linkage described in the definition (potency discussed as part of “changing patterns of use linked with psychiatric harm”).; The packet supports only that cannabis use has increased alongside growing availability of high-potency THC products; it does not define potency as a general measure of how strong a cannabis product is or explicitly equate higher potency with more THC content.; The requested sense is too expanded for the supplied source: the packet contains only a brief background reference to high-potency THC products, not a full definition of the term.; The statement that potency is discussed as part of changing patterns of use linked with psychiatric harm goes beyond the packet, which mentions rising psychiatric presentations but does not make the broader causal or contextual claim in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Śniadach Justyna; Szymkowiak Sylwia; Osip Przemysław; Orlof Wiktor; Waszkiewicz Napoleon. Mental health consequences of contemporary cannabis use in Europe: potency, patterns of use, and health system context. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1778831; article XML SHA-256 d40e7608bec96c80d314d0e3285de474e9a7090fd8b55ec99b64cd48e99dfc2f. “Mental health consequences of contemporary cannabis use in Europe: potency, patterns of use, and health system context” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1778831).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1778831) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- power law [redraft]: All other elements (use for upper-tail modeling; linkage to “rich getting richer”/“preferential attachment” as a possible generating process) are present in the packet.; The definition claims that in a power law “the upper end of the distribution is dominated by rare, very large values.” In the provided packet, the paper discusses modeling the “upper tail” of crop yield distributions and fitting distributions, but it does not explicitly state that the upper end is dominated by “rare” very large values in those terms.; The definition states that the source uses the power law “to model the high-yield tail of crop data.” The packet supports this generally (describing the “upper tail” with the power law and finding it captured upper tails better), but it does not explicitly use the phrase “high-yield tail” for the same concept; this is close but not exact support for the wording used in the definition.; The definition’s opening gloss is a broad generalization; the packet supports only that a power law was used to describe the upper tails of the crop-yield data, not a general definition about distributions being dominated by rare large values.; The source packet is about crop-yield tail modeling and does not support the requested psychology/counselling learning sense of the term. New packet required. Source: [Okorie Idika E; Afuecheta Emmanuel; Nadarajah Saralees. Time series and power law analysis of crop yield in some east African countries. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0287011; article XML SHA-256 7a950b9e654cf442d6db557e44acbbdcb7892d5151a140289568ec62ce8ffd3f. “Time series and power law analysis of crop yield in some east African countries” (10.1371/journal.pone.0287011).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287011) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- power spectrum [redraft]: Because that general definition of the term is unsupported by the packet, the full definition cannot be accepted under the requirement that every substantive claim be supported.; The definition gives a general signal-processing explanation of “power spectrum,” but the packet does not supply that standalone definition; it only uses the term in the context of electrohysterogram features.; The definition’s first sentence gives a general characterization of a power spectrum (“how much of a recorded signal is concentrated at different frequencies”), but the provided packet does not explicitly state or define power spectrum in those terms—only that features were derived from “the (normalized) power spectrum” in specific frequency bands.; The requested field is “learning,” but the source packet is about uterine electromyogram feature extraction and premature-birth prediction, so the field/sense is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Pirnar Žiga; Jager Franc; Geršak Ksenija. Peak amplitude of the normalized power spectrum of the electromyogram of the uterus in the low frequency band is an effective predictor of premature birth. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0308797; article XML SHA-256 55669c499f598f0172c059a3ac4c4a84cd2e5ccc093dabe5c813fc8bc4352c6f. “Peak amplitude of the normalized power spectrum of the electromyogram of the uterus in the low frequency band is an effective predictor of premature birth” (10.1371/journal.pone.0308797).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308797) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- PPA [redraft]: The definition claims that a PPA is “a type of marine protected area where only some activities or uses are restricted rather than fully prohibited,” but the provided packet text does not supply this specific definition/meaning of PPA (it only notes that a consistent definition is lacking and that the review conducted a definition).; The packet does support parts of the definition about benefits being ambiguous/variable and not consistently greater than open ocean, and that no PPAs provide greater overall benefits than fully protected MPAs; however, because the key characterization of what “partially protected” means (restricted activities/uses rather than fully prohibited) is not explicitly supported in the packet text, the full definition is not defensible.; The source says PPAs provide only partial protection and that their benefits are ambiguous, but it does not specifically define them as areas where “only some activities or uses are restricted rather than fully prohibited.”; The source supports “partially protected areas (PPAs),” not the singular expansion “partially protected area.” New packet required. Source: [Phillips Genevieve A. C.; Ogier Emily; Dutton Ian; Barrett Neville; Krueck Nils C.; Hartmann Klaas. The ambiguous role of partially protected marine protected areas in Australia: Results from a systematic literature review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307324; article XML SHA-256 ec61b2160e1eccde78c1848ab82e3428f5d4f2e2e42e4bed98ccaab50cb1a35c. “The ambiguous role of partially protected marine protected areas in Australia: Results from a systematic literature review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307324).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307324) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- PPVT [redraft]: Wrong headword sense; packet concerns pPVT, not the PPVT test. New packet required. Source: [Flores-Ramirez Francisco J; Pascasio Glenn; Martin-Fardon Rémi. Functional interaction between orexin/dynorphin transmission in the posterior paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus following alcohol dependence: mediation of alcohol-seeking behavior. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fphar.2025.1718540; article XML SHA-256 a4fb1ae8bed195d5698bcf2123d8bd6b402eb7eb9c1db4148d5a254941feac96. “Functional interaction between orexin/dynorphin transmission in the posterior paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus following alcohol dependence: mediation of alcohol-seeking behavior” (10.3389/fphar.2025.1718540).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2025.1718540) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- practical intelligence [redraft]: Redefines a known construct as a framework sub-factor only. New packet required. Source: [Kang Ji-hun; Tang Hong-Fu. Differences in judgments on the importance of performance psychological factors among Korean and Chinese football experts. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1659102; article XML SHA-256 e168d4e7099deb41daeeb4479546c1bb2d83da42bec91c5b2baf6a59b3261ff8. “Differences in judgments on the importance of performance psychological factors among Korean and Chinese football experts” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1659102).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1659102) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- practice [redraft]: Narrow CBT-skills sense substituted for the general headword. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Social Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 219dd350478d5e198b1c80914abdd6f76c94cbf69e7a886e0cd14337d4a29db9. “Social Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/social-anxiety-disorder-more-than-just-shyness).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/social-anxiety-disorder-more-than-just-shyness) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- practicum [redraft]: The definition adds “practical and emotional demands” in a generalized way; the packet specifically mentions emotionally demanding practicum contexts, but not as a general dictionary sense of the term.; The definition’s phrase “in real-world settings” is broadly consistent with “real classroom challenges,” but the packet does not clearly support the exact wording/scope as a general definitional feature (e.g., “real-world settings” as part of the term’s definition).; The field label “cognition” is not supported by the packet, which is about teacher education/practicum rather than a cognition term.; The packet discusses “teaching practicum” as a phase where pre-service teachers encounter real classroom challenges, but it does not explicitly define practicum as a “supervised training phase.”; The packet supports practicum as a phase in teacher education with real classroom challenges, but it does not support the added claim that it is a supervised training phase.; The part about “practical and emotional demands” is only partially supported: the packet mentions “emotionally demanding practicum contexts” and psychological readiness, but it does not explicitly define practicum as involving “practical and emotional demands” in those exact terms. New packet required. Source: [Sağlam Manolya. Psychological capital and classroom management self-efficacy during teaching practicum: a mixed-methods study of pre-service English teachers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1822494; article XML SHA-256 a6a5a941ad2b0ec8f407f36c21de9f4de2d91bb9613d5d1880a241249384664a. “Psychological capital and classroom management self-efficacy during teaching practicum: a mixed-methods study of pre-service English teachers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1822494).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1822494) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pragmatics [redraft]: Describes pragmatic processing research, not what pragmatics means. New packet required. Source: [Gutiérrez Cisneros Angélica; Foucart Alice; Brunellière Angèle. Neuropragmatics: from classical pragmatics to neurocognitive models of pragmatics in dialogue. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745034; article XML SHA-256 20b5e101d22c74cacab29301dc9c5990b4a86099fc0f68a9fa2e804b8f404dcb. “Neuropragmatics: from classical pragmatics to neurocognitive models of pragmatics in dialogue” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745034).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1745034) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prandial drinking [redraft]: The definition attributes an anticipatory mechanism to prandial drinking in mammals, but the packet says this anticipatory function has not been demonstrated for prandial drinking.; The definition attributes the anticipatory mechanism to “prandial drinking,” while the packet describes the anticipatory mechanism specifically for “postprandial thirst” in mammals (buccal sensation affecting brain thirst center before blood parameter changes).; The field 'learning' is not clearly supported by the packet for this term; the source is about behavioural osmoregulation and drinking behaviour, not learning.; The packet explicitly links “postprandial thirst” to preventing systemic dehydration, but it does not explicitly state that prandial drinking itself “may help prevent dehydration.”; The packet supports a relation to postprandial thirst and dehydration prevention, but it does not define prandial drinking itself as a mammalian anticipatory response before blood or body-fluid changes occur. New packet required. Source: [Katayama Yukitoshi; Tsukada Takehiro; Hyodo Susumu; Sakamoto Hirotaka; Sakamoto Tatsuya. Behavioural osmoregulation during land invasion in fish: Prandial drinking and wetting of the dry skin. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0277968; article XML SHA-256 5fdf27bce6c3198378f31dedea4cc7025bd37ae727030b557dbccd4d3dcf4590. “Behavioural osmoregulation during land invasion in fish: Prandial drinking and wetting of the dry skin” (10.1371/journal.pone.0277968).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0277968) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- preadolescence [redraft]: The claim that preadolescence is the period when early self-control abilities such as inhibitory control are developing goes beyond the packet, which only mentions inhibitory control as a studied feature during early development.; The packet does not explicitly define “preadolescence” as an early stage of development that comes before adolescence.; The packet mentions inhibitory control in “early development (i.e., preadolescence)” but does not support the specific framing that this period “refers to the period when early self-control abilities such as inhibitory control are developing.”; The packet only uses “preadolescence” as an appositive for “early development”; it does not support defining the term as a stage that specifically comes before adolescence. New packet required. Source: [Adams Faith; Ceceli Ahmet O.; Peri Siddhartha; Ivanov Iliyan; Parvaz Muhammad A.. Neurobehavioral correlates of inhibitory control in youth at-risk for early low-level alcohol use initiation: neuroimaging findings from the ABCD study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1734436; article XML SHA-256 47b4eb7c31b6de699355a07b95b3d8710d50340660e5523afda8241c53429668. “Neurobehavioral correlates of inhibitory control in youth at-risk for early low-level alcohol use initiation: neuroimaging findings from the ABCD study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1734436).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1734436) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- preconception [redraft]: It overgeneralizes from the packet by attributing to both mothers and fathers a broad list of health factors (behaviors, medications, substance use, mental health, environmental exposures) and their effects on pregnancy outcomes; the packet supports only specific maternal preconception health and several paternal factors in relation to infant birth weight, not this generalized formulation.; The definition broadens the packet’s scope by asserting a general sense of “preconception” as the period before pregnancy begins; the packet only uses “preconception period” in the context of preconception health/care and does not explicitly define the term.; The definition claims these factors “may influence pregnancy outcomes”; the packet specifically discusses associations with infant birth weight (and paternal preconception factors), but does not substantiate broader “pregnancy outcomes” beyond examples centered on birth weight.; The packet uses the term “preconception period” but does not explicitly define it as “the period before a pregnancy begins,” so the definition’s first clause is not directly supported. New packet required. Source: [Dennis Cindy-Lee; McQueen Karen; Dol Justine; Dennis-Grantham Alistair; Singla Daisy R.; de Sousa Julia Carneiro Godoy; Montreuil Tina; Birken Catherine S.; Shorey Shefaly. The influence of paternal preconception health on infant birth weight: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344275; article XML SHA-256 f74743f4956acf8c4ee3d175225a50b297d7fb7d30fd07bdb62d7c40b72a151e. “The influence of paternal preconception health on infant birth weight: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344275).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344275) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- predator [redraft]: Because “eats” is not explicitly present in the packet’s wording, the requested sense of the term is not fully supported as written.; The definition’s first sentence (“finds, attacks, and eats prey”) is only partially supported by the packet: the packet explicitly describes attack/capture as part of feeding modes, but it does not directly state that predators “eat” prey (it discusses feeding strategies and capture/attack).; The definition’s first sentence is a broad generalization; the packet specifically supports plankton predators using ambush or cruising feeding modes, not a general all-purpose dictionary definition for the field.; The packet supports predator as a biological organism in planktonic feeding interactions, not a term in the requested field of learning/psychology. New packet required. Source: [Sanvicente-Añorve Laura; Lemus-Santana Elia; Molina-Sandoval Gerardo; Cruz-Motta Juan J.; Violante-Huerta Marco; Hermoso-Salazar Margarita. Variability of a predator-prey interaction in the plankton: Encounters and feeding rates of the chaetognath Flaccisagitta enflata upon copepods. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340065; article XML SHA-256 abc427950a5a80adb6ec0cbb4be68a886ee5f5701a0070c8dc4b6f46f43b3429. “Variability of a predator-prey interaction in the plankton: Encounters and feeding rates of the chaetognath Flaccisagitta enflata upon copepods” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340065).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340065) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prediction [redraft]: The definition’s first substantive claim (“Prediction is the process of estimating an outcome from available information”) is not explicitly supported in the supplied packet text.; The packet supports a specific technical sense, genome prediction in breeding, not the broad general definition ‘prediction is the process of estimating an outcome from available information.’; While the second part is consistent with the packet (“predicts crop phenotype through genomic markers”), the definition attributes a general meaning to ‘prediction’ that goes beyond what the packet states.; ‘Observable traits’ and ‘genomic marker data’ are close paraphrases of ‘crop phenotype’ and ‘genomic markers,’ but the definition adds unsupported general wording and does not stay tightly within the source sense. New packet required. Source: [Peng Wenyu; Sheng Yuxia; Zhou Ying. A parallel convolution attention network for crop genomic prediction. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358451; article XML SHA-256 70513103a9fb0b8077a6af3510c250a40729419e9476305a6703903ff14a1977. “A parallel convolution attention network for crop genomic prediction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358451).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358451) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- predictive value [redraft]: No support is provided in the packet for the implied general characterization of predictive value as a property of measures (e.g., usefulness/extent), as opposed to the study-specific usage of the term.; The added clause about variables helping to predict mental health status goes beyond the supplied text, which only says the authors aimed to evaluate predictive value for mental health using regression and machine learning approaches.; The definition’s phrasing (“useful… for forecasting an outcome” and “extent to which variables can help predict mental health status”) is not supported by any explicit definitional content in the packet.; The packet does not define “predictive value”; it only states that the study “evaluate[s] their predictive value” for mental health using regression and machine learning, without describing what predictive value means conceptually.; The packet shows the term used in a study context, but it does not define “predictive value” as “how useful a measure or combination of measures is for forecasting an outcome.” New packet required. Source: [Zhou Jianfan; Yin Shuting; Xue Shuan; Sun Chunhua; Zhao Yuan. Combined predictive value of TyG index and PLR for mental health in Chinese adults: A machine learning approach. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355937; article XML SHA-256 43cc75fffd32349dac19840b95b65fb5659aaf5156c5f0cc983a5c4eb8ba757d. “Combined predictive value of TyG index and PLR for mental health in Chinese adults: A machine learning approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355937).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355937) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pregnancy [redraft]: Does not define pregnancy itself; adds 'major' and reframes a general headword via 'in mental health'. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 5e865d35b1103be91b52db38911aadcdf861e23a0de4e1b3e1eeb01399b987b8. “Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- prehension [redraft]: Because one substantive claim is unsupported by the packet, the definition cannot be passed under the stated criteria.; The definition’s first sentence (“the act or function of grasping or taking hold of something”) is not explicitly supported by the packet; the packet only describes the hand as “a delicate organ of prehension and touch.”; The packet supports a historical anatomical sense in which the hand is an organ of prehension and touch, but it does not support the broader claim that prehension means the act or function of grasping or taking hold.; The packet supports the historical sense component about the hand serving as an organ for “prehension and touch,” but it does not support the broader, non-anchored phrasing about “act or function of grasping or taking hold.”; The wording “especially the hand’s capacity to serve as a refined organ for grasping as well as touch” goes beyond the source, which only describes the hand as a delicate organ of prehension and touch, not as an abstract functional definition. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Anthropoid” (Anthropoid).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Anthropoid) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- prelinguistic [redraft]: "Attention-related communication" is not stated in the packet and is an unsupported addition.; The definition goes beyond the packet by presenting a broader developmental definition rather than the narrower article-specific sense supported by the source.; The definition goes beyond what is explicitly stated in the packet by asserting specific communicative functions (attention-related communication) that are not evidenced in the supplied text.; The packet does not provide a definition of “prelinguistic” as “the stage before an infant uses language,” so that framing is unsupported.; The packet mentions “prelinguistic infants” in relation to maternal infant-directed speech, positive vocal affect, pitch, and timing of vocal responses, but it does not support the added characterization that these infants are “already taking part in … attention-related communication.”; The packet supports use of the term in relation to infants before language, but it does not define prelinguistic as a general stage in the way the definition states; that wording is an extrapolation from the article context. New packet required. Source: [Lam-Cassettari Christa; Kohlhoff Jane. Effect of maternal depression on infant-directed speech to prelinguistic infants: Implications for language development. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0236787; article XML SHA-256 07fad1ed9c7f68f427478c4e53d42b3408eb919a46bf26890a9564f802cc50d6. “Effect of maternal depression on infant-directed speech to prelinguistic infants: Implications for language development” (10.1371/journal.pone.0236787).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236787) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- premarital sex [redraft]: Because the first sentence is unsupported, the requested definition overall is not fully defensible against the supplied source packet.; The claim that premarital sex is “sexual relations that occur before marriage” is not stated in the packet and is only implied by the term, so it is not directly supported by the supplied source.; The clause about these attitudes shaping whether adolescents become sexually active or remain abstinent is broadly supported, but the definition as a whole is not fully supported because of the issues above.; The definition’s first sentence (“Premarital sex refers to sexual relations that occur before marriage”) is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text, which instead discusses “attitude toward premarital sex” and “premarital sexual relationships/practice” without stating the “before marriage” meaning.; The statement that psychology research often discusses premarital sex in terms of attitudes toward it is an unsupported generalization from a single article; the packet only supports that this article treats attitude toward premarital sex as an important factor. New packet required. Source: [Tegegne Wossen Ayalew. Self-esteem, peer pressure, and demographic predictors of attitude toward premarital sexual practice among first-year students of Woldia University: Implications for psychosocial intervention. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923639; article XML SHA-256 ff9d9a807b50ae60a23fa797c4264884d3196247cb573b9d146bd33486485bfb. “Self-esteem, peer pressure, and demographic predictors of attitude toward premarital sexual practice among first-year students of Woldia University: Implications for psychosocial intervention” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923639).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923639) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- premature aging [redraft]: General headword narrowed to immune-system markers via 'in this context'; describes the study. New packet required. Source: [Prelog Martina; Hilligardt Deborah; Schmidt Christian A.; Przybylski Grzegorz K.; Leierer Johannes; Almanzar Giovanni; El Hajj Nady; Lesch Klaus-Peter; Arolt Volker; Zwanzger Peter; Haaf Thomas; Domschke Katharina. Hypermethylation of FOXP3 Promoter and Premature Aging of the Immune System in Female Patients with Panic Disorder?. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0157930; article XML SHA-256 060735bb65555749be13a0eb1a0d6985410ebac2c5213aad23354c7c0534216a. “Hypermethylation of FOXP3 Promoter and Premature Aging of the Immune System in Female Patients with Panic Disorder?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0157930).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157930) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- premeditation [redraft]: Because the first sentence presents a general definition rather than what the passage explicitly supports, the definition includes an unsupported substantive claim.; The added gloss about "small distracting acts" is not a definition of the term and over-specifies the passage’s example beyond what is directly supported.; The core sense is reversed: in the passage, "without premeditation" means without prior planning or forethought, not "premeditation" itself.; The packet does not explicitly define “premeditation” as a general concept (e.g., “acting without prior planning or deliberate forethought”); it only uses the phrase “without premeditation” in an example. New packet required. Source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8) ([public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628))

- premorbid adjustment [redraft]: The added detail about social and academic functioning during childhood and adolescence is only indirectly suggested by the study context, not explicitly defined in the source packet as the meaning of the term.; The definition claims “may reflect underlying neurodevelopmental difficulties.” While the packet states that childhood trauma interferes with neurodevelopment and that poor premorbid adjustment “may be a manifestation of neurodevelopmental compromise,” the packet does not use the exact framing of “underlying neurodevelopmental difficulties” as the general mechanism of premorbid adjustment itself (it is tied to the trauma–premorbid adjustment pathway).; The definition describes premorbid adjustment generally as functioning “before the onset of a disorder,” but the packet discusses premorbid adjustment specifically in relation to first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders (i.e., as a precursor to schizophrenia), not broadly “before the onset of a disorder.”; The field is acceptable, but the definition goes beyond what the packet substantiates for a dictionary entry.; The packet supports that poor premorbid adjustment is a frequent precursor to schizophrenia and may reflect neurodevelopmental compromise, but it does not define the term as general pre-onset functioning. New packet required. Source: [Kilian S; Burns J K; Seedat S; Asmal L; Chiliza B; Du Plessis S; Olivier M R; Kidd M; Emsley R. Factors Moderating the Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Premorbid Adjustment in First-Episode Schizophrenia. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0170178; article XML SHA-256 5523505a6a4235994ba10496ef26e1e2fea87001ae0b42f2c56f502d30743477. “Factors Moderating the Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Premorbid Adjustment in First-Episode Schizophrenia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0170178).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170178) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- premorbid [redraft]: Only the second sentence’s specific application (“premorbid cognitive performance… before HIV infection”) is clearly supported by the packet (“premorbid (pre-HIV) cognitive performance”).; The definition adds a general clinical gloss that is not stated in the source; the source only refers to premorbid (pre-HIV) cognitive performance in people with and without HIV.; The first sentence gives a general definition of “premorbid” as relating to functioning before the onset of a disorder/illness; the provided packet only uses “premorbid” in the specific sense of “pre-HIV” cognitive performance and does not support the broader general definition.; The packet supports a pre-HIV meaning, but not the broader claim that premorbid generally means functioning before the onset of any disorder or illness. New packet required. Source: [Dreyer Anna J; Joska John A; Thomas Kevin G F; Sabin Caroline; Winston Alan; Khoo Saye; Nightingale Sam. The role of premorbid cognitive performance in the neuropsychological assessment of people with HIV in South Africa. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349942; article XML SHA-256 8f742a721bd0bd376020c9f38cad9e3e5406e51a78d7b10ae2f0ebd4587e4443. “The role of premorbid cognitive performance in the neuropsychological assessment of people with HIV in South Africa” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349942).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349942) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prenatal care [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“care received during pregnancy”) is a substantive definitional claim that is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text.; The definition’s opening claim that prenatal care is “care received during pregnancy” is not stated in the packet and is not sufficiently supported by the supplied text alone.; The response should stick to the source packet’s framing; it adds a generic definitional claim that is not explicitly supported, even though the packet does discuss equity-oriented prenatal care and related outcomes. New packet required. Source: [Ladak Zeenat; Hooda Muzzammil; Ojo Tolulope; To Daphne; Simmons Rochelle; Shuldiner Jennifer; Patrawala Ummul-Kiram; Nicholas Angl Emily; Laur Celia; Hemani Mehdiya; Falenchuk Olesya; Volpe Richard; Ivers Noah M.. Exploring prenatal care experiences in Ontario, Canada: An equity-oriented qualitative study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345200; article XML SHA-256 e236c503427b0a4a1f176689bfd51902002298037e2f1d82c6fecdfe7edaeaeb. “Exploring prenatal care experiences in Ontario, Canada: An equity-oriented qualitative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345200).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345200) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prenatal counseling [redraft]: The definition generalizes prenatal counseling as guidance for pregnancy-related problems in general, but the packet only describes prenatal counseling in the specific context of hyperemesis gravidarum.; The definition’s first sentence (“guidance given during pregnancy to help pregnant women manage and reduce pregnancy-related problems”) is a general description of prenatal counseling that is not supported by the provided packet text, which only discusses prenatal counseling specifically in relation to hyperemesis gravidarum.; The packet supports the hyperemesis-gravidarum–specific meaning (counseling on how to manage and reduce hyperemesis gravidarum, and that it is helpful for averting complications), but it does not substantiate the broader, pregnancy-general characterization in the first sentence.; The source supports counseling on how to manage and reduce hyperemesis gravidarum and avert related complications, but not a broader general definition of prenatal counseling. New packet required. Source: [Beyene Girma Alemayehu; Ayele Nitsuh D; Kasahun Abebaw Wasie. Prevalence and determinants of hyperemesis gravidarum among pregnant women in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314783; article XML SHA-256 351a0d3c9038a37313f23565f149ed3f9992cfa6b5e32c3d52f84a955b2c2d66. “Prevalence and determinants of hyperemesis gravidarum among pregnant women in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314783).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314783) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prenatal stress [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define prenatal stress as stress occurring during the prenatal period, before birth; it only uses the term and states that PS is a major risk factor for later depression.; The packet does not explicitly state that “prenatal stress” is “stress occurring during the prenatal period, before birth.” It only presents “prenatal stress” as a concept and does not define its timing in those terms.; While the packet supports that prenatal stress is a risk factor for depression later in life and links it to “early-life adversity,” the timing/occurrence-as-a-phenomenon part of the definition is not directly supported.; “Early-life adversity” and “increases later vulnerability to depression” are broader paraphrases not stated in the source packet. New packet required. Source: [Yue Jingjing; Zhang Jing; Yu Xiaoyi; Li Zhiheng; Wang Yanhua; Zhao Siyi; Bai Yunfei; Li Xiaoxiao; Li Hui; Yang Yutao; Xu Zhi-Qing David. Disruption of a GalR2–mitochondrial axis in the ventral hippocampus contributes to depression-like phenotypes after prenatal stress. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1809262; article XML SHA-256 44d6fec4b21e96759981148f3862469591daec580113d9acabf2eaf2756dc6be. “Disruption of a GalR2–mitochondrial axis in the ventral hippocampus contributes to depression-like phenotypes after prenatal stress” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1809262).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1809262) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- preparatory response [redraft]: The definition describes “an early readiness state” in the motor system, but the packet text provided only states there may be a “motor preparatory response” and investigates whether it contributes to “costly helping”; it does not support the specific characterization as an “early readiness state.”; The packet supports a motor preparatory response related to costly helping, but it does not define the term as an “early readiness state” or state that it “gets a person prepared to act.”; While the packet supports linking a “motor preparatory response” to “costly helping” in the context of bystanders responding to victims in distress, the packet does not explicitly support the phrasing that it “may help prompt costly helping when someone sees another person in distress.”; “Bodily action preparation” and the distress-helping context are plausible from the packet, but the definition generalizes beyond what is explicitly supported by the source text. New packet required. Source: [Vickers Brian D.; Seidler Rachael D.; Stansfield R. Brent; Weissman Daniel H.; Preston Stephanie D.. Altruistic responses to the most vulnerable involve sensorimotor processes. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1140986; article XML SHA-256 432bbd449cc021cf603c22efc2ebf815aec857e92a4f391efa95e3a87c85fe94. “Altruistic responses to the most vulnerable involve sensorimotor processes” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1140986).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1140986) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- preparatory set [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the packet: the source only supports ‘preparatory set’ in the specific context of pro- and anti-saccade preparation, not as a general term for neural readiness before any action.; The definition’s general description of “pattern of neural readiness or planning that develops before an action is carried out” is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text.; The packet supports only that fMRI BOLD responses during a “preparatory period” differed for anti- versus pro-saccades and were interpreted as reflecting “differences in preparatory-set,” not the broader “neural readiness/planning” wording or the “before an action is carried out” framing.; The phrase ‘pattern of neural readiness or planning’ is broader and more abstract than the source’s wording, which describes elevated BOLD response during the preparatory phase and interprets it as differences in preparatory planning.; The second sentence is supported only as an application to anti- versus pro-saccadic eye movements, so the broader opening sentence should not be presented as the term’s general meaning. New packet required. Source: [Furlan Michele; Smith Andrew T; Walker Robin. An fMRI Investigation of Preparatory Set in the Human Cerebral Cortex and Superior Colliculus for Pro- and Anti-Saccades. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0158337; article XML SHA-256 fd84a3747df0e64240aa8fbb24d4eb2820538d6f6d3d148788a08f7e25668266. “An fMRI Investigation of Preparatory Set in the Human Cerebral Cortex and Superior Colliculus for Pro- and Anti-Saccades” (10.1371/journal.pone.0158337).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158337) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prepotent stimulus [redraft]: The definition adds an interpretive gloss about stimulus–response links being “especially influential” under brief increases in alertness or arousal; that relationship is only indirectly implied by the article and is not stated as a definition in the source.; The definition’s wording about “stimulus–response links that become especially influential under brief increases in alertness or arousal” is only indirectly supported (the packet reports alerting cues boost phasic arousal and amplify prepotent stimulus–response associations), but the packet does not clearly establish the term’s meaning as stated.; The packet does not explicitly define “prepotent stimulus” as “a cue or input that has a strong, automatic tendency to trigger a particular response.” It only mentions that brief increases in phasic arousal “amplif[y] prepotent stimulus–response associations,” without stating a general definition of the term.; The packet supports “prepotent stimulus–response associations” and phasic alertness/arousal, but it does not directly define “prepotent stimulus” as a cue or input with a strong automatic tendency to trigger a response. New packet required. Source: [Golden Maya J; Hutcheon Thomas G; Gomez-Rivas Carlos; Kahan Todd A. Trial history shapes the alerting-congruency interaction in selective attention. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768354; article XML SHA-256 3822f69f2d924361294779c505b4a6b16477fc7fe577e8864980c64ff814e278. “Trial history shapes the alerting-congruency interaction in selective attention” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768354).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1768354) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prescribing information [redraft]: Well-known drug-label sense redefined as a social prescribing outcome standard. New packet required. Source: [Fancourt Daisy; Bu Feifei. Patterns and predictors of outcome monitoring amongst link workers: Learnings from the National Social Prescribing Link Worker Survey 2025. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346234; article XML SHA-256 d1f07ffa7188722289545fd732469d925f4fefdcdae7ac7d4f8b3c08c9b368b6. “Patterns and predictors of outcome monitoring amongst link workers: Learnings from the National Social Prescribing Link Worker Survey 2025” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346234).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346234) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prescribing [redraft]: The added claim that prescribing “can become inappropriate when factors such as drug–drug interaction risk increase the chance of harm” is only supported for inappropriate prescribing in general, not as a definition of the term itself.; The packet discusses inappropriate prescribing as a medication-related error, but it does not define “prescribing” as the clinical act of choosing and ordering medicines for a patient.; The packet does not explicitly define “prescribing” as “the clinical act of choosing and ordering medicines for a patient,” so that substantive definitional claim is unsupported.; The requested field is cognition, but the source text frames the topic in medication safety and medical error research rather than a cognition sense of the term.; While the packet supports that “inappropriate prescribing” is associated with drug–drug interaction (DDI) risk and adverse drug events, it does not support the full two-sentence formulation as a complete definition. New packet required. Source: [Ahmad Zuber Muhammad Fahmi; Che Roos Nur Aishah; Mat Jusoh Ruzanna; Manaf Nurulhuda A. Deterministic and stochastic interventions in reducing drug–drug interactions in inappropriate prescribing: A systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356883; article XML SHA-256 9708b47449d0e996eb4aebc1f2d7be5a9e723d717c5fb5a59e007c6391bb78d6. “Deterministic and stochastic interventions in reducing drug–drug interactions in inappropriate prescribing: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356883).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356883) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prescription drug [redraft]: The definition’s claim about the term’s specific use “for opioids prescribed or given during emergency department care” is only indirectly suggested by the packet’s focus on opioid prescription at discharge and opioid administration in the ED, but the packet does not explicitly state that “prescription drug” is used with that meaning.; The definition’s first sentence (“provided through a clinician’s prescription rather than simply obtained on one’s own”) is not supported by the provided packet text, which does not offer a general definition of “prescription drug.”; The packet discusses “opioids” and “opioid prescription/administration,” not an explicit mapping from “prescription drug” to “opioids given during ED care.”; The packet does not define “prescription drug” as a general medicine obtained through a clinician’s prescription; it only discusses opioid prescriptions and opioid administration in emergency department visits.; The second sentence narrows the term to opioids prescribed or given during emergency department care, but the source uses “prescription drug” in the phrase “prescription drug abuse,” not as a defined term for ED opioids. New packet required. Source: [Singhal Astha; Tien Yu-Yu; Hsia Renee Y. Racial-Ethnic Disparities in Opioid Prescriptions at Emergency Department Visits for Conditions Commonly Associated with Prescription Drug Abuse. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0159224; article XML SHA-256 a8adb1916a75a5e338cea2ef3c5388165112369e9ffc2598c437fd49dc13ae39. “Racial-Ethnic Disparities in Opioid Prescriptions at Emergency Department Visits for Conditions Commonly Associated with Prescription Drug Abuse” (10.1371/journal.pone.0159224).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159224) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pressure gradient [redraft]: Because the definition is framed for a mental health field, the absence of any mental-health relevance in the supplied packet makes the field placement unsupported.; The definition narrows the term to HVPG, which is supported by the packet, but the entry as a mental-health glossary item is out of scope for the source.; The packet discusses hepatic venous pressure gradient (HVPG) in advanced chronic liver disease, but it does not provide any connection to the requested field of mental health (psychology/counselling context).; The packet is a hepatology article about hepatic venous pressure gradient (HVPG), so the requested field of mental health is not defensible here. New packet required. Source: [Skladaný Ĺubomír; Žilinčanová Daniela; Žilinčan Michal; Okapec Stanislav; Danček Filip; Adamcová-Selčanová Svetlana; Kukla Michal; Koller Tomáš. Hepatic venous pressure gradient in patients with (compensated and decompensated) advanced chronic liver disease – A comparison of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease with alcohol-associated liver disease: A retrospective view. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317287; article XML SHA-256 13725c3b136db4d3c8824f769ea79d1e87f11e060801f82189d53ff7d4155023. “Hepatic venous pressure gradient in patients with (compensated and decompensated) advanced chronic liver disease – A comparison of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease with alcohol-associated liver disease: A retrospective view” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317287).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317287) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pressure [redraft]: The packet characterizes cost-of-living pressure as a social determinant of public mental health, but it does not provide support for the specific phrasing that it is “the strain created by the cost of living.”; The packet says short-term associations with specific depressive and anxiety symptoms remain unclear; it does not support the claim that this factor may be linked with depression and anxiety symptoms over time.; The packet states that short-term associations with specific depressive and anxiety symptoms remain unclear; it does not support a claim that pressure “may be linked with depression and anxiety symptoms over time.”; The packet supports the phrase “cost-of-living pressure” as a social determinant, but it does not define “pressure” itself as the strain created by the cost of living. New packet required. Source: [Lin Zhang; Gai Xiong-Zhe; Yao Hui-Hui. Monthly dynamic associations between cost-of-living pressure and depressive and anxiety symptoms: a longitudinal study based on cross-lagged network analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1914441; article XML SHA-256 20e4e1d1ca7a2c536d15335433f62319da47a1ad2adaa30dce8ffc5bcba08672. “Monthly dynamic associations between cost-of-living pressure and depressive and anxiety symptoms: a longitudinal study based on cross-lagged network analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1914441).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1914441) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prestige [redraft]: Adds “social respect,” which is not stated in the supplied source text.; The definition should stay within the packet’s wording: “the relative prestige, authority, and privilege of an individual or group.”; The packet definition includes “relative prestige, authority, and privilege of an individual or group,” but it does not mention “social respect.”; “Relative … to others” is consistent with “relative prestige,” but the added phrase “social respect” is a substantive component not supported verbatim in the packet text. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Status” (D000091743).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000091743) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- presupposition [redraft]: Because the supplied packet lacks support for the requested sense of “presupposition,” the definition includes an unsupported generalization about the term’s meaning.; The packet does not provide a dictionary-style definition of “presupposition” as “something taken as already given or assumed in advance.” It only uses the word in the specific sentence “it is a consequence, not a presupposition” within a discussion of dualism in theology.; The packet only supports the contrast that dualism is “a consequence, not a presupposition”; it does not explicitly support the fuller general definition that a presupposition is something taken as already given or assumed in advance.; The supplied source is a historical theology excerpt, so the definition should not present the term as a settled general dictionary sense without stronger packet support. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dualism (in theology)” (Dualism (in theology)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Dualism (in theology)) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- preterm infant [redraft]: The definition’s general meaning (“a baby born earlier than the usual length of pregnancy”) is not stated in the packet.; The packet does not state that a “preterm infant” is “a baby born earlier than the usual length of pregnancy,” so the general definition is not supported.; The packet only specifies the study’s focus as “very preterm (≤32 weeks’ gestation) and very low birth weight (≤1500 g) infants,” which supports the ≤32 weeks/very low birth weight emphasis, but it does not establish that this is how the term is used in the source (“used especially for…”) beyond the study’s inclusion criteria.; The packet supports a study population of very preterm (≤32 weeks’ gestation) and very low birth weight (≤1500 g) infants, but not the wording that the term is “used especially” for that group or that it is “often also” associated with very low birth weight. New packet required. Source: [Bronnert Anja; Bloomfield Peter M.; Páramo Lilia Delgado; Lin Luling; Bloomfield Frank H.; Cormack Barbara E.. The effect of vitamin supplementation on neurodevelopmental and clinical outcomes in very low birth weight and very preterm infants: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327628; article XML SHA-256 c8555b946f2638880b1b43e1b89fd227ceeb5df8cb9f9d74f2b27cb28e5a076b. “The effect of vitamin supplementation on neurodevelopmental and clinical outcomes in very low birth weight and very preterm infants: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327628).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327628) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pretest [redraft]: No part of the provided packet states or paraphrases the requested one-to-three-sentence description of what a pretest is.; The packet does not define “pretest” as scores/measurements taken before an intervention or learning period.; The packet mentions “pretest-posttest designs” and normalized gains, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s claims that the pretest provides a “starting point” for later comparison or is used to “estimate change at the group level.”; The packet supports pretest/posttest scores in pretest-posttest designs, but it does not define a pretest as measurements taken before an intervention or specify an intervention-based sense.; The statement that a pretest 'provides the starting point' for later posttest comparison is defensible, but 'estimate change at the group level' is a broader analytic claim about normalized gains that is not directly supported as the definition of pretest itself. New packet required. Source: [Navarrete-Ulloa Jairo A.; Giaconi Valentina; Contador Gonzalo. Normal gains: estimators of learning rates in pretest-posttest settings. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901493; article XML SHA-256 e5947923d1dfb222da21b15dd8959fe1ea26069634089a83e6ad64a06410efa9. “Normal gains: estimators of learning rates in pretest-posttest settings” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901493).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1901493) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prey [redraft]: The definition overstates a general dictionary sense that is not directly defined in the packet; the packet only uses “prey” in the specific phrase “prey-attack rate” and related foraging behavior, rather than defining prey as any “animal or other food target” in general.; The field is not defensible from the packet: the source is an animal foraging/ecology study, not a learning or psychology definition source.; The provided source packet describes animal foraging behavior (including prey-attack rates and simultaneous use of a foraging patch), but it does not support framing the definition within the field “learning.” New packet required. Source: [Fujioka Emyo; Shiraishi Masashi; Hirao Tamao; Onishi Yui; Fukui Dai; Hiryu Shizuko. Avoidance of simultaneous patch use in Japanese large-footed bats. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343485; article XML SHA-256 b66ee28a7e60582457a1c7d61714d981748a17f3bfedf6318adf717d6dd3b97c. “Avoidance of simultaneous patch use in Japanese large-footed bats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343485).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343485) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- primary aging [redraft]: Because the packet provides no details about how “primary aging” is operationalized or characterized, the definition relies on generalization beyond the supplied source.; The definition adds a generalized description of areas and proportions of older adults that is not stated in the source text.; The definition’s claims (“early or less advanced stage,” “proportion of older adults indicates aging has begun,” and “not as developed as more advanced stages”) are not supported by any explicit wording or conceptual explanation in the provided packet.; The packet does not define “primary aging.” It only mentions that population aging is mainly in the “moderate aging stage,” followed by the “primary aging stage,” without describing what “primary” means.; The packet only shows “primary aging stage” as one category in a study of population aging; it does not define the term as an early or less advanced stage, nor as a stage where aging has merely begun. New packet required. Source: [Wu Lianxia; Qian Linyi; Li Yinhuan; Huang Zuyu; Guan Weihua. Spatial coupling relationship between older adults and elderly care resources in the Yangtze River Delta. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0293985; article XML SHA-256 29ebfa28c82cca0f0199e3c94a309103a76c06a81dfb691ebba0e6cdf7448b79. “Spatial coupling relationship between older adults and elderly care resources in the Yangtze River Delta” (10.1371/journal.pone.0293985).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0293985) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- primary appraisal [redraft]: Appraisal-theory term redefined as interpreting another person's emotional cues; study-specific sense. New packet required. Source: [Song Pushen; Wang Yaqin; Yang Yang; Li Ying. How employees respond to customer anger and sadness: emotional reciprocity and recovery strategies in service failures. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1795506; article XML SHA-256 a8012af212ce7cf8b2b26ab871bb1f464809f934f4738a28f35cb6650bef8f29. “How employees respond to customer anger and sadness: emotional reciprocity and recovery strategies in service failures” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1795506).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1795506) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- primary cause [redraft]: No evidence in the packet supports the broader, plain-language paraphrase as a cognition-field term.; The definition’s generic explanation of “main or leading factor responsible for an outcome or condition” is not established by the packet as a dictionary sense; the source only provides one contextual usage.; The definition’s wording (“main or leading factor responsible for an outcome or condition,” “major source of a problem or effect”) is not supported by an explicit definition or explanation in the supplied packet.; The packet does not establish any cognition-focused sense of “primary cause,” so the requested “sense of the term” is not defensibly tied to the specified field.; The packet does not provide or define the phrase “primary cause.” It only uses “primary cause” in a specific context (“HMPV is a primary cause of global respiratory infections”) without explaining the meaning of the term.; The packet uses “primary cause” in a biomedical epidemiology context (“a primary cause of global respiratory infections”), not in cognition or psychology, so the requested sense is unsupported. New packet required. Source: [Alam Nazia Fairooz; Chakrabarty Moumita; Debnath Tanmoy; Sheikh Mohammad Ashik; Imtiaz Md; Tauhida Sadia Jannat; Hasan Md Nazmul; Tareq Md Mohaimenul Islam. Computational prediction of a multi-epitope Human Metapneumovirus vaccine candidate through integrated reverse vaccinology and pan-genomic approaches. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357758; article XML SHA-256 045a766533a60f06c2644aaf086c7e42a2b358f0278a986a0f15fbfd22819546. “Computational prediction of a multi-epitope Human Metapneumovirus vaccine candidate through integrated reverse vaccinology and pan-genomic approaches” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357758).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357758) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- primary environment [redraft]: The added phrase “In this packet, school is described as the primary environment for adolescents” is supported, but the broader definitional wording is not fully established by the source and goes beyond the provided context.; The definition generalizes beyond the packet: it defines “primary environment” broadly as the main setting in which any group lives or functions, but the packet only supports the specific claim that schools are the primary environment for adolescents.; The definition’s first sentence (“Primary environment means the main day-to-day setting in which a group lives or functions.”) is not explicitly supported anywhere in the provided packet; the packet only uses “primary environment for adolescents” to describe schools.; While the second sentence (“school is described as the primary environment for adolescents”) is supported by the packet, the overall definition includes an unsupported general meaning statement. New packet required. Source: [Dong Xiaolian; Pang Xinyue; Chen Yingfeng; Li Jiangnan; Xie Yuyang; Zhao Qi; Zhu Zhenguo; Fu Chaowei; Chen Yue; Wang Na. Parental willingness and influencing factors for school-based mental health screening in Eastern China. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12889-026-26766-x; article XML SHA-256 553d70ea1258bf98f85eb34d0df3a692b566a749cf50cfae040a548c628ceed0. “Parental willingness and influencing factors for school-based mental health screening in Eastern China” (10.1186/s12889-026-26766-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-026-26766-x) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- primary health care [redraft]: The packet does not support the specific characterization “basic front line of a health system.”; The packet mentions organizational and system-level functions targeted in PHC (for AI/ML purposes), but it does not support the definition’s combined claim that PHC “includes not only clinical care but also the organizational and system-level functions” as a general defining description.; The packet supports PHC as a “cornerstone of health systems worldwide,” but not the broader claim that it is a central part of health care worldwide in that exact sense.; The statement that primary health care itself includes clinical care as well as organizational and system-level functions overstates the source; the packet says the review targets non-clinical, organizational, and system-level functions in PHC, not that these are definitional components of PHC.; While the packet states that primary health care (PHC) is “the cornerstone of health systems worldwide,” it does not explicitly describe PHC as “a central part of health care worldwide” in the way the definition phrases it.; “Basic front line” is not supported by the packet’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Galvez-Hernandez Pablo; Audet Li-Anne; Shakeri Zahra; Wodchis Walter P.. Artificial intelligence and machine learning for organizational and system-level functions in primary health care: A scoping review protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329426; article XML SHA-256 28fef3db57a1ab4828ea2530562c7cef969fdbfe4d346740912a10abbf110f72. “Artificial intelligence and machine learning for organizational and system-level functions in primary health care: A scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329426).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329426) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- primary motivation [redraft]: The definition adds a broad, generic meaning that is not stated in the source and goes beyond the supplied context.; The first sentence (“Primary motivation is the main reason or driving force behind a person’s behavior”) is a general definition not explicitly supported by the provided packet text.; The packet supports only the contextual claim that sexual pleasure is described as a primary motivation for engaging in sex; it does not define “primary motivation” in general as the main reason or driving force behind behavior.; While the packet does state that “sexual pleasure is a primary motivation for engaging in sex,” it does not provide support for the broader, behavior-general characterization in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Nguyen Nghia C; Luong Truong N; Le Van T; Hobbs Marcia; Andridge Rebecca; Casterline John; Gallo Maria F. Effectiveness of erectogenic condom against semen exposure among women in Vietnam: Randomized controlled trial. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0263503; article XML SHA-256 307768574695985ff0639c2302b4e2932a1bc45d9124400f25a13dc7d5076f38. “Effectiveness of erectogenic condom against semen exposure among women in Vietnam: Randomized controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0263503).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263503) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- primary odor [redraft]: The definition asserts that the term “primary odor” refers to “an odor as it is first represented by the sensory system before further processing,” but the packet text instead describes “primary sensory representation” being transformed by the olfactory bulb; it does not explicitly define “primary odor” as a term.; The definition focuses on olfactory-bulb coding transformation, while the provided packet’s explicit learning relevance is only via “learning-dependent synaptic plasticity” mentioned in passing; as written, the definition is not clearly within the “learning” field.; The definition says this early representation is “described as slower and more variable,” which matches the packet’s “high-variance, slow-timescale primary odor representations,” but it does not clearly support the specific initial wording that ties “primary odor” to “before further processing” as a definition of the term.; The definition’s opening clause treats “primary odor” as a sensory representation, but the packet only supports the broader phrase “primary sensory representation”; the term-specific gloss is not established in the source.; The requested field is not defensible here: the packet is an olfactory-bulb neuroscience article, not a learning/psychology source for this term. New packet required. Source: [Li Guoshi; Cleland Thomas A. A coupled-oscillator model of olfactory bulb gamma oscillations. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005760; article XML SHA-256 b08b28a831458c9313f3ab2a4c675a4fed32283787945dd3a3c2f55186787ce7. “A coupled-oscillator model of olfactory bulb gamma oscillations” (10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005760).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005760) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- primary physician [redraft]: No information in the packet clarifies what “primary physician” means operationally (e.g., role in follow-up) beyond the fact that referrals go to either a primary physician or a specialist.; The definition’s specific wording (“receives referrals about clinically relevant findings for further medical follow-up, as distinct from a clinical specialist”) is not explicitly supported by the packet text provided.; The packet does not define a primary physician as a doctor; it only says clinically relevant incidental findings were referred to a primary physician or clinical specialist.; The packet does not provide a definition of “primary physician”; it only mentions that incidental intracranial findings were referred to “primary physician or clinical specialist.”; “For further medical follow-up” is an inference beyond the source text, which only mentions referral and later assessment of follow-up types. New packet required. Source: [Håberg Asta Kristine; Hammer Tommy Arild; Kvistad Kjell Arne; Rydland Jana; Müller Tomm B.; Eikenes Live; Gårseth Mari; Stovner Lars Jacob. Incidental Intracranial Findings and Their Clinical Impact; The HUNT MRI Study in a General Population of 1006 Participants between 50-66 Years. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0151080; article XML SHA-256 60932b8fc6a90d48db14b3e916b88680f86113398dc85d86c4a240c63538f150. “Incidental Intracranial Findings and Their Clinical Impact; The HUNT MRI Study in a General Population of 1006 Participants between 50-66 Years” (10.1371/journal.pone.0151080).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151080) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- primary process [redraft]: Well-known Freudian headword redefined as a pathological lesion sense the passage happens to use. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-1480500-1492500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- primary reinforcer [redraft]: The claim that it can “give positive value to another stimulus through conditioning” is broader than the packet, which only mentions sweetness as an unconditioned stimulus in evaluative conditioning and does not define this general function.; The definition claims primary reinforcers can be used “to strengthen responses” and “to give positive value to another stimulus through conditioning,” but the packet does not make those general statements about the function of primary reinforcers beyond describing their use in an evaluative conditioning procedure.; The packet only states that “primary reinforcer (sweetness)” was used as the unconditioned stimulus; it does not support the claim that primary reinforcers have “inherent value rather than needing to be learned.”; The phrase about using a primary reinforcer to “strengthen responses” is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Kubis Hans-Peter; Albelwi Tamam A.; Rogers Robert D.. Carrots for the donkey: Influence of evaluative conditioning and training on self-paced exercise intensity and delay discounting of exercise in healthy adults. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0257953; article XML SHA-256 20e458971d2b0a478bf87d729cf7e629a615acb6c84fb0a74ee807d2e73cd0dc. “Carrots for the donkey: Influence of evaluative conditioning and training on self-paced exercise intensity and delay discounting of exercise in healthy adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0257953).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257953) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- primary relationship [redraft]: The definition’s wording (“main partnered relationship,” “considered separately”) goes beyond what is directly stated in the provided packet text.; The packet does not explicitly define “primary relationship” as the “main partnered relationship” or as being “considered separately” from other partners; it only uses the term in contrast to “a second partner”/“additional partner.”; The packet supports that the study examined satisfaction in a primary relationship alongside sex with an additional partner in consensually non-monogamous relationships, but it does not define ‘primary relationship’ as the person’s main partnered relationship or as a general relational category.; The second sentence describes the article’s research focus rather than a dictionary definition of the term, so the sense is not cleanly or directly supported by the source. New packet required. Source: [Wood Jessica; Quinn-Nilas Christopher; Milhausen Robin; Desmarais Serge; Muise Amy; Sakaluk John. A dyadic examination of self-determined sexual motives, need fulfillment, and relational outcomes among consensually non-monogamous partners. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0247001; article XML SHA-256 c5a89643e2632a21ead0400b475908a5a7a17c0a6a695d45831925d91948aa01. “A dyadic examination of self-determined sexual motives, need fulfillment, and relational outcomes among consensually non-monogamous partners” (10.1371/journal.pone.0247001).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247001) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- primary sensory area [redraft]: Defines the area by persistent activity, a property studied, not what a primary sensory area is. New packet required. Source: [Monk Kevin J.; Allard Simon; Hussain Shuler Marshall G.. Visual Cues Predictive of Behaviorally Neutral Outcomes Evoke Persistent but Not Interval Timing Activity in V1, Whereas Aversive Conditioning Suppresses This Activity. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fnsys.2021.611744; article XML SHA-256 4eb3d99fed97bf636a27800414f74b7ecc1d98a086a8b3e45aa91818f0398e8d. “Visual Cues Predictive of Behaviorally Neutral Outcomes Evoke Persistent but Not Interval Timing Activity in V1, Whereas Aversive Conditioning Suppresses This Activity” (10.3389/fnsys.2021.611744).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2021.611744) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- primary symptoms [redraft]: The example is accurate for ADHD, but the definition goes wider than the supplied source supports.; The packet does not explicitly support the general statement that “Primary symptoms are the main features that characterize a disorder.” It only states that ADHD is “characterized by the primary symptoms of inattention, disorganization, and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity,” without defining primary symptoms in general terms.; The packet only uses “primary symptoms” in the specific context of ADHD, not as a general definition for disorders overall.; “Main features that characterize a disorder” is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Thimoteo Anna Carolina Pereira; de Oliveira Júlia Meller Dias; Polmann Helena; Pauletto Patrícia; Stefani Cristine Miron; De Luca Canto Graziela; Bohner Lauren. Association between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and bruxism: A systematic review protocol. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331581; article XML SHA-256 fb4f2697fdc175cefb57d4835d4381e067d5e41e3df59cbde5088b8d516911b1. “Association between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and bruxism: A systematic review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331581).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331581) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- primary taste [redraft]: Primary taste normally means a basic taste quality; redefined as cortical areas. New packet required. Source: [Tzieropoulos Hélène; Rytz Andreas; Hudry Julie; le Coutre Johannes. Dietary fat induces sustained reward response in the human brain without primary taste cortex discrimination. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00036; article XML SHA-256 125cc6ee7979e08bba19d5ab167212d8de0c0c7d37b2f3b386e5fac4f8c0e322. “Dietary fat induces sustained reward response in the human brain without primary taste cortex discrimination” (10.3389/fnhum.2013.00036).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00036) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- primate [redraft]: The claim that the term is used to describe lineages in which human genes can be traced, preserved, or absent over evolutionary history is unsupported; the packet discusses human genes distributed across primate and non-primate species, not the meaning of the term “primate” itself.; The definition adds a characterization of primates as “other closely related animals” and “evolutionary lineage” for comparing humans; the packet mentions “primate and non-primate lineages” and specific non-human primate species, but does not explicitly state that primates are used here specifically because they are “closely related” to humans.; The definition mixes the taxon with gene-preservation patterns, which are study findings rather than a lexical definition of the term.; The definition’s claim that “the term is used in phylogenetic research to describe lineages in which human genes can be traced” is broader than what the packet explicitly supports; the packet describes analyzing human genes’ distribution/origins/preservation/absence across primate vs non-primate species, but does not frame “primate” itself as a term used to describe such lineages in phylogenetic research.; The packet uses “primate” as a biological lineage/category in a comparative genomics study, but it does not define it as “a species belonging to the evolutionary lineage used to compare humans with other closely related animals.” New packet required. Source: [Liang Xiao; Teich Andrew F.; Heath Lenwood S.. Comparative genomics of human brain and immune gene preservation across species. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348713; article XML SHA-256 4c640f6d2eeff628258fc01eab33838857ba70eeacd87d627ea21883bca8e3a7. “Comparative genomics of human brain and immune gene preservation across species” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348713).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348713) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- primiparous [redraft]: Normal sense is a woman bearing her first child; defined instead as being first-born. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-3811500-3823500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- principle of good continuation [redraft]: The definition slightly overstates the source by presenting a general Gestalt account as if it were defined in the article, rather than limiting itself to the article’s specific link between association fields, good continuation, and contour integration in early vision.; The definition’s explanation that good continuation is an idea where visual elements are “grouped as parts of the same smooth, continuing pattern or contour” is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text.; The general definition of the principle as grouping visual elements into a smooth, continuing pattern or contour is not stated in the packet; the packet only says the interaction maps are similar to association fields and reflect the Gestalt principle of good continuation.; The packet does support that interaction maps are “similar to association fields” and “reflect the Gestalt principle of good continuation,” and that feedback signals “promote contour integration,” but it does not provide the specific “smooth, continuing pattern or contour” description included in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Boutin Victor; Franciosini Angelo; Chavane Frederic; Ruffier Franck; Perrinet Laurent. Sparse deep predictive coding captures contour integration capabilities of the early visual system. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008629; article XML SHA-256 3aa33c47d9ccdc7deee5b6024329f75690720f74ec46cc56bf0c6b7699062ed6. “Sparse deep predictive coding captures contour integration capabilities of the early visual system” (10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008629).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008629) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- proactive interference [redraft]: The definition claims that proactive interference is “interference from earlier information or trials” that “disrupts performance on later working memory tasks,” but the supplied packet only states that visual working memory tasks are “subject to proactive interference” and does not define proactive interference in those terms.; The definition’s sentence about “visual working memory” making apparent capacity “seem lower than it really is” is broadly suggested by the packet (“may be systematically under-estimated”), but the specific framing “seem lower than it really is” is not explicitly supported as written in the packet.; The packet supports that visual working memory tasks can be subject to proactive interference and that this can lead capacity to be systematically under-estimated, but it does not define proactive interference as interference from earlier information or trials.; The phrase about disrupting performance on later working memory tasks adds details not supported by the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [Hartshorne Joshua K.. Visual Working Memory Capacity and Proactive Interference. 2008; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0002716; article XML SHA-256 1b93d52e435cf0602b8aae769464ee6990c4571c79beca8641b62e78a4c42197. “Visual Working Memory Capacity and Proactive Interference” (10.1371/journal.pone.0002716).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002716) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- probation [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported general definition of probation as a criminal justice arrangement and treatment-follow-up setting; the packet only supports the narrower study context of community probation in England and Wales.; The definition’s specific claim that probation supervision is "in the community in England and Wales" is only indirectly supported: the packet states the study is in England and Wales and contrasts time in custody, but it does not explicitly define probation supervision in the community in those terms.; The field is given as "diagnosis", but the definition describes a criminal-justice supervision arrangement (probation), not a diagnostic concept; the packet does not support using this term in a diagnostic sense.; The field is not defensible: the packet uses “probation” as a criminal justice/community setting in England and Wales, not as a diagnosis term.; The packet mentions "community probation" and "probation as usual" in a trial context, but it does not provide a general definition of probation as "a community-based criminal justice arrangement" or an explicit statement that it is "used here" as a general setting for services and treatment follow-up rather than custody.; “Rather than custody” and the broader explanation of usual services/treatment follow-up are not defined in the packet and go beyond what is explicitly supported. New packet required. Source: [Barrett Barbara; Simes Elizabeth; Yirmiya Karen; Wason James M S; Frater Alison; Cameron Angus; Butler Stephen; Hoare Zoe; McMurran Mary; Moran Paul; Crawford Mike; Pilling Stephen; Allison Elizabeth; Yakeley Jessica; Bateman Anthony; Fonagy Peter. Cost-effectiveness of a mentalisation-based treatment for antisocial personality disorder in males convicted of an offence on community probation in England and Wales: Multicentre, assessor-blind randomised controlled trial. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352865; article XML SHA-256 0dd3d5eb742ad674fa32cc6fd71b787a5309c67cb900fc128f6b0db8384a5d83. “Cost-effectiveness of a mentalisation-based treatment for antisocial personality disorder in males convicted of an offence on community probation in England and Wales: Multicentre, assessor-blind randomised controlled trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352865).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352865) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- problem drinking [redraft]: Claims that the term refers broadly to “harmful alcohol use rather than a specific diagnosis” are not stated in the supplied packet.; The packet does not support the claim that this term is used here ‘rather than a specific diagnosis’; it only mentions harmful use of alcohol and alcohol use disorder in the study background.; The packet only mentions that it is about “problem drinking” in the context of cultural adaptation of mental health first aid guidelines; it provides no definitional wording supporting the requested sense.; The packet supports that problem drinking involves harmful alcohol use and that people in a person’s social network may recognize it, but it does not explicitly support the added gloss that it means alcohol use causing ‘serious difficulties.’; The packet text does not define “problem drinking” as alcohol use causing harm/serious difficulties or being recognizable by people around the person. New packet required. Source: [Ayoub Ibrahim Ali; Peres Carlos Henrique Mesquita; Cerqueira Amanda Vidotto; Assumpção Thais Alves; Loch Alexandre Andrade; Reavley Nicola J.. Cultural adaptation of the mental health first aid guidelines for Brazilians with problem drinking: a Delphi expert consensus study. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-03709-5; article XML SHA-256 48702327d2ef7881d6734d9ef81370e562bff253f34e490f9e43c2d65338b20a. “Cultural adaptation of the mental health first aid guidelines for Brazilians with problem drinking: a Delphi expert consensus study” (10.1186/s12888-022-03709-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-03709-5) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- problem-focused coping [redraft]: Although the packet supports that adaptive coping strategies can counteract negative effects of depression and poor mental health, it does not specifically support that “problem-focused coping” itself is defined as coping directed at a problem/stressor (only that it is discussed as an important adaptive coping strategy in the authors’ hypothesis).; The packet does not state that problem-focused coping is “directed at dealing with a problem or stressor,” so that core part of the definition is unsupported by the provided text.; The packet supports that problem-focused coping is an important adaptive coping strategy, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s claim that it is directed at dealing with a problem or stressor.; The statement that it may help offset negative effects linked with depression and poor mental health is broader than the packet’s wording, which only says adaptive coping strategies have been shown to at least partially counteract or compensate for those negative effects. New packet required. Source: [Chen Shi-Min; Sun Pei-Zhen. Gender differences in the interaction effect of cumulative risk and problem-focused coping on depression among adult employees. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0226036; article XML SHA-256 5f2980c6c8f96f174b015d45911fd2873946a7235ce887528d62b245bb2fcc9b. “Gender differences in the interaction effect of cumulative risk and problem-focused coping on depression among adult employees” (10.1371/journal.pone.0226036).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226036) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- problem-solving approach [redraft]: The claim that this approach is used to “work collaboratively on ways forward” goes beyond the packet’s wording and is not directly supported as a definition of the term.; The definition asserts that it uses “patients’ own assessments and expressed needs” to work collaboratively on “ways forward”; the packet mentions self-assessment and expressed needs in relation to patient involvement, but it does not state this as the general defining function of a “problem-solving approach.”; The definition characterizes the approach as supporting patient involvement and a “more patient-centred style of care”; while the packet supports patient involvement and patient-centred care in the context of DIALOG+, it does not present these as defining features of the term itself outside that intervention.; The definition is placed in the field “diagnosis,” but the packet provides context about outpatient psychosis care and patient involvement, not diagnostic criteria or a diagnostic sense of the term.; The definition’s claims about a general “problem-solving approach” (as a way to structure routine clinical conversations) are not explicitly defined in the packet; the packet only describes DIALOG+ as incorporating a “problem-solving approach” within routine encounters.; The packet only mentions a problem-solving approach as one component of the DIALOG+ intervention; it does not define the term as a general counselling/clinical-conversation method.; “Routine clinical conversations,” “patients’ own assessments,” and “expressed needs” are only partially supported by the packet, which refers to routine clinical encounters, self-assessment, and treatment focusing on expressed needs, but not the full explanatory wording in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Lundmark Marcus; Cederberg Matilda; Andersson Ann-Christine; Gremyr Andreas. Letting patients lead? Practitioners’ experiences of using DIALOG+ in psychosis outpatient care – patient involvement, collaborative dynamics, and professional roles. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08633-6; article XML SHA-256 18c31c5f0f8927c9b294afdd2a4294cb48604d9131d20449c6d12d61b6705839. “Letting patients lead? Practitioners’ experiences of using DIALOG+ in psychosis outpatient care – patient involvement, collaborative dynamics, and professional roles” (10.1186/s12888-026-08633-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08633-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- process analysis [redraft]: Because the packet does not present this as the definition of “process analysis,” the first sentence contains an unsupported generalization about what the method is.; The definition adds broader explanatory claims about indirect links and group/condition differences that are not explicitly stated in the source text.; The definition’s general characterization (“process analysis is a way of examining how one variable relates to an outcome… including indirect links through mediators and changes in those links across groups or conditions through moderators”) is not explicitly supported in the provided packet, which only states that conditional process analysis was used to test specific moderation–mediation models (mediators: moods; moderators: age and gender).; The packet supports only that conditional process analysis was used to test moderation-mediation models with mediators and moderators in this study; it does not define process analysis generally as a method for examining pathways between a variable and an outcome. New packet required. Source: [Verma Adarsh K; Chivukula Usha. The effect of an affect, sensation seeking, and premeditation on risky decision-making: Conditional process analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281324; article XML SHA-256 e2b92d460879f0e2cfe55d2f432ab4cfb0ee52b2adc83570d70a4ad4760f9b8b. “The effect of an affect, sensation seeking, and premeditation on risky decision-making: Conditional process analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281324).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281324) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- process approach [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported detail about “mental and social processes” and “changing a health-related behaviour”; the packet only mentions social cognitive constructs and behaviour change, not that fuller description.; The packet supports that the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) describes “social cognitive constructs related to behaviour change,” but it does not support the additional wording that HAPA “is used to describe the mental and social processes linked to changing a health-related behaviour.”; The packet supports the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) as a framework describing social cognitive constructs related to behaviour change, but it does not support equating the term “process approach” with HAPA in this entry. New packet required. Source: [van Nes Karin Alexandra; van Loveren Cor; Aartman Irene Helena Adriana. Validation of an improved questionnaire assessing the social cognitive constructs of the Health Action Process Approach among parents regarding brushing their children’s teeth. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0300432; article XML SHA-256 5210572d561f2147a54304ff00b31c0631c1f0e6db60ecff2752283f96f1e979. “Validation of an improved questionnaire assessing the social cognitive constructs of the Health Action Process Approach among parents regarding brushing their children’s teeth” (10.1371/journal.pone.0300432).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300432) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- process variable [redraft]: Well-known process-versus-outcome variable sense replaced by one paper's incidental usage. New packet required. Source: [Guo Yunmei; Zhou Ming; Yan Xin; Liu Ying; Wang Lianhong. Latent class analysis and longitudinal development trajectory study of psychological distress in patients with stroke: a study protocol. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1326988; article XML SHA-256 5f61a2c033f1d6a86dcdb6a4128bac4f1507ddc3703e95e4745a84404446e80c. “Latent class analysis and longitudinal development trajectory study of psychological distress in patients with stroke: a study protocol” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1326988).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1326988) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- product appeal [redraft]: Although the packet discusses a trade-off between “quality and appeal” and how market share responds over different time horizons, it does not explicitly state that appeal is treated as a distinct factor from quality (only that there is a trade-off).; The definition adds unsupported specifics such as consumer likelihood of trying or choosing a product; the packet only supports product appeal as a market parameter affecting market share.; The field context is not clearly psychology/learning in the source; the packet is about trial-offer markets and marketing dynamics, so the sense should be tied more tightly to that usage.; The packet does not define “product appeal” as consumer attractiveness or as influencing consumers’ likelihood of trying/choosing the product; it only refers to “appeal” in the context of a trade-off with quality in market dynamics.; The packet does support a contrast with product quality and mentions short- vs medium/long-term trade-offs, but it does not support the broader, consumer-behavior wording used here.; The packet supports that time horizon changes the trade-off (short-term vs medium/long-term) and discusses effects on market share, but the claim that this is “especially in the short term” influencing trying/choosing is not directly supported in the supplied text. New packet required. Source: [Altszyler Edgar; Berbeglia Franco; Berbeglia Gerardo; Van Hentenryck Pascal. Transient dynamics in trial-offer markets with social influence: Trade-offs between appeal and quality. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0180040; article XML SHA-256 9af8ebe3f66e9c10c326bec2357edbfdf11c0d72fcc2dd8a0950a549ca1e602f. “Transient dynamics in trial-offer markets with social influence: Trade-offs between appeal and quality” (10.1371/journal.pone.0180040).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180040) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- product image [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory framing (“in this context”) that is not stated in the source packet and is therefore unsupported as written.; The definition’s characterization of “product image” as “the overall perception or impression people have of a country’s products” is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text (the packet only refers to “product image” as a construct/outcome in a study).; The packet shows that country image predicted product image, but it does not define product image as the overall perception or impression people have of a country’s products.; While the packet supports that “a country’s image” (CI) can predict/influence “product image” (regression analysis: CI significantly predicted product image), the definition includes an additional substantive element about what product image specifically is (“overall perception or impression…”) that is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Zhao Xueyan; You Xuqun; Lin Shanyan. China's country image in the eyes of international students from central Asian countries. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.569789; article XML SHA-256 c17247abcd4bff8d36c0dcccd580c6c1fd34024b6d81f4b53864684b964dc5b2. “China's country image in the eyes of international students from central Asian countries” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.569789).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.569789) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- product testing [redraft]: General headword narrowed to an authenticity assurance measure; restates paper claims. New packet required. Source: [Kendall H.; Naughton P.; Kuznesof S.; Raley M.; Dean M.; Clark B.; Stolz H.; Home R.; Chan M. Y.; Zhong Q.; Brereton P.; Frewer L. J.. Food fraud and the perceived integrity of European food imports into China. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0195817; article XML SHA-256 29586e7de7ed084c7ab6ffd302601cc6f46476c8bf73df0d5d9dbe7565d32bc5. “Food fraud and the perceived integrity of European food imports into China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0195817).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195817) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- production task [redraft]: Psychology sense of a production task replaced by a manufacturing queue sense. New packet required. Source: [Li Lian-hui; Mo Rong. Production Task Queue Optimization Based on Multi-Attribute Evaluation for Complex Product Assembly Workshop. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0134343; article XML SHA-256 3c971b8c2f2b6ec1a9e0c2b3340cead1b8233f40be8f31cdd2bdd012c8d337da. “Production Task Queue Optimization Based on Multi-Attribute Evaluation for Complex Product Assembly Workshop” (10.1371/journal.pone.0134343).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0134343) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- productive language [redraft]: Because the definition’s core explanatory claims are not supported by the provided packet text, the requested sense of the term is not defensible from the supplied source.; The packet does not provide a definition or explicit description of what “productive language” means (e.g., the claim that it is the ability to actively use language by producing it such as speaking).; The packet only mentions children “developing productive language as expected” and compares how preschoolers “spoke” languages, but it does not state that “productive language” refers to children’s ability to express themselves or “how well children can express themselves.”; The packet supports that ‘productive language’ concerns children’s language proficiency/use, but it does not define the term as a general ability to actively produce a language or as the ability to express oneself; that interpretive gloss is not stated in the source.; The second sentence generalizes beyond the packet by defining the term as a measure of how well children can express themselves in the language(s) they use; the source only reports that children were developing productive language and compares relative Polish/German proficiency in this specific study. New packet required. Source: [De Houwer Annick. Polish-German preschoolers develop and use heritage Polish differently depending on whether they heard German from birth or not. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1080122; article XML SHA-256 b22487853b8866a424a4ae9b2f5583b8a693bd69ba7fe04c830805939c6e47c2. “Polish-German preschoolers develop and use heritage Polish differently depending on whether they heard German from birth or not” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1080122).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1080122) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- professional development [redraft]: The definition adds an advanced-practice gloss that is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied text.; The packet does not state that professional development is an “ongoing process of building and maintaining” knowledge/competence/skills; it only notes that “continuing professional development” is an “expected skill set.”; The packet supports that continuing professional development is expected, but not the broader definition of professional development as an ongoing process of building and maintaining knowledge, competence, and skills.; The packet supports “advanced” practice context and mentions research/publications/mentoring/continuing professional development as expected, but it does not support the broader phrasing that this development is “needed for advanced practice” as a general definition.; The packet’s content is specifically about “advanced diabetes practice” (Diabetes Management Nurse Specialist) rather than establishing the term in the field of “counselling skills,” beyond mentioning counseling in the clinical scope rather than defining professional development for counselling.; The phrase about being expected alongside mentoring, research, and publication is only partially supported; the packet lists research, publications, mentoring, and continuing professional development as expected skill sets, but does not frame them as a package or define professional development in relation to them. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Diabetes Management Nurse Specialist” (C20835).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- progressive-ratio schedule [redraft]: The definition adds a general explanation of what the schedule is used to measure, but the packet only supports its use in this specific rat study as an index of motivation for appetitive instrumental behavior.; The definition’s final clause (“treated as an index of motivation”) is only partially supported: the packet states that repeated administration “did not affect the acquisition or motivation” under the schedule, but it does not explicitly say that performance is used/treated as an index of motivation.; The definition’s general claim that progressive-ratio schedules are “a way of rewarding an instrumental action… that is used to examine how strongly an animal will keep responding” is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet only mentions lever pressing “rewarded by a food outcome under a progressive ratio schedule” and refers to “acquisition or motivation,” not the broader methodological purpose as a definition.; The packet does not support describing the term as part of a “diagnosis” field; it reports effects in adult rats on appetitive instrumental behavior under a progressive ratio schedule, without any diagnostic framework.; The supplied packet supports an animal-behavior reinforcement schedule, not a diagnosis-related sense; the field "diagnosis" is not defensible here. New packet required. Source: [Iguchi Yoshio; Kosugi Sakurako; Nishikawa Hiromi; Lin Ziqiao; Minabe Yoshio; Toda Shigenobu. Repeated Exposure of Adult Rats to Transient Oxidative Stress Induces Various Long-Lasting Alterations in Cognitive and Behavioral Functions. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0114024; article XML SHA-256 69575ed429f50ecc2544257e8495ee12f93703c1b89febb3cf34eb108b6834f6. “Repeated Exposure of Adult Rats to Transient Oxidative Stress Induces Various Long-Lasting Alterations in Cognitive and Behavioral Functions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0114024).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0114024) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- projection fiber [redraft]: Because the key functional/directional contrast in the definition is not present in the packet, the requested sense is not fully defensible from the supplied source.; The contrast with fibers 'between cortical areas' is not supported by the packet.; The definition adds an explanatory generalization that is not stated in the source text.; The packet only shows that the corticospinal tract is an example of a projection fiber tract; it does not define projection fibers generally as white-matter pathways between the cerebral cortex and other parts of the nervous system.; The packet only states that the study included “one projection fiber tract comprising the corticospinal tract.” It does not support the definition’s description that projection fibers carry nerve signals specifically between the cerebral cortex and other parts of the nervous system “rather than between cortical areas.” New packet required. Source: [Zhuang Lin; Sachdev Perminder S.; Trollor Julian N.; Reppermund Simone; Kochan Nicole A.; Brodaty Henry; Wen Wei. Microstructural White Matter Changes, Not Hippocampal Atrophy, Detect Early Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0058887; article XML SHA-256 c2c0dafe6bd84c44cb8ec1ecead48841f818091606ebe6f86aa3806e02835891. “Microstructural White Matter Changes, Not Hippocampal Atrophy, Detect Early Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0058887).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0058887) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prolonged exposure therapy [redraft]: "Used for posttraumatic stress disorder" overstates the packet, which only says the study examines its effects for adolescents with PTSD rather than establishing the therapy as a general treatment indication.; The packet does not explicitly state that prolonged exposure therapy is a “non-drug counselling approach”; it only mentions comparisons of treatments and notes the lack of evidence for pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments generally, without defining prolonged exposure therapy specifically as non-drug in the provided text.; The packet supports that it is examined as a treatment for adolescents with PTSD and that it is compared with supportive counseling delivered by nurses trained as counselors, but the “non-drug” characterization in the definition is not directly supported by the supplied excerpt.; The phrase "non-drug counselling approach" is not stated in the source packet and adds an unsupported generalization about the therapy. New packet required. Source: [Rossouw Jaco; Yadin Elna; Alexander Debra; Seedat Soraya. Prolonged exposure therapy and supportive counselling for posttraumatic stress disorder in adolescents in a community-based sample, including experiences of stakeholders: study protocol for a comparative randomized controlled trial using task-shifting. 2018; DOI 10.1186/s12888-018-1873-x; article XML SHA-256 0693597fdf7fd8ca1700b5381744f01cb22a03e04db1285ec4df80a4a91d3ca2. “Prolonged exposure therapy and supportive counselling for posttraumatic stress disorder in adolescents in a community-based sample, including experiences of stakeholders: study protocol for a comparative randomized controlled trial using task-shifting” (10.1186/s12888-018-1873-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1873-x) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prompting [redraft]: Claims about prompting “guid[ing] learners during a cognitively demanding task such as experimentation” are only partially supported; the packet indicates experimentation as the cognitively demanding task and that prompts were embedded within scaffolds, but it does not describe prompting’s guiding mechanism in those terms.; The definition adds specifics not stated in the packet, such as prompting being “embedded cues or questions” and a general instructional-support mechanism for guiding learners.; The packet does not explicitly define “prompting” as “embedded cues or questions,” only that the study compared “incremental scaffolds with embedded prompts” versus sample solutions without prompting.; The packet mentions “incremental scaffolds” supporting learners “cognitively and affectively,” but it does not explicitly state that prompting is a component that “may add cognitive and affective support beyond giving sample solutions alone.” (It frames the added value as an empirical comparison, rather than establishing that outcome.); “Sample solutions alone” and the claim that prompting adds “cognitive and affective support” are only partially supported; the packet says the study examined added value of prompting within incremental scaffolds versus sample solutions, but does not define prompting that broadly. New packet required. Source: [Hülsmann Marlina; Wilde Matthias. Can students benefit from prompting during experimentation? An investigation of the benefits of incremental scaffolds compared to sample solutions on cognitive load and flow experience in biology lessons. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1754081; article XML SHA-256 ad73a98afa64c58a8df7cbd6369b16658fde6a425b293e490dbe04bc1da5e834. “Can students benefit from prompting during experimentation? An investigation of the benefits of incremental scaffolds compared to sample solutions on cognitive load and flow experience in biology lessons” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1754081).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1754081) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- proof [redraft]: Redefines the general headword proof as proof-of-concept, a narrower thing the packet happens to discuss. New packet required. Source: [Du Qicui; Xu Long. Psychological capital matters: a methodological proof-of-concept for dual-dimensional student competitiveness assessment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811331; article XML SHA-256 40732700dcad91e6a657a21d449a8500d8db0df5232d451c15aa637b40be9ee0. “Psychological capital matters: a methodological proof-of-concept for dual-dimensional student competitiveness assessment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811331).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1811331) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- propensity [redraft]: Because the definition’s key descriptive components are not explicitly supported by the provided packet text, the requested sense of the term is not defensible from the source.; The packet does not define “malevolent creativity,” nor does it explicitly state that propensity refers to “how likely a person is to show malevolent creativity.”; The packet does not provide a general definition of “propensity” as a tendency or inclination; it only uses the phrase “malevolent creativity propensity” as a study construct.; The packet supports only the study-specific phrase “malevolent creativity propensity,” not a general definition of “propensity” as a tendency or inclination.; The second sentence adds an inferred meaning (“how likely a person is to show malevolent creativity”) that is not explicitly stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Zhao Mingzhe; Liu Yan. Relationship between parental marital conflict and malevolent creativity propensity among junior school students: roles of deviant peer affiliation and self-control. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1794219; article XML SHA-256 e51f0108385225df76116ac5cc7959c8e01134d06cf6ca8b371533fe9d1139dc. “Relationship between parental marital conflict and malevolent creativity propensity among junior school students: roles of deviant peer affiliation and self-control” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1794219).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1794219) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prospect theory [redraft]: The definition adds a packet-specific claim (‘In this packet, cumulative prospect theory is applied to simulate workers’ decisions under different management scenarios’) that is not a dictionary definition and should not appear in the entry.; The field ‘learning’ is not well supported for this term; the packet presents prospect theory as a decision-making framework applied to construction workers’ waste-reduction behavior, not as a learning concept.; The packet does not provide a general description of prospect theory as a “decision-making approach used to model how people choose between options”; it only states that the study “integrates … Cumulative Prospect Theory” and uses it in a specific decision-making model.; The wording generalizes beyond the packet’s support by describing prospect theory broadly as a model of choices driven by cognitive biases and self-interested motives; the packet supports only its use in this study alongside cost-benefit theory, not that broad clinical-style description.; While the packet supports that “self-interested motivations and cognitive biases” influence the decision-making and that “Cumulative Prospect Theory” is applied to simulate decisions under management scenarios, the definition’s first sentence makes an additional, broader characterization of prospect theory that is not explicitly supported in the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Xu Shuitai; Zhou Yuhui; Xu Simei; Liu Jingkuang; Chen Qirong; Xue Fei; Zhu Wenxing. Decision-making of construction workers' waste reduction behavior: a study based on Cost-Benefit Theory and Cumulative Prospect Theory. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1557736; article XML SHA-256 01738ca3550738a95a4eeb1f2f3f1eae036c777d6dd47c55041e86a3c96dd00d. “Decision-making of construction workers' waste reduction behavior: a study based on Cost-Benefit Theory and Cumulative Prospect Theory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1557736).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1557736) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- prostaglandin [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet discusses PTGS1/PTGS2 (cyclooxygenase/paralog) and prostaglandin biosynthesis/NSAID targets, not cognition.; The definition’s first sentence uses a general description (“part of a group of body chemicals made through a process...”) that is not stated in the packet; the packet only explicitly says PTGS1 and PTGS2 regulate prostaglandin biosynthesis (it does not describe prostaglandins as “part of a group of body chemicals” or specify the “made through a process” phrasing.; The field is not defensible here: prostaglandin is a biochemical term, not a cognition/psychology/counselling term.; The packet supports that PTGS1 and PTGS2 regulate prostaglandin biosynthesis and are major NSAID targets, but it does not support the definitional claim that a prostaglandin is itself a group of body chemicals. New packet required. Source: [Maghembe Reuben S. Comparative evolutionary pharmacogenomics of human prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase paralogs identifies population-structured coding variation and protein-contextual candidates in N-terminal leader-sequence and catalytic-channel regions. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358222; article XML SHA-256 a36468eb38b10b4e3276e05132441c777d37541aa32ad524a90d5dc2b8050595. “Comparative evolutionary pharmacogenomics of human prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase paralogs identifies population-structured coding variation and protein-contextual candidates in N-terminal leader-sequence and catalytic-channel regions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358222).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358222) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- protagonist [redraft]: Because part of the definition relies on general narrative-literary claims not present in the packet, the requested term sense is not fully defensible from the supplied source.; The added gloss about the protagonist undergoing the drama’s “major events and comeback plot” goes beyond the packet’s wording, which only says the protagonist dies or is betrayed, returns to an earlier life stage, avoids mistakes, and achieves success.; The definition’s first sentence (“central character in a story, whose experiences and actions organize the narrative”) is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text, which only describes a protagonist’s actions within the rebirth micro-dramas.; The definition’s general claim that a protagonist is the “central character in a story” is not stated in the packet and is broader than the source support.; The packet uses “protagonist” only in a narrative/article context and does not support placing the term in the cognition field as a psychology/counselling concept.; The phrase “comeback plot” is not directly stated in the packet; the packet uses “rebirth or comeback-themed micro-dramas” and describes what the protagonist does in those stories, but it does not define a “comeback plot” in the requested sense. New packet required. Source: [Du Peitao; Liu Tingting; Xian Xujin. “Shut down and restart”: immersion in rebirth micro-dramas and narrative career disruption among Chinese university students—an interpretative phenomenological analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887188; article XML SHA-256 061e6ef12e7097126604f018502e9a57eb24d2f486ce3c97deb4259645c68832. ““Shut down and restart”: immersion in rebirth micro-dramas and narrative career disruption among Chinese university students—an interpretative phenomenological analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887188).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887188) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- protective factor [redraft]: The packet does not provide a general definition of “protective factor” (e.g., that it is broadly “something in a person’s environment or relationships” that “helps reduce the impact of stress or lowers the likelihood of harmful mental health effects”).; The packet only supports a study-specific use of “protective factor” in relation to adolescent chronic stress and school/family support; it does not support the broader general definition as “something in a person’s environment or relationships that helps reduce the impact of stress or lowers the likelihood of harmful mental health effects.”; The phrase “in this context” is supported only in part: the packet mentions teacher support and peer support as protective factors, but not the broader claim that peer and teacher support generally function as a protective factor for adolescents facing chronic stress.; The second sentence is partly supported (peer/teacher support in relation to adolescent chronic stress), but because the definition’s first sentence contains unsupported general claims, the definition as a whole is not fully defensible from the packet.; While the packet mentions “school protective factors” and associations involving “teacher support” and “peer support” for “adolescent chronic stress,” it does not explicitly support the precise first-sentence mechanism implied by the definition (“reduce the impact of stress” / “lowers the likelihood of harmful mental health effects”). New packet required. Source: [Li Shujiao; Yu Xiaohui; Zhang Zixuan; Chi Yingying; He Yuchen; An Ziying; Zhang Ying; Li Lina. The impact of perceived parental conflict and school protective factors on chronic stress among Chinese adolescents: a network analysis perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889164; article XML SHA-256 d8e83b3f843cfdbca81f332c5fe5a5b0c22aaf101bcb5297b034f959b10452c5. “The impact of perceived parental conflict and school protective factors on chronic stress among Chinese adolescents: a network analysis perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889164).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1889164) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- protective reflex [redraft]: The definition claims a general function: that a protective reflex “helps defend the body from potentially harmful stimulation.” The packet does not explicitly state this defensive/protective function in general terms; it only discusses “protective reflex cough” in the context of airway stimulation.; The definition claims the response “can be increased or decreased by allergic inflammation.” The packet supports modulation in both directions (up-regulated or down-regulated cough reflex threshold) during acute allergic airway inflammation, so this part is defensible, but the other substantive claims are not sufficiently supported.; The definition says that, in this packet, the term refers specifically to “reflex cough produced by airway receptors.” While the packet mentions “protective reflex cough” and “cough receptors,” it does not explicitly present the phrase “reflex cough produced by airway receptors” as the definition of the term.; The definition’s overall framing (“protective reflex” as an automatic, body-defending response) is broader than what the packet explicitly provides, so it fails the ‘every substantive claim’ support requirement.; The opening general definition (“an automatic response that helps defend the body from potentially harmful stimulation”) is not stated or directly defined in the packet; the packet only discusses protective reflex cough in the respiratory tract.; The packet supports a specific sense of protective reflex cough, but the definition broadens it beyond that cough-specific context into a general reflex category without packet support. New packet required. Source: [Foucaud Laurent; Demoulin Bruno; Leblanc Anne-Laure; Ioan Iulia; Schweitzer Cyril; Demoulin-Alexikova Silvia. Modulation of protective reflex cough by acute immune driven inflammation of lower airways in anesthetized rabbits. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0226442; article XML SHA-256 af3f6b23de1fa2b73f1977a824f6138b107e46b1a8a5774cd3ea82bcb73539e8. “Modulation of protective reflex cough by acute immune driven inflammation of lower airways in anesthetized rabbits” (10.1371/journal.pone.0226442).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226442) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- protensity [redraft]: The definition claims that “protensity means time as it is immediately lived as a continuous stretch or duration in experience.” The packet only states that, in the first instance, time is “not… perceived as time—i.e. as continuous ‘protensity,’ but as intensity,” and does not explicitly define protensity as an “immediately lived” continuous duration.; The definition says it “suggests that some writers treated our earliest time-sense as a continuous experiential flow.” The packet mentions “the first instance” and attributes the contrast to Ward (and references Hamilton’s term), but it does not support the specific framing “our earliest time-sense” or “continuous experiential flow.”; The packet supports protensity as a term for time perceived as continuous duration or 'continuous protensity,' but it does not support the added claim that this was 'our earliest time-sense.'; The statement that 'some writers treated our earliest time-sense as a continuous experiential flow' goes beyond the passage; the source discusses one writer’s view about duration being perceived as intensity rather than time, not a broader historical consensus or earliest-stage theory. New packet required. Source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8) ([public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628))

- Provigil [redraft]: The definition states that Provigil is a “brand name for modafinil,” but the supplied packet text does not explicitly identify Provigil as a brand name or otherwise make that brand-to-generic equivalence claim.; The packet supports modafinil as a synthetic wakefulness-promoting CNS stimulant, but it does not explicitly support the claim that Provigil is a brand name for modafinil.; The remaining mechanism and cognitive-effect claims are supported, but the definition includes an unsupported identification/synonymy claim that should not be added without packet support. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Modafinil” (C26661).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- provocative testing [redraft]: Provocative testing has a general clinical sense; defined here as an ex vivo tumor-slice method the packet discusses. New packet required. Source: [Koh James; Hogue Joyce A.; Sosa Julie A.. A Novel Ex Vivo Method for Visualizing Live-Cell Calcium Response Behavior in Intact Human Tumors. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0161134; article XML SHA-256 7f7f415229991cafd33a9325461c2401b740e899133cf4f542e64b629ef00521. “A Novel Ex Vivo Method for Visualizing Live-Cell Calcium Response Behavior in Intact Human Tumors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0161134).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161134) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pseudo- [redraft]: The example about a “pseudo-investment scheme” being “presented as if it belongs to a legitimate category” and “appears investment-like” is an extrapolation not stated in the source text.; The packet does not explicitly define what “pseudo-” means (e.g., “presented as if it belongs to a legitimate category when it does not”), so that substantive claim is unsupported.; The packet mentions “pyramidal pseudo-investment schemes” as a label within overlapping gambling environments, but it does not provide the semantic explanation of the prefix “pseudo-,” nor a directly stated characterization matching the definition’s wording.; The packet uses the compound phrase “pyramidal pseudo-investment schemes” but does not define the prefix pseudo- or support the general meaning claimed in the definition.; The provided example explanation (“appears investment-like… rather than as a standard investment activity”) is not stated in the packet and is therefore an unsupported generalization.; The source only says these schemes occupy overlapping mobile and platform-mediated environments; it does not support the contrast with “standard investment activity.” New packet required. Source: [Khamzina Zhanna; Buribayev Yermek. Shared digital, social, and cognitive mechanisms in gambling and pseudo-investment schemes in Kazakhstan: a multi-source qualitative study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1756586; article XML SHA-256 625ab9135477433324bf97cf76e53f9819a60e898390c12a751a0dd072ee41ea. “Shared digital, social, and cognitive mechanisms in gambling and pseudo-investment schemes in Kazakhstan: a multi-source qualitative study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1756586).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1756586) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pseudohypoparathyroidism [redraft]: The definition claims “intellectual disability,” but the packet reports “mental retardation” (no explicit equivalence to “intellectual disability” is provided).; The packet says all PHP1A patients had mental retardation, but it does not establish that this finding makes the disorder broadly “relevant to cognition” as a dictionary sense.; The packet supports a GNAS inactivating mutation as a cause of PHP1A/PPHP, but it does not support that pseudohypoparathyroidism in general is caused by that mutation; the definition overgeneralizes from a subtype to the broader term.; The phrase “making it relevant to cognition” is an interpretive generalization that is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet only reports cognitive/mental status findings for the studied PHP1A patients. New packet required. Source: [Wu Yi-Lei; Hwang Daw-Yang; Hsiao Hui-Pin; Ting Wei-Hsin; Huang Chi-Yu; Tsai Wen-Yu; Chen Hung-Chun; Chao Mei-Chyn; Lo Fu-Sung; Tsai Jeng-Daw; Yang Stone; Shih Shin-Lin; Lin Shuan-Pei; Lin Chiung-Ling; Lee Yann-Jinn. Mutations in Pseudohypoparathyroidism 1a and Pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism in Ethnic Chinese. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0090640; article XML SHA-256 f656cbff78f770628dd2c466ef6a36771888ddf7e07e88603e0b834e5c7194a3. “Mutations in Pseudohypoparathyroidism 1a and Pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism in Ethnic Chinese” (10.1371/journal.pone.0090640).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090640) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pseudoword [redraft]: "In cognition research, it is often used" overgeneralizes from a single article; the packet shows one study using pseudowords in naming and lexical decision tasks, not that this is the usual or general use.; Because multiple substantive elements of the definition are not explicitly supported by the packet, the definition cannot be accepted as written.; The claim that in cognition research it is “often used to compare how people recognize real words versus plausible nonwords” is not directly supported in the provided packet; the packet mentions recognition comparisons in this specific study, but does not support the broader “often”/general usage claim.; The definition adds "plausible nonwords" and contrasts them with real words in a way that is only partially supported by the packet and is broader than the supplied source text.; The packet does not explicitly state the definitional characterization “a letter string that looks and sounds like it could be a real word… but is not actually a word.” It only describes “pseudowords (ortho-phonologically plausible for Spanish)” in the context of a lexicality effect study.; The packet supports pseudowords as orthographically and phonologically plausible nonwords used in word-recognition tasks, but it does not directly support the broader claim that a pseudoword is a "letter string" that "looks and sounds like" a real word in general. New packet required. Source: [Rojas Carlos; San Martín Marilyn; Urzúa Paula; Guerra Ernesto. Word or pseudoword? The lexicality effect in naming and lexical decision tasks during advanced aging. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0299266; article XML SHA-256 ad9ab53a6447dd232a915a69cf6512614e8ff77cc24a3342198d4703349e3c8f. “Word or pseudoword? The lexicality effect in naming and lexical decision tasks during advanced aging” (10.1371/journal.pone.0299266).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299266) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- PSP [redraft]: The expansion of PSP as parent-adolescent sports participation is supported, but the added claim that it is “an academic and developmental factor” is not stated in the source.; The packet does not explicitly state what “PSP” stands for (e.g., “parent-adolescent sports participation”), so that substantive claim is unsupported.; The source says PSP is examined in relation to adolescent depression through parent-adolescent relationship (PR) and academic difficulty (AD); it does not support the broader characterization that PSP is linked to adolescents’ relationships, academic difficulty, and depression as a general definitional claim.; While the packet refers to PSP and discusses its association with adolescent depression via PR (parent-adolescent relationship) and AD (academic difficulty) in Chinese youth, it does not support the full expanded definition wording that “PSP” is treated as an academic and developmental factor in the way described in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Bi Yingchen. Associations between parent-adolescent sports participation and depression among Chinese youth: a serial mediation model of the parent-adolescent relationship and academic difficulty. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1756418; article XML SHA-256 e983af2733b6f1447828eb5700697d6adc3ceda0970e61c1d6070b5a4743c8fb. “Associations between parent-adolescent sports participation and depression among Chinese youth: a serial mediation model of the parent-adolescent relationship and academic difficulty” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1756418).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1756418) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychache [redraft]: The definition adds ‘especially when the person experiences this pain as unbearable,’ which is supported by the packet, but the phrasing ‘key factor linked to suicidal thoughts’ is a slight shift from the source’s wording that psychache contributes to suicidal ideation and is a prominent predictor of it.; The field is specified as "diagnosis," but the packet presents psychache as a psychological construct/variable within suicide theory and research (e.g., “psychache is a critical psychological variable,” “core psychological construct”), not as a diagnosis.; The field ‘diagnosis’ is not well supported by the packet; the source describes psychache as a psychological construct/variable related to suicidal ideation, not a diagnosis.; The wording is otherwise supported, but the requested field/sense is not defensible from the source packet. New packet required. Source: [Li Yijun; Guo Zhihua; Tian Wenqing; Wang Xiuchao; Dou Weijia; Chen Yanfeng; Huang Shen; Ni Shengdong; Wang Hui; Wang Chaoxian; Liu Xufeng; Zhu Xia; Wu Shengjun. An investigation of the relationships between suicidal ideation, psychache, and meaning in life using network analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-04700-4; article XML SHA-256 1be5754a8e0a50c5c7ad97122c3899298bcd95fec5a03bf91f1b306911470dae. “An investigation of the relationships between suicidal ideation, psychache, and meaning in life using network analysis” (10.1186/s12888-023-04700-4).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04700-4) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychalgia [redraft]: Packet only lists psychalgia beside mania in a differential; definition builds a sense that is not the term's meaning. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2205000-2217000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- psychiatric classification [redraft]: The definition makes general claims about diagnostic-system function (grouping, description, labeling) that are not supported by the provided packet text.; The packet mentions the DSM’s central role in “psychiatric classification” but does not define psychiatric classification as “organized grouping and description of mental disorders,” nor does it explicitly state that it “provides the framework used to define and label psychiatric diagnoses.”; The packet only states that the DSM has a central role in psychiatric classification; it does not support the fuller definitional claim that psychiatric classification is the organized grouping and description of mental disorders within a diagnostic system.; The statement that it provides the framework used to define and label psychiatric diagnoses is not explicitly supported by the source text and goes beyond the packet’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Ophir Yaakov; Shir-Raz Yaffa; Tikochinski Refael. Four decades of ADHD: a systematic AI-assisted analysis of conceptual shifts across six DSM editions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1792051; article XML SHA-256 1703eaaf3bbe8dd1a1231d48c3e70593987a5a6d2931f2154ef8120572e26e97. “Four decades of ADHD: a systematic AI-assisted analysis of conceptual shifts across six DSM editions” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1792051).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1792051) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychiatric diagnosis [redraft]: The packet only uses the phrase “lifetime psychiatric diagnosis” as an outcome of interest; it does not define “psychiatric diagnosis” as the “identification or labeling of a mental health condition.”; The packet supports only the phrase “lifetime psychiatric diagnosis”; it does not support the added definition that this is the identification or labeling of a mental health condition.; The second sentence (“at any point in their life”) is broadly consistent with the packet’s wording about “lifetime psychiatric diagnosis,” but the full definition includes an additional substantive characterization not supported by the packet.; The second sentence introduces an interpretation (“whether someone has had such a condition at any point in their life”) that is broader than the source text and is not directly defined in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Alghamdi Saleh A. Psychiatric diagnosis and perceived health impact attributed to adverse childhood experiences: multidimensional impulsivity pathways in Saudi adults. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1775098; article XML SHA-256 addfbca094a8a7837083d2f26afabcd779c3a88f49c2ed056d4be855160ff49d. “Psychiatric diagnosis and perceived health impact attributed to adverse childhood experiences: multidimensional impulsivity pathways in Saudi adults” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1775098).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1775098) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychiatric unit [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported elements not stated in the packet, including that a psychiatric unit is an inpatient hospital setting and that it is where people with serious mental health problems are cared for.; The definition claims a “psychiatric unit” is an “inpatient hospital setting,” but the packet text does not explicitly describe psychiatric units as inpatient hospital settings.; The definition states that people “with serious mental health problems” are cared for, but the packet does not use or support the term “serious” or make that specific claim.; The packet supports that psychiatric units may involve unpredictable or mentally unstable patients and assault risk to staff, but that is not enough to support the broader definitional wording used here.; While the packet supports that psychiatric units include “unpredictable” and “mentally unstable” patients and that this “may increase the risk of physical assault” toward staff, the definition also adds additional unstated elements beyond what is supported (inpatient setting; serious mental health problems). New packet required. Source: [Merritt Caley; Agyapong Vincent I O; Nkire Nnamdi. Post-traumatic stress disorder in inpatient psychiatry staff: a narrative review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1680477; article XML SHA-256 f62e21cd3e49130aea5bb1bd7c8433dc5d14efebc6b8e9a8f973e19825573042. “Post-traumatic stress disorder in inpatient psychiatry staff: a narrative review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1680477).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1680477) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychic pain [redraft]: The packet does not directly define “psychic pain” as “painful inner mental or emotional distress.” It only mentions that oceanic states may offer temporary relief from “psychic pain,” without specifying what psychic pain consists of (beyond being something relieved by those states).; The packet supports that altered states may offer temporary relief from psychic pain and may be used to escape internal fragmentation, but it does not define psychic pain itself as “painful inner mental or emotional distress.”; “Loss of self-cohesion” and “a divided inner experience” are not stated in the source; the packet instead uses “internal fragmentation” and “lost internal cohesion,” so the definition adds unsupported wording. New packet required. Source: [Unterrainer Human-Friedrich. Prometheus unbound? Oceanic affectivity and the neuropsychodynamics of addiction. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1699816; article XML SHA-256 e3428a46fd006fb96410d309db6afebc8c021001f91c4ceec9536a8fb8e3fb92. “Prometheus unbound? Oceanic affectivity and the neuropsychodynamics of addiction” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1699816).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1699816) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psycho- [redraft]: The definition includes an additional claim (“marks the mind-related component within a broader neuro-psycho-cultural view”) that is not explicitly stated or clearly supported by the provided packet text.; The packet mentions a “neuro-psycho-cultural” framework in the context of art therapy, but this does not substantively support the definition’s specific claim about what “psycho-” itself means.; The packet supports a psycho- element in a neuro-psycho-cultural framework and a psychological dimension, but it does not explicitly support the broader lexicographic claim that psycho- is a word part used to indicate the psychological or mental side of something.; The packet text does not provide a definition of the word-part “psycho-” or describe its general linguistic/semantic meaning (e.g., that it indicates the psychological or mental side of something).; The wording adds 'mental side' and a general usage claim that go beyond the source text, which only mentions 'psychological' and 'neuro-psycho-cultural' in the context of art therapy. New packet required. Source: [He Jiarong; Zhang Zhengyi. Healing potential of art therapy: a narrative review of neuro-psycho-cultural mechanisms in mental health. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1662772; article XML SHA-256 7d3e8dc2c17c915c1d87ffee6fcc3e58e3e2c4e8e2bf87c2c53e13ce3a9ddf72. “Healing potential of art therapy: a narrative review of neuro-psycho-cultural mechanisms in mental health” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1662772).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1662772) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psycholinguistics [redraft]: The packet explicitly mentions individuals who “select and interpret” messages, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s inclusion of “produce, receive.”; The packet supports encoding/decoding in relation to messages and communicators (encoding via “phonetics” and decoding via “psychoacoustics”), but it does not directly support the specific framing that the process involves “turning thoughts into speech sounds.”; The phrasing about ‘turning thoughts into speech sounds’ and ‘interpreting those sounds back into meaning’ is more specific than the packet, which only says psycholinguistics concerns relations between messages and communicators and the processes of encoding and decoding.; ‘Mental and perceptual processes’ is not stated in the packet and adds an unsupported generalization about the field. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psycholinguistics” (D011578).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011578) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- psychological acculturation [redraft]: The claim that the packet “treated [psychological acculturation] as a largely single overall dimension” is broadly supported by the reported unidimensional structure supported by the bifactor analysis; however, the definition adds that related aspects “may overlap within it” (social belonging and cultural competence). The packet reports high overlap/redundancy and instability of a two-factor structure after accounting for the global scale, but does not clearly justify the specific phrasing that these aspects “may overlap within it” as a general characterization beyond the PAS factor-structure findings.; The definition adds unsupported breadth by describing psychological acculturation as “adaptation to culture” and “familiarity across cultures”; the packet supports only a brief proxy measure based on emotional attachment, belonging, cultural identity, and familiarity/cultural competence indicators.; The definition frames psychological acculturation as “a person’s adaptation to culture,” but the packet only describes the PAS construct/measurement structure (emotional attachment and belonging-based indicators) and does not provide a definition of psychological acculturation as “adaptation to culture.”; The definition states it is “as reflected in their sense of … familiarity across cultures.” While the packet identifies a factor labeled “cultural competence and familiarity,” it does not explicitly ground this in “familiarity across cultures” wording.; The phrase “across cultures” is not supported by the packet’s wording and overgeneralizes beyond the studied English/Spanish measurement context.; The requested sense is mostly correct, but the definition should stay tightly within the packet’s evidence and avoid adding broader conceptual claims not stated there. New packet required. Source: [Vázquez Alejandro L.; Navarro Flores Cynthia M.; Mendez Lucybel; Coleman Jasmine; Nagy Gabriela A.; Garcia Araceli; Domenech Rodríguez Melanie M.. Viviendo entre dos culturas: Evaluating the psychometric properties of the Psychological Acculturation Scale among Latinx caregivers. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355228; article XML SHA-256 eaddfa2593924b3da60148baa493c6fb97bf5ca22b3b73a4895da36d973c61a7. “Viviendo entre dos culturas: Evaluating the psychometric properties of the Psychological Acculturation Scale among Latinx caregivers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355228).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355228) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychological dysfunction [redraft]: The definition’s first claim (“refers to problems in the psychological domain”) is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet only describes that “Psychological dysfunction was diagnosed based on depressive symptoms,” and does not provide a general definitional wording about “problems” in a psychological domain.; The definition’s second claim (“the packet does not provide a broader general definition beyond this study-specific use”) is not supported by the packet text; absence of other definitions is not evidenced in the supplied excerpt.; The phrase “problems in the psychological domain” is a broader general definition that is not explicitly supported by the packet; the packet only says psychological dysfunction was diagnosed based on depressive symptoms in this study.; The second sentence adds a meta-level limitation (“the packet does not provide a broader general definition”) that is not itself supported by the source text and goes beyond the packet’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Hu Xiuhua; Ruan Jian; Zhang Weibin; Chen Jie; Bao Zhijun; Ruan Qingwei; Yu Zhuowei. The overall and domain-specific quality of life of Chinese community-dwelling older adults: the role of intrinsic capacity and disease burden. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1190800; article XML SHA-256 68347202e83c43273f94e127934c71252f85cd87a6990acaf70e9e1aaa81fa4a. “The overall and domain-specific quality of life of Chinese community-dwelling older adults: the role of intrinsic capacity and disease burden” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1190800).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1190800) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychological field [redraft]: The definition presents a concept-style gloss rather than a source-grounded historical definition, and it goes beyond the supplied passage's wording.; The definition therefore adds multiple specific explanatory elements (distinctness from bodily/neurological events; the particular set of processes as the referent) that are not provided or supported in the supplied text.; The examples in the packet are limited to topics James says will be treated in later chapters (instinct, stream of thought, attention, discrimination, association, memory, aesthetics, will); the definition adds a broader modern gloss about what psychology studies that is not explicitly stated here.; The packet does not explicitly define “psychological field” as “matters studied by psychology” or as a broad domain encompassing “thought, attention, memory, and will.” While it mentions chapters on topics including “Attention,” “Memory,” and “Will,” it does not state that these are what “psychological field” refers to.; The packet does not support the claim that “psychological field” means “the sphere or domain of mental life and psychological processes, as distinct from bodily or neurological events.” It only contains the phrase “purely psychological field,” without defining it that way.; The packet only supports the phrase "purely psychological field" in a general historical sense; it does not define the term as a distinct "sphere or domain of mental life" contrasted with bodily or neurological events. New packet required. Source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8) ([public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628))

- psychological intervention [redraft]: Defines psychosocial intervention, not the headword, and adds an unsupported contrast with medical procedures. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychosocial Intervention” (D000083626).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000083626) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- psychological network [redraft]: The claim that “In this source, it is used to study factors connected with children’s football participation” is broadly consistent with the packet, but it is not enough to rescue the unsupported generalizations in the first sentence.; The definition adds a broader claim about examining how factors relate to any particular behavior or outcome, which is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the source’s specific use in this article.; The packet does not explicitly define a “psychological network” as a “way of mapping psychosocial factors and the links among them,” nor does it explicitly describe the mapping/link mechanism.; The packet mentions that the study “utilized psychological network analysis to examine selected psychosocial factors related to football participation,” but it does not support the broader phrasing that the purpose is “so researchers can examine how those factors relate to a particular behavior or outcome.”; The packet supports that psychological network analysis was used to examine selected psychosocial factors related to football participation among primary school students, but it does not define a psychological network as a general way of mapping factors and their links. New packet required. Source: [Zeng Xiancheng; Hu Min; He Wei; Xie Zechen. Psychosocial correlates of children’s football participation: a psychological network analysis of parental support, stereotypes, and dualistic passions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1897362; article XML SHA-256 5bd4f6a32e602af32c3ba0a6bb1a287704623bc5c8056c11ed78804dc3e20813. “Psychosocial correlates of children’s football participation: a psychological network analysis of parental support, stereotypes, and dualistic passions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1897362).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1897362) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychological rehabilitation [redraft]: Hedges with 'refers here' to smuggle a COVID isolation program onto a general headword. New packet required. Source: [Jung Jae Hyu; Won Jong Jin; Ko Jin Young. Psychological rehabilitation for isolated patients with COVID-19 infection: A randomized controlled study. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0278475; article XML SHA-256 d728fe3dce985dd1b79fa05856857b8dee5bf9c53c5055185ced18606521d79c. “Psychological rehabilitation for isolated patients with COVID-19 infection: A randomized controlled study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0278475).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278475) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychological treatment [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported generalization by defining psychological treatment as "care" provided within a psychologist’s professional practice; the packet only mentions psychological treatment as one competency of a psychologist.; The packet describes a clinical psychologist as a professional group, not the term "psychological treatment" itself, so the requested sense is not supported.; The packet supports that a psychologist with accredited training provides psychological treatment of mental health, behavioral, and emotional disorders, but it does not explicitly state that psychological treatment is “care for” such disorders or that it is “provided within a psychologist’s professional practice.”; The phrase "mental health, behavioral, and emotional disorders" is supported, but the rest of the definition goes beyond the source and is not defensible from the packet alone.; “within a psychologist’s professional practice” is added wording not supported in the supplied packet text. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Clinical Psychologist” (C204368).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychometric function [redraft]: All other key claims (model used in psychophysical assessment, slope/spread as important parameters, and effects on accuracy and variability of threshold estimates) are broadly supported by the packet’s discussion, but the “steeply performance changes” wording is not directly supported.; The definition claims that the slope/spread “reflects how steeply performance changes,” but the provided packet only states that spread (σ) is a parameter related inversely to slope and discusses effects of slope/spread mismatch on bias/accuracy/variance; it does not explicitly define slope/spread in terms of “how steeply performance changes.”; The packet supports psychometric function as a model function with a slope/spread parameter, but it does not explicitly support the broader definitional claim that it is used in “psychophysical assessment” or that it specifically describes an observer’s performance when estimating a threshold.; The sentence about the function’s slope/spread affecting threshold-estimate accuracy and variability is supported, but the definition combines this with unsupported general framing, so the overall definition is not fully supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Serrano-Pedraza Ignacio; Vancleef Kathleen; Herbert William; Goodship Nicola; Woodhouse Maeve; Read Jenny C A. Efficient estimation of stereo thresholds: What slope should be assumed for the psychometric function?. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0226822; article XML SHA-256 6344c01035f84cd198022f338304a6c5d47b45997a30d3db177745cc8999fedf. “Efficient estimation of stereo thresholds: What slope should be assumed for the psychometric function?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0226822).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226822) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychometry [redraft]: The definition’s claim that psychometry “refers to what the same classification also calls mental chronometry” is only partially supported: the packet links psychometry to “Time Relations” and includes “Mental Chronometry,” but it does not explicitly equate psychometry with mental chronometry or state that psychometry is the same as what that classification calls mental chronometry.; The packet only shows a cross-reference: “PsYchometry (see Time Relations, IV. 6)” and separately lists “Time Relations of Consciousness; Mental Chronometry.” It does not state that psychometry is “used for the measurement of mental processes” or that it is specifically “in their time relations,” so the definition’s main substantive claim is not supported by the provided text.; The packet only shows a cross-reference: “Psychometry (see Time Relations, IV. 6)” and the related heading “Time Relations of Consciousness; Mental Chronometry.” It does not explicitly state that psychometry means measurement of mental processes in their time relations, so the definition adds unsupported wording. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2205000-2217000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- psychonomic [redraft]: Packet parallels bionomic: psychonomic forces are the extraneous conditioning forces, not forces proper to psychology; wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Force and Condition” (Forcec).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/F2defs.htm#Forcec) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- psychopathic personality [redraft]: Packet defines antisocial personality disorder and never mentions the headword; 'older diagnostic term' is added. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Antisocial Personality Disorder” (D000987).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000987) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- psychophysical method [redraft]: The definition further claims that “in this source, it refers to measuring perceived ocular stray light through the participant’s responses,” yet the packet only says psychophysical measurements are used to examine perception of ocular stray light (e.g., with C-Quant) and notes they are subjective; it does not mention participant responses or reporting as the measurement basis.; The definition states that a psychophysical method is “a subjective way of studying perception by relating what a person reports experiencing to a physical stimulus,” but the packet does not explicitly support this general description.; The general definition adds unsupported detail: the packet says psychophysical measurements examine perception of ocular stray light and are subjective, but it does not state that they work by relating a person's report to a physical stimulus.; The source-specific sentence is unsupported: the packet does not mention measuring perceived ocular stray light through the participant’s responses. New packet required. Source: [Solf Benjamin; Schramm Stefan; Link Dietmar; Klee Sascha. Objective measurement of forward-scattered light in the human eye: An electrophysiological approach. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0214850; article XML SHA-256 df570d67fb484d8ea81b467d4c8e951a8c7e060dd129ac04fa8b8a131fe8e205. “Objective measurement of forward-scattered light in the human eye: An electrophysiological approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0214850).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214850) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychophysical research [redraft]: Because the first sentence is not supported by the packet, the overall definition cannot be accepted as defensible to the supplied source.; The definition claims that psychophysical research “studies how mental experience and judgment relate to detectable changes in underlying psychological processes,” but the provided packet text does not support this framing (it discusses discrete vs continuous mental states and state/strength processes, not detectable changes in underlying psychological processes).; The opening sentence adds a general definition of psychophysical research (“studies how mental experience and judgment relate to detectable changes in underlying psychological processes”) that is not supported by the packet.; The packet supports a narrower claim about psychophysical research indicating that mental processes may vary continuously in strength despite the apparent discreteness of subjective experience, but it does not support the broader wording about ‘detectable changes’ or the general study of ‘judgment.’ New packet required. Source: [Aly Mariam; Yonelinas Andrew P.. Bridging Consciousness and Cognition in Memory and Perception: Evidence for Both State and Strength Processes. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0030231; article XML SHA-256 aff82dbbdc96f0e5440bb8ff501b18cfd5b3ce0d68ed98978d5215fc35ea337f. “Bridging Consciousness and Cognition in Memory and Perception: Evidence for Both State and Strength Processes” (10.1371/journal.pone.0030231).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030231) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychosocial factors [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet frames psycho-oncology as including ethical aspects of cancer, but the definition provided does not mention ethics and is not supported by the packet as an ethics-related meaning for “psychosocial factors.”; The first sentence gives a broad, general characterization (“influences that involve a person’s psychological and social circumstances”) that is only indirectly implied by the packet’s phrasing about interrelationships, not stated as the term’s definition in the packet.; The opening gloss broadens “psychosocial factors” into a general definition of influences involving psychological and social circumstances, which is an unsupported extrapolation from the packet.; The packet does not define the standalone term “psychosocial factors”; it only says psycho-oncology examines “behavioral and psychosocial factors,” so the requested sense is not directly supported.; The packet’s context is psycho-oncology/cancer, not ethics, so the field assignment is not supported by the source record. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psycho-Oncology” (D000073320).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000073320) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- psychosocial stressor [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the packet by presenting a broad dictionary-style explanation rather than restricting itself to the specific example and wording actually given in the source.; The definition’s core characterization (“a social or psychological burden that creates stress”) is not explicitly supported by the packet; the packet only states that “financial toxicity… is… recognized as a psychosocial stressor” and does not provide a general definition of the term.; The packet supports financial toxicity as an example of a psychosocial stressor affecting health outcomes in chronically ill populations, but it does not support the broader definitional claim that a psychosocial stressor is generally a social or psychological burden that creates stress.; While the packet supports the example that “financial toxicity” (defined as “the financial burden associated with healthcare”) is a psychosocial stressor affecting health outcomes in chronically ill populations, the definition additionally generalizes beyond what is stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Wu Ruihan; Zhou Jiali; Liu Huafen; Liu Shanshan; Ma Xiaojie; Li Tian; Tao Jingjing; Cai Zhongxiang. Financial toxicity and psychological distress in cardiovascular non-cancer multimorbidity: a latent profile analysis and causal weighting. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1633445; article XML SHA-256 95dc2e4fd6528af1b8808d711202fcbd4ac1e9bfb70691e5e9ae91423e69909b. “Financial toxicity and psychological distress in cardiovascular non-cancer multimorbidity: a latent profile analysis and causal weighting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1633445).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1633445) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychotic feature [redraft]: The claim that the term is used to group conditions “where antipsychotic medicines may be used” is only weakly supported (the packet lists “mood disorders with psychotic feature” among disorders treated with antipsychotics, but does not directly describe the grouping rationale in diagnostic terms).; The definition relies on interpretive/semantic expansion (“psychotic feature means a psychotic aspect present in a mood disorder”) that is not directly supported by the provided packet text.; The packet does not define the term; it only mentions the phrase "mood disorders with psychotic feature" in a treatment context, so the claim that the term means a psychotic aspect present in a mood disorder is an unsupported extrapolation.; The packet does not explicitly define what “psychotic feature” means (e.g., it only mentions the phrase “mood disorders with psychotic feature” without stating that it refers to a specific psychotic aspect).; The second sentence adds a broader grouping claim about "these conditions" being grouped with other psychotic disorders; the source only lists diagnostic categories for antipsychotic use and does not establish a definitional relationship for the term. New packet required. Source: [Ali Tilahun; Sisay Mekonnen; Tariku Mandaras; Mekuria Abraham Nigussie; Desalew Assefa. Antipsychotic-induced extrapyramidal side effects: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0257129; article XML SHA-256 84eb77f3529339ef5ae0fdaed2bc2f88967d3cd28313ad64a2927973d40a3c4f. “Antipsychotic-induced extrapyramidal side effects: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0257129).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257129) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- psychotomimetic [redraft]: The definition adds a broader gloss that is not supported by the supplied text and goes beyond the packet’s stated context.; The definition’s first sentence claims that “psychotomimetic” describes an effect that can produce “psychosis-like experiences,” but the packet only mentions “acute psychotomimetic effects including depersonalization and derealization” and does not describe them as “psychosis-like.”; The packet supports acute psychotomimetic effects including depersonalization and derealization that may persist beyond intoxication, but it does not state that psychotomimetic means or produces psychosis-like experiences.; The rest of the definition (“acute effects such as depersonalization and derealization” and “may sometimes continue beyond intoxication”) is supported by the packet, but the unsupported “psychosis-like experiences” claim makes the overall definition not fully supported. New packet required. Source: [Ricci Valerio; De Berardis Domenico; Martinotti Giovanni; Maina Giuseppe. Self-disturbance in first-episode psychosis: Theoretical framework and potential cannabis interactions - a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1733254; article XML SHA-256 381c6eff1691b51eace58822325702dddb770ed0ca9f5d31fadedb02d7f37875. “Self-disturbance in first-episode psychosis: Theoretical framework and potential cannabis interactions - a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1733254).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1733254) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- PTSD [redraft]: The packet supports a class of post-traumatic stress disorders with symptoms lasting more than one month, but it does not support the added claim that the symptoms continue for longer than one month after trauma.; The packet supports that PTSD is a class of traumatic stress disorders with symptoms lasting more than one month, but it does not explicitly state that the symptoms last “after trauma.”; The source text describes a class/descriptor rather than the singular definitional statement made about PTSD itself. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic” (D013313).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013313) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- pubescence [redraft]: The definition’s claims that pubescence is “the period of puberty or early adolescence” and “when sexual maturity begins” and “childhood changes into adult life” are not directly supported by any explicit wording in the supplied packet excerpt.; The packet emphasizes psychological change and general physiological change, but it does not specifically support the phrase “marked by important bodily development” as stated.; The packet excerpt does not explicitly define “pubescence”; it only mentions the phrase “insanity of pubescence and adolescence” and discusses puberty/adolescence generally, but without stating what “pubescence” means in the dictionary sense.; The packet supports pubescence as puberty/early adolescence, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that this is when sexual maturity begins. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2121000-2133000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- public adoption [redraft]: The definition reads like a generalized public-health gloss; the packet supports the modeled role of awareness and guideline-following in outbreak dynamics, but not a standalone dictionary sense of the term in psychology/learning.; The definition states that public adoption is about how “widely and consistently” people take up recommended preventive behaviors; the packet does not provide support for the “widely and consistently” aspect as part of the meaning of the term.; The packet discusses “public adoption of preventive guidelines” via a model of behavior change linked to awareness/motivation and notes effects on outbreak peaks, but it does not define the term in those exact terms or establish “widely and consistently” as the key characterization.; The supplied source is about public adoption of preventive guidelines during a disease outbreak, not a psychology/counselling sense in the field of learning, so the field assignment is not defensible from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Abbas Wasim; M A Masud; Park Anna; Parveen Sajida; Kim Sangil. Evolution and consequences of individual responses during the COVID-19 outbreak. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0273964; article XML SHA-256 4ef377bbae6106ad9ab33ce11205c893357978e0c36653e1b0fbd8a98288f42e. “Evolution and consequences of individual responses during the COVID-19 outbreak” (10.1371/journal.pone.0273964).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273964) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pulse [redraft]: The definition adds clinical framing (“critical emergency,” “quick detection is important for timely help”) that is only partially supported and is not presented in the packet as a general definition.; The definition introduces additional wording (“absence of that sign,” “quick detection is important for timely help”) that is only broadly implied by the packet’s survival/timeliness statements, but not directly supported as a definitional meaning of the term in the requested sense.; The packet does not define “pulse” as a detectable sign of ongoing cardiovascular activity; it only refers to “loss of pulse” as a problem in out-of-hospital cases.; The packet does not explicitly state that “loss of pulse” is “treated as a critical emergency”; it discusses survival importance and timely detection, but does not use or support the specific framing of emergency treatment.; The packet supports the medical phrase “loss of pulse,” but it does not define “pulse” as a cardiovascular sign; that meaning is imported rather than stated in the source.; The requested field is cognition, but the source text is about cardiovascular pulse loss and emergency survival, not a cognition sense of the term. New packet required. Source: [Demirel Berken Utku; Akay Galip Utku; Streli Paul; Ozturkmen Hatice; Holz Christian. Smartwatch-based detection of loss of pulse. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342064; article XML SHA-256 ee40197cfb6c02fb28cb3b3c5bdeaee65cded5b36fcaa6bc839c470ff1a8d83e. “Smartwatch-based detection of loss of pulse” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342064).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342064) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- punitive parenting [redraft]: The packet does not define “punitive parenting” as being “characterized by being punitive toward the child”; it only mentions a “punitive parenting style” as a variable in the study without describing what makes it punitive.; The packet mentions exploring relationships with “parent–child interaction,” but it does not substantiate the broader phrasing that punitive parenting is “discussed as part of parent–child interaction and as a factor related to children’s socialization and the mother–child relationship” specifically for punitive parenting.; The packet supports that parenting style is important for children’s socialization and the mother–child relationship, but it does not specifically support the added framing that this term is discussed as part of parent–child interaction in a definitional sense.; The packet supports that parenting style refers to relatively stable behaviors parents display during childrearing, but it does not define “punitive parenting” as behavior that is punitive toward the child.; While the packet supports that a “parenting style” is a relatively stable pattern of behaviors during childrearing and that parenting styles relate to children’s socialization and the mother–child relationship, it does not explicitly link “punitive parenting” to those specific descriptors in the way the definition states. New packet required. Source: [Peng Shun; Xu Lei; Chen Jiwen; Cai Shuangshuang. Do mothers treat children who are similar to them better? The relation between maternal–adolescent neuroticism congruence and a punitive parenting style. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.934783; article XML SHA-256 61a478b5791d9c4c3570660d2ee37d1328852c348df85412baa761e3749d6ccc. “Do mothers treat children who are similar to them better? The relation between maternal–adolescent neuroticism congruence and a punitive parenting style” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.934783).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.934783) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pupil [redraft]: The definition’s anatomical claim that the pupil is “the opening in the eye” is not supported by the packet.; The definition’s anatomical claim—“the pupil is the opening in the eye”—is not stated in the provided packet text.; The packet supports pupillometry as a method for studying pupil dilation in lexical access, but the definition adds a general anatomical sense that is not established in the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [Rojas Carlos; Vega-Rodríguez Yuri E.; Lagos Gabriel; Cabrera-Miguieles María Gabriela; Sandoval Yasna; Crisosto-Alarcón Jaime. Applicability and usefulness of pupillometry in the study of lexical access. A scoping review of primary research. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1372912; article XML SHA-256 5e883ef2d44e371258c96aa271f537e5901731356e60c64c7bfaf9c739d06c8b. “Applicability and usefulness of pupillometry in the study of lexical access. A scoping review of primary research” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1372912).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1372912) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pure tone [redraft]: The contrast with “more mixed or complex sounds” is not supported by the packet.; The definition adds a generalizing contrast that goes beyond the source’s specific point about sounds that are “smooth and clear” and give “pure pleasures,” unmixed with pain or want.; The packet does not support the claim that a “pure tone” is defined *by contrast* with “more mixed or complex sounds.” It only states that the sounds are “smooth and clear and have a single pure tone,” without explicitly contrasting this with mixed/complex sounds. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Beauty and The Beautiful” (Beauty and The Beautiful).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B1defs.htm#Beauty and The Beautiful) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- purpose in life [redraft]: Second sentence uses in-this-context to bolt the religious-belief item onto a general headword; adds direction. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Spiritual Well-being Question” (C128148).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- purpose [redraft]: The definition claims purpose is “future-oriented” and describes it as such, but the packet only states “future meaning and direction” and “future orientation” as positively associated with SOP; it does not define SOP itself as inherently future-oriented in the direct definitional sense used in the definition.; The definition’s wording goes beyond the packet by framing purpose as “a direction that guides choices and actions in life,” whereas the packet specifically mentions guidance of lives and orientation to goals connected to decision-making, without explicitly stating “choices and actions.”; The packet supports that sense of purpose involves a “meaningful goal and direction” and can “guide” individuals’ lives, and it is oriented to reaching goals in relation to “people who do things and make decisions.” However, it does not explicitly support the phrase “self-endorsed way of thinking.”; The source defines sense of purpose as a way of thinking oriented toward goals and life direction; it does not explicitly support the added claim that it is a person's feeling.; “Self-endorsed” is not stated in the source. The packet supports autonomous regulation, volition, and intrinsic values, but not that exact phrasing. New packet required. Source: [Wang Lu; He Jiayu; Zhang Xiaoming; Wang Heqing; Song Jingmin; Chen Ningbo; Zhu Xinhong. The interaction between future food considerations, regulation of eating behaviors, sense of purpose, and social media consciousness among college students: a study on mediation effects and network analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1827219; article XML SHA-256 618fec768778d24d90e1a2612ecb69faa03f7e7cf99274a009cd76ffd5a14357. “The interaction between future food considerations, regulation of eating behaviors, sense of purpose, and social media consciousness among college students: a study on mediation effects and network analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1827219).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1827219) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pursuit rotor [redraft]: The definition claims that “Better pursuit-rotor performance reflects more accurate continuous tracking of a moving object,” but the packet only states that better performance on the pursuit rotor task predicted faster response times to loss of control; it does not directly support the interpretation about “more accurate continuous tracking.”; The packet supports a computerized tracking task with a cursor and moving target, but it does not explicitly support the broader claim that the pursuit rotor is used to assess visuomotor performance.; The statement that better pursuit-rotor performance reflects more accurate continuous tracking of a moving object is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the provided evidence. New packet required. Source: [Dewey John; Mueller Shane. Individual Differences in Sensitivity to Visuomotor Discrepancies. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00144; article XML SHA-256 5075a9482e718d8268bacdc8e3dc816c1fca537e8afce0fb99dd70c0fb4f0d81. “Individual Differences in Sensitivity to Visuomotor Discrepancies” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00144).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00144) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- putamen [redraft]: Adds deep in the brain, a fact the packet never states; otherwise faithful. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Putamen” (D011699).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D011699) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- Pygmalion effect [redraft]: The definition attributes the self-efficacy link to “the educational context described here,” but the packet describes correlations between self-efficacy and piano learning enthusiasm; the definition’s phrasing (“stronger interest in learning”) adds an element not supported by the packet.; The definition states that teacher encouragement was linked with “stronger interest in learning,” but the packet reports links with “student enthusiasm in the piano course” and correlations involving self-efficacy—not specifically “interest in learning.”; The packet supports teacher encouragement and better piano learning, but it does not directly support the broader claim that the effect occurs when a person conveys “positive expectations.”; The second sentence adds relationships that are not stated in the source, including that greater teacher encouragement was linked with higher student self-efficacy and stronger interest in learning; the packet reports correlations with enthusiasm and self-efficacy separately, not those specific paired links. New packet required. Source: [Qi Wen; Dong Xingru; Xue Xiaoran. The Pygmalion Effect to Piano Teaching From the Perspective of Educational Psychology. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.690677; article XML SHA-256 d0b8abb80af01bd2580c3fd5fc9af6c3480578e734cf7721bd01fa631d177db1. “The Pygmalion Effect to Piano Teaching From the Perspective of Educational Psychology” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.690677).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.690677) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- pyramidotomy [redraft]: Second sentence adds controlled injury for study of motor deficits, not in packet text; in-this-source hedge. New packet required. Source: [Song Hanlim; Cho Jongwook; Lee Sunwoo; Park Ji-Young; Choi Byung-Moon; Kim Min Sun; Kim Weon Gyeong; Lee Min-Cheol; Kim Hyoung-Ihl. Transcortical photothrombotic pyramidotomy model with persistent motor deficits. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0204842; article XML SHA-256 2213c37dcdc2d7f7f62e29a63a1fd2309c0aa82c77f04f3aa5528f8df884094d. “Transcortical photothrombotic pyramidotomy model with persistent motor deficits” (10.1371/journal.pone.0204842).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204842) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- qEEG [redraft]: The definition adds clinical framing beyond the packet’s wording by presenting the biomarker role as an established psychiatric use rather than a study hypothesis/potential implication.; The packet does not explicitly state what qEEG is in terms of measuring/analyzing brain electrical activity; it only refers to “quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG)” as resting-state biomarker.; The packet supports resting-state qEEG as a promising, non-invasive biomarker, but it does not explicitly support defining qEEG as a general method for measuring and analyzing brain electrical activity.; The packet supports schizophrenia and first-episode psychosis as target conditions and healthy controls as comparators, but it does not support the broader definitional phrasing that qEEG is used 'to look for patterns' in general.; While the packet says “Resting-state quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG) represents a promising, non-invasive biomarker” and mentions distinguishing schizophrenia from healthy controls and first-episode psychosis, the definition’s first sentence includes an unsupported general description of the technique. New packet required. Source: [Łoś Kacper; Waszkiewicz Napoleon. Quantitative electroencephalography as a potential neurophysiological diagnostic biomarker of schizophrenia and first-episode psychosis: a systematic review of clinical implications. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1823040; article XML SHA-256 226eae8e0901e883529eafc9c2c9210a9c54b1d18865aa793a973dfcc3bcd1b0. “Quantitative electroencephalography as a potential neurophysiological diagnostic biomarker of schizophrenia and first-episode psychosis: a systematic review of clinical implications” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1823040).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1823040) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- qi [redraft]: The definition states that the increase in both perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness “in turn supports greater behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement,” but the packet reports that perceived usefulness drives behavioral engagement and “does not directly influence cognitive or emotional engagement,” so attributing all three engagement types to the “easier to use and more useful” linkage is stronger than what the packet supports.; The packet supports QI as “quality of information,” but the definition overstates its effects: the source says QI influences perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness, and that perceived ease of use affects behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement, while perceived usefulness directly affects only behavioral engagement.; The wording “which in turn supports greater behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement” is too broad for the source because the packet explicitly says perceived usefulness does not directly influence cognitive or emotional engagement. New packet required. Source: [Li Fan; Chen Juying; Shao Tongtong; Sun Jian. The impact of quality of information on classroom engagement with GenAI tools: integrating TAM and SOR framework. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1756708; article XML SHA-256 25b0a4afda27ae8f975869f59ff16b613fab2c03a8664297e9156b12f295e67d. “The impact of quality of information on classroom engagement with GenAI tools: integrating TAM and SOR framework” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1756708).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1756708) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- qualia [redraft]: The definition claims that qualia are qualities “contrasted with … kinds of ‘suchness’.” The provided packet discusses universals and particulars and the Latin terms *quale/qualitas*, but it does not support the “suchness” wording or the specific contrast phrased that way.; The definition slightly overstates the packet by treating this as the term’s settled meaning rather than a historical discussion of quality/universals from Plato through later debates.; The phrase “suchness” is not supported by the source packet and introduces an unsupported gloss.; While the packet supports a historical discussion beginning with Plato and proceeding through Aristotle and debates about primary vs. secondary qualities, the “suchness” element is an unsupported substantive addition. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2310000-2322000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- qualitative analysis [redraft]: Narrows to interview data and coping styles; in-this-context sentence describes the study rather than the term. New packet required. Source: [Wei Ziyue. A study on the influence of parents’ educational style of coping with their children’s setbacks experiences on children from grade K3: an exploration based on interviews and qualitative analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1732735; article XML SHA-256 5fe8e37e5f2c221e0507b834e28343e25acec6322b8f74b1fa29e437551c4d8e. “A study on the influence of parents’ educational style of coping with their children’s setbacks experiences on children from grade K3: an exploration based on interviews and qualitative analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1732735).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1732735) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- qualitative evaluation [redraft]: General sentence is a contortion of one study's variability classification; second sentence describes the study. New packet required. Source: [Lee Jiyoung Emily; Kim Dong-Kyu; Yoon Hye Yeon; Whang Woong-Joo; Hwang Ho Sik; Kim Hyun-Seung; Arita Reiko; Kim Eun Chul; Na Kyung-Sun. Qualitative analysis and clinical implications of lipid layer thickness variability: A retrospective, cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357020; article XML SHA-256 113ad249c997f5bc160b074d74617257e72ce8d0caa770b8589df9770eff63ed. “Qualitative analysis and clinical implications of lipid layer thickness variability: A retrospective, cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357020).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357020) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- qualitative [redraft]: Describes the review's reporting-quality framing rather than defining the adjective; grouped reporting claim unsupported. New packet required. Source: [Rojas-Miliano Cristhian; Dámaso-Román Andrea; Almeida-Huanca Guillermo; Mayo-Puchoc Nikol; Viguria-Chavez Yolanda; Sánchez-Villena Andy Rick; Taype-Rondan Alvaro; Paredes-Angeles Rubí. Reporting quality of qualitative health studies published by Peruvian authors: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351494; article XML SHA-256 172ebacacd39529684ba6aeeca2bf34867322c8854ed2b73e58bfdddaf77bd8b. “Reporting quality of qualitative health studies published by Peruvian authors: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351494).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351494) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- quality assurance [redraft]: The definition adds specific functions that are not supported by the packet, such as monitoring and improving how work is carried out, and maintaining and evaluating standards.; The definition includes domain-general aims (“safe, consistent care”), which are not stated in the supplied packet text (it only notes interest in “patient safety” and “staff well-being”).; The packet mentions implementing a “quality assurance system” in a hospital and examines impact during organisational change/crisis, but it does not support the definition’s claim that it specifically “refers to formal processes introduced during organisational change to maintain and evaluate standards.”; The packet supports a healthcare quality-assurance system and its implementation during organisational change, but it does not define quality assurance generally as the broader organised system described here.; The packet text does not provide a dictionary-like definition of “quality assurance” or specify that it is “an organised system…to monitor and improve how work is carried out.” New packet required. Source: [Huusko Mira; Vuohijoki Anni; Ristolainen Leena; Leppilahti Juhana; Kivivuori Sanna-Maria; Hurri Heikki. Implementation and staff perceptions of a quality assurance system in a Finnish private hospital during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A qualitative study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327271; article XML SHA-256 d58eb9b114955f7c2e64c55bdec22d3ff5ecdeff5648c7ad0af828a83f61070a. “Implementation and staff perceptions of a quality assurance system in a Finnish private hospital during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A qualitative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327271).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327271) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- quantifier [redraft]: Quantifier has a well-known general meaning; in-this-packet hedge redefines it as a PET radioconjugate. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “[18F]-labeled Substance P Antagonist Receptor Quantifier” (C71071).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- quantitative electroencephalograph [redraft]: Do not broaden the term beyond the study context; the packet supports a specific research use, not a general clinical definition.; The definition adds a general description of quantitative electroencephalograph as an EEG-based measure that assesses brain electrical activity in a quantified way, but the packet only supports its use as an early quantitative EEG in children with severe traumatic brain injury to predict later epilepsy.; The only directly supported claim in the packet is that the article explores whether early quantitative EEG can predict development of epilepsy in pediatric patients with severe traumatic brain injury; the definition’s first sentence goes beyond what is stated.; The packet does not explicitly define what a “quantitative electroencephalograph” is (e.g., that it is an “EEG-based measure” assessing brain electrical activity “in a quantified way”). New packet required. Source: [Bai Wei. The predicative value of early quantitative electroencephalograph in epilepsy after severe traumatic brain injury in children. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fped.2024.1370692; article XML SHA-256 0bf80ea3f51d4c1c7292ec53ac0e7ce5f2c2ddcf83600fad4387cd440ba1d62b. “The predicative value of early quantitative electroencephalograph in epilepsy after severe traumatic brain injury in children” (10.3389/fped.2024.1370692).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2024.1370692) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- quazepam [redraft]: The claim that quazepam lowers excitability in “brain systems involved in arousal and related functions” is not stated in the packet; the packet instead names specific brain regions and says neuronal excitability decreases.; The definition claims the effects “lower [excitability] in brain systems involved in arousal and related functions,” but the packet only specifies the GABA-A receptor is located in the limbic, neocortical, and mesencephalic reticular system; it does not mention “arousal” or “related functions.”; “Sleep-inducing effects” is supportable as a paraphrase of the packet’s hypnotic properties, but the second sentence goes beyond the packet by adding a broader functional explanation not supplied there. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Quazepam” (C47699).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- radial glia [redraft]: The clause about primates is too specific and risks overgeneralizing from outer radial glia in the source to all radial glia.; The definition claims: “Radial glia are neural lineage cells,” but the supplied packet only compares “outer radial glia in primates” to Drosophila type II neuroblasts and does not state that radial glia are neural lineage cells.; The packet supports only a comparison between Drosophila type II neuroblasts and primate outer radial glia; it does not define radial glia generally as neural lineage cells.; The packet supports only the comparison that “outer radial glia in primates” have extended lineages including intermediate neural progenitors, but it does not support the broader “radial glia” generalization used in the first sentence.; The sentence about how the term is “mentioned only in comparison to Drosophila type II neuroblasts” is a commentary on the packet rather than a definition supported by the source text. New packet required. Source: [Munroe Jordan A; Syed Mubarak H; Doe Chris Q. Imp is required for timely exit from quiescence in Drosophila type II neuroblasts. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0272177; article XML SHA-256 6338bef07166ea14e99bad7a2078308cf372bcd3e9f2673685f227681b4e5fec. “Imp is required for timely exit from quiescence in Drosophila type II neuroblasts” (10.1371/journal.pone.0272177).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272177) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- radical hysterectomy [redraft]: The packet supports that radical hysterectomy is considered within the Querleu-Morrow surgical classification and is studied for postoperative pelvic neural injuries and acute voiding changes, but it does not support the claim that it is a “more extensive form of hysterectomy.”; The packet text provided does not explicitly state that a radical hysterectomy is “a more extensive form of hysterectomy.”; While the packet supports discussion of “pelvic neural injuries” and “acute voiding changes,” it does not explicitly support the wording “short-term changes in bladder emptying” as phrased (it supports acute voiding changes, but bladder emptying wording is not directly evidenced).; “Possible pelvic nerve injury” is looser than the packet’s wording and the definition adds interpretive framing not stated in the source; the source only says “pelvic neural injuries” and “acute voiding changes postoperatively.” New packet required. Source: [Liu Miaomiao; Qian Lin; Wei Haibin; Zhang Jing; Wang Ting; Wang Yanpeng. Pelvic neural injuries and acute voiding changes in rat models of radical hysterectomy. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311559; article XML SHA-256 273cf309fac6e591870be248cdb9c34a3bf1c518d043948137e9ee2e9b2dc082. “Pelvic neural injuries and acute voiding changes in rat models of radical hysterectomy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311559).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311559) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ramus [redraft]: The claim that nerve-related complications are assessed at the ramus is only indirectly supported; the article measures postoperative NSD at the ramus level, but it does not define ramus itself as the site where such complications are assessed.; The definition includes additional anatomical clarification (“mandibular branch where the surgical split is performed”) that is not supported verbatim or unambiguously by the provided packet text.; The packet does not define “ramus” as “one side of the lower jaw” or as a “mandibular branch”; it only reports that 463 patients had 873 rami in the context of sagittal split ramus osteotomy (SSRO).; The packet does not explicitly state that the term refers to the surgical split site or that nerve-related complications may be assessed at the “ramus” level; it only describes that ramus-level variables were extracted and that postoperative inferior alveolar nerve neurosensory disturbance was analyzed at the ramus level.; The packet supports ramus only as a ramus-level unit in SSRO analysis, not as a defined anatomical sense such as “one side of the lower jaw” or “mandibular branch.” New packet required. Source: [Watanabe Takuma; Inoue Shu; Okada Risa; Uozumi Ryuji; Sasaki Michinobu; Kawamura Tatsuya; Fukuhara Shizuko; Hirota Makoto. A retrospective review of sagittal split ramus osteotomy: Incidence and risk factors for neurosensory disturbance of the inferior alveolar nerve. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348209; article XML SHA-256 9aca84a7d15a6c5383d10c1b5648bbd6a79d7d2ba55db9326a70456fd9590d71. “A retrospective review of sagittal split ramus osteotomy: Incidence and risk factors for neurosensory disturbance of the inferior alveolar nerve” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348209).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348209) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- random control [redraft]: Other parts of the definition (intervention group vs a control group that only joined surveys; comparing adherence and health status after the intervention) are supported by the packet, but the unsupported “random” justification prevents a fully defensible definition.; The definition overstates the general sense by presenting a generic clinical trial definition for ‘random control’ without establishing that this is the intended dictionary sense rather than the packet’s article title wording.; The definition states that the design involves “random” assignment; the packet labels the study as a “random control trial,” but it does not provide details supporting randomization (e.g., how participants were randomized).; The packet supports a randomized controlled trial design, but the term’s requested field of learning is not defensible here because the source is a clinical intervention study rather than a learning/education concept entry. New packet required. Source: [Trieu Nguyen Thi Thu; Hoai Nguyen Thi Yen; Tung Nguyen Ngoc; Thong Tran Huu; Hien Nguyen Thi Thu. Effect of health education intervention on treatment adherence and health status in patients with Chronic obstruction pulmonary disease: A random control trial. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325192; article XML SHA-256 c85de836d03c396c08a0027f5d2eda7569b5c4c3ace08c9727e3fced720d8f50. “Effect of health education intervention on treatment adherence and health status in patients with Chronic obstruction pulmonary disease: A random control trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325192).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325192) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- random-effects model [redraft]: The definition’s explanation of its purpose in general terms (“combine effect sizes across multiple studies”) is not directly supported by the packet’s text.; The packet does not explicitly state what a “random-effects model” means (e.g., that it “account[s] for variation across the included studies”). It only reports that the authors constructed one.; The packet supports that a random-effects model was used in a meta-analysis with standardized mean differences (Hedges’ g), but it does not explicitly support the added claim that it was used specifically "while accounting for variation across the included studies."; While the packet supports that the random-effects model was constructed and used with standardized mean difference (Hedges’ g), the definition includes additional substantive claims beyond what is stated. New packet required. Source: [Chen Song; Chen Pengwei; Huang Lu; Guo Wenhao; Zhong Yuanji. Dose-response relationships of sensorimotor-based interventions on balance performance in older adults: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354522; article XML SHA-256 e5614fdd7a29f5066e8c17a9075e9004511601414dd641c1a54824c217875aac. “Dose-response relationships of sensorimotor-based interventions on balance performance in older adults: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354522).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354522) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- random error [redraft]: The definition’s specific wording (e.g., “variation in judgments or measurements,” “happens by chance,” “consistent pattern or bias”) is not supported by the supplied packet text.; The first sentence adds a broad statistical definition of random error (“variation in judgments or measurements that happens by chance rather than from a consistent pattern or bias”) that is not stated in the packet.; The packet does not explicitly define “random error” as chance variation in judgments or measurements; it only references variability being attributed to systematic differences rather than random error.; The packet does not provide enough detail to justify the claim that, in this context, random error is contrasted with clinician interpretation/classification of psychopathology; it only notes limited inter-rater reliability and suggests misclassification reflects systematic differences in interpretation.; The packet only supports a contrast between systematic differences in clinical interpretation and random error; it does not by itself establish the fuller general definition or the “measurements/chance/bias” wording. New packet required. Source: [Boberg Mateo; Henriksen Mads Gram; Berge Jonas; Fascendini Nikolas; Jandl Martin; Karakuła-Juchnowicz Hanna; Madeira Luís; Rossi Grauenfels Daniele; Soloey-Nilsen Hedda; Giurgiuca Ana; Studart Igor; Messas Guilherme; Ojeda Uribe Tamara; Varela Luis; Corral Ricardo; Cermolacce Michel; Gozé Tudi; Franzen Léon; Borgwardt Stefan; Huarcaya-Victoria Jeff; Karkala Konstantina; Mazaliauskiene Ramune; Eberhard Jonas; Schmidt Troels; Micoulaud-Franchi Jean-Arthur; Skodlar Borut; Nordgaard Julie. Reliability of psychiatric diagnoses in the 21 st century. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1891625; article XML SHA-256 4efba691fb1ae8dc19cb896a11c2f37b55b771e2e3828c38bc1e1a1d16427da4. “Reliability of psychiatric diagnoses in the 21 st century” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1891625).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1891625) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- random noise [redraft]: Random noise has a well-known general meaning; redefined as glaucoma noise-moving images from one packet. New packet required. Source: [Inoue Arata; Koike Eiko; Maeda Naoyuki; Matsumoto Chota. Subjective perception of visual field defects using random noise-moving images in patients with glaucoma: A comparison of computer graphics and analog noises. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0303849; article XML SHA-256 bc697feaff4790d8ce223f7692839c113a0766b6a4c6aaac8a31e87727c42c53. “Subjective perception of visual field defects using random noise-moving images in patients with glaucoma: A comparison of computer graphics and analog noises” (10.1371/journal.pone.0303849).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303849) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- random selection [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported contrast (“rather than picking them based on preference or specific characteristics”); the packet only says a simple random selection method was used to pick students for the study.; The packet provides a study context (population of 697; sample of 254; simple random selection), but it does not explicitly define random selection in general terms as “a way of choosing study participants… from a larger population,” even though that structure is implied by the sampling description.; The packet states that “a simple random selection method was employed to pick the students,” but it does not explicitly support the definition’s characterization of random selection as choosing “by chance” and “rather than picking … based on preference or specific characteristics.”; The source supports the study-usage sense, but it does not establish the broader general definition as written in the second sentence. New packet required. Source: [Aja Lucy; Odhine Innocent Sunday; Muhammad Tukur; Lubega Mohammad. Students'psychological patterns and academic performance in public secondary schools in Kazo District, Uganda: a quantitative analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03187-w; article XML SHA-256 e13451235af276fa7f1e7b45a2b3296c49f0299cd734909f41ebf51ca5e45499. “Students'psychological patterns and academic performance in public secondary schools in Kazo District, Uganda: a quantitative analysis” (10.1186/s40359-025-03187-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03187-w) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rank correlation coefficient [redraft]: The definition generalizes the term into a broad statistical description without support from the supplied source, which uses the coefficient only in a specific evaluation framework for retinal vessel tortuosity.; The definition’s phrasing about “in this context” and “objectively evaluate the relationship between measures” is only partially supported: the packet says they assess performance using Spearman correlation, but it does not support the specific explanatory claims in the definition.; The packet does not define what a “rank correlation coefficient” is in general (e.g., it does not state that it measures how closely two sets of ranked values vary together).; The packet mentions using the Spearman rank correlation coefficient, but it does not state the “comparing their ordering rather than their raw values” rationale.; The packet supports only that the Spearman rank correlation coefficient was used to objectively assess relationships between tortuosity measures; it does not support the added explanation that it compares ordering rather than raw values. New packet required. Source: [Ramírez Natalia; Ralló Miquel; Millan Maria S. Bridging local and global tortuosity of retinal vessels: Objective testing of index performance. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329379; article XML SHA-256 4202da83a26db8c76213c6cdc1757e4c4e1ffe03e4037d6a6fc38502b8ad15d9. “Bridging local and global tortuosity of retinal vessels: Objective testing of index performance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329379).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329379) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rank [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory generalization about academic career structure that is not stated in the source and goes beyond the supplied context.; The definition’s second sentence (“A senior rank refers to higher faculty positions, such as associate professor or professor”) is consistent with the packet’s example, but overall the definition is not fully supported because the core definition in sentence 1 is not evidenced.; The packet only supports the phrase as an academic-medicine faculty level, specifically “senior ranks (associate professor or professor),” not the broader gloss “a person’s level or standing within an academic career structure.”; The packet text only provides “senior ranks (associate professor or professor)” and does not explicitly define “rank” as a “person’s level or standing within an academic career structure,” so the first sentence’s substantive definitional claim is not directly supported. New packet required. Source: [Pérez Maria; Freeman William E; Lu Yaheng; Jeffe Donna B. Factors associated with academic-medicine faculty attrition before promotion to senior rank: A national-cohort study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355830; article XML SHA-256 977a55f643859b3ccc8cc32f8b5072d23af72857bc43133e1c988c8b7be054d1. “Factors associated with academic-medicine faculty attrition before promotion to senior rank: A national-cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355830).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355830) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rate dependency [redraft]: In-this-packet hedge and a sentence reporting the study's findings rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Briar K. Josh; McMorran John G.; Gregory Diane E.. Delamination of the Annulus Fibrosus of the Intervertebral Disc: Using a Bovine Tail Model to Examine Effect of Separation Rate. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fbioe.2022.883268; article XML SHA-256 cdb221310fe8ea62023b9cea6465219748d8b3803c85b28783d9d33a08a7c5b2. “Delamination of the Annulus Fibrosus of the Intervertebral Disc: Using a Bovine Tail Model to Examine Effect of Separation Rate” (10.3389/fbioe.2022.883268).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2022.883268) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rating [redraft]: The definition adds a research-use sense and a general mechanism (“so changes can be measured and compared”) that is not explicitly stated in the packet; that is an unsupported inference rather than a directly supported sense.; The definition claims that “the packet only supports this research-use sense,” but the packet excerpt does not state or justify that any sense is limited to research use.; The field is acceptable, but the proposed sense is too interpretive for the limited evidence supplied.; The packet mentions specific rating scales (HAMD, HAMA, SDS, SAS, PSQI) and change scores, but it does not define the term “rating” as judging or scoring symptoms and related problems.; The packet mentions “changes in the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD), Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAMA),” etc., but it does not directly define “rating” as “judging or scoring symptoms and related problems with standardized scales” in general terms, nor does it explicitly mention counseling-skills usage or standardization beyond the named scale instruments. New packet required. Source: [Zhuang Jiamei; Zhou Yan; Yu Guangbin; Cheng Honghui; Chen Xiong; Qian Rui. Pharmacotherapy, acupoint stimulation, and psychotherapy for perimenopausal women with anxiety, depression, and panic disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1845876; article XML SHA-256 fa4d91bb981b8543478833710745f46464fa36e31917bb740eb73ae3d6587cc8. “Pharmacotherapy, acupoint stimulation, and psychotherapy for perimenopausal women with anxiety, depression, and panic disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1845876).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1845876) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rational psychology [redraft]: The packet does support the characterization “philosophy of spirit … (as philosophy of man),” but the definition adds additional claims about “philosophical study of human beings” and an “older scheme” that are not clearly stated in the supplied text beyond that brief parenthetical.; The packet says philosophy of nature is a branch of fundamental philosophy and that it is co-ordinate with theology and with rational psychology; it does not explicitly support the definition’s claim that rational psychology “stands alongside … as one of the main branches of fundamental philosophy.”; The packet supports only that “rational psychology or philosophy of spirit” is “co-ordinate with theology …” in connection with “Nature (philosophy of).” It does not support the definition’s framing of rational psychology as “a historical philosophical term” for the philosophy of spirit.; The packet supports rational psychology as a co-ordinate branch of fundamental philosophy with theology and philosophy of nature, but it does not explicitly support the added generalization that these are 'the main branches.' New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Nature (philosophy of)” (Nature (philosophy of)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/N1defs.htm#Nature (philosophy of)) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- RAVLT [redraft]: Abbreviation never expanded; second sentence reports the study's result rather than defining the test. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Bojun; Jia Fang; Li Ping. Differential effects of propofol and dexmedetomidine on explicit and implicit memory after sedation: a retrospective study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fmed.2026.1871238; article XML SHA-256 70eb468bcc2ae0e4e3471277b6954e3a92ee289a1f1c60ab1e7b8d668709b15f. “Differential effects of propofol and dexmedetomidine on explicit and implicit memory after sedation: a retrospective study” (10.3389/fmed.2026.1871238).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2026.1871238) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Razadyne [redraft]: Packet never mentions Razadyne; link to galantamine hydrobromide is added, not supported. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Galantamine Hydrobromide” (C47546).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- RBD [redraft]: RBD in psychology means REM sleep behavior disorder; RNA-binding-domain sense is the packet's, not the headword's. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “RNA Recognition Motif” (C13720).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- RCMAS [redraft]: Defines RCMAS-2 not RCMAS, never expands the abbreviation, and ends with meta-commentary about the packet. New packet required. Source: [Chhetri Archana; Bhandari Samrat Singh; Lasopa Sonam Ongmu; Dutta Sanjiba. Coping and behavior as predictors of childhood anxiety: an SEM-based analysis in school-going children. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759096; article XML SHA-256 b1b23f3ec1a12cce83346b8d4e92c26ad85a2d74b6e57b4e6722df3531457542. “Coping and behavior as predictors of childhood anxiety: an SEM-based analysis in school-going children” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759096).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1759096) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- RDC [redraft]: RDC in psychology is Research Diagnostic Criteria; cheminformatics expansion is the packet's narrow sense. New packet required. Source: [Acosta-Murillo Raúl; Ortiz-Bayliss José Carlos; Zapata-Morin Patricio Adrian. Enhancing cancer drug discovery: QSAR modeling with machine learning and chemical representations. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343654; article XML SHA-256 58b2872ca23994aaffa92d0b1b10f9846e729c0c404c72ae80e07740f04bb1dd. “Enhancing cancer drug discovery: QSAR modeling with machine learning and chemical representations” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343654).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343654) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reactive coping [redraft]: The claim that reactive coping is 'linked to different patterns of immune activity' is supported only for this pig study and should not be generalized as a broader definitional feature.; The definition asserts a broad “characteristic way an individual responds to stress,” yet the packet only reports associations between coping style and immune status in pigs rather than describing the stress-response pattern that characterizes reactive coping.; The packet mentions “coping style” with categories described as “proactive” and “reactive,” but it does not define what “reactive coping” specifically means as a coping style (e.g., the behavioral/psychological characteristics of reactive coping).; The packet shows a coping-style comparison in pigs, but it does not define reactive coping as a general characteristic way an individual responds to stress.; The packet supports that coping style is linked to differences in immune measures (e.g., alternative complement activity and KLH antibody titers), but the definition’s claim that reactive coping is “contrasted with proactive coping” as a general coping style concept is only partially supported without an explicit definition of “reactive coping.”; The statement that reactive coping is 'contrasted with proactive coping' is only partly supported by the study’s comparison of coping styles; it is not presented as a dictionary definition. New packet required. Source: [Reimert Inonge; Rodenburg T. Bas; Ursinus Winanda W.; Kemp Bas; Bolhuis J. Elizabeth. Selection Based on Indirect Genetic Effects for Growth, Environmental Enrichment and Coping Style Affect the Immune Status of Pigs. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0108700; article XML SHA-256 38e0af668b4eac88d087b5348d483eb92882635f4b74b3a171bc6331eb68b76f. “Selection Based on Indirect Genetic Effects for Growth, Environmental Enrichment and Coping Style Affect the Immune Status of Pigs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0108700).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0108700) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reactive [redraft]: Because that particular substantive claim about what reactive reasoning is *not* doing is not evidenced in the provided text, the definition cannot be accepted as fully supported by the packet.; The packet supports a demand-driven or reactive strategy for making mental inferences, but it does not support the added contrast with “keeping a detailed, continuously updated model all the time.”; The packet supports that the proposed concept is “demand-driven and reactive” and framed in terms of bounded rationality/cognitive costs, but it does not explicitly support the specific contrast in the definition: “rather than keeping a detailed, continuously updated model all the time.”; “Flexible” is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied wording about efficient and effective reasoning under bounded rationality and cognitive costs. New packet required. Source: [Roth Marion; Marsella Stacy. Theory of mind on demand: do we prepare or react?. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1693027; article XML SHA-256 b647725a20faa414696ee6a92d6a19ff99d98aacff924926695125d7d1a3febb. “Theory of mind on demand: do we prepare or react?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1693027).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1693027) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- readability level [redraft]: The definition’s claim about matching educational information to patients’ reading ability is only indirectly supported by the packet’s mention of adaptation to patients’ readability level; the packet does not state the “matching” wording or the reading-ability framing.; The first sentence gives a general dictionary-style meaning that is not supported by the supplied source packet, which only says patient educational materials must be adapted to patients’ readability level.; The packet does not support the additional claim that adapting materials is “more usable and less likely to cause misunderstanding.”; The packet supports a healthcare/patient-education context, but not the broader explanatory gloss presented here.; The packet supports that patient educational materials must be “adapted to the readability level of patients,” but it does not explicitly define “readability level” as “how easy written material is for its intended readers to understand.”; The second sentence adds unsupported claims about matching educational information to patients’ reading ability and making material more usable or less likely to cause misunderstanding. New packet required. Source: [Rodler Severin; Cei Francesco; Ganjavi Conner; Checcucci Enrico; De Backer Pieter; Rivero Belenchon Ines; Taratkin Mark; Puliatti Stefano; Veccia Alessandro; Piazza Pietro; Baekelandt Loïc; Kowalewski Karl-Friedrich; Gómez Rivas Juan; Fankhauser Christian D; Moschini Marco; Gandaglia Giorgio; Campi Riccardo; De Castro Abreu Andre; Russo Giorgio I; Cocci Andrea; Maruccia Serena; Cacciamani Giovanni E; YAU Collaborators. GPT-4 generates accurate and readable patient education materials aligned with current oncological guidelines: A randomized assessment. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324175; article XML SHA-256 213fa99f8625a6cee6ce8dce30844ecb4f5361ff20207d5d42f3a1f476134caa. “GPT-4 generates accurate and readable patient education materials aligned with current oncological guidelines: A randomized assessment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324175).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324175) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- readiness [redraft]: Second sentence reports the study's correlations with habits, motivation and anxiety rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Mohamoud Abdirahman Ahmed; Cumar Mukhtaar Axmed; Ali Jibril Abdikadir. Psychological readiness for national examinations: study habits, anxiety, and motivation among secondary school students in Somaliland. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776290; article XML SHA-256 e33527befff7c8630b59b329838860a1a0788ff1fafc5fb312ae3c33f60e5b13. “Psychological readiness for national examinations: study habits, anxiety, and motivation among secondary school students in Somaliland” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776290).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776290) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reading age [redraft]: Claims in the definition about comparing children’s reading levels with “other children” and using reading age to match participants are not explicitly stated as the meaning of the term in the provided packet; the packet only indicates that reading-age matching was used.; The packet does not define “reading age” as a concept (e.g., as expressing reading level in age terms). It only mentions “reading age-matched” groups as a study matching criterion.; The packet does not support the added research explanation that children are matched by reading age rather than actual age to compare others who read at a similar level.; The packet does not support the claim that reading age is used generally to compare a child’s reading level with other children; it only shows one study grouping children by reading age-matched status.; The packet uses the phrase “reading age-matched” but does not define reading age as a measure expressed in age terms or explain how it is calculated. New packet required. Source: [Tiadi Aimé; Gérard Christophe-Loïc; Peyre Hugo; Bui-Quoc Emmanuel; Bucci Maria Pia. Immaturity of Visual Fixations in Dyslexic Children. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00058; article XML SHA-256 2d7fc8ad1811bab738e84943a43095413b575fdd82e00cce2c79be18f1ab2776. “Immaturity of Visual Fixations in Dyslexic Children” (10.3389/fnhum.2016.00058).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00058) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reading span [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the source by implying a general mechanism for written-language processing rather than the specific study’s use of a Cantonese-version reading span task to measure WM capacity.; The packet only states that a “Cantonese-version reading span task” was used to “measure their working memory (WM) capacity,” but it does not explicitly describe reading span as estimating “how much working memory a person can use while processing written language.”; The packet supports that a reading span task was used to measure working memory capacity, but it does not support the added claim that it estimates how much working memory a person can use while processing written language. New packet required. Source: [Yip Michael C. W.. Working memory and lexical ambiguity resolution in Cantonese Chinese. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248170; article XML SHA-256 ffcbbfcc4adb27e3dd3c9cf41fcd60f2b39a59bbe1d1e6e6b0ee1453c1cd675b. “Working memory and lexical ambiguity resolution in Cantonese Chinese” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248170).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248170) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- readmission [redraft]: Readmission's normal sense is re-entry to an institution; definition inverts it from one passage's usage. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-315000-327000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- realism [redraft]: Realism has a well-known general meaning; in-this-context hedge narrows it to virtual-agent behavioral realism. New packet required. Source: [Sun Binbin; Chen Yutong. How do consumers perceive virtual agents with behavioral realism? The role of loneliness and trust. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1676234; article XML SHA-256 8d09ca7b52985a0087ea3db118bf5fcd42b23b5125377394a32d341e2c914efd. “How do consumers perceive virtual agents with behavioral realism? The role of loneliness and trust” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1676234).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1676234) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reality [redraft]: Because the first sentence’s general definition of reality is not directly supported by the packet, the overall definition is not fully defensible against the provided source.; The first sentence adds an unsupported gloss (“what is actually real, as opposed to thoughts or perceptions that do not match it”); the packet only supports that psychosis can involve loss of contact with reality and difficulty recognizing what is real and what is not.; The packet does not explicitly define “reality” as “what is actually real, as opposed to thoughts or perceptions that do not match it.” It only states that psychosis involves a “loss of contact with reality” and difficulty recognizing what is real versus not. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Understanding Psychosis. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 8dfe261c13780de86a75c02b329ce1d2b047733dadb8ae4c0494d4fcb34d13be. “Understanding Psychosis” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/understanding-psychosis).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/understanding-psychosis) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- reason [redraft]: The definition’s reference to “clinical settings” and “a person evaluates signs or scenarios” (generalized description) is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text, which focuses on diagnostic reasoning assessment rather than describing the underlying cognitive mechanism.; The packet discusses diagnostic reasoning in acute vertigo, but it does not support a general definition of “reason” as the mental process of using knowledge and experience to reach a judgment or conclusion.; The packet does not support the general claim that “reason” is the mental process of using knowledge and experience to reach a judgment or conclusion; it only discusses “diagnostic reasoning” in the context of acute vertigo.; The packet mentions diagnostic reasoning and tools used to assess it, but it does not provide the broader, cross-domain definition of “reason” used in the first sentence.; The packet supports the concept of diagnostic reasoning as a topic of study, not the broader sense-definition presented here.; The second sentence adds a clinical explanation (“evaluates signs or scenarios to decide what is most likely”) that is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the source content. New packet required. Source: [Maquet Charles; Wojtecki Maxime; Tendron Alexandre; Deneuve Sophie; Claudot Honorine; Crampon Frederic; Burel Julien. Assessment of diagnostic reasoning in acute vertigo using vignette-based tools: A cross-sectional comparison between general practitioners and final-year medical students. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347129; article XML SHA-256 0217c8798e7b01627597955abb12e07b5b00bbd2db141ee46dbe8988000597cf. “Assessment of diagnostic reasoning in acute vertigo using vignette-based tools: A cross-sectional comparison between general practitioners and final-year medical students” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347129).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347129) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reasoning test [redraft]: The definition adds a broader assessment description than the source provides; the source describes research measures of reasoning and their relation to academic achievement, not a general definition of the term as such.; The definition claims that a reasoning test “solve[s] problems and draw[s] conclusions,” but the packet does not support either “solve problems” or “draw conclusions” as stated outcomes.; The packet supports reasoning measures for abstract, verbal, mathematical, and visuo-spatial reasoning, but it does not support the added claim that the test specifically evaluates how well a person uses working memory to solve problems and draw conclusions. New packet required. Source: [Gómez-Veiga Isabel; Vila Chaves José O.; Duque Gonzalo; García Madruga Juan A.. A New Look to a Classic Issue: Reasoning and Academic Achievement at Secondary School. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00400; article XML SHA-256 688be618de1e2c8172d6570e6a9ba274922640548d2b716be0c01915ca94cd9f. “A New Look to a Classic Issue: Reasoning and Academic Achievement at Secondary School” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00400).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00400) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reasoning [redraft]: Although the packet text supports that the study’s “reasoning” emphasis involves conjecturing, evidence use, justification, and evaluating claims (in the context of Grade 4 mathematics), the definition’s first sentence goes beyond what is stated in the packet.; The definition introduces an in-packet scope claim that is partly supported, but the first sentence still extends beyond the supplied source’s narrower mathematical-reasoning focus.; The packet does not support the general claim that “reasoning is the cognitive process of thinking through a problem or claim…by forming ideas, weighing evidence, and giving justification for a conclusion.” The excerpt discusses “mathematical reasoning” and assessments of conjecturing/justification/evidence use, but it does not define reasoning in those general cognitive terms.; The packet supports mathematical reasoning, not a general definition of reasoning as a broad cognitive process across problems or claims.; “Forming ideas” and “weighing evidence” are not stated in the packet; the packet specifically mentions conjecturing, justifying, evaluating claims, and evidence use in a mathematical context. New packet required. Source: [Zeng Huan; Feng Jingwen; Dai Meng. A structured five-step collaborative inquiry approach to mathematical reasoning in elementary school: effects and implementation evidence. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813634; article XML SHA-256 79d541f6731ce2ccb3c241ba394d601de3f2cafe6ee6238d946e4f493173a593. “A structured five-step collaborative inquiry approach to mathematical reasoning in elementary school: effects and implementation evidence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813634).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1813634) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reassurance [redraft]: Aside from the general idea that reassurance is used in response to negative emotions and that immediate emotional relief does not establish improved independent emotion regulation, the definition adds wording not explicitly present in the packet.; The packet does not support the specific phrasing that reassurance is “comforting feedback.”; The packet supports reassurance as one of several ways GenAI companions respond to users’ negative emotions, but it does not define reassurance itself as “comforting feedback” or say it “aims to provide immediate emotional relief.”; The second clause is only partly supported: the packet says immediate emotional relief does not establish improved independent emotion regulation, but the definition adds an unsupported generalization about “short-term relief alone” and frames it as a broader principle. New packet required. Source: [Wang Chun. How emotional response styles of generative AI companions shape adaptive emotion regulation and short-term AI reliance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1950163; article XML SHA-256 dad9d098809a03c7647d1c381d06c49f6bee4eb992e0b1915dd4dc4315cc417a. “How emotional response styles of generative AI companions shape adaptive emotion regulation and short-term AI reliance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1950163).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1950163) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rebound phenomenon [redraft]: The packet supports an alpha-power enhancement that outlasts stimulation and argues against entrainment, but it does not explicitly support defining rebound phenomenon as a post-stimulation “return or overshoot” in activity.; The packet supports that the study investigated alpha enhancement that outlasts alternating current stimulation and contrasts “rebound phenomena” with entrainment, but it does not state that a rebound phenomenon specifically involves a “post-stimulation return or overshoot” in activity.; The wording goes beyond the source by treating rebound phenomenon as an established mechanism rather than as an interpretation favored by the authors in this study. New packet required. Source: [Haberbosch Linus; Schmidt Sein; Jooss Andreas; Köhn Arvid; Kozarzewski Leonard; Rönnefarth Maria; Scholz Michael; Brandt Stephan A.. Rebound or Entrainment? The Influence of Alternating Current Stimulation on Individual Alpha. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00043; article XML SHA-256 a844df13ea6873dac0f03256b980832b41ac383e96c6c2dcd38e856de60e086d. “Rebound or Entrainment? The Influence of Alternating Current Stimulation on Individual Alpha” (10.3389/fnhum.2019.00043).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00043) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- recency effect [redraft]: Recency effect normally means better recall of last items; redefined as priming from one packet. New packet required. Source: [Monakhov Sergei. Collective language creativity as a trade-off between priming and antipriming. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0259285; article XML SHA-256 7fca0df3cdbd90cfeed51bad16873928778d94786d8a070d555b242d0a9d16db. “Collective language creativity as a trade-off between priming and antipriming” (10.1371/journal.pone.0259285).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259285) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- receptive vocabulary [redraft]: The packet does not define “receptive vocabulary” as “the set or size of words a person can understand when they hear them.” It only discusses “receptive vocabulary size” as a predictor of speech-in-noise recognition, without stating a definitional meaning.; The packet supports a relationship between receptive vocabulary size and speech-in-noise recognition, but it does not define receptive vocabulary as “the set or size of words a person can understand when they hear them.”; The second sentence is broadly supported, but the definition should not add an unsupported general definition beyond what the packet states.; While the packet supports that larger receptive vocabulary size is positively associated with speech-in-noise recognition (background noise), the definition’s first sentence is not substantiated by the supplied text. New packet required. Source: [Braza Meredith D; Porter Heather L; Buss Emily; Calandruccio Lauren; McCreery Ryan W; Leibold Lori J. Effects of word familiarity and receptive vocabulary size on speech-in-noise recognition among young adults with normal hearing. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0264581; article XML SHA-256 63dbaa0226e0810e04387e967d5d0a6f21e84eaf12fe5082757a6635047ef100. “Effects of word familiarity and receptive vocabulary size on speech-in-noise recognition among young adults with normal hearing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0264581).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264581) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- receptivity [redraft]: The definition adds a specific explanatory gloss (‘open or responsive employees’) that is plausible but not stated in the source packet and is therefore unsupported as a dictionary definition.; The definition’s framing as a “cognition” concept (“field”: cognition) is not supported by the packet excerpt; no cognitive definition or cognitive mechanism is described.; The packet only mentions “organizational change receptivity” and the importance of mitigating “employees’ resistance to change,” but it does not supply the specific wording or an explicit operational meaning matching the proposed definition.; The packet supports the topic as employees’ receptivity to organizational change, but it does not define receptivity as ‘willingness to accept and engage with change at work’ or as the opposite of resistance in that stronger sense.; The packet text provided does not define “receptivity” as “how open or responsive employees are to organizational change,” nor does it explicitly state that it means “willingness to accept and engage with change at work.” New packet required. Source: [Sun Chunli; Qi Yange. An analysis of the association between workplace intergenerational mentoring characteristics and employees’ receptivity to change: the mediating role of contextualized human capital perception. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1899021; article XML SHA-256 393eaeb7ceaa76038ebf37b5db406cc04aaa235783211cc8e075af39f225bae2. “An analysis of the association between workplace intergenerational mentoring characteristics and employees’ receptivity to change: the mediating role of contextualized human capital perception” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1899021).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1899021) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Recognition Memory Test [redraft]: The definition’s general description (“asks a person to identify previously encountered items…from among alternatives”) is not explicitly supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet supports that the Warrington Recognition Memory Test for Faces (RMF) is used to evaluate facial memory/visual memory in this study, but it does not provide enough information to support the broader “recognition memory test” definition as written.; The packet supports the Warrington Recognition Memory Test as a word-and-face memory measure, but it does not support the general definition that a recognition memory test asks a person to identify previously encountered items ‘from among alternatives.’; The packet supports use of the test for facial memory/visual memory in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy, but the definition broadens beyond what is stated in the source without clear support. New packet required. Source: [Hosokawa Hiroaki; Kanno Shigenori; Nishio Yoshiyuki; Kawasaki Iori; Hirayama Kazumi; Sunaga Atsuko; Shoji Naotake; Iwasaki Masaki; Nakasato Nobukazu; Tominaga Teiji; Suzuki Kyoko. Facial memory ability and self-awareness in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy after anterior temporal lobectomy. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248785; article XML SHA-256 24169d1ff8021f7474576a6a6d05ebed663ea1b1f92c70609a00cd90c290d855. “Facial memory ability and self-awareness in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy after anterior temporal lobectomy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248785).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248785) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- recognition technique [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“a method for identifying a target pattern from input data”) is a generic description not stated or supported in the supplied packet text.; The definition’s more specific claims about “pose-aware facial expression recognition,” head pose detection, and classification using layered neural-network ensembles plus a final classifier are supported by the packet, but the unsupported generic opening sentence makes the definition not fully defensible under the provided-source-only requirement.; The first sentence gives a broad generic definition of "recognition technique" as a method for identifying a target pattern from input data; the packet only supports a specific pose-aware facial expression recognition technique, not that general sense.; The source supports K-nearest-neighbor pose detection, a three-level stacked neural-network ensemble, and a Naive Bayes predictor; it does not explicitly support the broader phrasing "layered combination of neural-network ensembles and a final classifier" as a general definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Altaf Muhammad Faheem; Iqbal Muhammad Waseem; Ali Ghulam; Shinan Khlood; Alhazmi Hanan E.; Alanazi Fatmah; Ashraf M. Usman. Neural network-based ensemble approach for multi-view facial expression recognition. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0316562; article XML SHA-256 fc30a0f6f9557476d2011fde92701c7192cd8022c11c987ec7a502c958904072. “Neural network-based ensemble approach for multi-view facial expression recognition” (10.1371/journal.pone.0316562).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316562) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- recognition test [redraft]: Recognition test normally means identifying previously studied items; redefined via one pictorial values instrument. New packet required. Source: [Kayıran Derya. Development of the pictorial values recognition test: assessing middle school students’ value perceptions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1736681; article XML SHA-256 febb9ec9b2de60b80efc90975c9ea9edc852e9f2600cc79f4970b2fcb638050f. “Development of the pictorial values recognition test: assessing middle school students’ value perceptions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1736681).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1736681) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- recognition threshold [redraft]: The first sentence is supported by the packet, but the second sentence adds an unsupported generalization: the packet does not state that this measure is used as an index of how well speech can be recognized in noise.; The packet does not explicitly state that “recognition threshold” is “used as an index of how well speech can be recognized in noise”; it only describes SRT Q/2 as the SNR where the recognition score drops to 50% of the recognition score in quiet and reports findings about relationships between measures. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Jin; Xie Lingli; Li Yongjun; Chatterjee Monita; Ding Nai. How Noise and Language Proficiency Influence Speech Recognition by Individual Non-Native Listeners. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0113386; article XML SHA-256 1f5d6c8b93fd99ffc0ad4805de340a0daf956a2624b2f327c4bad8325463e6bc. “How Noise and Language Proficiency Influence Speech Recognition by Individual Non-Native Listeners” (10.1371/journal.pone.0113386).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0113386) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- recombination [redraft]: Appears-here hedge; never defines recombination, only restates the balancer-strain context. New packet required. Source: [Maroilley Tatiana; Barbosa Victoria Rodrigues Alves; Mascarenhas Rumika; Ferris Suzanne; Diao Catherine; AlAwadhi Fatemah; Aldakheel Saood; Ali Ahmad; Alkanderi Denah; Alshatti Meshary; Alsuwaileh Samyah; Bui Ryan; Chai Bentley; Dsouza Lara; Nezhad Parisa Etemadi; Garcia-Volk Emily; Haq Zainub; Hossain Sadeeb; Johnson Grace; Kotikalapudi Nidhi; Lalani Inara; Lenz Courtney; Louie Taye; Moore Stephen; Patel Shubh; Prasai Shuvam; Qureshi Ronaar; Rahmani Farah; Shakir Bilal; Ahamed Sadhiya Siraj; Tran Hong Anh; Waziha Radia; Wood Cassandra M.; Zbinden Sara; Anderson David; Tarailo-Graovac Maja. A course-undergraduate research experience (CURE) to explore the effect of structural variants on gene expression in C. elegans balancers. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342806; article XML SHA-256 c0d42ca6f6469573ab187bca54214223176fbc988242cd177a2ad28a3ab9dac5. “A course-undergraduate research experience (CURE) to explore the effect of structural variants on gene expression in C. elegans balancers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342806).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342806) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- recompensation [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory gloss that is not stated in the supplied source, so the substantive meaning is not fully supported by the packet.; The packet does not define recompensation as “returning to a more stable, compensated state”; it only says the article studies “recompensation” and “recompensated cirrhosis” after first decompensation in alcohol-related cirrhosis.; The packet text describes “recompensation” in the context of alcohol-related cirrhosis (a medical condition), not in a mental-health/psychology context, so the specified field (“mental health”) is not defensible based on the packet. New packet required. Source: [Kwak Ji Yoon; Jeon Hankyu; Kwon Hyeon Uk; Kim Jae Eun; Han Ji Hee; Choi Jung Woo; Cha Ra Ri; Lee Jae Min; Lee Sang Soo. Recompensation following first decompensation in patients with alcohol-related cirrhosis. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12876-026-04651-6; article XML SHA-256 9a4b9593eb150a4e50b38649769f24df4c201fd16fe8f18792f3b5e8053fa9da. “Recompensation following first decompensation in patients with alcohol-related cirrhosis” (10.1186/s12876-026-04651-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12876-026-04651-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reconstruction [redraft]: The definition uses the medical-imaging sense of reconstruction (image reconstruction from scan data), not a learning/psychology sense, so the requested field/sense is not supported by the packet context.; The definition’s first sentence (“Reconstruction is the process of creating a usable image from raw scan data with a chosen computational method”) is not explicitly stated in the provided packet. The packet discusses specific CT reconstruction methods (FBP, IR, DLIR) and compares results, but it does not define reconstruction in general terms as transforming raw scan data into a usable image.; The opening claim is a broad generalization; the packet only compares deep learning-based image reconstruction, filtered back projection, and iterative reconstruction in coronary calcium scoring, rather than defining reconstruction in general as a process of creating a usable image from raw scan data. New packet required. Source: [Kim Ji Won; Kim Tae Hoon; Lee Seung Hyun; Nam Ji Eun; Park Chul Hwan. Feasibility of deep learning-based image reconstruction using TrueFidelity for coronary calcium scoring. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358342; article XML SHA-256 67068f7d4d3f1cf33e1498ba5b9a65a732d2d2c71b2354c37b4e824894e6e06f. “Feasibility of deep learning-based image reconstruction using TrueFidelity for coronary calcium scoring” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358342).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358342) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reconstructive surgery [redraft]: The counselling-context framing is only indirectly supported; the source discusses psychological experiences and psychiatric morbidity in BPRS patients, but it does not itself state that reconstructive surgery is discussed in counselling because of these injuries.; The packet does not explicitly define reconstructive surgery as “surgery used to repair or rebuild the body after burns or other injuries.” It only mentions “burns and other injuries requiring plastic and/or reconstructive surgery” without stating the meaning/definition of the term.; The packet supports that burns and other injuries may require plastic and/or reconstructive surgery, but it does not explicitly define reconstructive surgery as surgery used to “repair or rebuild the body after burns or other injuries.” New packet required. Source: [Taylor-Bennett Joseph; Capobianco Lora; Wisely Julie; Wells Adrian. Qualitative analysis of emotional distress in burns, plastic and reconstructive surgery patients from the perspectives of cognitive and metacognitive models. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1461387; article XML SHA-256 02d101a44a2c2c6d749efbdd7d8773d9f45541de9370d8c0e14ee907da43cb05. “Qualitative analysis of emotional distress in burns, plastic and reconstructive surgery patients from the perspectives of cognitive and metacognitive models” (10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1461387).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1461387) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- recurrent [redraft]: The clause about depression symptoms “returning seasonally each year for several months” is an extrapolation from the packet’s description of SAD, not a standalone definition of the term “recurrent.”; The packet does not explicitly define “recurrent” as “happening again over time in a repeated pattern.” It only states that SAD is “characterized by a recurrent seasonal pattern,” without giving a general dictionary-style definition of the term.; The packet supports only a seasonal recurrence in seasonal affective disorder; it does not define “recurrent” generally as “happening again over time in a repeated pattern.”; The requested sense is not clearly established as a cognition term from the packet; the source is about seasonal affective disorder rather than a cognition concept. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Seasonal Affective Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d89120086a5f01bf70f21f43fbf64f1a5b58f4c35f5185f5dac0c769f3d6317c. “Seasonal Affective Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- redundancy [redraft]: Although the packet supports that redundancy is examined using psychometric methods such as “factor analysis” and “tests of discriminant validity,” the overall definition’s first sentence contains an unsupported substantive claim.; The definition adds a broader conceptual claim about what redundancy means in assessment that is not stated in the source packet.; The packet does not explicitly define redundancy as constructs “overlap so much that they may not be meaningfully distinct from one another.” It mentions redundancy being “tractable” with psychometric tools and contrasts redundancy with a “jingle fallacy,” but does not provide the stated overlap/distinctness definition.; The packet supports that redundancy can be addressed with standard psychometric tools such as factor analysis and tests of discriminant validity, but it does not define redundancy as constructs that overlap so much they are not meaningfully distinct. New packet required. Source: [Hartman Lorne M. Beyond redundancy: rethinking construct proliferation through meaning, practice, and taxonomy. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871558; article XML SHA-256 73bc3b7aae21145a81277e0f6b03eb1a0786e9c9354296362caa9eedd8551dee. “Beyond redundancy: rethinking construct proliferation through meaning, practice, and taxonomy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871558).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871558) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reference distribution [redraft]: General statistical term defined only as a dendrogram branch-height distribution; 'in this context' smuggles the paper's narrow sense. New packet required. Source: [Sebastiani Paola; Perls Thomas T.. Detection of Significant Groups in Hierarchical Clustering by Resampling. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fgene.2016.00144; article XML SHA-256 5d07e79dfbe58cf3c39d8e9abc8e9cf4ccdc0933818e8af0ec5272ed18490602. “Detection of Significant Groups in Hierarchical Clustering by Resampling” (10.3389/fgene.2016.00144).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2016.00144) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reference group theory [redraft]: Glosses utilitarian reference as 'social pressure or rewards', which the packet never states; adds facts beyond the source. New packet required. Source: [Xiao Wei; Wang Xiao-Ling; Cao Yan-Ning. Influence of Crowdsourcing Innovation Community Reference on Creative Territory Behavior. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.902058; article XML SHA-256 17ff115e2edd71c6c704842be6468bfc436ca4bf2a7de1a0090296b297aa7a2d. “Influence of Crowdsourcing Innovation Community Reference on Creative Territory Behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.902058).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.902058) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reference memory [redraft]: The claim that reference memory means remembering stable task information over repeated testing rather than responding to immediate cues is not defined in the packet and is an unsupported extrapolation.; The definition asserts a general assessment method (“how well a learned task is performed across training”), but the packet provides examples of experimental timing (e.g., 12-day task; 2-day training) rather than a definitional description of how reference memory is assessed.; The definition’s characterization (“remembering stable task information over repeated testing”) is not stated in the packet; the packet only describes that mice were trained for 2 days and tested in reference memory/cued testing conditions.; The packet mentions a “spatial reference memory task” in a Morris water maze and reports “spatial reference memory performance,” but it does not define reference memory or explicitly contrast it with “responding only to immediate cues.”; The packet only shows the term used in a two-day Morris water maze reference memory task; it does not support a general definition of reference memory as a type of memory assessed by performance across training. New packet required. Source: [Magnusson Kathy R; Scruggs Brandi; Zhao Xue; Hammersmark Rebecca. Age-related declines in a two-day reference memory task are associated with changes in NMDA receptor subunits in mice. 2007; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-8-43; article XML SHA-256 d8237b2dac9a7a1d69d0585cae5031b4955a4e4564b27ba5a8edcdf9c8ce2d0e. “Age-related declines in a two-day reference memory task are associated with changes in NMDA receptor subunits in mice” (10.1186/1471-2202-8-43).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-8-43) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- referential signal [redraft]: The definition’s general characterization (“a separate measurement used by an adaptive filter as a reference for unwanted noise in another signal”) is not explicitly stated in the packet text; the packet only says the adaptive filter “relies on an accelerometer-based referential signal” without describing it as a reference for “unwanted noise” in another signal.; The packet supports an accelerometer-based referential signal used in an adaptive filter, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that it is used to identify movement-related artifacts in mobile EEG recordings so they can be reduced.; The packet supports that the referential signal is accelerometer-based and related to motion artifacts in mobile EEG, but the definition adds extra interpretive wording (“identify movement-related artifacts … so they can be reduced”) that is not spelled out in those terms in the provided text.; “Separate measurement used by an adaptive filter as a reference for unwanted noise in another signal” is an interpretive generalization not stated in the source packet. New packet required. Source: [Rosanne Olivier; Albuquerque Isabela; Cassani Raymundo; Gagnon Jean-François; Tremblay Sebastien; Falk Tiago H.. Adaptive Filtering for Improved EEG-Based Mental Workload Assessment of Ambulant Users. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2021.611962; article XML SHA-256 0f40156ff77d3d9b63584e30f988c7aefcd782236317046904b025a09b0cae80. “Adaptive Filtering for Improved EEG-Based Mental Workload Assessment of Ambulant Users” (10.3389/fnins.2021.611962).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2021.611962) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reflectance [redraft]: Because the first sentence of the definition is unsupported by the provided packet, the definition cannot be accepted as written.; The packet does not define “reflectance” as a light-reflecting property of surfaces; it only refers to “average reflectance” in the context of color constancy.; The packet supports the gray-world/average-reflectance cue in color constancy, but it does not directly define reflectance as the light-reflecting property of surfaces or state that the visual system uses reflectance in judging color under different lighting.; While the packet supports the idea that the spatial mean/“gray world” mechanism assumes the scene’s average reflectance is typically achromatic, it does not state that the mean reflectance is “commonly assumed to be neutral or gray” in the wording used in the definition (the packet’s phrasing is closer to “achromatic”).; “Mean reflectance commonly assumed to be neutral or gray” is only partially supported: the packet says the scene’s average reflectance is typically achromatic, not that it is commonly assumed neutral in general. New packet required. Source: [Heidari-Gorji Hamed; Gil Rodriguez Raquel; Gegenfurtner Karl R.. Human-aligned evaluation of a pixel-wise DNN color constancy model. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1809976; article XML SHA-256 69300aa3aca161998bd70b4450478402ba7e4731f6716fd5a13702424501c50c. “Human-aligned evaluation of a pixel-wise DNN color constancy model” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1809976).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1809976) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reflection–impulsivity [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet uses “reflection impulsivity” as a contributor to impulsive choice (a behavioral tendency/component), not as a diagnosis. The provided definition is therefore not well-supported for the requested field of “diagnosis.”; The comparison with delayed discounting is acceptable in substance, but the wording ‘preferring smaller immediate rewards over larger delayed ones’ is a broader paraphrase than the source’s ‘devaluating delayed greater rewards in favor of immediate smaller rewards,’ so the sense is only partially supported.; The definition treats reflection–impulsivity as a contributor to impulsive behavior, but the source only says it is a tendency that may reflect impulsive behavior; it does not establish it as a contributor.; The requested field is ‘diagnosis,’ but the source presents reflection–impulsivity as a behavioral tendency in the context of impulsive choice, not as a diagnosis. New packet required. Source: [Brynte Christoffer; Khemiri Lotfi; Stenström Hannes; Konstenius Maija; Lindström Nitya-Jayaram; Franck Johan. Impulsive choice in individuals with comorbid amphetamine use disorder and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05034-x; article XML SHA-256 450dfd0013dcb0dd77c6e9c50c477a9fd139a6dfa3423d4adeb18c8831fce15f. “Impulsive choice in individuals with comorbid amphetamine use disorder and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder” (10.1186/s12888-023-05034-x).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05034-x) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reflex inhibition [redraft]: The packet links vestibular stimulation/perceptual priming to the suppression of persistent aberrant primary reflexes and to stimulation of the nervous system, but the definition’s phrasing that this is “viewed as part of improving nervous system functioning” is broader than what is directly stated.; The packet mentions vestibular stimulation and sensory/perceptual assessment, but it does not explicitly support the broader claim that reflex inhibition is presented as improving nervous system functioning.; The packet supports suppression of persistent aberrant primary reflexes, but it does not say they are "atypical or no longer developmentally appropriate."; The packet supports suppression of “persistent aberrant primary reflexes,” but it does not explicitly support that these reflexes are “atypical or no longer developmentally appropriate.” New packet required. Source: [Niklasson Mats; Rasmussen Peder; Niklasson Irene; Norlander Torsten. Developmental Coordination Disorder: The Importance of Grounded Assessments and Interventions. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02409; article XML SHA-256 41ccce415a976cb75738a5868a82ddc75ac6298f5bf3ecf59d81fa2fdeab39c0. “Developmental Coordination Disorder: The Importance of Grounded Assessments and Interventions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02409).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02409) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reflex latency [redraft]: The added gloss “meaning how long it takes an animal to regain its normal upright posture” is not explicitly stated in the packet; that is an inference beyond the supplied text.; The definition’s first claim (“amount of time between a provoking condition or stimulus and the appearance of a reflex response”) is not stated or supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet supports a specific experimental use of the term (“righting reflex latency” in neonatal rats), but it does not define “reflex latency” generally as the time between a stimulus and a reflex response.; While the packet does mention “righting reflex latency” being “significantly prolonged” after midazolam administration (and discusses righting reflex latency in neonates), the packet does not provide the general timing definition of “reflex latency,” so the overall definition is not fully supported. New packet required. Source: [Doi Akiko; Miyazaki Tomoyuki; Mihara Takahiro; Ikeda Maiko; Niikura Ryo; Andoh Tomio; Goto Takahisa. CLP290 promotes the sedative effects of midazolam in neonatal rats in a KCC2-dependent manner: A laboratory study in rats. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248113; article XML SHA-256 b1269745a233b0192e2d76cb0b22b3c41d5ba41916707f9972dc592cb2ae01ca. “CLP290 promotes the sedative effects of midazolam in neonatal rats in a KCC2-dependent manner: A laboratory study in rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248113).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248113) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- refractive error [redraft]: 'Causing blurred vision' is a fact the packet does not contain; focusing defect and examples are otherwise supported. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Refractive Error” (C87145).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- refusal rate [redraft]: Although the packet reports “baseline refusal rate” values for two groups, it does not state what “baseline refusal rate” measures or how refusal is operationalized (including the “selected or invited” phrasing or that it is explicitly “at the baseline assessment”).; The added clarification about “the percentage who refused participation at the baseline assessment” is broadly consistent with the packet, but the definition goes beyond the supplied source by generalizing the concept beyond this article’s reported baseline rates.; The packet does not provide a definition of “refusal rate” (e.g., what population is used, how it’s calculated, or that it specifically means “proportion selected or invited… who decline to take part”).; The packet supports a study-specific use of “baseline refusal rate,” but it does not define the term as the general proportion of people selected or invited for a study who decline to take part. New packet required. Source: [Sherr Lorraine; Yakubovich Alexa R; Skeen Sarah; Cluver Lucie D; Hensels Imca S; Macedo Ana; Tomlinson Mark. How Effective Is Help on the Doorstep? A Longitudinal Evaluation of Community-Based Organisation Support. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0151305; article XML SHA-256 f7e89f936b621b22363dea7fb33b1388c47e7eaf1df4ad7eb603f7f7c15f17e6. “How Effective Is Help on the Doorstep? A Longitudinal Evaluation of Community-Based Organisation Support” (10.1371/journal.pone.0151305).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0151305) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- regimen [redraft]: The claim that such plans “can vary in complexity over time” adds an unsupported time-related generalization; the source only mentions concerns about regimen complexity.; The definition includes additional specifics (“prescribed psychotropic medication plan or pattern of use”) that are not explicitly stated or paraphrasable from the provided packet excerpt.; The definition is more specific than the packet supports and reads like a medical-drug usage definition rather than a term established by this source in counselling skills.; The packet provides no support for the claim that such plans can vary in complexity over time.; The packet supports that “regimen” is used in the phrase “regimen complexity” in mental health care, but it does not define regimen as a person’s prescribed psychotropic medication plan or pattern of use.; The packet text does not define “regimen” as a person’s prescribed psychotropic medication plan or pattern of use; it only mentions “regimen complexity” in the context of concerns about prescribing. New packet required. Source: [Pomares Carreres Teresa Dolores; Martínez Conesa Guillermo; Navarrete Francisco. Psychotherapy initiation is associated with discontinuation of psychotropic medications without dose escalation: a ten-year real-world cohort study (2014-2024). 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1841866; article XML SHA-256 8fe8011273fe00f4630a2fe07c4b0e5661e842bede1a0c775af58b2b8fdca375. “Psychotherapy initiation is associated with discontinuation of psychotropic medications without dose escalation: a ten-year real-world cohort study (2014-2024)” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1841866).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1841866) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- regression model [redraft]: Second sentence describes the paper's censoring problem rather than what the term means; first sentence is near-empty. New packet required. Source: [Hafermann Lorena; Yokota Isao; Kalski Linda; Wolfarth Bernd; Herrmann Carolin. Multiple linear regression modeling with values below a lower limit of quantification – a statistical method comparison. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12874-026-02770-y; article XML SHA-256 aea96dc4f3cc6e6d057c76c7d8639c72edccb17238d03361314fb5f675d9a3dd. “Multiple linear regression modeling with values below a lower limit of quantification – a statistical method comparison” (10.1186/s12874-026-02770-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-026-02770-y) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- regression weight [redraft]: Because the first sentence contains an unsupported general characterization of the term, the definition as a whole fails the requirement that all substantive claims be supported by the packet.; Includes a study-specific example and identifiable case (“In this study…”) rather than only defining the term.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “regression weight” as indicating “strength and direction of the link between variables”; this conceptual wording is not supported by the supplied text.; The packet mentions “standardized regression weight” values used in path analysis (e.g., between stress and support, and support and turnover), but it does not explicitly support the phrasing that these weights were used “to indicate how changes in stress or social support were associated with changes in turnover intention.”; The packet supports standardized regression weights in one path-analysis article, but the definition should not present that article’s findings as part of the general term definition. New packet required. Source: [Al-Mansour Khalid. Stress and turnover intention among healthcare workers in Saudi Arabia during the time of COVID-19: Can social support play a role?. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0258101; article XML SHA-256 b59cd32e73bee63378c1dea189bdb13b3cc4bbafae11ffed7738deccf97a8119. “Stress and turnover intention among healthcare workers in Saudi Arabia during the time of COVID-19: Can social support play a role?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0258101).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258101) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- regular [redraft]: General adjective 'regular' redefined via 'in this source' as a factorial design type; narrow sense smuggled onto general headword. New packet required. Source: [Chang Ming-Chung; Wong Weng Kee. Two-level non-regular fractional factorial designs for public health studies. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12874-026-02784-6; article XML SHA-256 47e0b91dd57ff94e8106fa2a2adb69ffa7cf2ffc073daa1883a8f603fdaa8a4c. “Two-level non-regular fractional factorial designs for public health studies” (10.1186/s12874-026-02784-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-026-02784-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- regulation of consciousness [redraft]: The definition states that regulation of consciousness is the brain’s control of conscious state, including maintaining awareness and alertness. The packet only says the thalami “participate in functions such as … regulation of consciousness, and alertness” and does not explicitly support the broader “brain’s control” framing or the specific inclusion of “maintaining awareness.”; The packet supports regulation of consciousness and alertness as thalamic functions, but it does not support the added claim of maintaining awareness.; While the packet does support that thalami are involved in “regulation of consciousness” and “alertness,” it does not directly support the rest of the wording in the first sentence beyond those limited functions.; “Brain’s control of conscious state” is broader than the source, which only says the thalami participate in this function; it does not define the term as a general brain control mechanism. New packet required. Source: [Tuttle C; Boto J; Martin S; Barnaure I; Korchi A M; Scheffler M; Vargas M I. Neuroimaging of acute and chronic unilateral and bilateral thalamic lesions. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s13244-019-0700-3; article XML SHA-256 73369d56c6aade86204d16ce9932280c2ace7cdfd20b10e6e9ed33c322afdfd2. “Neuroimaging of acute and chronic unilateral and bilateral thalamic lesions” (10.1186/s13244-019-0700-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13244-019-0700-3) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- regulatory focus theory [redraft]: Defines a general motivation theory as a theory of changing one's work; 'growth' added; paper's application presented as the term's meaning. New packet required. Source: [Dai Yiming; Wang Wenjin; Tims Maria; Guan Xiaoyu; Yu Haibo. Employee ambidextrous job crafting in organizations: theoretical model, scale development, and dual-path effects mechanisms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767375; article XML SHA-256 581b60210a0bbb98f2acf6cbb6f6bb9191606b8bd201478473086143184008c3. “Employee ambidextrous job crafting in organizations: theoretical model, scale development, and dual-path effects mechanisms” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767375).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1767375) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- regulatory system [redraft]: 'In this context' hedges a general term into the drug-substitute control framework; 'guides policy and practice' not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Bai Song; Li Miao; Tang Shouying; Wan Suran; Wu Rong; Chen Lijun; Wang Fang; Liu Shan. Drug substitutes − Insights on benefits, risks, detection methods, and management strategies: a systematic review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1600212; article XML SHA-256 d0d40b91347fe8972a357b4b9c96eb2a3bd58b0a5ef7609be7399d3c0b5c49d2. “Drug substitutes − Insights on benefits, risks, detection methods, and management strategies: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1600212).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1600212) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rehabilitation program [redraft]: Because the definition adds general purpose language not explicitly supported in the packet, it contains substantive unsupported claims.; The first sentence claims the program is “designed to help people recover and improve functioning,” but the packet only describes the program as integrative inpatient psychocardiological rehabilitation and its psychosocial outcomes, without stating these specific aims regarding “recover and improve functioning.”; The opening generic definition adds unsupported language (“designed to help people recover and improve functioning”) that is not stated in the packet.; The packet supports an inpatient, six-week psychocardiological rehabilitation program with psychological and psychotherapeutic interventions embedded in conventional cardiac rehabilitation for patients with concurrent heart and mental health conditions, but not the broader general-purpose definition phrased in the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Matzka Martin; Lenz Reinhard; Köller-Janauschek Cathrin; Neubauer Maria; Mustak-Blagusz Monika; Mikl Johann. Evaluation of an inpatient psychocardiological rehabilitation program in Austria: Psychosocial outcomes of a six-month cohort study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0322485; article XML SHA-256 1a59dcc0c6bcabf876b7d7c8b966a496681ee4864ad08a60944b0e78959450a3. “Evaluation of an inpatient psychocardiological rehabilitation program in Austria: Psychosocial outcomes of a six-month cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0322485).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0322485) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reincarnation [redraft]: Because the packet does not actually supply the requested term-sense of “reincarnation,” the definition relies on unsupported elaboration rather than only what is present in the source passage.; The claim that the source passage contrasts reincarnation with a soul “continuing unchanged through the interval after death” is not supported by the packet text.; The definition’s comparison about “a soul continuing unchanged through the interval after death” is not explicitly stated in the packet (the packet instead states the opposite for Hindu eschatology: the soul does not properly exist in the interval).; The packet discusses an “Intermediate State” and says that in Hindu eschatology “the soul perishes at death, and only Karma survives to lead to a reincarnation,” but it does not describe reincarnation as a “new embodied life” nor provide a general characterization of reincarnation beyond that brief mention.; The packet’s source text is about “Intermediate State,” not a definition of “reincarnation,” so the requested sense is not supported by the source packet.; The provided definition makes broad claims about reincarnation (“return of existence in a new embodied life after death”) but the packet excerpt does not define reincarnation in those terms.; The statement that reincarnation is “the return of existence in a new embodied life after death” is not given in the packet; the packet only says that in Hindu eschatology “only Karma survives to lead to a reincarnation.” New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Intermediate State” (Intermediate).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I4defs.htm#Intermediate) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- reinforcement sensitivity theory [redraft]: The definition adds a central claim not supported by the packet: that the theory explains behavior through differences in sensitivity to reinforcement. The packet only states that RST is a motivational theory with multiple differentiated motivational pathways.; The definition claims that reinforcement sensitivity theory explains behavior by “differences in sensitivity to reinforcement.” The provided packet does not explicitly describe reinforcement sensitivity differences as the mechanism shaping behavior (it only states that RST is a motivational theory and that it includes multiple motivational pathways).; The definition’s wording about “multiple distinct motivational pathways” is broadly consistent with the packet’s claim that RST “outlines multiple differentiated motivational pathways,” but the rest of the definition adds claims about sensitivity shaping behavior that are not supported in the packet text.; The requested sense is too broad for the supplied source, which presents RST specifically as a framework for understanding reactions to violent extremist material online, not as a general learning-theory definition.; The wording that similar experiences can lead different people toward different actions, or different experiences toward similar actions, is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet’s narrower claim about multifinality and equifinality in the context of violent extremist content and behavior. New packet required. Source: [Shortland Neil; Portnoy Jill; McGarry Presley; Perliger Arie; Gordon Thomas; Anastasio Natalie. A Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Violent Extremist Propaganda: The Motivational Pathways Underlying Movement Toward and Away From Violent Extremist Action. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.858392; article XML SHA-256 868aea89688bda9d907e762c54c3c052de8af3b7367364de4aa36e1be20d94d5. “A Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Violent Extremist Propaganda: The Motivational Pathways Underlying Movement Toward and Away From Violent Extremist Action” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.858392).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.858392) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rejection [redraft]: The definition introduces language (“feared experience,” “not being accepted”) that is not substantiated by the provided packet text.; The first sentence generalizes beyond the source, which only mentions fear of judgment and rejection in the context of social anxiety support groups.; The packet does not define rejection as “the experience or feared experience of not being accepted by other people”; it only says people with social anxiety may have thoughts about judgment and rejection that may not be true or are distorted.; The packet does not define “rejection” as an “experience or feared experience of not being accepted by other people,” nor does it explicitly describe rejection in terms of “not being accepted.”; While the packet does state that in social anxiety a person’s thoughts about “judgment and rejection” may not be true or may be distorted, it does not support the specific framing that others will reject them “even when that belief is inaccurate or exaggerated.” New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Social Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 219dd350478d5e198b1c80914abdd6f76c94cbf69e7a886e0cd14337d4a29db9. “Social Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/social-anxiety-disorder-more-than-just-shyness).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/social-anxiety-disorder-more-than-just-shyness) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- relapse prevention [redraft]: The definition states relapse prevention refers to lowering the chance that major depressive disorder will return after improvement; the packet only mentions relapse risk and relapse of MDD, and does not support the “after improvement” framing.; The definition’s general description (“use of approaches intended to lower the chance…”) is not explicitly supported by the packet text provided, which only states that CBT and its modifications “might be effective” for relapse prevention and that the review aimed to reduce relapse.; The packet only supports a disease-specific context: CBT and its modifications might be effective for reducing relapse of major depressive disorder. It does not support defining relapse prevention generally as any approaches intended to lower the chance a disorder will return after improvement.; The wording goes beyond the source by presenting relapse prevention as a settled functional definition, while the packet is limited to a review's aim and a tentative claim ('might be effective'). New packet required. Source: [Zhang Zuojie; Zhang Lingli; Zhang Guorong; Jin Jianing; Zheng Zhenyang. The effect of CBT and its modifications for relapse prevention in major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2018; DOI 10.1186/s12888-018-1610-5; article XML SHA-256 01956b7636c3a98592fbd513d8b877fd0cac4fe5ed18784cc72b72026c20aedc. “The effect of CBT and its modifications for relapse prevention in major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1186/s12888-018-1610-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1610-5) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- relatedness needs [redraft]: The definition’s wording goes beyond what is explicitly stated in the packet (it adds explanatory detail not present in the supplied text).; The online-setting qualifier is supported only as a study context, not as part of the term’s definition.; The packet does not define “relatedness needs” as social connection or as a sense of being meaningfully linked with others; it only mentions their satisfaction in an online social interaction context.; The packet does not provide a definition of “relatedness needs” (e.g., that they are needs for social connection or a sense of meaningful linkage).; The packet only supports that relatedness needs can be “insufficiently” satisfied in online social interaction settings, and that the study examines relatedness needs as a mediator; it does not substantiate the specific content of the definition’s phrasing about social connection/meaningful linkage.; The statement that the term refers to “how well those connection needs are being satisfied” is an unsupported reformulation beyond the source text. New packet required. Source: [Zheng Zhe; Qi Jiatian; Xi Yue; Jia Yueyi; Xiao Qiaoli; Li Jingjing; Qiu Hui; Liu Bing. Online authentic self-presentation, relatedness need satisfaction, and depression among university students: the moderating role of perceived value of team sports participation in a survey of universities in Shanghai. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1864726; article XML SHA-256 cc403244e876924987af2a6c46e4761e9d586f29c2230f4d195fc467d357c433. “Online authentic self-presentation, relatedness need satisfaction, and depression among university students: the moderating role of perceived value of team sports participation in a survey of universities in Shanghai” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1864726).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1864726) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- relational frame [redraft]: Headword is 'relational frame' but the definition defines relational frame theory; the frame itself is never defined. New packet required. Source: [Ooshima Yasuhiro; Mitamura Takashi. Effects of perspective-taking training based on relational frame theory for cognitive empathy and emotional empathy: Differences in perspective-taking according to various theoretical approaches. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0323120; article XML SHA-256 67ddbc6c0469b4888d9bf23905b8f0e4c4a13711c1e4b0f4e9df872e4109b097. “Effects of perspective-taking training based on relational frame theory for cognitive empathy and emotional empathy: Differences in perspective-taking according to various theoretical approaches” (10.1371/journal.pone.0323120).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323120) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- relational learning [redraft]: Well-known psychology term redefined as an organisational external-knowledge capability the packet happens to discuss. New packet required. Source: [Chang Ke-Chiun; Jiang Yukun; Huang Chengjing; Xiong Xinyi; Chen Ziyan; Lai Yen-Chun; Chai Kuang-Cheng. The enterprise’s external knowledge acquisition capability and technological diversification: From the perspective of intellectual property strategy. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1093362; article XML SHA-256 22608cd940e18fa2236a22cfd6975c9d0a38c9577a1d5cc99b8c36de7dd727d4. “The enterprise’s external knowledge acquisition capability and technological diversification: From the perspective of intellectual property strategy” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1093362).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1093362) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- relational world [redraft]: Packet has 'relational world-making' about Nairobi skaters; the generalised account of social life and mutual accountability is not stated. New packet required. Source: [Tsipis Athanasios; Mashreghi Sepandarmaz. Reviving the forgotten: breathing life into urban wastelands through skateboarding and decolonial placemaking in Nairobi, Kenya. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fspor.2025.1637588; article XML SHA-256 7f48bd7bc1b681ac7277c37a8e53d74445a78b59c980655934f8d45e6762869e. “Reviving the forgotten: breathing life into urban wastelands through skateboarding and decolonial placemaking in Nairobi, Kenya” (10.3389/fspor.2025.1637588).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2025.1637588) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- relationship conflict [redraft]: The packet does not define “relationship conflict” as “trouble or disagreement within a close relationship.” It only refers to “a family or relationship conflict” as an example of a stressful time.; The packet only uses “family or relationship conflict” as an example of a stressful situation; it does not define relationship conflict as “trouble or disagreement within a close relationship.”; The statement that relationship conflict “can act as a source of stress” is supported only as a contextual example in the GAD publication, not as a general definition of the term.; The wording adds “may make symptoms worse at times” as a general meaning, but the packet supports this only for GAD symptoms during times of stress, not as a standalone definition of relationship conflict.; While the packet supports that symptoms may be worse “during times of stress—for example…a family or relationship conflict” (i.e., making symptoms worse at times in the context of GAD), the first sentence and the broader claim that relationship conflict can generally act as a source of stress in mental health are not directly established by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 77e8e3f9797bdd3e545d836e3c7a022d849dbcb9046d75b9663fada09c613399. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- relative position [redraft]: General term narrowed to transformer token positions via 'in this source'; packet never defines relative position itself. New packet required. Source: [Hong Shuang; Wu Jin; Zhu Lei; Chen Weijie. Brain tumor classification in VIT-B/16 based on relative position encoding and residual MLP. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298102; article XML SHA-256 61448cfcf600aa0f36cdab631a86ae5ea54b0cb6a11c06cdfbac1c09e480396e. “Brain tumor classification in VIT-B/16 based on relative position encoding and residual MLP” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298102).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298102) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- release [redraft]: The definition contrasts this sense with “a psychological process,” but the packet contains no information about any psychological process for the term “release.”; The packet provides medication/seasonal affective disorder information and does not provide any support that this meaning of “release” belongs to the field of “cognition.”; The packet supports that an antidepressant is available in an “extended-release form designed to last longer in the body,” but it does not support the claim that “release” specifically means “how a medication is made to remain active in the body” (beyond the general idea of lasting longer).; The packet supports the idea of an extended-release form designed to last longer in the body, but it does not support the added contrast that this term refers to a medication effect rather than a psychological process. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Seasonal Affective Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d89120086a5f01bf70f21f43fbf64f1a5b58f4c35f5185f5dac0c769f3d6317c. “Seasonal Affective Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- religion [redraft]: The definition frames the account as general (“linked to prosocial behaviour and cooperation in large-scale societies”) without clearly tying it to the model’s conditions (“so long as external threats…” / “Once external threats are eliminated”).; The definition presents the external-threat/anxiety relationship as a general descriptive “tendency” (“tending to persist/decline”), but the packet is from an agent-based model and does not justify characterizing these as real-world tendencies.; The packet does not support the phrase “system of belief and motivation.” It only refers to “religiously-motivated prosocial equilibrium,” “religion,” and “religiosity,” without defining religion as a belief-and-motivation system.; The packet supports religion being associated with prosocial behaviour/cooperation and with changes in religiosity under external threats, but it does not support defining religion itself as a “system of belief and motivation.”; The statement generalizes the source’s specific model about a religiously motivated prosocial equilibrium into a broader definitional claim about religion without sufficient support. New packet required. Source: [Puga-Gonzalez Ivan; Shults F. LeRon; Gore Ross; Talmont-Kaminski Konrad. The rise and fall of religion: An agent-based model of secularisation, security and prosociality. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0327674; article XML SHA-256 367e2d69752fa1a93210e8799356b5f0aad01b659fde763fee18aaca2e028ce3. “The rise and fall of religion: An agent-based model of secularisation, security and prosociality” (10.1371/journal.pone.0327674).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0327674) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- remand [redraft]: The definition adds a broader legal meaning of remand that is not established by the supplied historical passage.; The packet excerpt does not define “remand” as “being held in custody while awaiting further legal proceedings.” It only describes what can happen to “a person under remand” when certified insane, and does not state the general meaning of remand as awaiting further legal proceedings.; The packet supports that a person under remand, if certified insane, could be moved to an asylum and later remitted to the former place of confinement if certified sane, but it does not explicitly support defining remand as being held in custody while awaiting further legal proceedings.; The provided definition adds an asylum-transfer-and-return sequence tied to being certified insane/sane, but the broader first sentence’s characterization (“awaiting further legal proceedings”) is unsupported by the packet text. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-4095000-4107000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- remembering [redraft]: Narrows remembering to intentional retention and then describes the study's loneliness findings rather than the term's meaning. New packet required. Source: [Wang Wanqi; Tang Xiaochen; Wang Yu; Zhou Jiaodian; Hong Chen; Yan Weiman; Chen Ning; Liu Wei. The impact of loneliness on the self-reference effect in remembering and directed forgetting. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809521; article XML SHA-256 ba324763eb23608ca177d9d5884415bd4f4f5055a26c3f5e21c2daf2fa8b43b0. “The impact of loneliness on the self-reference effect in remembering and directed forgetting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809521).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809521) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reminder [redraft]: Everyday word 'reminder' hedged with 'in this context' into a historical-loss sense; narrow sense smuggled onto general headword. New packet required. Source: [Wood Zachary J; Helm Peter J; John-Henderson Neha A. U.S. politics as a reminder of historical losses in American Indian Adults: Implications for political participation. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0336671; article XML SHA-256 ff9ad99952ec861edc2dcf561b9a672566f61a6bad88b198832e7f34ab9ef94e. “U.S. politics as a reminder of historical losses in American Indian Adults: Implications for political participation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0336671).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336671) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- remission [redraft]: Defines remission as a care pathway from a consultation title and adds meta-commentary about the packet; wrong sense of headword. New packet required. Source: [Alonso Sandrine; Kabani Sarah; Fabbro-Peray Pascale; Houédé Nadine; Duwig Luc. A feasibility study of scheduling a remission consultation in the management of patients treated for localized breast cancer. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03393-6; article XML SHA-256 809be1bee7b798f74d6a1137f230f56a64a9950b0e27fdeff3b22fa3e1700d4a. “A feasibility study of scheduling a remission consultation in the management of patients treated for localized breast cancer” (10.1186/s40359-025-03393-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03393-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- remorse [redraft]: The opening sentence is too general: the packet supports guilt or remorse specifically after drinking alcohol, not remorse in general as “a feeling of guilt about one’s actions.”; The packet does not provide a general definition of “remorse” as “a feeling of guilt about one’s actions”; it only contains a questionnaire item referring to “a feeling of guilt or remorse after drinking.”; The packet is an AUDIT item/instrument prompt, so the definition should not present a broader standalone psychological sense unless supported by the source text.; The second sentence is only partially supported and should stay tightly tied to the drinking-after-alcohol context rather than implying a general packet-specific meaning.; While the second sentence (“it refers to guilt or remorse felt after drinking alcohol”) is supported by the AUDIT item, the first sentence includes an unsupported generalization about remorse. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “AUDIT - How Often Last Year You Feel Guilt or Remorse After Drinking” (C119114).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reorganization principle [redraft]: Nonce phrase from paper's conclusion; definition restates study findings about rich-club and feeder connections rather than a term. New packet required. Source: [Xue Xin; Wu Jia-Jia; Huo Bei-Bei; Xing Xiang-Xin; Ma Jie; Li Yu-Lin; Wei Dong; Duan Yu-Jie; Shan Chun-Lei; Zheng Mou-Xiong; Hua Xu-Yun; Xu Jian-Guang. Age-Related Changes in Topological Properties of Individual Brain Metabolic Networks in Rats. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnagi.2022.895934; article XML SHA-256 95ed274e728ff73a5034827932250880426a2c1f6fb376f81f618fae88210cb4. “Age-Related Changes in Topological Properties of Individual Brain Metabolic Networks in Rats” (10.3389/fnagi.2022.895934).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.895934) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reparation [redraft]: General headword reduced to tissue repair from a single bedsore passage, hedged as 'this historical usage'; wrong sense for psychology. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-735000-747000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- repeat offender [redraft]: Because the definition’s key explanatory claims are not explicitly supported by the packet text, the requested sense of the term is not defensible.; The packet does not define “repeat offender” as “a person who has committed the same kind of rule-breaking more than once”; it only mentions “repeat offender drivers” as a categorized group.; The packet does not state that the term “refers specifically to drivers with repeated traffic infractions who are treated as offender drivers”; it mentions drivers categorized as repeat offenders and course attendance for other groups, but does not define their underlying rule-breaking pattern or the phrase “treated as offender drivers.”; The packet identifies “repeat offender drivers” as a study category, but it does not define the term as a person who has committed the same kind of rule-breaking more than once.; The source does not explicitly state that these were drivers with repeated traffic infractions; that interpretation is plausible but not directly supported by the packet text. New packet required. Source: [del Valle Carlos Hugo Criado. Guilt and Shame of What Might Have Been in Optimistic Offender Drivers. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.668138; article XML SHA-256 3512f2d1873c996ed5f38365a0e42697775c822b01f7de2ce1cadb10a2bdff35. “Guilt and Shame of What Might Have Been in Optimistic Offender Drivers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.668138).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.668138) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- repeated acquisition [redraft]: Psychology term for a behavioural learning procedure redefined as evolutionary convergence in synapsid sacra; wrong sense of headword. New packet required. Source: [LeBlanc Aaron R. H.; Reisz Robert R.. New Postcranial Material of the Early Caseid Casea broilii Williston, 1910 (Synapsida: Caseidae) with a Review of the Evolution of the Sacrum in Paleozoic Non-Mammalian Synapsids. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0115734; article XML SHA-256 c42731d4ec63f81837a6244d8445d1ed24b90df4ccb76f803317fac0abf8e8fb. “New Postcranial Material of the Early Caseid Casea broilii Williston, 1910 (Synapsida: Caseidae) with a Review of the Evolution of the Sacrum in Paleozoic Non-Mammalian Synapsids” (10.1371/journal.pone.0115734).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0115734) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- repeated measures analysis of variance [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence provides a general textbook-style description of repeated measures ANOVA (“type of analysis of variance… within the same overall set of cases”) that is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text.; The first sentence generalizes beyond the source packet; the requested sense should be supported by the packet rather than inferred from the term alone.; The packet supports that RMANOVA was used to detect differences in teams’ technical performance across competition situations, but it does not provide enough information to substantiate the broader methodological description in the first sentence.; The packet supports that RMANOVA was used to identify differences in teams’ technical performances among competition situations, but it does not define repeated measures analysis of variance as a general method for testing measurements across repeated conditions or occasions within the same set of cases. New packet required. Source: [Yi Qing; Yang Jingyong; Wang Xinlei; Gai Yang; Gómez-Ruano Miguel-Ángel. Interactive Effects of Situational Variables Regarding Teams’ Technical Performance in the UEFA Champions League. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.781376; article XML SHA-256 5c5c2456978eb5cf35aee0c823435cec6fb8675df0727b398526e22ba9f67809. “Interactive Effects of Situational Variables Regarding Teams’ Technical Performance in the UEFA Champions League” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.781376).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.781376) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- repetition [redraft]: General word 'repetition' hedged 'in this context' into nonword repetition testing; narrow sense smuggled onto general headword. New packet required. Source: [Doghadze Irine; Gagoshidze Tamar. Structural language profiles in children with autism spectrum disorder and developmental language disorder: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920573; article XML SHA-256 324ed562851935f75562629f906cb1362dfb9a539645fec4f4f37d111610a389. “Structural language profiles in children with autism spectrum disorder and developmental language disorder: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920573).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1920573) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- repetitive strain injury [redraft]: Because the definition is grounded in a physical/medical mechanism and structures, its fit to the requested field (“mental health”) is not defensible from the provided packet.; The definition is otherwise close to the packet, but the field/sense assignment is not defensible for a mental health dictionary entry.; The packet defines “repetitive strain injury” as a harmful, painful condition of the musculoskeletal system (joints, bones, ligaments, nerves) associated with work-related physical activity, with no support provided for any mental-health context.; The requested field is mental health, but the packet supports a musculoskeletal cumulative trauma disorder rather than a psychology/counselling sense. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Cumulative Trauma Disorders” (D012090).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012090) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- representation [redraft]: The claim that “Different representations follow different conventions” is only indirectly supported (it mentions conventions/constraints/grammar for target formats in the context of translation), but the definition presents this as a general property of representations without an explicit definitional support.; The definition’s phrasing about “moving information from one representation to another” is supported only in the specific context of representational translation, not as the general meaning of the term “representation” in cognition.; The packet supports representational translation, not a standalone definition of the term “representation”; it does not explicitly establish that “representation” itself is a form or format in which information is encoded and expressed.; The packet text does not provide a definition of “representation” as “a form or format in which information and the relationships within it are encoded and expressed.” Instead, it discusses “representation translation” (how information is interpreted/reconstructed between representations) and contrasts it with “representation recognition,” without explicitly defining representation itself.; The response should not generalize from source/target representation language to a full conceptual definition without explicit support in the packet.; The second sentence attributes properties of translating between representations to the term being defined, which goes beyond the packet’s scope and is not directly supported as a definition of representation. New packet required. Source: [Xie Cuiting; Ye Liyu; Chen Jin; Hong Wenting; Fang Zhuoyan; Guan Fei; Yao Jiameng; Xiong Jianwen; Xiao Yang; Liu Taorong. The role of intermediary representations in solving lever balance problems with different target representations and problem complexities. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815951; article XML SHA-256 3aea996641fea2e5456865c5545391b924492e98a7ca0a220dcc35b2cef35a78. “The role of intermediary representations in solving lever balance problems with different target representations and problem complexities” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815951).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1815951) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- representational stage [redraft]: 'In this context' narrows the term to lexical stress processing; packet never defines the stage beyond excluding peripheral deficits. New packet required. Source: [Häuser Katja; Domahs Frank. Functional lateralization of lexical stress representation: a systematic review of patient data. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00317; article XML SHA-256 4427924e60e86f21e59bf7d6fde07ffad86b6428bcd33faedb2d27025631e41a. “Functional lateralization of lexical stress representation: a systematic review of patient data” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00317).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00317) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- representative design [redraft]: The definition generalizes the term beyond the packet’s context by framing it as a broad approach to making research “more like the real-world setting” and “studying people” generally, whereas the packet only supports representative design as a way to address external validity in live sports decision-making studies.; The packet’s content is specific to sports psychology and external validity in “home advantage”/crowd-noise studies, not to the “development” field specified in the prompt.; The supplied source is about experimental research in sport and external validity; it does not support the field label “development.” New packet required. Source: [Myers Tony D.. Achieving external validity in home advantage research: generalizing crowd noise effects. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00532; article XML SHA-256 08b42bbf5a592e6b51a91b845473a600b3731602c7c88c58ca79be6597a80fa9. “Achieving external validity in home advantage research: generalizing crowd noise effects” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00532).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00532) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- representative factors [redraft]: Nonce phrase; the 'general' sentence is built from this study's life-circumstance specifics, so it is the study not the term. New packet required. Source: [Tian Xiang. How life circumstances during public health crises affect people to share and correct misinformation: a perspective of the third-person effect. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1418504; article XML SHA-256 41a99f12ce97368afae8cef424c13663eae6bc0a123d164710b08e444ddaf874. “How life circumstances during public health crises affect people to share and correct misinformation: a perspective of the third-person effect” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1418504).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1418504) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- representative sampling [redraft]: The definition adds a general claim about making population estimates more trustworthy that is not stated in the source packet.; The packet does not explicitly define “representative sampling” as a method “so the sample reflects the wider population being studied” or state that this “makes population estimates more trustworthy.”; The packet only states that differences in alcohol consumption population estimates “may relate to non-representative sampling” and discusses implementing a representative sampling strategy for an alcohol consumption survey; it does not directly support the definition’s general recruitment/estimation framing or the claim that non-representative sampling “can lead to widely different results across samples.”; The packet supports that non-representative sampling may contribute to widely varying population estimates across samples, but it does not explicitly define representative sampling as a recruitment method that makes a sample reflect the wider population.; The packet’s content concerns recruiting for a survey on alcohol consumption in an Aboriginal setting, not mental-health samples specifically; the definition’s field designation (“mental health”) is therefore not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Lee KS Kylie; Fitts Michelle S; Conigrave James H; Zheng Catherine; Perry Jimmy; Wilson Scott; Ah Chee Dudley; Bond Shane; Weetra Keith; Chikritzhs Tanya N; Slade Tim; Conigrave Katherine M. Recruiting a representative sample of urban South Australian Aboriginal adults for a survey on alcohol consumption. 2020; DOI 10.1186/s12874-020-01067-y; article XML SHA-256 6841dcd3dd4eaa477c9a0f50b123bef398a79cea1f6169c6c41eac0d4026046b. “Recruiting a representative sample of urban South Australian Aboriginal adults for a survey on alcohol consumption” (10.1186/s12874-020-01067-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-020-01067-y) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reproduction theory [redraft]: Packet concerns 'cost of reproduction theory'; headword 'reproduction theory' has a different well-known sense and is not defined. New packet required. Source: [Smith Ashlee N.; Belk Mark C.; Creighton J. Curtis. Residency Time as an Indicator of Reproductive Restraint in Male Burying Beetles. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0109165; article XML SHA-256 c5554959e19bf37ba9bad8da0f02c39aa3271ee9838d32bacfbee9b332e95a15. “Residency Time as an Indicator of Reproductive Restraint in Male Burying Beetles” (10.1371/journal.pone.0109165).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109165) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reproductive success [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the packet’s scope: the source discusses male reproductive success, not reproductive success in general or in all individuals.; The definition’s first sentence (“extent to which an individual achieves fertilization and produces offspring”) is not explicitly stated or supported in the supplied packet text.; The first sentence is broader than the source’s wording, which frames reproductive success as being influenced by multiple factors beyond courtship and copulation, rather than defining it as an extent.; The packet discusses “male reproductive success” being determined by factors beyond courtship/copulation and highlights “post-copulatory sexual selection” and sperm competition, but it does not support the broader formulation for “an individual” nor the claim as a general definition of the term.; The packet does not define “reproductive success” for females, yet the definition presents a general framing (“in males, it depends…”) paired with a general first sentence about individuals achieving fertilization and producing offspring.; The second sentence’s wording includes specific causal details (“competition among sperm … within the female reproductive tract”) that are broadly consistent with the packet’s description of sperm competing in the female’s reproductive tract, but the overall definition also includes unsupported elements from the first sentence.; “Produces offspring” is not stated in the packet; the source only supports fertilization-related success and post-copulatory sexual selection/sperm competition. New packet required. Source: [Hawkins Carly E; Hahn Thomas P; Malisch Jessica L; Patricelli Gail L. Post-copulatory competition in a social monogamy system: Sperm morphology correlates with components of reproductive success. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337846; article XML SHA-256 a5157b10aed005256b7d03ad43c1ce3b1888f9fa073f3f5b357d727109f92508. “Post-copulatory competition in a social monogamy system: Sperm morphology correlates with components of reproductive success” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337846).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337846) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- res extensa [redraft]: The definition slightly modernizes and generalizes the historical description; it should stay closer to the Descartes-specific wording in the source.; The packet discusses this as part of “Modern philosophy” and Descartes’s dualism; it does not support framing the term as belonging to “philosophy and psychology” specifically (the definition adds “psychology” not evidenced in the packet excerpt).; The packet supports the contrast between “the inner world of consciousness” and “the outer world of extended mechanically moving things,” but it does not explicitly describe res extensa as “bodily” (the definition adds “bodily” beyond the packet).; “Bodily” is not supported by the packet; the source only describes res extensa as the “outer world of extended mechanically moving things” and contrasts it with res cogitans. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dualism (in philosophy)” (Dualism (in philosophy)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Dualism (in philosophy)) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- resampling [redraft]: Well-known statistics term redefined as heart-rate time-window preprocessing; packet never describes the procedure either. New packet required. Source: [Tomashin Alon; Gordon Ilanit; Wallot Sebastian. Evaluating heart rate coupling with Multi-dimensional Recurrence Quantification Analysis (MdRQA) and Cross-Correlation (CC): Analytical decisions and implications. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356801; article XML SHA-256 a1062b4a27303a3b9e3c24976ddf64b89a2f3049a004178c4f26ae7977062c05. “Evaluating heart rate coupling with Multi-dimensional Recurrence Quantification Analysis (MdRQA) and Cross-Correlation (CC): Analytical decisions and implications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356801).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356801) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Rescorla–Wagner theory [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence therefore contains a substantive description of the theory’s purpose/scope that is not directly supported by the provided packet text.; The first sentence adds a general textbook claim—that Rescorla–Wagner theory is used in classical conditioning to describe how a conditioned response develops over training—that is not stated in the packet.; The packet does not explicitly state that Rescorla–Wagner theory “describ[es] how a conditioned response develops over training.” It only mentions using the Rescorla–Wagner theory of associative learning to accommodate inter-individual differences in learning during olfactory classical conditioning.; The packet supports only a narrower use: accommodating inter-individual differences in associative learning and separating population-level from single-animal perspectives; it does not support the broader explanatory framing about conditioned-response development over training. New packet required. Source: [Pamir Evren; Szyszka Paul; Scheiner Ricarda; Nawrot Martin P.. Rapid learning dynamics in individual honeybees during classical conditioning. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00313; article XML SHA-256 6bbb1a89ff6e5fd8c9eb702b759656fa237a68c2ef6cfdc4f233b6f49f1420ae. “Rapid learning dynamics in individual honeybees during classical conditioning” (10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00313).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00313) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- research method [redraft]: The definition’s general statement that a research method is specifically “the approach a study uses to investigate a question by gathering and analyzing data” is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text; the packet only describes that a qualitative (Q methodology) approach was used and that data were analyzed, without stating this general definition.; The packet supports only a specific example of a qualitative research method (Q methodology) used to explore participants’ perspectives; it does not support a general definition of “research method” as a broad approach used to investigate a question by gathering and analyzing data.; The sentence “In this example…” is tied to the study in the packet, but the definition presents it as part of the term’s meaning rather than as a study-specific illustration.; The wording adds an unsupported generalization about research methods that goes beyond the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [Kesler Alay; Yıldız Yasin; Sevilmiş Umut; Küçükalpelli Filiz; Gülşen Doğukan Batur Alp. Perceptions of mental toughness in elite swimmers: A Q methodology study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1756286; article XML SHA-256 4dc7d2088eee6cdc75704ee8d2d8ebf3c85af7ac24dfddd8d4d2200d847e3240. “Perceptions of mental toughness in elite swimmers: A Q methodology study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1756286).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1756286) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- research risk [redraft]: 'Research risk' has a well-known participant-risk sense; definition gives drug-development business risk with added abstraction. New packet required. Source: [Pritchard J Fred. Risk in CNS drug discovery: focus on treatment of Alzheimer's Disease. 2008; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-9-s3-s1; article XML SHA-256 78fbc53ae27ef7045219a716c347a67ecf4e95a98746abe29633b98734f7d1fe. “Risk in CNS drug discovery: focus on treatment of Alzheimer's Disease” (10.1186/1471-2202-9-s3-s1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-9-s3-s1) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- researcher bias [redraft]: The definition’s final clause (“some review methods may be more open to this than others”) is directionally supported by the packet’s statement about vulnerability, but it remains incomplete without the above unsupported components.; The packet does not explicitly define researcher bias as influence from a researcher’s “own involvement, expectations, or viewpoint,” nor does it state that such influence affects “how scientific evidence is interpreted or presented.”; The packet supports that some review types are more vulnerable to researcher bias and that active researchers may draw stronger conclusions, but it does not support the broader definition that the bias comes from a researcher's own involvement, expectations, or viewpoint.; The statement that researcher bias can make conclusions more favorable than the evidence alone would justify is not directly supported by the packet text.; While the packet says that “some [review] types are more vulnerable to researcher bias than others” and discusses how experts’ conclusions relate to review type, it does not directly support the specific claim that researcher bias “can make conclusions stronger or more favorable than the evidence alone would justify.” New packet required. Source: [Thomas-Odenthal Florian; Molero Patricio; van der Does Willem; Molendijk Marc. Impact of review method on the conclusions of clinical reviews: A systematic review on dietary interventions in depression as a case in point. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0238131; article XML SHA-256 ef22d8a012639dce30f80f6fefff1fa86ae1d91c89a09a0d9f5ec308e4c07178. “Impact of review method on the conclusions of clinical reviews: A systematic review on dietary interventions in depression as a case in point” (10.1371/journal.pone.0238131).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238131) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- resentment [redraft]: The added statement that resentment can be let go of through forgiveness goes beyond the packet’s wording and is not presented as a supported definition of the term.; The claim that resentment is a lingering feeling of anger in response to an offense or wrongdoing is not supported by the supplied text.; The definition’s claims about the source field (“cognition”) and the process (“can be let go of through forgiveness”) are not supported as a definition of resentment itself; the packet only supports that forgiveness may involve excusing/pardoning and release of anger or resentment, not the asserted nature of resentment.; The packet supports the concept of forgiveness, defined as excusing or pardoning an offense or releasing anger or resentment, not a definition of resentment itself.; The packet text does not define “resentment” (it mentions “anger or resentment” as something that can be released via forgiveness, but provides no characterization such as “lingering” or “in response to an offense or wrongdoing”). New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Forgiveness” (D061347).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D061347) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- reserved [redraft]: Ordinary adjective defined from one phrase, hedged as 'in mental health guidance'; psychology sense of reserved is temperament. New packet required. Source: [Słupska Anita; Cubała Wiesław Jerzy; Swieczkowski Damian; Szarmach Joanna; Słupski Jakub; Włodarczyk Adam. Short-term ketamine interventions for depressive disorders: practical best-practice recommendations for psychiatrists using oral, subcutaneous, and nasal formulations. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1931248; article XML SHA-256 cf450e1c6b1aba15e8424325ed3d19d0ea81553a7ee793a58af2380ea57e7f07. “Short-term ketamine interventions for depressive disorders: practical best-practice recommendations for psychiatrists using oral, subcutaneous, and nasal formulations” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1931248).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1931248) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- resocialization [redraft]: 'Goal-directed' is lifted from the executive functioning sentence; packet never defines resocialization; hedged to juvenile justice. New packet required. Source: [van Haeringen Sterre L.; Vandenbroucke Annelinde R. E.; Swaab Hanna; Jansen Lucres M. C.. The significance of executive functioning in juvenile justice interventions: insights from clinical practice. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809135; article XML SHA-256 42ec7eba860198d6c69754570c3091f322d6e992bc9f69c90da4b3e69a9d3aa8. “The significance of executive functioning in juvenile justice interventions: insights from clinical practice” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809135).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809135) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- resolving power [redraft]: Second sentence uses 'in this context' to redefine resolving power as a level of image resolution, a wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [Mizukoshi Koji; Hamanaka Yoshihiro; Yang Xiaoguang; Oishi Takaya; Kawabata Hideaki. Face image resolution and perceived attractiveness: An 8K display study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348371; article XML SHA-256 78cddfe360c20207d2551453d94664b06fa8c9c4b25219fd057b1f5ec2d0ddee. “Face image resolution and perceived attractiveness: An 8K display study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348371).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348371) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- respondent [redraft]: The definition is not aligned with the requested sense and is not supported as written by the supplied source packet.; The packet does not define “respondent” as “the person who answers the items on a questionnaire or rating scale.” It only references “the respondent’s” endorsement of items in an atypical fashion.; The packet supports an Infrequency Scale measure, not the general sense of “respondent” as the person who answers a questionnaire.; The packet supports the idea of assessing atypical endorsement for an Infrequency Scale (e.g., “endorsed items in an atypical fashion”), but it does not support the broader first sentence about what a respondent generally is.; The second sentence introduces an interpretation and wording (“pattern of answers is examined,” “endorsed items in an unusually atypical way”) that is not stated in the packet and does not match the source text’s specific description of atypical responding on a three-item scale. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Infrequency Scale” (C159492).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- response frequency [redraft]: Hedges with 'in this learning-study context' to make a general headword mean skin-conductance response frequency. New packet required. Source: [Xue Xiangying; Liu Xiangcong; Dong Yuqi; Chen Xingye; Pei Yuanqing. Temporal dynamics of students’ physiological arousal in personalized learning contexts: a quasi-experimental study based on electrodermal activity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872311; article XML SHA-256 a147bab9acea6bf9bfe9d4cb2ed30bdbd80146d7d98d32771415c96d2b7fa7d3. “Temporal dynamics of students’ physiological arousal in personalized learning contexts: a quasi-experimental study based on electrodermal activity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872311).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872311) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- response latency [redraft]: The definition’s broad generic gloss (“the amount of time that passes before a response is made after an event or prompt”) is not stated in the packet; the packet only supports a narrower use tied to post-match institutional communication and response speed.; The packet does not explicitly define “response latency” as a general temporal measure (e.g., “the amount of time that passes before a response is made”). It only references a coding/condition labeled “High_Delay” and “non-delayed response” without stating the time-based meaning in so many words.; The packet is a sport-communication article, so the requested field of cognition is not well supported by the source context.; The phrase “official post-match communication” is supported, but the definition should not present that as a general dictionary sense without clearer textual support from the source.; While the packet supports the idea that response latency is considered separately from communication form (it says it “separat[es] response latency from communication form” and refers to “template deviation”), it does not support the broader, first-sentence general definition presented in the user’s definition. New packet required. Source: [Ling Zhichen; Ren Xinlei; Luo Bingquan. Beyond speed and strategy: A configurational analysis of collective attention to post-match institutional discourse in the UEFA Champions League. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354175; article XML SHA-256 e929f7671df491ef2a5fb8e397ae0944400c394f4780b153745a90acc8658c39. “Beyond speed and strategy: A configurational analysis of collective attention to post-match institutional discourse in the UEFA Champions League” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354175).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354175) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- response rate [redraft]: The definition adds a general methodological explanation that is not stated in the source packet; a citation to the study alone is not sufficient support for that broader claim.; The definition’s first sentence (“percentage of the people invited or eligible for a study who actually provide data”) is not explicitly stated or supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet only provides the study-specific figure (“1332 first-year PGT students (68% response rate)”) but does not define the term ‘response rate’ or clarify the denominator as “invited or eligible.”; The packet supports that 1,332 first-year postgraduate taught students were associated with a 68% response rate, but it does not define response rate as the percentage of invited or eligible people who actually provide data. New packet required. Source: [Hibbs Angela; Hayman Rick; Grenade Danielle; Polman Remco. Beyond the undergraduate experience: Pre-arrival expectations of postgraduate taught students at a UK university. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358341; article XML SHA-256 33b519252c37ceff7076701bf1a86d39effd111657fa0df7f71fd6041748b70e. “Beyond the undergraduate experience: Pre-arrival expectations of postgraduate taught students at a UK university” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358341).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358341) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- response selection [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define “response selection” as an “executive-control process of choosing the appropriate action or response”; it instead describes “conflict-related response selection,” “executive control,” and “response selection” in relation to novelty and task difficulty without stating that specific definition.; The packet supports that novelty can enhance response selection, especially under more difficult task conditions, but it does not define response selection as an executive-control process of choosing the appropriate action, nor as a general conflict-resolution concept.; While the packet mentions novelty facilitating conflict resolution and discusses “conflict-related response selection and inhibition,” the definition’s framing (“especially when there is conflict between competing responses”) is only indirectly supported via the use of the Simon task and discussion of conflict resolution, not stated as part of a direct definitional explanation.; “Stage of performance” is not supported by the packet’s wording; the source only reports an effect on response selection in a specific task context. New packet required. Source: [Zinchenko Artyom; Mahmud Waich; Alam Musrura Mefta; Kabir Nadia; Al-Amin Md. Mamun. Picture Novelty Influences Response Selection and Inhibition: The Role of the In-Group Bias and Task-Difficulty. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0165470; article XML SHA-256 814279024d6dce5e178e3fc6b3a6911b3c93307351412a67bbe8c09d8f3dc699. “Picture Novelty Influences Response Selection and Inhibition: The Role of the In-Group Bias and Task-Difficulty” (10.1371/journal.pone.0165470).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165470) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- response strength [redraft]: The definition claims the term refers to “the magnitude of auditory responding” and gives an example about “neurons … respond to sound,” but the packet does not explicitly define “response strength” as “magnitude” or provide a stated definition—only that auditory response strength differed by condition.; The definition should stay anchored to the article’s specific usage rather than present an unverified generic sense.; The definition’s first sentence makes a general claim that “response strength” is broadly “the size or intensity of a measured reaction to a stimulus,” but the packet only reports that “response strength … were greater” for a social condition and does not provide a general definitional statement of what response strength means.; The example about neurons responding to sound is not supported by the packet; the source only says auditory responses/response strength were greater in a social condition.; The first sentence gives a broad general definition (“size or intensity of a measured reaction to a stimulus”) that is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the source’s usage. New packet required. Source: [Pollak Daniel J; Vahaba Daniel M; Macedo-Lima Matheus; Remage-Healey Luke. Parsing social context in auditory forebrain of male zebra finches. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314795; article XML SHA-256 c0673779e6f2e9a73b330a453e14ea5435ff6c9cdb2044d772e287ac9c2b789c. “Parsing social context in auditory forebrain of male zebra finches” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314795).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314795) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- responsiveness [redraft]: The claim that responsiveness is a measurable ability to 'react to or benefit from an intervention' is broader than the packet supports; the source only describes inter-individual variability in SMR neurofeedback responsiveness and trainees’ ability to self-regulate EEG activity.; The definition adds a general intervention-benefit sense that is not established by the packet, which is limited to a single-session neurofeedback context and mentions non-responders rather than benefit outcomes.; The definition’s first sentence claims responsiveness is the degree to which a person shows a “measurable ability to react to or benefit from an intervention,” but the packet does not explicitly define responsiveness in terms of measurable reaction/benefit; it specifically discusses limited ability to self-regulate EEG activity. New packet required. Source: [An Yan; Feng Zhengning; Lu Jiaojiao. Individual SMR neurofeedback responsiveness during a single session and its associations with autonomic regulation and shooting performance in elite rifle athletes. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1922593; article XML SHA-256 0cbe9a10d6c1676fa60962cd43a7ac8cbb46bd8ebd51a5acc1c81ff8e927eb5a. “Individual SMR neurofeedback responsiveness during a single session and its associations with autonomic regulation and shooting performance in elite rifle athletes” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1922593).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1922593) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- restitution [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory contrast and mechanism for restitution that are not stated in the source text, so the substantive sense is too specific for the supplied evidence.; The definition’s specific claim that restitution “restores what was lost through a violation of rights” is not supported by the packet text.; The packet does not define “restitution”; it only mentions the term in passing within the description of “Redress” for an “Action (in law).”; The packet only says that redress may be secured sometimes through restitution and sometimes through compensation; it does not define restitution as restoring what was lost through a violation of rights.; While the packet does support a contrast between “restitution” and “compensation,” the added elaborations in the definition are unsupported. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Action (in law)” (Action (law)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Action (law)) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- RET [redraft]: Other parts of the definition (RET gene encoding a tyrosine-protein kinase receptor; involvement in neural cell proliferation/migration/differentiation, framed as growth/movement/development) are broadly consistent with the packet, but the unsupported “signaling processes” claim is substantive.; The definition adds an unsupported contrast to a “counseling concept,” which is not stated in the packet.; The definition claims RET is involved in “signaling processes,” but the packet only states roles in “proliferation, migration and differentiation of neural cells” and does not mention signaling.; The packet supports RET as the human gene/protein RET and its role in neural-cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation, but the wording should stay within those supported claims only. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Proto-Oncogene Tyrosine-Protein Kinase Receptor Ret” (C18539).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- retention [redraft]: General headword 'retention' redefined as career retention via 'in this packet'; cognitive sense ignored. New packet required. Source: [Peng Yan; Yang Xue. Training support, public service motivation, and career retention intentions: the mediating role of job wellbeing among college graduate volunteers in China's rural revitalization. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1835086; article XML SHA-256 fb214049b526b8a487bc29f3f88a3348c09b909e3f73c86020a605256f9e6666. “Training support, public service motivation, and career retention intentions: the mediating role of job wellbeing among college graduate volunteers in China's rural revitalization” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1835086).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1835086) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- retinitis [redraft]: Adds unsupported anatomical detail (“the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye”) that is not stated in the packet.; Because the packet does not support those specific descriptive details, the definition contains at least one unsupported substantive claim.; States a generalization (“often found”) rather than the packet’s wording that it is “rarely limited to the retina” and “commonly associated” with choroid or optic disk disease.; The definition states the retina is “light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye,” but the supplied packet only defines retinitis as “inflammation of the RETINA” and does not describe the retina’s function (light-sensitive) or location (at the back of the eye). New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinitis” (D012173).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012173) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- retrieval [redraft]: 'Retrieval here refers to lexical retrieval' smuggles a narrow sense onto a general memory headword. New packet required. Source: [Pham Catherine T; Castro Nichol; Lee Jiyeon. Lexical retrieval in fluent and nonfluent aphasia: a network analysis of verbal fluency data. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1710907; article XML SHA-256 aa5fd4bba8a8ad79888dcac0861b69ddec40f10ff97b661ed357dc1710b4d7c1. “Lexical retrieval in fluent and nonfluent aphasia: a network analysis of verbal fluency data” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1710907).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1710907) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- retrograde memory [redraft]: The final sentence shifts the term toward a disorder description (“loss of retrograde memory” with normal new learning), which the packet supports only as a feature of focal retrograde amnesia, not as the definition of retrograde memory itself.; The packet does not define “retrograde memory” as a general term; it only mentions “loss of retrograde memory” in the context of focal retrograde amnesia and related case reports.; The packet does not provide a direct definition of “retrograde memory” as memory for information from the past (e.g., events/knowledge before illness or injury).; The phrase “especially events and knowledge from before the onset of an illness or injury” is not supported by the packet and imports a clinical framing that is not stated as a definition of the term.; The statement that loss of retrograde memory corresponds to difficulty recalling previously stored memories while learning new information may remain normal is only indirectly supported by the packet’s contrast between retrograde memory loss and “normal learning of new information,” but the packet does not explicitly define this as “retrograde memory” in general or affirm the “may remain normal” phrasing as a general rule. New packet required. Source: [Sehm Bernhard; Frisch Stefan; Thöne-Otto Angelika; Horstmann Annette; Villringer Arno; Obrig Hellmuth. Focal Retrograde Amnesia: Voxel-Based Morphometry Findings in a Case without MRI Lesions. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0026538; article XML SHA-256 fcd637783399407b7bb869b11720a504cdb921d31a50f725b55f5e34df30982a. “Focal Retrograde Amnesia: Voxel-Based Morphometry Findings in a Case without MRI Lesions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0026538).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0026538) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reverie [redraft]: The definition’s key substantive claims about attention and the “dreamy” quality are not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define *reverie* as a standalone term; it only lists reverie as one example of “states of vagueness of consciousness” allied to absent-mindedness and brown-study.; The packet does not define “reverie” (it only mentions reverie as an example of “states of vagueness of consciousness” grouped with “brown-study,” without stating the specific characteristics claimed in the definition—e.g., “vague, dreamy state of consciousness” and “attention to one’s surroundings is reduced by mental preoccupation”).; “Vague, dreamy state of consciousness” and “in which attention to one’s surroundings is reduced by mental preoccupation” go beyond the packet’s wording and combine material about absent-mindedness with reverie, rather than staying within the supported historical sense. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Absent-mindedness” (Absent-mindedness).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Absent-mindedness) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- reversal design [redraft]: Although the packet says “A reversal design, also called an ABA design” was used, it does not provide enough detail to substantiate the specific ABA sequence implied by the definition.; The definition should stay within what the source explicitly supports; the current wording adds methodological detail not given in the packet.; The packet does not explicitly support the definition’s description that the method “introduce[s], remove[s], and then reintroduce[s]” the condition across periods (the packet only states it was used “with and without” the nudge’s presence).; The packet supports only that a reversal design, also called an ABA design, was used with and without the nudge’s presence to investigate its impact; it does not support the fuller procedural description of introducing, removing, and reintroducing a condition across periods.; The packet supports that the design was used to investigate whether hygienic behavior changed with the nudge’s presence, but it does not provide explicit support for the additional claim that it is used “to test whether an observed effect is linked to the condition itself.”; The statement that the design is used to test whether an observed effect is linked to the condition itself is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet. New packet required. Source: [Mobekk Hilde; Hessen Dag Olav; Fagerstrøm Asle; Jacobsen Hanne. For Your Eyes Only: A Field Experiment on Nudging Hygienic Behavior. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.603440; article XML SHA-256 afa426ccf0816475a5484b85069f35f36426d7959329db30f0b0283f5942b6a6. “For Your Eyes Only: A Field Experiment on Nudging Hygienic Behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.603440).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.603440) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reversible dementia [redraft]: The definition adds a general clinical characterization of reversible dementia that is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source.; The first substantive sentence defines “reversible dementia” as dementia-like cognitive decline that can improve or be undone when an underlying cause is addressed; the packet does not provide or support this general definition.; The packet supports that idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus is described as a leading cause of reversible dementia in older adults, but it does not support the broader definition that reversible dementia is generally a dementia-like cognitive decline that improves or is undone when the underlying cause is addressed. New packet required. Source: [Park Rahel; Chevalier Claire; Kieser Silas; Marizzoni Moira; Paquis Arthur; Armand Stephane; Scheffler Max; Allali Gilles; Assal Frederic; Momjian Shahan; Frisoni Giovanni B.. Gut microbiome signatures in iNPH: Insights from a shotgun metagenomics study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330251; article XML SHA-256 b41f4bdec366b4cee5f28ffc9936374f66867ef0a9530adddba10bdd35a690b4. “Gut microbiome signatures in iNPH: Insights from a shotgun metagenomics study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330251).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330251) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reversion [redraft]: The definition generalizes to “values” and “usual level/typical level,” but the source only explains data points in relation to a long-term average after deviating from the mean; it does not establish the broader wording used here.; The definition’s wording is largely compatible with the packet’s description of “mean reversion,” but the provided field (“learning”) is not supported by the packet.; The packet discusses mean reversion as a time-series/statistical concept applied to CPI/egg prices and PPI, and does not support using the term specifically in a “learning” field or as a learning-related construct.; The packet supports mean reversion in a time-series/economic context, not the psychology/learning field requested here.; The source describes a statistical phenomenon for egg prices and the PPI, so the requested sense of the term is not sufficiently supported for a learning dictionary entry. New packet required. Source: [Sarasola-Cullen Aitor; Gil-Alana Luis Alberiko. Average egg price: Mean reversion and persistence in a time series approach. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337054; article XML SHA-256 9e97d129bbd2fdc1faeb417a9cb9a8a48924e4e572c66b241226ce922d967723. “Average egg price: Mean reversion and persistence in a time series approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337054).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337054) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Reversol [redraft]: Because the agent identity for the eye-effects portion is not consistently supported in the packet, the statement about using Reversol in the eye to increase fluid outflow and lower intraocular pressure is not fully defensible from the provided text.; The definition adds a specific naming relationship that is not stated in the packet; only the pharmacologic description of edrophonium chloride is supported.; The packet contains an internal inconsistency: it begins by describing edrophonium chloride, but later says “Echothiophate chloride potentiates…” (the definition attributes the described eye effects to Reversol/edrophonium without support for that specific pairing).; The packet does not state that “Reversol” is the drug name for edrophonium chloride; it discusses “edrophonium” without providing a Reversol-to-edrophonium mapping.; The packet supports edrophonium chloride, but it does not support the claim that the term "Reversol" is a drug name for edrophonium chloride or that Reversol is the source label/synonym. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Edrophonium Chloride” (C47507).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- reward system [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory summary that is broader than the packet’s wording and is not directly supported by the supplied text.; The definition attributes a general role (“producing rewarding effects and related behavior”) beyond what the packet specifically supports (it only mentions behavioral changes such as euphoria linked to dopamine release in the mesocorticolimbic system).; The definition’s first sentence (“The reward system is a brain system involved in producing rewarding effects and related behavior”) is not explicitly stated anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define the reward system as a general brain system that produces rewarding effects and related behavior; it only says the mesocorticolimbic system is a major component of the brain reward system and that dextroamphetamine induces dopamine release with effects such as euphoria.; The packet provided is a descriptor record for dextroamphetamine and mainly discusses dopamine release and euphoria within the mesocorticolimbic system; it does not present a learning-focused account of the “reward system.” New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Dextroamphetamine” (C28981).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ribosome [redraft]: The opening clause gives a general definition of ribosome as a cellular structure that reads mRNA, but the supplied packet does not define ribosome in general; it only discusses stalled ribosomes and related factors.; The packet does not explicitly state that ribosomes are “involved in reading mRNA.”; The packet does support that HBS1L–PELO recognizes “ribosomes stalled on non-stop mRNAs” and promotes ribosome splitting, and that SKI7 mediates mRNA decay on stalled ribosomes, but the definition’s first clause about ribosomes’ mRNA-reading role is unsupported by the packet.; The packet states that UBAh has been predicted to interact with ubiquitin moieties attached to the small subunits of stalled ribosomes, but also says “evidence for its interaction with ubiquitin is lacking.” The definition presents “small subunits may carry ubiquitin marks” as a general possibility without staying strictly within the packet’s stated prediction/evidence limitations.; The wording broadens the source beyond what it states, turning a specific article about stalled-ribosome recognition into a general definition of ribosome. New packet required. Source: [Nameki Nobukazu; He Fahu; Okada Minako; Takahashi Mari; Tsuda Kengo; Nagata Takashi; Güntert Peter; Kobayashi Naohiro; Kigawa Takanori; Shirouzu Mikako; Tanaka Akiko; Yokoyama Shigeyuki; Muto Yutaka; Kuwasako Kanako. Solution structure of mouse HBS1L/SKI7-specific UBA domain in complex with ubiquitin: Implications for stalled ribosome recognition. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348877; article XML SHA-256 6cbb76bbb4cdde43970571d7a67ba7fb625ee732d34d9a41c493377828b1a93e. “Solution structure of mouse HBS1L/SKI7-specific UBA domain in complex with ubiquitin: Implications for stalled ribosome recognition” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348877).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348877) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rich medium [redraft]: The definition adds context about programmed cell death in bacterial cells, which is specific to the source article and not a general dictionary definition in the requested field.; The definition explicitly ties the meaning to “programmed cell death in the bacterial cells studied,” which is outside mental health and therefore not defensible for the specified field.; The packet supports a microbiology meaning of “rich medium,” not a mental health/counselling sense, so the requested field is not defensible.; The provided packet defines “rich medium” in a microbiology context (Xanthomonas programmed cell death), not in a mental-health/psychology counselling context as indicated by the requested field. New packet required. Source: [Wadhawan Surbhi; Gautam Satyendra; Sharma Arun. Involvement of Proline Oxidase (PutA) in Programmed Cell Death of Xanthomonas. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0096423; article XML SHA-256 72136c14549b6afba955f53e545bb8ee65373ba27ac12f2c8832a225719f4118. “Involvement of Proline Oxidase (PutA) in Programmed Cell Death of Xanthomonas” (10.1371/journal.pone.0096423).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0096423) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ridge regression [redraft]: The claim that this method is valued for producing more robust and interpretable results in small datasets with highly overlapping predictors is not supported for ridge regression specifically; the packet discusses that kind of robustness/interpretablility mainly in relation to regularized linear models overall, and explicitly highlights Elastic Net rather than ridge regression.; The definition adds a broader methodological/general-purpose description that goes beyond the supplied source text, which does not provide enough support for those substantive claims.; The definition’s claims about ridge regression specifically producing “more robust and interpretable results” under “small” datasets and “highly overlapping” predictors are not supported as statements about ridge regression; the packet reports these advantages for regularized linear models overall and specifically highlights Elastic Net as most stable/interpretable.; The packet does not define ridge regression; it only lists ridge regression as one of several benchmarked algorithms.; The packet mentions ridge regression only as one of several benchmarked regression algorithms; it does not define ridge regression as a regularized linear regression method or describe its use for modeling and prediction.; The packet references multicollinearity and limited observations in the context of Elastic Net’s dominance (sparsity + coefficient shrinkage), not ridge regression. New packet required. Source: [Atılgan Sarıdoğan Ayşe; Erkal Zekeriya Emre; Küçükgergerli Nabi; Ertürk Muzaffer; Emeç Murat; Yaman Adem. A machine learning approach to behavioral signals of burnout in audit and control professions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792200; article XML SHA-256 870591678d941c203cf66be9844b6e8c134f3d7b3765e2510f600230b3bf9681. “A machine learning approach to behavioral signals of burnout in audit and control professions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792200).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792200) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- right censoring [redraft]: Field issue: the supplied packet discusses mortality/life-table estimation and life expectancy distortion, not cognition; the definition is therefore not supported as belonging to the “cognition” field.; The definition adds an explanatory generalization about incomplete data at the high end; the packet specifically supports right-censoring in life tables with a last open-ended age group and severer censoring from aggregating deaths there, rather than a broad generic definition in this field.; The final sentence about distorting life expectancy is supported, but the entry still does not fit the requested field sense.; The term is supported, but the supplied field is not defensible here: the packet uses right censoring in a mortality/life-table and life-expectancy context, not a cognition psychology/counselling context.; While the definition’s description of right censoring and its impact on life expectancy is supported by the packet, the requested field (“cognition”) is not supported by the provided source packet. New packet required. Source: [Németh László; Missov Trifon I. Adequate life-expectancy reconstruction for adult human mortality data. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0198485; article XML SHA-256 01891f9c50629f57de8bc6b1814740906e1643997ae466ca8c94c9a57f49022b. “Adequate life-expectancy reconstruction for adult human mortality data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0198485).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0198485) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- riot [redraft]: Defines riot by the study's framing of responder stress and combat mindset rather than what the term means. New packet required. Source: [Sørensen Knut Mellingsæter; Boe Ole; Lund Per Eirik. Exploring the combat mindset approach during a major prison riot. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738405; article XML SHA-256 577ffe19951f91e37a604ddd226b576de0427997b2aedd1e964af2f026d2791e. “Exploring the combat mindset approach during a major prison riot” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738405).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1738405) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- risk-as-feelings theory [redraft]: The definition claims that “perceived HIV risk reflects an immediate feeling-based sense… rather than an accurate assessment of actual risk”; the packet supports that impressions of HIV risk can form “in a split second” and “despite a lack of information about the actual risk profile,” but it does not explicitly frame the basis as a “feeling-based sense” or contrast it in the exact terms used.; The definition describes the theory broadly as driving “judgments about danger” by “rapid emotional impressions or intuitions”; the packet only supports reliance on “intuition” for identifying HIV risk and does not explicitly support “emotional impressions” or danger judgments beyond HIV risk.; The definition generalizes to “who seems safe or risky”; the packet supports “judgments of HIV risk” and “first impressions,” including a “safeness” factor, but does not explicitly support the specific “who seems safe or risky” phrasing as the core mechanism.; The definition overgeneralizes beyond the packet, which is about first impressions of HIV risk; it does not support a broad claim about judgments about danger in general.; “Rapid emotional impressions” is not directly supported by the source; the packet supports intuition, split-second impressions, and judgments of HIV risk, but not a general emotional-process definition of the theory. New packet required. Source: [Renner Britta; Schmälzle Ralf; Schupp Harald T.. First Impressions of HIV Risk: It Takes Only Milliseconds to Scan a Stranger. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0030460; article XML SHA-256 b867b91c62b0bb9a1d297cd8070bb2b3b7c22d1bc68b5322cbb8e25bd5f11a4d. “First Impressions of HIV Risk: It Takes Only Milliseconds to Scan a Stranger” (10.1371/journal.pone.0030460).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030460) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- risk ratio [redraft]: The only substantive “risk ratio” content in the packet is the reported use of “adjusted risk ratio [aRR]” for specific correlates, without any stated definition or interpretation of the metric.; The packet does not explain that values above 1 mean higher risk, nor does it mention a reference group or the general interpretation of adjusted risk ratios after accounting for other factors.; The packet reports adjusted risk ratios (aRRs) in a study, but it does not define risk ratio as a general measure or state that it compares one group with another.; The provided packet does not define “risk ratio” or “adjusted risk ratio,” nor does it explain what the numeric directionality (e.g., “values above 1 indicate higher risk”) means. New packet required. Source: [Li Xinyu; Stickley Andrew; Cai Yuanxuan; Gai Yilin; Bjørklund Geir; Li Yunfei; Jiang Fan; Chen Shanquan. National prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of potential depression, anxiety, and suicidality among the young population in Kazakhstan: a national population-based study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05618-8; article XML SHA-256 299f592a48453278550d6e5055d92fb0f20d95e68ef662895514f9602c151cc1. “National prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of potential depression, anxiety, and suicidality among the young population in Kazakhstan: a national population-based study” (10.1186/s40359-026-05618-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05618-8) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- risk sensitivity [redraft]: The first sentence adds a general definition of risk sensitivity as an ability to notice and respond to risky situations; the packet only supports its use in a checklist as an indicator of workers’ awareness of dangers, not that broader sense.; The packet does not explicitly define “risk sensitivity” as a person’s “ability to notice and respond to risky situations”; it only states that a “risk sensitivity and risk-taking checklist” was used.; The packet does not provide enough detail to justify the definition’s framing as “risk sensitivity” being used specifically for “identifying unsafe behavior and workers’ awareness of hazards” (it says it was used to identify unsafe behavior types and to assess awareness of dangers, but the exact “hazards/unsafe behavior checklist” linkage is not directly described beyond that context).; The packet supports that the checklist relates to workers’ awareness of dangers in industrial workplaces, but the definition’s broader phrasing about “awareness of danger” as a general personal capacity is not explicitly stated.; The proposed field is not well supported by the source, which is about an industrial unsafe-behavior checklist rather than learning as a psychology topic. New packet required. Source: [Kim Myung-Hee; Hong Jin-Hyuk; Moon Byung-Jo; Lee Woo-Je; Jung Jin-Woo. Development and validation of an unsafe behavior checklist for workers. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0314571; article XML SHA-256 9cba9024030319a311bdc0ebb5bcadcc96ac15c488e73fd616cd32d8dd71bdc5. “Development and validation of an unsafe behavior checklist for workers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0314571).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0314571) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- risk tolerance [redraft]: The definition should stay within the source’s specific sense: peer reviewers’ valuation of risk in research proposals. The broader generalization to how a person judges any option is unsupported by the packet.; The definition’s first sentence (“Risk tolerance is the degree to which a person is willing to accept uncertainty or possible weaknesses when judging an option.”) is not stated or clearly supported by the packet’s text; the packet discusses risk tolerance in peer review as an unstudied construct, but does not provide this general, person-centered definitional wording.; The first sentence gives a broad general definition of “risk tolerance” as willingness to accept uncertainty or weaknesses, but the packet does not define the term that way; it only discusses peer reviewers’ risk tolerance in the context of proposal evaluation.; The second sentence contains claims about the source’s intended meaning (“...how willing peer reviewers are to accept risk in research proposals rather than favoring safer, more incremental projects.”). While the packet does mention preferences for lower risk, incremental projects and that peer reviewers’ risk tolerance is examined in mock evaluations, it does not explicitly define risk tolerance in exactly these terms, so this specific characterization is not fully supported as a definition. New packet required. Source: [Gallo Stephen A; Schmaling Karen B. Peer review: Risk and risk tolerance. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0273813; article XML SHA-256 cbc093f7261c0d23115808334f785fef1341bf6ffde7c82e398f9142717d93b5. “Peer review: Risk and risk tolerance” (10.1371/journal.pone.0273813).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273813) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Ritalin [redraft]: The definition says it “appears to increase activity in … arousal and alertness,” but the packet specifically mentions activation of the “brain stem arousal system and cortex” and does not mention “alertness.”; The definition states that “Ritalin is a brand name for methylphenidate hydrochloride,” but the packet only describes methylphenidate hydrochloride as a synthetic central nervous system stimulant and does not support the claim that Ritalin is its brand name.; The packet does not state that Ritalin is a brand name; it identifies the substance as methylphenidate hydrochloride.; The wording about increasing activity in brain systems involved in arousal and alertness is broader than the packet’s support, which refers specifically to activating the brain stem arousal system and cortex to produce a stimulant effect.; While “may improve cognitive function” is supported, the rest of the surrounding phrasing (“increase activity… in… arousal and alertness” and the “brand name” framing) is not fully supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Methylphenidate Hydrochloride” (C646).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rivalry [redraft]: Packet defines emulation, not rivalry; 'especially through imitation' and 'personal victory' are not the headword's sense. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Emulation (in education)” (Emulation (in education)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Emulation (in education)) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- RL [redraft]: The definition adds general reinforcement-learning theory that is not stated in the supplied source text, so the substantive sense is not fully supported by the packet alone.; The packet describes mapping how RL is applied for epidemic NPI design (modeling choices, architectures, evaluation practices), but it does not explicitly support the definition’s characterization of RL as “using learning algorithms to guide decision-making based on how different choices perform.”; The packet supports that RL is being discussed in the context of epidemic NPI design and evaluation practices, but it does not define RL as ‘a learning approach’ that ‘uses learning algorithms to guide decision-making based on how different choices perform.’; The packet text does not explicitly state that “RL” stands for “reinforcement learning,” nor does it provide the term expansion. New packet required. Source: [Bolshov Oleksandr; Chumachenko Dmytro. Reinforcement learning for policymaking in epidemic control: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351176; article XML SHA-256 9f908c97ebc3ac8d575003b65d22e57cdbaafae37b2fa425cecd603a04f982c0. “Reinforcement learning for policymaking in epidemic control: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351176).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351176) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Robaxin [redraft]: Because the “Robaxin”↔“methocarbamol” identification is unsupported by the packet, the definition’s requested term sense is not fully defensible.; The mechanism claim is only partially supported: the packet says the exact mechanism was not established and gives a specific postulated pathway (acetylcholinesterase inhibition), rather than the broader ‘nervous-system pathways’ wording used here.; The packet does not state that Robaxin is a brand name for methocarbamol; it only provides a descriptor record for methocarbamol.; The packet supports methocarbamol as a carbamate with centrally acting muscle relaxant properties, but it does not state that Robaxin is a brand name for methocarbamol. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Methocarbamol” (C29252).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- robot [redraft]: 'In this social-psychology context, a robot is a machine ... that can display facial expressions' narrows a general headword. New packet required. Source: [Chengxing Xu; Ying Fu; Aonini Ren; Qiong Wang. The association between emotional arousal and color lightness of facial digital expressions of social robots. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1677997; article XML SHA-256 a20e391ae9cd9b651073d4e8e79f56c919dfd237d12a706b438d2fbbd6cdc183. “The association between emotional arousal and color lightness of facial digital expressions of social robots” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1677997).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1677997) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- robustness [redraft]: 'In this context' hedge turns general headword into cross-cultural measurement robustness mentioned once in passing. New packet required. Source: [Solum Haakon; Stephenson Zoe. Measuring beliefs about free will: a critical review of the Free Will Inventory. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1818622; article XML SHA-256 5373f87c1ab959fe96f3a6d1944068cb83553246446f347bad69ba96dcf26b0e. “Measuring beliefs about free will: a critical review of the Free Will Inventory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1818622).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1818622) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Rolandic cortex [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported anatomical claim that Rolandic cortex is a part of the motor cortex; the packet only shows it is a region from which motor-cortex responses were measured and does not define its location or equivalence.; The definition’s first sentence claims that “Rolandic cortex is a part of the motor cortex involved in controlling movement,” but the supplied packet does not explicitly define Rolandic cortex as controlling movement (it mentions motor cortex and that oscillatory activity plays a role in cognition, perception and motor control, and it analyzes Rolandic cortex responses, but it does not make the requested definitional statement about movement control).; The wording also goes beyond the packet by presenting Rolandic cortex as generally “involved in controlling movement,” whereas the source only reports an association between Rolandic activity and motor impairment in children with epilepsy.; While the packet supports linking altered Rolandic cortex responses (excessive gamma-band activation) and ictal desynchronization with motor impairment in children with epilepsy, those points are not presented as a simple “altered activity and disrupted synchronization” definition for the term beyond what the study text shows. New packet required. Source: [Doesburg Sam M.; Ibrahim George M.; Smith Mary Lou; Sharma Rohit; Viljoen Amrita; Chu Bill; Rutka James T.; Snead O. Carter; Pang Elizabeth W.. Altered Rolandic Gamma-Band Activation Associated with Motor Impairment and Ictal Network Desynchronization in Childhood Epilepsy. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0054943; article XML SHA-256 d308d72822628fcaa7f0d841a5006ce30208094df89a4cbc38ec244a7a5b8a70. “Altered Rolandic Gamma-Band Activation Associated with Motor Impairment and Ictal Network Desynchronization in Childhood Epilepsy” (10.1371/journal.pone.0054943).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0054943) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- role ambiguity [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported details such as lacking “enough clarity, information, or support to understand what is expected for their role”; the packet only states that role ambiguity is a structural problem arising from a lack of clarity from top management.; The definition’s elements about “clarity, information, or support” and “expected for their role” are not present in the supplied packet text.; The packet does not support the definition’s description of role ambiguity as an “unclear work situation” or that people “do not have enough clarity, information, or support to understand what is expected for their role.”; The packet only explicitly states that “role ambiguity is a structural problem emerging from a lack of clarity from top management,” which does not cover the broader “information/support” and “what is expected for their role” phrasing.; The packet supports a narrower sense tied to management-created ambiguity, not the broader generic work-situation definition given here. New packet required. Source: [Maisonneuve Francis; Groulx Patrick; Galy Anaïs; Chênevert Denis; Cossette Michel. The cost of protecting resources: a cross-sectional study on the interaction between LMX and role ambiguity on work addiction and burnout among Canadian first-level healthcare managers. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1298001; article XML SHA-256 b4e49338d4b994c295172c3302420439711ced92bb88102c6f881f4535b70c7c. “The cost of protecting resources: a cross-sectional study on the interaction between LMX and role ambiguity on work addiction and burnout among Canadian first-level healthcare managers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1298001).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1298001) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- role expectations [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence is more expansive than the packet’s support, which is limited to a self-reinforcing flywheel effect of gender role expectations in work groups.; The packet discusses *gender role expectations* in diverse work groups, but the definition is written more generally as “role expectations” without restricting to gender role expectations; that broader usage is not directly supported by the packet.; The packet supports gender role expectations in work groups, not the broader generic term role expectations, so the definition generalizes beyond the supplied source.; While the packet supports that gender role expectations involve task/job allocation and self-reinforcing processes, the definition’s generic wording (“what people in a given role are like… what work or responsibilities they are suited for”) is not clearly stated in the packet as such; the packet frames expectations via three specific mechanisms (allocation of jobs/tasks/responsibilities; perceivers’ behavior; targets’ behavior) rather than in general role-suitability terms.; “Beliefs about what people in a given role are like” and “what work or responsibilities they are suited for” are broader than what the packet states; it discusses expectations shaping job/task/responsibility allocation, perceivers’ behavior, and targets’ behavior. New packet required. Source: [van Dijk Hans; van Engen Marloes L.. The Flywheel Effect of Gender Role Expectations in Diverse Work Groups. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00976; article XML SHA-256 db794b09acaef3f40961b224f80f67ffd60d40637cfcfb96772e2b994431b0bf. “The Flywheel Effect of Gender Role Expectations in Diverse Work Groups” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00976).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00976) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- role overload [redraft]: The definition’s core description (“more demands … than they can comfortably handle”) is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text.; The opening definition (“a situation in which a person’s role places more demands on them than they can comfortably handle”) is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source text.; The packet supports role overload as a mixed stressor associated with withdrawal and job crafting, but it does not support the broader general definition of the term as written.; While the packet supports that role overload is treated as a “mixed stressor” and is linked to withdrawal and job crafting, it does not provide the specific “comfortably handle” framing. New packet required. Source: [Huang Bo; Ma Lina; Xia Wei. The Mixed Effect of Role Overload on Extra-Role Performance: The Mediation Role of Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Activation System Responses. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.748732; article XML SHA-256 cc2f2ecf91a8de1c8da03a59e32a78b67667ec1dcc761233b10631646661b4a4. “The Mixed Effect of Role Overload on Extra-Role Performance: The Mediation Role of Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Activation System Responses” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.748732).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.748732) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- role taking [redraft]: Well-known perspective-taking headword redefined as a ritual practice the packet lists in passing. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Xusheng; Wang Qi. A ritual way of ageing well: a qualitative study of a comprehensive, culturally grounded ritual-based health programme for older adults in urban China. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887093; article XML SHA-256 3dbef4116c8eb6da0f38cadf5d30e063c460b2b8d4496f371f5cb8b14645c869. “A ritual way of ageing well: a qualitative study of a comprehensive, culturally grounded ritual-based health programme for older adults in urban China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887093).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1887093) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rootedness [redraft]: The definition should stay tighter to the packet’s wording and scope, which emphasizes emotional commitment, emotional resonance, and teacher retention in rural schools.; The definition specifies “rural teachers’ growing connection … through emotional engagement, commitment, and resonance with school culture,” which is broadly aligned with the packet’s focus on these elements, but the added phrasing “attached to and settled within a place or institution” is not supported in the packet.; The definition’s claim that this “supports staying in their work setting” is only indirectly supported by the packet’s statement that emotional labor “sustains teacher retention”; the exact causal framing “supports staying” is not stated verbatim.; The first sentence generalizes beyond the packet by defining rootedness as attachment to any “place or institution”; the source only supports rootedness in the specific context of rural teachers’ relationship to their schools/countryside.; The packet does not explicitly define rootedness as a “person’s emotionally grounded sense of being attached to and settled within a place or institution”; it describes rural teachers’ “rootedness” via emotional engagement with school culture, emotional commitment, and emotional resonance rather than a general definition matching the wording about being “settled.”; The proposed field, cognition, is not well supported by the source packet, which frames rootedness as an emotional/social construct in a qualitative study of rural teachers and school culture rather than a cognition term. New packet required. Source: [Shuai Zhen; Zhang Ying; Li Jiayin; Zhou Yunhan; Xue Chenpeng; Xu Jie. Emotional vernacular boundaries: participation in school culture boosts the emotional logic of rural teachers' rootedness in the countryside—a qualitative study from China. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755357; article XML SHA-256 75ced8fc56ca301acde1896c54ea608f78ad87f6abbe734ae2d9e5910111ddce. “Emotional vernacular boundaries: participation in school culture boosts the emotional logic of rural teachers' rootedness in the countryside—a qualitative study from China” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755357).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755357) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rotational error [redraft]: The claim that rotational error is used as a measure of how closely the robot’s movement matches the intended path is not supported by the packet; the packet separately mentions that the approach closely followed the theoretical path.; The packet does not define “rotational error” or explain its meaning (e.g., that it is an angular inaccuracy in estimated orientation).; The packet does not support the claim that rotational error is used “as a measure of how closely the robot’s movement matches the intended path,” nor does it describe that relationship.; The packet only provides a numeric result (“rotational error was reduced to 1.86°”) without stating that the measure is “reported in degrees” as the definition requires.; The provided field (“biological”) is unsupported by the packet, which describes robot-dog autonomous navigation methods rather than a biological/psychological context.; The source only says the robot dog’s rotational error was reduced to 1.86°; it does not define rotational error as the robot’s estimated orientation error or say it is reported as such. New packet required. Source: [Zou Hongliang; Zhou Chen; Li Haibo; Wang Xueyan; Wang Yinmei. Application of 3D point cloud and visual-inertial data fusion in Robot dog autonomous navigation. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317371; article XML SHA-256 3b72c0ed530e35bb7d6934ec75aab23be7e057b3c90ba311cd33cb6e518b5cd4. “Application of 3D point cloud and visual-inertial data fusion in Robot dog autonomous navigation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317371).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317371) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rote learning [redraft]: The packet describes “imitative reasoning and rote learning” and contrasts it with methods aimed at conceptual understanding and problem-solving, but it does not explicitly define rote learning as “depending mainly on imitation and repetition.”; The packet does not provide enough support for the specific claim that rote learning “depends mainly on … repetition” (repetition is not clearly specified as a defining feature in the supplied text).; The packet supports a contrast between rote learning/imitative reasoning and creative mathematical reasoning that aims to improve conceptual understanding and problem-solving, but it does not mention repetition as part of the definition.; The wording generalizes beyond the packet by defining rote learning as depending mainly on repetition, which is not stated in the source text.; The “contrasted with approaches … by having students construct their own solution methods” portion is only partially supported: the packet mentions allowing students to construct their own solution methods, but it does not clearly frame that as a contrast to rote learning itself in the definitional sense. New packet required. Source: [Jonsson Bert; Mossegård Julia; Lithner Johan; Karlsson Wirebring Linnea. Creative Mathematical Reasoning: Does Need for Cognition Matter?. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.797807; article XML SHA-256 405788b3d79f3fc9c6adfc973dd9e4c0052d9434620d8795a2171c897431366d. “Creative Mathematical Reasoning: Does Need for Cognition Matter?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.797807).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.797807) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- round window [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define the round window as a “small cochlear area” or state that it is an anatomical “local access point” into the inner ear; it only describes “local delivery … to the round-window niche.”; The packet supports round-window delivery to the cochlea, but it does not define the round window as a “small cochlear area.”; The second sentence’s claims about using delivery at the round-window niche to reach the cochlea and affect noise-related synaptic damage are supported, but the first sentence contains unsupported anatomical/functional characterization.; “Inner ear” is not stated in the source; that part relies on external anatomical knowledge rather than the packet itself. New packet required. Source: [Choi Ji Eun; Carpena Nathaniel T; Lee Jae-Hun; Chang So-Young; Lee Min Young; Jung Jae Yun; Chung Won-Ho. Round-window delivery of lithium chloride regenerates cochlear synapses damaged by noise-induced excitotoxic trauma via inhibition of the NMDA receptor in the rat. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0284626; article XML SHA-256 be050461d95fb9f72cc4336c9f50c4ce37f01f4c93aa9a36bb537bdbcae8b89f. “Round-window delivery of lithium chloride regenerates cochlear synapses damaged by noise-induced excitotoxic trauma via inhibition of the NMDA receptor in the rat” (10.1371/journal.pone.0284626).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284626) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- RP [redraft]: The definition claims disease changes can progress “before a person notices clear symptoms.” The packet mentions “limited subjective symptoms” and that detecting early stages is challenging, but it does not specifically support the phrasing that changes progress before a person notices “clear” symptoms.; The definition gives the medical sense “retinitis pigmentosa,” but the requested field is cognition, so the sense is not supported for this entry.; The definition says pigmentation is “often in the outer retina,” while the packet specifies abnormal fundus findings “mainly pigmentation, in the periphery” (it does not support “outer retina”).; The definition states the light-sensing cells “gradually degenerate,” but the packet only says RP is caused by “degeneration of photoreceptors” and does not explicitly support a gradual course.; The packet supports RP as a serious eye disease caused by degeneration of retinal photoreceptors and associated with abnormal peripheral fundus findings, but it does not support the added claim that changes “can progress before a person notices clear symptoms” as a general definitional statement.; The wording “abnormal pigmentation seen on fundus images, often in the outer retina” overstates and reshapes the packet’s description, which says pigmentation is seen in the periphery on fundus images; “outer retina” is not stated in the source. New packet required. Source: [Ubukata Saki; Masayoshi Kanato; Katada Yusaku; Yang Lizhu; Ozawa Nobuhiro; Ibuki Mari; Negishi Kazuno; Kurihara Toshihide. Fundus image analysis of retinitis pigmentosa using artificial intelligence. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354452; article XML SHA-256 3eb8f28cb2dad42711a6f654bf77015419561f0f08cc995cf49ebd28d27f730d. “Fundus image analysis of retinitis pigmentosa using artificial intelligence” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354452).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354452) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rubrospinal tract [redraft]: The claim that it is one of the "motor projection tracts" is not stated in the packet and is therefore unsupported.; The packet supports that RST involves axons from neurons in the red nucleus and can be labeled to study axon regeneration after injury, but it does not explicitly describe the rubrospinal tract as “one of the motor projection tracts.”; The packet supports that the rubrospinal tract (RST) is a long-projection axon tract and that scAAV2-GFP can label RST axons, but it does not explicitly support the added anatomical definition that it is a spinal cord pathway formed by fibers from neurons in the red nucleus.; The phrase "in this source" is misleading here because the packet does not specifically characterize the rubrospinal tract in the way the definition states; it only mentions labeling RST axons for regeneration studies. New packet required. Source: [Liu Yingpeng; Keefe Kathy; Tang Xiaoqing; Lin Shen; Smith George M.. Use of Self-Complementary Adeno-Associated Virus Serotype 2 as a Tracer for Labeling Axons: Implications for Axon Regeneration. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0087447; article XML SHA-256 ecf4844720f43122b7c4ae9d5eac3cf56a3f13c7b53f7a755a48153f4e5581ad. “Use of Self-Complementary Adeno-Associated Virus Serotype 2 as a Tracer for Labeling Axons: Implications for Axon Regeneration” (10.1371/journal.pone.0087447).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0087447) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- rule [redraft]: Headword is 'rule' but definition defines the phrase 'rule out'. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. PANS and PANDAS: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 492b8d282e63ff7c47c9c126c6ee286e5bcb517442c5e4a8f3a668f35e391832. “PANS and PANDAS: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- rumination [redraft]: Headword 'rumination' defined as rumination disorder, the eating disorder, not the general psychological sense. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Rumination Disorder” (C92567).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- running wheel [redraft]: Generalises 'motor-driven' from one special system to all running wheels; wrong general sense. New packet required. Source: [Chen Chi-Chun; Chang Ming-Wen; Chang Ching-Ping; Chang Wen-Ying; Chang Shin-Chieh; Lin Mao-Tsun; Yang Chin-Lung. Improved Infrared-Sensing Running Wheel Systems with an Effective Exercise Activity Indicator. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0122394; article XML SHA-256 ae4551e54ddcd07f7d08a7632101ede9018431da0a15ce552dfdc271261d8bc0. “Improved Infrared-Sensing Running Wheel Systems with an Effective Exercise Activity Indicator” (10.1371/journal.pone.0122394).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0122394) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- SA [redraft]: The definition’s framing as general awareness/understanding of a “changing situation” is broader than what the packet specifically states (it focuses on reconstructing mental representations of a dynamically changing traffic situation during transition of control).; The packet does not define SA as a general state of “awareness and mental understanding”; it only discusses SA in the context of automated-vehicle takeover and reconstruction of a mental representation.; The packet does not explicitly support defining SA as “awareness and mental understanding” or as enabling a person to “respond appropriately”; the text instead discusses determinants of SA, SA recovery, and reconstructing a mental representation during takeover.; The phrase “during a transfer of control” is broadly supported, but the wording “an accurate picture of the traffic environment” goes beyond the packet’s wording and is not established as the source’s definition.; “So they can respond appropriately” is not supported by the packet as a definition of SA. New packet required. Source: [Wan Jian; Zeng Yue; Liu Huayu; Ma Yulin. Impact of SA-related visual characteristics on driver takeover reaction time in L3 automated vehicles: an eye-movement-based evaluation method. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881353; article XML SHA-256 30adcbfcd69a30174f884f917e923eae436f428915480128243a74859422b4a8. “Impact of SA-related visual characteristics on driver takeover reaction time in L3 automated vehicles: an eye-movement-based evaluation method” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881353).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881353) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- salience hypothesis [redraft]: Headword is salience hypothesis but definition smuggles the mortality salience hypothesis via an in-this-packet hedge. New packet required. Source: [Lu Kexin; Gao Yang; Ni Yichen; Li Hong. Crisis conformity as affiliation defense under mortality salience: a TMT perspective. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1597502; article XML SHA-256 1bc722db482c2a53f6812c261fc2c68f58538590a050cd26ddeb440accbb6a31. “Crisis conformity as affiliation defense under mortality salience: a TMT perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1597502).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1597502) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- saline [redraft]: The definition generalizes from the article’s specific setting; the packet supports saline-alkali farmland and reduced soil salinity, but not a broader dictionary sense of saline as any land “that contains enough dissolved salt to affect agricultural use and productivity.”; The packet does not support using the *social* field for this term; the provided text describes coastal saline-alkali farmland and agricultural outcomes (cropping patterns, soil salinity, productivity), not social psychology or social constructs.; The packet uses saline in an agricultural/soil context (“coastal saline-alkali farmland,” “soil salinization”), not a social/psychology sense, so the field is not defensible here. New packet required. Source: [Ma Hongliang; Yang Dongxu; Song Maoxing; Zhang Shangqing; Wang Chen; Yang Mengying; Li Tong; Yin Zhengyu; Bian Yunting; Peng Cheng; Wang Mochu; Wu Peng; Zhao Xiaoxue; Yuan Guomin; Lu Qing; Wu Zhihui. Comparative evaluation of major cropping patterns in coastal saline-alkali lands: Economic, ecological, and social benefits. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0353467; article XML SHA-256 cc9333c93defefde124c69194e75e65e12e2ed9d204d0cbfc30a7a4faef76423. “Comparative evaluation of major cropping patterns in coastal saline-alkali lands: Economic, ecological, and social benefits” (10.1371/journal.pone.0353467).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0353467) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- salivary gland [redraft]: The definition adopts the leech-specific biological meaning but is being evaluated under the requested field of mental health, which the packet does not support.; The packet’s content is about the salivary glands of a medicinal leech (*Hirudo nipponia*), not anything directly connected to mental health.; The term is an anatomical/biological structure, not a mental health or psychology/counselling concept, so the field is not defensible here. New packet required. Source: [Cai Meixiang; Shen Hongying; Xing Yueting; Wang Weimin; Guan Feng; Luo Yuanyuan. Starvation-induced changes in the proteome and transcriptome of the salivary glands of leech ( Hirudo nipponia). 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0304453; article XML SHA-256 752e0cceba425599b9fd2e43802877c30263d170cf1cc5ac8c6f2be284ab02dd. “Starvation-induced changes in the proteome and transcriptome of the salivary glands of leech ( Hirudo nipponia)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0304453).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0304453) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sampling theory [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence generalizes “sampling theory” as a framework for estimating population size/density from samples, but the packet content discusses “distance sampling theory” specifically rather than establishing that this is the requested meaning of the standalone term “sampling theory.”; The packet supports claims about bias in “distance sampling” with constrained, non-systematic transect design, but it does not directly support that same framing as the definition of “sampling theory” in the general sense.; The packet supports distance sampling theory for estimating animal abundance/density, but not the broader general definition of sampling theory as a general framework for estimating population size or density from any sample.; The support is ecological/methodological, not a psychology/social definition of the term in the requested field. New packet required. Source: [Kiffner Christian; Paciência Filipa M D; Henrich Grace; Kaitila Rehema; Chuma Idrissa S; Mbaryo Pay; Knauf Sascha; Kioko John; Zinner Dietmar. Road-based line distance surveys overestimate densities of olive baboons. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0263314; article XML SHA-256 f7979a2581e40c04111eeb9be9c8c252843cabf1e04d3eb66efc5f40e3488135. “Road-based line distance surveys overestimate densities of olive baboons” (10.1371/journal.pone.0263314).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263314) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sampling unit [redraft]: The first sentence gives a general definition (“the item or area that a study treats as one whole…”) that is not stated in the packet; the packet only provides an example that ponds were “treated as a single sampling unit,” without explicitly defining sampling unit in general terms.; The packet content is ecological (pond microhabitats, microalgae, zooplankton), not mental-health research; the definition is therefore not defensibly grounded in the requested field based on the supplied source.; The packet supports an ecological/statistical sense of “sampling unit” (ponds treated as a single sampling unit), not a mental-health usage, so the field/sense is mismatched.; The provided example in the second sentence (“each small pond…”) is supported by the packet (“ponds are usually treated as a single sampling unit”), but the overall definition is not sufficiently supported because the general wording is not present in the source.; The source example is about whole ponds being treated as one sampling unit; the definition’s broader wording (“item or area” in general) is not directly established by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Celewicz-Gołdyn Sofia; Kuczyńska-Kippen Natalia. Ecological value of macrophyte cover in creating habitat for microalgae (diatoms) and zooplankton (rotifers and crustaceans) in small field and forest water bodies. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0177317; article XML SHA-256 11c0fe32f7e9cce2652fe33258c01e99da3b07579451313f3ef636b1734109a1. “Ecological value of macrophyte cover in creating habitat for microalgae (diatoms) and zooplankton (rotifers and crustaceans) in small field and forest water bodies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0177317).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177317) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sanity [redraft]: The definition’s claim that sanity is considered “rather than as a stand-alone clinical procedure” is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The definition’s field/sense framing is a bit too broad for the source packet, which only places sanity within forensic evaluations addressing legally operative questions.; The packet supports that criminal responsibility is a legally operative question in forensic psychological/psychiatric evaluations, but it does not support the broader claim that sanity is generally a “legal question of a person's criminal responsibility” as a dictionary definition beyond that article context.; “Rather than as a stand-alone clinical procedure” is not stated in the packet; the article says it does not propose a new clinical procedure, which is not the same as defining sanity or its use in evaluation. New packet required. Source: [Verde Alfredo; Gritti Emanuela Saveria. Psychological assessment in forensic settings: new methodological conceptions and ethical considerations. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1825338; article XML SHA-256 f481ca559785d50e2a8d7a15555b117f5e3cd21fd484c94cdae1c7ae8f4ee215. “Psychological assessment in forensic settings: new methodological conceptions and ethical considerations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1825338).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1825338) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- satiety center [redraft]: The definition adds interpretive gloss (“brain center whose neurons help regulate food intake”) that is mostly supported, but the key outcome statement goes beyond the supplied text.; The packet states that GIP and GLP-1 regulate food intake by stimulating neurons in the brain’s satiety center, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that this “contribut[es] to reduced eating.”; The packet supports that GIP and GLP-1 stimulate neurons in the brain’s satiety center and play roles in regulating food intake, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that this stimulation contributes to reduced eating. New packet required. Source: [Liu Qiyuan Keith. Mechanisms of action and therapeutic applications of GLP-1 and dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonists. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fendo.2024.1431292; article XML SHA-256 aaf78637a1ee1c27fa133b55b87f1560b2e4e2f7f52e11aa8bed38b9e6d01270. “Mechanisms of action and therapeutic applications of GLP-1 and dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonists” (10.3389/fendo.2024.1431292).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2024.1431292) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- saturation [redraft]: The definition claims that changing saturation “alters how vividly tissue colors appear.” The packet does not describe tissue color vividness generally; it reports effects on measured contrast ratios and visibility of retinal hemorrhage under different monitor saturation settings.; The definition says this can affect how easily “different structures or bleeding” are distinguished visually. The packet specifically discusses distinguishing retinal hemorrhage, but it does not support a broader claim about “different structures” or “bleeding” in general.; The definition states that saturation is the “intensity or purity of a color,” but the packet only reports a specific display parameter (“saturation set to 0…or 20”) on a monitor and does not provide or support a general conceptual definition of saturation as intensity/purity.; The packet supports saturation as a display color setting used in the NGENUITY system, but it does not explicitly support the broad dictionary gloss “the intensity or purity of a color.”; The statement that changing saturation alters how vividly tissue colors appear is not directly stated in the source; the study reports effects on contrast visibility and distinguishability of retinal hemorrhage, not a general definition of saturation. New packet required. Source: [Fukase Saaya; Sakanishi Yoshihito; Matsumoto Keiji; Usui-Ouchi Ayumi; Nakao Shintaro; Ebihara Nobuyuki. Relationship between saturation and contrast during internal limiting membrane peeling in 3D digital vitreoretinal surgery: A retrospective study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337416; article XML SHA-256 b7af34310d3d0a3d3c1e702d8d596898ebceab4230ce7e7126546b06f1b3acc6. “Relationship between saturation and contrast during internal limiting membrane peeling in 3D digital vitreoretinal surgery: A retrospective study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337416).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337416) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- scale [redraft]: The claims that a scale is “a structured measure, often a self-report questionnaire” are not explicitly stated in the packet as the general meaning of the term.; The packet does not provide a definition of “scale” in general psychological assessment terms; it only discusses a specific instrument (SSS-8).; The packet only describes the Somatic Symptom Scale-8 as a brief self-report instrument assessing somatic symptom burden; it does not support a general dictionary definition of “scale” as a structured measure used to estimate a symptom or construct.; The statement that scales are evaluated for norms, validity, and other psychometric properties is directionally supported by the study aims, but it is still too generalized to be established as the definition of the term from this packet alone.; While the packet mentions assessing psychometric properties (e.g., construct validity, factorial validity, measurement invariance) and updated population norms for SSS-8, it does not define “scale” as being evaluated for those qualities in general. New packet required. Source: [Kliem Sören; Lohmann Anna; Fischer Sebastian; Zenger Markus; Baier Dirk; Kruse Johannes; Brähler Elmar; Kampling Hanna. Psychometric evaluation and community norms of the Somatic Symptom Scale-8 based on a representative German sample. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1851921; article XML SHA-256 e2d9e422345fb3fefc49da76f9e910b3f510ad28aacb333370f8253bd01cb6e1. “Psychometric evaluation and community norms of the Somatic Symptom Scale-8 based on a representative German sample” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1851921).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1851921) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- scanning [redraft]: General headword scanning redefined as radionuclide imaging via a here-refers-to hedge; wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Radionuclide Imaging” (C62667).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- scatterplot [redraft]: The definition’s claim that a scatterplot is “used to see patterns in their relationship” is not stated in the packet; the packet discusses linearity and random vs systematic divergence rather than general pattern-finding.; The packet does not support the specific example in the definition that points “form an approximately straight line” (it states a perfect linear relationship corresponds to falling on a straight line, not approximate lines).; The packet provided does not explicitly define a scatterplot as a graph showing paired values for two variables as points; it only mentions that “a scatterplot of the points” can fall on a straight line.; The packet supports scatterplots as plots of points used to assess linear relationship, but it does not explicitly support the wording “paired values for two variables” or the claim that the relationship is seen as “approximately straight line.”; The source text states the line criterion for a perfect linear relationship and notes random divergence may still be linear; it does not itself define scatterplot in the broader way given here. New packet required. Source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Linear Relationship” (linear_relationship.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/linear_relationship.html) ([public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html))

- scavenging [redraft]: The final sentence makes a meta-claim about what the packet does or does not provide, which is not supported by the source text.; The packet does not explicitly define “scavenging” as “a macrophage function involved in clearing or taking up biological material”; it only states that CD163 is “linked to regulatory and scavenging functions” without describing what those scavenging functions specifically entail.; The packet only supports that CD163 is linked to regulatory and scavenging functions; it does not define scavenging as clearing or taking up biological material, so that explanatory gloss is unsupported.; The requested sense is not clearly a diagnosis-related glossary term; the packet uses scavenging in an immunology/macrophage context only. New packet required. Source: [Klein Hans C; Guest Paul C; Benros Michael E; Tunvirachaisakul Chavit; Scheiber Christian; Maes Michael; Yolken Robert; Bechter Karl; Steiner Johann. CD163+ perivascular macrophages in schizophrenia: a research framework for testing macrophage-related mechanisms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1833449; article XML SHA-256 3310655daf1b28f19c6bb0852a2cc13025e17bafafc1e2eb6f8d0c02674a1f92. “CD163+ perivascular macrophages in schizophrenia: a research framework for testing macrophage-related mechanisms” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1833449).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1833449) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- schedule of reinforcement [redraft]: The definition adds a broad explanatory claim that is not supported by the packet and goes beyond the provided source text.; The definition’s example (“fixed-ratio schedule… reinforcement is delivered after a set number of responses”) is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text.; The packet does not provide a definition of “schedule of reinforcement” as a “rule for when a behavior is followed by a reinforcing outcome.”; The packet only mentions that rats were trained on a “fixed ratio 1 (FR1), progressing to FR5 schedule of reinforcement,” without stating any general rule about when reinforcement occurs.; The packet uses the term only in the context of rats trained on an FR1 to FR5 schedule of reinforcement; it does not define the term as a general rule for when a behavior is followed by reinforcement. New packet required. Source: [Zhou Luyi; Andersen Haley; Arreola Adrian C; Turner Jill R; Ortinski Pavel I. Behavioral History of Withdrawal Influences Regulation of Cocaine Seeking by Glutamate Re-Uptake. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0163784; article XML SHA-256 400dddb075d20cccf6c21cafc92e44bde2062896a90db15cc2c40503e6460568. “Behavioral History of Withdrawal Influences Regulation of Cocaine Seeking by Glutamate Re-Uptake” (10.1371/journal.pone.0163784).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163784) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- schematic image [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported generalizations about a mentally organized representation used in thinking and problem-solving; the packet only says spatial processing may help assemble diverse visual-spatial information into a spatial-schematic image.; The definition generalizes the role of schematic images to “thinking and problem-solving,” but the packet’s discussion of problem-solving is specifically in the context of “physics problem-solving,” with no support for a general cognition/thinking definition beyond that setting.; The packet only states that spatial processing “may sub-serve the assembly of diverse sources of visual-spatial information into a spatial-schematic image,” which does not directly support the broader definition’s wording about a “mentally organized spatial representation,” “structured whole,” or an “internal layout or pattern.”; The packet supports only the phrase “spatial-schematic image” in a physics/child cognition context, not a standalone lexical sense for “schematic image.”; The wording is broader and more interpretive than the source, which does not define the term as a structured whole or an internal layout/pattern. New packet required. Source: [Träff Ulf; Olsson Linda; Skagerlund Kenny; Skagenholt Mikael; Östergren Rickard. Logical Reasoning, Spatial Processing, and Verbal Working Memory: Longitudinal Predictors of Physics Achievement at Age 12–13 Years. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01929; article XML SHA-256 98d5e49bc048e41513cf8077dcb1ae4b79a7fd8be78c07609164d84fce7c0f05. “Logical Reasoning, Spatial Processing, and Verbal Working Memory: Longitudinal Predictors of Physics Achievement at Age 12–13 Years” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01929).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01929) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- school avoidance [redraft]: Hedged to EBSA, then describes the paper's claim about outpatient care and intensive support instead of defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Ratnamohan Lux; Smith Erin; McInnis Peter; Somervaille Rebecca; Champion Sophie; Cooney Hugh; Heyne David. Intensive interventions for emotionally based school avoidance: a scoping review of program structures and therapeutic levers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1851117; article XML SHA-256 1c123eecb784d5ffc2f340d9af9780772a878eaf391412a30461ac40e8579be0. “Intensive interventions for emotionally based school avoidance: a scoping review of program structures and therapeutic levers” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1851117).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1851117) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- school counseling [redraft]: The definition adds a generalized purpose (“support ... wellbeing and adjustment”) that is not directly supported by the source text.; The definition’s framing that counselors “help students with” academic, emotional, social, behavioral, and relationship-related difficulties is not stated as a definition/purpose in the packet; the packet reports that students’ difficulties included academic/social/emotional/behavioral and relational themes, but does not directly characterize school counseling as providing help for those categories.; The definition’s inclusion of services for “teachers” is only mentioned as a category of services offered (“services for the teacher”) without establishing it as part of a general definitional description of school counseling.; The packet does not explicitly define school counseling as “support provided in schools by counselors”; it only discusses “services offered by school counselors” in the context of COVID-19.; “Students’ wellbeing and adjustment at school” is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the described school-counseling services. New packet required. Source: [Karaman Mehmet Akif; Eşici Hasan; Tomar İsmail Hakkı; Aliyev Ramin. COVID-19: Are School Counseling Services Ready? Students' Psychological Symptoms, School Counselors' Views, and Solutions. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647740; article XML SHA-256 575c863a84e8aaf9bdb9df793ae0c7646a67f4cab87af43c337c4a7d73a61507. “COVID-19: Are School Counseling Services Ready? Students' Psychological Symptoms, School Counselors' Views, and Solutions” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647740).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647740) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- school [redraft]: Not a definition of school; second sentence is a meta-comment about the packet rather than a term meaning. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. I’m So Stressed Out! Fact Sheet. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 594bfcb1b66d3c13346ad7a378214f899c4fec75d77056fa0c4e235d2de1758e. “I’m So Stressed Out! Fact Sheet” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/so-stressed-out-fact-sheet).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/so-stressed-out-fact-sheet) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- scientific explanation [redraft]: Because the packet does not define “scientifically meaningful ways” or characterize scientific explanation in those terms, that substantive part of the definition is unsupported.; The definition adds an unsupported gloss by saying scientific explanation involves ‘understanding and explaining phenomena in scientifically meaningful ways’; the packet only says it is a core concept in science education, without defining it that way.; The packet supports that “scientific explanation” is a core concept in science education and that mastery is crucial for understanding the nature of science, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s claim that scientific explanation “involves understanding and explaining phenomena in scientifically meaningful ways.”; The sentence about students’ mastery being an important sign of their understanding of the nature of science is only partly supported; the packet says mastery is crucial for a deep understanding of the nature of science, not that it is specifically used as a sign or indicator.; The wording ‘foundational concept in science learning’ is broader than the packet’s claim and is not directly supported as stated. New packet required. Source: [Hu Tao; Yang Jing; Wu Rongxiu; Wu Xiaopeng. An International Comparative Study of Students' Scientific Explanation Based on Cognitive Diagnostic Assessment. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.795497; article XML SHA-256 a2719978838ec85ee105b140709667c209713ac4c7f626292a5861fd8c6d469f. “An International Comparative Study of Students' Scientific Explanation Based on Cognitive Diagnostic Assessment” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.795497).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.795497) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- scientific method [redraft]: In-this-source hedge redefines scientific method as the critiqued mechanistic paradigm and recounts the article's argument. New packet required. Source: [Abramov Dimitri Marques. Complexity and psychopathology: from mechanistic science to a physical understanding of the mental conditions based on chaos and complexity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1764422; article XML SHA-256 483e4f85c7b28eb94ab1b6757e82aeb0612b5468e662c970a0544e44f311ce1b. “Complexity and psychopathology: from mechanistic science to a physical understanding of the mental conditions based on chaos and complexity” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1764422).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1764422) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- scoliosis [redraft]: Hedge narrows scoliosis to an adolescent condition; general headword gets the packet's AIS-specific sense. New packet required. Source: [Huang Huanjie; Zhang Guifang; Hu Xiaoqian; Zhang Zhenfa; Xie Haoyu; Wang Chuhuai. Multidimensional psychosocial characteristics of adolescents with idiopathic scoliosis in China: a controlled cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04470-0; article XML SHA-256 38d940604aa98c1d3baa32c0d0eff4fe6e872061efc5f72b582516873740c943. “Multidimensional psychosocial characteristics of adolescents with idiopathic scoliosis in China: a controlled cross-sectional study” (10.1186/s40359-026-04470-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04470-0) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- -scope [redraft]: Headword is the combining form -scope; definition redefines it as scope of practice, the rubric's own example of a wrong sense. New packet required. Source: [Ayas Muhammed; Ravi Rohit; Gunjawate Dhanshree R.. Interprofessional recognition of audiology scope of practice in hearing and balance care: Evidence from the University of Sharjah. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347133; article XML SHA-256 c29d8bc660903d3d5f37fb9d8e9db59129a306677c18915936111f23ddfb3821. “Interprofessional recognition of audiology scope of practice in hearing and balance care: Evidence from the University of Sharjah” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347133).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347133) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- scopolamine [redraft]: Motion-related qualifier for nausea and dizziness is not in the packet, which says only antiemetic and antivertigo. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Scopolamine” (C47712).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- screening [redraft]: The clause about “brief” assessment tools is not explicitly supported in the provided text; while Mini-SPIN is described as “time-efficient,” the definition’s wording (“brief”) is not directly evidenced.; The definition mixes a general glossary sense with a specific article context; the packet only supports efficient screening for SAD with instruments such as SPIN/Mini-SPIN, not a full definitional claim about screening itself.; The packet does not explicitly contrast screening with “full diagnosis” or state that instruments are used “rather than full diagnosis.”; The packet supports screening for social anxiety disorder, but not the broader general definition that screening is a “brief, valid assessment tool” used to identify people who may have any disorder and may need further evaluation.; The packet supports that “screening for Social Anxiety Disorder” uses “valid and up-to-date instruments” (e.g., SPIN, Mini-SPIN), but it does not explicitly state that screening is intended to identify people who “may need further evaluation.”; The phrase “rather than full diagnosis” is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [Schmidt-Peter Teresa; Kroczek Leon O. H.; Mühlberger Andreas. Preliminary evaluation of the German SPIN and Mini-SPIN for screening social anxiety disorder in university students. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05119-8; article XML SHA-256 3f0c2fb2cc310e455e9375c1b3e3b9548648b832479a150c65bef1a6b081c85c. “Preliminary evaluation of the German SPIN and Mini-SPIN for screening social anxiety disorder in university students” (10.1186/s40359-026-05119-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05119-8) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- search image [redraft]: The definition imports an ecological/ethological sense of the term, but the packet does not provide enough support to establish that sense from the supplied text alone.; The definition’s first sentence (that a “search image” is a visual pattern or mental picture a predator forms) is not explicitly stated or defined in the provided packet text.; The packet only mentions that color polymorphism might “hamper the establishment of a search image in visual predators”; it does not define “search image” as a visual pattern or mental picture, nor say that a predator forms one to find prey.; The packet provides context for “search image” in a specific study system (alpine leaf beetles) but does not supply a general, clearly supported definition in the requested 1–3 sentences format.; The statement that prey variation in many color forms makes the search image harder to establish is only loosely implied by the background sentence; the broader explanatory definition is not supported directly by the packet.; While the packet mentions that color polymorphism “might hamper the establishment of a search image in visual predators,” it does not support the rest of the definition’s wording (the specific “visual pattern or mental picture” characterization). New packet required. Source: [Roggero Angela; Alù Daniele; Laini Alex; Rolando Antonio; Palestrini Claudia. Color polymorphism and mating trends in a population of the alpine leaf beetle Oreina gloriosa. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298330; article XML SHA-256 ddcff315454a94a8bdc44add7fd39fd01c9f02744dd123dec4a3176d03735e1a. “Color polymorphism and mating trends in a population of the alpine leaf beetle Oreina gloriosa” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298330).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298330) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- secondary care [redraft]: The first sentence adds unsupported generalization: the packet only supports transitions from secondary care services to primary care, not a full general definition of secondary care as specialist health services between primary care and discharge back to primary care.; The packet does not support the claim that secondary care “sits between initial primary care and later discharge back to primary care,” as this broader structural description is not provided.; The packet only states that transitions from “Secondary Care Services (SCSs)” to primary care are necessary and focuses on adults with Serious Mental Illness; it does not define secondary care as “specialist health services” that “sit between” primary care and later discharge.; The second sentence ties the term to transitions for adults with serious mental illness, but the first sentence’s general definition is unsupported by the provided packet.; The wording “later discharge back to primary care” is not supported by the packet; the source mentions transitions to primary care from secondary care services, but does not define secondary care in discharge terms. New packet required. Source: [Davis Aubrey L W; Hamilton Kennedy A; Vozza Jaclin A. Discharge from secondary care services to primary care for adults with serious mental illness: a scoping review. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-06067-6; article XML SHA-256 5c9862e9088c1286e0698a0a420c534cb13eda22c9c82fca8aef85a09bdea869. “Discharge from secondary care services to primary care for adults with serious mental illness: a scoping review” (10.1186/s12888-024-06067-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-06067-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- secondary emotion [redraft]: The definition claims that, in this source, secondary emotions are used as an indicator of “how fully human another person is seen,” but the packet only describes reduced attribution of secondary emotions as a measure of “emotional distance from clients (i.e., infrahumanization)” and does not explicitly frame it as perceived degree of humanity.; The packet does not define “secondary emotion” as an emotion type that serves as an indicator of how fully human another person is seen; it only says infrahumanization is measured by reduced attribution of secondary emotions.; The wording overstates the source by turning a measurement relation (“reduced attribution of secondary emotions”) into a definition of the term itself. New packet required. Source: [Ferris Laura J.; Jetten Jolanda; Johnstone Melissa; Girdham Elise; Parsell Cameron; Walter Zoe C.. The Florence Nightingale Effect: Organizational Identification Explains the Peculiar Link Between Others’ Suffering and Workplace Functioning in the Homelessness Sector. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00016; article XML SHA-256 7860455f867b6927d4225eaab4aa63aeec4f99ddd634b030de957ee00eabae20. “The Florence Nightingale Effect: Organizational Identification Explains the Peculiar Link Between Others’ Suffering and Workplace Functioning in the Homelessness Sector” (10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00016).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00016) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- secondary somatosensory area [redraft]: The definition claims S2 “becomes active during movement and sensory stimulation,” but the packet only directly supports activation during NMES-evoked movements and voluntary wrist extension movements; it does not explicitly describe S2 activation during sensory stimulation in general.; The definition generalizes beyond the packet by presenting S2’s role as a broad clinical/neuroscience fact rather than limiting it to the specific study’s finding about cortical activation in this experiment.; “Sensory stimulation” is not supported by the packet; the source describes activation during voluntary wrist movement and NMES-evoked movements, not general sensory stimulation.; “Within the sensorimotor network” is supported, but the broader wording about “sensory stimulation” is not clearly supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Muthalib Makii; Re Rebecca; Zucchelli Lucia; Perrey Stephane; Contini Davide; Caffini Matteo; Spinelli Lorenzo; Kerr Graham; Quaresima Valentina; Ferrari Marco; Torricelli Alessandro. Effects of Increasing Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation Current Intensity on Cortical Sensorimotor Network Activation: A Time Domain fNIRS Study. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0131951; article XML SHA-256 b9cc6ae9ce23ba23ef33b1bf32c68088a1b6ddb75868e2040175833fa446c3a3. “Effects of Increasing Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation Current Intensity on Cortical Sensorimotor Network Activation: A Time Domain fNIRS Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0131951).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0131951) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- secondary visual cortex [redraft]: Because the first sentence includes an unsupported definitional claim, the overall requested sense of the term is not fully supported by the packet.; The definition relies on a general anatomical characterization that is not stated in the supplied source; a citation to the article alone is not sufficient support.; The definition states that “secondary visual cortex refers to visual cortical areas beyond the primary visual cortex,” but the packet does not explicitly define “secondary visual cortex” in terms of being beyond the primary visual cortex (it only mentions primary and secondary visual cortex areas together).; The packet supports that primary and secondary visual cortex areas showed bilateral activation during visually induced self-motion perception, but it does not support the broader definitional claim that secondary visual cortex means visual cortical areas beyond the primary visual cortex. New packet required. Source: [Becker-Bense Sandra; Buchholz Hans-Georg; zu Eulenburg Peter; Best Christoph; Bartenstein Peter; Schreckenberger Matthias; Dieterich Marianne. Ventral and dorsal streams processing visual motion perception (FDG-PET study). 2012; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-13-81; article XML SHA-256 3925d0f8e22fc02ba13bf380bf5f118e238c97b85fc13ee89dbf14802f46899b. “Ventral and dorsal streams processing visual motion perception (FDG-PET study)” (10.1186/1471-2202-13-81).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-13-81) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- secular [redraft]: Adjective secular redefined as a form of meditation via a hedge; wrong sense for the headword. New packet required. Source: [Maxwell Richard W. Mindfulness and devotion in Tantric Yoga: evidence of a strong trait association. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1772396; article XML SHA-256 ab3c9241ae2f0b8200a520fee3d4153c59120ceaaebb676e2b17637e6268884e. “Mindfulness and devotion in Tantric Yoga: evidence of a strong trait association” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1772396).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1772396) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- secure base [redraft]: The definition includes interpretive framing (“trusted attachment figure”) beyond what the packet provides.; The definition’s phrase “trusted attachment figure” is not explicitly supported by the packet text; the packet only describes an “owner as a secure base” effect similar to that in human children, without defining it as a trusted attachment figure.; The packet supports only a dog-study usage (“using the owner as a secure base for interacting with the environment”), not the broader general claim that a secure base is a “trusted attachment figure” for any individual.; The second sentence (“In the packet, this means using the owner as a reliable point of safety…”) contains added wording (“reliable point of safety”) not directly stated in the packet.; The second sentence adds an unsupported interpretation (“reliable point of safety” and “solving problems”) beyond the packet’s wording; the source mentions a manipulative problem-solving task but does not define the term in those terms. New packet required. Source: [Horn Lisa; Huber Ludwig; Range Friederike. The Importance of the Secure Base Effect for Domestic Dogs – Evidence from a Manipulative Problem-Solving Task. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0065296; article XML SHA-256 6fad2d7416806c7a98debc6ae100de674ab4ac8c956185beb12b0e6b5ccdf5e3. “The Importance of the Secure Base Effect for Domestic Dogs – Evidence from a Manipulative Problem-Solving Task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0065296).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065296) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- SED [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define SED as “time spent being physically inactive or doing very little movement”; it only uses the term “sedentary behavior (SED)” without describing what it operationally means.; The packet does not support the specific phrasing that SED is “the opposite of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity”; it mentions MVPA and SED in the study aims but does not state this definitional opposition.; The packet says the study examines moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and sedentary behavior during primary school, but it does not state that SED is the opposite of MVPA.; The packet supports that SED abbreviates sedentary behaviour, but it does not define it as “time spent being physically inactive or doing very little movement.” New packet required. Source: [Fredriksen Per Morten; Kharlova Iana; Hæhre Maren Valand; Mamen Asgeir. Longitudinal trends in physical activity and sedentary behaviour among school children in Norway: The health oriented pedagogical project (HOPP). 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345363; article XML SHA-256 cd5ff445b3dbd4943783a8f0db024b8a2200c9d927b52181a8d3b74964323b7b. “Longitudinal trends in physical activity and sedentary behaviour among school children in Norway: The health oriented pedagogical project (HOPP)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345363).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345363) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- seduction [redraft]: Packet defines algorithmic seduction and explicitly excludes the ordinary sense; headword seduction is misdefined. New packet required. Source: [James Shamini; S Karthik; Thomas Binu; Jose Josheena. Algorithmic seduction: ethical boundaries in AI-powered consumer nudging. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1675412; article XML SHA-256 870a986904c53c5c6e986879a71e4d152ff281657209a19c88b1725418a32292. “Algorithmic seduction: ethical boundaries in AI-powered consumer nudging” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1675412).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1675412) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- SEEKING system [redraft]: The definition adds a general affective-neuroscience characterization that is broader than the packet’s wording and not fully supported by the supplied text.; The definition states that the SEEKING system is “a central command system involved in generating motivated, goal-directed activity,” but the packet only describes the SEEKING system as “of central importance” among Panksepp’s command systems and does not support the specific claims about “motivated, goal-directed activity.”; The definition’s remaining claim about “drive-specific” activation requiring both activation of a drive-specific brain area and dopamine release is supported by the packet (dual action and drive specificity), but the first sentence remains unsupported.; The phrase “involved in generating motivated, goal-directed activity” is not supported by the packet; the packet says the SEEKING system is of “central importance” and refers to generating “SEEKING activities,” not goal-directed activity specifically. New packet required. Source: [Kirsch Michael; Mertens Wolfgang. On the Drive Specificity of Freudian Drives for the Generation of SEEKING Activities: The Importance of the Underestimated Imperative Motor Factor. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00616; article XML SHA-256 5ebfdc4704e68de4260aaaa9badc1380a5657e06cabe200672489d0dec870646. “On the Drive Specificity of Freudian Drives for the Generation of SEEKING Activities: The Importance of the Underestimated Imperative Motor Factor” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00616).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00616) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- seizure [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported causal claim: the packet describes sudden, involuntary skeletal muscular contractions of cerebral or brain stem origin, but does not state that they are caused by abnormal activity.; The packet definition states “Sudden, involuntary skeletal muscular contractions of cerebral or brain stem origin,” but it does not support the claim that these contractions are “caused by abnormal activity.” New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Seizure” (C2962).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- selection test [redraft]: The definition adds a general sense and framing that are not established by the supplied text, which only mentions the University Selection Test (PSU) in a specific study context.; The definition’s first sentence presents a general definition of “selection test” that is not directly supported by wording in the provided packet; the packet provides support only for the specific “University Selection Test (PSU)” use for university admission in Chile.; The packet supports that PSU is a university admission test in Chile, but it does not support the broader general definition of a “selection test” as an exam used to decide entry into an educational setting or program.; The packet text only specifically discusses the “2013 University Selection Test (PSU)” in the context of university admission; it does not define what a “selection test” means in general (e.g., as a category of exams used to decide entry into an educational setting/program). New packet required. Source: [Ivanovic Daniza M; Almagià Atilio F; Arancibia Violeta C; Ibaceta Camila V; Arias Vanessa F; Rojas Tatiana R; Flores Ofelia C; Villagrán Francisca S; Tapia Liliana U; Acevedo Javiera A; Morales Gladys I; Martínez Víctor C; Larraín Cristián G; Silva Claudio F A; Valenzuela Rodrigo B; Barrera Cynthia R; Billeke Pablo B; Zamorano Francisco M; Orellana Yasna Z. A multifactorial approach of nutritional, intellectual, brain development, cardiovascular risk, socio-economic, demographic and educational variables affecting the scholastic achievement in Chilean students: An eight- year follow-up study. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0212279; article XML SHA-256 62c6227f21dc58f1321470c6301bf9ae8c011e9c997fee72b60dd9c72531c2f2. “A multifactorial approach of nutritional, intellectual, brain development, cardiovascular risk, socio-economic, demographic and educational variables affecting the scholastic achievement in Chilean students: An eight- year follow-up study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0212279).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212279) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- selective adaptation [redraft]: Well-known general perceptual term redefined as an olfactory-specific mechanism the packet happens to model. New packet required. Source: [Soh Zu; Nishikawa Shinya; Kurita Yuichi; Takiguchi Noboru; Tsuji Toshio. A Mathematical Model of the Olfactory Bulb for the Selective Adaptation Mechanism in the Rodent Olfactory System. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0165230; article XML SHA-256 375b9102556a026952e4b87184941b5e9dbb78d4414fcaa7130e25ca26e515eb. “A Mathematical Model of the Olfactory Bulb for the Selective Adaptation Mechanism in the Rodent Olfactory System” (10.1371/journal.pone.0165230).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0165230) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- selective dropout [redraft]: The packet does not define or explain what makes dropout “selective” (e.g., that those who leave are a particular subset rather than random).; The packet supports that selective dropout can make results hard to generalize, but it does not define the term as a non-random subset of participants leaving.; The phrase "study problem" is not supported by the source text, which only states that high and selective dropout rates affected generalizability.; The provided packet only supports a limited claim that high/selective dropout prevents generalization; it does not substantiate the definition’s description of selection being due to a non-random subset of participants. New packet required. Source: [Kuhlmann S. M.; Huss M.; Bürger A.; Hammerle F.. Coping with stress in medical students: results of a randomized controlled trial using a mindfulness-based stress prevention training (MediMind) in Germany. 2016; DOI 10.1186/s12909-016-0833-8; article XML SHA-256 c535e20092181097dc471439bf7eb1246bbc4a11d039e227b75f056456b8fdab. “Coping with stress in medical students: results of a randomized controlled trial using a mindfulness-based stress prevention training (MediMind) in Germany” (10.1186/s12909-016-0833-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-016-0833-8) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- selective permeability [redraft]: The definition adds a generalized cell-barrier gloss that is only partly supported by the packet’s narrower discussion of tight junctions and epithelial permeability.; The provided definition describes a biological concept (epithelial tight junctions and barrier permeability), but the field is labeled “mental health,” and the packet contains no mental-health/psychology framing or linkage to justify using this sense in that field.; The supplied packet is about epithelial tight junctions and barrier function, not a mental health/counselling sense, so the field is not defensible here. New packet required. Source: [Shin Soo-Bin; Kim Young-Min; Park Ha-Young. Pinoresinol enhances oral barrier integrity and function in human buccal cell monolayers. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331242; article XML SHA-256 15c47f9ef7adeaf78d24023663ae2988b0ee082efaafd830920c60f143d8bba7. “Pinoresinol enhances oral barrier integrity and function in human buccal cell monolayers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331242).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331242) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- selective reminding test [redraft]: The claims that it is used to examine episodic memory and to distinguish retrieval from retention/consolidation problems go beyond what the packet supports as a general definition; those are study findings/hypotheses, not established properties of the test in the supplied text.; The packet does not define the selective reminding test itself; it only reports use of the Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test in one study, so the definition’s description of the instrument is not directly supported.; The packet does not explicitly state that the test involves recall “across repeated trials.” It only names the “Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test” and reports free vs. cued recall performance.; The packet supports the retrieval-vs-consolidation distinction, but the definition’s phrasing that problems reflect difficulty “retrieving stored information rather than a failure to retain it” is not directly supported as such (the packet specifically contrasts retrieval with consolidation failure).; The wording may conflate the term with the Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test, which is the only test name actually present in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Costa Alberto; Monaco Marco; Zabberoni Silvia; Peppe Antonella; Perri Roberta; Fadda Lucia; Iannarelli Francesca; Caltagirone Carlo; Carlesimo Giovanni A.. Free and Cued Recall Memory in Parkinson’s Disease Associated with Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0086233; article XML SHA-256 f8959c523decf058989038721738b1ce3f38e7aacfeb076a13ab14796e1e02e8. “Free and Cued Recall Memory in Parkinson’s Disease Associated with Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0086233).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0086233) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-acceptance [redraft]: The claim that self-acceptance is “a person’s feeling about themselves” with “self-respect and acceptance of who they are” is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the source text.; The packet describes a rating scale (the Self-Esteem Scale), not the concept of self-acceptance itself, so the definition is aimed at the wrong sense/object.; The packet describes self-acceptance in the context of a specific rating scale (“Self-Esteem Scale” in the Behavior Assessment System for Children), but the definition presents self-acceptance as a general “person’s feeling,” which is not explicitly supported by the packet.; While the packet mentions “feelings about self” and “respect” and includes “self-acceptance,” it does not support the added phrasing that this reflects “acceptance of who they are.” New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Self-Esteem Scale” (C121289).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-analysis [redraft]: Although the packet supports the idea that the condition is linked with “morbid self-consciousness,” it does not support the additional details in the provided definition about the specific mechanism (“interpreting their own feelings and experiences”) or the specific example (“outside remarks or actions”).; The definition claims self-analysis is “an unhealthy turning of attention inward” and “overly occupied with interpreting their own feelings and experiences,” but the packet only describes an “unhealthy state of self-analysis and self-consciousness” without framing it as attention inward or interpretation of feelings/experiences.; The definition says it involves “wrongly tak[ing] outside remarks or actions as being about them,” but the packet describes instead a “ten[dency to] appropriate to themselves suggestions and acts which are in no way intended for them,” which is not the same wording or specificity as misattributing remarks/actions.; The definition slightly overgeneralizes beyond the packet by presenting this as the meaning of self-analysis itself rather than the historical association described in the passage.; The packet supports morbid self-consciousness and the tendency to appropriate remarks or acts not intended for the person, but it does not explicitly support the broader gloss that self-analysis means an unhealthy turning of attention inward or being overly occupied with interpreting one’s own feelings and experiences. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-1890000-1902000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- self-concept test [redraft]: The claim that this source’s test measures specific dimensions such as academic and physical self-concept is not directly stated; those dimensions are discussed in the study, but not clearly linked to the instrument itself.; The definition’s first sentence (“used to assess how a person sees themselves”) is not stated in the provided packet; the packet only mentions that the psychological constructs were measured using the “Self-Concept Test-Form 5” without defining self-concept test in those terms.; The packet identifies the Self-Concept Test-Form 5 as a data-collection instrument, but it does not explicitly define it as a measure of how a person sees themselves.; While the packet supports that self-concept dimensions included academic self-concept and physical self-concept (e.g., “academic self-concept showed a greater predictive value” and “physical self-concept varied”), the broader characterization of the test as assessing how someone sees themselves is unsupported. New packet required. Source: [Herrera Lucía; Al-Lal Mohamed; Mohamed Laila. Academic Achievement, Self-Concept, Personality and Emotional Intelligence in Primary Education. Analysis by Gender and Cultural Group. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03075; article XML SHA-256 69519e6772448bb6fa92bd995f37203cd4b7e278f695d7d51d612671ad764861. “Academic Achievement, Self-Concept, Personality and Emotional Intelligence in Primary Education. Analysis by Gender and Cultural Group” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03075).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03075) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-criticism [redraft]: The definition implies a specific psychological interpretation beyond the packet’s wording; the packet does not state that self-criticism is defined by that evaluative process.; The definition’s statement is partly inferential beyond the packet, so the specific “right and wrong” framing is not fully supported by the provided text.; The packet does not explicitly state that self-criticism involves judging oneself against “internal standards of right and wrong”; it only mentions ethics and standards generally.; The packet supports self-criticism as a component of personality associated with ethics, standards, and the conscience, but it does not support the added explanation that it means “judging oneself against internal standards of right and wrong.” New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Superego” (D013475).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013475) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- self-denial [redraft]: The claim that self-denial is "the element of sacrifice that distinguishes stronger forms of generosity from mere fellow-feeling" is not supported by the packet and overstates the historical source.; The definition adds “valued purpose” as a target of self-denial, but the packet only explicitly frames self-denial within actions toward “others” (bestowal of goods or favours upon others; sacrificing an interest of our own to an equal interest of a friend or a superior).; The definition says “giving up or restraining” one’s own interests; the packet supports “sacrifice” and self-denial in generosity, but does not support “restraining” as a distinct element of the term in the provided text.; The packet does not define the term "self-denial" itself; it defines "Generosity" and says generosity involves self-denial.; The phrasing turns a historical comparison into a general dictionary definition of self-denial, which is not justified by the source text. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Generosity” (Generosity).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/G1defs.htm#Generosity) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- self-determination theory [redraft]: The definition’s claim that self-determination theory is “a psychological framework that explains behavior in terms of motivation” and that it specifically emphasizes “autonomy in shaping how people think and act” is not directly supported by the supplied packet text (the packet only uses the theory as a lens for a specific study).; The definition’s claim that the packet uses self-determination theory to suggest “having more usable work autonomy can help people generate more ideas” is supported in substance by the packet’s proposal that teleworking facilitates idea generation by enhancing work autonomy, but the first sentence contains unsupported general theoretical claims.; The field label should not broaden the sense beyond what is in the packet, and the packet supports a study context in organizational psychology rather than a general cognition definition.; The packet uses self-determination theory only as the framework for a specific teleworking/idea-generation study; it does not support the broad general description of the theory as a general explanation of behavior centered on autonomy and motivation. New packet required. Source: [Chen Xiaofang; Chen Yinge; Hu Dan; Ye Huili; Li Mingze. The impact of teleworking on employee idea generation: a self-determination theory perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1855286; article XML SHA-256 efdc210691c766e2091f268b747201d5b21083bbbfb81e9eaba2644bf98f915d. “The impact of teleworking on employee idea generation: a self-determination theory perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1855286).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1855286) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-discovery [redraft]: The definition presents a general psychological meaning as if established by the packet; the source only describes self-discovery in the context of this museum-based intervention, not as a broader consensus definition.; The definition’s first sentence defines self-discovery as “coming to better understand one’s own inner experience… through reflection and emotionally meaningful engagement,” but the packet only mentions “fostering self-discovery” and describes emotion- and response-related mechanisms; it does not provide a definition matching this wording or explicitly tie self-discovery to “reflection” and “emotionally meaningful engagement.”; The packet supports that the workshops fostered self-discovery through sensory stimulation, psychological resonance, dialogue, and deep reflection, but it does not define self-discovery as “coming to better understand one’s own inner experience, especially feelings.”; The second sentence claims that self-discovery was “fostered during museum-based activities” via “sensory response, psychological resonance, and dialogue.” While the packet discusses structured museum workshops and concludes mechanisms including “sensory stimulation, psychological resonance, and dialogue,” it does not explicitly state that these specific mechanisms were the means by which self-discovery itself was fostered (as opposed to the broader emotional regulation/anxiety alleviation process). New packet required. Source: [Wang Siyi; Gong Xuedan; Lian Wenting. Museotherapy as a method: an investigation into the emotional experiences of Chinese youth visitors. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1716551; article XML SHA-256 5d70d2ed12c05b7c8af2d479786f502526329b55a5d7426cc0c1f374965f7c5f. “Museotherapy as a method: an investigation into the emotional experiences of Chinese youth visitors” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1716551).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1716551) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-evaluation [redraft]: The claim that, in this context, it is “a key pathway through which social media feedback can affect psychological distress” is directionally supported by the packet (“primarily through self-evaluation mechanisms”), but the definition’s broader characterization of self-evaluation is not supported by the packet.; The comparison-with-others and worth language is not stated in the source; it looks like an unsupported conflation with self-esteem and social comparison.; The definition states that self-evaluation involves “judging oneself, including one’s worth and how one compares with others,” but the packet only refers to “self-evaluation mechanisms” without defining self-evaluation in those terms.; The packet supports self-evaluation as a mechanism/pathway linking social media feedback to psychological distress, but it does not define self-evaluation as judging one’s worth or comparing oneself with others. New packet required. Source: [Wu Jinglun; Zhang Zhaomo. Longitudinal effects of social media feedback on psychological distress in young adults: the mediating roles of self-esteem and social comparison. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04912-9; article XML SHA-256 6c2362a0d706d5b106dca599f2ae0a5b1b4a93dfdc1a989bfe1283b9472e2e4f. “Longitudinal effects of social media feedback on psychological distress in young adults: the mediating roles of self-esteem and social comparison” (10.1186/s40359-026-04912-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04912-9) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-focus [redraft]: The definition also includes the claim that self-focus “helps maintain negative emotion,” which is supported by the packet (self-focus is described as maintaining negative emotions). However, because the first substantive component is not explicitly supported, the definition as a whole does not pass.; The definition states that self-focus is “a style of thinking in which attention is directed toward oneself,” but the packet does not explicitly define self-focus in terms of directing attention toward oneself (it only refers to “self-focused attention” in the study).; The packet supports self-focus as a type of cognitive processing or self-focused attention, but it does not explicitly support the added gloss "a style of thinking in which attention is directed toward oneself" as stated.; The second sentence is mostly supported, but it overgeneralizes the study’s findings into a broader explanation of how self-focus works rather than limiting itself to the packet’s specific claims about interactions with facial expressions and positive emotions. New packet required. Source: [Kobai Ryota; Murakami Hiroki. Effects of interactions between facial expressions and self-focused attention on emotion. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0261666; article XML SHA-256 76db0e8e167ba9f1c9c306cd14e1fc70fb35c453b18f70d984e1c5c92593a0ab. “Effects of interactions between facial expressions and self-focused attention on emotion” (10.1371/journal.pone.0261666).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261666) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-identification [redraft]: Redefines a general headword in a narrow contemplative sense the packet never spells out; biological tag also wrong. New packet required. Source: [Sharma Sonu; Kumar Pradeep; Chaudhary Vishva; Kumar Anuranjan; Yadav Anupam; Kumar Ravinder; Yadav Annu; Girdhar Anshul; Kalonia Nidhi; Singh Pavitra. A spectrum of self-processing modes: Indian philosophical insights and contemporary science on wellbeing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884131; article XML SHA-256 32c6342b618ec357af64cee5639672a249292ab6ad4d9889dad664447718eca3. “A spectrum of self-processing modes: Indian philosophical insights and contemporary science on wellbeing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884131).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1884131) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-interest [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence therefore includes an unsupported characterization of what self-interest means beyond what the packet states.; The packet defines **individualism**, not **self-interest**; the requested sense is only indirectly related and not established as a headword sense in the source.; The packet does not define “self-interest” as “concern with, or pursuit of, one’s own benefit”; it only describes “exclusive or excessive regard for self-interest.”; “Concern with, or pursuit of, one’s own benefit” is an unsupported paraphrase; the packet only says “exclusive or excessive regard for self-interest,” not that self-interest itself is defined as this.; “the personal aim that individualism centers on” goes beyond the source and introduces an unsupported framing about what individualism “centers on.” New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Individualism” (Individualism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/I2defs.htm#Individualism) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- self-medication [redraft]: Defines the alcohol-for-PTSD hypothesis rather than self-medication in its general sense; narrows a well-known headword. New packet required. Source: [Mazarakis Theodoros; Kao Ching-Yi. Cultural and intergenerational pathways between family alcohol use, trauma exposure, and probable PTSD in Taiwanese adolescents. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1752686; article XML SHA-256 59c871189086ce3321bf86f60216f4f3ec9154d347438793523aea40812a8b80. “Cultural and intergenerational pathways between family alcohol use, trauma exposure, and probable PTSD in Taiwanese adolescents” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1752686).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1752686) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-rating [redraft]: The definition includes claims (“assessing their own symptoms,” “completing a rating scale”) that are not stated in the provided packet. The packet only lists outcome instruments (e.g., SDS, SAS) without explaining what they measure or how participants respond.; The definition’s specific interpretation (“measures where people rate their own depression or anxiety”) is not supported by any text in the packet; it only mentions that changes were assessed using those scales.; The packet does not explicitly define the term “self-rating,” so the requested sense of the term is not defensibly supported by the supplied source.; The packet only shows the terms Self-rating Depression Scale (SDS) and Self-rating Anxiety Scale (SAS); it does not define “self-rating” as a person assessing their own symptoms or state, so the core definition is not directly supported.; The statement about people completing a rating scale is an unsupported generalization beyond the packet’s text. New packet required. Source: [Zhuang Jiamei; Zhou Yan; Yu Guangbin; Cheng Honghui; Chen Xiong; Qian Rui. Pharmacotherapy, acupoint stimulation, and psychotherapy for perimenopausal women with anxiety, depression, and panic disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1845876; article XML SHA-256 fa4d91bb981b8543478833710745f46464fa36e31917bb740eb73ae3d6587cc8. “Pharmacotherapy, acupoint stimulation, and psychotherapy for perimenopausal women with anxiety, depression, and panic disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1845876).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1845876) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-reference [redraft]: The definition generalizes self-reference as a broad cognitive process, while the packet only supports this in the context of self-referential memory tasks and the self-reference effect.; The definition’s first substantive claim—self-reference as “processing information in relation to oneself, such as judging whether words describe oneself”—is not explicitly stated in the provided packet. The packet mentions a “self-description paradigm” and “self-referential memory processing,” but does not define self-reference in the quoted example/terms.; The packet supports self-referential memory processing and a self-reference effect, but it does not support the specific example “judging whether words describe oneself.”; While the packet supports the idea of a “self-reference effect (SRE)” in which self-referenced items are remembered better than friend- and stranger-referenced items (it reports a “robust SRE relative to friend- and stranger-referenced items”), this support does not fully validate the broader first-sentence characterization of self-reference. New packet required. Source: [Wang Wanqi; Tang Xiaochen; Wang Yu; Zhou Jiaodian; Hong Chen; Yan Weiman; Chen Ning; Liu Wei. The impact of loneliness on the self-reference effect in remembering and directed forgetting. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809521; article XML SHA-256 ba324763eb23608ca177d9d5884415bd4f4f5055a26c3f5e21c2daf2fa8b43b0. “The impact of loneliness on the self-reference effect in remembering and directed forgetting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809521).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1809521) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-reflection [redraft]: The definition adds an evaluative generalization about psychology that is not established in the packet and goes beyond the sourced wording.; The packet defines self-reflection as cognitive tendencies to engage in a conscious examination of thoughts/feelings, body appearance, and social relations/actions, but it does not support the claim that it “can be helpful or maladaptive depending on how it is expressed.” It only explicitly mentions “maladaptive self-reflection.”; The packet supports self-reflection as a conscious examination of one’s thoughts and feelings, body appearance, and social relations/actions, but it does not support the claim that it can be helpful; the packet only mentions maladaptive self-reflection in the context of mental disorders. New packet required. Source: [Raoul Lisa; Grosbras Marie-Hélène. Psychometric network analysis reveals how sensory processing relates to self-reflection traits in adolescence. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335259; article XML SHA-256 41a981e93a687356d8c2d9f9bcd39e5fe97cfb99203bb19ebc649c5ad1be37dc. “Psychometric network analysis reveals how sensory processing relates to self-reflection traits in adolescence” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335259).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335259) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-report [redraft]: Although the packet supports that the specific instrument (IDS-SR) is designed for “screening and assessing depression severity,” it does not support the broader wording that self-report, in general, is “used to screen for and estimate the severity of depression-related symptoms” based on people’s own responses.; The added statement that it is used to screen for and estimate the severity of depression-related symptoms is specific to the IDS-SR and is not supported as the general sense of the term “self-report.”; The definition goes beyond the packet by generalizing from one instrument to the broader term, and it also shifts the sense toward depression screening rather than the cognition-related entry requested.; The definition’s first sentence makes a general claim that self-report is a method where people provide information about their own experiences; the packet does not explicitly describe self-report in that way (it only describes the IDS-SR instrument as a “self-report instrument” and “scale”).; The packet supports the IDS-SR as a self-report instrument, but it does not support a general dictionary definition of “self-report” as a measurement method in which people answer questionnaire or scale items about their own experiences. New packet required. Source: [Wang Jingru; Chen Meirong; Jin Yanping; Xie Xiangqing; Yang Yun; Huang Lin; Cui Liang; Ma Huizhi; Ma Jun; Guo Qihao; He Yingzi. Validity of the Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology Self-Report (IDS-SR) in Older Adults With Subjective Cognitive Decline (SCD) and Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04514-5; article XML SHA-256 59c1d98fe8e40fef74f22eac509115375c628e818a5001e86de8d46646b21594. “Validity of the Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology Self-Report (IDS-SR) in Older Adults With Subjective Cognitive Decline (SCD) and Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI)” (10.1186/s40359-026-04514-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04514-5) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-reward [redraft]: The added claim that reduced self-reward is a self-regulation problem associated with depressive symptoms goes beyond the packet’s wording and should not be presented as a general definition.; The packet does not define “self-reward” as “giving oneself positive reinforcement or acknowledgment”; it only mentions “reduced self-reward” within the self-control model of depression.; The packet does not state that “reduced self-reward” is “one of the self-regulation problems” associated with depressive symptoms; it describes reduced self-reward as part of factors the self-control model proposes underlying depressive symptoms, without using that “self-regulation problems” phrasing.; The packet supports only that the self-control model of depression includes reduced self-reward as one factor; it does not define self-reward as giving oneself positive reinforcement or acknowledgment. New packet required. Source: [Schanz C G; Equit M; Schäfer S K; Michael T. Self-directed passive-aggressive behaviour as an essential component of depression: findings from two cross-sectional observational studies. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-03850-1; article XML SHA-256 0413f1f4c58c935a30862653a1d442e3759b1c1ba3786f9280cfbae1da238b1d. “Self-directed passive-aggressive behaviour as an essential component of depression: findings from two cross-sectional observational studies” (10.1186/s12888-022-03850-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-03850-1) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-righting [redraft]: Because the overturned-position procedure is not supported by the packet, the definition’s description is not fully defensible.; The claim that delayed self-righting indicates slower early behavioral development goes beyond the packet, which only states that developmental delays were assessed with self-righting, without explaining the interpretation in that form.; The packet only shows that self-righting was used as one of the assessments of developmental delay in mice; it does not define the procedure as placing a young animal in an overturned position and timing whether it rights itself.; The packet supports that self-righting was used to assess developmental delays in mouse models, but it does not state that the test involves placing a young animal in an overturned position or “right itself after being placed…overturned.” New packet required. Source: [Yang Eun-Jeong; Ahn Sangzin; Lee Kihwan; Mahmood Usman; Kim Hye-Sun. Early Behavioral Abnormalities and Perinatal Alterations of PTEN/AKT Pathway in Valproic Acid Autism Model Mice. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0153298; article XML SHA-256 d13f5f46cce38fbbde6f4577a75a7f967b68c34d8e455ec7cb22c000bb30926b. “Early Behavioral Abnormalities and Perinatal Alterations of PTEN/AKT Pathway in Valproic Acid Autism Model Mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0153298).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153298) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-talk [redraft]: The claim that it is used by athletes to manage demands related to performance goes beyond the packet, which only says it is a commonly used psychological intervention for athletes aiming to achieve peak performance and support coping.; The definition claims athletes use it to “manage demands related to performance,” while the packet instead describes athletes aiming to achieve peak performance and does not specify “managing demands” in that way.; The definition is not fully supported as written by the supplied source packet.; The definition says it helps “support coping,” but the packet does not define self-talk as specifically helping through statements; it only says breathing control and self-talk are recognized as commonly used psychological interventions to support coping.; The definition states that self-talk involves “internal or spoken statements,” but the supplied packet only says self-talk is a psychological intervention and does not describe its content (e.g., internal vs. spoken).; The packet supports self-talk as a commonly used psychological intervention to support coping, but it does not support the added explanation that it involves a person using their own internal or spoken statements. New packet required. Source: [Tharawadeepimuk Kittichai; Onnom Ekarat; Nanbancha Ampika. Effects of a 4-week combined breathing control and self-talk intervention on neural activity and coping skills in athletes: a randomized control trial. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04814-w; article XML SHA-256 e6a41dcc0d0e39e9b036d491c6d3e7e7679cc6ccda5d0c03b79a60f573e22a66. “Effects of a 4-week combined breathing control and self-talk intervention on neural activity and coping skills in athletes: a randomized control trial” (10.1186/s40359-026-04814-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04814-w) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- self-transcendence [redraft]: Because the requested term is not actually the entry headword in the source passage, the sense attribution is unsupported by the packet.; The definition adds explanatory framing about a “fixed concept” and “isolated ultimate idea” that is close to the packet’s wording but is still a paraphrase rather than a directly supported dictionary sense for the requested term.; The definition’s “movement by which thought passes toward a more comprehensive standpoint” is only indirectly supported by the passage saying that when dialectic is used in “developing a more comprehensive point of view,” it “passes into speculative reason,” not that self-transcendence itself specifically names that movement.; The packet does not define a standalone term “self-transcendence”; it only uses the phrase “self-contradiction and self-transcendence” within the Hegelian sense of “Speculation.”; The packet states that dialectic reveals “self-contradiction and self-transcendence” and the “fluidity of all these fixed concepts,” but it does not support the claim that this opposition shows the concept “cannot stand as an isolated ultimate idea.” New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3223500-3235500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- self-understanding [redraft]: The definition adds specific claims about “inner motives, reactions, and patterns of meaning” and “influences outside conscious awareness” that are not stated in the packet.; The definition claims that self-understanding involves “clearer awareness” of “inner motives, reactions, and patterns of meaning,” but the packet only states that psychodynamic/psychoanalytic psychotherapy has a “premium on self understanding and making meaning of what is unconscious,” without detailing motives/reactions/patterns of meaning.; The definition states that this includes “influences outside conscious awareness.” The packet supports reacting to “unconscious forces” but does not explicitly phrase self-understanding as including influences “outside conscious awareness.”; The definition’s first sentence contains substantive specifics not present in the packet; only the general link between self-understanding and making meaning of what is unconscious is supported.; The packet is a MeSH descriptor for “Psychotherapy, Psychodynamic,” not a definition of the term “self-understanding,” so the requested sense is not supported.; “In psychodynamic work” is broader and more specific than the packet’s wording; the packet supports only that psychodynamic psychotherapy places a premium on self-understanding and making meaning of what is unconscious. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Psychotherapy, Psychodynamic” (D064889).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D064889) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- self-view [redraft]: Because the first substantive claim is unsupported, the definition cannot be accepted as supported by the packet.; The definition’s first sentence (“Self-view is the way a person sees and relates to themselves”) is a general characterization that is not explicitly stated in the provided packet.; The packet discusses “mindfulness-enlightened self-view and attitude” and positive changes in attitudes toward the self resulting from mindfulness/meditation, but it does not directly support the broader general definition of “self-view” given in the first sentence.; The packet says mindfulness practices can be associated with positive changes in self-attitude, but it does not support the stronger phrasing that self-view “can become more positive and mindful” in general.; The packet supports “self-view” as part of a “mindful self” and as a self-attitude, but it does not support the broader gloss that it is “the way a person sees and relates to themselves.” New packet required. Source: [Xiao Qianguo; Yue Caizhen; He Weijie; Yu Jia-yuan. The Mindful Self: A Mindfulness-Enlightened Self-view. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01752; article XML SHA-256 ddb7cdcc07da0546b620e03b392d2c92563f62115b07509621700fc6b3ac4600. “The Mindful Self: A Mindfulness-Enlightened Self-view” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01752).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01752) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- selfishness [redraft]: No support in the packet for the specific phrasing/pattern claim that selfishness involves “a pattern of putting personal gain at the center of one’s motives.”; The definition’s claims that selfishness is “linked with egoism” and that it “refers to a self-focused stance” where a person “knowingly aims at their own benefit” are not stated in the supplied packet.; The packet text defines **egoism** as attitudes/dispositions with the conscious end of the advantage of the personal self, and only *references* “SELFISHNESS” via “Cf. … SELFISHNESS” without defining selfishness itself.; The packet’s entry is for “Egoism,” not “selfishness”; it only cross-references selfishness, so the definition should not present selfishness itself as the sourced head term.; “Knowingly aims at their own benefit” and “personal gain at the center of one’s motives” overstate/paraphrase the source, which says only that egoistic attitudes have as their conscious end “the advantage of the personal self.” New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Egoism” (Egoism).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E1defs.htm#Egoism) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- semantic code [redraft]: The definition is generally supported, but the requested field is not defensible from the source packet.; The definition’s phrasing (“meaning or underlying logic expressed by a piece of code”) is only an implicit paraphrase of the packet’s description of logic equivalence, not a directly supported “sense of the term” from the packet.; The packet does not define the term “semantic code” as such; it discusses “semantic code clone detection” and code fragments expressing the same logic, but it does not provide a dictionary-like definition of “semantic code.”; The packet supports a software-engineering sense of "semantic code" (code fragments with the same logic despite altered syntax or obfuscation), not a learning/psychology field classification.; “Semantic code” in the packet is framed in the specific context of clone detection using intermediate program representations (Baf/Jimple) and BiLSTM; the definition presents a general-purpose meaning without that linkage, which is not explicitly established by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Shahbaz Ismail M; Shahzad Sara; Quradaa Fahmi H. Semantic code clone detection using hybrid intermediate representations and BiLSTM networks. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340971; article XML SHA-256 887639bcfae4710a9da033e8c9437d50519e879d6aeba20364d9f1ba49942903. “Semantic code clone detection using hybrid intermediate representations and BiLSTM networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340971).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340971) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- semantic fluency [redraft]: The definition claims semantic fluency involves “efficiently searching semantic memory,” but the packet describes “mapping of the semantic space” without explicitly using or supporting the specific construct “semantic memory.”; The definition states “quickly generate” as many examples as possible, but the packet emphasizes producing as many items as possible and characterizing movement in semantic space; it does not support the specific wording about speed/“quickly.”; The packet does not mention semantic memory, so “efficiently searching semantic memory” is unsupported.; The packet supports generating as many items as possible within a semantic category, but it does not support the added claim that this is done “quickly.”; The second sentence is broadly supported, but the definition should not add unsupported wording beyond the packet. New packet required. Source: [Saranpää Aino M.; Kivisaari Sasa L.; Salmelin Riitta; Krumm Sabine. Moving in Semantic Space in Prodromal and Very Early Alzheimer's Disease: An Item-Level Characterization of the Semantic Fluency Task. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.777656; article XML SHA-256 c4f201a630bf7c81f1060951ab7d753687046318b2964815f9c19152618e07b4. “Moving in Semantic Space in Prodromal and Very Early Alzheimer's Disease: An Item-Level Characterization of the Semantic Fluency Task” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.777656).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.777656) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- semantic network [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported generalization by describing semantic networks as models of “connected knowledge entities and their relationships”; the packet only says that intricate system information is encapsulated within semantic network models and discusses knowledge entity variables, not the general representational structure claimed.; The definition’s phrase “connected knowledge entities and their relationships” is not explicitly supported in the packet text; the packet mentions “semantic network models” and “knowledge entity variables,” but does not describe relationships between entities.; The rest of the definition (semantic network models used to encapsulate complex system information and support fault/anomaly detection) aligns with the packet, but the unsupported “connected…relationships” component prevents a full pass.; The sentence “In this source, it is used to capture complex system information so the network can be checked for faults or anomalies” is directionally supported, but the overall definition still includes extra claims not grounded in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Sun Xinjie; Qin Tao; Tong Lingyun; Zhang Haoliang; Xu Weihan. Intelligent fault detection strategy for knowledge entities in fault semantic networks of distribution network based on siamese networks. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0303084; article XML SHA-256 33ad2b80fb7df8fcf694a8ce51e514ff2efd0dbee5c7460c0f20bf10b88485cf. “Intelligent fault detection strategy for knowledge entities in fault semantic networks of distribution network based on siamese networks” (10.1371/journal.pone.0303084).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303084) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- semantics [redraft]: Claims about semantics “how meanings are organized” and “including which word combinations are acceptable in a language” are only indirectly supported via an acceptability judgment task on collocations; the packet does not establish these as general properties of semantics.; The definition goes beyond the packet by presenting a broad, general-purpose account of semantics (“the aspect of language concerned with word meaning and how meanings are organized and used”) that is not stated in the source text.; The packet discusses “L2 lexical semantics” and learners’ difficulty acquiring word meaning (especially in verb–noun collocations), but it does not explicitly define semantics as “the aspect of language concerned with word meaning” or describe semantics in general terms beyond the study’s focus on lexical meaning.; The packet supports lexical semantics and collocational acceptability in L2 learning, but it does not directly support the fuller claim about how meanings are organized and used across language in general. New packet required. Source: [Zhao Zhao Akiko; Shirai Yasuhiro. Ultimate attainment in L2 semantics: Where and why do learners fail to achieve native-like knowledge of verb meaning?. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1719015; article XML SHA-256 b313b7b88fece87695d8ad1db4eed9d2f14b608985165e91ef698e2603455c98. “Ultimate attainment in L2 semantics: Where and why do learners fail to achieve native-like knowledge of verb meaning?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1719015).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1719015) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- semasiology [redraft]: The broader “words and signs in general” wording appears in the packet under a different term (“semiotic”), not under semasiology, so the definition overextends the source sense.; The packet discusses “semeiology”/“semiology” in medicine for “the science of the signs or symptoms of disease,” but it does not support that “semasiology” (as opposed to “semeiology/semiology”) has the meaning given in the definition.; The packet only states: “Semasiology : see SEMANTICS.” It does not define semasiology as “a historical term for semantics,” nor does it describe a study of meaning in words, language, or signs.; The packet supports only the cross-reference “Semasiology: see SEMANTICS,” i.e. a historical synonym or near-synonym for semantics; it does not support the added claim that semasiology itself is the broader study of meaning in language and signs. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2908500-2920500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- seminal analysis [redraft]: The definition is broader than the source support and reads like a generalized dictionary gloss rather than a sense established by the packet alone.; The packet only shows the phrase used to describe an earlier analysis as “seminal”; it does not support the added claim that later researchers revisit, test, or build on it.; The packet shows later revision/testing (“I revisit their analysis”), but it does not explicitly state the full general characterization requested (earlier + highly influential + later researchers revisit/test/build on).; The packet uses the phrase “in a seminal analysis” to describe an earlier work (Deaner & Nunn), but it does not provide or support the general definition that such analyses are “highly influential.” New packet required. Source: [Dunbar R. I. M.. Evolutionary lags in the primate brain size/body size relationship revisited. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351073; article XML SHA-256 a6f51ad109550007d93ce47c3927c65f5f1e8cb3ac031cec681ff05a0d5da604. “Evolutionary lags in the primate brain size/body size relationship revisited” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351073).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351073) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- senile dementia [redraft]: The definition adds a broader definitional claim about old age that is not supported by the supplied source text.; The packet does not support the claim that senile dementia is “occurring in old age.” The cited text discusses Alzheimer’s disease as the leading cause of senile dementia and describes symptoms as disturbances in brain functions, but it does not define senile dementia in terms of age of onset.; The packet supports that Alzheimer’s disease is the leading cause of senile dementia and that its symptoms involve disturbances in important brain functions, but it does not state that senile dementia is dementia occurring in old age. New packet required. Source: [Nagpure Bhushan Vijay; Bian Jin-Song. Hydrogen Sulfide Inhibits A2A Adenosine Receptor Agonist Induced β-Amyloid Production in SH-SY5Y Neuroblastoma Cells via a cAMP Dependent Pathway. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0088508; article XML SHA-256 61610b4cfbe9d73dc84da789f90b78c45c083f3345320b5662b27219c4eedafc. “Hydrogen Sulfide Inhibits A2A Adenosine Receptor Agonist Induced β-Amyloid Production in SH-SY5Y Neuroblastoma Cells via a cAMP Dependent Pathway” (10.1371/journal.pone.0088508).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088508) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- senile miosis [redraft]: One substantive part is supported: the packet states that “senile miosis and individual differences in pupil size did not account for aging differences and inter-subject variability in processing speed,” which aligns with the second sentence. However, the definition cannot pass because the first sentence contains unsupported claims.; The definition’s claim that “senile miosis is an age-related change in pupil size” is not explicitly stated in the packet text. The packet only mentions “senile miosis” in the context of whether it accounted for age-related differences, without defining it.; The definition’s wording “considered an optical factor in vision research” is not supported by the packet; the packet refers to “optical factors (pupil size and luminance)” but does not link senile miosis to that description.; The packet supports that pupil size was treated as an optical factor in the study, but it does not explicitly define senile miosis as an age-related change in pupil size; that part relies on outside knowledge.; The wording broadens a single study finding into a general definition of the term, which is not fully supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Bieniek Magdalena M.; Frei Luisa S.; Rousselet Guillaume A.. Early ERPs to faces: aging, luminance, and individual differences. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00268; article XML SHA-256 6376254923c4b82f7bb8b47c259c4caec7b21f0beb14bf26963c80397997fc6d. “Early ERPs to faces: aging, luminance, and individual differences” (10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00268).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00268) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- sense modality [redraft]: The packet does not define “sense modality” as a “basic sensory channel” or explicitly state that it is a way “through which an experience or word meaning can be related.”; The packet refers to “the five sense modalities” but does not list the specific examples (vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell) or explicitly support that particular set.; The packet supports research on modality exclusivity and ratings across the five sense modalities, but it does not define “sense modality” as a general term meaning a basic sensory channel or as a way a word meaning is related to experience.; The phrase “In this research context, it refers to the sense through which something is most strongly experienced or represented” is not stated in the packet; the packet mentions “mean ratings of the extent to which a word is experienced” but does not define the term that way.; The second sentence adds an interpretation about something being “most strongly experienced or represented,” which is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [Chen I-Hsuan; Zhao Qingqing; Long Yunfei; Lu Qin; Huang Chu-Ren. Mandarin Chinese modality exclusivity norms. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0211336; article XML SHA-256 910e09566ab52cc9200e0c9f61b89b91523734923d433ea651335d7c92018537. “Mandarin Chinese modality exclusivity norms” (10.1371/journal.pone.0211336).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211336) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sense of self [redraft]: The added claim that this sense can become disrupted in ‘severe distress’ is broader than the packet, which specifically mentions loss of autonomy, severe physical pain, and existential/spiritual experience in terminally ill patients.; The definition blends a general psychological term with context-specific content from the packet, so the requested sense is not supported cleanly by the source.; The packet does not define “sense of self” as “a person’s basic feeling of who they are as an individual”; it only mentions that patients may experience “disintegration of patient’s sense of self” in contexts like loss of autonomy, severe physical pain, and challenging existential/spiritual experience.; The packet supports a terminal-illness context in which a patient’s sense of self may disintegrate, but it does not support the general definition of sense of self as a person’s basic feeling of who they are as an individual.; While the packet supports that loss of autonomy, severe pain, and existential/spiritual strain can contribute to disintegration of a patient’s sense of self, it does not support the additional general phrasing about the “basic feeling” aspect or the notion that the sense “starts to break down” as a general definition. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dignity Therapy” (D000096225).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000096225) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- sense [redraft]: The example narrows the meaning to panic attacks and adds explanatory generalization beyond the source packet.; The example “feeling as if one is losing control even when there is no clear danger” is supported by the packet, but the definition’s broader framing as a general mental-health definition for “sense” is not supported.; The packet does not define the term “sense” generally as a “subjective feeling or impression”; it only uses the phrase “a sense of losing control” as a characteristic of panic attacks.; The packet supports only the phrase “a sense of losing control even when there is no clear danger or trigger” in panic attacks, not a general definition of the noun “sense” as a subjective feeling or impression. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Panic Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 ce43f2b6abfacd0fc7080a4c735434c92c7c9223822c428dafe4ddf9f8731cf7. “Panic Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/panic-disorder-when-fear-overwhelms).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/panic-disorder-when-fear-overwhelms) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- sensibility [redraft]: Uses in this context to redefine a general headword as interoceptive sensibility, a narrow sense the packet only mentions. New packet required. Source: [Lien Yunn-Wen; Teng Shan-Chuan; Wei Li-Yun. From the body to the mind: interoception and sense of agency as mechanisms of depression reduction in the Body–Mind Axial Awareness (BMAA). 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755698; article XML SHA-256 97a2f2102a85eee5c97b9f35932a7039ad41a2be9a8c2a29016697bc1c810517. “From the body to the mind: interoception and sense of agency as mechanisms of depression reduction in the Body–Mind Axial Awareness (BMAA)” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755698).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1755698) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sensitivity [redraft]: Packet does not say eye diseases increase sunlight sensitivity; definition misattributes and reads increased into the headword. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Seasonal Affective Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d89120086a5f01bf70f21f43fbf64f1a5b58f4c35f5185f5dac0c769f3d6317c. “Seasonal Affective Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- sensory acuity [redraft]: The field label should be tied to the article’s visual-perception context rather than presented as a broad, standalone psychology definition without support.; The packet does not provide a definition of “sensory acuity” as “how well a sensory system can detect or discriminate what is present,” so that substantive claim is unsupported.; The packet supports only a visual-perception context (“impaired sensory acuity, such as the blindspot”), not a general definition of sensory acuity as a sensory system’s ability to detect or discriminate stimuli.; The phrase “reduced acuity meaning poorer perception in an area such as the blindspot” is directionally supported, but the definition overgeneralizes beyond the source article’s specific use.; The statement that “reduced acuity meaning poorer perception in an area such as the blindspot” is only partially supported: the packet discusses perceptual impairment at the blindspot location, but it does not explicitly equate that impairment with “reduced acuity” as a definition.; While the packet mentions “impaired sensory acuity” and uses the blindspot/scotoma as an example, it does not state that “in this source” sensory acuity “refers to the quality of visual perception.” New packet required. Source: [Smith Daniel T.; Beierholm Ulrik; Avery Mark. A presaccadic perceptual impairment at the postsaccadic location of the blindspot. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0291582; article XML SHA-256 1b5bca4a9cda0767a8af0740fa5b7926898b58d53dbf646601ef541d112eee76. “A presaccadic perceptual impairment at the postsaccadic location of the blindspot” (10.1371/journal.pone.0291582).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291582) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sensory amusia [redraft]: Aside from that mismatch, the remaining elements are supported by the packet (sensory amusia as loss of comprehension/appreciation of music, and that sensory and amnesic amusia can occur without aphasia).; The definition claims sensory amusia is “parallel to sensory language impairment,” but the packet does not use that wording or concept; it instead says amusia is analogous to aphasia “in regard to speech.”; The definition slightly paraphrases the source in a way that adds an unsupported framing of the condition as a “musical disorder” parallel to another named impairment; the packet supports only the historical analogy to aphasia and the specific sensory form as loss of comprehension/appreciation of music.; The sense is otherwise correct, but the unsupported comparison means the definition does not fully pass as written.; “sensory language impairment” is not supported by the packet; the source says amusia is analogous to aphasia in regard to speech, not to a sensory language-impairment category. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Amusia” (Amusia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A3defs.htm#Amusia) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- sensory area [redraft]: The claim that sensory areas can respond to other senses or spoken language is supported only for V1 in this source, not established as a general property of sensory areas.; The definition makes a broad, category-level claim (“A sensory area is a brain region mainly involved…”) that is not directly stated or substantiated in the packet, which only discusses primary visual cortex (V1) specifically.; The packet supports this description for primary visual cortex (V1), but the definition generalizes from that single example to sensory areas in general without support.; While the packet supports that V1 can process basic visual features and show multisensory effects and activation by spoken language, it does not establish a general definition of “sensory area” beyond V1 (e.g., as a general type of brain region across the brain). New packet required. Source: [Seydell-Greenwald Anna; Wang Xiaoying; Newport Elissa L.; Bi Yanchao; Striem-Amit Ella. Spoken language processing activates the primary visual cortex. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0289671; article XML SHA-256 feb7681cde0ac221ad02ea89b67db77cd27c8bdf052d444b4f6351d4cde1ad9f. “Spoken language processing activates the primary visual cortex” (10.1371/journal.pone.0289671).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289671) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sensory consciousness [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define “sensory consciousness” as the “conscious side of sensory stimulation or sensory change”; it only uses the phrase in a sentence about mental dynamogenesis.; The packet does not support the claim that “sensory consciousness means the conscious side of sensory stimulation or sensory change.” It only uses the phrase “change in sensory consciousness” within the discussion of “mental dynamogenesis,” without defining what “sensory consciousness” specifically means. ; The remainder (“…used in the idea of mental dynamogenesis, where a change in sensory consciousness tends to be followed by a change in motor consciousness”) is supported in the packet, but the definition’s first sentence is not. Therefore the definition is not fully supported by the supplied source packet.; The wording makes the historical source sound like it is defining the term directly, but the packet only supplies an illustrative usage within a broader discussion of dynamogenesis. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Dynamogenesis” (Dynamogenesis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/D3defs.htm#Dynamogenesis) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- sensory cortex [redraft]: The added explanation about sensory input guiding practice and performance goes beyond the packet’s wording and is not directly supported as a definitional statement.; The packet does not explicitly define the sensory cortex as a brain area that “processes sensory feedback, including touch-related information.” It only refers to applying stimulation over the “ipsilesional primary sensory cortex (IL-S1)” and measures “cutaneous somatosensation,” without stating a general processing definition. ; The packet supports that sensory feedback and the primary sensory cortex are relevant to motor learning, but it does not explicitly define the sensory cortex as a brain area that processes sensory feedback or touch-related information.; The remaining claims about sensory feedback being critical for motor learning and the role of sensory input guiding motor learning in the described context are broadly consistent with the packet (e.g., “Sensory feedback is critical for motor learning”), but the definition as a whole is not fully supported because the first sentence is not defensible from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Brodie Sonia M.; Meehan Sean; Borich Michael R.; Boyd Lara A.. 5 Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the ipsilesional sensory cortex enhances motor learning after stroke. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00143; article XML SHA-256 4739a703ec209abe4d30fe1beb7689741c046af23bc86622a16d986fe87307eb. “5 Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the ipsilesional sensory cortex enhances motor learning after stroke” (10.3389/fnhum.2014.00143).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00143) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- sensory drive [redraft]: The definition adds a broad generalization about local environmental conditions affecting signal transmission and detection; the packet specifically supports climate-induced differences in atmospheric attenuation and associated call-frequency divergence, not the broader framing as stated.; The definition claims signals evolve due to effects on both “transmitted and detected”; the packet only describes climate-induced differences in “atmospheric attenuation” affecting acoustic signal properties, not detection.; The provided field (“cognition”) is not supported by the packet, which discusses an evolutionary/acoustic communication context (mate choice/species recognition, bat echolocation calls) rather than cognition per se.; The requested field, “cognition,” is not defensible from the packet; the source is about evolutionary divergence in communication signals and sensory drive in bats, not a cognition concept. New packet required. Source: [Mutumi Gregory L.; Jacobs David S.; Winker Henning. Sensory Drive Mediated by Climatic Gradients Partially Explains Divergence in Acoustic Signals in Two Horseshoe Bat Species, Rhinolophus swinnyi and Rhinolophus simulator. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0148053; article XML SHA-256 f9590a9690b90efb13661ca41fe96be2ba1166a904152a5cc27d646a6f710704. “Sensory Drive Mediated by Climatic Gradients Partially Explains Divergence in Acoustic Signals in Two Horseshoe Bat Species, Rhinolophus swinnyi and Rhinolophus simulator” (10.1371/journal.pone.0148053).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148053) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sensory exploitation [redraft]: Because the packet does not provide an explicit definitional description for sensory exploitation, the definition is not fully supported by the supplied source packet.; The definition’s broad generalization about how the trait spreads is only indirectly suggested by the packet and is not explicitly defined there, so the sense is not securely established from this source alone.; The definition’s first sentence states a general definition of sensory exploitation as the “spread or advantage of a novel trait.” The provided packet only mentions that “previous studies have offered evidence for the spread of novel traits… via sensory exploitation,” but it does not supply or substantiate a standalone, general definition matching the wording (“spread or advantage”).; The packet supports that “pre-existing sensory/perceptual biases may have affected” mate choice copying and that females showed preferences for the “gold” phenotype/novelty, but it does not explicitly justify the specific general framing that the term is defined as described in the definition’s first sentence.; The requested field/sense is not well supported here: the packet uses “sensory exploitation” in an evolutionary mate-choice context, not a learning-psychology sense. New packet required. Source: [MacLaren Ronald David. Aesthetic preference for artificially selected color variant affects mate choice copying behavior in female Poecilia latipinna. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298171; article XML SHA-256 deb2e19a55d54ceaab7dd9591008fca44c802f238aadcb545785d01a4496821e. “Aesthetic preference for artificially selected color variant affects mate choice copying behavior in female Poecilia latipinna” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298171).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298171) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sensory input [redraft]: The packet does not provide a general definition of “sensory input” as information entering the nervous system via stimulation of the body’s sensory pathways; the only “sensory feedback/input” discussed is specifically sensory feedback induced by neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES).; The packet supports sensory feedback from neuromuscular electrical stimulation and possible effects on corticomuscular synchronization and motor performance, but it does not support the broader general definition of sensory input as information entering the nervous system from the body's sensory pathways.; The second sentence’s details are only partially supported: the packet mentions NMES may contribute to synchronization between motor cortex and spinal motor neurons and to motor performance improvement, but it does not explicitly define the term as “feedback produced by NMES” affecting that specific motor cortex–spinal motor neuron coordination in a way that serves as the requested definitional sense.; The wording shifts from the packet’s cautious “may contribute” and “improvement” to a broader, more categorical explanation of how sensory input works, which is not established by the source text. New packet required. Source: [Koseki Tadaki; Kudo Daisuke; Katagiri Natsuki; Nanba Shigehiro; Nito Mitsuhiro; Tanabe Shigeo; Yamaguchi Tomofumi. Electrical stimulation of the common peroneal nerve and its effects on the relationship between corticomuscular coherence and motor control in healthy adults. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12868-021-00665-w; article XML SHA-256 8f1c26dd2baea474dbc5200dd787a2d99b3c8f1617f8b70bb1fc4f5251e8a396. “Electrical stimulation of the common peroneal nerve and its effects on the relationship between corticomuscular coherence and motor control in healthy adults” (10.1186/s12868-021-00665-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-021-00665-w) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sensory nerve [redraft]: The cornea-specific claims in the second sentence are broadly supported (corneal sensory innervation maintaining ocular surface integrity/immune homeostasis by regulating neuropeptide secretion and affecting tear production/neuropeptide signaling), but the definition as a whole fails because the opening general description is unsupported by the packet.; The cornea-specific statement is only partially supported and adds wording not found in the source, including “tear secretion” and “immune balance”; the packet instead says corneal sensory innervation helps maintain ocular surface integrity and immune homeostasis by regulating neuropeptide secretion in tear fluid.; The definition’s first sentence includes general claims that a “sensory nerve” is involved in “sensing bodily conditions” and “helping regulate related body responses,” which are not explicitly stated in the provided packet.; The first sentence generalizes beyond the packet: it describes sensory nerves broadly as sensing bodily conditions and regulating body responses, but the source only discusses corneal sensory innervation and does not define the term that way. New packet required. Source: [Datta Ananya; Orallo Grace Kelly; Nelson Nahomy. Corneal sensory nerve loss induced by repeated subconjunctival and topical bupivacaine disrupts tear secretion and enhances bacterial adhesion via neuropeptide modulation. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329112; article XML SHA-256 fcfcce0bd7310a72714fbd809dd083ee2f56ec3a674fbcf36070f498fe8764c1. “Corneal sensory nerve loss induced by repeated subconjunctival and topical bupivacaine disrupts tear secretion and enhances bacterial adhesion via neuropeptide modulation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329112).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329112) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sensory overload [redraft]: Bakes the healthcare-environment context into the definition itself; diagnosis tag also wrong. New packet required. Source: [Weaver Billie; Chrysikou Evangelia; García-Rodríguez Mar; Palityka Daryia; Hernandez-Garcia Eva. Healthcare built environment and behavioural and physiological indicators of stress responses in autism spectrum disorder: Protocol for a mixed-methods systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347308; article XML SHA-256 848fe07ab920d13caa2924fe41cebfdb7fa36ccc4f4883e20b993deddb147716. “Healthcare built environment and behavioural and physiological indicators of stress responses in autism spectrum disorder: Protocol for a mixed-methods systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347308).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347308) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sensory pathway [redraft]: Because the definition’s key sense relies on an unverified general biological description, the requested term sense is not fully defensible from the packet.; The claim that the source refers to “sensory connections linked with neuropeptides in the dorsal root ganglia and spinal cord” is broader than the packet’s wording and adds an unsupported interpretation.; The definition is not fully supported by the supplied text and relies on inference rather than a source-based definition.; The first sentence (“A sensory pathway is the nerve route involved in carrying sensory-related signals within the nervous system”) is a general definition that is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text.; The packet does not define “sensory pathway” as a nerve route carrying sensory-related signals; it only mentions “the sensory pathway” in relation to neuropeptides, dorsal root ganglia, and spinal cord.; The packet supports only that the study concerns “neuropeptides connected with the sensory pathway” in the dorsal root ganglia and spinal cord, but it does not substantiate the broader description of what a “sensory pathway” is. New packet required. Source: [Mikołajczyk Anita; Złotkowska Dagmara. Subclinical lipopolysaccharide from Salmonella Enteritidis induces neuropeptide dysregulation in the spinal cord and the dorsal root ganglia. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s12868-019-0502-z; article XML SHA-256 7847d2a468027b03d5235217c8103abe6855567e51bd23f11544df372f6bcfd0. “Subclinical lipopolysaccharide from Salmonella Enteritidis induces neuropeptide dysregulation in the spinal cord and the dorsal root ganglia” (10.1186/s12868-019-0502-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-019-0502-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sensory stimulation [redraft]: Narrows a general headword to an intervention sense the packet happens to use; stimulation of senses is the normal meaning. New packet required. Source: [Hancock Aneeka M; Frostig Ron D. Testing the effects of sensory stimulation as a collateral-based therapeutic for ischemic stroke in C57BL/6J and CD1 mouse strains. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0183909; article XML SHA-256 b90b3dfb758e649df4ee72464334368962667077855c47f406bc295750768c9c. “Testing the effects of sensory stimulation as a collateral-based therapeutic for ischemic stroke in C57BL/6J and CD1 mouse strains” (10.1371/journal.pone.0183909).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0183909) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sensual [redraft]: Headword is sensual but definition defines sensuality in a Buddhist-fetter sense; wrong form and smuggled narrow context. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Oriental Philosophy (and Religion)” (Oriental Philosophy).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/O3defs.htm#Oriental Philosophy) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- sensus communis [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly support the claim that sensus communis was “the supposed source of first moral truths.”; The packet only states that in the beginning of English philosophy moral first principles were regarded as principles of the *sensus communis* by Herbert of Cherbury; it does not explicitly define sensus communis as a “shared common sense by which basic moral principles are immediately recognized.”; The packet supports Herbert of Cherbury’s use of sensus communis for moral first principles in early English philosophy, but it does not support the added claim that this was a ‘shared’ common sense.; The packet supports a connection to “intuitional or common-sense morality” (Herbert of Cherbury is said to found this school), but the provided definition adds additional specifics (shared immediate recognition; source of first moral truths) that are not explicitly present in the packet.; The wording ‘source of first moral truths’ goes beyond the packet’s phrasing, which speaks of moral first principles and immediate apprehension, not a source of truth in that explicit form. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Ethical Theories” (EthicalT).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E3defs.htm#EthicalT) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- sentient [redraft]: The packet supports attribution of mindedness to robots or AI systems, but it does not directly define “sentient” as “being seen as having a mind or conscious inner experience”; that wording is an interpretive generalization rather than a stated definition.; The packet supports that sentience/consciousness attributions may be elicited by a robot’s speaking, remembering, adapting, and acting, but it does not explicitly support the specific framing that people consider whether an AI or robot is “more than a tool.”; “More than a tool” is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Chella Antonio. Sentient AI in robots and agents: prolegomena for an evidence-based research program. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1903644; article XML SHA-256 1f3028d9c8c0ec63980258fbdd4edf306e01f38875f587f5ae9fe956b29d716c. “Sentient AI in robots and agents: prolegomena for an evidence-based research program” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1903644).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1903644) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- separation strategy [redraft]: The definition refers to “niche width”/“niche overlap” as “regions” in a way that fits the packet’s ecological niche terminology, but the packet does not support the additional social/role-differentiation framing used in the definition.; The packet frames the strategy as “optimize the structure of ecological niches,” without the specific mechanism described in the definition (competition reduction via role differentiation).; The packet supports a specialization/separation strategy for areas with low ecological niche width and high niche overlap, but it does not support the added claim that this works by differentiating regional roles.; The packet supports reducing competition and optimizing ecological niche structure, but the wording about improving the “overall niche structure” through role differentiation goes beyond the source’s stated claims.; The packet supports the condition and label “specialization separation strategy” for areas with “low width and high overlap,” but it does not explicitly state that the strategy aims to “reduce direct competition for the same resources” or to “differentiate regional roles.”; The term is used here in an ecological/economic development context, not as a general social or psychological concept. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Hang; Abdusuli Nurguli. Ecological niche measurement and high-quality development of "the Belt and Road" core area. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302550; article XML SHA-256 bcb42c19e644b84c1f450d4a87a7e6686b2bf36be8433ee2180d2ac325a68f30. “Ecological niche measurement and high-quality development of "the Belt and Road" core area” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302550).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302550) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sequential sampling [redraft]: The packet discusses a transdiagnostic vulnerability variable in psychopathology rather than establishing a diagnostic definition or diagnostic criteria for the term, so the requested sense (“field”: diagnosis) is only loosely aligned with what is in the excerpt.; The packet does not support the claim that sequential sampling is specifically a class of computational models in which “a decision is represented as evidence being gathered over time.” The provided text only mentions “sequential sampling models of choice tasks” and derives a variable from them; it does not describe the “evidence gathered over time” representation.; The packet supports a variable derived from these models (efficiency of evidence accumulation), but not the claim that sequential sampling models are used to characterize individual differences in how efficiently people accumulate evidence.; The packet supports that sequential sampling models are computational models of choice tasks, but it does not support the broader definitional claim that they represent decisions as evidence being gathered over time in this exact form.; The packet supports the general idea of modeling/quantifying “efficiency of evidence accumulation (EEA)” as a computationally characterized variable and linking it to individual differences, but the definition’s broader explanatory framing (“evidence being gathered over time” as the definitional mechanism) is not explicitly supported.; The requested field is not well supported by the source, which discusses computational/psychopathology research rather than diagnosis as a definitional sense of the term. New packet required. Source: [Sripada Chandra; Weigard Alexander. Impaired Evidence Accumulation as a Transdiagnostic Vulnerability Factor in Psychopathology. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.627179; article XML SHA-256 40124f38cd287a4b8ee20d5964d14b522f1cd46e2b8f723587b850a5f3d24e45. “Impaired Evidence Accumulation as a Transdiagnostic Vulnerability Factor in Psychopathology” (10.3389/fpsyt.2021.627179).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.627179) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- serial processing [redraft]: The claim that 'at least some processing stages for one task must wait until processing of the other task is completed' is not stated in the packet and is a stronger mechanistic interpretation than the source supports.; The definition’s first sentence (“handling multiple tasks or streams … one after another rather than at the same time”) is not explicitly stated or directly supported in the provided packet text.; The definition’s second sentence defines a specific dual-task interpretation (“at least some processing stages for one task must wait until processing of the other task is completed”); the packet discusses dual-task interference and tests serial vs parallel processing using a hybrid model, but it does not state this “must wait until … completed” characterization.; The packet supports a serial-versus-parallel comparison in dual-task processing, but it does not directly define serial processing as handling multiple tasks or streams strictly one after another.; The packet’s results indicate a “hybrid model containing features of both parallel and serial processing,” which is not reflected in the definition; presenting serial processing as a clear dichotomy in dual-task stages is therefore not directly supported by the packet.; The source concludes that a hybrid model with both parallel and serial features best accounts for the results, so presenting serial processing as the singular general account overstates the packet. New packet required. Source: [Abbas-Zadeh Mojtaba; Hossein-Zadeh Gholam-Ali; Vaziri-Pashkam Maryam. Dual-Task Interference in a Simulated Driving Environment: Serial or Parallel Processing?. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579876; article XML SHA-256 96f97db6a4aed595cffad1ca81c253813e64d2a223372d7f553d836ad1a6e060. “Dual-Task Interference in a Simulated Driving Environment: Serial or Parallel Processing?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579876).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579876) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- serotonin reuptake inhibitor [redraft]: The definition makes a broader claim about serotonin reuptake inhibitors generally being used for symptom management; the packet only supports the possible benefit of SSRI medication in children with PANS/PANDAS for managing specific symptoms.; The packet does not define what a “serotonin reuptake inhibitor” is, nor does it state that this term “includes” SSRIs; it only mentions “selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) medication.”; The packet provides support for managing OCD/anxiety/tics/eating issues, but not for the requested term’s general classification as described in the definition.; The packet supports only selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) medication in the context of children with PANS or PANDAS; it does not support a general definition of any serotonin reuptake inhibitor or the broader class claim implied by the term.; The use claim is context-limited in the source, but the definition states it generally as a medicine that may be used to help manage symptoms, which goes beyond the packet’s narrower PANS/PANDAS statement. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. PANS and PANDAS: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 492b8d282e63ff7c47c9c126c6ee286e5bcb517442c5e4a8f3a668f35e391832. “PANS and PANDAS: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- serotonin reuptake transporter [redraft]: Defines SERT as a marker used in the study rather than as a transporter; describes method, not the term. New packet required. Source: [Dudok Jacobus J.; Groffen Alexander J. A.; Toonen Ruud F. T.; Verhage Matthijs. Deletion of Munc18-1 in 5-HT Neurons Results in Rapid Degeneration of the 5-HT System and Early Postnatal Lethality. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0028137; article XML SHA-256 5039444865208ab3856776c394bc450a1b3b7de5365c1967d4d2ade94fb62f9d. “Deletion of Munc18-1 in 5-HT Neurons Results in Rapid Degeneration of the 5-HT System and Early Postnatal Lethality” (10.1371/journal.pone.0028137).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0028137) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- SET [redraft]: Because the definition’s requested sense includes specific phrasing (“mental framework or mode of thinking”), and that phrasing is not supported in the supplied packet, the definition cannot be accepted under the “every substantive claim supported by the packet” requirement.; The packet does not explicitly define “set” as a “mental framework or mode of thinking”; it mentions “mental sets” in the context of cognitive flexibility, but provides no direct definitional support for the wording used in the definition.; The packet supports only the phrase “mental sets” in the context of cognitive flexibility; it does not establish a standalone dictionary sense for “SET” as an entry.; The second sentence is meta-commentary about the packet rather than a definition of the term.; “Mental framework or mode of thinking” is an unsupported paraphrase beyond the packet’s wording and is not clearly justified as the term’s definition. New packet required. Source: [Fischer Nastassja L.; Kalaivanan Kastoori; Tong Ke; Uchiyama Ryutaro; W.L. Fu Phillis; Lee Timothy; Leong Victoria; Chen S.H. Annabel; W. Robbins Trevor; J. Sahakian Barbara; Seow Peter; Teo Chew Lee; Hung David; R. Ellefson Michelle. Set-shifting and task-switching make differential contributions to divergent thinking in adolescence. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04584-5; article XML SHA-256 8418f6ab51d2e5b08e3c8ce85c41d35bf8dd1dd8aba7a4517c6c60ce68806052. “Set-shifting and task-switching make differential contributions to divergent thinking in adolescence” (10.1186/s40359-026-04584-5).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04584-5) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sex determination [redraft]: Redefines a well-known biological headword as forensic identification of sex, the narrower thing the packet discusses. New packet required. Source: [Hamidi Omid; Afrasiabi Mahlagha; Namaki Marjan. GADNN: a revolutionary hybrid deep learning neural network for age and sex determination utilizing cone beam computed tomography images of maxillary and frontal sinuses. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12874-024-02183-9; article XML SHA-256 b9c76bf02abd92a27483138d47fdd3914b424f8968b2b3c945feb2bc2b747786. “GADNN: a revolutionary hybrid deep learning neural network for age and sex determination utilizing cone beam computed tomography images of maxillary and frontal sinuses” (10.1186/s12874-024-02183-9).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-024-02183-9) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sex differences [redraft]: Narrows a general headword to differences in diagnosis or recognition; the ADHD facts are supported but the sense is wrong. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. ADHD in Adults: 4 Things to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 ca26039eb6dd7e0e1c67e36b64d6cb52971df8341ddee168f0cd121687a5e542. “ADHD in Adults: 4 Things to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/adhd-what-you-need-to-know).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/adhd-what-you-need-to-know) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- sex object [redraft]: The definition’s wording goes beyond what the packet explicitly provides about what the “sex object” schema consists of (the packet mentions activation of a “sex object” schema, and separately discusses components like appearance concerns and dehumanized treatment, but not the specific emphasis on “sexualized evaluation”).; The packet does not support the claim that this schema is used to explain self-objectification in the detailed way stated; it only says the schema is one mechanism among four that may trigger reported effects.; The packet mentions activation of the “sex object” schema as one proposed mechanism, but it does not define that term as a dehumanized, appearance- and sexuality-centered view of a person.; The packet supports that objectification involves concerns about one’s physical appearance and treating oneself as a dehumanized object, but it does not specifically support the definition’s claim that the process “centers on … sexualized evaluation rather than the person as a whole.” New packet required. Source: [Kahalon Rotem; Shnabel Nurit; Becker Julia C.. Experimental Studies on State Self-Objectification: A Review and an Integrative Process Model. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01268; article XML SHA-256 0424d70e4248d419f089f3e79ae179d8ddf2f298d31d33c402fbcd7a429c547b. “Experimental Studies on State Self-Objectification: A Review and an Integrative Process Model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01268).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01268) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sex reassignment [redraft]: The definition adds a clinical framing about "care for people with gender dysphoria" that is only partly supported and is broader and more specific than the packet warrants.; The packet discusses CSHT and psychotherapy, and mentions SRS only indirectly; the definition presents SRS and CSHT together as a medical option to improve quality of life, which is not fully supported by the supplied text.; The packet mentions sex reassignment surgery (SRS) mainly in terms of its discontinuation/resumption, but it does not support the definition’s claim that SRS is “used as part of care” for people with gender dysphoria.; The packet supports quality-of-life improvement for cross-sex hormone treatment (CSHT), but it does not state that sex reassignment surgery (SRS) is intended to improve quality of life.; The packet supports sex reassignment surgery and cross-sex hormone treatment as distinct items, but it does not define the term "sex reassignment" as specifically meaning surgery.; The statement that sex reassignment is "presented alongside cross-sex hormone treatment as a medical option intended to improve quality of life" goes beyond the packet; only cross-sex hormone treatment is explicitly described as an option to improve quality of life. New packet required. Source: [Oda Hiroyuki; Kinoshita Toshihiko. Efficacy of hormonal and mental treatments with MMPI in FtM individuals: cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. 2017; DOI 10.1186/s12888-017-1423-y; article XML SHA-256 7e24aa9c4ab4dbda92913c2c1c8ff2221db4a1541d23ff07688709667945fdf4. “Efficacy of hormonal and mental treatments with MMPI in FtM individuals: cross-sectional and longitudinal studies” (10.1186/s12888-017-1423-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1423-y) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sex typing [redraft]: Sex typing in psychology means acquiring sex-typed behaviour; definition gives a lab sexing sense from the packet instead. New packet required. Source: [Cozzarolo Camille-Sophie; Sironi Nicolas; Glaizot Olivier; Pigeault Romain; Christe Philippe. Sex-biased parasitism in vector-borne disease: Vector preference?. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0216360; article XML SHA-256 0d510ae3925b6851a222e154d3b5b6f429805f221179f215a87b1dcfded0deb1. “Sex-biased parasitism in vector-borne disease: Vector preference?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0216360).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216360) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sexual abuse [redraft]: Hedges 'in this source' to redefine a general headword as clergy abuse only; narrow sense smuggled. New packet required. Source: [Durkin Joanne; Zordan Rachel; Bullen Matthew; Pavich Nadia; Thomas Patricia Therese Benedict; Lethborg Carolyn; Holder Wendy; Jolly Melinda; Dreise Darlene; Fleming Daniel. The impact of clergy sexual abuse on spirituality and health: A systematic scoping review of the literature. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317821; article XML SHA-256 f5e7e08e33856465c8aabb43f18eff7fa2cd4e00dae881fe403d326dbddddf1b. “The impact of clergy sexual abuse on spirituality and health: A systematic scoping review of the literature” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317821).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317821) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sexual feeling [redraft]: Packet describes the feeling in erotomania, not the term; definition smuggles that narrow sense and adds a meta-claim. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Erotomania or Eroticomania” (Erotomania).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/E2defs.htm#Erotomania) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- sexual identity [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported gloss by equating sexual identity with a person’s “sense of their sexuality”; the packet only supports that sexual identity is mutable/evolving, especially during adolescence, and that this fluidity can be stressful for some adolescents.; The definition says this identity “can change over time rather than remain fixed” and that this change may be “especially changeable during adolescence”; the packet supports mutability and points to adolescence, but because the earlier “sense of their sexuality” component is not supported, the overall definition cannot be accepted under the requirement that all substantive claims be supported by the packet.; The definition states that sexual identity is “a person’s sense of their sexuality,” but the packet does not define sexual identity in terms of a “sense” or subjective orientation toward sexuality; it only describes sexual identity as “mutable and evolving.”; The requested field, cognition, is not well supported by the packet; the source is about sexual identity fluidity in adolescents, which is more directly a developmental/identity topic than a cognition term. New packet required. Source: [Srivastava Ankur; Hall William J.; Krueger Evan A.; Goldbach Jeremy T.. Sexual identity fluidity, identity management stress, and depression among sexual minority adolescents. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1075815; article XML SHA-256 0b40ac4d0ded5bad7160fb0adaedb166af1bc49779cb8e2f321f94d14955db4c. “Sexual identity fluidity, identity management stress, and depression among sexual minority adolescents” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1075815).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1075815) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sexual offense [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported claims that a sexual offense “can lead to adjudication or a record of sexual offending”; the packet only says adolescents can be adjudicated for illegal sexual behavior and that people with sexual offense histories are subject to SORNA policies.; The definition claims the act “can lead to adjudication or a record of sexual offending,” but the packet only mentions that adolescents are “adjudicated for illegal sexual behavior (AISB)” and does not explicitly state or support the idea of a “record of sexual offending” as part of the term’s meaning.; The packet does not define “sexual offense” as “an act of illegal sexual behavior” in general terms; it refers to “illegal sexual behavior (AISB)” and to “adolescents adjudicated” for AISB rather than giving a definitional statement for the term itself.; The packet supports a legal/policy usage, but it does not define “sexual offense” itself as a general term; the wording should not present an invented broader definition as if it were in the source.; While the packet supports the legal/policy context of SORNA being applied to those with sexual offense histories (including adolescents adjudicated for AISB), it does not substantiate the additional definitional components about what constitutes a “sexual offense.” New packet required. Source: [Alexander Apryl; Falligant John Michael; Marchi Cory; Floding Erica; Jennings Marissa. Sex offender registration and notification act with adolescents adjudicated for illegal sexual behavior: a therapeutic jurisprudence perspective. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1160922; article XML SHA-256 1de8d7c3ca8fc990502ba011465cbf83ae7c2e635874251f8cd0e4d3e9769c88. “Sex offender registration and notification act with adolescents adjudicated for illegal sexual behavior: a therapeutic jurisprudence perspective” (10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1160922).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1160922) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sexual response [redraft]: The claim that sexual response is studied through how people perceive and describe orgasmic experience goes beyond the packet, which describes a questionnaire about orgasm perception rather than a general definition of sexual response.; The definition claims that “sexual response is the human pattern of sexual experience,” but the packet only explicitly states that “Orgasm is a phase of the human sexual response” and discusses orgasm perception/experience; it does not define sexual response as a “pattern of sexual experience.”; The definition’s phrasing about studying sexual response “through how people perceive and describe orgasmic experience” is broadly consistent with the packet’s focus on developing an instrument to assess “orgasm perception,” but the packet does not support the broader framing that this is how sexual response is studied generally (as stated in the definition).; The note about differences between males and females is partly supported for orgasmic perception, but the definition overextends that finding to the broader term without support.; The packet supports only that orgasm is a phase of the human sexual response; it does not support defining sexual response itself as the overall human pattern of sexual experience. New packet required. Source: [Panzeri Marta; Mauro Denise; Ronconi Lucia; Arcos-Romero Ana Isabel. Development of the Italian version of the Orgasmic Perception Questionnaire (OPQ). 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288850; article XML SHA-256 6a616759c10e0cf267aaef83d0d65b44004c1f9af2b7ceb5b0fda5af7764c2c0. “Development of the Italian version of the Orgasmic Perception Questionnaire (OPQ)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288850).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288850) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sexual stimulation [redraft]: The definition adds explanatory generalization beyond the source text instead of staying within the packet-supported sense.; The first sentence (“Sexual input or activity that can trigger a sexual response”) is not stated or supported anywhere in the provided packet.; The packet only supports the phrase as something whose apparent absence is used to define spontaneous ejaculation; it does not support the broader gloss “sexual input or activity that can trigger a sexual response.”; The second sentence claims this packet uses “absence” to distinguish spontaneous ejaculation from “ejaculation linked to sexual cues,” but the packet only defines spontaneous ejaculation as occurring “without apparent sexual stimulation” and does not mention “sexual cues” or ejaculation specifically being “linked” to cues.; “Sexual cues” is not in the packet, so the comparison to “ejaculation linked to sexual cues” is unsupported. New packet required. Source: [Morisaka Tadamichi; Sakai Mai; Kogi Kazunobu; Nakasuji Akane; Sakakibara Kasumi; Kasanuki Yuria; Yoshioka Motoi. Spontaneous Ejaculation in a Wild Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin ( Tursiops aduncus ). 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0072879; article XML SHA-256 1789267f3c3fb7364e48577641cbce60adeedd502d852e0086fb72cbf74f9452. “Spontaneous Ejaculation in a Wild Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin ( Tursiops aduncus )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0072879).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072879) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- SGA [redraft]: The definition describes a type of medication (second-generation antipsychotics) used in schizophrenia, but the provided field is “diagnosis,” which does not match the term’s role as a medication rather than a diagnostic concept.; The packet supports SGA as an abbreviation for second-generation antipsychotics, which are widely used in schizophrenia and associated with glucose/lipid metabolism concerns, but the requested field is "diagnosis" and this term is a medication class, not a diagnosis term. New packet required. Source: [Wu Yuexia; Zang Sai; Wu Zhiming; Huang Jingsong. First exposure to second-generation antipsychotics alters gut microbiota and metabolic profiles in patients with glucose-lipid metabolism disorders. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1722760; article XML SHA-256 c3ecc87698922f30783ae4acabea3aa5f8a452463e439572c1e2e8f4ab281520. “First exposure to second-generation antipsychotics alters gut microbiota and metabolic profiles in patients with glucose-lipid metabolism disorders” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1722760).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1722760) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- shallow processing [redraft]: The definition slightly generalizes beyond the packet’s narrower verbal-task context rather than staying within the supported sense.; The packet supports shallow-processing verbal tasks where semantic access is unnecessary for task completion, but it does not explicitly support the broader claim that shallow processing means handling a task “at a surface level.”; The packet supports the idea that “semantic access is unnecessary for task completion” in shallow-processing verbal tasks, but it does not explicitly define shallow processing as “handling a task at a surface level.” New packet required. Source: [Cervetto Sabrina; Abrevaya Sofía; Martorell Caro Miguel; Kozono Giselle; Muñoz Edinson; Ferrari Jesica; Sedeño Lucas; Ibáñez Agustín; García Adolfo M.. Action Semantics at the Bottom of the Brain: Insights From Dysplastic Cerebellar Gangliocytoma. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01194; article XML SHA-256 605319efdfd24d575a79083c13692ab2b2b8364129f6cc38f6381bb7786b19e0. “Action Semantics at the Bottom of the Brain: Insights From Dysplastic Cerebellar Gangliocytoma” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01194).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01194) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- shape [redraft]: 'In this context' narrows the common word shape to body shape in eating disorders; wrong sense of headword. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Eating Disorders: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 e40c48a5f178998aaa79fc2ab724a26603b1db52ed9159db2eb4cfca780bea9a. “Eating Disorders: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/eating-disorders).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/eating-disorders) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- sharpening [redraft]: The definition adds “grinding or shaping” as the manner of “sharpening,” but the packet only states “The sharpening of bits … into deadly instruments” without describing grinding/shaping mechanics.; The definition is longer than necessary and introduces phrasing (“might turn harmless materials into weapons for self-destruction”) that is only indirectly supported via surrounding sentences about “lethal weapons” made from “the most harmless implements,” rather than explicitly linking that process to “suicidal patients” in the same sentence as “sharpening.”; The definition’s examples include “metal scraps,” which are not stated in the packet (the packet specifies “bits of barrel hoop, … nails and bits of wire”).; The packet supports sharpening nails, wire, and barrel hoop into deadly instruments, but it does not support the added example of “metal scraps.”; “Grinding or shaping” is not stated in the source; the packet only says these objects were sharpened into deadly instruments. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-378000-390000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- shock [redraft]: The definition is about acute medical shock, so it does not match the stated mental health field.; The definition’s mental-health field assignment is not supported by the packet, which contains no mental-health context or psychological/counselling meaning for “shock.”; The provided packet defines “shock” as an acute life-threatening *medical* condition characterized by reduced blood flow and immediate medical intervention; it does not establish any relevance or use specifically within mental health.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source is an NCIt medical descriptor for shock, not a psychology/counselling sense. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Shock” (C35016).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire [redraft]: The definition adds general usage language that goes beyond the source excerpt and is not established as current consensus by the packet.; The packet does not explicitly describe the SPMSQ as being “used to assess mental status and cognition”; it only reports that an SPMSQ score was used to define “cognitive impairment.”; The packet does not explicitly state that the Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire (SPMSQ) is a “brief questionnaire” (this description is unsupported by the provided text).; The packet supports only that SPMSQ scores below 8/10 were used to define cognitive impairment in this study; it does not support the broader claim that the questionnaire is used to assess mental status and cognition.; While the packet does support the threshold (“cognitive impairment was defined as a Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire (SPMSQ) score <8 (/10)”), the definition’s additional wording goes beyond what is explicitly supported. New packet required. Source: [Duval Guillaume T; Schott Anne-Marie; Rolland Yves; Gautier Jennifer; Blain Hubert; Duque Gustavo; Annweiler Cedric. Orthostatic hypotension and neurocognitive disorders in older women: Results from the EPIDOS cohort study. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281634; article XML SHA-256 dbf4771192d553d1edd9d761149aaf8cc6823ece939b6f77eb6c4435e995de5f. “Orthostatic hypotension and neurocognitive disorders in older women: Results from the EPIDOS cohort study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281634).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281634) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- shunning [redraft]: Packet defines aphilanthropia, not shunning; definition narrows an ordinary word to 'society and amusements'. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-556500-568500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- side effect [redraft]: The claim that the packet “describes clozapine as having a potentially dangerous side effect that needs regular blood-test monitoring” is supported, but the overall term definition contains unsupported generalization beyond what is in the packet.; The definition mixes a general dictionary sense with a source-specific example, which is more than the packet supports.; The definition’s framing about “symptom relief” is not supported by the provided packet text.; The field is not defensible here: “side effect” is a medication/treatment term, not a diagnosis term.; The first sentence gives a general definition of side effect that is not stated in the source packet; the packet only mentions a clozapine side effect requiring blood-test monitoring.; The packet does not define “side effect” as “an additional effect…besides its hoped-for symptom relief”; it only describes a “potentially dangerous side effect” of clozapine that requires regular blood tests. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Schizophrenia. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 43270b4941f013ac9885be92f3b32f1ed64375ff1fb44d589f3cc1975e5a59a1. “Schizophrenia” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- sign tracking [redraft]: Because the defining characterization (vs goal-tracking) is not supported by the provided packet text, the definition is not defensible from the supplied source.; The packet excerpt does mention “positive association between sign-tracking tendencies and alcohol-related attentional bias” and “higher alcohol use,” but it does not itself support that “stronger sign-tracking tendencies” are “positively associated” and “linked” in the specific phrasing/mapping given in the definition.; The packet excerpt does not define “sign tracking” or describe it as a “tendency…to respond…that distinguishes a person from a goal-tracker.”; The packet excerpt only states study aims regarding associations and “replicate prior evidence” using a “computerized PCA paradigm”; it does not provide the requested definition or the claimed mechanism/sense of the term.; The packet states only that the study aimed to test a hypothesized positive association between sign-tracking tendencies and alcohol-related attentional bias and to replicate prior evidence linking sign-tracking to higher alcohol use; it does not support presenting those associations as established findings in this source.; The packet supports that a computerized Pavlovian conditioned approach (PCA) paradigm was used to identify human sign- versus goal-tracking tendencies, but it does not support the definition’s added claim that this is “a tendency ... to respond in a way that distinguishes a person from a goal-tracker.” New packet required. Source: [Heck Michelle; Lesenfants Damien; Didone Vincent; Anselme Patrick; Quertemont Etienne. Human sign-tracking and its relationship with attentional biases for alcohol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358192; article XML SHA-256 02b03b7f31b034360bb99a059b1fda033258b2b45f96692bcf1b251fd1a3e498. “Human sign-tracking and its relationship with attentional biases for alcohol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358192).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358192) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- signature [redraft]: 'In this learning context' misfiles a machine-learning outcome signature under learning; narrow sense smuggled onto a general word. New packet required. Source: [Raabe Florian J.; Brechtel Sarah; Lugmair Charlotte; Weiser Judith; Schiltz Kolja; Koutsouleris Nikolaos; Falkai Peter; Hoch Eva; Pogarell Oliver; Koller Gabriele; Popovic David. The patterns of relapse and abstinence: using machine learning to identify a multidimensional signature of long-term outcome after inpatient alcohol withdrawal treatment. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1683069; article XML SHA-256 918b12e0bf46dc9ffb8a5a821ae4ee5b58e71ce82b3616936938ebd2ee3acf9f. “The patterns of relapse and abstinence: using machine learning to identify a multidimensional signature of long-term outcome after inpatient alcohol withdrawal treatment” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1683069).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1683069) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- significance [redraft]: Because the packet does not define significance in the requested sense, the requested sense of the term is not defensibly supported.; The claim that significance matters for understanding a person’s condition or influencing treatment decisions is only partially supported; the source says clinical significance and treatment implications may differ and that the framework may inform medication use, but it does not define significance in those broad terms.; The definition’s claims about “practical or clinical importance” and specifically “influencing treatment decisions” are not stated or clearly supported as a general meaning in the packet.; The packet does not provide a definition of the term “significance” (it only uses the phrase “clinical significance” in passing).; The packet supports a discussion of the clinical significance of insomnia presentations, but it does not define “significance” generally as the practical or clinical importance of any symptom, pattern, or finding. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Yiwei; Zhang Hua; Tang Jingkai; Wang Yibing; Wu Liang. Pharmacological modulation of hyperarousal in insomnia associated with major depressive disorder: a narrative review of sedating antidepressants and orexin receptor antagonists. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1928430; article XML SHA-256 1c9fa748e0466c86cb60f6a1ac5339b98270f43f15021da67707e7a5ec042cc2. “Pharmacological modulation of hyperarousal in insomnia associated with major depressive disorder: a narrative review of sedating antidepressants and orexin receptor antagonists” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1928430).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1928430) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- similarities test [redraft]: The definition introduces implied task/format details that are not in the packet; the packet only says the test was used to assess those individual differences and gives no further description of its items or procedure.; The definition’s claim that the test measures semantic cognition and verbal reasoning is only partially supported: the packet states semantic cognition and verbal reasoning were assessed using the Semantic Similarities Test, but does not support the additional specifics that it does so “by examining how a person handles similarities in meaning.”; The packet does not define what a “similarities test” is; it only mentions the “Semantic Similarities Test” as used to assess individual differences.; The packet provides no information about the test’s format, tasks, or how similarities are handled, so the definition’s implied mechanism is unsupported.; The packet supports that the Semantic Similarities Test assessed individual differences in semantic cognition and verbal reasoning, but it does not support the added description that the test measures this by examining how a person handles similarities in meaning. New packet required. Source: [Errington Patrick J; Thye Melissa; Mirman Daniel. Difficulty and pleasure in the comprehension of verb-based metaphor sentences: A behavioral study. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0263781; article XML SHA-256 2500efd9d2ae015069545d11af86b50e6e68691d82374230e667e7fa34b5b898. “Difficulty and pleasure in the comprehension of verb-based metaphor sentences: A behavioral study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0263781).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263781) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- similarity classification [redraft]: The opening generalization that similarity classification is a way of organizing sequences or other data by how alike they are is not stated in the source packet.; The packet does not state the general characterization that similarity classification is “a way of organizing sequences … by how alike they are”; it only mentions that a specific method (TDDP + multidimensional scaling) is used for “similarity classification” of aero-engine simulation time series.; The source only supports a specific application: combining TDDP with multidimensional scaling for similarity classification of aero-engine simulation time series; it does not support the broader, generalized definition or the added explanation about distinguishing data by pattern similarities and differences.; While the packet supports that a dissimilarity measure (TDDP) and multidimensional scaling are combined for similarity classification, the definition also adds interpretive wording about “pattern similarities and differences” and a broader organizing/general-purpose description that is not explicitly supported in the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Hong; Zhang Yin; Liu Jingna; Dong Keqiang. Fault diagnosis of aero-engines using transfer dispersion entropy and dispersion patterns. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348356; article XML SHA-256 accdd3965881e552a893b5cae1d6a702295d1dc2874636ab4783547c465e2775. “Fault diagnosis of aero-engines using transfer dispersion entropy and dispersion patterns” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348356).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348356) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- similarity coefficient [redraft]: The definition adds a general explanation that a similarity coefficient measures how closely two sets or outlines match; the packet only says spatial agreement was determined with the Dice Similarity Coefficient and does not support that broader definition.; The definition asserts that the Dice similarity coefficient “is used to quantify the spatial agreement between two tumor volumes defined from different imaging methods.” While the packet does mention using the “Dice Similarity Coefficient” to determine “spatial agreement” between stGTV and dwGTV derived from different imaging, the specific phrasing about “tumor volumes defined from different imaging methods” is not directly stated verbatim and exceeds what is clearly evidenced by the snippet.; The definition’s general statement (“a similarity coefficient is a measure of how closely two sets or outlines match each other”) is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text.; The packet supports the Dice Similarity Coefficient being used to assess spatial agreement between two tumor volumes, but it does not support presenting that as a general definition of “similarity coefficient.” New packet required. Source: [Fleckenstein Jochen; Jelden Michael; Kremp Stephanie; Jagoda Philippe; Stroeder Jonas; Khreish Fadi; Ezziddin Samer; Buecker Arno; Rübe Christian; Schneider Guenther K.. The Impact of Diffusion-Weighted MRI on the Definition of Gross Tumor Volume in Radiotherapy of Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0162816; article XML SHA-256 9f3d5a43e528a9afb865281dd07b48ab4b7db131e259ce155f3d8629d84aec3e. “The Impact of Diffusion-Weighted MRI on the Definition of Gross Tumor Volume in Radiotherapy of Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer” (10.1371/journal.pone.0162816).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162816) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- similarity [redraft]: The packet does not define the term “similarity” itself; it only states that second-order morphometric similarity networks capture higher-order structural covariance patterns.; The packet excerpt does not explicitly define “similarity” as “how alike structural features or patterns are across brain regions,” so that wording/sense is not supported.; The packet supports that “Second-order morphometric similarity networks… capture higher-order structural covariance patterns,” but it does not clearly support the specific phrasing that similarity “represents shared structural covariance” (beyond the general idea of structural covariance being captured).; “How alike structural features or patterns are across brain regions” and “shared structural covariance” are interpretive expansions not directly supported by the supplied text. New packet required. Source: [Liu Chunchen; Xiong Yu; Xu Tianjiao; Sun Jifei; Ma Yue; Liu Jun; Li Weihui; Xu Yaxuan; Zhao Meng; Cao Jiudong; Zhang Yukang; Zhang Lei; Li Jiazheng; Wang Xiaoling; Wang Xin; Sun Kai; Yu Changbin; Fang Jiliang. Second-order morphometric similarity networks predict response to transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation in major depressive disorder: a two-center study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1858627; article XML SHA-256 b6d1a35d45e2905089dc7a91e2957ac618f7c48514e7865518bfaf8a2a88abed. “Second-order morphometric similarity networks predict response to transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation in major depressive disorder: a two-center study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1858627).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1858627) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- simple random sampling [redraft]: The claim that simple random sampling is “a standard way of selecting a sample for estimating population characteristics” is not supported anywhere in the packet text provided.; The claim that simple random sampling is “described here as requiring the least time and cost” is not supported by the packet; the packet says ranked set sampling is modified to be more efficient/cost-effective and contrasts it with stratified ranked set sampling and simple random sampling, but it does not state that simple random sampling itself requires the least time and cost.; The definition adds an unsupported generalization about its role in estimating population characteristics beyond what is stated in the source packet.; The packet does not provide a definition of “simple random sampling”; it only mentions it as a comparison baseline in discussing “ranked set sampling.”; The packet supports that simple random sampling uses the least money and time, but it does not support describing it as a “basic comparison point” or a “standard way” of selecting a sample. New packet required. Source: [M Maria; Almanjahie Ibrahim M.; Ismail Muhammad; Cheema Ammara Nawaz. Partial stratified ranked set sampling scheme for estimation of population mean and median. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0275340; article XML SHA-256 47d4d51ad07f4931695df47c635890468ea4102902d184423ea0a939d0b55abe. “Partial stratified ranked set sampling scheme for estimation of population mean and median” (10.1371/journal.pone.0275340).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275340) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- simple regression [redraft]: 'Predictor variable(s)' blurs the single-predictor sense; packet names one predictor, not several. New packet required. Source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Simple Regression” (simple_regression.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/simple_regression.html) ([public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html))

- simple sentence [redraft]: A simple sentence is not defined by containing two verbs; 'in this source' smuggles the study's construction type. New packet required. Source: [Li Xiangling. Mandarin and English Event Cognitive Alignment From Corpus-Based Semantic Fusion Model Perspective. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872145; article XML SHA-256 2f7347e04f57efe61185423e56163198d424d005bff527020a32830f2c0750f3. “Mandarin and English Event Cognitive Alignment From Corpus-Based Semantic Fusion Model Perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872145).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872145) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- simple structure [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported generalization by glossing the term as a “bodily or sensory arrangement” and “a single, undivided mechanism”; the passage only contrasts simpler structures with a nerve-fibre thought of as composed of fibrillae.; The packet does not explicitly define a “simple structure” as “a bodily or sensory arrangement thought of as a single, undivided mechanism”; it instead refers to “simpler structures” only as cases where there is “nothing against such a supposition,” with examples (muscle, pressure, auditory sensa) and discussion of nerve-fibre excitation and cortical reactions.; The packet supports a historical contrast with more complex fiber structure, but not the broader explanatory framing in the definition.; While the packet does discuss “simpler structures” and includes language about nerves and excitation (including “composed of a number of fibrillae” and the idea of applying “specific energy” to fibrillae and supposing a “single cone” as a “laboratory” for several sorts of excitation), the definition’s opening description (“bodily or sensory arrangement…single, undivided mechanism”) is not directly supported by the provided passage. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4336500-4348500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- simulator [redraft]: The definition adds specific functions beyond the source’s wording, which only mentions workload assessment and operational performance during simulator-based instrument flight operations.; The definition’s phrasing “stress responses” is not directly supported; the packet mentions “operational stress” and “psychophysiological adaptation,” but does not clearly frame these specifically as “stress responses.”; The packet does not explicitly state that the simulator is used “without actual flight,” i.e., it doesn’t directly support the “without actual flight” component of the definition.; The packet supports a simulator-based training/assessment context, but it does not support the broader claim that a simulator is used to study pilots’ stress responses and adaptation. New packet required. Source: [Ulvr Jiri; Michenka Petr; Smrz Vladimir; Mach Ondrej; Engelova Pavlina; Pavlicek Rostislav. Multimodal workload assessment during simulator-based instrument flight training. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1898551; article XML SHA-256 f01992d62e94ab73fcff2d239cbb5565c6bf340b2ac7976dcbaf8607e95ec00f. “Multimodal workload assessment during simulator-based instrument flight training” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1898551).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1898551) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sine wave [redraft]: Only the study-specific usage (describing the ‘sine-wave-shaped pathway along which participants moved a cursor’) is directly supported by the packet.; The definition’s first sentence (“A sine wave is a smooth, repeating wave-like shape”) is not supported by the provided packet text, which only mentions a “sine-wave-shaped pathway” without defining the term in general wave-shape terms.; The general definition of a sine wave as a smooth, repeating wave-like shape is not supported by the packet.; The packet supports only the study-specific use: a sine-wave-shaped pathway for cursor movement, not a broader dictionary definition. New packet required. Source: [Suzuishi Yosuke; Shinada Shusaku; Chang Acer Yu-Chan; Wen Wen. The effects of prediction errors and movement speed on pseudo-haptic sensations. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774826; article XML SHA-256 bda161cf7c7c4478eff1da521290ad97b4144f20c5688a2cb2f2139e4d58fb1e. “The effects of prediction errors and movement speed on pseudo-haptic sensations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774826).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1774826) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- single-case design [redraft]: The definition adds general claims about what single-case designs are used for and how they examine each participant’s behavior across conditions, but the packet only shows one study with a baseline phase and an added intervention; it does not define the design in that general way.; The definition’s assigned field is “diagnosis,” but the packet presents “single-case design” as a study design/method rather than a diagnostic concept or diagnostic criterion, so the field label is not defensible from the packet.; The field is not supported: the packet is about a research design in a psychology study, not a diagnosis term.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that it is “often used with a small number of participants” as a general characteristic; it only provides counts for this particular study (e.g., 6 vs. 4 participants).; The packet does not explicitly support the definition’s phrasing about “comparing a baseline phase with an added intervention” as a defining feature of the method (it only describes such a baseline/intervention structure in that one study).; The provided packet discusses a specific study that “replicat[es] … Whalon et al.’s (2015) single-case design” and describes its baseline and intervention, but it does not support the definition’s broader, general claims that a single-case design is “a research approach” that examines “each participant’s behavior or responses across conditions.”; “Often used with a small number of participants” is broader than the packet’s single example and is not established there as a general rule. New packet required. Source: [Bosley Rebekah; Loveall Susan J.; Kellum Karen Kate; Hawthorne Kara. RECALL prompting hierarchy improves responsiveness for autistic children and children with language delay: a single-case design study. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1435688; article XML SHA-256 46361993e9cf923531e39a9948ee7ffe818bbb2a24cc7815bbb88c52c8948254. “RECALL prompting hierarchy improves responsiveness for autistic children and children with language delay: a single-case design study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1435688).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1435688) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- single-subject design [redraft]: The definition claims it "rather than relying mainly on group-level comparisons"; the packet does not state or support any contrast with group-level comparisons.; The definition states the packet "is used as a multiple-baseline format to examine whether a combined treatment improves reading outcomes for each participant." While the packet says it is a "multiple baseline, single-subject design" assessing the combination for persistent developmental dyslexia and mentions improved reading outcomes, it does not explicitly support the phrasing "for each participant."; The field is set to "diagnosis", but the term "single-subject design" describes a research study approach/design, not a diagnostic category or diagnosis.; The first sentence adds a general methodological contrast with group-level comparisons that is not stated in the packet.; The second sentence over-specifies the design as examining effects "for each participant"; the packet says it is a multiple-baseline, single-subject design across cohorts but does not explicitly make that claim. New packet required. Source: [Arrington C. Nikki; Harrington Rachael M.; Herrera-Diaz Adianes; Ralph Kennedy; Moquete Narciso; Morris Robin. Combined accelerated theta burst stimulation and reading instruction for the treatment of persistent developmental dyslexia: methodology and preliminary findings. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1758532; article XML SHA-256 00acef6044b640215683ee2862effbf1c14ebadc0a7cb32aa7e108f8f7234a37. “Combined accelerated theta burst stimulation and reading instruction for the treatment of persistent developmental dyslexia: methodology and preliminary findings” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1758532).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1758532) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- SIP [redraft]: The expansion of SIP as children’s ‘mental abilities ... to take in and work through social information’ is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied wording ‘social information processing skills.’; The packet does not define SIP as “social information processing skills” involving “mental abilities…to take in and work through social information.” It only refers to “children’s SIP skills” as something that can be “enhancing” in social skills training.; While the packet supports that social skills training focused on enhancing children’s SIP skills is linked to “augmenting their cognitive concentration,” it does not clearly support the additional wording that “stronger SIP skills are described as a target of social skills training” (it says training is focused on enhancing SIP skills, but the definition’s specific phrasing is not fully evidenced. ); ‘Stronger’ SIP skills is an unsupported embellishment; the source only says that enhancing children’s SIP skills is an effective strategy for augmenting cognitive concentration. New packet required. Source: [Li Na; Peng Jin; Sun Xiaodong; Guo Shenyang. Social skill training and children’s cognitive concentration in rural China: the mediating effect of social information processing skills. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1526065; article XML SHA-256 bc4f447dc7f79383ad861e83693776da2a3d028f0f28bc0f8772e1579727b95c. “Social skill training and children’s cognitive concentration in rural China: the mediating effect of social information processing skills” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1526065).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1526065) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- situation awareness [redraft]: The final sentence narrows the term to what can be influenced by user interface design during a game task; the packet supports that interface design affected situation awareness in this experiment, but not that this is the meaning of the term.; The packet does not define situation awareness as a person’s general “level of understanding of what is happening in a task or environment”; it only shows it being modeled in three levels and measured in a specific game-task study.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “situation awareness” as a person’s “level of understanding of what is happening,” so this substantive characterization is not supported.; While the packet supports that situation awareness is treated in “three levels” (via a three-level model) and is measured in a task-performance context, it does not support the broader general framing in the first sentence (the exact wording and conceptual description).; “Often described in levels” and “assessed as part of task performance research” are broader generalizations not established by the packet beyond this single study context. New packet required. Source: [Jiang Tingwei; Fang Huicong. The influence of user interface design on task performance and situation awareness in a 3-player diner's dilemma game. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0230387; article XML SHA-256 d5bd841face7e22f16662d47cbfb477ba7ac927d5f9976a82f87800a9360fa72. “The influence of user interface design on task performance and situation awareness in a 3-player diner's dilemma game” (10.1371/journal.pone.0230387).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230387) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- situation test [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported procedural detail: the packet does not establish a standard sequence of separations and reunions in an unfamiliar or mildly stressful setting, nor does it clearly define the test in those terms.; The packet contrasts “owner” and “stranger” (e.g., comparing effects when owner vs stranger leaves the cat), but it does not explicitly describe the full caregiver–stranger separation/reunion sequence implied by the definition.; The packet does not explicitly describe the setting as “unfamiliar or mildly stressful”; it only refers to “otherwise threatening environments.”; The packet supports that the Strange Situation Test is used to assess whether a primary carer is perceived as a focus of safety and security in otherwise threatening environments, but it does not explicitly state the procedure elements “across separations and reunions.”; The packet supports the idea of assessing whether a carer is perceived as a source of safety and security, but it does not support the broader generic framing of a ‘situation test’ as a general behavioural assessment beyond the specific Strange Situation Test context. New packet required. Source: [Potter Alice; Mills Daniel Simon. Domestic Cats ( Felis silvestris catus ) Do Not Show Signs of Secure Attachment to Their Owners. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0135109; article XML SHA-256 9854fa2da0946474cea77e75cc623db4ebfa4d93d262863b09c4e08436bb4501. “Domestic Cats ( Felis silvestris catus ) Do Not Show Signs of Secure Attachment to Their Owners” (10.1371/journal.pone.0135109).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0135109) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- situation [redraft]: The packet does not define “situation” in general as “a particular circumstance or event,” nor does it describe situations as a general mental-health construct that can become a focus of fear/avoidance; it only states that phobias involve fear or aversion to a “specific object or situation.”; The packet supports only that a phobia can involve fear or aversion to a specific situation, not a general dictionary definition of “situation” as a circumstance or event.; The second sentence is supported in substance by the packet (“fear that is out of proportion to the actual danger presented”), but because the first sentence contains an unsupported general definition of “situation,” the overall definition is not fully supported.; “Focus of fear or avoidance” and the claim about avoidance are not stated in the packet.; “In mental health” is acceptable as a field here, but the definition adds unsupported generalizations beyond the supplied source. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Phobias and Phobia-Related Disorders. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 2d1a6d608eaf14c3ef4a3753ecd44577b1d734b347d63f48248f5d170e68b142. “Phobias and Phobia-Related Disorders” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/phobias-and-phobia-related-disorders).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/phobias-and-phobia-related-disorders) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- Sjögren–Larsson syndrome [redraft]: For cognition, the definition uses the phrase “impaired intellectual development,” but the packet’s cognition-relevant wording is “MENTAL RETARDATION,” which is not directly reflected in the definition.; The claim that the syndrome is “rare” is not supported by the packet.; The definition claims the disorder is “rare”; the packet does not state that it is rare.; The definition includes a meta-remark (“The packet also states…”) rather than a clean dictionary definition. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome” (D016111).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016111) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- skepticism [redraft]: The definition adds interpretation about a company’s “claims” that is not stated in the source text.; The definition’s claim that the packet “specifically supports this meaning for CSR skepticism” overreaches what is provided in the packet text; no direct definitional wording for that attitude is included.; The packet does not explicitly define “CSR skepticism” as a “doubtful or distrustful attitude toward a company’s corporate social responsibility campaign or claims.” It only describes measured relationships involving “CSR skepticism.”; The packet uses the term CSR skepticism but does not define it as a doubtful or distrustful attitude toward a company’s CSR campaign or claims.; The rest of the definition (that CSR skepticism is linked to lower CSR engagement and lower ethical purchasing intention) is supported by the packet, but unsupported definitional phrasing is still present.; The statement that the packet “specifically supports this meaning” is too strong; the packet only reports associations between CSR skepticism, CSR engagement, and ethical purchasing intention. New packet required. Source: [Cheng Yang; Jiang Yangzhi (Nicole); Zhang Qizhao. Navigating ethical waters: The impact of ethical judgment, norms, and CSR skepticism on CSR engagement and purchasing intention in a breast cancer campaign. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352994; article XML SHA-256 554a03fc9eb95538880d79926187fa15de4673b118a2f30f2c7d8d1de223498c. “Navigating ethical waters: The impact of ethical judgment, norms, and CSR skepticism on CSR engagement and purchasing intention in a breast cancer campaign” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352994).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352994) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- skewness [redraft]: The packet does not define skewness as a measure of how unevenly values are distributed around the center of a dataset; it only mentions standardized scores of skewness in the context of testing normality.; The packet does not define skewness as “a statistical measure of how unevenly values are distributed around the center of a dataset.”; The statement that skewness is used in research methods to check whether data follow a normal distribution is broader than the packet, which only says that skewness contributed to evidence that assumptions of normality were violated in one analysis.; While the packet mentions using standardized scores of “skewness” (with kurtosis) and the Shapiro-Wilk test to assess violated assumptions of normality, it does not support the definition’s first, descriptive statement about what skewness measures. New packet required. Source: [BMC: Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies. Version of record 2018-11-21; DOI 10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7. “Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency” (05ea0554db4e6d0f11b4).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- skin conductance [redraft]: The definition adds a broader interpretive use (“may help indicate shifts related to stress and emotional state”) that goes beyond the source text’s stated role in biocueing and wearable monitoring.; The definition frames skin conductance changes as being used to “indicate shifts related to stress and emotional state,” but the packet only states that wearable “biocueing” provides real-time feedback on significant physiological changes (including skin conductance) and that patients (e.g., in borderline personality disorder) report severe stress and emotion-regulation difficulties; it does not explicitly support the specific “indicate shifts related to stress and emotional state” phrasing.; The packet discusses integration into treatment and real-time feedback/monitoring, not “diagnosis”; the definition does not establish any diagnostic use or diagnostic criteria, so it is not defensibly supported for the requested field (“diagnosis”).; The packet supports skin conductance as one of several physiological data streams that can be passively monitored by wearables, but it does not specifically support the claim that changes in skin conductance are used to indicate stress or emotional state. New packet required. Source: [Lans Luuk L.; Huijbregts Klaas M. L.; Westerhof Gerben J.; Haeyen Suzanne W.; Derks Youri P. M. J.; Noordzij Matthijs L.. How to integrate physiological data from wearables in treatment of personality disorders: a narrative review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1591871; article XML SHA-256 727cdde3a94b18a63f36bc9ed8f428f96acc0258f4ed0f91501f36f5960ec843. “How to integrate physiological data from wearables in treatment of personality disorders: a narrative review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1591871).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1591871) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- skin [redraft]: 'In this context' redefines a common word by one function in vitamin D synthesis; wrong sense of headword. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Seasonal Affective Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 d89120086a5f01bf70f21f43fbf64f1a5b58f4c35f5185f5dac0c769f3d6317c. “Seasonal Affective Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/seasonal-affective-disorder) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- sleep center [redraft]: The packet only mentions a “tertiary referal sleep center” in the context of an idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder (IRBD) cohort, not a general clinical referral setting for “people with sleep-related conditions.”; The packet only supports that this was a tertiary referral sleep center; it does not establish a general dictionary sense that a sleep center is a clinical setting where people are diagnosed and followed over time.; While the packet indicates “prolonged follow-up” and eventual diagnoses, it does not support the broader framing that the center is used to diagnose and follow “sleep-related conditions” in general, as stated in the definition.; “Followed over time” is not supported as a property of the center itself; the packet mentions prolonged follow-up of a patient cohort, not the definition of the facility. New packet required. Source: [Iranzo Alex; Fernández-Arcos Ana; Tolosa Eduard; Serradell Mónica; Molinuevo José Luis; Valldeoriola Francesc; Gelpi Ellen; Vilaseca Isabel; Sánchez-Valle Raquel; Lladó Albert; Gaig Carles; Santamaría Joan. Neurodegenerative Disorder Risk in Idiopathic REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: Study in 174 Patients. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0089741; article XML SHA-256 75828be8baabe5ca132765a3787f3ba112edbec4324c20bb84994b8423d870c9. “Neurodegenerative Disorder Risk in Idiopathic REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: Study in 174 Patients” (10.1371/journal.pone.0089741).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089741) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sleep cycle [redraft]: The definition adds interpretive claims not cleanly supported by the packet, especially that the cycle is treated as a period “when brain activity linked to replay of experience and long-term memory formation may occur.”; The provided definition is a general description of a sleep-stage concept and does not include any diagnostic meaning or criteria; the packet does not support treating “sleep cycle” as a term used for diagnosis.; The requested field is not defensible: “sleep cycle” is a sleep/physiology term, not a diagnosis.; The wording “ends with rapid eye movement” is supported only as a claim in this speculative article, not as a general or consensus definition of sleep cycle.; While the packet mentions “rapid eyes movement observed at the end of every sleep cycle” and that sleep involves hippocampal replay tied to translating traces into long-term memory (“building of long-term memories” / “translation of labile traces into steady imprints”), it does not support specifying “may occur” in a way that is diagnostic-context-specific for the field labeled “diagnosis.” New packet required. Source: [Béroule Dominique G. The irreplaceable role of sleep in building long-term memories: offline integration of free cortical units and its possible implication in autism. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1777687; article XML SHA-256 a9ca48e91948e03a91c124ff88bc9c9216b68c65f5a4ad33e88ee2916f9062e8. “The irreplaceable role of sleep in building long-term memories: offline integration of free cortical units and its possible implication in autism” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1777687).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1777687) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- smoothing [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory finance/accounting meaning that is not stated in the supplied source packet, so the requested sense is not fully supported by the packet alone.; The definition’s first sentence claims a specific mechanism (“managing reported income so it appears more even or stable across different years”), but the packet only states that the study “analyze[s] income smoothing using loan loss provisions (LLPs)” and compares it across election vs non-election years; it does not define smoothing in those terms.; The definition’s mention of “bank income smoothing … through loan loss provisions” and “compared between election years and other years” is supported, but because the core definitional characterization of smoothing is not supported, the overall definition is not defensible.; The packet shows that the study analyzes bank income smoothing using loan loss provisions and compares election years with other years, but it does not define “smoothing” as managing reported income to appear more even or stable across years. New packet required. Source: [Peykani Pejman; Sargolzaei Mostafa; Mohagheghnia Mohammad Javad; Takaloo Amir; Valimoradi Mahsa. The impact of government macroeconomic policies and elections on income smoothing in state-controlled commercial banks: Evidence from the MENA region. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343259; article XML SHA-256 1c5f1bf1fb6785a27d6283a910898090ca73bf2302d3aab3a0a257d4f1fba563. “The impact of government macroeconomic policies and elections on income smoothing in state-controlled commercial banks: Evidence from the MENA region” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343259).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343259) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social adaptation [redraft]: The claim that social adaptation itself is “linked to the quality of social interactions and mental health” overstates the packet, which says interpersonal skills are associated with those outcomes, not social adaptation generally.; The definition asserts that, in the packet, social adaptation “is described as involving interpersonal skills and being linked to the quality of social interactions and mental health.” The packet supports that interpersonal skills are associated with the quality of social interactions and mental health, but it does not explicitly define social adaptation itself as “involving interpersonal skills” beyond describing interpersonal skills as an important component related to social adaptation in college students.; The definition says “Social adaptation is how well a person manages and fits into social life,” but the packet does not provide this general wording or a direct definition of social adaptation as “managing and fitting into social life.”; The packet only states that interpersonal skills are an important component of college students’ social adaptation; it does not define social adaptation as “how well a person manages and fits into social life.”; The packet’s content is framed specifically around “college students,” whereas the definition presents a general “a person” formulation; the packet does not justify generalizing beyond college students. New packet required. Source: [Fu Yifeng; Jiang Yong. The impact of physical exercise on college students’ interpersonal skills: the chain mediation effect of social anxiety and peer relationships. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1846593; article XML SHA-256 1764fec9ed33234a35ff71a1584b4372919a77123deaed146fa781aca52a8f55. “The impact of physical exercise on college students’ interpersonal skills: the chain mediation effect of social anxiety and peer relationships” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1846593).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1846593) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social attachment [redraft]: Redefines a general term as attachment to social media platforms only; narrower sense the packet happens to discuss. New packet required. Source: [Yang MaoSheng; Zhang WenSong; Ruangkanjanases Athapol; Zhang Yue. Understanding the Mechanism of Social Attachment Role in Social Media: A Qualitative Analysis. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.720880; article XML SHA-256 24ee883dbe84796022ecc60d2ddd24ca5b98bbf6c6dfd21ce7aa19a6e6543b19. “Understanding the Mechanism of Social Attachment Role in Social Media: A Qualitative Analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.720880).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.720880) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social category [redraft]: Normal sense is a social grouping of people; packet's 'the good is a social category' is a one-off philosophical usage, not the headword. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3118500-3130500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- social climate [redraft]: General headword narrowed to school social climate via 'In this source' hedge; defines the packet's construct, not the term. New packet required. Source: [Bravo-Sanzana Mónica; Miranda-Zapata Edgardo; Miranda Horacio. Psychometric Analysis of a School Social Climate Scale: Input Elements for the Investigation and Promotion of Well-Being. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.605326; article XML SHA-256 3aa1a8c5d9c9325f86911deecb99112b0b41cd9232c31c1bb68eb96e18a09451. “Psychometric Analysis of a School Social Climate Scale: Input Elements for the Investigation and Promotion of Well-Being” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.605326).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.605326) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social cognition [redraft]: Adds unsupported generalization by saying it involves making sense of social actions and relationships; the packet only supports perception, interpretation, categorizing, and judgment about one's own and others' social behaviors and group position.; The packet definition does not explicitly include “relationships” or “social actions”; it only states “perception, interpretation, and categorizing” and “self judgement of one's own social behaviors and group position and those of others.”; The phrase “sort information” and “place in groups” are not directly stated in the packet (it specifies “categorizing” and “group position,” but not “sorting information” or “place” wording). New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Cognition” (D000083282).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000083282) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- social comparison theory [redraft]: The definition claims the theory is “specifically applied to upward social comparison,” but the packet only says “upward social comparison acting as a mediating mechanism” and does not explicitly characterize it as a specific application of the theory beyond that mediating role.; The definition states that social comparison theory explains how comparing oneself with other people can influence “thoughts, feelings, and behavior,” but the provided packet only mentions using social comparison theory to analyze “social expectation pressure” and “turnover intention,” without describing thoughts/feelings/behavior.; The definition’s framing includes “social pressure relates to turnover intention,” while the packet instead describes “social expectation pressure” and does not explicitly equate this with “social pressure.”; The packet only shows that the study draws on social comparison theory and uses upward social comparison as a mediating mechanism; it does not support the broader definition that the theory explains how comparing oneself with others influences thoughts, feelings, and behavior.; The statement that the theory is 'specifically applied' to explain how social pressure relates to turnover intention goes beyond the packet, which does not define the theory itself or establish that this is its general function. New packet required. Source: [Wang Hongda; Xiang Jingyi; Xie Tianwei. The impact of social expectation pressure on turnover intention among Generation Z employees: a psychological mechanism analysis based on social comparison theory. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1689646; article XML SHA-256 e9f549063b63edd146963ac7b614dd9ce80ed0a1b35286bb08f0ca0b4a864954. “The impact of social expectation pressure on turnover intention among Generation Z employees: a psychological mechanism analysis based on social comparison theory” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1689646).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1689646) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social competence [redraft]: "Across development" is broader than the packet’s wording; the source says children, adolescence, and adulthood, but does not define social competence as spanning development in general.; The packet supports communication, healthy relationships, and navigating social challenges across childhood through adulthood, but it does not explicitly mention “positive participation with others.”; The phrase "support well-being and positive participation with others" goes beyond the packet, which mentions emotional well-being but not positive participation.; The phrase “resolving conflicts in ways that support well-being and positive participation” goes beyond what the packet directly states; the packet mentions conflict resolution and emotional well-being, but not positive participation. New packet required. Source: [Schüller Iris; Wergin V. Vanessa; Mess Filip. Strengthening social skills: developing a social competence intervention for physical education using intervention mapping—protocol paper. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1484943; article XML SHA-256 0281c6217bd726d15a81deb111f5f14892590b3dfc8c5658ee6467a7ce3b86a9. “Strengthening social skills: developing a social competence intervention for physical education using intervention mapping—protocol paper” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1484943).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1484943) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social convention [redraft]: The gloss turns a criterion for propriety into a definition of the term itself, which is not supported by the source passage.; The packet does not define the term "social convention"; it defines "Proper (2) Propriety" as strict conformity to social convention, custom, and expectation.; The packet does not define the term “social convention.” It only states, under “Proper (2) Ethical and social FITNESS,” that the social sense is “strict conformity to social convention, custom, and expectation,” which is not a standalone definition of “social convention.”; The provided definition includes claims like “accepted social custom or shared expectation” and “standard to which socially proper conduct is expected to conform,” but the packet supplies only the phrase about “strict conformity to social convention, custom, and expectation” without explaining what “social convention” itself means. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-2037000-2049000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- social death [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly describe “ending a person’s social existence or place in society”; it uses the phrases “social death and extinction,” but does not specify “place in society” wording.; The packet does not support that the term is “a severe social metaphor rather than as a detailed clinical diagnosis”; it only states “It is social death and extinction if it lasts,” without contrasting metaphor vs diagnosis.; The packet supports that actual mental disease was described as ‘social death and extinction if it lasts,’ but it does not explicitly support the added claim that the term is being used as a metaphor.; The source presents a historical medical opinion, but the definition goes beyond the packet by characterizing the usage as a ‘severe social metaphor’ rather than a diagnosis.; While “if it lasts” supports a lasting-condition idea, the definition’s wording “a lasting mental illness” goes beyond the packet’s conditional phrasing (“if it lasts”). New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2131500-2143500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- social deficit [redraft]: The definition asserts that this idea is “used to explain relationship or communication difficulties,” yet the packet does not support that characterisation of how “social deficit” is used.; The packet discusses Milton’s “double empathy problem” as attributing relational breakdowns to “mutual misalignment in social expectations and behaviors,” but it does not explicitly frame this as “challenging the idea that social deficit explains relationship or communication difficulties.”; The packet does not define the term “social deficit” or describe it as an “assumed shortfall” in a person’s social abilities/understanding.; The packet supports only a critique of attributing mixed-neurotype relational breakdowns to a deficit within the neurodivergent partner; it does not define “social deficit” more generally as a shortfall in social abilities or understanding causing relationship or communication difficulties.; The second sentence is broadly supported, but the first sentence adds an unsupported generalization beyond the source’s limited use of the term. New packet required. Source: [Reed Nicole M.; Vogus Timothy J.. All the workplace is a stage: extending the double empathy problem through performative relationality. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893333; article XML SHA-256 e5e0b6f2f97d14a3f73f301965e289fa89b5f72c118345a87fbe96e3b9106f7d. “All the workplace is a stage: extending the double empathy problem through performative relationality” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893333).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1893333) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social development [redraft]: The claim that social development is described through “three main areas” is only partially supported; the source names three core domains (social cognition, social emotion, social behavior) but does not present them as the full definitional structure of the term.; The definition adds a gloss that goes beyond the packet’s wording and scope, which is limited to a systematic review context rather than a general dictionary definition.; The first sentence claims a general definition (“growth of a child’s social abilities and competence”), but the packet only explicitly discusses children’s social development through specific domains (social cognition, social emotion, social behavior) and mentions social competence in the context of motor skills; it does not clearly define social development as the general “growth of social abilities.”; The packet does not define social development as “the growth of a child’s social abilities and competence”; it only states that motor skill development relates to children’s social competence and examines three domains of social development.; The second sentence’s decomposition into “three main areas: social cognition, social emotion, and social behavior” is supported by the packet (“three core domains”), but the overall definition includes an unsupported general characterization in the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [He Renke; Zhou Yulan; Chen Shuyang; Dong Xuefen; Ye Xiandan; Xue Chi. The relationship between motor skills and social development in 6–12 years old typically developing children: a systematic review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845725; article XML SHA-256 7d0ea55aff1689cf2fb25cde66c5a97c67cb7dd6055035211bde6f0f3ee91e0c. “The relationship between motor skills and social development in 6–12 years old typically developing children: a systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845725).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1845725) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social distance [redraft]: The added explanation about how it changes the impact of comparing oneself with others is plausible but not explicitly supported by the packet’s wording.; The only explicit content in the packet is that risk of upward wealth comparisons is contingent on “social distance,” which is insufficient to substantiate the requested sense and framing of the term.; The packet does not define “social distance” as degree of closeness/separation between people in a social relationship.; The packet does not support the claim that others “feel” near or distant or that this “can change the impact of comparing oneself with them.”; The packet uses “social distance” as a variable affecting upward wealth comparisons, but it does not define the term as the degree of closeness or separation between people in a social relationship. New packet required. Source: [Wu Yingying; Tang Qinglan; Huang Zhongli; Liu Ziyu; Liang Kayan. Wealth comparison across social distances: implications for well-being. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1661009; article XML SHA-256 d3c7f6af223925098c2a6ddc90d26da7117dd85171a633c44ca3cc8247bc46d6. “Wealth comparison across social distances: implications for well-being” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1661009).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1661009) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social feedback [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported content such as “attention” and “everyday outcomes”; the packet supports support/criticism and effects on emotions, careers, and lives, but not that broader wording.; The packet does not explicitly support the inclusion of “attention” as one of the components of social feedback (it describes support and criticism, but not attention as such).; The packet supports effects on emotions and on decision-making, but it does not explicitly support the phrase “everyday outcomes” as written in the definition (it mentions effects on emotions, careers, and lives).; The packet supports social feedback in social-media/network contexts, but the definition should stay within the packet’s narrower description rather than generalizing to all responses people receive from others.; “Decisions” is only supported in the general phrase “social feedback is fundamental to human interactions and decision-making,” not as a specific downstream effect of rapid networked feedback as the definition states. New packet required. Source: [Bos Dienke J; Barnes Emily D; Silver Benjamin M; Ajodan Eliana L; Clark-Whitney Elysha; Scult Matthew A; Power Jonathan D; Jones Rebecca M. An effort-based social feedback paradigm reveals aversion to popularity in socially anxious participants and increased motivation in adolescents. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0249326; article XML SHA-256 8015b004ae93f77214ffeaa61990509c30cbaf832c83c2cb2bf0957fcf3bf23b. “An effort-based social feedback paradigm reveals aversion to popularity in socially anxious participants and increased motivation in adolescents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0249326).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249326) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social group [redraft]: Adds unsupported phrasing that a social group is one that people 'see themselves as' sharing and that the identity is 'shaped by' shared beliefs, codes of conduct, culture, and social norms; the packet only supports that the group shares a common identity defined by those factors.; The definition’s phrasing that identity is “shaped by shared beliefs, codes of conduct, culture, and social norms” is largely consistent with the packet, but the added “see themselves” component is not supported.; The packet does not state that members “see themselves” as sharing a common identity; it only says they “share a common identity.” New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Group” (D000092882).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000092882) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- social habit [redraft]: The opening gloss generalizes ‘social habit’ as a species’ usual pattern of social living or interaction; that broader definitional claim is not stated in the packet.; The packet does not provide or support a general definition of “social habit” as “a species’ usual pattern of social living or interaction.”; The packet does not support the illustrative example in the definition (“tending to occupy space alone rather than with others”) as a definition of the term.; The packet is a biology article about a crab’s solitary host use, not a learning-term definition or counselling/psychology sense, so the requested field/sense is not supported.; While the packet supports that *Tunicotheres moseri* shows solitary host use and that this relates to territoriality and conspecific avoidance of occupied hosts (chemical cues), the definition’s first sentence presents an ungrounded general meaning of “social habit.”; ‘Tending to occupy space alone rather than with others’ and the crab’s ‘mainly solitary way of using hosts’ are only partly supported by the article’s host-monopolization findings and should not be presented as a settled definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Ambrosio Louis J.; Baeza J. Antonio. Territoriality and Conflict Avoidance Explain Asociality (Solitariness) of the Endosymbiotic Pea Crab Tunicotheres moseri. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0148285; article XML SHA-256 08e8a75cab2623a38224ed6b0861070c9191c48e8cd45d7d6dba8ea4cf797bfa. “Territoriality and Conflict Avoidance Explain Asociality (Solitariness) of the Endosymbiotic Pea Crab Tunicotheres moseri” (10.1371/journal.pone.0148285).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148285) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social influence [redraft]: The opening sentence gives a general definition of social influence as people’s choices or outcomes being shaped by others’ behavior or characteristics, but the packet does not state that general definition; it only discusses social influence within a tag-mediated network model.; The packet does not explicitly support the wording that social influence is “the process by which people’s choices… are shaped,” or that it is based on “behavior or characteristics of others”; the provided text discusses social influence dynamics and tag-mediated mechanisms but does not define it in those terms.; The phrase “depending on the surrounding social conditions” is broader than the packet’s support, which is limited to context-dependent effects of tagging in the modeled collective dynamics.; While the packet does support that outcomes can be self-reinforcing (amplifying early advantages) or self-correcting (acting as a corrective force toward balance) and that disparities/inequality and predictability can depend on context/conditions, the definition also includes additional general claims (“choices,” “behavior or characteristics of others”) that are not explicitly supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [He Xiaochen; Cheng Guanzhao; Lu Jiali. Tag-mediated effect on the dynamics of social influence. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338598; article XML SHA-256 74b3d914af9c41e611ab5b2280071ea663961cf6e24af1672d3d1bfb6d3bfba5. “Tag-mediated effect on the dynamics of social influence” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338598).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338598) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social information processing [redraft]: The added application to “employees’ attitudes and actions” is broader than the packet, which only discusses green transformational leadership, green organizational climate, and employee OCBE in one study.; The packet does not define “social information processing” as “being shaped by social cues and information in a person’s environment.”; The packet does not state or support the general framing that “it explains behavior as being shaped by social cues and information in a person’s environment.”; The packet uses the term only as a theoretical lens (“drawing on the theory of social information processing”) and does not support the broader definitional claim that it explains behavior as being shaped by social cues and information in a person’s environment.; The provided definition includes additional interpretive/general statements (e.g., link to attitudes and actions) that are not explicitly supported by the packet text.; While the packet uses “theory of social information processing” to study the effects of (green) transformational leadership and green organizational climate on employee outcomes, it does not support the specific claim that the theory is used to understand “leadership and organizational climate” influencing “employees’ attitudes and actions” in general terms. New packet required. Source: [Liu Xuhong; Yu Xuan. Green transformational leadership and employee organizational citizenship behavior for the environment in the manufacturing industry: A social information processing perspective. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1097655; article XML SHA-256 1c7a69c81dd358a16848df93590a0fc2101686e6db81639fa358446441b156bc. “Green transformational leadership and employee organizational citizenship behavior for the environment in the manufacturing industry: A social information processing perspective” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1097655).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1097655) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social maladjustment [redraft]: The packet does not define “social maladjustment” as “difficulty adapting to social and family life,” nor does it describe it as a general “psychosocial problem.” It only mentions that “social maladjustment” and “social and familial disruption” have been reported in some patients.; The packet reports social maladjustment as an observed outcome after STN-DBS, but it does not define the term as a general difficulty adapting to social and family life.; The packet supports only that psychological disorders and “social maladjustment” are reported after STN-DBS and that the study targets “social and familial disruption.” The rest of the definition’s wording is not supported by the provided text.; “Psychosocial problem” is not stated in the supplied text itself, and the definition goes beyond the packet by supplying a broader explanatory meaning rather than a source-supported gloss. New packet required. Source: [Flores Alves Dos Santos Joao; Tezenas du Montcel Sophie; Gargiulo Marcella; Behar Cecile; Montel Sébastien; Hergueta Thierry; Navarro Soledad; Belaid Hayat; Cloitre Pauline; Karachi Carine; Mallet Luc; Welter Marie-Laure. Tackling psychosocial maladjustment in Parkinson’s disease patients following subthalamic deep-brain stimulation: A randomised clinical trial. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0174512; article XML SHA-256 2d0bcd3a6b2af321e849f8732a14be236db1a17966ca16b08c240953b9ce3579. “Tackling psychosocial maladjustment in Parkinson’s disease patients following subthalamic deep-brain stimulation: A randomised clinical trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0174512).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174512) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social mores [redraft]: The added context about autistic people is specific to the article and is not a supported general definition of the term.; The packet does not explicitly define “social mores” as “the socially expected ways of behaving and interacting within a group,” so that foundational part of the definition is unsupported by the provided text.; The packet supports that neurotypical social mores can be exclusionary and create social risks for autistic people, but it does not define “social mores” as the socially expected ways of behaving and interacting within a group.; While the packet mentions that “Neurotypical social mores can be exclusionary, creating social risks for autistic people,” it does not support the additional phrasing “increase social risk” as a general consequence beyond that stated relationship. New packet required. Source: [Daghustani Wid H; Abo Hamza Eid G; Hogg Rachel; Moustafa Ahmed. Autism, bullying, and mental health: a comprehensive systematic review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1653663; article XML SHA-256 b70bee4eb7e0bb682f2c32d4f9238da528d64aafa40e29b87af9cc34c434793c. “Autism, bullying, and mental health: a comprehensive systematic review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1653663).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1653663) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social motive [redraft]: The definition adds a specific interpretation (“In this packet, it refers to playing video games for social connection”), but the packet does not explicitly equate “social motive for gaming” with “social connection” or spell out that meaning.; The definition’s wording goes beyond what is supported by the packet’s text, which does not define the concept in those terms.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “social motive” as a reason mainly about socializing or maintaining contact with other people; it only mentions a “social motive for gaming” in the context of an association with perceived loneliness.; The packet supports a gaming-related motive for social connection, but it does not define “social motive” generally as a reason for doing any activity mainly about socializing or maintaining contact with other people.; “In this packet, it refers to playing video games for social connection” is broadly supported, but the first sentence adds unsupported generalization beyond the source’s specific gaming context. New packet required. Source: [Nebel Steve; Ninaus Manuel. Does Playing Apart Really Bring Us Together? Investigating the Link Between Perceived Loneliness and the Use of Video Games During a Period of Social Distancing. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.683842; article XML SHA-256 1000b135225e12f5a8d8f71590610cb2151f5ebd23aea04d00ca7b0cb1814860. “Does Playing Apart Really Bring Us Together? Investigating the Link Between Perceived Loneliness and the Use of Video Games During a Period of Social Distancing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.683842).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.683842) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social neuroscience [redraft]: Second sentence attributes the SELF study's description to social neuroscience; packet never characterises the field itself. New packet required. Source: [Raufelder Diana; Hoferichter Frances. The social brain in the classroom: insights from the SELF study on neural correlates of adolescent motivation, belonging, and learning. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830571; article XML SHA-256 8994f66847da3f65c04ebe7229a9f55b461fd7daaa114ae364c9a2435926cf49. “The social brain in the classroom: insights from the SELF study on neural correlates of adolescent motivation, belonging, and learning” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830571).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1830571) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social norm [redraft]: The packet states that behaviors “are at variance with the expected social norm and which affect other individuals,” but it does not support the definition’s claim that a social norm is “used as a reference for judging” differences in behavior.; The packet supports only the idea of behaviors that deviate from an expected social norm and affect other individuals; it does not define the term as the norm itself or as a general standard for behavior.; “In a social setting” is an added generalization not stated in the source packet.; “Used as a reference for judging” is not supported by the packet text. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Behavior Disorders” (D012920).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012920) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- social order [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported generalization by defining social order as “the stable arrangement of life in a society or community”; the packet only states that crime threatens social order.; The only substantive support in the packet is that crime “threatens social order”; the definition’s first sentence is not supported by the packet.; The packet does not define “social order” as a stable arrangement of life in a society or community.; The source supports only the relationship that crime threatens social order, not a fuller definitional gloss of the term. New packet required. Source: [Genç Mehtap; Çiydem Emre; Duman Muhammed Ferit; Duman Canan Bozkurt. Psychometric evaluation of the Turkish version of the Fear of Crime Scale. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-05110-3; article XML SHA-256 cd4bb88c259a96e2d5a8adc446a8289e5f998ca2e7520e71063f48cb4a3bb5e8. “Psychometric evaluation of the Turkish version of the Fear of Crime Scale” (10.1186/s40359-026-05110-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05110-3) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social physique anxiety [redraft]: The claim that it is an “important factor” linked to body-checking is broadly supported (“Social physique anxiety is one of the important mediating factors… affects the body-checking behavior”), but the overall definition also includes unsupported definitional content.; The definition adds a general explanatory claim that is not stated in the source packet, so the requested sense is not fully supported by the packet alone.; The packet excerpt does not define “social physique anxiety” as anxiety about one’s physical appearance relative to other people; that definitional wording is unsupported by the provided text.; The packet supports that social physique anxiety was higher in male college students with muscle dysmorphia and was an important mediating factor related to body-checking behavior, but it does not define the term as anxiety about one’s physical appearance in relation to other people.; The statement that it is “higher in male college students with muscle dysmorphia than in ordinary individuals” is supported (“Male college students with MD not only have a higher social physique anxiety…”), but because the first definitional sentence is unsupported, the full definition cannot pass. New packet required. Source: [Zheng Yu; Zhang LiFeng; Shao Ping; Guo XueYing. The Association of Muscle Dysmorphia, Social Physique Anxiety, and Body Checking Behavior in Male College Students With Weight Exercise. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.726032; article XML SHA-256 6f0ef050004b0d229e774d16d1f61f085851a5c714b275a29370a04cc4db95a1. “The Association of Muscle Dysmorphia, Social Physique Anxiety, and Body Checking Behavior in Male College Students With Weight Exercise” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.726032).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.726032) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social pressure [redraft]: The packet does not define “social pressure” as a general “strain or sense of demand” in relationships; it only mentions social pressure as an issue arising with increased mobile social media use among young people’s friendships.; The packet does not provide a definition of “social pressure” as “strain or sense of demand,” so that wording is not explicitly supported by the source text.; The second sentence is broadly supported, but the first sentence adds an unsupported general definition rather than staying within the source’s wording and scope.; While the source does connect “social pressure” to increased mobile social media usage and negative emotions in young people’s friendships, the definition’s first sentence gives an additional general conceptual description that is not clearly supported by the packet’s language. New packet required. Source: [Sun Hao; Li Mingche. A study on the relationship between the intensity of mobile social media use and the quality of friendships among Chinese youth in the context of social media fatigue. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1806533; article XML SHA-256 54b3983a50136ee50ca700d46bde98a5f5a1b4dc28048503acba5661b00af62c. “A study on the relationship between the intensity of mobile social media use and the quality of friendships among Chinese youth in the context of social media fatigue” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1806533).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1806533) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social punishment [redraft]: The claim that it is used to punish and control people beyond any one individual is an unsupported expansion beyond the source wording.; The definition claims social punishment is “a way to punish and control people beyond any one individual,” but the packet does not explicitly support the “punish and control” framing or that it is specifically “beyond any one individual” (it states actions against a civilian population and impacts on “the Syrian people as a collective community,” but not this exact justification).; The definition’s list is largely supported (detain, torture, subjugate, and “indeterminate imprisonment”), and the “begins even before captivity and continues for years after release” and harms to survivors, their families, and the wider community are supported; however, the unsupported “punish and control…beyond any one individual” portion is substantive enough to fail.; The packet supports only that torture is described as a form of social punishment in the Syrian context; it does not define the term as detention, subjugation, and open-ended imprisonment in general.; The source says the mechanism can begin before captivity and continue after release and can affect survivors, families, and the collective community, but it does not support the broader definitional framing given here. New packet required. Source: [Rizkalla Niveen; Bakr Oussama; Alsamman Sarah; Sbini Salaam; Masud Hana; Segal Steven P. The Syrian regime’s apparatus for systemic torture: A qualitative narrative study of testimonies from survivors. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12888-022-04425-w; article XML SHA-256 453bc4a4d811428c8762cad9bbc1ee704dae2ce1d8aaee3f3393f2f352e41277. “The Syrian regime’s apparatus for systemic torture: A qualitative narrative study of testimonies from survivors” (10.1186/s12888-022-04425-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-04425-w) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social rehabilitation [redraft]: The definition claims the purpose is to “support functioning” and protect functioning more broadly; the packet specifically links early social participation to protecting cognitive function, but does not support the broader “functioning” framing.; The definition’s reference to “building opportunities for early social involvement” is broadly consistent with the packet’s call to promote social participation early after surgery, but the additional generalized scope (“especially during recovery after illness or surgery” and “support functioning”) is not substantiated by the supplied text.; The packet only discusses social rehabilitation programs for glioma patients early after surgery; the definition generalizes to “a person” and “recovery after illness or surgery” beyond what is supported.; The source supports social rehabilitation programs to promote social participation early after surgery in glioma patients, but not the broader generalization about recovery after illness in general.; “to support functioning” is not stated in the packet; the source mentions protecting cognitive function, not a general functioning claim. New packet required. Source: [Xiao Yinglian; Tan Jing; Cheng Guo; Deng Yanhong. The relationship between social participation and cognitive function early after surgery of glioma patients. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319220; article XML SHA-256 820bd0f3a263015d07989dcffcf8aea290ea9ea2e256a3d35c7855f080c3c7db. “The relationship between social participation and cognitive function early after surgery of glioma patients” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319220).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319220) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social relations model [redraft]: 'Or other groups' adds scope the packet does not give; packet describes SRM only for family interdependence. New packet required. Source: [Loeys Tom; Fonteyn Marieke; Loncke Justine. A Practical Tool for Family Assessment Based on the Social Relations Model. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.699831; article XML SHA-256 28b0e61846a3f752aed34dc42168adc59c5b0481c841d659100395bb00e33cae. “A Practical Tool for Family Assessment Based on the Social Relations Model” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.699831).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.699831) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social services [redraft]: Because those substantive components are not present in the supplied packet text, the definition includes unsupported generalizations beyond the packet’s scope.; The added claims about helping with social needs and coordinating related assistance are not supported by the packet.; The packet describes a hospital department responsible for administering and providing social services to patients and their families; the definition shifts the sense to the services themselves rather than the department.; The packet states that a hospital social work department is responsible for administering and providing social services to patients and their families, but it does not explicitly support the added specifics that these services “help patients and their families with social needs” or “coordinate related assistance.” New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Social Work Department, Hospital” (D012948).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012948) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- social speech [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“Social speech is speech used in interaction with other people”) is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text, which only discusses “social speech acts” as a selection pressure, without defining social speech as interaction-based.; The packet does not define “social speech” as speech used in interaction with other people; that wording is unsupported by the source text.; The source supports only that social speech acts as a selection pressure for the emergence of private speech, not a general dictionary definition of the term.; While the second sentence (“described as an evolutionary pressure that may have contributed to the emergence of private speech”) is supported by the packet’s claim that “social speech acts as a selection pressure” leading toward private speech, the definition as a whole is not fully supported because the first sentence lacks support. New packet required. Source: [O’Connor Sean. The Natural Selection of Private and Inner Speech. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00163; article XML SHA-256 5b5f0bccf240f34da0de1ba0807c7c0eb963edef7af74098fe3910a5e37dc515. “The Natural Selection of Private and Inner Speech” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00163).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00163) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social withdrawal [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the source by interpreting the term as a broader social-behavior description rather than the specific PANSS descriptor given in the packet.; The definition includes distinctions (passive/apathetic vs active avoidance for a stated reason) that are not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet only mentions “Passive or apathetic social withdrawal” in the context of “PANSS Temperature,” and does not provide support for claims like “pulling back from social contact or involvement” or “reduced engagement … rather than active avoidance for a stated reason.”; The packet supports only the label and the phrase “passive or apathetic social withdrawal”; it does not support the added characterization that this is “pulling back from social contact or involvement” or the contrast with active avoidance for a stated reason. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “PANSS - Passive or Apathetic Social Withdrawal” (C124757).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- social [redraft]: The claim that “changes in social functioning means gradual differences in how someone manages interactions or participation with others” is not stated in the packet; the packet only says “gradual changes in … social functioning often appear” and does not define social functioning in those terms.; The packet does not explicitly define the term “social” as “how a person functions in relation to other people and social situations.” It only mentions “social functioning” in the context of schizophrenia-related changes.; The packet only supports the phrase “gradual changes in social functioning” appearing before first episode of psychosis; it does not define the general term “social” as how a person functions in relation to other people and social situations.; “Manages interactions or participation with others” is an added interpretation that is not stated in the source packet. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Schizophrenia. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 43270b4941f013ac9885be92f3b32f1ed64375ff1fb44d589f3cc1975e5a59a1. “Schizophrenia” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/schizophrenia) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- society [redraft]: Although the packet supports an alcoholism definition, the requested sense of the term is wrong, so the entry does not match the target term.; The definition contains claims not supported by the packet as stated (e.g., "may be ongoing or come and go over time" vs. the packet’s "continuous or periodic").; The definition is for alcoholism, not for the term society.; The packet describes a "primary, chronic" disease and also states it is "often progressive and fatal," which the definition omits; the omission is substantive enough that the full description is not faithfully supported.; The term provided is "society," but the definition describes "Alcoholism" (a different concept than the requested term). New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Alcoholism” (D000437).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000437) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- sociolinguistics [redraft]: The definition adds specific claims about what sociolinguistics studies and contrasts it with treating language as uniform, but the packet only supports the narrower idea of structured heterogeneity and sociolinguistically defined varieties in speech.; The packet does not directly define sociolinguistics; it only mentions it as one current approach alongside generative and cognitive linguistics.; The packet supports that sociolinguistically defined “varieties”/systems are distinguished in a heterogeneous linguistic landscape and that everyday language use shows structured heterogeneity with inter- and intra-speaker variation, but it does not clearly support the specific phrasing that sociolinguistics “studies how language varies across speakers and situations.” The “situations” part is not substantiated in the provided text.; While the packet supports the idea of patterned/structured variation in everyday language use rather than treating languages as homogeneous, the exact wording about “socially defined varieties” is only indirectly supported (it discusses distinguishing varieties, but does not explicitly characterize them as “socially defined” in the provided excerpt). New packet required. Source: [Ghyselen Anne-Sophie; De Vogelaer Gunther. Seeking Systematicity in Variation: Theoretical and Methodological Considerations on the “Variety” Concept. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00385; article XML SHA-256 58897f77d6e9b00fb377e24876240bfa3e46cd0b0957dace6f30fc0adc851a7b. “Seeking Systematicity in Variation: Theoretical and Methodological Considerations on the “Variety” Concept” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00385).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00385) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sociometry [redraft]: The added claim that sociometry helps group members connect before deeper listening and sharing is an extrapolation from the article’s staged treatment sequence, not a stated definition of the term.; The definition’s “In this context” framing is supported generally by the warm-up sequence, but the specific claimed function (“connect with one another”) is not stated in the packet.; The packet only supports that the treatment uses exercises from the psychodrama/sociometry traditions as warm-up, team-building activities; it does not define sociometry itself as a group-therapy tradition.; The packet supports that “warm-up team-building activities such as exercises from the improv and psychodrama/sociometry traditions” are used as change agents, but it does not explicitly define sociometry as a way to “help group members connect with one another before moving into deeper listening and sharing.” New packet required. Source: [O’Brien Sheila; Boulanger Ghislaine; Yahalom Jonathan; Bhatt-Mackin Seamus; Goodman Marianne. Depth-oriented group psychotherapy for moral injury with military veterans: relational psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theory, mechanisms of action, and clinical implications. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1763407; article XML SHA-256 c81f5a125e2be4bc297d9b4a4128da749739144fe848766c3c7f8ed83372d9a1. “Depth-oriented group psychotherapy for moral injury with military veterans: relational psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theory, mechanisms of action, and clinical implications” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1763407).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1763407) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- software [redraft]: The added explanation that software “may cause ads to appear on the screen” goes beyond the packet, which says ads could be from other software on your computer but does not define software that way.; The definition’s specific claim that software “may cause ads to appear on the screen” is supported by the packet, but the overall definition contains substantive additional meaning (the formal definition of software) that is not supported by the packet.; The packet does not define “software” as “a program or set of programs on a computer”; it only mentions “other software on your computer” in the context of ads.; The packet only mentions “other software on your computer” in the context of ads; it does not support the general definition of software as “a program or set of programs on a computer.” New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Website Policies. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 1a399709d182fd35c8604c702a33cbd97e54058d3de6946a8ad9da2f3b14157b. “Website Policies” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/reprinting-and-reusing-nimh-publications).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/reprinting-and-reusing-nimh-publications) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- SOI [redraft]: The definition does not clearly indicate the specific version named in the packet (SOI-M), so the requested sense of “SOI” is not fully supported.; The definition states “SOI usually refers here to the Multidimensional Sociosexual Orientation Inventory,” but the packet specifically refers to “the SOI-M Multidimensional Sociosexual Orientation Inventory,” not simply “SOI.”; The packet supports the Multidimensional Sociosexual Orientation Inventory as SOI-M, not SOI; the acronym/sense is therefore not fully supported as written. New packet required. Source: [Figueroa Oriana; Polo Pablo; Muñoz-Reyes José Antonio; Ferrer Rodrigo; Fajardo Gabriela; Torrico-Bazoberry Daniel. Validation of the Multidimensional Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI-M) in the Chilean population. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329036; article XML SHA-256 132f64afd6c788878a9c292b79fd356e4b7f08d738c72cb1b65e2e07b2e0bf6c. “Validation of the Multidimensional Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI-M) in the Chilean population” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329036).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329036) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- solitary play [redraft]: The definition should stick to the packet’s sense of the term as an observation/assessment task, rather than broadening it into a general developmental play category.; The definition states that solitary play is “play that a child engages in alone rather than with other people,” but the packet does not explicitly define solitary play in those terms (it only mentions “structured solitary play” as the context for measuring symbolic play).; The first sentence defines solitary play as a general type of play done alone, but the packet only supports a specific research use: five minutes of videotaped, structured solitary play used to measure symbolic play.; The packet supports that the “structured solitary play” was videotaped for five minutes and that symbolic play was coded via substitution (e.g., using one object as another), but the definition’s broader characterization of solitary play as being “alone rather than with other people” is not supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Quittner Alexandra L; Cejas Ivette; Wang Nae-Yuh; Niparko John K; Barker David H. Symbolic Play and Novel Noun Learning in Deaf and Hearing Children: Longitudinal Effects of Access to Sound on Early Precursors of Language. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0155964; article XML SHA-256 c0653e9ab234f5ce07d9406baafdb918f6c19b6ae2afb5e5c42e191b87ee7922. “Symbolic Play and Novel Noun Learning in Deaf and Hearing Children: Longitudinal Effects of Access to Sound on Early Precursors of Language” (10.1371/journal.pone.0155964).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155964) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- somatic function [redraft]: General headword narrowed with 'In this context' to neuronal cell-body activity; packet never defines it and sense is packet-specific. New packet required. Source: [Parker Rell L.; O’Neill Heidi C.; Henley Beverley M.; Wageman Charles R.; Drenan Ryan M.; Marks Michael J.; Miwa Julie M.; Grady Sharon R.; Lester Henry A.. Deletion of lynx1 reduces the function of α6* nicotinic receptors. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0188715; article XML SHA-256 3ba9f964c229bc421d67128d02f447b6b38b0685d23793aa75527292bebe511f. “Deletion of lynx1 reduces the function of α6* nicotinic receptors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0188715).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188715) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- somatic sense [redraft]: Because the term’s general definition is unsupported, the overall definition is not fully defensible even though the itch-specific description in the second sentence is supported.; The definition’s first sentence (“A somatic sense is a bodily sensation.”) is not explicitly supported by the provided packet; the packet only describes itch as an “aversive somatic sense,” without defining the general meaning of “somatic sense.”; The packet does not define or equate “somatic sense” with “bodily sensation”; it only describes itch as an “aversive somatic sense.”; The wording “unpleasant somatic sense” adds a nuance not stated in the source, which uses “aversive” instead. New packet required. Source: [Elliott Peter; G’Sell Max; Snyder Lindsey M.; Ross Sarah E.; Ventura Valérie. Automated acoustic detection of mouse scratching. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0179662; article XML SHA-256 bb05c6b18344ea64cfeeb003c3d54cc7c3a30a4ffd989e72e7b16d025e5fa8ed. “Automated acoustic detection of mouse scratching” (10.1371/journal.pone.0179662).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179662) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- somatic symptom disorder [redraft]: The definition claims the disorder involves “distressing preoccupation,” but the packet states “burdensome preoccupation,” without explicitly using or supporting the term “distressing.”; The packet supports burdensome preoccupation with somatic symptoms, but it does not state that somatic symptom disorder involves biased attention; it refers instead to biased interoception, response bias, and top-down predictions about sensory events.; The phrase “rather than more accurate perception of them” is only partly supported: the source says the findings strengthen the notion of biased rather than accurate perception of body signals, but this is presented as a research conclusion from the review, not as a direct definitional statement of the disorder. New packet required. Source: [Wolters Carolin; Gerlach Alexander L; Pohl Anna. Interoceptive accuracy and bias in somatic symptom disorder, illness anxiety disorder, and functional syndromes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0271717; article XML SHA-256 9c83098b424d9d40c2165b5a45013e35d9c99ebb282e79a8f63d6a02e7513eb2. “Interoceptive accuracy and bias in somatic symptom disorder, illness anxiety disorder, and functional syndromes: A systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0271717).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0271717) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- somatic [redraft]: 'In this context' imports the somatic symptom disorder description onto the adjective 'somatic'; wrong sense of headword. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Yahui; Feng Meijing; Ma Rui; Xue Qiuyan; Li Xue; Liu Fangming. Candidate emotional awareness–interoceptive pathways in body-focused repetitive behaviors and somatic symptom disorder: a hypothesis-generating mini review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1867350; article XML SHA-256 314d74fd134eca629307555af1116e8287a2148582ddea0d2336e5c9216a3691. “Candidate emotional awareness–interoceptive pathways in body-focused repetitive behaviors and somatic symptom disorder: a hypothesis-generating mini review” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1867350).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1867350) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- song [redraft]: General headword 'song' narrowed to birdsong with 'In this context' hedge; defines the packet's object, not the term. New packet required. Source: [Fujii Tomoko G.; Okanoya Kazuo. Auditory and sexual preferences for a father’s song can co-emerge in female Bengalese finches. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0254302; article XML SHA-256 4c1d3c7a74aaee5cc81c9d09fc3c8101fd46dca0e647b391331127654d1afadb. “Auditory and sexual preferences for a father’s song can co-emerge in female Bengalese finches” (10.1371/journal.pone.0254302).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254302) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sonography [redraft]: General headword redefined as transcranial Doppler sonography via 'In this context' hedge. New packet required. Source: [Cantone Mariagiovanna; Pennisi Manuela; Lanza Giuseppe; Ferri Raffaele; Fisicaro Francesco; Cappellani Francesco; David Emanuele; Nicosia Vito; Cortese Klizia; Pennisi Giovanni; Puglisi Valentina; Bella Rita. Transcranial Doppler sonography follow-up study in mild vascular cognitive impairment. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317888; article XML SHA-256 996b7a8e55a735d98febad61a513e7aebb8e282684199b2ef68052b8d9e4deb6. “Transcranial Doppler sonography follow-up study in mild vascular cognitive impairment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317888).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317888) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sound spectrum [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“range of frequency-based information…”) is a general characterization of ‘sound spectrum’ that is not explicitly stated in the provided packet.; The first sentence gives a general definition of “sound spectrum” as a “range of frequency-based information” in an audio signal, but the packet only supports that feature-extraction algorithms analyze information within the sound spectrum; it does not explicitly define the term that way.; The packet supports the examples of timbral texture, tonal texture, and rhythmic activity, but not the broader definitional claim that the sound spectrum is specifically a range of analyzable frequency-based information.; While the packet supports that Fourier-transform coefficients obtained within the ‘sound spectrum’ relate to timbral texture, tonal texture, and rhythmic activity, the packet does not support the broader claim that ‘sound spectrum’ is inherently ‘the range’ of such frequency-based information. New packet required. Source: [Melo Dirceu de Freitas Piedade; Fadigas Inacio de Sousa; Pereira Hernane Borges de Barros. Graph-based feature extraction: A new proposal to study the classification of music signals outside the time-frequency domain. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0240915; article XML SHA-256 6183ff712af2c071e6cf0f3b7176ad0ac2b12eb53e9835b4845941f453b25509. “Graph-based feature extraction: A new proposal to study the classification of music signals outside the time-frequency domain” (10.1371/journal.pone.0240915).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240915) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sound [redraft]: General headword narrowed to heritage soundscape perception via 'In this context'; second sentence reports study findings. New packet required. Source: [Wang Haoran; Azizui Muhammad Farid Azizul; Liu Hao; Hong Jialan; Zhou Peilei; Yang Mengyun. How soundscape shapes restorative experience in a world heritage site: The mediating role of cultural authenticity at Mount Emei, China. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354957; article XML SHA-256 49fca019e519efa533b1c78e0d40c418b7682239bc2b231f3190de9e9bc9d2ab. “How soundscape shapes restorative experience in a world heritage site: The mediating role of cultural authenticity at Mount Emei, China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354957).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354957) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- source credibility [redraft]: The claim that source credibility is a key part of how people judge whether information is believable is not stated in the packet in that form and is too generalized beyond the supplied text.; The packet does not define source credibility as “perceived trustworthiness or reliability” or explicitly link it to “how people judge whether information is believable.”; The packet supports source credibility as positive or negative evaluations of a source, but it does not explicitly support the broader definition as the perceived trustworthiness or reliability of the person or source providing information.; The packet supports that the study involves making “positive or negative source credibility evaluations,” but it does not provide support for the broader wording about perceived trustworthiness/reliability or believability judgments. New packet required. Source: [Schneider Piotr; Wójcik Grzegorz M.; Kawiak Andrzej; Kwasniewicz Lukasz; Wierzbicki Adam. Modeling and Comparing Brain Processes in Message and Earned Source Credibility Evaluation. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2022.808382; article XML SHA-256 2d4d27fedc043bbafbfa73f8b6a4908af3abef4554bc1af4f81b05ab538881df. “Modeling and Comparing Brain Processes in Message and Earned Source Credibility Evaluation” (10.3389/fnhum.2022.808382).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.808382) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- source factors [redraft]: 'Source factors' is not a term; packet only says 'multi-source factors' and the definition invents a general meaning. New packet required. Source: [Long Haoyu; Chen Yilin; Feng Jingru; Chen Jian; Zhang Xue; Han Wenjie; Kang Min; Du Xiangjun. Annual global dengue dynamics are related to multi-source factors revealed by a machine learning prediction analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pntd.0013232; article XML SHA-256 0fa3c2d2b574de56094d1f838a25cdfd30af6b4d45b3398ff04caf728fe54d18. “Annual global dengue dynamics are related to multi-source factors revealed by a machine learning prediction analysis” (10.1371/journal.pntd.0013232).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0013232) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spaced repetition [redraft]: Packet attributes reduced cognitive load to Cognitive Load Theory, not spaced repetition; 'reducing cognitive burden' misattributed. New packet required. Source: [Bock Lotte; Hägerbäumer Miriam; Riedel Erik; Rana Madiha. Targeted mindfulness and self-compassion improve long-term stress reduction in distance learning students: a randomized trial. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1678094; article XML SHA-256 f1164a43fe6e23a37d208a941a9f23d8b9e088a488287d4e0edd0adeaaad96ef. “Targeted mindfulness and self-compassion improve long-term stress reduction in distance learning students: a randomized trial” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1678094).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1678094) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spastic paralysis [redraft]: Makes lower-extremity, lifelong, incurable features of neurolathyrism into the definition of spastic paralysis itself. New packet required. Source: [Bimerew Melaku; Gebremeskel Teshome; Beletew Biruk; Ayaliew Wondye; Wodaje Mulugeta; Ayalneh Manay. Prevalence of major depressive disorder and its associated factors among adult patients with neurolathyrism in Dawunt District, Ethiopia; 2022: community-based cross-sectional study. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05755-7; article XML SHA-256 7647d81d65aee2b8fbacfff9e8eba6ea9837b7b297d6eaa39899ab690aafef79. “Prevalence of major depressive disorder and its associated factors among adult patients with neurolathyrism in Dawunt District, Ethiopia; 2022: community-based cross-sectional study” (10.1186/s12888-024-05755-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05755-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spatial attention [redraft]: Because the first sentence contains an unsupported general characterization (beyond what the packet describes about their task and measured EEG/cue direction), the definition as a whole is not fully supported by the packet.; The cueing-task description is somewhat overspecified: the packet supports decoding cue direction in a Posner-style cueing design, but it does not explicitly say the task tracks attention as simply being directed toward one side or another.; The first sentence gives a general dictionary-style definition (“the focusing of attention on a particular location in space”) that is not stated in the packet and is not directly supported by the supplied text alone.; The packet does not explicitly state a general definition of spatial attention as “the focusing of attention on a particular location in space”; it only refers to “deployment of spatial attention” in the context of a Posner-style cueing paradigm.; The second sentence partly paraphrases the study correctly, but it adds “measurable patterns of brain activity” as a general property of spatial attention; the packet only says the deployment of spatial attention generates distinct neural signatures detectable at the scalp in this study, not a general definition. New packet required. Source: [Smith Cameron; Baker Daniel H.. Neural correlates of the deployment of spatial attention, and their modulation by repetitive movements. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332583; article XML SHA-256 620c7dbed8f4fa02792525d0b12ae0029ff7fe346f8fe0343717f5a5d821f8cc. “Neural correlates of the deployment of spatial attention, and their modulation by repetitive movements” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332583).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332583) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spatial data [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the packet by generalizing from the article’s specific use case to a broad general definition of spatial data.; The definition’s core wording (“information collected about physical features in relation to their location and boundaries in space”) is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text.; The packet discusses “precise spatial data acquisition” for building extraction from drone imagery, but it does not provide support for the definition’s general framing about “location and boundaries in space” or for the specific scope including “land areas.”; The packet supports applications like illegal construction monitoring, disaster assessment, and cadastral mapping, but it does not clearly support the broader claim that spatial data are used to “map and monitor buildings and land areas” in general.; The packet supports the phrase about spatial data being used for building detection and related applications, but it does not define spatial data as “information collected about physical features in relation to their location and boundaries in space.”; The requested field is learning, but the packet is a remote-sensing/building-detection article; the learning sense is not supported here. New packet required. Source: [Zhong Jingling; Xie Youcai; Li Lixia; Shi Chuanlin. Empowering rural governance with digital technology: Deep learning models for automated detection of rural buildings using remote sensing images. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351311; article XML SHA-256 f8e105f6f6d05c363cf8ac7611cf3b43866ed8485e61d21ba27a80e6639a5eb0. “Empowering rural governance with digital technology: Deep learning models for automated detection of rural buildings using remote sensing images” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351311).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351311) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spatial frequency [redraft]: The clause linking high spatial frequency to finer detail and low spatial frequency to coarser image content is not directly supported by the supplied text.; The definition’s specific detail/coarseness characterization is not supported by the provided packet text, which only distinguishes “HSF” vs “LSF” as filtered components alternating in the stimuli.; The packet does not state that high spatial frequency corresponds to “finer detail” or that low spatial frequency corresponds to “broader, coarser patterns.”; The packet uses the term only as a stimulus property with HSF/LSF components; it does not explicitly support the broader definition that spatial frequency describes whether an image contains finer detail or broader, coarser patterns. New packet required. Source: [Lv Yuhong; Hisakata Rumi; Kaneko Hirohiko. Estimation method of attentional object using spatial frequency selectivity in pupillary response. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356996; article XML SHA-256 20c275c893803a1dbb6efd725325e369228d3cd058067e225bf7082de4a6f7af. “Estimation method of attentional object using spatial frequency selectivity in pupillary response” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356996).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356996) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spatial orientation [redraft]: The first sentence gives a general meaning (“positioning or direction of something in space”), but the provided packet only describes “spatial orientation” in the context of vectorcardiography (orientation of the heart’s electrical activity); it does not support the broader, non-medical general definition.; The packet supports that vectorcardiography provides the spatial orientation and magnitude of the heart’s electrical activity, but it does not support the broader general definition that spatial orientation is the positioning or direction of something in space.; The second sentence’s claim that the source refers to “showing how the heart’s electrical activity is oriented” is supported by the packet (“provides a spatial orientation… of the electrical activity of the heart”), and “how large it is” aligns with the packet’s mention of “magnitude,” but the unsupported generalization in the first sentence is enough to reject.; The wording shifts from the source’s description of vectorcardiography to a generalized dictionary-style definition without support in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Rodriguez William R; Bernal Hernan A; Amador-Munoz Diana Patricia. Real-time vectorcardiography simulator system. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345612; article XML SHA-256 d4d355f48ed68eecedce0ff458c9e6725df003be9d9aa4c0e0fc3170ea88559f. “Real-time vectorcardiography simulator system” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345612).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345612) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spatial relationships [redraft]: Describes the spatial regression descriptor ('The packet supports this idea') rather than defining the term; not the headword. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Spatial Regression” (D000068916).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D000068916) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- species recognition [redraft]: Psychology sense is recognising conspecifics; definition gives image-classification sense and hedges with 'in this source'. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Shanwen; Wu Xiaowei; You Zhuhong. Jaccard distance based weighted sparse representation for coarse-to-fine plant species recognition. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0178317; article XML SHA-256 8c7d897f9334d734a2a228dcf47e91e9610b990fd7c5c23307c60500d0c02401. “Jaccard distance based weighted sparse representation for coarse-to-fine plant species recognition” (10.1371/journal.pone.0178317).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178317) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- specific variance [redraft]: Packet discusses trait-specific variance; definition hedges 'in this packet' and mislabels trait variance as specific variance. New packet required. Source: [Strobel Alexander; Wieder Gesine; Paulus Philipp C; Ott Florian; Pannasch Sebastian; Kiebel Stefan J; Kührt Corinna. Dispositional cognitive effort investment and behavioral demand avoidance: Are they related?. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0239817; article XML SHA-256 8ff9009fd44e2aa1843ac7ebf3ce8291c82881707d9993e4c35bc0312ab5d097. “Dispositional cognitive effort investment and behavioral demand avoidance: Are they related?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0239817).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239817) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- specificity [redraft]: Because the first sentence is not supported by the packet, the overall definition cannot be accepted under the requirement that every substantive claim be supported by the supplied source.; The definition adds a broader assessment framing beyond the source’s specific ADOS-2 context, so the requested sense is only partly supported by the packet.; The definition’s first sentence provides a general characterization of specificity (“how well a test avoids falsely identifying a condition…”). The supplied packet does not contain this conceptual definition or any comparable wording.; The first sentence gives a general definition of specificity in mental health assessment, but the supplied source only reports that ADOS-2 specificity varied across modules; it does not explicitly define the term this way. New packet required. Source: [Kılıncel Senay; Bulut Furkan; Goksel Pelin; Usta Mirac Baris; Kilincel Oguzhan. Module-specific diagnostic accuracy of ADOS-2 in real-world clinical referral populations: an updated systematic review and HSROC meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1840734; article XML SHA-256 6667e56e6c1cfd2a1e348cb60c327fd319b7a5211696dd8179a4c3c353f41d7c. “Module-specific diagnostic accuracy of ADOS-2 in real-world clinical referral populations: an updated systematic review and HSROC meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1840734).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1840734) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spectral envelope [redraft]: The claim that the spectral envelope "changes the tones’ spectral similarity" is not directly supported by the packet; the packet says Shepard tones are generated under fixed bell-shaped spectral envelopes and discusses spectrally similar/dissimilar adaptor-target combinations, but does not state that the envelope itself changes spectral similarity.; The definition adds a causal influence on pitch judgments that is only partly supported in this packet and should not be generalized beyond the specific Shepard-tone experiment described.; The definition claims the spectral envelope “changes the tones’ spectral similarity”; the packet discusses “spectrally consistent (A3–A3, C6–C6) and inconsistent (A3–C6, C6–A3) adaptor-target combinations,” but it does not state that the envelope specifically changes “spectral similarity.”; The packet supports that Shepard tones use a “fixed bell-shaped spectral envelope” centered at particular frequencies (A3 and C6) to generate component amplitudes, and that this relates to pitch/judgment effects (e.g., relative pitch height judgments). However, because the “spectral similarity” claim is not explicitly supported, the full definition cannot be accepted. New packet required. Source: [Malek Stephanie; Sperschneider Konrad. Aftereffects of Spectrally Similar and Dissimilar Spectral Motion Adaptors in the Tritone Paradox. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00677; article XML SHA-256 2ea16923bfe81ae879d1e037f756cf5065ea76d226f718d242e0d2b6a513bd1f. “Aftereffects of Spectrally Similar and Dissimilar Spectral Motion Adaptors in the Tritone Paradox” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00677).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00677) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spectroscopy [redraft]: The field label “learning” is not supported by the packet, which discusses monitoring antidepressant treatment response rather than learning or educational psychology.; The packet does not support the claim that “spectroscopy usually refers to functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)” or that this is the standard meaning of “spectroscopy” in the psychology context.; The packet supports fNIRS being non-invasive, portable, high-temporal-resolution, and indirectly reflecting brain function via oxy-hemoglobin, and it links fNIRS to monitoring/evaluating depression interventions as a biomarker, but the unsupported “usually refers” language makes the definition’s scope/meaning not fully supported by the packet.; The packet supports functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) in depression treatment research, not a psychology/learning sense of the standalone term “spectroscopy.” New packet required. Source: [Ma Mao-liang; Cao Jiang; Yang Jian-li. Application of functional near-infrared spectroscopy in evaluating antidepressant treatment efficacy: a review of recent evidence (2021–2026). 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1934277; article XML SHA-256 d202c19df7df14885e5a9ae48cbcc2bf163ac5a5fa4fdd488be538f029b2b8f2. “Application of functional near-infrared spectroscopy in evaluating antidepressant treatment efficacy: a review of recent evidence (2021–2026)” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1934277).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1934277) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spectrum of consciousness [redraft]: The definition introduces a specific interpretive framing (“In this packet, the term refers to findings from cardiac arrest research suggesting such a range exists”), but the packet excerpt does not provide details about what the “spectrum” entails beyond the authors’ statement that such a spectrum has been identified.; The definition treats the phrase as an established conceptual definition, but in the packet it appears only as a research finding cited in passing, not as a defined term with the stated meaning.; The definition’s first substantive claim (“consciousness is not simply present or absent, but can vary across a range of states or experiences”) is not explicitly supported by the packet text provided (the packet only mentions that cardiac arrest studies “identified a spectrum of consciousness” and that the authors seek feasibility in DHCA).; The packet supports only that cardiac arrest studies have identified a “spectrum of consciousness”; it does not support the broader generalization that consciousness is not simply present or absent or that it varies across a range of states or experiences. New packet required. Source: [Ross Joshua; Jan Thomas; Smith Deane; Gonzales Anelly; Galloway Aubrey; Leontovich Natalia; Keshavarz Tara; Dickinson Analise; Friedman David; Koopman Emmeline; Huppert Elise; Jaffe Ian; Burke Christopher; Kern John; Stelzer Paul; Sabe Ashraf; Spiegel Rebecca; Klein Andrew; Rajagopal Arvind; Parr Gage; Deakin Charles; Parnia Sam. Consciousness in deep hypothermic circulatory arrest: a feasibility study. 2025; DOI 10.1186/s13019-025-03484-w; article XML SHA-256 8a7639698b23128c3b7bda3a700eee3867c98062d30f8d53e1500a1d249b38db. “Consciousness in deep hypothermic circulatory arrest: a feasibility study” (10.1186/s13019-025-03484-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13019-025-03484-w) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- speech act [redraft]: "spoken utterance" is not supported as a general definition in the packet; the article only discusses oral tasks involving speech acts.; The definition’s claim that the appropriateness of speech acts can change with “power, social distance, and imposition” is consistent with the packet, but the first sentence includes an unsupported general definition beyond what the packet states.; The list of examples and the claim about appropriateness varying with power, social distance, and imposition are context-specific findings in the study, but the definition presents them as a general definitional statement without direct source support.; The packet does not explicitly define a “speech act” as a spoken utterance used to carry out a “social action.” It only describes a study of “oral speech act production tasks” and names eight speech-act types (e.g., Thank, Request, Apology).; The packet is an empirical study on oral speech act production tasks, not a source that directly defines the term as a general dictionary sense. New packet required. Source: [Huang Weiying; Lu Xiaofei. The difficulty of oral speech act production tasks in second language pragmatics testing. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1096399; article XML SHA-256 3a578046b35751eafa89dbc1f5a461a0efe6c5eb9a1c1695dd0eee99b4155615. “The difficulty of oral speech act production tasks in second language pragmatics testing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1096399).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1096399) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- speech anxiety [redraft]: The definition is not limited to what is explicitly supported in the packet (it adds a general conceptualization and a specific scope beyond the single aim statement).; The definition’s claim that it “refers specifically to anxiety about speaking in Turkish among international students learning Turkish” is not supported by the packet text provided; the packet only states the study examines “Turkish speech anxiety” and the intervention context (Instagram shared tasks), without defining what the anxiety is.; The packet does not define the term as referring specifically to speaking in Turkish among international students; it only shows that this is the study context and population.; The packet does not define “speech anxiety” or state what it refers to (e.g., anxiety about speaking vs. any other construct).; The packet supports a specific study topic about Turkish speech anxiety in international students learning Turkish, but it does not support the general definitional claim that speech anxiety is anxiety about speaking or doing speaking tasks. New packet required. Source: [Uzun Ali. Instagram shared tasks in reducing speech anxiety among international students learning Turkish. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1775400; article XML SHA-256 2745882b72e3d8546b634eecb689be372578986d8729842363a93e4ec19303c3. “Instagram shared tasks in reducing speech anxiety among international students learning Turkish” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1775400).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1775400) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- speech area [redraft]: Because the packet lacks a direct “speech area” entry, the definition’s framing as the meaning of the term (not merely one referenced aspect) is not defensible from the supplied text.; The claim that “speech area” means “the brain region concerned with producing speech” is not stated directly in the packet; it is inferred from the phrase “motor speech area,” so it is not fully supportable as written.; The definition adds an unsupported gloss by treating "speech area" as a general brain region concerned with producing speech; the source only says the lesion involves the motor speech area of the left side and discusses recurring utterances in motor aphasia.; The packet does not contain an explicit definition for the term “speech area.” It only mentions “the motor speech area of the left side” within a section explaining “recurrent utterances.”; The packet does not define the term "speech area" as an entry; it only mentions the "motor speech area" within the separate article on recurring utterances.; The wording "disease may impair voluntary speech and lead to repeated utterances" goes beyond the source’s phrasing and blends multiple points into a broader clinical summary not presented as such in the historical text. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-1995000-2007000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- speech community [redraft]: The claim about “shared language use and awareness” giving “speech forms their standing within the group” is not explicitly present in the packet.; The first sentence generalizes beyond the source by stating a broad sociolinguistic definition (“shared language use and awareness give speech forms their standing within the group”) that is not explicitly stated in the packet.; The first sentence of the definition (“A speech community is a group of speakers…”) is not supported by the packet text.; The packet does not define the term “speech community” itself; it is a historical definition of “Mixture (linguistic)” that only mentions “speech-community” in passing.; The packet’s mention of “modernizing” syntax is unrelated to the requested term’s definition and does not support the provided definition.; The provided packet does not define the term “speech community”; it defines “Mixture (linguistic)” and only mentions “speech-community” in the phrase “in the consciousness of the speech-community,” without stating what a speech community is.; The second sentence contains parts (“borrowed elements become established only when they are recognized across that community” and “bilingual speech communities may come to use one common sentence pattern with different vocabularies”) that are only indirectly suggested by the packet’s wording about loan-elements becoming independent in the “consciousness of the speech-community” and the “tendency… for a single sentence-mould to suffice for two languages,” but the packet does not clearly support the specific formulation and implied senses as written.; The wording “borrowed elements become established only when they are recognized across that community” overstates the source; the packet says an element cannot become a loan-element unless enough words containing it are borrowed to fix it in the consciousness of the speech-community. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Mixture (linguistic)” (Mixture).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/M3defs.htm#Mixture) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- speech intelligibility [redraft]: The definition adds that other people can “understand” the speech sounds, but the packet only supports that the sounds are “recognizable.”; The definition specifies recognition/understanding by "other people," while the packet only states recognizability without explicitly stating who recognizes or whether understanding occurs.; The provided definition adds that speech sounds are "understand" by others, but the packet definition only supports that sounds are "recognizable" (ability to make recognizable speech sounds). New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Speech Intelligibility” (D013065).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013065) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- speech lateralization [redraft]: The packet does not provide the definition that “speech lateralization” is the “extent to which speech or language functions are specialized to one side of the brain”; it only references “handedness-speech lateralization” without defining it.; The packet supports a possible association between handedness switching, reduced speech/language lateralization, and compromised language proficiency, but it does not define speech lateralization as the extent of specialization of speech or language functions in one hemisphere.; The packet supports that changing handedness (from left to right) may reduce handedness-speech lateralization and compromise language proficiency, but it does not explicitly support the full first sentence framing about side-of-brain specialization.; The statement is broader than the packet’s wording and presents an explanatory definition that is not directly supported by the source text. New packet required. Source: [Yao Chenglun; Song Jie; Sun Jiayu; Tang Weijun; Chen Liang; Gu Yudong. Changing handedness after nerve reconstruction in brachial plexus birth palsy. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fneur.2023.1284945; article XML SHA-256 0c828546bd3b26ef10264e882957bac65f8f177deab3e1c752eb3a7b64dd324d. “Changing handedness after nerve reconstruction in brachial plexus birth palsy” (10.3389/fneur.2023.1284945).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2023.1284945) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- speech processor [redraft]: The definition adds a broader description of what a speech processor is within a cochlear implant system that is not established by the supplied source.; The definition’s wording about the processor being used “to process sound” at power-up is not directly supported by the provided packet excerpt.; The packet supports that the speech processor is programmed on the day the cochlear implant is started (power-up), but it does not define the speech processor as the device used to process sound at power-up.; The packet text mentions that the cochlear implant was started (power-up) and that the “speech processor was programmed,” but it does not explicitly define the speech processor as “the part of a cochlear implant system” or as “the device used at power-up to process sound.” New packet required. Source: [Li Yuan; Shen Min; Long Mo. A preliminary study of auditory mismatch response on the day of cochlear implant activation in children with hearing aids prior implantation. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0210457; article XML SHA-256 252fc1d8bb5302a5928faddf49499d0e7576ddc66f5741b18e42e0967ced4f2a. “A preliminary study of auditory mismatch response on the day of cochlear implant activation in children with hearing aids prior implantation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0210457).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210457) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- speech synthesizer [redraft]: Redefines a general device as one taking neural-decoder input; 'in this context' smuggles the narrow BMI sense. New packet required. Source: [Guenther Frank H.; Brumberg Jonathan S.; Wright E. Joseph; Nieto-Castanon Alfonso; Tourville Jason A.; Panko Mikhail; Law Robert; Siebert Steven A.; Bartels Jess L.; Andreasen Dinal S.; Ehirim Princewill; Mao Hui; Kennedy Philip R.. A Wireless Brain-Machine Interface for Real-Time Speech Synthesis. 2009; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0008218; article XML SHA-256 3cc2454c1bef43e2339a96247bc1fa7b5a70620ded1255cca5c5fabfa4c82ad7. “A Wireless Brain-Machine Interface for Real-Time Speech Synthesis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0008218).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008218) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- speed–accuracy tradeoff [redraft]: The added plain-language explanation about trading off speed for accuracy is an unsupported generalization beyond the supplied source text.; The packet does not state the general principle that the speed–accuracy tradeoff is “the balance between how fast a person makes a perceptual decision and how accurate that decision is,” nor does it define SAT in that way; it only mentions that time pressure influences perceptual decisions and that SAT effects are poorly understood in a specific context (color discrimination).; The packet does not support the claim that “greater time pressure can shift performance toward speed at the expense of accuracy, or toward accuracy with slower responding.”; The packet supports that time pressure influences perceptual decisions and that speed–accuracy tradeoff (SAT) is a relevant concept, but it does not define SAT as a balance between speed and accuracy or state that greater time pressure shifts performance toward speed at the expense of accuracy. New packet required. Source: [Qiao Yanan; Kawabata Yasuhiro; Sasaki Mikuko. Gender-dependent color discrimination ability and speed–accuracy tradeoff: insights from ND-100 hue tests. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722974; article XML SHA-256 e3155f8ab64517f9bdbbc8d0c7ad54d139e24ff97d24eedf18ae42b17a374a9e. “Gender-dependent color discrimination ability and speed–accuracy tradeoff: insights from ND-100 hue tests” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722974).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1722974) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spike [redraft]: The definition adds that spikes are "counted" when studying neural activity; the packet supports spike timing control but does not support counting as part of the defined sense.; The definition’s statement that “spike timing means the exact moments when those firing events occur” is only indirectly implied by the phrase “spike timing control” and “timing errors,” not explicitly stated in the provided text.; The field is not well supported: the packet is about neural spike timing control in noisy neurons, not a clear psychology/learning sense of "spike".; The packet does not explicitly define “spike” as a “neuron's firing event” or state that spikes are “counted” for studying neural activity; it only discusses “spike timing control” and minimizing “firing mismatches/timing errors.”; The packet’s main focus is a proposed method for controlling spike timing of neurons in noisy environments (neural control/neuroprosthetics), and it does not clearly support framing this term under “learning” in the way the definition suggests. New packet required. Source: [Sato Fumiya; Ogura Masaki; Sashie Airi; Bai Yang; Shimono Masanori; Wakamiya Naoki. Neural SDE-based spike control of noisy neurons. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330607; article XML SHA-256 22dc6656ca854f654b749a808528717f5a7bb41377702b89d377930f9233b5c3. “Neural SDE-based spike control of noisy neurons” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330607).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330607) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spinal canal [redraft]: Does not define the structure; describes the study's monitoring rationale and adds MRI visibility not stated for the canal. New packet required. Source: [Yamamoto Takaya; Tanaka Shohei; Takahashi Noriyoshi; Umezawa Rei; Suzuki Yu; Kishida Keita; Omata So; Takeda Kazuya; Harada Hinako; Sato Kiyokazu; Katsuta Yoshiyuki; Kadoya Noriyuki; Jingu Keiichi. Investigation of intrafractional spinal cord and spinal canal movement during stereotactic MR-guided online adaptive radiotherapy for kidney cancer. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312032; article XML SHA-256 7c805ff0642beb41ac6bfeb9d0670ec2eb5ea790b9c08bacf484e8936a1f3bf6. “Investigation of intrafractional spinal cord and spinal canal movement during stereotactic MR-guided online adaptive radiotherapy for kidney cancer” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312032).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312032) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spinal column [redraft]: The claim that differences in spinal column shape and available space around the cord strongly affect the biomechanics and severity of spinal cord damage is broader than the packet’s support; the packet only reports morphology-related effects in a specific finite-element study of non-human primates.; The packet does not define the spinal column as a “bony structure” or state that it “surrounds the spinal canal.”; The packet supports that external forces can be transmitted through the spinal column during traumatic spinal cord injury, but it does not define the spinal column as the bony structure surrounding the spinal canal.; The remaining claims about morphology affecting biomechanics and outcomes are supported in part (e.g., CSF area and spinal canal occlusion relate to impact forces), but the definition’s core anatomical phrasing is not supported by the provided text.; While the packet states that traumatic spinal cord injuries involve mechanical events that translate external forces through the spinal column, it does not support the specific anatomy description used in the definition (bony structure surrounding the spinal canal). New packet required. Source: [Obaid Numaira; Zamora Dexter L.; Jimenez-Gonzalez Cesar; Sparrey Carolyn J.. Effect of morphology on the biomechanics of contusion models of non-human primate spinal cord injury: a finite element study in a digital population. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337794; article XML SHA-256 5b3795a531dcc42482f8d171527b50e5e02a88ef6e00a13c29cb38d81ebb06fe. “Effect of morphology on the biomechanics of contusion models of non-human primate spinal cord injury: a finite element study in a digital population” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337794).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337794) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- SPL [redraft]: The packet does not support the claim that SPL means “how strong or loud a sound is.” It only states “sound pressure level (SPL)” without defining loudness/strength.; The packet supports SPL as “sound pressure level” and mentions an even modulation of SPL on a stable pitch, but it does not support the added gloss that SPL means “how strong or loud a sound is.”; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source is about singers and vocal stability, not learning.; The rest of the definition (even modulation of sound pressure level while keeping pitch stable, in singers) is supported by the packet, but the unsupported loudness/strength explanation prevents a full pass. New packet required. Source: [Köberlein Marie; Kirsch Jonas; Döllinger Michael; Echternach Matthias. Influence of Messa di Voce speed on vocal stability of professionally trained singers. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325284; article XML SHA-256 a2ebe073ce1285a229734c1e845bfd2e8f5099594a02d50ce22ef0efce4b1582. “Influence of Messa di Voce speed on vocal stability of professionally trained singers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325284).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325284) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- splanchnic nerve [redraft]: Defines the nerve only by its adrenal cholinergic role in this study; hedges 'described here' and 'in this context'. New packet required. Source: [Kim Juhye Lena; La Gamma Edmund F.; Estabrook Todd; Kudrick Necla; Nankova Bistra B.. Whole genome expression profiling associates activation of unfolded protein response with impaired production and release of epinephrine after recurrent hypoglycemia. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0172789; article XML SHA-256 880ca9b52f3e0fdc21191460a23ab6669a18cfbd1fc676402f737883e4c4bc5a. “Whole genome expression profiling associates activation of unfolded protein response with impaired production and release of epinephrine after recurrent hypoglycemia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0172789).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172789) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- split run [redraft]: 'Split run' is a fragment of a method name, not a standalone term; definition describes the RSR tool. New packet required. Source: [Bai Yongsheng; Kinne Jeff; Ding Lizhong; Rath Ethan C; Cox Aaron; Naidu Siva Dharman. Identification of genome-wide non-canonical spliced regions and analysis of biological functions for spliced sequences using Read-Split-Fly. 2017; DOI 10.1186/s12859-017-1801-y; article XML SHA-256 aa0f25fc1bc1bfdb7a4643ac9a091555599cbbe8e4a36032df9ade14adf28fec. “Identification of genome-wide non-canonical spliced regions and analysis of biological functions for spliced sequences using Read-Split-Fly” (10.1186/s12859-017-1801-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12859-017-1801-y) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- splitting [redraft]: Splitting is a well-known defence mechanism; definition redefines it as sample splitting with 'in this source' hedge. New packet required. Source: [Schemet Lena; Friedrich-Welz Sarah. Statistical inference after variable selection in Cox models: a neutral simulation study. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12874-026-02887-0; article XML SHA-256 1714b1ecd4f92ba6b3c15af9bc71b8c58c195011203761012cd1fc59bd5ac646. “Statistical inference after variable selection in Cox models: a neutral simulation study” (10.1186/s12874-026-02887-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-026-02887-0) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spontaneous alternation [redraft]: The packet supports that rats were tested on a “four-arm spontaneous alternation maze” with concurrent in vivo microdialysis for acetylcholine (ACh) in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), but it does not explicitly state that the test observes an animal’s “naturally changing choices between maze arms.”; The packet supports that spontaneous alternation used a four-arm maze with concurrent in vivo microdialysis for acetylcholine in the medial prefrontal cortex, but it does not support the broader claim that it is a learning-related task in this source.; The phrase about an animal’s "naturally changing choices" is an interpretive gloss not stated in the packet and is not directly supported as written. New packet required. Source: [Fecik Matthew J.; Nunes Polliana T.; Vetreno Ryan P.; Savage Lisa M.. Voluntary wheel running exercise rescues behaviorally-evoked acetylcholine efflux in the medial prefrontal cortex and epigenetic changes in ChAT genes following adolescent intermittent ethanol exposure. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0311405; article XML SHA-256 ae235628320ee4ecc597c4fd8ccd0463f187edcf218a647995d1560c114c7df1. “Voluntary wheel running exercise rescues behaviorally-evoked acetylcholine efflux in the medial prefrontal cortex and epigenetic changes in ChAT genes following adolescent intermittent ethanol exposure” (10.1371/journal.pone.0311405).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311405) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spontaneous imagery [redraft]: Because the core meaning of the term (“arise on their own”) is not stated in the provided packet, the definition contains unsupported substantive claims.; The definition adds an unsupported explanation that spontaneous imagery consists of mental images that “arise on their own”; the packet only supports the phrase “spontaneous imagery use” as a subjective domain, not that specific mechanism or wording.; The packet does not support the claim that spontaneous imagery is “treated as one of the key subjective aspects of mental imagery”; it only references “key subjective domains” in the context of listing categories (without explicitly defining spontaneous imagery).; The packet mentions a measure domain called “spontaneous imagery use” but does not provide a definition matching “subjective use of mental images that arise on their own.”; The phrase “one of the key subjective aspects of mental imagery” is only partially supported by the packet’s wording about “key subjective domains”; the definition overstates and paraphrases beyond the provided source. New packet required. Source: [Di Simplicio Martina; Lau-Zhu Alex; Meluken Iselin; Taylor Patrick; Kessing Lars Vedel; Vinberg Maj; Holmes Emily Alexandra; Miskowiak Kamilla Woznica. Emotional Mental Imagery Abnormalities in Monozygotic Twins With, at High-Risk of, and Without Affective Disorders: Present in Affected Twins in Remission but Absent in High-Risk Twins. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00801; article XML SHA-256 a5f7504b0abd9bc240f670dc0c67f20edde4152bc445ca897b8953522c54e7fb. “Emotional Mental Imagery Abnormalities in Monozygotic Twins With, at High-Risk of, and Without Affective Disorders: Present in Affected Twins in Remission but Absent in High-Risk Twins” (10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00801).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00801) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spontaneous movement [redraft]: Describes the Fleming relaxation method rather than defining spontaneous movement; 'in this context' hedge. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Fleming Method Relaxation” (C21037).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spontaneous neural activity [redraft]: The definition asserts that spontaneous neural activity is the brain’s “ongoing activity” and frames it as a biological process; the provided packet does not explicitly support or define spontaneous neural activity in those terms.; The packet does not define spontaneous neural activity as “the brain’s ongoing activity”; it only says that identifying spontaneous neural activity involved in subclinical depression may help clarify risk factors for major depressive disorder.; The statement that it can be studied in people with subclinical depression is supported, but the broader definitional framing goes beyond the source text. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Bo; Qi Shouliang; Liu Shuang; Liu Xiaoya; Wei Xinhua; Ming Dong. Altered spontaneous neural activity in the precuneus, middle and superior frontal gyri, and hippocampus in college students with subclinical depression. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12888-021-03292-1; article XML SHA-256 6aaa979dd569a858c0553cf1889b59470d696ad4e10001533636bae6e6c098c5. “Altered spontaneous neural activity in the precuneus, middle and superior frontal gyri, and hippocampus in college students with subclinical depression” (10.1186/s12888-021-03292-1).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03292-1) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spontaneous remission [redraft]: The added source-specific gloss about the “natural lessening of PTSD over time” is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the provided text.; The definition claims that in this source it “refers to the natural lessening of PTSD over time.” The packet does not describe spontaneous remission as natural lessening over time, nor does it give a time course definition.; The definition says “a lower likelihood of such recovery when stigmatization is present.” The packet does support that stigmatization was associated with a “diminished probability of spontaneous remission” (i.e., lower likelihood), but since the other key parts of the definition are not supported, the full definition is not defensible.; The definition states that spontaneous remission is “an improvement or recovery … that happens on its own rather than as a result of treatment.” The packet does not provide an explicit definition or description of spontaneous remission in those terms; it only mentions “likelihood of spontaneous remission” as an outcome variable.; The packet does not define spontaneous remission as a general improvement or recovery from a mental health problem without treatment; it only mentions the study’s measure of the likelihood of spontaneous remission in PTSD.; The packet supports a reduced probability of spontaneous remission with stigmatization, but not the broader definitional wording used here. New packet required. Source: [Schneider Anna; Conrad Daniela; Pfeiffer Anett; Elbert Thomas; Kolassa Iris-Tatjana; Wilker Sarah. Stigmatization Is Associated With Increased PTSD Risk After Traumatic Stress and Diminished Likelihood of Spontaneous Remission–A Study With East-African Conflict Survivors. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00423; article XML SHA-256 964cfe51eb1ba416e580a1fd1e4d8b818baf06bbb4cb5db799968266d603e84c. “Stigmatization Is Associated With Increased PTSD Risk After Traumatic Stress and Diminished Likelihood of Spontaneous Remission–A Study With East-African Conflict Survivors” (10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00423).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00423) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spontaneous speech [redraft]: Because the definition begins with an unsupported general description (“naturally produced, connected spoken language”), the definition does not fully meet the requirement that all substantive claims are supported by the packet.; The claim that spontaneous speech “can be analyzed for features such as meaning relationships between words, word predictability in context, and syntactic complexity” goes beyond the packet’s wording and combines multiple model outputs into a generic definition not stated there.; The packet does not define “spontaneous speech” as “naturally produced, connected spoken language”; it only says the authors analyzed spontaneous speech samples.; The packet does not support the characterization of spontaneous speech as “naturally produced, connected spoken language.” The provided text only states that they “analyzed spontaneous speech” and does not define it in those terms.; The source supports use of spontaneous speech in an Alzheimer’s disease study and mentions semantic impairment/cognitive decline, but it does not support the broader definitional framing in the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Jiang Hong; Chen Zhengwei; Liu Yu; Yang Chun; Yuan Xiaofeng; He Rui. The structure of spontaneous speech changes in Alzheimer’s disease: Crosslingual evidence from English and Greek. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0324270; article XML SHA-256 958794ce5f8b6aa1d9a9e1353468ff28fd9447a34b34a411d9f51214ffc57c30. “The structure of spontaneous speech changes in Alzheimer’s disease: Crosslingual evidence from English and Greek” (10.1371/journal.pone.0324270).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0324270) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spontaneous trait inference [redraft]: The claim that STI is “an outcome shaped by differences in how warmly people perceive senior versus junior high-power individuals” goes beyond the packet’s wording, which only says the study examined warmth perception differences and their downstream effects on STI.; The definition’s first clause (“spontaneously drawing conclusions about a person’s traits”) is unsupported by the provided packet text.; The packet does not define spontaneous trait inference as “spontaneously drawing conclusions about a person’s traits”; it only mentions STI as an outcome studied in relation to warmth perceptions.; The packet does not define “spontaneous trait inference” as “spontaneously drawing conclusions about a person’s traits.” It only mentions “spontaneous trait inference (STI)” as a downstream effect. New packet required. Source: [Yang Feng; Li Minyan; Han Yang; Fan Xinru; Zhang Qing. My general manager is warmer than department manager: Stereotypes about senior and junior high-power individuals and their influences on spontaneous trait inference. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1015736; article XML SHA-256 4fd5d9f2409d3ea32217679a44134ac3f7a451f665ba6fd209314afa5bcce95e. “My general manager is warmer than department manager: Stereotypes about senior and junior high-power individuals and their influences on spontaneous trait inference” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1015736).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1015736) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sport science [redraft]: Second sentence describes the study's variables rather than the term; 'in this source' hedge. New packet required. Source: [Serra Pedrona; Soler Susanna; Camacho-Miñano María José; Rey-Cao Ana; Vilanova Anna. Gendered Career Choices: Paths Toward Studying a Degree in Physical Activity and Sport Science. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01986; article XML SHA-256 381baa35d1e6654403ea26e9a8278486ae76095566dfc7528b68bfc22ba9a35d. “Gendered Career Choices: Paths Toward Studying a Degree in Physical Activity and Sport Science” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01986).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01986) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sport sociology [redraft]: The definition should stay closer to the packet’s specific scope; the packet does support references to social/cultural contexts, religion, body approaches, income/inequality, and complementary qualitative methods, but not the broader field-level formulation.; The definition states that the source “includes examining factors such as collective values”; the packet discusses communitarian vs. individualistic religions and socio-cultural contexts, but it does not explicitly identify “collective values” as a factor (at least not using that concept as such).; The opening clause is broader than the packet supports: it presents sport sociology as the general study of how social, cultural, historical, and institutional contexts shape sport, but the source only says the paper evaluates socio-cultural contexts affecting the effectiveness of some sport policies and notes methodological problems in sport sociology.; The source supports historical/institutional context only in a limited methodological sense (country dummies; institutional or historical peculiarities), not as a general defining feature of the field. New packet required. Source: [Zagonari Fabio. Requiem of Olympic ethics and sports’ independence: A panel-data socio-cultural analysis. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335957; article XML SHA-256 7900f65aca3b36a9dbee97bd62badf26b76552faff6ef6c67a09a61387a780a2. “Requiem of Olympic ethics and sports’ independence: A panel-data socio-cultural analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335957).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335957) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sport [redraft]: Redefines 'sport' through one article's embodied framework; 'in this psychology context' smuggles a non-standard sense. New packet required. Source: [Tan Yanli; Mou Xueqing; Liu Shiqi; Zang Liuhong; Cui Haiwen. Contact, agency, and haptic experience in sport: a conceptual analysis of embodied skill, interpersonal touch, and digital mediation. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1914946; article XML SHA-256 ab525b1dfc6186ef4c22caff2986b15e32b12db8494786deeba4db075f215c04. “Contact, agency, and haptic experience in sport: a conceptual analysis of embodied skill, interpersonal touch, and digital mediation” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1914946).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1914946) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- spurious correlation [redraft]: Narrows a general statistics term to ML model behaviour and adds 'confounding' not in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Correa-Medero Ramón L.; Pai Rish; Ebare Kingsley; Buchanan Daniel D.; Jenkins Mark A.; Phipps Amanda I.; Newcomb Polly A.; Gallinger Steven; Grant Robert; Le marchand Loic; Banerjee Imon. Causal debiasing for unknown bias in histopathology—A colon cancer use case. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0303415; article XML SHA-256 2227172c6ce31e90d31b060cd925bf60fc7ee6496765e71a21ddfcb9f996d2eb. “Causal debiasing for unknown bias in histopathology—A colon cancer use case” (10.1371/journal.pone.0303415).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303415) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- SRI [redraft]: The definition adds an interpretive claim about what "SRI" refers to rather than defining the attested term in the source; that sense is not directly supported by the packet.; The definition claims SRI “identifies the country context,” but the packet provides no support that “SRI” is the term used for that purpose.; The packet does not state that “SRI” refers to “Sri Lanka” (the text uses “Sri Lanka” directly but never defines “SRI” as an abbreviation).; The packet supports Sri Lanka as the study setting, but it does not show that the term or acronym "SRI" itself is used to mean Sri Lanka. New packet required. Source: [Nishshanka N. A. A. I.; Samarathunga T. N. L.; Inoka S. W.; Suharna R.; De Silva Dewarahandhi Kavishka Madushan; Sriyani Kumarasinghe Arachchigey. Methamphetamine use disorder, perceived impacts, and associated factors among adults receiving care at Sri Lanka’s National Institute of Mental Health: An analytical cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326469; article XML SHA-256 d936aa46dfa7ad7418d531ac42b96f83d97b6a71e4d2be44275d48a04e0b6a2f. “Methamphetamine use disorder, perceived impacts, and associated factors among adults receiving care at Sri Lanka’s National Institute of Mental Health: An analytical cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326469).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326469) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- SS [redraft]: The claim that “overall social support and subtypes of support were examined as social factors linked to self-rated health and some heart-failure outcomes” is supported, but the definition contains unsupported additional wording about the specific components of support.; The packet does not define “SS” as standing for “social support,” nor does it specify the meaning as “help, connection, and sense of belonging.” It only mentions “social support (SS)” as a variable that was measured.; The packet identifies SS as social support, but it does not define social support as “the help, connection, and sense of belonging a person receives from other people.”; The wording adds an explanatory definition that is not supported by the source text; the source only reports that social support and its subtypes were measured and associated with self-rated health and heart-failure outcomes. New packet required. Source: [Peter-Marske Kennedy M.; Howard Annie Green; Evenson Kelly R.; Berkeley Sara Jones; Maselko Joanna; Sims Mario; Russell Stuart D.; Kucharska-Newton Anna; Sullivan Kevin J.; Rosamond Wayne D.. The associations of premorbid social isolation and social support with self-rated health and heart failure outcomes in the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) Study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337517; article XML SHA-256 1796cae0ac0608cf14e3b2f6626e9cb62c99237286008b161ae2033b261eed17. “The associations of premorbid social isolation and social support with self-rated health and heart failure outcomes in the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) Study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0337517).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337517) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- SSS [redraft]: The definition states that “SSS usually refers to the Somatic Symptom Scale-8.” The packet does not support that “SSS” is the usual/standard abbreviation for the Somatic Symptom Scale-8; it only explicitly names “Somatic Symptom Scale-8 (SSS-8).”; The definition’s lead-in “SSS usually refers to” is unsupported by the packet; no evidence is provided that SSS alone is the standard abbreviation in this source.; The packet supports the Somatic Symptom Scale-8 (SSS-8), not the bare acronym SSS, so the term/sense is mismatched.; The requested term is “SSS,” while the packet discusses “SSS-8.” The definition may be conflating SSS with SSS-8 without support from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Kliem Sören; Lohmann Anna; Fischer Sebastian; Zenger Markus; Baier Dirk; Kruse Johannes; Brähler Elmar; Kampling Hanna. Psychometric evaluation and community norms of the Somatic Symptom Scale-8 based on a representative German sample. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1851921; article XML SHA-256 e2d9e422345fb3fefc49da76f9e910b3f510ad28aacb333370f8253bd01cb6e1. “Psychometric evaluation and community norms of the Somatic Symptom Scale-8 based on a representative German sample” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1851921).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1851921) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- stage [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported gloss that the anxiety is specifically about being “watched or evaluated by others”; the packet only says anxiety may arise during performance situations such as speaking, competing, or playing a musical instrument on stage.; The definition says the example is a situation that can trigger anxiety “focused on being watched or evaluated by others,” but the packet text provided does not explicitly describe the fear as being watched or evaluated; it only mentions anxiety arising during performance situations (e.g., giving a speech, competing, playing an instrument on stage) and feelings of embarrassment/distress.; “Performance setting where a person appears in front of an audience” is not stated directly in the packet; only the example of performing on stage is supported. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Social Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 219dd350478d5e198b1c80914abdd6f76c94cbf69e7a886e0cd14337d4a29db9. “Social Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/social-anxiety-disorder-more-than-just-shyness).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/social-anxiety-disorder-more-than-just-shyness) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- stages of change [redraft]: The definition adds interpretive wording about ‘levels of motivational readiness’ that is not explicitly defined in the source packet.; The definition includes conceptual details not evidenced in the supplied packet text (which is limited to mentioning variability in motivational readiness and that TTM describes stages of change).; The packet does not provide support for the claim that, in the TTM, change is “a staged process rather than a single decision.”; The packet only states that the Transtheoretical Model describes “stages of change for health behaviors,” but it does not support the specific framing of “levels of motivational readiness.”; The packet supports that the Transtheoretical Model describes stages of change for health behaviors and that motivational readiness varies, but it does not support the claim that the term means a staged process rather than a single decision. New packet required. Source: [Lemmo Daniela; Mezza Fabrizio; Cuomo Alessandra; Bianco Antonio; Di Donato Antonella; De Luca Vincenzo; Virgolesi Michele; Picone Antonio; Palomba Angela; Ruosi Carlo; Illario Maddalena; Iaccarino Guido; Freda Maria Francesca. Exploring motivational readiness for adapted physical activity in older adults with chronic illness: patterns of self-care behaviors, engagement, and psychological distress. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1796562; article XML SHA-256 286e1382919db2949b8329725598ab4f733a235be740e2db2d490513c70a1808. “Exploring motivational readiness for adapted physical activity in older adults with chronic illness: patterns of self-care behaviors, engagement, and psychological distress” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1796562).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1796562) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- starvation [redraft]: The definition frames starvation as a general cellular stress term; while the packet supports glucose depletion and stress-responsive gene regulation, it does not support presenting this as a mental-health dictionary sense.; The packet source describes yeast cellular responses to glucose/nutrient depletion, not concepts used in mental health. The definition’s placement in the 'mental health' field is not supported by the packet.; The source packet is a molecular biology article about yeast glucose depletion, not a mental health or counselling source, so the requested field is not defensible here. New packet required. Source: [Sato Megumi; Irie Kaoru; Suda Yasuyuki; Mizuno Tomoaki; Irie Kenji. Dual regulatory mechanisms of YGP1 expression in response to glucose availability in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355681; article XML SHA-256 bb27217e5e4600a1d4d16829f66e60fad5f5076206d3a3f13dc8330e5a4f47b9. “Dual regulatory mechanisms of YGP1 expression in response to glucose availability in Saccharomyces cerevisiae” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355681).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355681) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- state anxiety [redraft]: The claim that state anxiety is “temporary anxiety experienced in the moment” is not stated in the packet; the packet only says the instrument is designed to differentiate temporary “state anxiety” from general, long-standing “trait anxiety.”; The packet describes the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, an instrument, not the concept “state anxiety” itself, so the definition is attached to the wrong kind of source entity.; The packet supports that “state anxiety” is temporary and contrasted with “trait anxiety” as general/long-standing, but it does not explicitly define “state anxiety” as anxiety “experienced in the moment.” New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “State-Trait Anxiety Inventory” (C95491).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- state orientation [redraft]: The definition adds or shifts wording beyond the packet by saying state orientation involves “rather than disengaging and taking action toward another goal”; the source instead describes “excessive preoccupation with uncontrollable, failure-related thoughts” and “hesitation instead of action-oriented initiative” toward an alternatively intended goal.; The definition’s first sentence is supported: the packet defines state orientation as excessive preoccupation with uncontrollable, failure-related thoughts (rumination) instead of action-oriented disengagement, and hesitation rather than action-oriented initiative regarding difficult intentions to reach an alternatively intended goal.; The definition’s second sentence includes a claim that it is “described as a vulnerability under stress because it reflects reduced ability to keep goal-directed, self-controlled action going in demanding conditions.” The packet supports that Action Control Theory treats action vs. state orientation as an organismic resilience vs. risk factor related to stress-dependent symptom formation/maintenance/recovery, but it does not explicitly state the specific “vulnerability under stress” rationale or the particular formulation of “reduced ability to keep goal-directed, self-controlled action going” in demanding conditions.; The phrase “vulnerability under stress” is defensible, but the packet frames state orientation more specifically as an organismic resilience/risk factor that moderates or mediates symptom formation, maintenance, and recovery, so the definition should not generalize beyond that source-specific framing. New packet required. Source: [Buchmann Jana; Baumann Nicola; Meng Karin; Semrau Jana; Kuhl Julius; Pfeifer Klaus; Kazén Miguel; Vogel Heiner; Faller Hermann. Endurance and avoidance response patterns in pain patients: Application of action control theory in pain research. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248875; article XML SHA-256 7925b5cdbdf5a03e1c36c24b9df1c6bcd350b0269c00c93567958ee053715896. “Endurance and avoidance response patterns in pain patients: Application of action control theory in pain research” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248875).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248875) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- status incongruence [redraft]: The definition’s framing as “a mismatch between expected status positions” is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text; the packet instead describes status incongruence via age difference in a supervisor–subordinate dyad (e.g., supervisor younger than subordinate) without using the “expected status positions” wording or equivalent concept.; The packet supports a younger supervisor/subordinate age-difference example, but it does not explicitly support the broader gloss that status incongruence is a general “mismatch between expected status positions” in a work relationship.; The packet supports links to age stereotyping and lower supervisory ratings on some employability measures, but it does not support the broader wording about an older worker’s employability as stated. New packet required. Source: [Scholarios Dora; Van der Heijden Beatrice. Supervisor-Subordinate Age Dissimilarity and Its Impact on Supervisory Ratings of Employability: Does Supportive Learning Context Make a Difference?. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.763746; article XML SHA-256 543f2fef3e71ca19811fa877f017d7cf60b58a68dc2d33e4a9c4bed015a2e8b2. “Supervisor-Subordinate Age Dissimilarity and Its Impact on Supervisory Ratings of Employability: Does Supportive Learning Context Make a Difference?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.763746).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.763746) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- stenosis [redraft]: Second sentence reports study findings on flow and viscosity rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Zhengyao Lei; Muhamad Nazri Muhammad Nor Ikmal; Basri Adi Azriff; Tamagawa Masaaki; Sagara Kaito; Khan Abdul Hanif Khan Yusof; Mohd Tohit Eusni Rahayu. Hemodynamic impact of blood viscosity in intracranial atherosclerotic arteries with varying stenosis severity: A non-newtonian computational fluid dynamics patient specific study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342713; article XML SHA-256 308e040fdbb9ec9e4923e1fe368478dd5778d63dae8e7a289d60f3116a39bd34. “Hemodynamic impact of blood viscosity in intracranial atherosclerotic arteries with varying stenosis severity: A non-newtonian computational fluid dynamics patient specific study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342713).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342713) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- stereotype [redraft]: Headword's normal sense is the social-cognitive stereotype; passage's incidental verb use is hedged 'in this historical source'. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc01tuke:chars-2499000-2511000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- steroid hormone [redraft]: Because the first substantive definition claim is unsupported, the overall definition does not meet the requirement that every substantive claim be supported by the packet.; The definition’s first claim (“A steroid hormone is a hormone in the group that includes estrogen (E2) and progesterone (P4)”) is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text, which only discusses E2 and P4 effects on sperm behavior and IVF fertilizing ability.; The packet does not define “steroid hormone” as a class that includes estrogen (E2) and progesterone (P4); it only reports findings about E2 and P4 as steroid-hormone supplementation in in vitro studies.; The second sentence is a study-result summary, not a dictionary definition of the term, and it introduces extra context (“across species,” “in vitro fertilization”) that is not part of the requested sense of the headword. New packet required. Source: [Sitali Muloongo C; Chelenga Madalitso. Modulation of sperm function by estrogen and progesterone using in vitro experiments: A systematic review. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330009; article XML SHA-256 f77d08b0f7bb26785f4b7f9cf69c651e1c19968c12bbfd8835730b75bc602d27. “Modulation of sperm function by estrogen and progesterone using in vitro experiments: A systematic review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330009).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330009) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Stigma Impact Scale [redraft]: The definition includes “feelings of being devalued,” but the packet only explicitly mentions nuances such as “feeling stupid,” “negative perceptions of others’ reactions,” and “altered relationships”; it does not support “being devalued.”; The phrase “feelings of being devalued” is not supported by the packet; the source mentions feeling stupid, negative perceptions of others’ reactions, and altered relationships instead.; While the packet supports that the Stigma Impact Scale was used as a questionnaire and that it related to perceived stigma in people with dementia/AD and involved negative reactions and altered relationships, the specific component “being devalued” is not supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Warren Alison. The relationship between perceived stigma and perceived stress in cognitive decline: a survey of persons with mild cognitive impairment and their caregivers. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1293284; article XML SHA-256 6cd42600fe4bb819a48b585f5bf54bc9d7c68ce9d2b62db40eb758df1320c7fc. “The relationship between perceived stigma and perceived stress in cognitive decline: a survey of persons with mild cognitive impairment and their caregivers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1293284).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1293284) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- stigma [redraft]: Packet does not explicitly define stigma as a “socially shaped negative attitude and behavior”; it only links values to influencing attitudes and behaviors that may inform the social functions of stigma.; Packet does not explicitly specify that stigma is “directed toward people with mental health problems,” though it refers to stigma related to individuals with mental health problems; the definition’s phrasing is not fully supported.; Packet only states that stigma related to individuals with mental health problems is a “relevant global public health issue,” but does not support the definition’s claim that stigma is a “widespread public health concern.”; The definition adds a broader general characterization of stigma that is not stated in the source packet; a citation-like match is not enough without explicit support.; The packet supports stigma as a public health issue related to mental health problems, and it notes that values and belief systems may influence attitudes and behaviors, but it does not define stigma as a socially shaped negative attitude and behavior directed toward people with mental health problems. New packet required. Source: [Kummetat Johanna Leona; Valerius Karsten; Jesse Hannah; Schomerus Georg; Speerforck Sven. Values, belief systems and mental health stigma – a scoping review and synthesis of quantitative evidence. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s12888-026-08112-y; article XML SHA-256 f39d995365432cf25f7e596e14356fd71fb38c85a9c767fb7467876539ec6b65. “Values, belief systems and mental health stigma – a scoping review and synthesis of quantitative evidence” (10.1186/s12888-026-08112-y).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-026-08112-y) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- stimulant use disorder [redraft]: The claim that the disorder may lead a person to seek psychosocial treatment such as CBT to become abstinent is not supported by the packet.; The definition claims that stimulant use disorder “may lead a person to seek psychosocial treatment,” but the packet only discusses CBT as an intervention for people with stimulant use disorders and does not describe a causal pathway to “seeking” treatment.; The definition frames the disorder as “involving the use of stimulant drugs,” while the packet refers to “stimulant use disorder (SUD)” without explicitly stating “use of stimulant drugs.”; The final sentence is meta-commentary about the packet rather than a dictionary definition, and it is not supported by the source text.; The packet does not define stimulant use disorder as a condition involving stimulant drug use; it only uses the term in the context of a study of CBT for SUD.; The statement “In this packet, it is the condition being treated rather than further defined” is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text (it is only implied by the review aiming to study CBT efficacy for SUD). New packet required. Source: [Kim Jongtae; Kwak Jaeseok; Jeong Hyunsuk; Kim Na Jin; Lee Seung-Yup; Kim Yangsik; Kim Jangrae; Han Sooyeon; Chun Hae-ryoung; Park Kyoung Jae; Lee Soo-Bi; Kim Gyeongmin; Lee Hae Kook; Yim Hyeon Woo. Efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy for stimulant use disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1695702; article XML SHA-256 9a1ab4d75309ace58d1a591d46a707c86cae7cf775670d11485655a67cea1498. “Efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy for stimulant use disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1695702).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1695702) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- stimulation [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly support the general claim that, “in this context, stimulation means applying an external method to influence brain activity.”; The packet supports transcranial magnetic stimulation as a non-invasive neuromodulation technique, but it does not define the general term "stimulation" as an external method to influence brain activity.; The phrase "provides focused stimulation of the brain" is tied in the packet to ExoTMS, not to transcranial magnetic stimulation in general, so the definition overgeneralizes the source.; While the packet states that transcranial magnetic stimulation is a non-invasive “neuromodulation” technique and discusses “focused brain stimulation,” it does not provide the requested broader definition of the term “stimulation” beyond that context. New packet required. Source: [Pánek David; Gerla Václav; Dees Michelle; Halaas Yael; McCoy JD; Cady Louis; Nanda Rakesh; Eberwein Rudolph; Johnston Henry; Tvrdik Nick; Nanos Georgine; Patel Charmi; Silva Melinda. Innovations in repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: a review of clinical evidence and patient-reported outcomes for ExoTMS. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1850212; article XML SHA-256 83e4fb1cbdd20e347ef44dd7e7904f1a2810bf7904181b8ecda8c08e68c69a4e. “Innovations in repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: a review of clinical evidence and patient-reported outcomes for ExoTMS” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1850212).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1850212) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- stimulus value [redraft]: Defines cardinal value, not stimulus value; attributes Kulpe's cardinal-value definition to the wrong headword. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Cardinal Point and Value” (Cardinal Point and Value).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Cardinal Point and Value) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- story model [redraft]: The definition treats “story model” broadly, while the packet only identifies “life story model of identity (LSMI)” as relevant; it does not support the more general term “story model” in the exact sense provided.; The packet does not explicitly define “story model” as a general framework for “understanding identity through the narrative of a person’s life.” It mentions a specific construct (“life story model of identity (LSMI)”) without stating the definitional phrasing used in the definition.; The packet supports a conceptual framework for narrative identity reconstruction in recovery, but it does not define the term “story model” as a framework for understanding identity through the narrative of a person’s life.; The packet’s relevant named construct is the “life story model of identity (LSMI),” not “story model,” so the definition may be using the wrong sense or an unsupported synonym.; “Used to guide” is too strong: the packet says the framework can be operationalized in a narrative coaching treatment approach using a boardgame, not that the model itself is used to guide recovery as stated. New packet required. Source: [Kerr Douglas J. R.; Deane Frank P.; Crowe Trevor P.. Narrative Identity Reconstruction as Adaptive Growth During Mental Health Recovery: A Narrative Coaching Boardgame Approach. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00994; article XML SHA-256 01a4500962f05030e92289ea4897676650d864182d2b30df1b4ec1faf8ed5389. “Narrative Identity Reconstruction as Adaptive Growth During Mental Health Recovery: A Narrative Coaching Boardgame Approach” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00994).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00994) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- STP [redraft]: The definition adds a specific claim about the angle being examined because it influences vibration and noise; while the packet says STP angle and tooth profile error can affect vibrations and noises, it does not support the broader wording about 'the source' presenting STP as a gear-design feature in general.; The definition’s core expansion, 'staggered tooth phase,' is only partly supported; the packet uses 'staggered tooth phase' but does not support the fuller explanatory phrasing as a formal definition of the acronym.; The provided source packet describes a mechanical/engineering topic (herringbone planetary gear transmission dynamics, mesh stiffness, vibration/noise), not cognition; using the term in a “cognition” field is not supported by the packet.; Wrong sense/field: the packet defines STP in the context of herringbone planetary gear transmission, not cognition or psychology. New packet required. Source: [Hou Shaoshuai; Ye Haichao; Zhu Derong; Zhang Shijie; Li Jingjing; Xia Ming; He Sicheng. Investigation on dynamic characteristics of herringbone planetary gear transmission system with staggered tooth phase. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0354177; article XML SHA-256 683f33443c1257cc5f0c6fdc1e67f487065a7353fc315892c299b0106d36301f. “Investigation on dynamic characteristics of herringbone planetary gear transmission system with staggered tooth phase” (10.1371/journal.pone.0354177).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0354177) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- straight [redraft]: The definition adds an inferred generalization that goes beyond the source wording.; The definition’s substantive claims (comparison-group use and the specific meaning “non-bisexual, non-lesbian sexual orientation”) are not supported anywhere in the supplied packet excerpt.; The packet only supports that straight women are used as a comparison group alongside lesbian women in relation to bisexual+ women; it does not explicitly define straight as meaning women with a non-bisexual, non-lesbian sexual orientation.; The provided packet text does not include any definition or explanation of the term “straight,” nor does it state that it is used as a comparison group against bisexual+ and lesbian women. New packet required. Source: [Harrison Aster; Mirza Mansha. “It’s probably like a web”: complex relationships between pain and mental health among bisexual+ women with chronic pain. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1811843; article XML SHA-256 72ab7f1f5ea85b7924b783465a68b041353cc845239dc0dc9c5b44b011b3236c. ““It’s probably like a web”: complex relationships between pain and mental health among bisexual+ women with chronic pain” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1811843).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1811843) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- strategy [redraft]: Hedges with 'in this context' to narrow the general headword strategy to coping strategy. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Depression. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 5e865d35b1103be91b52db38911aadcdf861e23a0de4e1b3e1eeb01399b987b8. “Depression” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/depression) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- stratification [redraft]: The definition adds a general explanation of stratification as grouping people by risk, but the packet does not define stratification that way.; The definition’s statement that the term “refers specifically to risk stratification used to help optimize treatment” is only indirectly supported (via the packet’s phrase “risk stratification and treatment optimization”) and does not establish the broader/primary definition given in the first sentence.; The packet content is about acute kidney injury in critically ill patients, not mental health. The definition’s framing as “field: mental health” is therefore not supported by the supplied packet.; The packet does not support the general claim that “stratification is the process of grouping people by their level of risk so care can be planned more appropriately.” The only relevant text mentions “risk stratification” in the context of AKI treatment optimization, without defining stratification as a grouping process.; The packet only shows "risk stratification" in the context of critically ill patients with acute kidney injury; it does not support a mental health definition or the broader claim about planning care more appropriately.; The packet supports treatment optimization, but not the asserted specific sense that stratification here refers to optimizing treatment in mental health care. New packet required. Source: [Liang Chengshu; Wang Kai. Endothelial activation and stress index in risk stratification and treatment optimization for critically ill patients with acute kidney injury: A retrospective cohort study from MIMIC-Ⅳ database. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0348678; article XML SHA-256 59acdff43fe3f27c710959c931158b75bc562b1e907b3a9f11f07748a97e3931. “Endothelial activation and stress index in risk stratification and treatment optimization for critically ill patients with acute kidney injury: A retrospective cohort study from MIMIC-Ⅳ database” (10.1371/journal.pone.0348678).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0348678) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- streaming media [redraft]: The definition adds a broader psychological/general-media characterization that is not stated in the source packet and goes beyond the supplied evidence.; The definition says streaming media “deliver event content through internet-based and mobile communication systems,” but the packet only mentions “5G mobile communication technology” and “LSES platforms” generally, without clearly stating that streaming media specifically deliver “event content” via internet/mobile communication systems.; The definition’s psychological claim (“quality of streamed events can influence audience attention and arousal…”) is directionally supported by the packet’s statement about the intermediary mechanism of “arousal and attention” and the need to provide “high-quality events,” but because the first sentence contains an unsupported substantive characterization, the definition cannot be fully passed.; The packet supports only a narrow point about streaming media platforms needing high-quality events to keep audiences excited, attention, and arousal; it does not support a general definition of streaming media as media platforms that deliver event content through internet-based and mobile communication systems. New packet required. Source: [Wu Yannian; Yim Brian H.; Lu Chaoyun; Mao Luke; Zhang James J.. Can signal delay and advertising lead to profit? A study on sporting. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1028117; article XML SHA-256 318f7f4432830f1c49f840262d442aa83965932c59bc5d66835f290dd1406255. “Can signal delay and advertising lead to profit? A study on sporting” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1028117).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1028117) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- streaming [redraft]: The added explanation that streaming “refers to live social media content that may show someone’s current behavior in real time” goes beyond the packet and is not supported by it.; The definition’s claim that streaming “may show someone’s current behavior in real time” is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text.; The packet mentions “messages or live streaming content” but does not define what “streaming” means (e.g., broadcasting live online, real-time viewing).; The packet only uses “live streaming content” in the context of reporting possible suicidal behavior on social media; it does not support a general dictionary sense of streaming as live-broadcast online content.; The requested field is learning, but the source context is a suicide-prevention FAQ, so the definition is not defensibly grounded in the supplied psychology/learning context. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Frequently Asked Questions About Suicide. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 29868bb49faa6d8f7659d3ea129e40c16977f6f054235814c676989de872e2c3. “Frequently Asked Questions About Suicide” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/suicide-faq).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/suicide-faq) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- stress-induced analgesia [redraft]: Because the first sentence’s general claim is not directly supported by the provided packet text, the definition as a whole is not fully defensible against the source.; The packet does not explicitly state a general definition that stress-induced analgesia is “a reduction in pain sensitivity that occurs in response to stress”; it only refers to “swim stress-induced analgesia” and animal lines with different analgesia responses without giving that general phrasing.; The packet supports only that the term is used for high and low swim stress-induced analgesia lines in mice; it does not support the broader general definition of a reduction in pain sensitivity in response to stress.; The phrase 'in this source, it refers specifically to differences in how strongly mice showed pain reduction after swim stress' is a reasonable paraphrase, but the definition should not present an unsupported general meaning as though it were established by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Lisowski Pawel; Juszczak Grzegorz R; Goscik Joanna; Stankiewicz Adrian M; Wieczorek Marek; Zwierzchowski Lech; Swiergiel Artur H. Stress susceptibility-specific phenotype associated with different hippocampal transcriptomic responses to chronic tricyclic antidepressant treatment in mice. 2013; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-14-144; article XML SHA-256 b62eda460846113782ce2937cca1b6f9e06b396d29e9787bfb1e65126069feb3. “Stress susceptibility-specific phenotype associated with different hippocampal transcriptomic responses to chronic tricyclic antidepressant treatment in mice” (10.1186/1471-2202-14-144).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-14-144) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- stress–vulnerability model [redraft]: The definition adds a broader explanatory account than the source packet provides, so it overgeneralizes beyond the supplied evidence.; The definition’s claims that "some factors may increase a person's vulnerability" and that "positive experiences may help protect" are not directly stated in the provided packet prose (only ACE↔adolescent mental health associations and PCE moderating/protective function are mentioned).; The packet only shows that the study was guided by the stress-vulnerability model and examined associations between ACEs/PCEs and adolescent mental health; it does not support the broader generalized definition of the model as a general framework for how stressful experiences lead to later mental health problems.; The packet text only states that the study is "Guided by the stress-vulnerability model" and examines associations between adverse childhood experiences and adolescent mental health, plus a "moderating role" of positive childhood experiences; it does not explicitly describe the model as being about how stressful experiences lead to later mental health problems in general terms.; The statement that the model says some factors increase vulnerability is not supported by the packet’s wording; the packet mentions rumination, psychological resilience, and the moderating role of PCEs, but does not define these as vulnerability factors. New packet required. Source: [Li Yulong; Cao Yanting; Liao Lingying; Li Qing; Chen Xiaoli. Adverse and positive childhood experiences in relation to adolescent mental health: sequential indirect associations. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1799835; article XML SHA-256 5041a70709eb2e987858eb3f502e68533108509ec5c9ffe0740d3965a0da4fbe. “Adverse and positive childhood experiences in relation to adolescent mental health: sequential indirect associations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1799835).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1799835) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- stria vascularis [redraft]: Adds 'inner ear' not in packet and the second sentence reports study findings rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Kim Hyoung-Mi; Wangemann Philine. Epithelial Cell Stretching and Luminal Acidification Lead to a Retarded Development of Stria Vascularis and Deafness in Mice Lacking Pendrin. 2011; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0017949; article XML SHA-256 6b6aa489bc76be9edf66b1c2886d5aca358be46eae2e41833989bc181a0b85de. “Epithelial Cell Stretching and Luminal Acidification Lead to a Retarded Development of Stria Vascularis and Deafness in Mice Lacking Pendrin” (10.1371/journal.pone.0017949).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0017949) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- structure [redraft]: General headword structure is narrowed to brain structure via a context hedge. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Bipolar Disorder in Children and Teens. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0efc8ed70ccbb4dbf61d1606b9718eb7a26d1ec80d6bdf3718206b4ad79262dc. “Bipolar Disorder in Children and Teens” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder-in-children-and-teens).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder-in-children-and-teens) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- student counseling [redraft]: The definition presents student counseling as a general form of support for students; the packet only mentions it as one recommended intervention in school-based programs, not as a full definitional description.; The definition’s phrasing “to help with mental health concerns such as stress and related emotional difficulties” is only partially supported: the packet mentions stress management, but it does not explicitly mention “related emotional difficulties.”; The packet does not define “student counseling” or describe what it involves as “support offered to students” beyond stating that school-based programs should “offer interventions such as stress management and student counseling.”; The packet supports student counseling as a school-based intervention, but it does not explicitly support the added gloss “related emotional difficulties.”; The packet supports the general idea that school-based programs should address adolescent mental health (and mentions “positive parenting practices” and “school-based programs”), but the definition’s claim that student counseling is “presented as part of school efforts to improve adolescent mental health outcomes” is not stated with that exact characterization. New packet required. Source: [Khadka Rabina; Bhatt Anjali; Thapa Milan; Sharma Anusha; Joshi Manoj; Mishra Durga Khadka. Relationship of parenting styles on depression, anxiety, stress and self-esteem of adolescents. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332854; article XML SHA-256 b2438aa259ce20d17d91bc1e05da8837145fabf1213b2df5fe7ca594533597b6. “Relationship of parenting styles on depression, anxiety, stress and self-esteem of adolescents” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332854).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332854) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Study of Values [redraft]: Capitalized Study of Values is a well-known instrument; packet discusses the general scientific study of values instead. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4620000-4632000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- subconscious [redraft]: The definition includes a conceptual framing (mental processing/control without active focus) that is not stated or substantiated anywhere in the provided packet.; The packet does not define “subconscious” as “mental processing or control that happens without a person actively focusing on it.” It only mentions the theme “Posture being conscious or subconscious.”; The packet does not support the examples/claims that “posture may operate either consciously or more automatically outside immediate awareness.” It reports participants’ beliefs about posture being conscious vs subconscious, without describing subconscious as automatic mental processing or control.; The packet only reports dancers’ beliefs/theme labels about posture being “conscious or subconscious”; it does not support a general dictionary sense of subconscious as mental processing or control without active focus.; The statement that posture may operate “outside immediate awareness” is an unsupported extrapolation from a qualitative study of dancers’ perspectives, not a sourced definition or current consensus. New packet required. Source: [Guo Andi; Zhang Xiao; Hagins Marshall; Liederbach Marijeanne; Hodges Paul W.. Professional dancers’ beliefs and conceptualisations of their posture and movement: A qualitative research study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0339568; article XML SHA-256 34cb30c0ec42c674b0a7fa18f1fe8c2f2b542a78f10fb11b7cbcd34115bca2b0. “Professional dancers’ beliefs and conceptualisations of their posture and movement: A qualitative research study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0339568).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339568) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- subcortical aphasia [redraft]: The claim that dyslalia means a disorder centered more narrowly on spoken speech output than on language processes in general is not supported by the packet and adds an unsupported interpretation.; The packet links subcortical/transcortical/cortical categories to dyslogia/dysphasia and mentions “dyslalia” in connection with this classification, but it does not define dyslalia as “a disorder centered more narrowly on spoken speech output than on language processes in general,” nor provide that comparison.; The packet supports that subcortical, cortical, and transcortical aphasia are distinguished in a historical classification, and that subcortical corresponds to dyslalia.; The packet supports that there is a classification distinguishing “cortical” from “subcortical” aphasia and discusses “transcortical” aphasia as a related controversy, but it does not clearly state that “subcortical aphasia is a form distinguished from cortical and transcortical aphasia” in the way the definition phrases it. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3244500-3256500).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- subcortical center [redraft]: Other substantive parts (that, in this packet, the term refers to the amygdala and that it is involved in emotion perception) are supported, but the unsupported “important processing role” prevents a pass.; The definition adds a specific claim about the amygdala being the referent of the term in this packet, but the packet does not define the term that broadly; it only uses that phrase in describing the amygdala's role in emotion perception.; The definition adds that a subcortical center “serves an important processing role,” which is not directly stated in the packet (the packet specifies the amygdala as a “subcortical center for emotion perception,” but does not support the broader claim of an “important processing role”).; The packet supports only that the amygdala is described as “a subcortical center for emotion perception,” not a general definition of any subcortical center as a brain area below the cerebral cortex with an important processing role. New packet required. Source: [Liebenthal Einat; Silbersweig David A.; Stern Emily. The Language, Tone and Prosody of Emotions: Neural Substrates and Dynamics of Spoken-Word Emotion Perception. 2016; DOI 10.3389/fnins.2016.00506; article XML SHA-256 0ff1e86da3bbdc8359852e45d0b7d2943c91162fb2d72c0859301b9d8c92898a. “The Language, Tone and Prosody of Emotions: Neural Substrates and Dynamics of Spoken-Word Emotion Perception” (10.3389/fnins.2016.00506).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00506) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- subcortical [redraft]: The added specificity about subcortical circuits carrying and regulating sensory information goes beyond the packet’s wording and is not directly supported as the sense of the term.; The claim that subcortical circuits “carry and regulate sensory information” is not explicitly stated as “below-cortex” subcortical structures, though the packet does mention sensory processing depending on interactions between cortical and subcortical circuits.; The packet does not explicitly state that “subcortical” structures are located below the cerebral cortex; it only contrasts “cortical and subcortical networks.”; The packet supports interactions between cortical and subcortical networks and circuits that convey and regulate information, but it does not define subcortical as being located below the cerebral cortex. New packet required. Source: [O’Connell M N; Barczak A; Mackey C A; McGinnis T; Mackin K; Smiley J F; Bleiwas C; Lakatos P; Schroeder C E. Spectrotemporal signatures of driving- and modulatory circuits across cortical and subcortical networks. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1868940; article XML SHA-256 cdd9ae8cfc8d0280ce64bc5ac163d60d3d93283b9306cd5e1f9ff6655fc8620d. “Spectrotemporal signatures of driving- and modulatory circuits across cortical and subcortical networks” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1868940).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1868940) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- subcutaneous injection [redraft]: The comparative claims about less clinic time and lower healthcare-system costs are about the study’s findings for one intervention and are not appropriate as the definition of the term.; The definition shifts the term from the administration route (“subcutaneous injection”) to a specific fixed-dose cancer regimen, which is not the requested sense of the term.; The definition states a general meaning of “subcutaneous injection” as “a method of giving a treatment by injection instead of through separate intravenous doses,” but the packet does not provide that general definitional wording; it only discusses a specific fixed-dose combination given as a subcutaneous injection versus separate intravenous doses for the studied drug.; The definition’s general contrast (“instead of through separate intravenous doses”) is only evidenced in the context of pertuzumab/trastuzumab in metastatic HER2-positive breast cancer patients, not as a general definition of the term itself.; The first sentence is therefore not fully supported by the packet’s content, even though the second sentence (fixed-dose combined cancer treatment; less clinic time; lower costs in the EsSalud context) is supported.; The packet supports a particular pertuzumab/trastuzumab subcutaneous formulation being compared with intravenous administration, but not the claim that the term itself refers to that combined treatment. New packet required. Source: [Figallo Miguel; Delgado María F; Gonzalez Mauricio; Arenas Adrián. Cost minimization analysis of treatments for metastatic HER2-positive breast cancer in Peru: Fixed-dose combination of pertuzumab and trastuzumab for subcutaneous injections. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0295730; article XML SHA-256 f646e483e831535ef9667eedcd4e977cdf5d83e83b7e80feadd4a1cc9713214a. “Cost minimization analysis of treatments for metastatic HER2-positive breast cancer in Peru: Fixed-dose combination of pertuzumab and trastuzumab for subcutaneous injections” (10.1371/journal.pone.0295730).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295730) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- subjection [redraft]: Second sentence says 'The packet supports it as', which is reviewer commentary, not a definition. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “High Treason” (High).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/H3defs.htm#High) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- subjective expected utility [redraft]: The definition adds a broader interpretive gloss about how choice works that goes beyond the supplied source text.; The definition claims that people “choose according to what they believe will be most worthwhile or beneficial,” but the packet only states that subjective expected utility (SEU) is “based on individual preferences and subjective perceptions” and does not support this “most worthwhile or beneficial” framing.; The phrase "what they believe will be most worthwhile or beneficial" is not supported by the packet; the source only says SEU is based on individual preferences and subjective perceptions. New packet required. Source: [Weyer Johannes; Hoffmann Sebastian. Bridging the attitude-behaviour gap: An explanation of travel mode choice using analytical sociology. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330073; article XML SHA-256 d016c7567fabb1201dadbb2d7122dd53cdb383c419e1d9c622a32718e550565f. “Bridging the attitude-behaviour gap: An explanation of travel mode choice using analytical sociology” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330073).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330073) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- subjective test [redraft]: The definition generalizes “subjective test” as any evaluation based on people’s judgments or perceptions, but the packet only supports a specific use of a subjective test to compare inconsistent results between PCA and SPCA in this article.; The packet does not define what a “subjective test” is in terms of “people’s judgments or perceptions.”; The packet does not support the claim that a subjective test is used “rather than only on a mathematical or computer-based measure.”; The wording about a mathematical or computer-based measure is not stated in the packet and adds unsupported contrast beyond the source text.; While the packet says the authors “performed a subjective test” to compare PCA vs SPCA and that it indicated SPCA was superior, it does not explicitly describe the subjective test’s basis or its contrast with mathematical/computer-based measures. New packet required. Source: [Zhao Junli; Duan Fuqing; Pan Zhenkuan; Wu Zhongke; Li Jinhua; Deng Qingqiong; Li Xiaona; Zhou Mingquan. Craniofacial similarity analysis through sparse principal component analysis. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0179671; article XML SHA-256 cf7113a7c7a5cd0d4a26ea99181237b7f0326fcd8fdc8290876e4accb2501f0c. “Craniofacial similarity analysis through sparse principal component analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0179671).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179671) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- subjective visual field [redraft]: Wrong parse: packet's 'subjective visual field phenotyping' is agricultural field rating, not a visual-field term. New packet required. Source: [Rairdin Ashlyn; Fotouhi Fateme; Zhang Jiaoping; Mueller Daren S.; Ganapathysubramanian Baskar; Singh Asheesh K.; Dutta Somak; Sarkar Soumik; Singh Arti. Deep learning-based phenotyping for genome wide association studies of sudden death syndrome in soybean. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpls.2022.966244; article XML SHA-256 e9b3a5e6b61dde4eab45cd40d475b606197782b20148737275609c752f37a2dd. “Deep learning-based phenotyping for genome wide association studies of sudden death syndrome in soybean” (10.3389/fpls.2022.966244).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.966244) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- subjective well-being [redraft]: The definition additionally links the term to “factors such as … depression, interpersonal sensitivity, and family emotion,” but the packet does not support the wording that these are the particular illustrative factors ‘such as’ (it lists more factors as well).; The packet does not define subjective well-being as a person’s own reported sense of overall well-being; it only shows the term as a research topic and as an outcome measured in a student study.; The packet does not define subjective well-being as a “person’s own reported sense of overall well-being,” nor does it explicitly state the measurement is self-reported in those terms.; The packet does not explicitly claim subjective well-being “can vary across people”; it only discusses findings within a specific university-student sample.; The statement that subjective well-being varies across people and is influenced by depression, interpersonal sensitivity, and family emotion is only supported for this specific university-student sample, not as a general definition of the term.; While the packet supports that depression and interpersonal sensitivity are significant influencing factors, and that family emotion has a significant impact, the additional framing about reported overall well-being and variability across people is not substantiated by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Yunkun; Amran Muhammad Syawal; Husnin Hazrati; Yin Lanlan. A study on the factors influencing university students’ subjective well-being based on machine learning methods. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04415-7; article XML SHA-256 8b0f35de69b798d595c41c59c486e00dc64ce8635bd06f5aada99e794604efde. “A study on the factors influencing university students’ subjective well-being based on machine learning methods” (10.1186/s40359-026-04415-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04415-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- subjective [redraft]: The claim that the assessment “can therefore be influenced by context” is too specific for the packet; it mentions the multidimensional and context-dependent nature of executive functions, but not that subjective assessment itself is influenced by context.; The definition’s explanation that it “reflects an individual’s or observer’s perspective and can therefore be influenced by context” is not supported verbatim or with equivalent specificity in the packet.; The definition’s specific claims about being “based on personal judgment or self-report,” and “rather than direct behavioral testing or biological measurement,” are not explicitly supported by the provided text.; The packet does not define what “subjective” means (e.g., personal judgment/self-report) in learning or executive-function assessment terms; it only mentions “subjective” as a category/consideration (e.g., limitations related to subjectivity, and integrating subjective measures).; The packet supports that subjectivity is a limitation/feature of some executive-function assessment methods, but it does not define “subjective” as information based on personal judgment or self-report, nor contrast it explicitly with direct behavioral testing or biological measurement.; The wording goes beyond the supplied source by presenting a general definition of the term rather than the narrower assessment-method sense evidenced in the article. New packet required. Source: [Pitta Athina. Executive functions in research and practice: a multimethod review of behavioral, subjective, and neurobiological assessment tools. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1713652; article XML SHA-256 2453e9bfb08d5a0281b7d087e05b9c66bab6a09838d233addc0c68f23c30fe1e. “Executive functions in research and practice: a multimethod review of behavioral, subjective, and neurobiological assessment tools” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1713652).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1713652) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- subordinate clause [redraft]: The claim that the subordinate clause “is the part of the sentence that carries context before the action verb” is not explicitly stated in the packet as a definition of what a subordinate clause is; it only describes how the authors structured their sentences (e.g., action verb as the last word of the subordinate clause).; The definition adds a broad grammatical explanation that is not explicitly supported by the source text, which is about the placement of the verb and contextual timing in an experiment, not a full dictionary definition.; The definition’s specific description about the “verb placed as the last word of that clause” is supported by the packet, but by itself it does not meet the packet-supported requirement for a complete 1–3 sentence definition.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “subordinate clause” (i.e., that it is “a clause used within a larger sentence”). It only mentions a subordinate clause as a structural element in their sentence design.; The packet only shows one sentence structure where the action verb is the last word in a subordinate clause; it does not define a subordinate clause generally as a clause used within a larger sentence. New packet required. Source: [Schuil Karen D. I.; Smits Marion; Zwaan Rolf A.. Sentential Context Modulates the Involvement of the Motor Cortex in Action Language Processing: An fMRI Study. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00100; article XML SHA-256 9f584b6c27cc68843b687fa4d9fb8f2184c755b5a30fbf3971ae0f238f205c4b. “Sentential Context Modulates the Involvement of the Motor Cortex in Action Language Processing: An fMRI Study” (10.3389/fnhum.2013.00100).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00100) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- subscale [redraft]: Because the definition includes “distinct part” and “produces its own score,” and the packet does not clearly provide those general mechanics (beyond naming the ES as a subscale of RPI), the definition contains at least one substantive claim not directly supported by the provided text.; The claim that a subscale produces its own score within the overall instrument is not supported in the packet.; The packet supports that the environmental suppressors (ES) subscale is a subscale of the Reward Probability Index, but it does not support the general claim that a subscale is a part of any questionnaire or rating scale.; The packet supports that the “ES subscale” is a component of the Reward Probability Index (RPI) used to measure environmental adversity, but it does not explicitly state that a subscale “produces its own score within the overall instrument.”; The statement that a subscale measures one specific aspect of a broader construct is not established as a general definition by the packet; the packet only describes this one ES subscale as an assay of environmental adversity. New packet required. Source: [Magner-Parsons Bella; Hogarth Lee. Cumulative social adversity as a correlate of self harm: Validity of the Reward Probability Index. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326682; article XML SHA-256 76cf847e1d7be28311f7a1fe65691c6c4dd5d2f82537538e744798e3f37a1401. “Cumulative social adversity as a correlate of self harm: Validity of the Reward Probability Index” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326682).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326682) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- substitutes for leadership theory [redraft]: The claim about task interdependence substituting for leader humility through team voice climate is a study result, not support for the broader definitional statement, and the wording adds an unsupported generalization about work situations and outcomes.; The first sentence defines “substitutes for leadership theory” as a general idea about features of a work situation replacing or reducing a leader’s effect on outcomes, but the packet only mentions the framework by name and reports a specific finding; it does not provide that general definition.; The packet does not define substitutes for leadership theory as a general idea that features of a work situation can replace or reduce a leader’s effect on outcomes; it only reports one study using the theory.; The second sentence’s specific claim about task interdependence substituting the effect of leader humility on team innovation through team voice climate is supported by the packet, but the overall definition includes an unsupported generalization. New packet required. Source: [Liu Wenxing; Mao Jianghua; Chen Xiao. Leader Humility and Team Innovation: Investigating the Substituting Role of Task Interdependence and the Mediating Role of Team Voice Climate. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01115; article XML SHA-256 2ecdc961ebe3a3898938d6cd769d19dc1027cef99ce7b181354543cd0bfa2678. “Leader Humility and Team Innovation: Investigating the Substituting Role of Task Interdependence and the Mediating Role of Team Voice Climate” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01115).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01115) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- substitution hypothesis [redraft]: The packet characterizes the substitution hypothesis in terms of predicted (negative) associations with leisure reading and/or interaction with a parent, but it does not support describing these activities as “beneficial” or stating that TV viewing “displaces” them.; The packet says the study examines processes mediating the relationship between TV viewing and reading achievement; it does not explicitly support the added claim that the substitution hypothesis itself explains poorer reading achievement.; The packet supports a prediction of negative associations between earlier TV viewing and later leisure reading or parent interaction, but it does not state that these activities are “beneficial” or frame the hypothesis as a general displacement theory. New packet required. Source: [Supper Wilfried; Guay Frédéric; Talbot Denis. The Relation Between Television Viewing Time and Reading Achievement in Elementary School Children: A Test of Substitution and Inhibition Hypotheses. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.580763; article XML SHA-256 535ab52a43f3e1348af0a894c52243b5cc1a7b4c6edead51d15902dd19305c3e. “The Relation Between Television Viewing Time and Reading Achievement in Elementary School Children: A Test of Substitution and Inhibition Hypotheses” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.580763).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.580763) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- substitution test [redraft]: Hedges with 'In this packet' and describes how the DSST was used rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Ge Liang; Guo Yapeng; Xu Xiangjun; Xu Junfeng; Hu Menghan. Association between hemoglobin glycation index and cognitive function: Evidence in the elderly. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338613; article XML SHA-256 3085eaaf07970013106fde592e276a54510c0eb713825fcdc653a871749d57bc. “Association between hemoglobin glycation index and cognitive function: Evidence in the elderly” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338613).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338613) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- substitution [redraft]: General headword substitution is narrowed to sensory substitution via a research-context hedge. New packet required. Source: [Bilal Saroosh; Bongers Raoul M; Jacobs David M. Specificity and flexibility in sensory substitution: learning to grasp with vibration on one or two fingers. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1674806; article XML SHA-256 4cb935b4d59d8959b460deb8756820c1104f23df05564d64a27240e03cf98e10. “Specificity and flexibility in sensory substitution: learning to grasp with vibration on one or two fingers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1674806).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1674806) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- subtest [redraft]: The definition adds a general claim about what a subtest is (“one part of a larger assessment”) that is not stated in the packet.; The definition’s general claim that “A subtest is one part of a larger assessment” is not supported by the provided packet text, which only describes a specific subtest within the Wechsler Memory Scale.; The packet supports a specific WMS-IV Logical Memory I subtest description, but the definition should not extend beyond that unsupported generalization. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Logical Memory I Subtest (WMS-IV)” (C120342).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- subthreshold potential [redraft]: Because one substantive part of the definition is not explicitly supported by the provided packet, the definition as a whole does not meet the requirement for complete support.; The claim that “its mean value is used as a measure that is sensitive to both excitatory and inhibitory synaptic input” is supported by the packet (synaptic conductances are estimated from “spike amplitude and the mean subthreshold potential,” which are described as sensitive to both excitatory and inhibitory synaptic input), but this does not rescue the unsupported first sentence.; The definition adds a general explanatory claim that is not stated in the source; the source only mentions mean subthreshold potential as a feature of artificially evoked probe spikes used for conductance estimation.; The definition states: “Subthreshold potential is the neuron's membrane voltage during periods below the evoked spike.” The packet mentions “mean subthreshold potential” as a parameter but does not explicitly define subthreshold potential as membrane voltage during periods below an evoked spike.; The packet supports that the mean subthreshold potential is used as a measure sensitive to both excitatory and inhibitory synaptic input, but it does not define subthreshold potential as the neuron's membrane voltage during periods below the evoked spike. New packet required. Source: [Chizhov Anton V.; Malinina Evgenya; Druzin Michael; Graham Lyle J.; Johansson Staffan. Firing clamp: a novel method for single-trial estimation of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic neuronal conductances. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fncel.2014.00086; article XML SHA-256 52c72e180b2e083d6563dc50fca2ef723e1ea209d07e7021176b6963c41e5c49. “Firing clamp: a novel method for single-trial estimation of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic neuronal conductances” (10.3389/fncel.2014.00086).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2014.00086) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- subtype [redraft]: The definition’s general statement (“A subtype is a more specific form of a broader condition or category”) is not stated or defined anywhere in the provided packet text.; The only supported part from the packet is that PANDAS is a subtype of PANS specifically associated with streptococcal infection; the rest of the definition relies on an unsupported general definition of “subtype.”; The packet supports the example that PANDAS is a subtype of PANS, but it does not explicitly support the general definitional claim that a subtype is 'a more specific form of a broader condition or category.' New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. PANS and PANDAS: Questions and Answers. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 492b8d282e63ff7c47c9c126c6ee286e5bcb517442c5e4a8f3a668f35e391832. “PANS and PANDAS: Questions and Answers” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- successive discrimination [redraft]: It presents the task as a general human measure of response control, attentional control, and behavioral inhibition without making clear that the packet describes it as a modified Go/No-go assay used in Huntington’s disease mouse models.; The definition generalizes to “someone” (implying applicability to humans in general), while the packet only describes the task in mouse models of Huntington’s disease.; The definition shifts the test from the mouse models described in the packet to “someone,” which is unsupported and changes the subject of measurement.; The packet supports that the Go/No-go successive discrimination task assesses response inhibition/attentional and/or behavioral inhibition processes, but it does not explicitly define “successive discrimination” as a standalone construct outside of this specific task context.; “Simple visual Go/No-go discrimination task” is broadly consistent with the article title, but the rest of the definition adds unsupported generalization about what the task measures in people. New packet required. Source: [Oakeshott Stephen; Farrar Andrew; Port Russell; Cummins-Sutphen Jane; Berger Jason; Watson-Johnson Judy; Ramboz Sylvie; Howland David; Brunner Dani. Deficits in a Simple Visual Go/No-go Discrimination Task in Two Mouse Models of Huntington’s Disease. 2013; DOI 10.1371/currents.hd.fe74c94bdd446a0470f6f905a30b5dd1; article XML SHA-256 df7bc93a2012d164680a2c3544809459664f969ad7667a57c791e845e7c982c4. “Deficits in a Simple Visual Go/No-go Discrimination Task in Two Mouse Models of Huntington’s Disease” (10.1371/currents.hd.fe74c94bdd446a0470f6f905a30b5dd1).](https://doi.org/10.1371/currents.hd.fe74c94bdd446a0470f6f905a30b5dd1) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- suggestibility [redraft]: The definition adds a general explanatory gloss that is not stated in the source packet; the packet only mentions hypnotic suggestibility in the context of a study, not a broader dictionary definition.; The packet excerpt does not explicitly define “suggestibility” as the “degree to which a person is responsive to suggestions.”; The packet supports that hypnosis is associated with increased suggestibility and that suggestibility can vary, but it does not define suggestibility as “the degree to which a person is responsive to suggestions.”; While the packet states that hypnosis involves “increased suggestibility” and that there are “hypnotic suggestibility levels” varying among individuals, the definition’s general statement about responsiveness to suggestions is not directly supported by the provided packet text. New packet required. Source: [Kuculmez Ozlem; Dundar Ahi Emine; Ozbek Ilhan Celil; Afsar Sevgi Ikbali. Attitudes and behaviors toward hypnosis and hypnotic susceptibility in physiotherapy patients: a cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766305; article XML SHA-256 83a058a97a5434f894e43ac24951815114f224dc649c87b352dac3d5e3df1ebf. “Attitudes and behaviors toward hypnosis and hypnotic susceptibility in physiotherapy patients: a cross-sectional study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766305).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1766305) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- suicidal crisis [redraft]: The claim that the source describes a suicidal crisis as a reason someone might seek free, confidential crisis help is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied text.; The packet does not define “suicidal crisis” as a “state of acute distress” or as involving “suicide-related thoughts or danger.”; The packet does not support the claim that “immediate support may be needed.”; The packet only supports that the Lifeline provides “free and confidential support” to people “in suicidal crisis or emotional distress,” not the rest of the definition’s phrasing or criteria.; The packet supports that the Lifeline provides free, confidential support to people in suicidal crisis or emotional distress, but it does not define a suicidal crisis as a state of acute distress involving suicide-related thoughts or danger. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Frequently Asked Questions About Suicide. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 29868bb49faa6d8f7659d3ea129e40c16977f6f054235814c676989de872e2c3. “Frequently Asked Questions About Suicide” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/suicide-faq).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/suicide-faq) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- suicidality [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define suicidality as “suicide-related thinking and behaviour”; it mentions outcomes such as “suicidal ideation” and “suicide attempts” and discusses associations/progression, but the phrase “thinking and behaviour” is not directly supported as a definitional characterization.; The second sentence overgeneralizes the source: the packet discusses suicidality in relation to feeding and eating disorders, self-harm, and progression to suicidality, not as a general feature that occurs alongside other mental health problems.; The wording "form of risk or progression" is not directly supported as a definition of suicidality in the packet; the source only notes associations, screening importance, and a model for progression to suicidality. New packet required. Source: [Baluja Anoushka; Webb Roger T. An umbrella review synthesising published systematic review evidence for self-harm and suicidality among patients diagnosed with an eating or feeding disorder. 2026; DOI 10.1186/s40359-026-04609-z; article XML SHA-256 2a99e6435899092ce9f627cd9a499a46dc4c1bef337a6519ce97a3df7a3e66a5. “An umbrella review synthesising published systematic review evidence for self-harm and suicidality among patients diagnosed with an eating or feeding disorder” (10.1186/s40359-026-04609-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-04609-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sum of squares [redraft]: Packet defines only error sum of squares; definition equates the general term with SSE in regression. New packet required. Source: [Online Statistics Education, version 2 (David M. Lane, project leader). Version 2; publisher statement snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0dcad9ee85f61f9e2bb24d26279de155ac749164ea4da2a3bffeabcf9ea471a6. “Sum of Squares Error” (sse.html).](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/glossary/sse.html) ([public-domain-US](https://onlinestatbook.com/2/index.html))

- superconducting quantum interference device [redraft]: The claim that SQUID devices detect “magnetic fields produced by brain activity” is not stated explicitly in the packet; it only references magnetoencephalography measurements of auditory evoked fields without directly describing them as “produced by brain activity.”; The definition adds the functional claim that SQUIDs detect magnetic fields produced by brain activity; the packet only says they are used in MEG and does not state this general explanation in that form.; The packet supports that SQUID gradiometers and magnetometers are used in current standard MEG and that they require cryogenics, but it does not support calling them an established comparison system for newer optically pumped magnetometers.; The rest of the definition is largely supported, but the unsupported “produced by brain activity” component means the definition is not fully defensible against the provided packet. New packet required. Source: [Marhl Urban; Jodko-Władzińska Anna; Brühl Rüdiger; Sander Tilmann; Jazbinšek Vojko. Transforming and comparing data between standard SQUID and OPM-MEG systems. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0262669; article XML SHA-256 4cc21e7b1d2f633434cf2da8257d7f8b7c6cf774aaca2e09e65081d88daff41c. “Transforming and comparing data between standard SQUID and OPM-MEG systems” (10.1371/journal.pone.0262669).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262669) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- superior longitudinal fasciculus [redraft]: Because the “within one hemisphere” wording is not directly supported by the provided text, the definition includes an unsupported substantive claim.; The definition adds a general anatomical characterization beyond what is stated in the source; the source only discusses the SLF as one of several white matter tracts examined for possible relationships with functional lateralization.; The packet identifies the superior longitudinal fasciculus as a white matter tract, but it does not explicitly support the claim that it is “within one hemisphere of the brain.”; The packet supports that the superior longitudinal fasciculus (along with CC and UF) was examined for relationships between white-matter structural measures (e.g., FA) and functional language lateralization (lateralization indices), but it does not explicitly state that the superior longitudinal fasciculus is “within one hemisphere of the brain.” New packet required. Source: [Dzięgiel-Fivet Gabriela; Jednoróg Katarzyna. Reduced lateralization of the language network in the blind and its relationship with white matter tract neuroanatomy. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2024.1407557; article XML SHA-256 af2a862013011b1e5da72c1fec16173b0656c2379ed945e6b36d20501c808b4d. “Reduced lateralization of the language network in the blind and its relationship with white matter tract neuroanatomy” (10.3389/fnhum.2024.1407557).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1407557) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- superposition [redraft]: Packet-bound hedge plus meta remark that the source gives no fuller definition; not a definition. New packet required. Source: [Tallarico Andrea. The theory of psychic quanta: a quantum model for the unity of individual consciousness. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792921; article XML SHA-256 37f17ed976d39e922be25b8bd51886dd65968576f5f6263e8bef7107f1077081. “The theory of psychic quanta: a quantum model for the unity of individual consciousness” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792921).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792921) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- superstitious behavior [redraft]: The definition adds “athletes,” but the supplied source’s findings are about football fans; it does not support this as part of the requested sense here.; The definition states that in sports settings it can help “fans or athletes” feel their actions affect the outcome; the packet explicitly discusses athletes as an earlier focus of research but the concrete findings and arguments provided in the text pertain to football fans (Israeli football fans), not athletes specifically.; “Uncertain events” is not stated in the source’s general definition of superstitions; the packet says superstitions are behaviors used to gain a sense of control over “certain events” and separately discusses sport-related uncertainty. New packet required. Source: [Levental Orr; Carmi Udi; Lev Assaf. Jinx, Control, and the Necessity of Adjustment: Superstitions Among Football Fans. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.740645; article XML SHA-256 b2296c6a94d62b7210790a4ec746a8d2ab501357c96848624e275ebb7231ff23. “Jinx, Control, and the Necessity of Adjustment: Superstitions Among Football Fans” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.740645).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.740645) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- supportive psychotherapy [redraft]: The definition also goes beyond the packet by presenting supportive psychotherapy as a treatment option for major depressive disorder as a settled claim, whereas the source is a study protocol about a comparison and non-inferiority trial rather than a general definition or consensus statement.; The definition is more than 1–3 concise sentences.; The definition states that supportive psychotherapy (SPSP) is presented as an “evidence-based therapy,” but the packet only says that “Several evidence-based psychotherapeutic treatment options are available for depression” and then describes the trial comparing SPSP vs CBT; it does not explicitly establish SPSP itself as evidence-based within the packet.; The definition treats “supportive psychotherapy” as a general psychotherapeutic approach, but the packet only specifies “short-term psychodynamic supportive psychotherapy (SPSP)” in the context of a study comparison; it does not provide a standalone meaning for the term beyond that framing.; The packet supports that short-term psychodynamic supportive psychotherapy is being directly compared with cognitive behavioural therapy for major depressive disorder, but it does not explicitly state that supportive psychotherapy itself is an evidence-based therapy. New packet required. Source: [Miggiels M F; ten Klooster P M; Bremer-Hoeve S; Dekker J J M; Huibers M J H; Reefhuis E; Van H L; van Dijk M K. The D*Phase-study: study protocol for a pragmatic two-phased, randomised controlled (non-inferiority) trial that addresses treatment non-response and compares cognitive behavioural therapy and short-term psychodynamic supportive psychotherapy for major depression. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12888-021-03156-8; article XML SHA-256 9cdfedaa935914931f4ed1a3848943c8f698a6bdc7ff64fd2b62b7a942bbd3d9. “The D*Phase-study: study protocol for a pragmatic two-phased, randomised controlled (non-inferiority) trial that addresses treatment non-response and compares cognitive behavioural therapy and short-term psychodynamic supportive psychotherapy for major depression” (10.1186/s12888-021-03156-8).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03156-8) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- supportiveness [redraft]: The definition claims supportiveness may “lessen caregivers’ feelings of stress or isolation,” but the provided packet text only supports a link to caregiver stress; it does not support the specific element about “feelings of isolation.”; The definition is framed under “diagnosis,” but the packet describes relationships involving community supportiveness and community participation among children with ASD, not a diagnostic meaning of the term.; The packet supports a link between lower community supportiveness and reduced community participation in children with ASD, but it does not explicitly define supportiveness as the community providing conditions that help children participate.; The packet text mentions caregiver stress, and the source label mentions isolation, but the provided source excerpt does not support the combined claim that supportiveness may lessen caregivers’ feelings of stress or isolation as stated. New packet required. Source: [Devenish Bethany D.; Sivaratnam Carmel; Lindor Ebony; Papadopoulos Nicole; Wilson Rujuta; McGillivray Jane; Rinehart Nicole J.. A Brief Report: Community Supportiveness May Facilitate Participation of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder in Their Community and Reduce Feelings of Isolation in Their Caregivers. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.583483; article XML SHA-256 84974d239376bcdfb9c917d5e549b9e9a58d099d351c78078fdb75bf89eb6eed. “A Brief Report: Community Supportiveness May Facilitate Participation of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder in Their Community and Reduce Feelings of Isolation in Their Caregivers” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.583483).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.583483) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- suprachiasmatic nucleus [redraft]: The packet does not support the phrase “just above the optic chiasm”; it describes the nucleus as lying “in a shallow impression of the OPTIC CHIASM,” which is different from “above.”; “Just above the optic chiasm” is not supported by the packet; the source says the nucleus lies “in a shallow impression of the optic chiasm,” not above it. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Suprachiasmatic Nucleus” (D013493).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013493) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- surprise [redraft]: The packet supports that living systems are described as predictive regulators that maintain viable states by minimizing expected surprise, but it does not explicitly define surprise as a mismatch between expectations and encounters.; The packet supports the idea that Bayesian/active-inference approaches describe living systems as maintaining viable states by minimizing expected surprise, but it does not explicitly define “surprise” as a mismatch between what an organism expects and what it encounters.; “Stable states” is broader than the packet’s wording of “viable states,” so that part is not fully supported as stated. New packet required. Source: [Mauro Federica. A Bayesian framework for happiness, health, and psychological well-being. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778763; article XML SHA-256 439fab9117d16eaff3c389000af514aed24a3c828496bd9354bb3cb5c66605f1. “A Bayesian framework for happiness, health, and psychological well-being” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778763).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778763) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- surrogate variable [redraft]: The definition’s claim that the surrogate variable “helps adjust for latent sources of variation” is only indirectly supported by the packet’s statement that SVA corrects for “latent variation”; the packet does not explicitly link that correction to surrogate variables themselves or describe their role in that way.; The packet states that the study “preprocess[es] the data using Surrogate Variable Analysis (SVA) to correct for latent variation and normalize gene expression,” but it does not define what a “surrogate variable” is (e.g., that it is specifically a “data-derived variable”).; The packet supports Surrogate Variable Analysis as a preprocessing method that corrects latent variation and normalizes gene expression, but it does not explicitly support defining a “surrogate variable” itself as a data-derived variable or as the named entity being defined here.; The requested field is diagnosis, but the term in the packet is a statistical/bioinformatics preprocessing concept rather than a diagnosis term; the schizophrenia context does not make the sense itself diagnostic. New packet required. Source: [Bampos Costas; Megalooikonomou Vasileios. Exploration of schizophrenia-associated gene modules using graph theory, co-expression networks, and dimensionality reduction. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346663; article XML SHA-256 c4f8ccb6e6e80d789fd28cfa51a125bace1a53fab1777b44469f4aaa931f19df. “Exploration of schizophrenia-associated gene modules using graph theory, co-expression networks, and dimensionality reduction” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346663).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346663) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- surrogate [redraft]: The definition adds “intended parents” and “surrogacy” wording not present in the source, though the underlying sense is close.; The definition’s wording broadly matches the packet, but due to the field mismatch (“cognition” vs gestational carrier concept), the definition is not defensibly aligned with the requested field.; The provided field is "cognition," but the packet describes “Gestational Carriers” (female carriers/impregnation with offspring to be given to commissioned parents), which is not a cognitive construct based on the supplied source text.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source record is for gestational carriers (MeSH), not cognition. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Gestational Carriers” (D013533).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013533) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- survival rate [redraft]: General headword survival rate is redefined as the narrower business-survival sense of the packet. New packet required. Source: [Lee DongHyeon; Lee Jaekyung; Kang ManSu; Cheon SangHyun. Classification of commercial districts based on predicting the survival rate of food service market in Seoul. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326307; article XML SHA-256 9f52365e84bead2651e2664aa716a3fa53367cffef3842e73bb2ae7816941b8a. “Classification of commercial districts based on predicting the survival rate of food service market in Seoul” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326307).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326307) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- survival ratio [redraft]: The packet does not provide a definition of “survival ratio” as a “proportion of cells or neurons that remain alive after an injury.” It only mentions that “the survival ratio of retinal neurons has been improved,” without stating what the ratio specifically measures or how it is defined.; The packet supports use of the term for retinal neurons in the context of elevated intraocular pressure, but it does not define survival ratio as a general proportion of cells or neurons that remain alive after injury or other harmful conditions.; The second sentence narrows the sense to retinal neurons after elevated intraocular pressure, but the first sentence broadens it beyond the supported context.; The specific contextual claim (“refers to how many retinal neurons survive after elevated intraocular pressure”) is broadly consistent with the packet’s mention of elevated intraocular pressure and retinal neuronal survival ratio, but the definition’s general measurement description is not supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Wang Shuchao; Hu Tu; Wang Zhen; Li Na; Zhou Lihong; Liao Lvshuang; Wang Mi; Liao Libin; Wang Hui; Zeng Leping; Fan Chunling; Zhou Hongkang; Xiong Kun; Huang Jufang; Chen Dan. Macroglia-derived thrombospondin 2 regulates alterations of presynaptic proteins of retinal neurons following elevated hydrostatic pressure. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0185388; article XML SHA-256 52763cbad44542d9003ae878089d26dd3abb83351bd32649568f7aef7c57917c. “Macroglia-derived thrombospondin 2 regulates alterations of presynaptic proteins of retinal neurons following elevated hydrostatic pressure” (10.1371/journal.pone.0185388).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185388) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- susceptibility [redraft]: The definition’s added phrasing “In this context, it refers to being more prone to wild mushroom consumption” is only partially supported by the packet’s wording; the packet does not define susceptibility as “more prone” or provide an explicit equivalence.; The packet does not support the general psychological definition “a person’s tendency or likelihood to be influenced toward, or to engage in, a particular behavior.” It only states the study is about “susceptibility to wild mushroom consumption.”; The packet only supports the phrase “susceptibility to wild mushroom consumption”; it does not support the broader generic definition of susceptibility as a general tendency or likelihood to be influenced toward any behavior.; The wording “in this context” is not clearly grounded in the packet’s source context beyond wild mushroom consumption, so the definition should stay tightly limited to that specific sense. New packet required. Source: [Chen Yu; Zhao Xinjie; Yue Ying; Li Zhenyi; Chen Si. Wild mushroom consumption susceptibility among Chinese university students: A machine learning study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345659; article XML SHA-256 fb736205fbfc597b52a74e4220aebbc89c8234d2d0d9cdf0cc285b4e2600b15d. “Wild mushroom consumption susceptibility among Chinese university students: A machine learning study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345659).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345659) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- suspiciousness [redraft]: The definition adds implied meaning (“occurring alongside … meaning …”) that is not supported by any accompanying explanation of hostile attribution bias in the provided source.; The definition’s claim that suspiciousness is “a heightened tendency to be wary of other people’s intentions, especially in social situations” is not explicitly supported in the supplied text.; The definition’s interpretation that hostile attribution bias reflects “a greater tendency to read others’ actions as unfriendly or threatening” is not stated in the packet.; The explanation that hostile attribution bias means reading others’ actions as unfriendly or threatening is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied source.; The packet does not define suspiciousness; it only states that adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are “more prone to heightened suspiciousness” alongside “hostile attribution bias.”; The packet supports that adolescents with ASD are more prone to heightened suspiciousness and hostile attribution bias, but it does not define suspiciousness as a general tendency to be wary of other people’s intentions or specify that this is especially in social situations. New packet required. Source: [Umehara Hidehiro; Takeda Tomoya; Matsuura Kanae; Irizawa Koushi; Abe Yasuko; Masuda Tarishi; Kamiyama Yuichiro; Yamada Naoki; Numata Shusuke. Group CBT targeting hostile attribution bias in adolescents and young adults with ASD traits. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1796850; article XML SHA-256 32739999e5ad47ab9f7f2ca00f762eb9fd95f9101042c9627311bc7e9f66a545. “Group CBT targeting hostile attribution bias in adolescents and young adults with ASD traits” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1796850).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1796850) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- swallowing [redraft]: The claim linking “when this function becomes difficult, it is called dysphagia” is consistent with the packet’s use of “Dysphagia, or difficulty swallowing,” but because the underlying definition of swallowing is not supported, the overall definition is not fully defensible.; The definition adds a general anatomical/functional description of swallowing that is not supported by the supplied source text.; The packet does not directly define “swallowing” as the process of taking food or liquid from the mouth into the body; it mainly discusses dysphagia (difficulty swallowing) and its consequences.; The packet supports that dysphagia means difficulty swallowing and that it can lead to complications, but it does not define swallowing as a biological function of moving food or liquid from the mouth into the body. New packet required. Source: [Chen Xuting; Ma Lianjie; Hou Mengdi; Gu Xudong; Wang Zhongli; Yao Yunhai; Fu Jianming; Zhu Meihong; Wang Jie; Wang Chaofan; Sun Xiaolin; Zhang Ting; Ma Xiaoqing; Song Xinxin; Zeng Ming. Effects of rTMS on swallowing function and neuroimaging features in post-stroke dysphagia. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1573083; article XML SHA-256 837cf2cac9620ef70405f7edeadef241eccdc43fb4c5934b1f476b4cc3c0fa8c. “Effects of rTMS on swallowing function and neuroimaging features in post-stroke dysphagia” (10.3389/fnhum.2025.1573083).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1573083) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- sweating [redraft]: The packet explicitly links “sweating” to panic disorder as a physical symptom, but it does not explicitly define sweating as “increased perspiration” or state that this occurs “as part of the body’s fear response.”; The packet supports sweating as a physical symptom of panic disorder, but it does not support defining it as part of the body’s fear response.; “Around a panic attack” is not directly stated as a property of sweating itself; the packet only says beta-blockers may help with some physical symptoms and in situations that precede a panic attack. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Panic Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 ce43f2b6abfacd0fc7080a4c735434c92c7c9223822c428dafe4ddf9f8731cf7. “Panic Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/panic-disorder-when-fear-overwhelms).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/panic-disorder-when-fear-overwhelms) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- sym- [redraft]: Headword is the combining form sym-, but definition treats it as the acronym SYM for Sahaja Yoga Meditation. New packet required. Source: [Hernández Sergio Elías; Dorta Roberto; Suero José; Barros-Loscertales Alfonso; González-Mora José Luis; Rubia Katya. Larger whole brain grey matter associated with long-term Sahaja Yoga Meditation: A detailed area by area comparison. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0237552; article XML SHA-256 2c6a755cca1f8228cd1da3a284d1ae4be48487ca0c7709922f998b560d2346c0. “Larger whole brain grey matter associated with long-term Sahaja Yoga Meditation: A detailed area by area comparison” (10.1371/journal.pone.0237552).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237552) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- symbol-substitution test [redraft]: The definition adds an interpretation about the test’s functional domain that is not established by the source packet.; The definition’s requested causal/interpretive link (“lower scores…poorer executive functioning”) is not clearly supported by the provided excerpt.; The packet does not define or introduce a term called “symbol-substitution test”; it only mentions the “Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST)” as one of three cognitive scales used.; The packet does not state that “a symbol-substitution test uses the Digit Symbol Substitution Test format”; it only lists DSST among the assessments without describing any “symbol-substitution test” format or equivalence.; The packet does not support the claim that lower symbol-substitution scores are associated with poorer executive functioning; it only reports an association between HGI and decreased DSST scores and separately mentions executive function impairment in the study’s discussion.; The packet does not support the claim that “lower scores are associated with poorer executive functioning” specifically for a “symbol-substitution test”; while the text mentions executive function impairment in relation to HGI generally, it does not explicitly link DSST score direction to executive functioning.; The packet supports Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST) as a cognition scale in older adults, but it does not support calling the symbol-substitution test a distinct cognitive assessment that 'uses the DSST format.' New packet required. Source: [Ge Liang; Guo Yapeng; Xu Xiangjun; Xu Junfeng; Hu Menghan. Association between hemoglobin glycation index and cognitive function: Evidence in the elderly. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338613; article XML SHA-256 3085eaaf07970013106fde592e276a54510c0eb713825fcdc653a871749d57bc. “Association between hemoglobin glycation index and cognitive function: Evidence in the elderly” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338613).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338613) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- symbolic logic [redraft]: The definition says it “appears as the kind of logic treated in George Boole’s pioneering mathematical work…”. The packet only anchors Boole as an English mathematician/logician and notes that his work *An Investigation into the Laws of Thought* was the first elaborate treatise in mathematical or symbolic logic; it does not support the characterization “pioneering” or explicitly frames the term as “the kind of logic treated” (beyond that general anchor).; The definition states: “Symbolic logic is a mathematical form of logic, using symbols to express thought and reasoning.” The provided packet does not define symbolic logic or describe it as using symbols to express thought/reasoning.; The phrase "using symbols to express thought and reasoning" is not supported by the packet; the source only identifies Boole’s work as an early treatise in "mathematical or symbolic logic." New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Boole, George” (Boole, George).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/B2defs.htm#Boole, George) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- symbolic matching to sample [redraft]: The claim that the choice is based on a learned relation rather than physical similarity is not supported by the supplied text.; The packet states that a “symbolic matching-to-sample procedure” was used to test whether honeybees learn arbitrary relations between colours and patterns, but it does not explicitly describe the trial structure as “shown a sample stimulus and must choose the matching symbol or category.”; The packet supports that symbolic matching-to-sample is a procedure for learning arbitrary relations between colours and patterns, but it does not state that a subject is shown a sample stimulus and must choose a matching symbol or category.; The packet supports the idea of learning “arbitrary relations,” but it does not explicitly claim that choices are made “based on the learned relation rather than physical similarity,” so that contrast is not directly supported by the supplied text. New packet required. Source: [Moreno Antonio Mauricio; de Souza Deisy das Graças; Reinhard Judith. A Comparative Study of Relational Learning Capacity in Honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) and Stingless Bees ( Melipona rufiventris ). 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0051467; article XML SHA-256 df5b2c6625f9ae49ea092b546e4e8673b21cf3a72aace4e00a77c0241975667b. “A Comparative Study of Relational Learning Capacity in Honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) and Stingless Bees ( Melipona rufiventris )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0051467).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051467) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- symbolization [redraft]: The packet does not define the term “symbolization” itself as a general concept (“learned use of signs or symbols”); it only uses the phrase “acquired system of symbolization” in describing speech processes.; The packet entry is for “Asemia or Asemasia,” not for “symbolization” as the head term, so the requested sense is not directly supported by the source record.; The source describes an “acquired system of symbolization” as part of speech, but it does not define symbolization itself as the learned use of signs or symbols. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Asemia or Asemasia” (Asemia or Asemasia).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Asemia or Asemasia) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- symmetrical distribution [redraft]: Packet defines the normal distribution; its mean-SD shape property is not true of symmetrical distributions generally. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Normal Distribution” (D016011).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D016011) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- sympathy [redraft]: Although the packet states that sympathy is “usually nonobjective and noncritical” and notes caring in the context of the empathy description, the specific full wording of the provided definition (“response to another person’s feelings or behavior”) is not directly supported by the packet.; The comparison “less objective and less critical than empathy” is not supported by the packet’s wording and reverses the source relation, which distinguishes empathy from sympathy.; The definition states “generally caring” as a characterization of sympathy; the packet explicitly links caring to the empathy description, while sympathy is only distinguished by being nonobjective/noncritical, so the “caring” element for sympathy is not clearly and explicitly supported.; The packet defines empathy, not sympathy; it only mentions sympathy as usually nonobjective and noncritical, so the submitted definition targets the wrong sense/term.; The packet text describes empathy as an objective awareness of another person’s feelings and behavior, and only contrasts sympathy as typically nonobjective and noncritical; it does not explicitly define sympathy as a “response” to another person’s feelings or behavior.; “Response to another person’s feelings or behavior” and “generally caring” are not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Empathy” (D004645).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004645) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- symptom checklist [redraft]: The definition claims that a “symptom checklist” is used “to record reported symptoms,” but the packet only discusses non-optimal effort affecting results and an embedded validity indicator (CI) for the Symptom Checklist 90; it does not explicitly support the “record reported symptoms” characterization.; The definition’s specificity about the “Symptom Checklist 90” having an “embedded indicator relevant to checking response validity” is only partially supported: the packet mentions CI as a potential embedded validity indicator and links it to identifying malingering, but does not directly state the broader phrase “checking response validity” in that exact way.; The field label “biological” is not defensible for this psychology/assessment term based on the supplied source.; The packet only supports discussion of the Symptom Checklist 90 (SCL-90) in a forensic malingering context; it does not support a general definition of “symptom checklist” as a measure used in psychological evaluation to record reported symptoms.; The sentence adds specifics not supported by the packet, including that the test’s results may deviate when effort is non-optimal and that it contains an embedded indicator relevant to checking response validity; the packet only says CI is a potential candidate to act as an embedded validity indicator of the SCL-90. New packet required. Source: [Liu Cong; Lu Qiuying; Rao Guangxun; Chen Xiaorui; Liang Man; Liu Zilong. Malingering assessment after severe traumatic brain injury in forensic psychology with a potential embedded symptom validity indicator of Symptom Checklist 90. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1320636; article XML SHA-256 8062454d60b552c14e1756ac18a11160c8118be266fdd5b4dc277f65d1980fd6. “Malingering assessment after severe traumatic brain injury in forensic psychology with a potential embedded symptom validity indicator of Symptom Checklist 90” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1320636).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1320636) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- symptom cluster [redraft]: The definition’s specific phrasing about symptom clustering “within a disorder” and the interpretation of CPTSD symptom clusters is not supported by any explicit statement in the provided packet.; The packet only mentions “each CPTSD symptom cluster” in the context of examining associations with executive function; it does not describe what those clusters are (e.g., “different grouped parts of complex posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms”).; The packet text does not provide a definition of “symptom cluster” or state that it is “a set of related symptoms grouped together within a disorder.”; The packet uses the term in a study context but does not define "symptom cluster" as a set of related symptoms, a unit within a disorder, or any equivalent glossary-style meaning.; The second sentence over-specifies the term’s referent by asserting that it means the grouped parts of complex posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms; the source only mentions "each CPTSD symptom cluster" without defining the clusters or their composition. New packet required. Source: [Biscoe Natasha; New Emma; Murphy Dominic. Complex PTSD symptom clusters and executive function in UK Armed Forces veterans: a cross-sectional study. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s40359-024-01713-w; article XML SHA-256 1a7b486c47e569e5fc0d86a1c30b1e0223142be3a757078b95ec1a64e2305a28. “Complex PTSD symptom clusters and executive function in UK Armed Forces veterans: a cross-sectional study” (10.1186/s40359-024-01713-w).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01713-w) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- synaptic vesicle [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported generalization by stating that synaptic vesicles are “small” vesicles “found at synapses”; the packet only says the study classifies vesicles in electron tomograms of C. elegans neuromuscular junctions and does not explicitly define the term that way.; The definition’s phrasing about “different types and pools” is partially supported (CCVs vs DCVs; and mention of studying “different synaptic vesicle pools”), but because other substantive elements in the definition (“small,” and “distribution”) are not clearly supported, the overall definition cannot be accepted as fully defensible.; The first sentence presents a broad dictionary-style definition, but the packet supports only the study context and classification of vesicle types/pools, not the general anatomical definition or size claim.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that synaptic vesicles are “small” vesicles.; The packet supports comparing “distance from active zones” (mean distance between DCVs and AZs), but it does not explicitly support “distribution” as a compared feature (only fraction and distance are described in the provided text). New packet required. Source: [Kaltdorf Kristin Verena; Theiss Maria; Markert Sebastian Matthias; Zhen Mei; Dandekar Thomas; Stigloher Christian; Kollmannsberger Philip. Automated classification of synaptic vesicles in electron tomograms of C . elegans using machine learning. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0205348; article XML SHA-256 f9b479685f54f67026590cf473c4f4cff15b10685bf510a0a961545a2f006560. “Automated classification of synaptic vesicles in electron tomograms of C . elegans using machine learning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0205348).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205348) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- synergy [redraft]: General headword 'synergy' redefined as the narrow human-GenAI sense; 'rather than either acting alone' is not in packet. New packet required. Source: [Gao Qian; Zhou Hui; Lu Hang. Unpacking GenAI-enabled deep learning engagement: role perceptions, human–GenAI synergy strategies, and underlying mechanisms. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881713; article XML SHA-256 b5925387b4d92062851a90d446534393e86d7e1329705f59edc2efb26771c996. “Unpacking GenAI-enabled deep learning engagement: role perceptions, human–GenAI synergy strategies, and underlying mechanisms” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881713).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1881713) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- synthetic speech [redraft]: The packet does not provide support for the general definitional claim that synthetic speech is “speech that is artificially generated rather than naturally spoken.”; The packet shows the term being used for experimentally generated speech sounds, but it does not explicitly support the general definition that synthetic speech is speech “artificially generated rather than naturally spoken.”; The packet supports the controlled-variation aspect (e.g., varying voice onset time and first formant onset frequency), but it does not explicitly support the framing that this is how synthetic speech is used “in learning and perception research” (the packet only shows a specific study using synthetic speech in that context).; The second sentence is broadly consistent with the study’s use of synthetic speech, but the first sentence overstates the packet by turning a usage example into a dictionary-level definition. New packet required. Source: [Flaherty Mary; Dent Micheal L; Sawusch James R. Experience with speech sounds is not necessary for cue trading by budgerigars ( Melopsittacus undulatus ). 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0177676; article XML SHA-256 814ca3a8e5be4838590a23eca8c43e16461b96c19b4218ef57d84aab6557b6cc. “Experience with speech sounds is not necessary for cue trading by budgerigars ( Melopsittacus undulatus )” (10.1371/journal.pone.0177676).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177676) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- systematic observation [redraft]: Packet defines statistics, not this phrase; first sentence is an invented gloss and second just reports where the phrase appears. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-3402000-3414000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- systematic processing [redraft]: The definition adds a general cognitive description that is broader than the packet’s wording and is not directly supported by the supplied source.; The definition claims “In the reviewed research,” but the packet’s support_review_status is “unreviewed,” so “reviewed research” is not supported.; The packet does not explicitly define “systematic processing” as “careful, deliberate evaluation of information rather than relying on quick mental shortcuts,” so that characterization is unsupported by the provided text.; The packet supports that systematic processing was reported as helpful for detecting and identifying online fraud, but it does not explicitly define the term as “more careful, deliberate evaluation of information rather than relying on quick mental shortcuts.” New packet required. Source: [Shang Yuxi; Wang Kaijie; Tian Yuye; Zhou Yingyu; Ma Beibei; Liu Sanyang. Theoretical basis and occurrence of internet fraud victimisation: Based on two systems in decision-making and reasoning. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1087463; article XML SHA-256 ad20e4f53e09271a5f091ccec9b9194c7cdb3d12dd9b3227e36642be90d417e3. “Theoretical basis and occurrence of internet fraud victimisation: Based on two systems in decision-making and reasoning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1087463).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1087463) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- systemic [redraft]: The definition adds an extra sense claim about a "mental health context" that is not supported by the packet.; The packet does not explicitly support the first sentence’s general meaning of “systemic” as “relating to the body as a whole rather than to one single organ or local area.” It only describes “systemic inflammatory status” in relation to the “systemic immune-inflammation index (SII).”; The packet supports only the phrase "systemic inflammatory status" in the context of the systemic immune-inflammation index; it does not support the broader dictionary claim that "systemic" means relating to the body as a whole rather than to a single organ or local area.; The second sentence is partially supported: the packet states that SII “reflects systemic inflammatory status” and is “derived from peripheral blood counts,” but the definition’s broad biological-generalization in sentence 1 is unsupported. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Wendi; Chang Geng; Mu Zhen. The association between systemic immune-inflammation index and post-stroke depression: a meta-analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817964; article XML SHA-256 ac65eb5d0c046fa6a5d6eafc8d0fbe68fc91ed7e4e0d1cbe8a430d66f08197dc. “The association between systemic immune-inflammation index and post-stroke depression: a meta-analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817964).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817964) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- T maze [redraft]: The description of the T maze as a “T-shaped task environment” is not directly stated in the packet and relies on outside background rather than the supplied source text.; The packet does not explicitly state that a T maze is a “T-shaped” environment or describe its structure (e.g., a junction) in those terms.; The packet does not support the claim that the task is used “to study how an animal or model makes choices at a junction.” It only references a T-maze task/environment used with rats and a robotic model.; The packet supports a T-maze learning task and a learning-related change in observed behavior over time, but it does not explicitly support the added detail about an animal or model making choices at a junction.; While the packet supports the general pattern that vicarious trial-and-error-related observations are “high at the beginning of learning and lower afterward,” the definition’s additional claims about task purpose and junction choice are not supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Matsuda Eiko; Hubert Julien; Ikegami Takashi. A Robotic Approach to Understanding the Role and the Mechanism of Vicarious Trial-And-Error in a T-Maze Task. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0102708; article XML SHA-256 2e75e063c458fd5aa17c67212b8bc0323996b0605d27b9648d80e33f69dbca48. “A Robotic Approach to Understanding the Role and the Mechanism of Vicarious Trial-And-Error in a T-Maze Task” (10.1371/journal.pone.0102708).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102708) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- T-squared test [redraft]: 'In this context' smuggles a narrow brain-response sense onto a general statistical test; second sentence describes the study. New packet required. Source: [Xie Jun; Xu Guanghua; Wang Jing; Zhang Feng; Zhang Yizhuo. Steady-State Motion Visual Evoked Potentials Produced by Oscillating Newton's Rings: Implications for Brain-Computer Interfaces. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0039707; article XML SHA-256 2c21785ea9c7e29e983458ff1aaee1aef1f1c6d62d9203f02ce04534460ed559. “Steady-State Motion Visual Evoked Potentials Produced by Oscillating Newton's Rings: Implications for Brain-Computer Interfaces” (10.1371/journal.pone.0039707).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039707) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- TA [redraft]: The definition adds a specific gloss about abuse occurring through digital or internet-based social environments; the packet only says online technologies have expanded the social landscape and compares TA-CSA with CSA in the physical world, which is not enough to support that formulation.; The definition adds clarifying phrasing (“sexual exploitation or abuse … through online technologies” and the contrast with physical-world abuse) that is not directly supported by the supplied packet text.; The packet does not explicitly define “TA” as technology-assisted child sexual abuse; it only mentions “Technology-Assisted Child Sexual Abuse (TA-CSA)” in the context of online technologies expanding opportunities for exploitation.; The packet supports the term Technology-Assisted Child Sexual Abuse (TA-CSA), not TA, so the acronym/sense is not established as written.; While the packet indicates abuse involves “online technologies” (“expanded the social landscape… to sexually exploit and abuse children”), it does not state that the abuse occurs “rather than only in the physical world” or that it is “carried out through digital or internet-based social environments.” New packet required. Source: [Forrester Fellowes Alice; Kloess Juliane A.; Gladden Sarah. The psychological impact on and mental health outcomes for victim-survivors of technology-assisted child sexual abuse: a systematic literature review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1682155; article XML SHA-256 1826d2c1d205c31c73ae637a0434774f671071fd8e5bafa6dd69556ad9263acc. “The psychological impact on and mental health outcomes for victim-survivors of technology-assisted child sexual abuse: a systematic literature review” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1682155).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1682155) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- TAG [redraft]: Packet uses 'tag' as an ordinary word; the definition invents an acronym expansion the source never gives. New packet required. Source: [He Xiaochen; Cheng Guanzhao; Lu Jiali. Tag-mediated effect on the dynamics of social influence. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338598; article XML SHA-256 74b3d914af9c41e611ab5b2280071ea663961cf6e24af1672d3d1bfb6d3bfba5. “Tag-mediated effect on the dynamics of social influence” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338598).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338598) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- tagging [redraft]: The first sentence is an unsupported general definition: the packet only describes auto-tagging in a music system, not tagging as the general assignment of labels to items for organization and retrieval.; The packet does not define “tagging” as a general concept (assignment of descriptive labels to an item for organization/search); it only describes “auto-tagging” in the context of music track analysis.; The source context is narrower than the definition implies; it supports automatic analysis of a music track to output tags such as genre, mood, and instruments, but not the broader organizing/finding explanation. New packet required. Source: [Akama Taketo; Kitano Hiroaki; Takematsu Katsuhiro; Miyajima Yasushi; Polouliakh Natalia. Auxiliary self-supervision to metric learning for music similarity-based retrieval and auto-tagging. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0294643; article XML SHA-256 e32b61df35ed4fb195cc8c054b4f56b79a9b30106880f13efbfd2d6167941969. “Auxiliary self-supervision to metric learning for music similarity-based retrieval and auto-tagging” (10.1371/journal.pone.0294643).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294643) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- tapping test [redraft]: The opening general definition (“a task that uses tapping responses to measure performance in areas such as memory or learning”) is not supported by the packet; the packet only mentions the Corsi block-tapping test as a study measure, without defining a general ‘tapping test’ construct.; The packet does not define a general category of “tapping test” as “a task that uses tapping responses to measure performance in areas such as memory or learning”; the text only mentions that the study used the Corsi block-tapping test.; The packet supports only the specific sense of the Corsi block-tapping test and its use to assess visuospatial short-term memory and working memory; it does not support the broader formulation about measuring “memory or learning” in general.; While the packet supports that, in this study, the “tapping test” refers to the Corsi block-tapping test and that it was used alongside other tasks to assess visuospatial short-term memory and working memory, it does not provide support for the broader, general first sentence about tapping responses and “learning” as such. New packet required. Source: [Prashad Shikha; Murray Ashley; Rednoske Victoria M. Impaired micro-online motor learning processes in individuals with severe anxiety. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1757737; article XML SHA-256 6df939f50b253061256b72b19a2f9ec685f75b124952f7625aaa23d4f5100e61. “Impaired micro-online motor learning processes in individuals with severe anxiety” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1757737).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1757737) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- tardive [redraft]: 'Tardive' is an adjective meaning late-onset; definition instead defines drug-induced dyskinesia itself, wrong sense of headword. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Dyskinesia, Drug-Induced” (D004409).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D004409) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- target language [redraft]: The added claim that the term includes “the cultures associated with that language” is not supported as a definition here.; The example “English is the target language for Chinese English learners” is not explicitly stated in the packet, so it is an unsupported inference.; The packet does not define what “target language” means; it only references “target-language cultures” in general terms.; The packet does not define “target language” as the language students are learning and using in class; it only mentions “target-language cultures” in passing.; The packet does not support the claim that “English is the target language for Chinese English learners.” New packet required. Source: [Liang Xiaoxi; Liu Jinhui; Wei Liangshuai; Xu Weiwei. Boosting motivation, cultural confidence, and native cultural awareness through digital storytelling in L2 language education. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878796; article XML SHA-256 2cc4286f9a5cee34ba35b00fafc15e8be4b54375d5a9161009e506e25ec1789b. “Boosting motivation, cultural confidence, and native cultural awareness through digital storytelling in L2 language education” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878796).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878796) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- target population [redraft]: The added claim that, in research descriptions, it identifies who the intervention is aimed at within the wider population is not supported by the packet.; The definition’s specifics (“particular group… meant to reach or benefit” and “within the wider population”) are not stated or supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define the term “target population”; it only reports that the review documented “target population” as a field for each intervention.; The packet shows “target population” as a data field recorded for each intervention, but it does not define the term as the group a policy, programme, or intervention is meant to reach or benefit. New packet required. Source: [Buffardi Anne L; Pascall Jones Paul; Begault Lucien. Policy interventions to improve health through housing: A scoping review. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358689; article XML SHA-256 d8f3fc98545f92fbdc501007d3925b42ba7fc3c4c0d9066a700af4782ec2da45. “Policy interventions to improve health through housing: A scoping review” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358689).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358689) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- target stimulus [redraft]: General term narrowed to 'item after a masked prime' and 'main focus of measurement'; describes this study rather than the term. New packet required. Source: [Trumpp Natalie M.; Traub Felix; Kiefer Markus. Masked Priming of Conceptual Features Reveals Differential Brain Activation during Unconscious Access to Conceptual Action and Sound Information. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0065910; article XML SHA-256 963e0a4ed3ba1ed9de03053ee3f38dd426fe1e79b5e1905a3970326b40c86f3f. “Masked Priming of Conceptual Features Reveals Differential Brain Activation during Unconscious Access to Conceptual Action and Sound Information” (10.1371/journal.pone.0065910).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065910) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- task conflict [redraft]: The definition omits the packet’s key qualifier that the conflict is instigated by a leader and instead presents it as a broad team-level concept.; The definition refers broadly to “task conflict” and “within a team” as a general meaning, but the packet primarily describes “leader instigated task conflict” as a leader-driven behavior and its effects via attributions, so the requested sense is not fully supported as stated.; The definition’s first sentence (“Task conflict is disagreement about the work itself, such as tasks or task-related issues within a team”) is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text; the packet instead focuses on a specific form labeled “leader instigated task conflict” without giving a clear general definition of task conflict.; The packet supports leader-instigated task conflict, not a general definition of task conflict as disagreement about the work itself within a team.; The packet supports the idea that leaders may source task-based conflict to achieve positive outcomes and that employee attributions mediate those outcomes, but not the broader framing of task conflict used here. New packet required. Source: [Zakariya Ramsha; Muhammad Mehdi Raza Naqvi Sayyed. Leader instigated task conflict and its effects on employee job crafting; the mediating role of employee attributions. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0278329; article XML SHA-256 6649bd9a1ac405b6a3362c6c2dcfdf160f96cf2563a02e5f90c0d7292279c1ee. “Leader instigated task conflict and its effects on employee job crafting; the mediating role of employee attributions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0278329).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278329) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- task orientation [redraft]: Because the key definitional wording (“is a type of goal orientation”) is not directly supported by the provided text, the term’s requested sense is not sufficiently supported by the packet.; It broadens the study result into a general claim that higher task orientation was linked with better performance; the packet only reports that task orientation significantly mediated self-confidence and sports performance, with higher task orientation associated with shorter 1500-meter completion times in this sample.; The definition places the term in cognition, but the packet supports it as a sports-psychology construct rather than a cognition sense.; The definition’s first sentence states that “task orientation is a type of goal orientation.” The packet discusses “goal orientation (GO)” and mentions task orientation, but it does not explicitly define task orientation as a “type of goal orientation.” New packet required. Source: [Wu Ziwei; Luo Feng; Liu Xu; Li Junhua; Zhou Yin; Luo Jie. Examining the effects of competitive state anxiety and goal orientation on sports performance of college track and field athletes. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1607747; article XML SHA-256 df5308c8bc91c33120ede8fe42ec7797dfaa68cdebc8414d643431993a448232. “Examining the effects of competitive state anxiety and goal orientation on sports performance of college track and field athletes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1607747).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1607747) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- taste transduction [redraft]: Because the definition states “can alter neurohumoral peptide release,” and the packet only mentions BDNF detection/release without using that neurohumoral-peptide framing, the definition includes an unsupported characterization.; The packet shows transient increases in intracellular calcium and nicotine-induced BDNF release, but it does not clearly support the definition’s claim that taste transduction involves altering neurohumoral peptide release.; The packet supports nicotine and ethanol effects in cultured human taste cells, but it does not support the broader generalization that taste transduction is generally the process by which taste cells convert chemicals into cellular signals.; The packet supports that nicotine/ethanol exposure in (cultured) taste cells can produce transient increases in internal calcium ([Ca2+]i) and can change release of BDNF, but it does not describe BDNF as a “neurohumoral peptide,” so that part of the definition is not supported by the packet.; “Neurohumoral peptide” is not established in the packet as the specific released substance; the packet names BDNF, which is not the same claim. New packet required. Source: [Qian Jie; Mummalaneni Shobha; Larsen James; Grider John R.; Spielman Andrew I.; Özdener Mehmet Hakan; Lyall Vijay. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (CHRN) expression and function in cultured human adult fungiform (HBO) taste cells. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0194089; article XML SHA-256 3dfaf1a5b999d78ff615a2441ece9dca81635b0f039ba3722333170b58f9d34a. “Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (CHRN) expression and function in cultured human adult fungiform (HBO) taste cells” (10.1371/journal.pone.0194089).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194089) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- teaching games [redraft]: The claim that teaching games are used “in physical education and sport pedagogy” is not explicitly stated as a general definition in the packet; the packet frames TGfU’s influence within PE/sport pedagogy, but does not define “teaching games” in those terms broadly.; The packet supports Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU), not the broader term ‘teaching games,’ so the requested sense is not securely matched.; The packet text provided discusses specifically “Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU),” not “teaching games” as a standalone, broader term; the definition generalizes beyond what the packet directly supports.; The phrase ‘rather than mainly through isolated drills’ is not supported by the packet.; The rest of the definition is broadly consistent with the packet, but this entry should not be accepted with the unsupported generalization and term mismatch. New packet required. Source: [Silva Rodrigo Márcio de Oliveira; Figueiredo Lucas Savassi; Clemente Filipe Manuel; Kawczyński Adam; Farias Cláudio; Corrêa José Carlos Pontes; Borges Eduardo de Paula Amorim; Pedrosa Gustavo Ferreira; Guimarães Juracy da Silva; Laporta Lorenzo; Costa Gustavo De Conti Teixeira. Teaching games for understanding in school handball: a controlled pre-post study with intact Brazilian physical education classes. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817709; article XML SHA-256 ad5fe7efc48090c5c175a88854d40bc603c8f3ee3b161e14d16f2709ae37a99b. “Teaching games for understanding in school handball: a controlled pre-post study with intact Brazilian physical education classes” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817709).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1817709) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- team [redraft]: General headword 'team' hedged with 'in this context' into coordinated specialty care; wrong sense and wrong field. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Understanding Psychosis. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 8dfe261c13780de86a75c02b329ce1d2b047733dadb8ae4c0494d4fcb34d13be. “Understanding Psychosis” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/understanding-psychosis).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/understanding-psychosis) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- technical term [redraft]: Definition is of 'Active Powers', not of the headword 'technical term'. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Active Powers” (Active Powers).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A1defs.htm#Active Powers) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- teeth grinding [redraft]: 'Clenching' and 'habit' are added facts not in the packet, which only mentions bruxism and voluntary teeth grinding. New packet required. Source: [Yela-Lorenzo Paula; Montes-Arenas Paola; Abuín-Porras Vanesa; González-de-la-Flor Ángel; González-Fernández Laura; Villafañe Jorge Hugo; Mínguez-Esteban Isabel. Bruxism repercussions in muscular activation: Ultrasound differences in abdominal wall between women with and without bruxism. A cross-sectional study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317316; article XML SHA-256 45584d21c63f908e90cbc5d91f0363c1b9942c589e9237280452bec66862d4ec. “Bruxism repercussions in muscular activation: Ultrasound differences in abdominal wall between women with and without bruxism. A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317316).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317316) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- telemetry [redraft]: Well-known general term (remote measurement) redefined as animal movement tracking, the narrow thing this packet discusses. New packet required. Source: [Himpson Katrina; Le Berre Thomas; Hodges Edward. Tracking rehabilitated sea turtles in the Indian Ocean using satellite telemetry: Insights into behaviour, ecology, and conservation implications. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351541; article XML SHA-256 fbfd086b4a33714b87bc19452abfe7de9fe2449967e6f6813bc0d10322d8a54c. “Tracking rehabilitated sea turtles in the Indian Ocean using satellite telemetry: Insights into behaviour, ecology, and conservation implications” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351541).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351541) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Tellegen Absorption Scale [redraft]: The definition characterizes absorption as a “person’s tendency toward deep involvement,” but the packet defines absorption as “readiness for experiences of deep involvement in the task,” not as a tendency.; The definition slightly overgeneralizes the construct as a general tendency toward deep involvement in an experience or task; the packet’s wording is narrower and describes absorption as “readiness for experiences of deep involvement in the task.”; The packet does not explicitly state that the Tellegen Absorption Scale itself is a psychological assessment used to measure absorption; it only says the study used a modified Tellegen Absorption Scale as the basis for a sport-specific measure.; The packet supports that the sport-specific measure evolved from the modified Tellegen Absorption Scale and that items were reworded into a sport context, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s wording that the Tellegen Absorption Scale is “used to measure absorption” in general terms (the packet discusses a modified version and its sport-specific adaptation, not a general-purpose use statement for the original Tellegen Absorption Scale). New packet required. Source: [Koehn Stefan; Stavrou Nektarios A. M.; Cogley Jeremy; Morris Tony; Mosek Erez; Watt Anthony P.. Absorption in Sport: A Cross-Validation Study. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01419; article XML SHA-256 92535223a2174840976b272858c3d452ded4d4bcc122c5195903e0ab662c0d18. “Absorption in Sport: A Cross-Validation Study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01419).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01419) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- temperament trait [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“A temperament trait is an individual difference in temperament that varies from person to person.”) is not stated in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define the general term “temperament trait” as an individual difference that varies from person to person; it only says that proneness to anxiety shows large interindividual variation and that harm avoidance is an anxiety-related temperament trait.; The second sentence narrows the term to harm avoidance and adds an interpretation (“meaning a temperament characteristic linked with proneness to anxiety”) that is only directly supported for harm avoidance, not for the term itself.; While the packet supports that Harm Avoidance is described as an “anxiety-related temperament trait” and that “Proneness to anxiety has a large interindividual variation,” it does not provide enough support for the definition’s general wording about what a “temperament trait” is. New packet required. Source: [Knaster Peter; Estlander Ann-Mari; Karlsson Hasse; Kaprio Jaakko; Kalso Eija. Temperament Traits and Chronic Pain: The Association of Harm Avoidance and Pain-Related Anxiety. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0045672; article XML SHA-256 87fdfc25f0981d02f0dff364b59a8f59d466dcaf0fa4b736d9c27acb981dc8fb. “Temperament Traits and Chronic Pain: The Association of Harm Avoidance and Pain-Related Anxiety” (10.1371/journal.pone.0045672).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0045672) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- temporal arteritis [redraft]: 'Medium and large arteries' is an added fact absent from the descriptor record. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Temporal Arteritis” (C35065).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- tense [redraft]: Adds “pressure,” which is not supported by the source text.; The definition adds “often” to qualify how the sensation is marked; this frequency qualifier is not supported by the packet text.; The packet supports “mental or emotional strain” and “suspense,” but does not mention “pressure.”; The wording “often marked by” introduces an unsupported frequency/typicality claim beyond the packet’s plain definition. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tension” (C95502).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- tension [redraft]: Adds “pressure,” which is not supported by the source packet.; Recasts the source’s “feeling” as a “state” without support from the packet.; The packet text supports “mental or emotional strain or suspense,” but it does not mention “pressure,” which is added in the definition. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tension” (C95502).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- terminal event [redraft]: The definition adds broad generalizations not directly supported by the source packet, which only says multiple drug resistant malignancy is a predictable and often terminal event in cancer therapy.; The definition’s field is listed as mental health, while the packet content is oncology/pharmacology research; the packet does not link “terminal event” to mental-health usage.; The field is set to mental health, but the supporting source is an oncology article about treatment-resistant breast cancer, so the requested field is not defensible from the packet.; The first sentence (“marks the likely end stage of an illness or treatment course”) is a general definition that is not supported or stated in the provided packet text.; The packet discusses “multiple drug resistant (MDR) malignancy” being “predictable and often terminal” in cancer therapy, but it does not provide a general, standalone meaning of “terminal event” beyond that cancer context.; The packet only supports the phrase in a cancer-therapy context; it does not establish a general dictionary sense of "terminal event" as an outcome or development marking the likely end stage of an illness or treatment course. New packet required. Source: [Davies Gerald; Lobanova Liubov; Dawicki Wojciech; Groot Gary; Gordon John R.; Bowen Matthew; Harkness Troy; Arnason Terra. Metformin inhibits the development, and promotes the resensitization, of treatment-resistant breast cancer. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0187191; article XML SHA-256 8458d5c0027be1323a2e5817ddc15ef399ec0df1214f1cdd89a0b35e9baf5f44. “Metformin inhibits the development, and promotes the resensitization, of treatment-resistant breast cancer” (10.1371/journal.pone.0187191).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0187191) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- terminal link [redraft]: Because the term’s structural definition (“later part of a choice sequence”) is not stated in the packet, the requested sense is not fully supported.; The claim that this term’s value can influence preference more than overall reward frequency goes beyond the packet’s wording and turns a specific experimental result into a broader definitional statement.; The packet does not explicitly define a “terminal link” as the “later part of a choice sequence”; it only refers to a “terminal link stimulus value” in explaining pigeons’ suboptimal choice behavior.; The packet supports a ‘terminal link stimulus value’ account in pigeons, but it does not define ‘terminal link’ itself as the later part of a choice sequence that leads to a signal.; The phrasing about a signal indicating the chance of reinforcement or nonreinforcement is only partly supported; the packet discusses stimuli predicting reinforcement probabilities, not a general definition of terminal links. New packet required. Source: [Smith Aaron P; Bailey Alexandria R; Chow Jonathan J; Beckmann Joshua S; Zentall Thomas R. Suboptimal Choice in Pigeons: Stimulus Value Predicts Choice over Frequencies. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0159336; article XML SHA-256 53c317bb6341d8281df6a9a0aeb01dd53fea538e931a4efd97d4d2189f9da0e4. “Suboptimal Choice in Pigeons: Stimulus Value Predicts Choice over Frequencies” (10.1371/journal.pone.0159336).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159336) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- termination [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“ending a pregnancy for medical reasons”) is supported, but the additional phrasing about the decision being shaped by “medical, financial, and system factors” is not fully supported by the packet (medical factors in that list are not explicitly described).; The packet explicitly mentions financial and systemic factors influencing the decision, but it does not state that “medical” factors (as distinct from the pregnancy being terminated for medical reasons) can shape the decision-making process.; The packet supports termination of pregnancy for medical reasons, but it does not support the added claim that the decision is shaped by “medical” factors; it mentions financial and systemic factors, and medical reasons for the termination itself.; The wording is slightly too expansive for the packet: it generalizes from one study’s background to a broad definitional statement about “termination” without making clear this is the pregnancy-for-medical-reasons sense. New packet required. Source: [Sambrook Laura; Fellows Rebecca E.; Payne Elana; Burgess Karen; Storey Claire; Oza Munira; The PUDDLES UK Collaboration; Kent-Nye Flora E.; Silverio Sergio A.. The experiences of three women who underwent termination of pregnancy for medical reasons: a comparative methodological study using grounded theory analysis and interpretative phenomenological analysis. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1840970; article XML SHA-256 afe2962d19f41ea1b9bca166c020ddd90b971b96b4e7044ef3686d5c5f968387. “The experiences of three women who underwent termination of pregnancy for medical reasons: a comparative methodological study using grounded theory analysis and interpretative phenomenological analysis” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1840970).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1840970) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- test bias [redraft]: The definition broadens the source’s language-testing context into a general definition of test bias without support from the packet.; The definition’s core characterization (“unfairness in a test or in particular test items” and that it makes results differ for groups “for reasons other than the ability or skill being measured”) is not stated or clearly supported in the provided packet text, which focuses on differential item functioning in a specific language test context rather than providing a general definition of test bias.; The packet supports that DIF analysis can flag possible item or test bias and that such results do not necessarily mean bias, but it does not define test bias as unfairness or as group score differences for reasons other than ability/skill.; The packet supports the general idea that DIF analysis can serve as an “alarm” and “does not necessarily imply bias,” but it does not provide enough support for the broader first-sentence wording about what test bias is. New packet required. Source: [Liao Linyu; Yao Don. Grade-Related Differential Item Functioning in General English Proficiency Test-Kids Listening. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.767244; article XML SHA-256 a94fbd8fe1ff9dfdc91203ce629f71d51c1bc383e660de182889d8c6a4222803. “Grade-Related Differential Item Functioning in General English Proficiency Test-Kids Listening” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.767244).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.767244) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- test of significance [redraft]: The definition adds a general methodological explanation that is not supported by the source text and goes beyond the supplied evidence.; The definition’s explanation of the p-value threshold meaning is an unsupported generalization relative to the provided packet.; The packet only shows that the study set the test of significance at p-value 0.05; it does not define a test of significance as a statistical method used to judge whether a finding is unlikely to be due to chance.; The packet only states that “test of significance was set at p-value 0.05” and does not define what a “test of significance” is (e.g., judging whether a finding is unlikely due to chance). New packet required. Source: [Anyanwu Matthew; Coker Admire; Donkor Simon. Prevalence of dural puncture headache after caesarean section at a tertiary hospital in the Gambia. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0303410; article XML SHA-256 b1effcdade55427e602f5302d124b0d66180fe99f4300b5426175b1712feb033. “Prevalence of dural puncture headache after caesarean section at a tertiary hospital in the Gambia” (10.1371/journal.pone.0303410).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303410) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- test [redraft]: General headword 'test' hedged into 'something studied in a clinical trial'; wrong sense, describes the source not the term. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Understanding Psychosis. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 8dfe261c13780de86a75c02b329ce1d2b047733dadb8ae4c0494d4fcb34d13be. “Understanding Psychosis” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/understanding-psychosis).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/understanding-psychosis) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- testimony [redraft]: Field mismatch: the packet text defines “expert testimony” in the context of forensic psychiatry (legal aspects), not as a “diagnosis.”; Some claims are not fully supported as written: the packet only mentions “expert testimony” as part of forensic psychiatry/legal aspects, but does not specify that it is “given to a court,” nor that it is explicitly “part of forensic psychiatry” in the way the definition frames (the link is implied by “Forensic Psychiatry,” but the court-specific wording is not explicit in the provided text.; The packet is a descriptor for forensic psychiatry, not a definition of the standalone term “testimony,” so the requested sense is not established by the source.; “Evidence given to a court” is broader than the packet’s wording, which only explicitly mentions “expert testimony” and related legal issues in psychiatry. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Forensic Psychiatry” (D005555).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D005555) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- thalamic sensory gating [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported general description of thalamic sensory gating as the thalamus filtering sensory signals before higher cortical processing; the packet only suggests a dysfunctional cerebellar inhibitory control on thalamic sensory gating, without defining the term that way.; The packet does not define “thalamic sensory gating” as a general thalamic filtering/regulation of sensory signals prior to higher cortical processing; this foundational characterization is not explicitly supported by the provided text.; The term’s packet-specific framing should stay limited to the suggested dysfunction in migraine with aura and its possible impact on advanced visual processing areas; the broader explanatory claim goes beyond the supplied text.; While the packet mentions “dysfunctional cerebellar inhibitory control on thalamic sensory gating” and that it “imping[es] on the advanced visual processing cortical areas,” it does not support broader claims about how sensory gating works overall (i.e., the specific first-sentence mechanism). New packet required. Source: [Russo Antonio; Tessitore Alessandro; Silvestro Marcello; Di Nardo Federica; Trojsi Francesca; Del Santo Teresa; De Micco Rosa; Esposito Fabrizio; Tedeschi Gioacchino. Advanced visual network and cerebellar hyperresponsiveness to trigeminal nociception in migraine with aura. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s10194-019-1002-3; article XML SHA-256 4e95295e82e1f5e9656430784cfaddfe26002122332e71325ab12374b368f576. “Advanced visual network and cerebellar hyperresponsiveness to trigeminal nociception in migraine with aura” (10.1186/s10194-019-1002-3).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s10194-019-1002-3) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- thanatophobia [redraft]: The definition adds a second sense (“abnormal or pathological dread of dying”), but the packet only defines thanatophobia as “A morbid fear of death” and does not state this fear is specifically an abnormal/pathological dread of dying.; The definition text is longer/less constrained than required (it includes an extra historical-sense characterization not supported by the packet).; The packet supports “a morbid fear of death,” but not specifically “a dread of dying.”; The second sentence adds interpretive wording (“abnormal or pathological”) that is not stated in the source, which only says “morbid fear of death.” New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3244500-3256500).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- thematic analysis [redraft]: The definition claims thematic analysis examines both “written or spoken material”; the packet only describes examining article sections (e.g., Abstract, Methods, Discussion) and extracting narratives/data from written scientific papers, with no support for “spoken” material.; The packet supports only that a thematic analysis was performed on scientific narratives about sample size; it does not support the broader general definition that thematic analysis is a method for examining written or spoken material by extracting passages and analyzing them for patterns or themes.; The second sentence is too specific for the packet as provided: it adds an external description of the source’s use that goes beyond the quoted passage and is not directly supported by it. New packet required. Source: [BMC: Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies. Version of record 2018-11-21; DOI 10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7. “Characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency” (05ea0554db4e6d0f11b4).](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- theoretical construct [redraft]: The definition adds a general characterization of the term beyond the packet’s wording; the packet only supports the criterion of empirical adequacy as similarity between a predicted effect and an observed effect.; The opening claim that a theoretical construct is “a concept within a theory” is not supported by the packet.; The packet does not explicitly define a “theoretical construct” as “a concept within a theory.” It discusses identifying “empirically adequate theoretical constructs” via comparison of theoretically predicted effects to observed effects, but it does not support that specific characterization of the term. New packet required. Source: [Witte Erich H.; Stanciu Adrian; Zenker Frank. Predicted as observed? How to identify empirically adequate theoretical constructs. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.980261; article XML SHA-256 e5070bd51677875fc0b430dc63d8b68ac3a85006513171ffb092c555db61aef5. “Predicted as observed? How to identify empirically adequate theoretical constructs” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.980261).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.980261) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- theoretical distribution [redraft]: The claims that researchers use it to describe data’s statistical properties and to make further analyses possible go beyond what the source states.; The definition asserts that the cited distributions are “treated as theoretical distributions”; while the packet uses the phrase “adjusting a theoretical distribution,” it does not explicitly define which distributions (NIG and GH) are being treated as “theoretical distributions” in the dictionary-like sense described.; The definition’s general description (“a mathematically specified pattern of values… researchers try to fit… so they can describe statistical properties and make further analyses possible”) is not fully supported by the packet; the packet states that a distribution is used to “fit the returns” and that this helps study “statistical properties,” but it does not explicitly support the full generic formulation or the claim about enabling “further analyses possible.”; The packet supports NIG being fitted to bitcoin return data (“The paper develops the ability of the normal inverse Gaussian distribution (NIG) to fit the returns of bitcoin”), but it does not clearly support the claim that generalized hyperbolic (GH) is “treated as [a] theoretical distribution … used to model return data”; it only says NIG’s out-of-sample adjustment is “similar to that of a generalized hyperbolic (GH) distribution,” without stating GH is used in the same way or is explicitly characterized as a theoretical distribution in the requested sense.; The packet supports a specific applied use of a theoretical distribution for bitcoin return data, but it does not define the term generally as a mathematically specified pattern of values.; The source mentions the NIG and GH distributions in this one context; it does not establish the broader generalization implied by the definition. New packet required. Source: [Núñez José Antonio; Contreras-Valdez Mario I.; Franco-Ruiz Carlos A.. Statistical analysis of bitcoin during explosive behavior periods. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0213919; article XML SHA-256 c7dfee32d4bef47596639c6a4d1358f9e7273c89ce5474669c5d910c14429c95. “Statistical analysis of bitcoin during explosive behavior periods” (10.1371/journal.pone.0213919).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213919) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- theory of reasoned action [redraft]: The definition relies on a broad textbook description of the theory that is not directly supported by the supplied source text.; The packet does not explicitly describe the theory of reasoned action as “a model for explaining behavior by focusing on a person’s intention to act,” nor does it state that TRA’s core purpose is explaining behavior in those terms; it only reports using TRA to examine determinants of intentions to adopt AI writing tools.; The packet only shows Theory of Reasoned Action being used to study AI writing tool adoption; it does not explicitly define the theory as a general model for explaining behavior through intention to act.; The parts about “attitudes toward [the technology]” and “subjective norms” (social influence) shaping intentions are supported by the packet’s findings, but the opening framing of the theory as an intention-to-act model for explaining behavior is not directly supported by the supplied text.; “Subjective norms” are mentioned, but the gloss “meaning perceived social influence” is not stated in the packet and is an added interpretation. New packet required. Source: [Al-Bukhrani Mohammed A; Alrefaee Yasser Mohammed Hamid; Tawfik Mohammed. Adoption of AI writing tools among academic researchers: A Theory of Reasoned Action approach. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0313837; article XML SHA-256 b3209f5cbd99294a73cdbb5e4b50b67b22fa34c11c776d81977ac920b2fe6c5a. “Adoption of AI writing tools among academic researchers: A Theory of Reasoned Action approach” (10.1371/journal.pone.0313837).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0313837) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- therapeutic group [redraft]: Claims that this kind of group “promotes mutual understanding, social connection, relationship quality, and personal wellbeing” are supported in the packet for TGS, but the definition presents them as general features of therapeutic groups broadly, which is not explicitly supported by the packet.; The definition is written as a general description of “a therapeutic group” for “people with shared challenges,” but the packet only provides evidence from a specific context: therapeutic group singing (TGS) for community-dwelling people living with dementia and their family caregivers (PwD/FCG).; The packet supports a specific intervention, therapeutic group singing for people living with dementia and their family caregivers, not the broader term therapeutic group in general.; The wording adds an invented generic structure (“structured, supportive group activity with therapeutic facilitation”) that is not defined as such in the packet and should not be presented as a general dictionary sense.; “Shared challenges” and the stated benefits are only supported for the dementia-caregiver dyads in this study; the definition generalizes these findings beyond the source’s scope. New packet required. Source: [Clark Imogen N.; Tamplin Jeanette D.; Baker Felicity A.. Community-Dwelling People Living With Dementia and Their Family Caregivers Experience Enhanced Relationships and Feelings of Well-Being Following Therapeutic Group Singing: A Qualitative Thematic Analysis. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01332; article XML SHA-256 52551a0b4bfd65f3dc35c3ba062704f6b826421510e66c9f80389f2de68d5671. “Community-Dwelling People Living With Dementia and Their Family Caregivers Experience Enhanced Relationships and Feelings of Well-Being Following Therapeutic Group Singing: A Qualitative Thematic Analysis” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01332).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01332) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- thermo- [redraft]: Because the packet does not provide an explicit definition of the prefix itself, the definition’s first sentence relies on general knowledge not supported by the supplied text.; The definition adds a general prefix meaning that is not stated in the packet; the packet only shows the form in the compound term thermo-oxidative.; The packet does not explicitly define “thermo-” as a prefix meaning “related to heat or temperature.” It only contains the compound term “thermo-oxidative,” described as aging under heat plus oxidation, without stating the prefix’s general meaning.; The packet is a materials-science article about thermo-oxidative aging of rubber-modified asphalt, not a mental health source, so the requested field is not defensible from the packet. New packet required. Source: [Li Xiaoming; Li Chuanxu; Xi Liqiang; Zhu Yudong; Dong Panpan; Chen Peitong; Zhang Fan; Yang Fayong. Insights into thermo-oxidative aging properties and mechanisms of high-content desulfurized rubber modified asphalt: A macro-rheological and micro-chemical perspective. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0357088; article XML SHA-256 595a531752ab46c6d88ce0a820d589785e80ee70223a1a143e7b6eb20008fcce. “Insights into thermo-oxidative aging properties and mechanisms of high-content desulfurized rubber modified asphalt: A macro-rheological and micro-chemical perspective” (10.1371/journal.pone.0357088).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357088) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- thermoregulation [redraft]: The definition adds a broad, standard biological meaning that is not established by the supplied source packet; only the source-specific use should be supported here.; The definition’s first sentence (“Thermoregulation is the control or maintenance of body temperature.”) is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text; the packet uses the term in connection with activity choices and temperature effects, but does not define thermoregulation in those terms.; The packet supports thermoregulation as a hypothesized driver of perforator use and clothing manufacture in colder temperatures, but it does not define thermoregulation as the general control or maintenance of body temperature.; The second sentence is partly supported (the packet highlights clothing production as a prevalent “thermoregulation” activity and links perforator observations to cold vs warm temperatures), but because the definition’s core meaning/control-and-maintenance claim is unsupported, the overall definition cannot be passed. New packet required. Source: [Litynski McKenna Lynn; Field Sean; Haas Randall. Ethnographic meta-analysis shows that thermoregulation activities predict needle and awl use in North America. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343888; article XML SHA-256 8dd285822be863f949870a9657e9caef5040269b58764af4428d499dc6f95056. “Ethnographic meta-analysis shows that thermoregulation activities predict needle and awl use in North America” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343888).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343888) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- thesis [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the packet by presenting these features as the definition of thesis itself rather than as characteristics of thesis writing in the study’s context.; The packet supports that ChatGPT can support planning, monitoring, and evaluation during thesis writing, but it does not explicitly state that a thesis is “a major piece… that students plan, draft, monitor, and evaluate over time.” In particular, “draft” and “over time” are not clearly supported by the provided text.; The packet supports thesis writing by postgraduate students and the use of planning, monitoring, evaluation, and authorial agency, but it does not explicitly support describing a thesis as a “major” or “extended” writing project. New packet required. Source: [Annamalai Nagaletchimee; Niu Chuhan; Wu Xiaofan; Alkubaisy Amer Ayada Ayoub. ChatGPT as a self-regulated learning support tool in thesis writing: a mixed-methods study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871579; article XML SHA-256 38733766c053a1dc464cdbdcb1a769fc55a6487269ebe85d80800f19b0a46523. “ChatGPT as a self-regulated learning support tool in thesis writing: a mixed-methods study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871579).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1871579) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- thick stripes [redraft]: Hedges with study context and reports the paper's training effect instead of defining the term New packet required. Source: [Suzuki Risa; Woo Jia Zheng; Thumberger Thomas; Hofmann Gero; Wittbrodt Joachim; Tavhelidse-Suck Tinatini. Characterizing medaka visual features using a high-throughput optomotor response assay. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0302092; article XML SHA-256 fee97da72637f4419bea205c2471f97969d9180559dadaab9ec8015a99c655b0. “Characterizing medaka visual features using a high-throughput optomotor response assay” (10.1371/journal.pone.0302092).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0302092) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- thinning [redraft]: Defines boundary thinning narrowly in one work-life study rather than the headword itself New packet required. Source: [Cheng Chen; Panyanuwat Anurak; Li Xiaohong; Yang Jie. Beyond the digital panopticon: a mixed-methods examination of teacher burnout, psychological capital, and well-being through the lens of work-life balance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878063; article XML SHA-256 8221e7337878e99412210b6e32edf7b15351d7eaeb327e530052b82d9b058a2e. “Beyond the digital panopticon: a mixed-methods examination of teacher burnout, psychological capital, and well-being through the lens of work-life balance” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878063).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1878063) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- third-party payer [redraft]: The broader explanatory framing about health-care reimbursement and cost-effectiveness analysis goes beyond what is directly supported by the supplied source text.; The definition’s statement that it is “used when considering coverage and reimbursement policies” is not directly supported as a general usage definition in the packet; the packet mentions coverage/reimbursement in describing specific guideline recommendations, without linking that to a formal meaning of the term.; The packet does not explicitly define “third-party payer perspective” as “judging costs and value” from “the viewpoint of the outside organization that covers or reimburses treatment.” It only uses the phrase (“from a third-party payer perspective”) in the context of cost-effectiveness/budget impact for AML.; The packet shows the phrase only in the context of cost-effectiveness and coverage/reimbursement policy, but it does not define a third-party payer perspective as the viewpoint of an outside organization that covers or reimburses treatment. New packet required. Source: [Palacios Alfredo; Espinola Natalia; Gonzalez Juan Martin; Rojas-Roque Carlos; Rivas Maria Marta; Kanevski Diego; Morisset Pierre; Augustovski Federico; Pichon-Riviere Andres; Bardach Ariel. Budget impact analysis of venetoclax for the management of acute myeloid leukemia from the perspective of the social security and the private sector in Argentina. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0295798; article XML SHA-256 cb24e07ec1f3f59c9268bc30de6e7acc2b920123fcb30a45b59f83d6f9ae2672. “Budget impact analysis of venetoclax for the management of acute myeloid leukemia from the perspective of the social security and the private sector in Argentina” (10.1371/journal.pone.0295798).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295798) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- third-person perspective [redraft]: The definition’s claim that it is used “when people judge or react to another person’s situation” is not explicitly supported; the packet only states that participant perspective differs (first-person vs third-person) in moral reactions/dilemmas.; The definition’s claim that third-person perspective is “an outside-observer viewpoint” is not explicitly supported by the packet text.; The packet only supports a research usage contrasting first-person and third-person perspective in moral judgment tasks; it does not define third-person perspective as an outside-observer viewpoint or as judging another person’s situation more generally.; The phrase “In this research context, it contrasts with first-person perspective during moral judgment tasks” is only partially supported: the packet describes stimuli/perspective differences for first- vs third-person (and mentions moral judgments generally), but it does not clearly specify “moral judgment tasks” as a defined contrast in the sense used by the definition.; The wording extends beyond the packet by presenting a broad conceptual definition rather than the narrower experimental usage described in the source. New packet required. Source: [Avram Mihai; Hennig-Fast Kristina; Bao Yan; Pöppel Ernst; Reiser Maximilian; Blautzik Janusch; Giordano James; Gutyrchik Evgeny. Neural correlates of moral judgments in first- and third-person perspectives: implications for neuroethics and beyond. 2014; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-15-39; article XML SHA-256 449f961b71d0792f9fc5de3d175200444a0e4a461b9c59a242be60d322716660. “Neural correlates of moral judgments in first- and third-person perspectives: implications for neuroethics and beyond” (10.1186/1471-2202-15-39).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-15-39) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- third quartile [redraft]: Second sentence smuggles a single study's VSR Q3 group onto a general statistical headword New packet required. Source: [Matsuno Satoshi; Ozeki Yuji; Kadowaki Sayaka; Torii Sayuki; Kondo Keiko; Miyagawa Naoko; Shima Azusa; Ohashi Mizuki; Miyazawa Itsuko; Segawa Hiroyoshi; Hisamatsu Takashi; Kadota Aya; Miura Katsuyuki. Relationship between obesity indices and cognitive function in Japanese men: A cross-sectional study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332595; article XML SHA-256 073f98987f94323abd1358c7890fb312351388672fde85d7789ecf451b007fc5. “Relationship between obesity indices and cognitive function in Japanese men: A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332595).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332595) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- thought monitoring [redraft]: The definition’s claim that it “may be improved in therapy alongside emotion regulation” is only loosely supported by the single sentence in the packet about therapies aimed at improving both thought monitoring and emotional regulation, but the definition also adds additional substantive content (the specific meaning of the term) that is not supported.; The packet does not define thought monitoring as a metacognitive skill or explain it as awareness of and tracking one’s own thoughts; it only mentions therapies aimed at improving thought monitoring.; The packet does not define “thought monitoring” as a metacognitive skill involving awareness of and keeping track of one’s own thoughts; it only mentions “thought monitoring” in the context of therapies aimed at improving it.; The packet frames “thought monitoring” as part of dysfunctional metacognitive processes related to orthorexia nervosa; the definition generalizes beyond what the packet explicitly states (i.e., it does not limit meaning to that context).; The therapy-related claim is supportable, but the definition adds an unsupported general definition rather than limiting itself to the source’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Gerges Sarah; Azzi Vanessa; Bianchi Dora; Laghi Fiorenzo; Pompili Sara; Malaeb Diana; Obeid Sahar; Soufia Michel; Hallit Souheil. Exploring the relationship between dysfunctional metacognitive processes and orthorexia nervosa: the moderating role of emotion regulation strategies. 2023; DOI 10.1186/s12888-023-05183-z; article XML SHA-256 1f5b64134e87556f035bab37cf352c738cfa46e84b06206512ca7059b8e57fc4. “Exploring the relationship between dysfunctional metacognitive processes and orthorexia nervosa: the moderating role of emotion regulation strategies” (10.1186/s12888-023-05183-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-05183-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- threat appraisal [redraft]: The added context about rumination and higher depression scores is drawn from hypotheses in the source article, not established findings, so it should not be presented as a confirmed relationship.; The definition generalizes a study-specific post-myocardial-infarction use of the term into a broad generic definition without support from the packet.; The definition’s general phrasing (“how threatening a situation or event feels”) is not directly supported by the packet text provided.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “threat appraisal” as a person’s assessment of how threatening a situation feels to them; it only discusses it as a cognitive factor measured in post-myocardial-infarction patients.; The source supports threat appraisal in a cardiac context, but not the broader claim that it is simply a person’s assessment of how threatening any situation or event feels.; While the packet supports that higher threat appraisal is hypothesized to relate to rumination and higher depression scores after a myocardial infarction, the packet does not clearly support the specific wording that higher threat appraisal means “feeling more threatened by a heart attack” (it mentions the MI context but does not define the subjective ‘feeling’ aspect). New packet required. Source: [Vögele Claus; Christ Oliver; Spaderna Heike. Cardiac Threat Appraisal and Depression after First Myocardial Infarction. 2012; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00365; article XML SHA-256 a881b75497f5614f78f3b96d8d925f16a5658163e0c99f8821cb9c8d50d98a85. “Cardiac Threat Appraisal and Depression after First Myocardial Infarction” (10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00365).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00365) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- threat [redraft]: The claim that a “threat” is something the body could react to “as stress or danger” is not supported by the provided packet text.; The packet does not define the term “threat.” It only states that anxiety can occur “even if there is no current threat,” which does not support the requested sense/meaning of “threat” as something “currently present that the body could react to as stress or danger.”; The packet only supports that anxiety is the body’s reaction to stress and can occur even if there is no current threat; it does not define ‘threat’ as something currently present or say the body reacts to threat in that way.; The second sentence goes beyond the packet by making a general claim about anxiety and current threat that is not presented as a definition of the term ‘threat’. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 77e8e3f9797bdd3e545d836e3c7a022d849dbcb9046d75b9663fada09c613399. “Generalized Anxiety Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- threshold theory [redraft]: Restricts a general headword to the packet's exercise-specific bidirectional threshold concept New packet required. Source: [Xu Jing; Zhang Junjun; Sang Kai. Mechanisms of the biological response cascade to exercise-induced stress: a comprehensive review. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fspor.2025.1691779; article XML SHA-256 9ac4735d527dc7a47af99f66e0bcba810209493a2a2f8cfbd05cd4ca46b4d1cf. “Mechanisms of the biological response cascade to exercise-induced stress: a comprehensive review” (10.3389/fspor.2025.1691779).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2025.1691779) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- threshold [redraft]: The added explanation that bilingual settings affect attentional control only after enough relevant experience or context is present is more specific than the source supports.; The bilingual-specific interpretation in the definition (“bilingual settings may affect attentional control only after…experience/context”) goes beyond the limited packet wording (“may follow a threshold effect”) and is not substantiated by the provided text.; The packet only says the influence of bilingual contexts on attentional control “may follow a threshold effect”; it does not define threshold as a general rule that an influence appears only after a certain level or condition is reached.; The packet only states that the influence of bilingual contexts on attentional control “may follow a threshold effect,” and does not define “threshold effect” as non-gradual change with level/condition.; The packet provides no support for the claim that the effect “appears once a certain level or condition is reached,” nor for the idea of “only after enough relevant experience or context is present.” New packet required. Source: [Li Min; Xu Qinghong; Shi Xiangyu; Zhang Shiwen; Li Jie. Threshold effects of interactional context on attentional control. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1836643; article XML SHA-256 44a3037d0ada7d25ba1d9ca08092e89ff5d455f6bddc7990488a4bb429d07e63. “Threshold effects of interactional context on attentional control” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1836643).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1836643) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- thumb sucking [redraft]: Because the meaning “sucking on the thumb” is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text, the first substantive claim is unsupported.; The definition adds an interpretive relationship that is not stated in the packet, so the sense is slightly overstated.; The packet does not explicitly define what “thumb sucking” means (it only states that the concept should not be used in this record for “thumb sucking,” which is indexed under “fingersucking”).; The source supports thumb sucking as a behavior involving sucking on the thumb, but it does not support the claim that this source treats it as a type of finger sucking; it only says thumb sucking is indexed under fingersucking. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Sucking Behavior” (D013391).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013391) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- timbre [redraft]: The definition’s claim that “timbre refers to the aspect of a tone that can vary” (e.g., “darker or lighter”) is only partially supported by the packet’s example of “dark” timbre; the packet does not clearly support the broader phrasing.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “timbre” as a sound property perceived as different from pitch.; The packet mentions “pitch-timbre confusions” and examples involving “dark” timbre and pitch labeling, but it does not state that timbre is “different from pitch” or describe the general listener-perception distinction described in the definition.; The packet supports pitch–timbre interference/confusion and a ‘dark’ timbre example, but it does not support the added ‘lighter’ descriptor or present timbre as a general property contrasted with pitch in definitional form. New packet required. Source: [Stilp Christian E.; Adames Isabel; Shorey Anya E.. Multiple timescales of context influence perceptual sensitivity to common pairings of musical pitch and timbre. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328490; article XML SHA-256 eddc796098feb8f0b6dab68c28a4b1e6b618c7b65fac371d300d02fb1baad7b2. “Multiple timescales of context influence perceptual sensitivity to common pairings of musical pitch and timbre” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328490).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328490) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- time distortion [redraft]: The definition adds interpretive content not present in the source packet, so the core sense is not fully supported by the provided text.; The definition claims that time distortion refers to a “changed sense of time while a person is engaged in an activity,” but the provided packet text only lists “time distortion” as a flow dimension and does not define it that way.; The definition says the cited study treats time distortion as “one of three flow dimensions in competitive sailing.” The packet supports that time distortion is among three flow dimensions (concentration, sense of control, time distortion) in competitive sailing, but the unsupported definitional description remains a substantive mismatch.; The packet supports that time distortion is one of three flow dimensions in a competitive sailing study, but it does not define time distortion as a “changed sense of time” or otherwise state that meaning. New packet required. Source: [Hsu Cheng-Yu. Differential motivational pathways to flow experience in competitive sailing. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1784085; article XML SHA-256 1f18d7bede3e5f9fa057b2f2b231910a1eaeca37058a100094a1af127579fb73. “Differential motivational pathways to flow experience in competitive sailing” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1784085).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1784085) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- timed test [redraft]: Defines the Stroop task, not the headword 'timed test' in its normal sense New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Stroop Test” (D057190).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D057190) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- Tofranil [redraft]: The definition adds a brand-name relationship that is not supported by the supplied source text.; The definition states that “Tofranil is a brand name for imipramine hydrochloride,” but the provided packet text does not explicitly link the name “Tofranil” to imipramine (it only describes “imipramine hydrochloride”).; The definition’s content is largely about the pharmacology and effects of imipramine, but the packet does not provide any cognition-specific framing; as written, the definition is not well-aligned with the requested field (“cognition”).; The packet supports imipramine hydrochloride and its pharmacologic effects, but it does not state that Tofranil is a brand name for that substance. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Imipramine Hydrochloride” (C29116).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- tokenism [redraft]: The contrast with lived experience–led work is supported only in a research-methods context, so the definition should not present broader claims about tokenism as a general concept beyond that limited setting.; The packet does not define “tokenism” or explicitly state it is a “superficial form of inclusion.”; The packet does not support the wording that tokenism “appears participatory but” is non-collaborative, nor the specific contrast phrasing about “lived experience–led work that meaningfully shares relationships and input.”; The packet only mentions “participatory, lived experience–led research … grounded in trust, reciprocity, and collaboration beyond tokenism,” but does not support the specific mechanism that tokenism involves “lacks genuine trust, reciprocity, and collaboration.”; The packet only says participatory, lived experience–led research should be grounded in “trust, reciprocity, and collaboration beyond tokenism”; it does not define tokenism as a “superficial form of inclusion” or explicitly state that it lacks genuine trust and collaboration.; “In this context, it contrasts with…” is not substantiated beyond the single “beyond tokenism” phrase in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Fedorowicz Sophia; Dempsey Robert C.; Ellis Naomi; Gidlow Christopher. “Hopeless but supported in that hopelessness”: a qualitative study of how people experience talking to a GP about suicide. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1744949; article XML SHA-256 e4e5f416c8d20cb0a3cb079674c8b1a928a89529640f28bb8ef2481afd0e32f6. ““Hopeless but supported in that hopelessness”: a qualitative study of how people experience talking to a GP about suicide” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1744949).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1744949) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- tolerance limit [redraft]: Narrows a general headword to one traffic law's blood alcohol limit via context hedge New packet required. Source: [Guimarães Rafael Alves; de Morais Neto Otaliba Libânio; dos Santos Taciana Mirella Batista; Mandacarú Polyana Maria Pimenta; Machado Elaine Leandro; Caiaffa Waleska Teixeira; Filho Paulo Roberto Prezotti; de Aquino Érika Carvalho; Reisen Valdério Anselmo. Impact of the program life in traffic and new zero-tolerance drinking and driving law on the prevalence of driving after alcohol abuse in Brazilian capitals: An interrupted time series analysis. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0288288; article XML SHA-256 6cf3927b335a972982847e4031d14ece478eee9e26bf86aa854878899a4d0919. “Impact of the program life in traffic and new zero-tolerance drinking and driving law on the prevalence of driving after alcohol abuse in Brazilian capitals: An interrupted time series analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0288288).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0288288) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ton- [redraft]: The definition adds a broader assessment-use framing that is only partially supported by the source and goes beyond the packet’s specific claim about identifying Techniques of Neutralization in interviews with offenders.; The definition claims that identifying these justifications can “inform understanding of offending patterns,” but the packet only states the identification provides information on “criminodynamics,” without explicitly mentioning “offending patterns.”; The definition says it can inform “possible intervention planning,” while the packet specifically refers to “possible intervention strategies,” and does not explicitly use the planning framing.; “offending patterns” is not supported by the packet; the source mentions criminodynamics, risk assessment, and possible intervention strategies, but not pattern analysis. New packet required. Source: [Pacchioni Federico; Flutti Emma; Caruso Palmina; Fregna Lorenzo; Attanasio Francesco; Passani Carolina; Colombo Cristina; Travaini Guido. Generative AI and criminology: A threat or a promise? Exploring the potential and pitfalls in the identification of Techniques of Neutralization (ToN). 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0319793; article XML SHA-256 0de7f893a6f94444981ca08bcd76b5de2494fb1161312ea30414550ed0439304. “Generative AI and criminology: A threat or a promise? Exploring the potential and pitfalls in the identification of Techniques of Neutralization (ToN)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0319793).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0319793) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- tonal language [redraft]: The definition adds unsupported details about “stored tone categories” and about speakers using them “when learning and producing words”; the packet only supports that lexical tones are relevant in speech and in tone learning, not this fuller account.; The packet does not provide a general definition of what a “tonal language” is (e.g., that lexical tones are part of the sound system, or that pitch patterns map to stored tone categories for producing words).; The packet only uses the term descriptively in the context of the study (Mandarin and Cantonese as tonal languages) and discusses tone learning outcomes, perception vs. production, and “mental representations”/“tonal categories,” but it does not state the requested definition claims.; The packet supports Mandarin and Cantonese as examples, but the broader definitional claim that a tonal language is one “in which lexical tones are part of the sound system” is not explicitly stated in the source packet.; The specific phrasing about pitch patterns belonging to “stored tone categories” and being used for learning/producing words is not explicitly supported in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Kaile; Peng Gang; Li Yonghong; Minett James W.; Wang William S-Y.. The Effect of Speech Variability on Tonal Language Speakers’ Second Language Lexical Tone Learning. 2018; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01982; article XML SHA-256 dda918593185c445349ab71522df00c781bd09228754b184ad1c05d7b6cb82db. “The Effect of Speech Variability on Tonal Language Speakers’ Second Language Lexical Tone Learning” (10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01982).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01982) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- tonal sensation [redraft]: The definition slightly overstates the sense by presenting it as simply the conscious hearing of a tone or sound-pitch; the packet frames this as an experimental example of a tonal sensation in a historical psychology text, not a general settled definition.; The definition’s first sentence contains substantive explanatory claims not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define “tonal sensation” as “the conscious hearing of a tone or sound-pitch.” It only mentions the phrase in connection with Fechner’s experiment using a tuning-fork.; The packet does not state that tonal sensation “may fade from awareness even while the physical stimulation is still being considered.” It only describes that the tonal sensation has entirely ceased before removing the fork, followed by hearing a faint tone when the fork is brought to the ear again.; The second sentence adds an unsupported claim: the packet’s tuning-fork example only says the tonal sensation can cease and a faint tone may later return; it does not say the experience fades while the physical stimulation is still being considered. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4095000-4107000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- tonic [redraft]: Defines a study's 4 Hz stimulation condition rather than the general meaning of tonic New packet required. Source: [Soares Sabrina; Schmelz Martin; Carr Richard; Sohns Kyra; Rukwied Roman. Assessing NaV1.7 during tonic firing in pig C-nociceptors. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335081; article XML SHA-256 7c80dc4ea310577fe6401f43555ac3adeca10c5fa2e6f4e6b03803996f3ffc98. “Assessing NaV1.7 during tonic firing in pig C-nociceptors” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335081).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335081) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- tool design [redraft]: The definition claims the design factors affect “comfort,” but the provided packet does not explicitly mention comfort as an outcome or factor influenced by tool design (it discusses musculoskeletal disorder risk, efficiency, satisfaction, and maintenance).; The definition generalizes from one agricultural study to tool design in general; the packet only supports hand tool design in the Peruvian Andean farming context.; The packet supports technical and contextual factors in hand tool design, but it does not explicitly support “comfort” as a feature or outcome. New packet required. Source: [Cruz-Ausejo Liliana; Abad Castillo José del Carmen; Cardenal Claudia; Hasan MD Zahid; Bhattacharya Amit; Galea Jerome T. Andean agriculture and hand tools: A qualitative approach of exploration of needs, barriers, and opportunities for innovation. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335295; article XML SHA-256 833fb8fbbf3641eef5d193d39d0653b2574fa232e69f1454f4672181fc643272. “Andean agriculture and hand tools: A qualitative approach of exploration of needs, barriers, and opportunities for innovation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335295).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335295) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- topology [redraft]: The definition adds a broader network-structure gloss that is not stated in the packet; the packet only discusses node degree, communication range, and average degree in the context of a topology control algorithm.; The packet does not explicitly define “topology” as “the pattern of connections among nodes in a network”; it only discusses “topology control” and uses node degree/communication range as performance-related quantities.; The packet supports topology as an important factor affecting SDWSN performance, but it does not explicitly define topology as the pattern of connections among nodes or mention links per node in those terms.; While the packet supports the idea that topology affects network performance and references node degree (how connected nodes are) as a target, the specific wording about “how many links each node has” as a defining feature is not directly stated as part of the packet’s definition of topology. New packet required. Source: [Binh Le Huu; T. Duong Thuy-Van; Le Duc Huy. FRLTC: A new topology control algorithm using federated reinforcement learning for software-defined wireless sensor network in IoT. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355604; article XML SHA-256 453ad5087d34d62464ff388dd7ae1a9eef4b1d9c6acc85342fd61b073447ff4a. “FRLTC: A new topology control algorithm using federated reinforcement learning for software-defined wireless sensor network in IoT” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355604).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355604) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- torsades de pointes [redraft]: The definition adds or overstates phrasing not supported as written, including "life-threatening abnormal heart rhythm" and "important risk in medicine safety"; the packet supports a drug-induced life-threatening arrhythmia associated with QT prolongation and medicine withdrawal, but not that exact framing.; The packet content is about drug-induced cardiac toxicity (torsades de pointes/QT prolongation) and medicine withdrawal risk, not about mental health or psychological counselling context; therefore the requested field “mental health” is not defensible from the provided packet.; The requested field is wrong: the packet is about a cardiac arrhythmia and drug safety, not a mental health/counselling concept. New packet required. Source: [Park Jeonghyeon; Noh Keumhan; Lee Hae Won; Lim Mi-sun; Seong Sook Jin; Seo Jeong Ju; Kim Eun-Jung; Kang Wonku; Yoon Young-Ran. Pharmacometabolomic Approach to Predict QT Prolongation in Guinea Pigs. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0060556; article XML SHA-256 8222e7518b5bac74a4b54e2a46f4a30f36c6c7e6feb6c848bde3b59daec856ca. “Pharmacometabolomic Approach to Predict QT Prolongation in Guinea Pigs” (10.1371/journal.pone.0060556).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0060556) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- total recall [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define “total recall” as bringing back an associate “as a whole” rather than “in part” or by narrowed features. The passage only suggests alternative labels (“Total recall, partial recall, and focalized recall, of associates, would be better terms”) without stating the “whole vs part” meaning in those terms.; The packet supports that James proposed “total recall” as a better term and that it nearly matches “association by similarity,” but it does not explicitly support the added gloss that one mental item brings back another “as a whole” rather than “only in part” or by a “narrowed feature.”; The wording “in this historical psychology usage” is broader than the packet, which only shows James’s proposed nomenclature in a specific text passage, not a settled historical usage.; While the packet does support a connection between James’s wording and “association by similarity” (it discusses “association by similarity” and explains a choice of terminology), the specific claim that “total recall” is a proposed label for a recall type “closely overlapping” that process is not stated with enough precision to fully support the definition as written. New packet required. Source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8) ([public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628))

- tox- [redraft]: The claim that tox- refers to toxicity or harmful effects is broadly consistent with the packet, but the added reference to 'learning-related contexts' is unsupported by the source.; The example phrases ('ADME-Tox profiling' and 'cytotoxic activity') are drawn from the packet, but the definition goes beyond the packet by generalizing the term’s usage across fields.; The packet does not state that “Tox-” is a shortened form; it only contains the substring in “ADME-Tox” and mentions “cytotoxic activities,” so the definition’s claim about the term being a shortened form is unsupported.; The packet supports only a biomedical/toxicology-related prefix sense, not a learning-related context.; While the packet mentions “cytotoxic activities” and “ADME-Tox profiling,” it does not explicitly define “tox-” as referring to toxicity/harmful effects in general learning contexts; the definition provides more general scope than what is directly supported by the text provided. New packet required. Source: [El Fadili Mohamed; Er-rajy Mohammed; Mujwar Somdutt; Samadi Abdelouahid; Chtita Samir; Elhallaoui Menana. Computational modeling for rational design of novel phenoxy tacrine derivatives targeting Alzheimer’s disease. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0343723; article XML SHA-256 3c036272b146aef824dc8c53fe9bd69720ccb62e9acfa254d62f0a1bb403137e. “Computational modeling for rational design of novel phenoxy tacrine derivatives targeting Alzheimer’s disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0343723).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0343723) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- toxic psychosis [redraft]: Form failure: the definition talks about what the packet supports instead of defining New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Tetraethyl Lead” (D013756).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D013756) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- toxicology [redraft]: The definition adds a broad generalization about toxicology that is not established by the supplied source packet.; The definition’s first sentence claims a general characterization of toxicology (“the study of how toxic substances affect the body, including the biological mechanisms…”), but the provided packet does not define toxicology in this general way; it only describes a study using “network toxicology” to explore mechanisms.; The packet provides support for the portion about using molecular mechanisms/targets/pathways to examine aflatoxin B1’s relationship to asthma (e.g., molecular docking, core targets, and pathway enrichment), but because the general definitional claim is unsupported, the full definition cannot be accepted.; The packet supports a study of aflatoxin B1, asthma, molecular targets, pathways, and network toxicology, but it does not define toxicology as the general study of how toxic substances affect the body or of biological mechanisms of illness. New packet required. Source: [Yu Zhiyue; Gao Ming; Wu Xiaowen; Li Jiaxiang; Liu Baijun; Wang Rui; Tan Jing; Yu Xiangyan; Geng Limei. Potential mechanisms and effects of AFB 1 -induced asthma: A comprehensive analysis based on network toxicology and molecular docking. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0341172; article XML SHA-256 10d2d10ca1430bc85008d50cedc938c8cb85dfbe38a72fc8b1502eacf3276433. “Potential mechanisms and effects of AFB 1 -induced asthma: A comprehensive analysis based on network toxicology and molecular docking” (10.1371/journal.pone.0341172).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0341172) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- tracking [redraft]: The definition narrows “tracking” to a specific eye-tracking sense without clear support from the packet.; The packet does not explicitly define “tracking” as “monitoring where a person looks.” It only describes a scoping review of “eye-tracking literature.”; The packet does not state that the purpose is “so researchers can study attention and decision-making.” It discusses cognitive decision-making and maps eye-tracking domains, but does not explicitly connect eye-tracking to attention in the way the definition claims.; The packet supports eye-tracking research on cognitive decision-making in police use-of-force, but it does not define the term “tracking” itself as monitoring gaze or looking behavior.; The phrase “used to examine cognitive processes during tasks such as police use-of-force decisions” is only partially supported; the source is a scoping review of the literature, not a direct definition of the term.; The remainder is only partially supported: the packet indicates eye-tracking research on cognitive decision-making in police use-of-force, but the definition’s added explanations about attention/monitoring are not directly supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Li Yaoguang; Cui Wenlai. Cognitive decision-making in police use of force: a scoping review based on eye-tracking research. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1837475; article XML SHA-256 5caf1fc7e3a968f4a442a8148cf27b994a33fe7e5ac1c46b9cf54a7a37cf0dd5. “Cognitive decision-making in police use of force: a scoping review based on eye-tracking research” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1837475).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1837475) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- tradition [redraft]: Although the packet discusses the Nāṭyaśāstra/Naṭarāja context and proposes a framework that treats codified movement units as “repeatable and teachable” forms tied to stimulus-driven bodily responses (and explicitly frames somatic experience as “simultaneously physiological and cultural”), it does not provide support for the full multi-part general definition stated in the prompt.; The definition’s general characterization of tradition as “an established cultural framework of practices and meanings through which knowledge is organized, repeated, and taught over time” is not supported anywhere in the packet text provided.; The opening, broad definition of tradition as an established cultural framework through which knowledge is organized, repeated, and taught is not directly supported by the packet.; The packet text does not support the specific wording that codified movement forms are “shaped by both bodily regulation and culture” in the precise sense claimed; it instead frames its hypotheses and reinterpretations more narrowly (e.g., epistemic/functional claim and interlocking proposals).; The specific gloss on the Nāṭyaśāstra/Naṭarāja tradition adds a general claim about cultural and pedagogical transmission that goes beyond the packet’s narrower discussion of codified movement units and somatic interpretation. New packet required. Source: [Samanta Swapan. The body before the dance somatic codification, elemental self-regulation, and contemplative recognition in the Naṭarāja tradition. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872500; article XML SHA-256 06d4bc86081fd17885711d564b4238f1694d82165973cda0b134d60b0651fa18. “The body before the dance somatic codification, elemental self-regulation, and contemplative recognition in the Naṭarāja tradition” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872500).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872500) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- transcription [redraft]: The claim that transcription “refers to cellular activity that can be reduced or altered, rather than to a psychological assessment or counselling technique” is not supported anywhere in the packet.; The contrast with a psychological assessment or counselling technique is unsupported and out of scope for the source packet.; The definition adds specific mechanistic detail about general transcription factors and RNA polymerase II that is not directly defined in the packet.; The packet does not define “transcription” as a gene-expression process carried out with general transcription factors and RNA Polymerase II; it only mentions TFIIA (a general transcription factor), TBP, TFIIB, and RNA polymerase II in the context of suppressing an ORC mutation phenotype.; The packet supports transcription in a molecular biology/gene-expression context, not the supplied field of cognition; the field is not defensible here. New packet required. Source: [Martínez-Rodríguez Luis E.; Bell Stephen P.. A lethal ORC ATPase mutation is suppressed by alterations in ORC and RNA Pol II transcription components. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0349465; article XML SHA-256 3820b309cad3fa36441e58aea2efbfd12a73ff9c9d31a7caafba113ce2e50d1a. “A lethal ORC ATPase mutation is suppressed by alterations in ORC and RNA Pol II transcription components” (10.1371/journal.pone.0349465).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0349465) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- transduction [redraft]: The definition reads like a general textbook explanation rather than a packet-grounded sense gloss; the source only shows transduction as a study category or signaling-related transcript set in Parkinson’s disease tissue.; The definition’s specific claims—e.g., “set of intracellular signalling steps,” converting “a received signal…into downstream biological effects,” and “signalling pathways and related gene activity that carry and shape those signals”—are not explicitly supported or described in the packet text provided.; The packet does not provide a definition of “transduction.” It only uses the terms “transduction processes” and “signal transduction transcripts” in the context of gene-expression mapping.; The packet uses ‘signal transduction’/‘transduction processes’ in a gene-expression study, but it does not support the broad definitional claim that transduction is the general intracellular process by which a cell converts receptor activation into downstream biological effects.; The phrase ‘related gene activity that carry and shape those signals within cells’ goes beyond the packet’s wording and adds unsupported generalization about gene activity as part of the definition. New packet required. Source: [Haynes John M.. G-protein coupled receptor, signal and signal-transduction related transcript mapping in nigral volume and pigmented neurons reveals a potential deficit of nigral feedback signals associated with Parkinson’s disease. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352503; article XML SHA-256 6abb81bbe3992b63b6ce24d18ecbcc67de50d2e3a7ae6eb74bf155a8c718c1a1. “G-protein coupled receptor, signal and signal-transduction related transcript mapping in nigral volume and pigmented neurons reveals a potential deficit of nigral feedback signals associated with Parkinson’s disease” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352503).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352503) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- transgender [redraft]: Does not define the headword; describes the packet and its absence of a definition New packet required. Source: [Fiala Ludek; Kestlerova Daniela; Nespor Jakub; Lenz Jiri. Early biopsychological changes during masculinizing gender-affirming hormone therapy in AFAB transgender individuals: a 4-month prospective study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1847778; article XML SHA-256 b42ee122b9a07c19ac10d621dc3c662d9a2806f13e54cec00c2fd2fe0f9bbea2. “Early biopsychological changes during masculinizing gender-affirming hormone therapy in AFAB transgender individuals: a 4-month prospective study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1847778).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1847778) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- translation [redraft]: The claim that translation “still require[s] human judgment and decision-making” is not directly formulated in the packet as part of a definition of translation; the packet discusses preserving “translator decision-making”/“human agency,” which is related but not the same as defining translation itself.; The definition’s core claim that “Translation is the process of rendering meaning from one language into another” is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text.; The definition’s phrasing “In this learning context, it is treated as a competence that includes linguistic accuracy and cultural transmission” is only partially supported: the packet reports an intervention affecting “textual faithfulness,” “linguistic appropriateness,” and “cultural transmission,” but it does not define translation competence as including these specific elements.; The packet discusses translation pedagogy and translation competence, but it does not define translation itself as the general process of rendering meaning from one language into another.; The statement that “quality [is] judged by how faithfully and appropriately the message is expressed” is only indirectly reflected (via reported outcomes like “textual faithfulness” and “linguistic appropriateness”), but the packet does not present this as the definition’s basis for judging quality.; “Cultural transmission” and “human judgment and decision-making” are only partly supported as pedagogical concerns; the packet says AI had limited ability to cultivate culturally sensitive translation skills and should not substitute for translator decision-making, but it does not define translation as a competence that includes these elements.; “Quality judged by how faithfully and appropriately the message is expressed” goes beyond the packet; the text only reports measured effects on textual faithfulness and linguistic appropriateness, not a general definition of translation quality. New packet required. Source: [Xue Weihe. The effects of AI-collaborative translation workshop on translation competence and learner engagement: an empirical study in a Chinese university translation course. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1918404; article XML SHA-256 0c34f03ff4184dba028de8fcb94fbd82273da6aec6ca25844d10b9b99e04ad0d. “The effects of AI-collaborative translation workshop on translation competence and learner engagement: an empirical study in a Chinese university translation course” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1918404).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1918404) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- transsynaptic degeneration [redraft]: Only the stroke-related, contralateral spinal cord ventral horn context is mentioned (and described as debated); the packet does not provide enough basis for the broader synapse-connected/general mechanism description in the first sentence.; The added explanation about stroke-related injury leading to degeneration of motor neurons in the opposite side of the spinal cord ventral horn goes beyond the source text, which does not state that this outcome occurs, only that it is debated.; The definition’s first substantive claim (“nerve cell deterioration… in neurons connected across a synapse after damage elsewhere in the pathway”) is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet only says that the existence of transsynaptic degeneration of contralateral spinal cord ventral horn neurons after acute ischemic stroke is debated; it does not define transsynaptic degeneration as a general process of nerve cell deterioration across a synapse after damage elsewhere in the pathway. New packet required. Source: [Zhang Lei; Liu Jingwen; Liu Mingsheng. Transsynaptic degeneration of ventral horn motor neurons exists but plays a minor role in lower motor system dysfunction in acute ischemic rats. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0298006; article XML SHA-256 ecd989d458a4f72901c04435f1b5fb63b4aded44450bbd3f1cc2fe76bac37575. “Transsynaptic degeneration of ventral horn motor neurons exists but plays a minor role in lower motor system dysfunction in acute ischemic rats” (10.1371/journal.pone.0298006).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298006) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- traumagenic [redraft]: The added explanation about childhood sexual abuse survivors being left with a distorted sense of time, disorientation, memory problems, and confusion is only partially supported; the packet mentions time and space disorientation, memory deficit, chaos, exhaustion, and confusion, but not the broader causal definition stated in the response.; The packet does not define *traumagenic* as a general adjective meaning “producing or shaped by psychological trauma.” It only says “captured in a distorted time” is one of the traumagenic constructs of childhood sexual abuse.; The packet does not support the general definition “Traumagenic means producing or shaped by psychological trauma.” It only refers to “traumagenic constructs of childhood sexual abuse” and discusses outcomes.; While the packet supports links to childhood sexual abuse survivors reporting time and space disorientation and memory deficit, the definition’s first sentence presents an unverified general meaning of the term rather than only what the packet supports. New packet required. Source: [Jacobs-Kayam Angi; Lev-Wiesel Rachel. In Limbo: Time Perspective and Memory Deficit Among Female Survivors of Sexual Abuse. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00912; article XML SHA-256 673507f805e895cb417a3de9168f820f5007f26abf4dc0084dcb25a60e874bdf. “In Limbo: Time Perspective and Memory Deficit Among Female Survivors of Sexual Abuse” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00912).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00912) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- traumatic grief [redraft]: Reads as a diagnostic criteria list and maps the headword onto a different named disorder New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Prolonged Grief Disorder” (C176886).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- traveling salesperson problem [redraft]: The definition adds a specific route-planning interpretation that is not stated in the source packet and goes beyond the supported sense of the term.; The packet does not state that TSP involves “judging how well a person plans an efficient route among multiple points,” so that part of the definition is unsupported.; The packet supports TSP as a psychometric test of strategic optimization, but it does not support the added explanation that it involves judging how well a person plans an efficient route among multiple points.; The packet supports that the Traveling Salesperson Problem (TSP) is used as a cognitive/psychometric test and is labeled as measuring “strategic optimization.” New packet required. Source: [Dry Matthew J.; Burns Nicholas R.; Nettelbeck Ted; Farquharson Aaron L.; White Jason M.. Dose-Related Effects of Alcohol on Cognitive Functioning. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0050977; article XML SHA-256 0b65a2914340a24d99e3f393902838fc8a86b4cc1d8c3607559526e703409ac1. “Dose-Related Effects of Alcohol on Cognitive Functioning” (10.1371/journal.pone.0050977).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050977) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- treatment facility [redraft]: Claims in the definition about “trauma center” as an example and “specialized, such as…” are not explicitly defined or supported as the term’s meaning in the packet.; The added gloss “or therapy” is unsupported by the source text.; The definition goes beyond the packet’s wording by generalizing from ‘specialized trauma centers’ and a ‘non-specialized treatment facility’ to a broader service-site definition.; The packet does not provide a general definition of “treatment facility” (e.g., as a clinical setting where people receive care/therapy).; The packet only mentions “specialized trauma centers” and feasibility in a “non-specialized treatment facility,” without stating what a treatment facility is or its broader meaning.; The packet only supports the term in the narrow sense of a specialized or non-specialized treatment site; it does not define a treatment facility as any clinical setting where people receive care or therapy. New packet required. Source: [Evensen Julie Horgen; Engeset Jeanette; Jakobsen Marianne; Malkomsen Anders; Vaage-Kowalzik Veronica. Intensive trauma-focused treatment for PTSD and Complex PTSD in a public clinic: a feasibility study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1869412; article XML SHA-256 dab2acef606f67a6fdda0beab8a8aa53210d9131ba2e4ebfea5aa53e723c1d7e. “Intensive trauma-focused treatment for PTSD and Complex PTSD in a public clinic: a feasibility study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1869412).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1869412) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- treatment outcome research [redraft]: Claims in the definition—such as that the research “examines what results follow treatment” and assesses whether “differences in health or symptoms are linked to particular factors”—are not supported anywhere in the packet text provided.; The added gloss about examining whether differences in health or symptoms are linked to particular factors is not supported by the source text.; The definition includes a broad framing inconsistent with the packet’s limited context (a background statement about vitamin D deficiency, psychotic features, and potential health disparity implications), so the requested term sense is not defensibly established.; The definition’s specific addition that it “refers to studying how factors like health disparities may relate to treatment results” is only loosely implied by the single sentence about “health disparity and treatment outcome research,” but the packet does not support the more specific characterization about relating disparities to treatment results.; The packet does not provide a definition or any detailed description of what “treatment outcome research” means; it only uses the phrase in passing (“…may have special implications for health disparity and treatment outcome research”).; The packet only mentions the phrase in passing and does not define treatment outcome research, so the definition’s substantive explanation is unsupported.; The specific claim that this context refers to studying how health disparities may relate to treatment results goes beyond the packet; the source only says such findings may have implications for health disparity and treatment outcome research. New packet required. Source: [Gracious Barbara L; Finucane Teresa L; Friedman-Campbell Meriel; Messing Susan; Parkhurst Melissa N. Vitamin D deficiency and psychotic features in mentally ill adolescents: A cross-sectional study. 2012; DOI 10.1186/1471-244x-12-38; article XML SHA-256 82ee74340072efe74ea48e5d030004364aefa4d07081efc0fbdc08e4f91779ff. “Vitamin D deficiency and psychotic features in mentally ill adolescents: A cross-sectional study” (10.1186/1471-244x-12-38).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244x-12-38) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- treatment validity [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the packet by presenting treatment validity as a general mental-health dictionary concept, while the source only supports a specific study’s use of the term for the TLISS spine-trauma algorithm.; The packet describes thoracolumbar spine fracture assessment and surgical management (surgeons, TLISS, thoracolumbar injuries), not mental health. The definition’s “field: mental health” context is therefore not supported by the provided packet.; The source supports agreement with the algorithm’s management recommendation, but not the broader phrasing about a scale or decision method generally leading to treatment choices judged appropriate by professionals.; The supplied source is about thoracolumbar spine injuries and surgeons, not mental health or counselling, so the requested field/sense is not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Ratliff John; Anand Neel; Vaccaro Alexander R; Lim Moe R; Lee Joon Y; Arnold Paul; Harrop James S; Rampersaud Raja; Bono Christopher M; Gahr Ralf H; Trauma Study Group Spine. Regional variability in use of a novel assessment of thoracolumbar spine fractures: United States versus international surgeons. 2007; DOI 10.1186/1749-7922-2-24; article XML SHA-256 7b8a692d8297ade5a59683281b565a1deb063d7ceee687bb007154138fba1c95. “Regional variability in use of a novel assessment of thoracolumbar spine fractures: United States versus international surgeons” (10.1186/1749-7922-2-24).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1749-7922-2-24) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- TRH [redraft]: The definition should not be validated as a diagnosis entry when the source only supports biochemical/physiological statements about TRH and TRH-like peptides.; The provided definition describes TRH’s biological signaling roles (brain-gut axis, distribution, neuroprotective effects), not any diagnostic meaning of “TRH,” so it does not fit the requested field of “diagnosis.”; The requested field is not defensible here: TRH is being defined as a peptide/hormone term from a neuroscience/biology article, not as a diagnosis or psychology/counselling term. New packet required. Source: [Pekary Albert Eugene; Sattin Albert. Rifaximin modulates TRH and TRH-like peptide expression throughout the brain and peripheral tissues of male rats. 2022; DOI 10.1186/s12868-022-00694-z; article XML SHA-256 4171b433841da2e868523c5ccf906c813fd5516ea24919fc3268a789a29887df. “Rifaximin modulates TRH and TRH-like peptide expression throughout the brain and peripheral tissues of male rats” (10.1186/s12868-022-00694-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-022-00694-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- trigger [redraft]: Because the requested definition goes beyond what the packet explicitly states about the meaning of “trigger,” the first sentence contains unsupported generalization.; The definition generalizes beyond the source by presenting a cause-and-effect meaning for "trigger" that is not stated in the packet.; The packet does not define “trigger” as something that “sets off or brings on a reaction”; it only states that panic attacks can occur “even when there is no clear danger or trigger.”; The packet supports only that panic attacks can occur when there is no clear trigger; it does not define a trigger as something that sets off or brings on a panic attack. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Panic Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 ce43f2b6abfacd0fc7080a4c735434c92c7c9223822c428dafe4ddf9f8731cf7. “Panic Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/panic-disorder-when-fear-overwhelms).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/panic-disorder-when-fear-overwhelms) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- trip [redraft]: Describes how a prediction study treats trip data rather than defining the term New packet required. Source: [Luo Dan; Zhao Fang; Zhou Hao; Wang Chenxing; Xiong Hao. MTSA-SC: A multi-task learning approach for individual trip destination prediction with multi-trajectory subsequence alignment and space-aware loss functions. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325471; article XML SHA-256 92668778f58b885164e9fde39c6ba9f3c45cd45b022a3af6e05136dcdcd3d9f3. “MTSA-SC: A multi-task learning approach for individual trip destination prediction with multi-trajectory subsequence alignment and space-aware loss functions” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325471).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325471) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- true variance [redraft]: Although the packet supports that researchers consider parameters including “hypothesized true variance in change” when searching for longitudinal study designs and that the framework relates to statistical power (“equal statistical power,” “power equivalence theory,” and tool “geared toward the power to detect variance in change”), the definition’s additional measurement-error contrast is not supported.; The definition adds an unsupported contrast with variability from imperfect measurement; the packet mentions indicator reliability and true variance in change, but does not define true variance as the opposite of measurement error.; The definition states that true variance is “the real underlying amount of variability… as opposed to variability introduced by imperfect measurement.” The packet only mentions “hypothesized true variance in change” as a design-dimension for longitudinal study planning, but does not define any contrast with “imperfect measurement” or measurement error.; The definition’s framing is not clearly grounded in the provided packet’s “ethical considerations” wording; while ethics are mentioned as a constraint in design search, the packet does not connect the term “true variance” to ethics specifically beyond it being part of the design parameter space.; The phrase "in a phenomenon" is broader than the packet’s specific sense, which is true variance in change in a longitudinal study design context.; The requested field is not defensible from the source: the packet places the term in longitudinal study design/power planning, not ethics. New packet required. Source: [Brandmaier Andreas M.; von Oertzen Timo; Ghisletta Paolo; Hertzog Christopher; Lindenberger Ulman. LIFESPAN: A tool for the computer-aided design of longitudinal studies. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00272; article XML SHA-256 4de5c2a0c5e2d6bf0405b1acddf664546cf9158472d957dd62f0b8b0c86da793. “LIFESPAN: A tool for the computer-aided design of longitudinal studies” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00272).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00272) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- TSP [redraft]: The definition uses “TSP” (without the “-1”), while the packet’s abbreviation is explicitly “TSP-1”; the mapping from “TSP” to “thrombospondin-1” is not explicitly established in the provided text.; The packet does not support the claim that “TSP usually refers to thrombospondin-1”; it only states “Thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1)” in this source.; The packet supports thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1), not the standalone abbreviation TSP, so the requested term/sense is not firmly matched.; “Usually refers to” is not supported by the source packet; the packet only says that thrombospondin-1 is an endogenous protein with multiple biological roles and an inhibitory effect on neovascularization. New packet required. Source: [Li Yadi; Deng Aiping; Jiao Kangwei; Yan Jie; Zuo Wandong; Dong Yujie; Xu Wenrong; Li Yuting; Guo Chunming; Chen Maorong; Tian Run; Hu Zhulin. Active peptides of TSP-1 inhibit retinal angiogenesis through the CD36 pathway in a rat model of choroidal neovascularization. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0325661; article XML SHA-256 700c14f4e5f6796e61591934c0185885a56497ca4f6807721ca64ca0f2431837. “Active peptides of TSP-1 inhibit retinal angiogenesis through the CD36 pathway in a rat model of choroidal neovascularization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0325661).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0325661) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- TUI [redraft]: Headword TUI is not an abbreviation for Tui Na; equivalence is invented and sense does not fit headword. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Tui Na” (C94252).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- tumor [redraft]: Circular 'growth of tumor cells' plus a sentence summarising the review's findings; does not define the term. New packet required. Source: [Ren Mingming; Kong Jianda; Luan Chuankai; Mu Yujing. The role of depression in the progression of tumor cell inflammation and the potential regulatory mechanisms of aerobic exercise: a narrative review from molecular and cellular perspectives. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1683058; article XML SHA-256 052b32a6538fa12e2eb5911b828d11690dab6671a36bb0ea53f431a75c2f2b55. “The role of depression in the progression of tumor cell inflammation and the potential regulatory mechanisms of aerobic exercise: a narrative review from molecular and cellular perspectives” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1683058).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1683058) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- two-point discrimination [redraft]: The claim that, “In this packet, it is used as a sensory test of the upper extremity or dominant hand” is only partially supported: the packet specifies it as “two-point discrimination sense of the dominant hand” and also refers to “upper extremity,” but does not clearly connect these to the exact wording of the definition’s framing.; The definition adds a general explanatory description of the test that is not supported by the supplied source packet.; The packet does not explicitly define two-point discrimination as the ability to tell two nearby touches apart versus a single touch; it only mentions that “two-point discrimination sense” was measured.; The packet does not state that it is a “somatosensory measure” in the definitional sense; it only describes the study’s use of “sensory tests … and two-point discrimination.”; The packet supports that two-point discrimination was used as a sensory test of the dominant hand or upper extremity, but it does not define the term as the ability to distinguish two nearby skin touches from one touch. New packet required. Source: [Gökşen Ayşenur; İnce Gonca. Sensory function and somatosensorial system changes according to visual acuity and throwing techniques in goalball players: A cross-sectional study. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0296948; article XML SHA-256 447dbf3be32c260725e4052b9c80c501d1f09d49849d7db97d90486de8773fd6. “Sensory function and somatosensorial system changes according to visual acuity and throwing techniques in goalball players: A cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0296948).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296948) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- two-way interaction [redraft]: The packet describes adopting an “interaction concept as defined in log-linear models” and using it for MPT models, but it does not provide the stated general definition or the specific interpretation about changes in the relation depending on the other factor’s level.; The packet supports that the paper discusses ordinal and disordinal two-way interaction hypotheses in MPT models, but it does not explicitly define a two-way interaction as a combined effect of two factors or as a case where the relation between one factor and an outcome changes depending on the other factor’s level.; The provided packet does not explicitly define “two-way interaction” in the way the definition states (as a combined effect vs separate main effects, and specifically as testing whether a factor–outcome relation changes across levels of the other factor).; The wording broadens the source beyond what is shown in the packet; the packet only says the interaction concept from log-linear models is applied to MPT models and tested, not the general explanatory definition given here. New packet required. Source: [Kuhlmann Beatrice G.; Erdfelder Edgar; Moshagen Morten. Testing Interactions in Multinomial Processing Tree Models. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02364; article XML SHA-256 bfdea59de067506ad7aabe36b65b4165aa05a429e019dbf07e5413c222fff5c3. “Testing Interactions in Multinomial Processing Tree Models” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02364).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02364) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- type identity theory [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define “type identity theory” as the view that mental properties/processes correspond to specific neural types (the definition mentions “psychoneural type-identity theory” only as something challenged by MRT, without stating its content).; The packet supports type identity theory only as the psychoneural theory challenged by multiple realization; it does not explicitly define it as a full claim that all mental properties or processes correspond to specific neural types, so the first sentence overstates the source.; The requested field is not well supported by the packet, which is about philosophy of mind/cognitive neuroscience rather than learning, so the field label is not defensible from the source.; While the packet does describe MRT as claiming mental properties/processes are realized/implemented by neural correlates of different kinds (which is relevant to the contrast), the second sentence’s framing of what type identity theory holds is not directly supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Strappini Francesca; Martelli Marialuisa; Cozzo Cesare; di Pace Enrico. Empirical Evidence for Intraspecific Multiple Realization?. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01676; article XML SHA-256 912d84adfaaa9ba87bad02f4da0b3c7bfb2d905f0fdf9d20873c543d6f8543e4. “Empirical Evidence for Intraspecific Multiple Realization?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01676).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01676) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- type–token ratio [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence explains what the statistic compares ("types with tokens"). The provided packet mentions "type-token ratio" and that translated versions show a higher ratio, but it does not define types/tokens or describe the statistic in those terms.; The definition’s first sentence is supportable, but the added source-specific claim about translated vs. native Chinese texts should be tied more directly to the packet’s wording; as written it is slightly overgeneralized beyond the cited excerpt.; The field is not defensible from the packet: the source is a translation/corpus-linguistics article, not a biological one.; The packet’s content concerns translation universals and translated Chinese texts (translation studies/linguistics), not anything plausibly within a "biological" field. The requested field assignment is therefore not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Afzaal Muhammad; Huang Baorong; El-Dakhs Dina Abdel Salam. Decoding the digital: a corpus-based study of simplifications and other translation universals in translated texts. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517107; article XML SHA-256 085cb549c96d67af5647e1ab0405668fb6a173d32bb9383bf187a734b56c75eb. “Decoding the digital: a corpus-based study of simplifications and other translation universals in translated texts” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517107).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1517107) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- UCR [redraft]: It is slightly over-specific in presenting the ratio as a defined metabolic/inflammatory biomarker for diagnosis; the packet only says these ratios were studied as potential biomarkers for distinguishing schizophrenia or major depressive disorder from healthy controls.; The definition adds “blood” to the source phrase; the packet only supports a uric acid-to-creatinine ratio and does not specify blood levels.; The definition specifies that UCR is based on “blood” uric acid and creatinine levels, but the provided packet does not state that the uric acid (UA) and creatinine used to form UCR are from blood (it only mentions UA and creatinine-derived ratios). New packet required. Source: [Chen Hao; Qiu Min; Zhang Haiqing; Huai Yan; Huang Qiuyan; Li Ping; Lei Yingjia; Jiang Yufeng; Li Qifeng; Zhang Shaochuan. Uric acid and HDL-C-derived inflammatory ratios as biomarkers in schizophrenia and major depressive disorder: a retrospective study. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1698455; article XML SHA-256 7997034286121b5eacdbc1db63c6638fd2c9f143727b33f5e98fd619c1b50f08. “Uric acid and HDL-C-derived inflammatory ratios as biomarkers in schizophrenia and major depressive disorder: a retrospective study” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1698455).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1698455) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- UCS [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported explanatory detail (“before failing”) that is not stated in the packet.; The definition claims UCS is predicted from “density,” but the packet describes predictive relationships using physical properties including dry unit weight and porosity (not “density” as such).; The definition’s phrase “before failing” (i.e., failure criterion) is not explicitly stated in the packet text, which focuses on UCS as a measured mechanical property and on correlations/predictive modeling rather than describing failure timing/criterion.; The packet supports UCS as uniaxial compressive strength in a sandstone mechanics/geotechnical context, not a cognition/psychology sense.; The packet supports prediction from dry unit weight, porosity, Schmidt hammer rebound, and point load index, but the broader phrasing about what UCS “is treated as” goes beyond the source’s wording. New packet required. Source: [Fereidooni Davood; Hejazifar Matloob. Predicting the uniaxial compressive strength and elasticity modulus of sandstones from physical and mechanical properties using statistical analyses and artificial intelligence-based techniques. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335703; article XML SHA-256 7bcee610e65864c8b2291a3e8c27a5ebfa0205e24212d39146e9feba8e730c65. “Predicting the uniaxial compressive strength and elasticity modulus of sandstones from physical and mechanical properties using statistical analyses and artificial intelligence-based techniques” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335703).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335703) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ulcer [redraft]: Hedges 'in this source' to narrow general headword to peptic ulcer and then recounts the paper's theory. New packet required. Source: [Dong Simon Xin Min. Reconceptualizing peptic ulcers as a psychosomatic disorder: a new etiological theory resolving a long-standing controversy surrounding Helicobacter pylori. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1749047; article XML SHA-256 3c2bbdb4a5c6cd443129ef4ba69ea7f55521d9b601a9da77b93933cb21bbac3d. “Reconceptualizing peptic ulcers as a psychosomatic disorder: a new etiological theory resolving a long-standing controversy surrounding Helicobacter pylori” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1749047).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1749047) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ultimate cause [redraft]: The definition’s phrase “highest or last explanatory source” is not explicitly supported by the packet text provided.; The definition’s wording that it is “treated as the source of all motion” is supported only in the specific Aristotelian discussion noted in the packet, but the rest of the definition overgeneralizes beyond what the packet directly says.; The opening gloss, “the highest or last explanatory source to which other causes are traced back,” is an unsupported generalization not stated in the packet.; The packet supports only the Aristotelian link between “ultimate final cause” and “the ultimate cause of all motion”; it does not support a broader historical definition of “ultimate cause” in general.; While the packet does state that Aristotle’s ultimate final cause was regarded as also the ultimate cause of all motion, it does not define “ultimate cause” as “the highest or last explanatory source” in general terms. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Cause and Effect” (Cause and Effect).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Cause and Effect) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- unbiased sampling [redraft]: General statistical headword redefined as RL experience-replay sense via 'in this source' hedge. New packet required. Source: [Mohd Aris Teh Noranis; Chen Ningning; Mustapha Norwati; Zolkepli Maslina. Dual experience replay enhanced deep deterministic policy gradient for efficient continuous data sampling. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0334411; article XML SHA-256 c5cffe7788b0641974c5564fe44741fa83cd4ee64629aaa84c854d9e9b89609d. “Dual experience replay enhanced deep deterministic policy gradient for efficient continuous data sampling” (10.1371/journal.pone.0334411).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0334411) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- uncertainty factor [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the source by presenting “uncertainty factor” as a broad influence on outcomes; in the packet it is a specific example tied to climate variability in crop production.; The definition includes an example (“changing climate conditions in crop production”) that aligns with the packet’s “climate variability,” but because the cognition-related generalization is not adequately supported, the overall definition is not fully defensible from the supplied source text.; The definition’s first sentence gives a general cognition meaning (“In a cognition context…”) that is not directly supported by the packet. The packet primarily treats “uncertainty factor” as a concept in agricultural production planning, specifically naming “climate variability” as an uncertainty factor in crop production.; The packet supports an agricultural/climate-risk sense of “uncertainty factor” (climate variability in crop production), not the added cognition-specific sense about how people judge risk and make planning decisions.; While the packet discusses “attitudes toward climate-induced risk” and “risk perceptions,” it does not describe “uncertainty factor” as something “people take into account when judging risk and making later planning decisions” in a general cognition sense; it instead embeds this discussion in the agricultural risk-perception modeling context. New packet required. Source: [Reinmuth Evelyn; Parker Phillip; Aurbacher Joachim; Högy Petra; Dabbert Stephan. Modeling perceptions of climatic risk in crop production. 2017; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0181954; article XML SHA-256 210361fbbeaef881ef1fb3e0af57def653aba592160a41cb7bf3c8f89ed89702. “Modeling perceptions of climatic risk in crop production” (10.1371/journal.pone.0181954).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181954) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- unconditioned stimulus [redraft]: The first sentence adds a general definitional claim that goes beyond the source text and is not directly supported there.; The packet does not define an “unconditioned stimulus” as “the event used to produce a fear reaction without prior training.” It only mentions that the study uses unconditioned stimulus intensity changes within a retrieval-extinction paradigm.; The packet supports that unconditioned stimulus revaluation can affect conditioned fear extinction after acquisition, but it does not explicitly define an unconditioned stimulus as the event used to produce a fear reaction without prior training.; While the packet supports that changing the unconditioned stimulus after acquisition (decreasing its intensity) altered later fear-related outcomes during the extinction/retrieval-extinction stages (e.g., smaller skin conductance responses and different conditioned stimulus pleasure), it does not support the full phrasing of the definition as written. New packet required. Source: [Zeng Xiang-Xing; Du Juan; Zhuang Chu-Qun; Zhang Jun-Hua; Jia Yan-Lei; Zheng Xi-Fu. Unconditioned Stimulus Revaluation to Promote Conditioned Fear Extinction in the Memory Reconsolidation Window. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0101589; article XML SHA-256 ff90e09f219b1493596a614a32323f8b21df3755f577db0986bfdf86daefac29. “Unconditioned Stimulus Revaluation to Promote Conditioned Fear Extinction in the Memory Reconsolidation Window” (10.1371/journal.pone.0101589).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0101589) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- unconventional therapy [redraft]: The definition makes substantive generalizations about the term that are not explicitly stated in the provided text (it is only referenced in relation to dengue fever and public reliance on unproven alternatives).; The packet does not support the additional framing that people rely on it “instead of evidence-based approaches.”; The packet does not support the claim that unconventional therapy is used “outside usual medical care.”; The packet supports only that ‘unconventional therapy’ refers to unproven alternative treatments; it does not support the broader claim that these are simply treatments used outside usual medical care.; The packet supports that it is “unproven alternative treatments” (via the need to limit reliance on unproven alternative treatments), but it does not support that the term “points to unproven treatments” in general beyond this dengue context.; The statement that people may rely on these ‘instead of evidence-based approaches’ is not stated in the packet and adds an unsupported contrast. New packet required. Source: [Wong Li Ping; AbuBakar Sazaly. Health Beliefs and Practices Related to Dengue Fever: A Focus Group Study. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002310; article XML SHA-256 c2f650a1e04fd291e1b97d9852a68b3590db31f24ff843f0fd74b26e873e52c0. “Health Beliefs and Practices Related to Dengue Fever: A Focus Group Study” (10.1371/journal.pntd.0002310).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002310) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- underload [redraft]: The definition slightly broadens the source by presenting underload as a general psychology term rather than the article’s specific driver-monitoring context for cognitive underload.; The examples in the definition (“must keep watching for problems while having very little to do,” and the specific fatigue/response wording) are not described in the provided packet as general features of underload.; The packet does not explicitly support the definition’s phrasing that underload is a “state of too little active mental engagement” (the packet only states that supervisory vigilance despite minimal active engagement “accelerates cognitive underload”).; The packet supports minimal active engagement and reduced takeover readiness, but it does not clearly support the added causal claim that reduced stimulation contributes to fatigue in general.; The packet supports that underload “impairs timely takeover readiness,” but it does not explicitly support the claim that “reduced stimulation can contribute to fatigue and weaken readiness to respond quickly when action is suddenly needed.” New packet required. Source: [Xie Wantong; Xiao Peng. Confidence-driven adaptive time window for real-time driver fatigue detection in Level 2-3 autonomous vehicles: a multi-dataset validation study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnbot.2026.1857548; article XML SHA-256 6d55fb25e9aa6e8b7d45a8fb5425ac124af8a157ad3cb6c9afcc0cd9878179fc. “Confidence-driven adaptive time window for real-time driver fatigue detection in Level 2-3 autonomous vehicles: a multi-dataset validation study” (10.3389/fnbot.2026.1857548).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbot.2026.1857548) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- understaffing [redraft]: The packet does not define understaffing as “not enough staff members to meet the demands of care or work.”; The packet does not support that understaffing specifically makes it “harder to carry out recommended team-based practices and protocols”; it only mentions understaffing as an “implementation barrier” in general.; The packet does not support the specific framing that understaffing makes it harder to carry out recommended team-based practices and protocols.; The packet only supports understaffing as an implementation barrier; it does not support the added claim that it means there are not enough staff members to meet the demands of care or work. New packet required. Source: [Wang Chen; Dai Chuanqiang; Wu Guifang; Zhang Youshu; Zhang Yao; Dong Yao. Postoperative delirium in elderly orthopedic patients: a narrative review of prevention and multidisciplinary nursing interventions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817807; article XML SHA-256 deb9d1539462295cb637e62317a6ad2f6b261d4744b2fcf188a9ffcec7e8b7de. “Postoperative delirium in elderly orthopedic patients: a narrative review of prevention and multidisciplinary nursing interventions” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817807).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1817807) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- undifferentiated somatoform disorder [redraft]: The claims that the disorder is a classification for “people with unexplained physical symptoms,” that complaints are “considered medically unexplained,” and that they are “grouped within somatoform disorders” are not explicitly stated or supported in the supplied packet text.; The definition makes general descriptive statements without any corresponding support in the provided source excerpt.; The packet does not provide a definition of “undifferentiated somatoform disorder.” It only mentions patients being classified as UPS/“undifferentiated somatoform disorder or chronic pain disorder” in a study context.; The packet supports only that some patients with unexplained physical symptoms were classified as having undifferentiated somatoform disorder; it does not support the broader definitional claim that this term means all people with unexplained physical symptoms.; “Medically unexplained” is not stated in the packet and is an unsupported paraphrase beyond the source.; “Ongoing bodily complaints” and “grouped within somatoform disorders” are not directly supported by the packet’s wording and add extra definitional detail not established there. New packet required. Source: [Zonneveld Lyonne N. L.; van Rood Yanda R.; Timman Reinier; Kooiman Cornelis G.; van't Spijker Adriaan; Busschbach Jan J. V.. Effective Group Training for Patients with Unexplained Physical Symptoms: A Randomized Controlled Trial with a Non-Randomized One-Year Follow-Up. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0042629; article XML SHA-256 0d425cfa86c64e2aa5261fdbf9fa0b7f6064a3d907e77e90c7e08ffd9c1089fb. “Effective Group Training for Patients with Unexplained Physical Symptoms: A Randomized Controlled Trial with a Non-Randomized One-Year Follow-Up” (10.1371/journal.pone.0042629).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0042629) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- unidimensionality [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory gloss about evaluating whether a measure works as one coherent construct that goes beyond the source text.; The definition’s core characterization (“reflects a single underlying dimension rather than multiple separate ones”) is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text.; The definition’s second sentence (“something researchers test when evaluating whether a measure works as one coherent construct”) is not directly supported by the packet; the packet notes that unidimensionality was examined, but does not describe it in those conceptual terms.; The packet supports that researchers test a measure for unidimensionality, but it does not explicitly define unidimensionality as a measure reflecting a single underlying dimension rather than multiple dimensions.; While the packet mentions testing the social mindfulness measure for “unidimensionality” and using confirmatory factor analysis, it does not define what unidimensionality means in terms of “single underlying dimension” vs “multiple separate ones.” New packet required. Source: [Altmann Tobias; Roth Marcus. Testing the social mindfulness paradigm: Longitudinal evidence of its unidimensionality, reliability, validity, and replicability in a sample of health care providers. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0281738; article XML SHA-256 c2a69e129f6d98ebe64dd91f83e122ec6e0078743425b7ae3530f1cb391e34ac. “Testing the social mindfulness paradigm: Longitudinal evidence of its unidimensionality, reliability, validity, and replicability in a sample of health care providers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0281738).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281738) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- unilateral lesion [redraft]: The claim that the term “refers to one-sided injury” is only indirectly supported by the packet’s experimental context; it does not provide a direct dictionary-style definition for the term itself.; The definition generalizes beyond the packet by defining the term as damage affecting any paired body or brain system; the source only supports one-sided lesions in specific vestibular or dopaminergic pathways.; The definition’s first sentence gives a general description (“damage or disruption affecting one side of a paired body or brain system”) that is not explicitly stated in the supplied packet; the packet provides examples of unilateral damage but does not define “unilateral lesion” in general terms.; The phrase about a paired body or brain system is not stated or directly supported in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Herbin Marc; Simonis Caroline; Revéret Lionel; Hackert Rémi; Libourel Paul-Antoine; Eugène Daniel; Diaz Jorge; de Waele Catherine; Vidal Pierre-Paul. Dopamine Modulates Motor Control in a Specific Plane Related to Support. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0155058; article XML SHA-256 1f5f146752355f7ea3c0559303c0c918efc4621aa815b560a41be39296742279. “Dopamine Modulates Motor Control in a Specific Plane Related to Support” (10.1371/journal.pone.0155058).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155058) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- union [redraft]: The claim that stronger union support is associated with greater psychological safety is presented as an implication in the article, not as a general definitional property of the term.; The packet does not define a union as an employee organization; it only refers to union participation/support climate or atmosphere in the workplace.; The packet uses the terms “trade union” / “union participation atmosphere/support climate,” but it does not explicitly define a “union” as “an employee organization.”; The statement that union support can strengthen links between resilience and creative behaviour overstates the study result; the packet reports moderation of the indirect effect of success goal orientation on creativity via psychological resilience, not a general resilience–creativity link. New packet required. Source: [Ke Wenjing; Sun Bingjie. A multilevel model of success goal orientation, risk aversion orientation, and creativity: the moderating effects of psychological resilience and trade union participation atmosphere. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1653545; article XML SHA-256 7aebee0696121795bb8aaec5ca8c216018d8f1dc329f39a53148b5fd58b39219. “A multilevel model of success goal orientation, risk aversion orientation, and creativity: the moderating effects of psychological resilience and trade union participation atmosphere” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1653545).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1653545) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- uniqueness [redraft]: General headword 'uniqueness' redefined as a narrow statistical-learning metric sense. New packet required. Source: [Nazlı İlayda; de Lange Floris P. What type of relationship is learned during visual statistical learning?. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0342272; article XML SHA-256 34d50835106fdd8e821cb3a85824af0aa6d224df31f87c27e8468d53030a33da. “What type of relationship is learned during visual statistical learning?” (10.1371/journal.pone.0342272).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0342272) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- unity of consciousness [redraft]: Packet defines consentience, one specific sensory sense; the broader headword is narrowed to it. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Consentience” (Consentience).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Consentience) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- univariate analysis [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the source packet’s context and scope by presenting a broad statistical definition rather than the narrower usage shown in the article.; The packet does not define what “univariate analysis” means (e.g., “examines one variable or data component at a time”); it only states that gait data are multi-dimensional and that analyses have been limited to “univariate analysis.”; The packet supports only that the article contrasts univariate analysis with multivariate analysis in multidimensional gait data; it does not explicitly define univariate analysis as examining one variable or data component at a time.; The packet supports that univariate approaches have been used despite multi-dimensional gait and that little is known about relationships among components, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s phrasing that it “does not directly capture how multiple dimensions relate to each other.” New packet required. Source: [Naved Bilal A; Han Shuling; Koss Kyle M; Kando Mary J; Wang Jiao-Jing; Weiss Craig; Passman Maya G; Wertheim Jason A; Luo Yuan; Zhang Zheng J. Multivariate description of gait changes in a mouse model of peripheral nerve injury and trauma. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312415; article XML SHA-256 4ace5ffb66a23f8004b6a344fd502e33b6989394d5636d422525f6aee4c5fa6c. “Multivariate description of gait changes in a mouse model of peripheral nerve injury and trauma” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312415).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312415) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- universal design [redraft]: The definition gives the sense as “Universal design for learning” (UDL), but the requested term is “universal design”; that is a different concept and acronym/sense from the packet’s topic.; The packet supports UDL in relation to educational policies and use with students with intellectual disabilities, but it does not support redefining the term itself as an inclusive educational framework for the general curriculum under the broader heading of universal design.; The term provided to evaluate is “universal design,” but the definition defines “Universal design for learning” (UDL). The packet discusses “Universal Design for Learning,” not “universal design” in general, so the requested sense of the term is not fully supported. New packet required. Source: [Alfawzan Sarah Khaled. Perspectives of teachers of students with intellectual disabilities on the role of educational policies and systems in using Universal Design for Learning: A qualitative study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333432; article XML SHA-256 7e2334736251a402074afd0e6d0489b5aeb18d1f9eb4dfb988bfa4f3e251e311. “Perspectives of teachers of students with intellectual disabilities on the role of educational policies and systems in using Universal Design for Learning: A qualitative study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333432).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333432) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- universalism [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence presents a specific theological meaning for universalism that is not stated in the supplied source, so the requested sense is not fully supported by the packet.; The packet defines apokatastasis, not universalism, and only says it is closely connected with universalism; it does not directly support assigning the described doctrine to the term universalism itself.; The packet does not define the term "universalism" itself as the belief that all sinful beings will ultimately be restored to happiness with God; it defines "Apokatastasis" that way.; While the packet states that "Apokatastasis" is "closely connected with UNIVERSALISM (q.v.)," it does not establish that "universalism" has the specific belief-content given in the definition. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Apokatastasis” (Apokatastasis).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A4defs.htm#Apokatastasis) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- unpleasantness [redraft]: Some definitional wording (“negative side of affect,” “felt discomfort,” “can vary… such as”) goes beyond what is directly stated in the provided packet.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that “unpleasantness is the negative side of affect,” nor that it refers to “how bad or aversive an experience feels.”; The packet only reports “pleasantness/unpleasantness” in the context of a wall-sit task and that external focus reduced “unpleasantness”; it does not define unpleasantness as “felt discomfort,” nor does it support that it “can vary with psychological factors such as where attention is focused” as a general definitional statement (it reports one study finding about attentional focus).; The packet supports unpleasantness as an affective measure during a fatiguing wall-sit task and shows it differed with attentional focus, but it does not support the broad general definition of unpleasantness as the “negative side of affect” or as a general property of any experience.; The wording goes beyond the source by generalizing a specific experimental finding into a dictionary-style definition without direct support from the packet.; “Participants’ felt discomfort” is plausible from the study context, but the packet does not define unpleasantness as discomfort in general; it only reports reduced unpleasantness during the task. New packet required. Source: [Daou Marcos; Gannon Emily; Winepol Melody; Coville Alexis; Simpson Blake; Rotarius Timothy; Guilkey Justin; Martel Greg. The positive impacts of external focus of attention on performance, fatigue, and affect on a fatiguing task. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1753471; article XML SHA-256 b048783c8dfbabe1a120ccdbcce176f23e071fddf83bce8c28bb26273502b0f5. “The positive impacts of external focus of attention on performance, fatigue, and affect on a fatiguing task” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1753471).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1753471) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- unrestricted model [redraft]: The definition generalizes beyond the article’s specific PC–ELE structural equation model context without direct support from the packet.; The definition’s explanation that the purpose is “to test whether imposing restrictions changes the fit or findings” is not explicitly supported in the packet text provided (it reports a significance result, but not the stated rationale or what aspect—fit vs findings—was being tested).; The packet only shows an unrestricted model being compared with a restricted model and that the difference was significant; it does not support the fuller explanatory claims about estimating the relationship “without added limits” or testing whether restrictions change model fit or findings.; The packet only states that there was “a significant difference between the unrestricted model of PC–ELE and the restricted model” but does not define what makes a model “unrestricted” or “unconstrained” (e.g., that it allows estimation without added limits). New packet required. Source: [Zhang Baoge; Xu Qiuyan; Han Song; Jiao Lan. Analysis on Influences of College Students’ Psychological Capital in Entrepreneurial Learning Engagement. 2020; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02029; article XML SHA-256 86a46283c21a2856530674d44aea214327a67bd9933bf3d458dbab6beffc9de5. “Analysis on Influences of College Students’ Psychological Capital in Entrepreneurial Learning Engagement” (10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02029).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02029) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- unsociable [redraft]: "Withdrawn" is an added paraphrase not directly supported by the packet; the passage supports only that subjects may become "unsociable," not that they are specifically becoming withdrawn.; Because the packet provides no fuller definition, the reader can only infer a general sense of “unsociable” from the adjective’s context, but the definition’s more specific paraphrase (“mix with other people”) goes beyond what is clearly supported by the supplied text.; The packet only contains the usage “moody, unsociable, impatient…” and does not explicitly state the meaning as “not inclined to mix with other people,” so that specific phrasing is not directly supported.; The second sentence makes an unsupported meta-claim about the packet’s coverage; the source passage only shows "unsociable" in a descriptive list and does not establish that no fuller definition is provided. New packet required. Source: [Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. 1892 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 7ec833f3f4ff2826cb5eba1722a767adae625ac9f49f83035a464dc975564f96. “Tuke, A Dictionary of Psychological Medicine” (dictionaryofpsyc02tuke:chars-3360000-3372000).](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke/dictionaryofpsyc02tuke_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke/dictionaryofpsyc01tuke_djvu.txt))

- unstructured [redraft]: The definition’s statement that this refers to “rather than a specific psychological concept” is not supported by the packet (the packet discusses robotics/semantic segmentation, not psychology or psychological terminology).; The packet does not support the claim that “unstructured” refers to environments that are “irregular and not organized in a fixed or predictable way.” It uses the term “unstructured environments” but does not define it in those exact terms.; The packet supports a robotics/computer-vision sense of “unstructured environments,” not the requested biological field.; The wording adds a generalized definition (“not organized in a fixed or predictable way”) that is only partly supported; the packet specifically describes unstructured environments/terrain for obstacle identification and path planning rather than a broader dictionary-style sense. New packet required. Source: [Zhou Nana; Zhao Xianhua; Zhou Fengjun; Li Ji; Yue Xiuming. Cross-domain zero-shot semantic segmentation for unstructured environments via EVA-CLIP model, ensemble prompt engineering, and optimized text-image matching. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0352325; article XML SHA-256 1b7ea9fd22fe4d41cb3052ad7303a84a765c4591bd9a8fa6fd9ba9fb9536266c. “Cross-domain zero-shot semantic segmentation for unstructured environments via EVA-CLIP model, ensemble prompt engineering, and optimized text-image matching” (10.1371/journal.pone.0352325).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0352325) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- up-regulation [redraft]: The claims that these increases “may support neuroplastic change” and “help restore disrupted brain functioning” are only loosely supported: the packet says the evidence suggests yoga-induced upregulation “may provide a potential neuroplastic substrate helpful for repairing compromised neural networks” and “restoring reward prediction error processing,” which is narrower than the definition’s broader “restore disrupted brain functioning.”; The definition’s first sentence (“Up-regulation is an increase in the activity, availability, or levels of a biological factor”) is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The definition’s specific framing that this refers to “yoga-related increases in molecules such as BDNF and GABA” is only partially supported: the packet mentions “yoga-induced upregulation of BDNF and GABA,” but does not define up-regulation itself.; The packet supports yoga-induced upregulation of BDNF and GABA, but it does not support the broad dictionary claim that up-regulation means an increase in the activity, availability, or levels of a biological factor.; “Help restore disrupted brain functioning” is broader than the packet’s phrasing about a potential neuroplastic substrate for repairing compromised neural networks and restoring reward prediction error processing. New packet required. Source: [An Xiaohong; Ye Weibing; Fan Yichen. From neurobiological regulation to socio-ecological remodeling: a mini review of yoga interventions for adolescent smartphone addiction. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782953; article XML SHA-256 27e1edea7c21a879ecd71809db682c5f4a66fe292d750c20ea7a9afd9b594d3c. “From neurobiological regulation to socio-ecological remodeling: a mini review of yoga interventions for adolescent smartphone addiction” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782953).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1782953) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- upper threshold [redraft]: The definition adds a general statement that “heat is expected to cause stress or exceed thermotolerance,” but the packet only states that the temperature was “hypothesized to induce stress” and discusses observed survival/responses in a specific coral system rather than establishing a general expectation or mechanism beyond the cited experiments.; The definition adds a generalized explanatory gloss about heat stress/exceeding thermotolerance that is only loosely and partially supported by the source, rather than being directly defined there.; The definition’s reference to “temperature tolerance” and “reef-building corals typically live” is only supported by the packet’s coral-specific discussion (“most reef-building corals live near the upper threshold of their thermotolerance”), not by any mental-health context.; The packet is about reef corals, thermotolerance, and elevated temperatures; it does not support a mental health sense for the term.; The provided packet text describes reef-building corals (Pocillopora acuta), thermotolerance, and temperature exposure; it does not support applying the term “upper threshold” in the field of mental health. New packet required. Source: [Mayfield Anderson B.; Chen Yi-Jyun; Lu Chi-Yu; Chen Chii-Shiarng. The proteomic response of the reef coral Pocillopora acuta to experimentally elevated temperatures. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0192001; article XML SHA-256 1e11c76d79ff3e5726acb30df413ac7e2399ac322da722168475a7ac7132ead8. “The proteomic response of the reef coral Pocillopora acuta to experimentally elevated temperatures” (10.1371/journal.pone.0192001).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192001) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- upward communication [redraft]: Because that description of the mechanism/scope of upward communication is not stated in the packet, the definition’s first sentence contains unsupported substantive claims.; The definition adds a broader generic meaning and organizational detail that are not stated in the source packet.; The field assignment is not well supported by the packet, which frames the term in organizational/leadership and innovation terms rather than ethics specifically.; The packet does not define upward communication as open communication in which staff share ideas or speak up within an organizational hierarchy; it only says responsible leadership can encourage upward communication.; The packet does not explicitly define “upward communication” as “open communication in which staff share ideas or speak up within an organizational hierarchy.”; The remaining elements that *are* supported (encouraging upward communication to create an inclusive, psychologically safe environment and empower nurses to generate and implement innovative ideas) are part of the definition, but the definition as a whole is not fully supported. New packet required. Source: [Liu Ke; Du Hua; Cheng Qianqian; Jiao Tingting; Tong Yingying; Cai Yuewen; Zhang Xinyue; Huang Haitao. How responsible leadership fosters ICU nurses’ innovation in China: a mediated model of perceived insider status and voice behavior. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1904747; article XML SHA-256 0ae5766af999e41e352959729cbe53ea44915172cfee9923c7f6cceb49f1e083. “How responsible leadership fosters ICU nurses’ innovation in China: a mediated model of perceived insider status and voice behavior” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1904747).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1904747) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- upward mobility [redraft]: The definition’s specific phrasing (“especially in ways tied to greater economic success and quality of life”) is not stated in those terms; the packet lists “economic success” and “improved quality of life” alongside “upward mobility” but does not explicitly link upward mobility to them as a defining mechanism.; The packet does not define “upward mobility” as “moving into better life circumstances.” It only uses the term in the context of higher education being able to “achieve economic success, upward mobility, and improved quality of life,” without explaining what “upward mobility” specifically means.; The packet uses “upward mobility” only in the phrase “higher education is a critical public health tool to achieve economic success, upward mobility, and improved quality of life”; it does not define the term as “moving into better life circumstances.”; The source supports higher education as something that can help achieve upward mobility, but it does not support the broader explanatory generalization in the definition about what upward mobility means. New packet required. Source: [Umucu Emre. Creating a college adjustment index score for student veterans with and without disabilities. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1020232; article XML SHA-256 bcbc47d69255d6911e140c5837ab0e6a1cbc7a40b4133481c0da3910c76e8dd8. “Creating a college adjustment index score for student veterans with and without disabilities” (10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1020232).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1020232) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- urbanization [redraft]: Folds study specifics ('accelerating', transition zones) into the general meaning of the headword. New packet required. Source: [Du Guanxin; Sun Yu; Lu Hongyan; Yan Baiquan; Dai Huimin; Liu Kai; Xu Keke. Urbanization alters soil trace metal enrichment and health risks in the black soil Region of Northeast China. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0346565; article XML SHA-256 2cdc8d0131ef21b2d5810505592bebc3ef2399005f18d76ba879dd0195bf1757. “Urbanization alters soil trace metal enrichment and health risks in the black soil Region of Northeast China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0346565).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0346565) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- urethra [redraft]: The claim that the prostatic urethra is described as being associated with the prostate and its ductal anatomy is only loosely implied; the source says it imaged the microscopic ductal architecture of the prostatic urethra, not that it defines or characterizes it in those terms.; The packet discusses the murine lower urogenital tract and the prostatic urethra, but it does not define the urethra in general as a lower urogenital structure.; The packet does not provide a definition of the urethra as a structure in the lower urogenital tract.; The packet only mentions “prostatic urethras” in the context of imaging and does not define what the prostatic urethra is or how it is anatomically associated with the prostate and its ductal anatomy. New packet required. Source: [Limkar Ajinkya R; Sharma Simran M; Ricke William A. High-resolution ex vivo nanoCT reveals 3D architecture of the adult male mouse lower urogenital tract. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0326004; article XML SHA-256 7025b1a325e19cd46af60d98d349cd56d97b99196a8c88d0a7257593d030e9f3. “High-resolution ex vivo nanoCT reveals 3D architecture of the adult male mouse lower urogenital tract” (10.1371/journal.pone.0326004).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0326004) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- urn model [redraft]: The definition claims the model is used “in psychology-related research” to study “the dynamics of social influence and related processes in groups,” but the packet does not explicitly state this usage framing (especially “groups” and “psychology-related research” as such).; While the packet supports that the urn model is a widely used framework for explaining a self-reinforcing mechanism under social influence and is based on a ball-drawing (Pólya) process, it does not provide support for the specific phrase “related processes in groups.”; “in groups” is not supported by the packet; the source mentions social influence, self-reinforcement, and collective action, but not group processes as a general scope.; “related processes” is broader than the packet’s support, which is limited to self-reinforcement/self-correction under social influence and a specific application to ethnocentrism in collective action. New packet required. Source: [He Xiaochen; Cheng Guanzhao; Lu Jiali. Tag-mediated effect on the dynamics of social influence. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0338598; article XML SHA-256 74b3d914af9c41e611ab5b2280071ea663961cf6e24af1672d3d1bfb6d3bfba5. “Tag-mediated effect on the dynamics of social influence” (10.1371/journal.pone.0338598).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338598) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- utero- [redraft]: The definition adds a general lexical claim about the prefix and its meaning that is not established by the source text.; The packet does not explicitly define the prefix “utero-” as referring to the uterus or womb; it only uses the phrase “in utero” in the context of embryos being in the womb.; The packet does not support the claim that “in utero” means occurring while the embryo or fetus is developing inside the uterus, as a direct definition of the term; it provides no gloss of the phrase beyond mentioning “in utero” procedures.; The packet supports the phrase “in utero” in the context of embryos developing in the uterus, but it does not support defining “utero-” as a biological prefix meaning uterus or womb. New packet required. Source: [Mason Madisen S.; Morales Murillo Hosbaldo; Dudek Madisyn G.; Maher Samantha E.; Franco Santos J.. Modeling diffuse midline glioma through triple-electrode in utero electroporation of the developing mouse pons. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351079; article XML SHA-256 6766d6d7d955b02ecab5e7f98bb4567d32816b1ed69a0de27a5e4611f439e491. “Modeling diffuse midline glioma through triple-electrode in utero electroporation of the developing mouse pons” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351079).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351079) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- utilization-focused evaluation [redraft]: The definition adds that the approach identifies “strengths and challenges” to guide practical changes; the source supports identifying a strength (communication) and optimizing practice, but it does not explicitly support identifying challenges in this way.; The definition’s first sentence is supported: the packet states the evaluation followed the Patton approach of utilization-focused evaluation, which places users’ needs and values at the center. ; The field “biological” is not defensible from the packet; the source concerns evaluation in an inclusive sailing team, not biology.; The packet text does not support the broader, generic phrasing that “utilization-focused evaluation” is described in the source as a general mechanism involving strengths and challenges guiding practical changes; the evidence provided is limited to the described project outcomes.; The second sentence includes claims not fully supported by the packet: it mentions gathering users’ perspectives (supported by interviews) but also says it identifies “strengths and challenges” and that these “guide practical changes,” while the packet text explicitly reports identifying a “strength” (communication) and does not clearly state “challenges” or that the findings directly guided specific practical changes.  New packet required. Source: [Greve Steffen; Bükers Frederik; Bodenstedt Paula; Steinvoord Katrin; Krieger Claus. Sailing together: challenges for an inclusive team of visually impaired and sighted athletes at Kiel Week. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fspor.2025.1602925; article XML SHA-256 4c09043a432333cb809c9938263ed1e5c824c380ce13e97a9ebb8faddb22259d. “Sailing together: challenges for an inclusive team of visually impaired and sighted athletes at Kiel Week” (10.3389/fspor.2025.1602925).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2025.1602925) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- utopia [redraft]: The packet does not support the claim that “utopia” was coined by Sir Thomas More; no mention of Thomas More appears in the supplied excerpt.; The packet supports only that “UTOPIA” relates to an “ideal social condition,” but it does not clearly support the additional phrasing that it is “a picture of perfected social order rather than an actually existing community.”; The packet supports only the general sense “ideal social condition”; it does not clearly support the added claim that utopia was coined by Sir Thomas More.; The phrase “rather than an actually existing community” is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied definition. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II. 1902 original US edition; OCR SHA-256 b86b5dbbaa0a0b3ecf6c8b0a089a7ca5409b9bac4e6481cba91c99bba16f31bd. “Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, volume II” (philopsych02balduoft:chars-4221000-4233000).](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt) ([public-domain-US](https://archive.org/download/philopsych02balduoft/philopsych02balduoft_djvu.txt))

- utterance [redraft]: The definition is slightly overgeneralized beyond the source because it presents a general lexicographic sense rather than the narrower research use shown in the packet.; The definition’s claim that utterances “may be examined using text, sound, visual, and contextual cues” is not presented as a definitional characterization of utterances in the packet; the packet instead describes a multimodal emotion-recognition method.; The packet discusses “emotion expressed in each utterance” and “utterance-level emotion classification,” but it does not state that utterances are “treated as linked parts of a conversation” or that their “emotion or meaning can be analyzed within the surrounding interaction.”; The packet does not define “utterance” as a “single unit of speech or conversational expression,” nor does it provide an explicit definition matching the requested sense.; The packet supports text, acoustic, visual, and contextual information for analysis, but it does not support the added characterization of utterances as "linked parts of a conversation" in the definitional sense given here.; The packet supports utterances as conversational units used for emotion recognition, but it does not support the broader claim that an utterance is a unit whose "meaning" is analyzed; the source only mentions emotion expressed in each utterance. New packet required. Source: [Zhao Jing; Liu Feng. Multimodal transformer and directed relational graph learning for emotion recognition in conversations with potential applications in college student mental health research. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1867034; article XML SHA-256 bf72e9629b0f0ef84f6da1d5e63db1b7e6cee7546cadc20f381f86b6d33706c6. “Multimodal transformer and directed relational graph learning for emotion recognition in conversations with potential applications in college student mental health research” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1867034).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1867034) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- valence [redraft]: Because the packet lacks explicit definitional content for valence, the requested sense of the term in the definition is not supported by the supplied source packet.; The definition adds a substantive gloss (“positive-to-negative quality”) that is not stated in the supplied source.; The packet only mentions that psychological arousal and valence are positioned within a “two-dimensional affective space”; it does not support that valence is “considered alongside arousal as one dimension” in that sense.; The packet supports valence as a dimension used with arousal in a two-dimensional affective space, but it does not explicitly support defining valence as the positive-to-negative quality of a psychological state or experience.; The packet text does not define valence as a “positive-to-negative quality” of a psychological state or experience. New packet required. Source: [Takayama Aya; Sekiya Hiroshi. Investigating postures and movements associated with psychological arousal and valence. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1866036; article XML SHA-256 39f63036f7f0e821ea36e0f61736832fa4dda7ee5848c6ae2a66364a37885a0b. “Investigating postures and movements associated with psychological arousal and valence” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1866036).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1866036) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- validity criterion [redraft]: The added sleep-duration example is too specific and is not a definition of the term itself; it imports study details rather than defining the concept generally.; The definition’s framing about “evaluating how closely a self-report measure…corresponds to a more accurate underlying sleep measure” is only indirectly supported by the packet’s description of criterion validity using the method of triads and a “true” latent sleep duration measure, but the packet does not establish this as the meaning of the term “validity criterion” itself.; The packet does not define “validity criterion” as a general “standard for judging whether a measure accurately reflects the thing it is meant to assess”; it only mentions “validity criterion” in the study’s aims without providing a definition for the term.; The packet supports criterion validity, not the noun phrase validity criterion; the requested sense is therefore not clearly established.; The packet supports sleep-measurement validation approaches (triads with questionnaire, Daysimeter, and sleep diary; objective comparators), but the definition’s general-purpose wording (“validity criterion” as a standard) goes beyond what is explicitly stated or definitional in the provided text.; The wording about a measure 'accurately reflects the thing it is meant to assess' is broader than the packet’s support, which is limited to comparing questionnaire, reference, and objective measures via the method of triads. New packet required. Source: [Donzella Sidney M; Masters Matthew; Phipps Amanda I; Patel Alpa V; Zhong Charlie. Validity of self-reported sleep duration in the Cancer Prevention Study– 3. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307409; article XML SHA-256 4ab58d40e835c314d4e720225dfbd96e21a6ae2c44a4f2ee2a922cf8c4709818. “Validity of self-reported sleep duration in the Cancer Prevention Study– 3” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307409).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307409) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- validity [redraft]: The definition’s core claim (“validity is the extent to which evidence supports that a scale or test measures the construct it is intended to measure”) is not explicitly stated anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet only provides limited support for the second sentence’s examples (content validity assessment and internal structure via EFA/CFA), but does not support the general first sentence definition.; The packet supports that the scale underwent content validity assessment and that EFA/CFA were used to evaluate internal structure, but it does not support the broader definitional claim that validity is the extent to which evidence shows a scale measures its intended construct.; The second sentence goes beyond the packet’s wording by presenting a generalized explanation of validity rather than a packet-grounded definition. New packet required. Source: [Martínez Rodríguez Susana; Molinero Caparrós Clara; Pérez-Rojo Gema. Translation, content validity, and preliminary psychometric validation of the Existential Distress Scale in a Spanish non-clinical population. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771082; article XML SHA-256 dcf139f3c75110594bc2b9db57b028c6fe1b0f1baa6e68e9f5df66c8fba10ea8. “Translation, content validity, and preliminary psychometric validation of the Existential Distress Scale in a Spanish non-clinical population” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771082).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1771082) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- values clarification [redraft]: The definition claims the process helps people “make a more informed choice”; the packet mentions improving decision quality and optimizing decision-making, but does not explicitly support the specific phrasing about making a more informed choice as the mechanism.; The packet only describes a “fertility preservation values clarification tool” used after a fertility consult, tied to future parenthood goals and attitudes toward fertility preservation; it does not support a broader definition of values clarification for “any” decision or for general goals/attitudes/personal perspectives across contexts.; The packet supports family/parent and young person perspective reflection specifically in the fertility preservation context, but it does not establish this as the general role of values clarification in shared decision-making beyond that intervention.; The source supports a fertility-preservation values clarification tool in a specific cancer-care study, not a general definition of values clarification across decisions.; “Family members” and “the young person’s views” are only supported in the narrow context of parents/caregivers and adolescents/emerging adults making a fertility-preservation decision; the definition broadens this beyond the packet’s scope.; “Make a more informed choice” is not stated in the packet; the source mentions an expected improvement in decision quality, which is not the same as a definitional claim. New packet required. Source: [Stanek Charis; Theroux Charleen I; Olsavsky Anna L; Hill Kylie N; Rausch Joseph R; O’Brien Sarah H; Quinn Gwendolyn P; Gerhardt Cynthia A; Nahata Leena. Study protocol for fertility preservation discussions and decisions: A family-centered psychoeducational intervention for male adolescents and emerging adults newly diagnosed with cancer and their families. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0263886; article XML SHA-256 d565f615b0599d68c4f4ccc0407d25a82b4afceb2e7f9d676c15ad93a62c6f76. “Study protocol for fertility preservation discussions and decisions: A family-centered psychoeducational intervention for male adolescents and emerging adults newly diagnosed with cancer and their families” (10.1371/journal.pone.0263886).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263886) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- variation [redraft]: Hedges 'in this context' to narrow general headword to genetic variation. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Looking at My Genes: What Can They Tell Me About My Mental Health?. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 e0a8e68cb501d46c5f874a27c2d5a30a84750d1a2237f7aef870195d127e7c4e. “Looking at My Genes: What Can They Tell Me About My Mental Health?” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/looking-at-my-genes).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/looking-at-my-genes) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- varicella-zoster [redraft]: Headword names the virus; definition describes herpes zoster disease. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Herpes Zoster” (D006562).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D006562) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- vasodilation [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“Vasodilation is the widening of blood vessels”) is not explicitly stated or supported in the provided packet text; the packet only mentions “persistent vasodilation” without defining it as vessel widening.; The packet context supports that persistent vasodilation contributes to hypotension in septic shock despite high endogenous catecholamines/RAAS activation (via “vascular hyporeactivity” and “persistent vasodilation secondary to vascular hyporeactivity despite high endogenous catecholamine levels”), but the full definition includes additional explanatory wording not clearly spelled out beyond that context.; The packet supports persistent vasodilation as a mechanism in septic shock, but it does not support the general dictionary-style definition that vasodilation is the widening of blood vessels.; The second sentence is source-specific and narrower than the entry’s wording; it presents the phenomenon in septic shock, not a general definition of vasodilation in all contexts. New packet required. Source: [Kalamar Žiga; Gorenjak Mario; Landoni Giovanni; Markota Andrej. Early multimodal vasopressor strategy in septic shock (TRICYCLE)—Study protocol for a randomized controlled clinical trial. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0331304; article XML SHA-256 77a1185f220f71fe5ccc1a85063a0a09f96e58ae05114679af369d32c3df7cf6. “Early multimodal vasopressor strategy in septic shock (TRICYCLE)—Study protocol for a randomized controlled clinical trial” (10.1371/journal.pone.0331304).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0331304) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vasodilator [redraft]: The definition adds a general mechanistic gloss that is broader than the packet evidence, which is limited to 5β-DHT/testosterone-related vasodilatory effects in arteries.; The definition’s first sentence (“causes blood vessels to widen, improving their ability to relax”) is not supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet supports that testosterone and its reduced metabolites (including 5α- and 5β-dihydrotestosterone) “exert vasodilatory effects” and that 5β-DHT “improves vasodilator function,” but it does not describe vasodilators in terms of widening/relaxation in the way stated.; The packet supports vasodilatory effects and improved vasodilator function, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that blood vessels’ ability to relax is increased. New packet required. Source: [Sánchez-Fernández David; Eguibar Aritz; López Cristina; Cuesta Ángel M; Albiñana Virginia; Rogers-Ezewuike Soline; Gómez-Rivas Juan A; Saldaña Laura; Botella Luisa M; Ferrer Mercedes. Effect of 5β-dihydrotestosterone on vasodilator function and on cell proliferation. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312080; article XML SHA-256 6b5cc6161682c578bc5e930643f80eea5fe6d17febde619a6b72bcceb8d282ab. “Effect of 5β-dihydrotestosterone on vasodilator function and on cell proliferation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312080).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312080) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vasomotor [redraft]: The definition claims “In the packet, it is used for vascular responses that influence blood pressure and peripheral resistance,” which is only partially supported: the packet includes “hypotensive effects” and “total peripheral vascular resistance,” but it does not clearly establish a general definitional usage statement for the term within the packet.; The definition’s core description (“control or effects of changes in blood vessel tone… constriction and relaxation of arteries”) is not explicitly stated in the provided packet text; the packet only mentions “vasomotor function” in relation to vascular responses (e.g., vasodilator/vasoconstrictor responses).; The packet supports that vasomotor-related outcomes involve regulation of vascular resistance/blood pressure in the context of specific experimental findings (e.g., “regulate total peripheral vascular resistance,” “hypotensive effects”), but the definition adds additional general phrasing (“especially… constriction and relaxation of arteries”) without support from the packet.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source is a cardiovascular physiology article, not a cognition/psychology context.; The second sentence overstates the packet by generalizing to “blood pressure and peripheral resistance” as the term’s meaning; the packet uses vasomotor in the narrower sense of vascular/vasomotor function and responses in mesenteric arteries. New packet required. Source: [Isidoro-García Lucía; Villalpando Diva M.; Ferrer Mercedes. Vasomotor action of androgens in the mesenteric artery of hypertensive rats. Role of perivascular innervation. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0246254; article XML SHA-256 f273b6b5f2b5c688792a6151d5b9af7bebd2cfaca84643ff12c8b3e964509e52. “Vasomotor action of androgens in the mesenteric artery of hypertensive rats. Role of perivascular innervation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0246254).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246254) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vegetative state [redraft]: The claim that the vegetative state “can occur after severe brain injury” is only indirectly supported: the packet states “Disorders of consciousness following severe brain injury,” but it does not explicitly tie that occurrence to the specific category “vegetative state.”; The definition’s phrasing that it is “another major subgroup” of disorders of consciousness is not supported with evidence in the packet (the packet only contrasts minimally conscious state with unresponsive wakefulness syndrome/vegetative state at a subgroup level).; The packet does not provide a direct definition of “vegetative state”; it only mentions “unresponsive wakefulness syndrome/vegetative state” as a comparison category within disorders of consciousness.; The packet supports that vegetative state is also termed unresponsive wakefulness syndrome and is part of disorders of consciousness after severe brain injury, but it does not support the added claim that minimally conscious state is “another major subgroup” in this source.; The phrase “in the supplied source, it is contrasted with the minimally conscious state” is only partly supported; the packet mentions a subgroup-level comparison in response rates, not a general definitional contrast. New packet required. Source: [Mei Shutong; Fu Guan; Gao Ruixue; Li Wei. Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation for disorders of consciousness: a narrative review of neurophysiological mechanisms, clinical evidence, and future directions. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1837913; article XML SHA-256 2bc921701e82b7b3548a233c55c52b1ce08dceca58b641436a373c2078f42365. “Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation for disorders of consciousness: a narrative review of neurophysiological mechanisms, clinical evidence, and future directions” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1837913).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1837913) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- venous thrombosis [redraft]: Because multiple substantive parts of the definition are not supported by the provided packet, the field is not defensible.; The definition’s mention of a clot enlarging or coming back over time is only indirectly related to the packet’s prevention of thrombus progression and recurrence; it overgeneralizes beyond the source text’s scope.; The packet does not define “venous thrombosis” or describe it as a blood clot forming in a vein.; The packet does not support the idea that “the clot can enlarge or come back over time” (it mentions preventing “thrombus progression and recurrence,” but not clot enlargement in general or the phrasing used in the definition).; The packet is about lower-extremity deep venous thrombosis and medication adherence, not a learning/psychology sense of the term, so the requested field is not supported.; The packet specifically discusses “lower extremity deep venous thrombosis (LEDVT)” in the context of anticoagulation, but it does not support the definition’s general claim about veins “such as the deep veins of the lower leg.” New packet required. Source: [Hu Ningning; Li Xiaoyan; Fu Feng; Xie Linzhou; Qi Jinfang; Wu Ping; Li Yufeng; Li Ying-lan. Latent profile analysis of medication adherence in lower extremity deep venous thrombosis-cross-sectional study. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0340406; article XML SHA-256 7ec633662c2ceee4a73704e2a481e549361ac1261e792d7dc904131e95b79614. “Latent profile analysis of medication adherence in lower extremity deep venous thrombosis-cross-sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0340406).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0340406) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ventral anterior cingulate cortex [redraft]: Because of the unsupported location phrasing, the definition contains at least one substantive claim not supported by the supplied packet.; The definition adds a location description near the subgenual region that is broader than the packet’s wording and is not independently supported by the supplied text.; The packet does not support the claim that the ventral anterior cingulate cortex is a “lower frontal part” of the anterior cingulate cortex; it only describes it as “subgenual/adjacent ventral anterior cingulate cortex.”; The packet supports that short-term IBMT increased cerebral blood flow in the subgenual/adjacent ventral anterior cingulate cortex and that this region was described as critical for self-regulation, but it does not support the anatomical gloss that it is a "lower frontal part" of the anterior cingulate cortex. New packet required. Source: [Tang Yi-Yuan; Lu Qilin; Feng Hongbo; Tang Rongxiang; Posner Michael I.. Short-term meditation increases blood flow in anterior cingulate cortex and insula. 2015; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00212; article XML SHA-256 80779d9472add671df5032c77e04960e1c3cf23019722936a952b76c91cf18b1. “Short-term meditation increases blood flow in anterior cingulate cortex and insula” (10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00212).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00212) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ventral stream [redraft]: The definition claims that “form sensitivity is used as a marker of ventral-stream visual function,” but the packet only discusses differential sensitivity patterns and a suggested mapping of motion vs form to dorsal vs ventral processing; it does not support using form sensitivity specifically as a marker of ventral-stream visual function.; The definition includes field framing (“diagnosis”) without any support that the stated ventral-dorsal form/motion linkage or the proposed “marker” usage is an actual diagnostic criterion or diagnostic indicator in the source text.; The definition overstates the source by presenting a broad generalization about the ventral stream as a static-form pathway; the packet only supports a relative comparison in which static form sensitivity is considered a ventral-stream signature in this study context.; The packet frames the distinction primarily as dorsal-stream (motion) being associated with sensitivity to global coherence of motion and static form “relative to the ventral stream (form)”, but it does not explicitly state that the ventral stream is “linked more with perceiving static form.”; The requested field is not defensible here: the source is about visual-stream function in developmental coordination disorder, not a diagnosis term or diagnostic concept. New packet required. Source: [Micheletti Serena; Corbett Fleur; Atkinson Janette; Braddick Oliver; Mattei Paola; Galli Jessica; Calza Stefano; Fazzi Elisa. Dorsal and Ventral Stream Function in Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2021.703217; article XML SHA-256 dc86f49b577e997b53d0eed442ad85f8e30a0b0eb7cf90d1e43a0fc0d10b96b6. “Dorsal and Ventral Stream Function in Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder” (10.3389/fnhum.2021.703217).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.703217) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- ventriculomegaly [redraft]: The definition states that ventricles are “the spaces that contain cerebrospinal fluid,” but this anatomical description is not provided in the supplied packet text.; The phrase “the brain’s ventricles” / “the spaces that contain cerebrospinal fluid” is not supported by the packet; the packet only says ventriculomegaly is associated with ventricular enlargement.; The requested field “cognition” is not well supported for this term; the packet uses ventriculomegaly in an iNPH research context, but the term itself is a structural finding rather than a cognition concept.; While the packet supports that ventriculomegaly is marked in idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus and that there is a comparison group with ventriculomegaly but no iNPH symptoms, the definition’s first sentence includes an additional substantive claim not supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Park Rahel; Chevalier Claire; Kieser Silas; Marizzoni Moira; Paquis Arthur; Armand Stephane; Scheffler Max; Allali Gilles; Assal Frederic; Momjian Shahan; Frisoni Giovanni B.. Gut microbiome signatures in iNPH: Insights from a shotgun metagenomics study. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0330251; article XML SHA-256 b41f4bdec366b4cee5f28ffc9936374f66867ef0a9530adddba10bdd35a690b4. “Gut microbiome signatures in iNPH: Insights from a shotgun metagenomics study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0330251).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0330251) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- venue sampling [redraft]: The claim that the term is “the same as time-location sampling” is supported by the packet, but the rest of the definition (the recruitment/locations/times characterization) is not explicitly supported by the provided text.; The definition adds explanatory detail about how venue sampling works that is not stated in the source packet.; The packet does not provide a definition of “venue sampling” (e.g., recruiting participants at locations, and especially not “often linked to specific times”); it only states that “Time-location sampling or venue sampling technique (VDT) was used” without describing how sampling was conducted.; The packet supports only that time-location sampling/venue sampling was used for a quantitative study; it does not define the method as recruiting participants at particular locations and times. New packet required. Source: [Ababor Abdo Abazinab; Tesso Desalegn Wirtu; Cheme Melese Chego. Addressing the deprived: need and access of sexual reproductive health services to street adolescents in Ethiopia. The case of Nekemte town: mixed methods study. 2019; DOI 10.1186/s13104-019-4850-7; article XML SHA-256 bf2da3a8fa474a2377a5a812d29023f8ea65388b4b3e5c66b04fae3325beed3d. “Addressing the deprived: need and access of sexual reproductive health services to street adolescents in Ethiopia. The case of Nekemte town: mixed methods study” (10.1186/s13104-019-4850-7).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-019-4850-7) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- VEP [redraft]: Hedges with 'in this context' to redefine VEP (a brain response) as a BCI system. New packet required. Source: [Choudhary Prashant Kumar; Choudhary Suchishrava; Saha Sohom; Rajpoot Yajuvendra Singh; Ciocan Vasile-Cătălin; Nicolae-Lucian Voinea; Gorgan Carmina Mihaela; Șufaru Constantin. Brain-computer interfaces and neural synchronization in esports: a systematic review of effects on reaction time, decision-making, and cognitive performance. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1774230; article XML SHA-256 9a7da3cbea72585da2e38439bcc328d3377d3d168ed07ef4700eec5298c1aac3. “Brain-computer interfaces and neural synchronization in esports: a systematic review of effects on reaction time, decision-making, and cognitive performance” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1774230).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1774230) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- verb [redraft]: The definition’s characterization of the verb as “the main lexical word in a sentence pattern” is not explicitly stated or supported by the packet text.; The packet discusses eye-tracking processing of specific construction types, but the definition frames this as a general linguistic definition of what a “verb” is in this source; that level of definitional specificity is not directly supported in the provided text.; The packet studies verb-particle constructions and phrasal verbs, but it does not define a verb as “the main lexical word in a sentence pattern” in general.; The wording narrows the term to specific constructions with particles or prepositions; that sense is too specific to be presented as the definition of “verb” itself from this source.; While the packet supports that processing differs for verb-particle vs verb-preposition combinations (and relates this to cognitive processing of the following particle/preposition), it does not provide enough evidence for the verb-specific “main lexical word” wording in the first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Kissane Hassane; Tziridis Konstantin; Schilling Achim; Herbst Thomas; Krauss Patrick. Cognitive dynamics of verb-particle constructions: an eye-tracking study on phrasal verbs and verb-preposition combinations. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1676341; article XML SHA-256 fd47e39cddd20d21a4bf2cfe2bcb09448544e640ea5487c57b9a31e975a88ea9. “Cognitive dynamics of verb-particle constructions: an eye-tracking study on phrasal verbs and verb-preposition combinations” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1676341).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1676341) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Verbal Comprehension Index [redraft]: Because the definition includes that “reflects verbal comprehension,” this substantive claim is not explicitly supported by the provided packet text.; The definition adds a general description of the index’s meaning that is not supported by the supplied source packet.; The packet does not state that the Wechsler Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) “reflects verbal comprehension”; it only names the index and reports that GC’s highest mean scores were for the VCI.; The packet supports that the gifted children’s highest mean Wechsler score was the WISC Verbal Comprehension Index, but it does not state that this index specifically reflects verbal comprehension. New packet required. Source: [Lesecq Laurent; Querne Laurent; Gornes Julie; Buffo Laura; Corbel Louise; Le Moing Anne Gaelle; Berquin Patrick; Bourdin Béatrice. Do gifted children without specific learning disabilities read more efficiently than typically developing children?. 2024; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1436710; article XML SHA-256 2220b7c6d78d27da1bb6ff3512ad1955dfed586547af61e583e1a63d78ea4998. “Do gifted children without specific learning disabilities read more efficiently than typically developing children?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1436710).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1436710) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- verbal intelligence [redraft]: The definition adds a broader conceptual claim about what verbal intelligence is, which is not stated in the source packet.; The packet does not explicitly support the claim that “verbal intelligence” is “the aspect of cognition concerned with understanding and using word meanings and vocabulary.” It only describes administering “a computerized adaptive test of vocabulary” to assess “verbal intelligence.”; The packet supports that verbal intelligence was assessed with a computerized adaptive vocabulary test, but it does not define verbal intelligence as the cognitive aspect concerned with understanding and using word meanings and vocabulary.; While the second sentence’s claim (“measured with a computerized adaptive vocabulary test”) is supported by the packet, the first sentence contains substantive generalization not directly stated in the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Klein Balázs; Kovacs Kristof. The performance of ChatGPT and Bing on a computerized adaptive test of verbal intelligence. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0307097; article XML SHA-256 a7b2918019e436a68dc60b522222d12a7a760ee13231f8bd06bb58c643d4d1b3. “The performance of ChatGPT and Bing on a computerized adaptive test of verbal intelligence” (10.1371/journal.pone.0307097).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307097) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- verbal IQ [redraft]: The claim that “in this study, higher verbal IQ was linked with better performance on verbal divergent thinking tasks” is broadly supported by the excerpt’s reported result that “verbal IQ positively predicted verbal divergent thinking scores,” but the first sentence contains unsupported definitional material.; The definition adds a general characterization of verbal IQ that is not supported by the supplied source packet.; The packet does not define “verbal IQ” as the language-based part of an intelligence quotient measure, nor does it explicitly state that it “reflects verbal abilities.” The excerpt only reports that participants completed “intelligence quotient (IQ) tests” including “verbal IQ” and “non-verbal IQ.”; The packet supports that verbal IQ was a measured variable and that higher verbal IQ positively predicted verbal divergent thinking scores in this study, but it does not define verbal IQ as the language-based part of an IQ measure. New packet required. Source: [Taylor Christa L.; Zaghi Arash Esmaili. The interplay of ADHD characteristics and executive functioning with the GPA and divergent thinking of engineering students: A conceptual replication and extension. 2022; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.937153; article XML SHA-256 13499b6c3296406cd7a50c19cbc14873c5d565b4e86275c1af05a2365c35038c. “The interplay of ADHD characteristics and executive functioning with the GPA and divergent thinking of engineering students: A conceptual replication and extension” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.937153).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.937153) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- verbal protocol analysis [redraft]: The claim that the encoding strategies “supported unusually strong memory” is only indirectly supported; the packet states encoding processes underlie “superior memory performance,” but does not explicitly characterize them as “supporting” it in those exact terms.; The definition claims verbal protocol analysis is “a method of examining what a person says about their own mental steps.” The packet does not describe protocol analysis in terms of collecting or analyzing a person’s verbal reports of their own mental steps.; The second sentence is tied to one specific study context, but the source does not support the broader phrasing about the method’s general use or the claim that it reveals 'behaviorally observable encoding strategies' in general.; The source does not support the general methodological definition that verbal protocol analysis examines a person’s report of their own mental steps to infer cognitive processes; it only says the study used verbal protocol analysis/protocol analysis to identify behavioral indices of encoding processes in a digit-span task.; While the packet supports that the study used “digit-span task combined with verbal protocol analysis” and that it “identify[ies] direct behavioral indices of idiosyncratic encoding processes underlying the superior memory performance,” it does not specifically support the wording that it “reveal[s] behaviorally observable encoding strategies” (the packet uses “direct behavioral indices” and “encoding processes,” without the term “strategies”). New packet required. Source: [Yoon Jong-Sung; Harper Jeremy; Boot Walter R.; Gong Yanfei; Bernat Edward M.. Neural Evidence of Superior Memory: How to Capture Brain Activities of Encoding Processes Underlying Superior Memory. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00310; article XML SHA-256 95103d51affd68a25d57177e56e1be7d21dc9eef5db8002520a48c580c67030d. “Neural Evidence of Superior Memory: How to Capture Brain Activities of Encoding Processes Underlying Superior Memory” (10.3389/fnhum.2019.00310).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00310) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- verbal report [redraft]: 'In this context' smuggles a narrow distance-perception sense onto a general headword. New packet required. Source: [Dong Bo; Chen Airui; Gu Zhengyin; Sun Yuan; Zhang Xiuling; Tian Xiaoming. Methods for measuring egocentric distance perception in visual modality. 2023; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1061917; article XML SHA-256 723a145992e6819e0825ecd89b1a9092d27b68cf3966f16b3afd10dca2a225dc. “Methods for measuring egocentric distance perception in visual modality” (10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1061917).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1061917) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- verbal satiation [redraft]: 'Temporary' and 'after repetition' are added facts not stated in the packet. New packet required. Source: [Cao Kang; Li Jie; Wu Baizhou; Zhang Hong; He Hu. A Lexical Representational Mechanism Underlying Verbal Satiation: An Empirical Study With Rarely Used Chinese Characters. 2019; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02236; article XML SHA-256 fac0042e85da826e2c354170a960781f58ca8aa82b950aead862d41dda7c73f7. “A Lexical Representational Mechanism Underlying Verbal Satiation: An Empirical Study With Rarely Used Chinese Characters” (10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02236).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02236) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vergence [redraft]: The attentional-control claim overgeneralizes the source: the packet says light exposure affected cortical areas associated with “attentional control tasks such as oculomotor control,” not that vergence itself is an attentional-control process or system.; The claim that the packet treats vergence as “part of the systems that support eye movements and related attentional control” is only indirectly supported (the text discusses cortical regions involving vergence/eye movements and mentions attentional control tasks), but the key definitional component (“Vergence is…”) is not supported.; The packet does not define what “vergence” is (e.g., it does not describe it as a “visual and oculomotor process involving coordinated eye movement control”). It only mentions “brain areas involved in vergence and oculomotor control” without giving a definitional description.; The packet supports that vergence is discussed alongside eye movements and oculomotor control, but it does not define vergence as a “visual and oculomotor process” or as part of “systems that support eye movements and related attentional control.” New packet required. Source: [Peña-Gómez Cleofé; Sunyer-Grau Bernat; Argilés Marc. Exposure to different light wavelengths impacts cortical areas associated with oculomotor and attentional control. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358046; article XML SHA-256 bd085bea987b9983bedb16df51942c15c99c05a68474a2257bbc185e7040a6bf. “Exposure to different light wavelengths impacts cortical areas associated with oculomotor and attentional control” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358046).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358046) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- verification time [redraft]: Because the first sentence’s definition/contrast is not directly supported by the packet’s text, the requested sense of the term is not defensibly grounded in the supplied source.; The packet does not explicitly define “verification time” as “the portion of a visual search task spent checking whether a located item is in fact the target, as distinct from the time spent searching for it.” It only mentions “Search and Target Verification time” as components related to performance, without providing a clear definition of the term.; The packet uses the phrase “Target Verification time” but does not define it as the portion of a visual search task spent checking whether a located item is the target, so that definitional gloss is unsupported.; The source only says performance benefits were related to improvements in Search and Target Verification time; it does not support the broader explanatory framing about “the portion of a visual search task” or the search-versus-verification distinction as stated. New packet required. Source: [Hess Alyssa S.; Wismer Andrew J.; Bohil Corey J.; Neider Mark B.. On the Hunt: Searching for Poorly Defined Camouflaged Targets. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0152502; article XML SHA-256 75b5c73b1328c6eed954a1c811eaea5097cd1b4d206ff87e8a08e65d1b74bbc9. “On the Hunt: Searching for Poorly Defined Camouflaged Targets” (10.1371/journal.pone.0152502).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152502) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- verification [redraft]: Because the packet does not establish a mental-health context for the term, the field “mental health” is not defensible based on the supplied source.; The definition is not clearly framed as a dictionary sense in the requested field and instead reads like a technical description from biometric identification literature.; The definition’s description of “deciding whether a person matches a previously recorded identity signal” is only partially supported; the source describes returning a verification decision by comparing an oral cavity acoustic response with a prerecorded acoustic signature, not the broader generalization given here.; The packet supports biometric verification, not a mental health or counselling sense of “verification.”; The provided packet content is about biometric identity verification (a laboratory testing of Oral Cavity Acoustic Verification) and does not provide support for framing or using “verification” in the mental health field.; The wording “stored signature” and “identity signal” is not the source’s terminology and introduces unsupported abstraction beyond the packet. New packet required. Source: [Kam Amit; Iakoby Nir; Tubiana Daniel; Hochstadter Eran; Ram Roi; Zigel Yaniv. Biometric verification using oral acoustic reflections. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0359160; article XML SHA-256 29a75ac9a7c18fe760440d7db108782118bce4f4a6f5d851d53e9b74958d18ea. “Biometric verification using oral acoustic reflections” (10.1371/journal.pone.0359160).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359160) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vermis [redraft]: Describes the study's stimulation target rather than defining the term; 'in this packet' hedge. New packet required. Source: [Lei Sihong; Lei Qiunan; Yang Jiumei; Peng Huaiping; Feng Jun. Application of cerebellar vermis theta-burst stimulation patterned repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in patients with chronic schizophrenia. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1729585; article XML SHA-256 dbec1cd373c0c922a67f785134d8cafb6204ea09b1ad7327e7731e2d2f5091b3. “Application of cerebellar vermis theta-burst stimulation patterned repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in patients with chronic schizophrenia” (10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1729585).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1729585) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vertebral column [redraft]: The definition adds a meta-description about the packet (“the part of the skeleton in which individual vertebrae and related abnormalities are described”) that is not supported by the source text.; The first sentence is broadly anatomically plausible, but the packet does not explicitly define the vertebral column as “the body’s column of vertebrae.”; The packet excerpt does not explicitly state the general anatomical definition that the vertebral column is “the body’s column of vertebrae”; it only refers to the vertebral column in the context of a specific fossil pathology.; The second sentence (“it is the part of the skeleton in which individual vertebrae and related abnormalities are described”) is not directly supported as a definition in the packet; the packet focuses on a hemivertebra and associated abnormalities without framing a general “part of the skeleton” definition. New packet required. Source: [Szczygielski Tomasz; Dróżdż Dawid; Surmik Dawid; Kapuścińska Agnieszka; Rothschild Bruce M.. New tomographic contribution to characterizing mesosaurid congenital scoliosis. 2019; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0212416; article XML SHA-256 19cb7d87b4f4ef4c0c9bc7a22ebdaf65fbcec0e4024b15146a8d1c1b4a52d58c. “New tomographic contribution to characterizing mesosaurid congenital scoliosis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0212416).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212416) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vertex potential [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence contains additional descriptive claims (“prominent, often double-peaked waveform near the top of the head”) that are not explicitly supported in the provided text; only the “large double-peaked vertex potential” part is directly supported.; The packet does not support the description that the waveform appears “near the top of the head” or specify the scalp location (e.g., “vertex”) beyond naming it as a “vertex potential.”; The packet supports only that pulsed ultrasound fingertip stimulation triggered evoked potentials with a large double-peaked vertex potential; it does not support the broader general definition about a vertex potential being an EEG response near the top of the head after somatosensory stimulation.; The packet supports that pulsed ultrasound to the fingertip triggered evoked potentials with a “large double-peaked vertex potential,” but it does not state that a vertex potential is “recorded with EEG” in general (it only describes that the study recorded evoked potentials using EEG).; The second sentence is partially supported (vertex potential triggered by pulsed ultrasound to the fingertip), but the overall definition still includes unsupported characterization from the first sentence.; The wording adds unverified details such as where the waveform is recorded ('near the top of the head') and treats the packet as supporting a general clinical/physiological definition rather than the specific experimental finding described in the source. New packet required. Source: [Legon Wynn; Rowlands Abby; Opitz Alexander; Sato Tomokazu F.; Tyler William J.. Pulsed Ultrasound Differentially Stimulates Somatosensory Circuits in Humans as Indicated by EEG and fMRI. 2012; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0051177; article XML SHA-256 e5837f3f45e1934775825e52413fdd9261a195c44174b8115009e55b59c2a959. “Pulsed Ultrasound Differentially Stimulates Somatosensory Circuits in Humans as Indicated by EEG and fMRI” (10.1371/journal.pone.0051177).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051177) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vertical group [redraft]: Not a term; definition describes one dental study's experimental grouping. New packet required. Source: [Wang Yahui; Liu Siyi; Dong Yanmei. In vitro study of dentinal tubule penetration and filling quality of bioceramic sealer. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0192248; article XML SHA-256 bf3412ab6b54f1c343a7196aea65edbb6ebffbe2eadd2ec452be859e1bc54704. “In vitro study of dentinal tubule penetration and filling quality of bioceramic sealer” (10.1371/journal.pone.0192248).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0192248) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vertical loading [redraft]: The definition describes biomechanical running/loading measurements and injury risk, not mental-health concepts; the provided field “mental health” is not defensible from the packet.; The definition narrows vertical loading to an "upward impact force" during foot contact; the packet supports vertical loading metrics in running, but does not explicitly define the term in that exact general form.; The definition’s phrasing “upward impact force placed on the body during foot contact” is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet mentions vertical ground reaction forces and vertical impact peak/loading metrics, but does not define vertical loading in those exact “upward impact force” terms.; The requested field is mental health, but the packet defines a biomechanics/running term from a sports injury study, not a mental health concept. New packet required. Source: [Mahoney Joseph M; Lista Amy; Carbajal Diego; Infantolino Benjamin W; Altman-Singles Allison R. Biomechanical tradeoffs in stroller running: Reduced vertical impact loading and increased torsional injury risk. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0332616; article XML SHA-256 c62b0348e6b498cb673bb3fb0b26cfc7a2dd3bbc353f235ad90af8631c6243f4. “Biomechanical tradeoffs in stroller running: Reduced vertical impact loading and increased torsional injury risk” (10.1371/journal.pone.0332616).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0332616) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vertical mobility [redraft]: The definition treats the term as a herd-management concept; that sense is supported by the packet, but it does not fit the supplied field, so the entry is miscategorized.; The definition’s claim that vertical mobility is “a form of local or regional seasonal movement rather than only large-scale transhumance” is not directly supported: the packet contrasts vertical mobility/transhumance generally, but does not explicitly characterize vertical mobility as primarily local/regional versus large-scale transhumance.; The packet does not define “vertical mobility” as seasonal movement between lower valleys (winter) and higher mountain pastures (summer). That specific description is provided for “transterminance” / “valley transhumance,” not for vertical mobility.; The packet only states that vertical mobility is “among the most debated and discussed management systems” and that the concept “is not new,” without supporting the herd-management pattern and elevation/season pairing claimed in the definition.; The proposed field (“cognition”) is not supported by the packet, which describes zooarchaeological/biomolecular studies and Neolithic cattle grazing and mobility (archaeology/animal husbandry), not cognition.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the source is an archaeology/zooarchaeology article about cattle mobility, not a cognition/psychology term. New packet required. Source: [Alcàntara Fors Roger; Madgwick Richard; Viñas-Caron Laura C.; Nederbragt Alexandra J.; Saña Seguí Maria. Cattle on the rocks: Understanding cattle mobility, diet, and seasonality in the Iberian Peninsula. The Middle Neolithic site of Cova de les Pixarelles (Tavertet, Osona). 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0317723; article XML SHA-256 a134f4807ebf0f20d085eafdfccf1b4f1162b4c433bebe1cce96ad6d58ea8084. “Cattle on the rocks: Understanding cattle mobility, diet, and seasonality in the Iberian Peninsula. The Middle Neolithic site of Cova de les Pixarelles (Tavertet, Osona)” (10.1371/journal.pone.0317723).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317723) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vestibular receptors [redraft]: The definition adds that the vestibular receptors are “balance-related.” The provided packet mentions “vestibular receptors” and discusses “sensory epithelia,” but it does not state that the vestibular receptors are specifically “balance-related.”; The phrase “balance-related” is not supported by the packet; the source only names “vestibular receptors” among the developing sensory organs and does not define them as balance-related. New packet required. Source: [Romand Raymond; Ripp Raymond; Poidevin Laetitia; Boeglin Marcel; Geffers Lars; Dollé Pascal; Poch Olivier. Integrated Annotation and Analysis of In Situ Hybridization Images Using the ImAnno System: Application to the Ear and Sensory Organs of the Fetal Mouse. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0118024; article XML SHA-256 16470a168effff5b9b3156cff671243dc87e7c7dad141f6275c93472413a5482. “Integrated Annotation and Analysis of In Situ Hybridization Images Using the ImAnno System: Application to the Ear and Sensory Organs of the Fetal Mouse” (10.1371/journal.pone.0118024).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118024) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vibration sense [redraft]: The definition adds a general clinical meaning that is not established by the supplied source packet alone.; The packet does not explicitly define “vibration sense” as “the ability to feel vibration”; it only lists “vibration sense” as one of the measures used to assess distal peripheral neuropathy.; The packet supports that vibration sense was assessed as part of distal peripheral neuropathy, but it does not explicitly support the gloss “the ability to feel vibration.” New packet required. Source: [Sriyani Kumarasinghe A.; Wasalathanthri Sudharshani; Hettiarachchi Priyadharshika; Prathapan Shamini. Predictors of Diabetic Foot and Leg Ulcers in a Developing Country with a Rapid Increase in the Prevalence of Diabetes Mellitus. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0080856; article XML SHA-256 4c30e304079c3c4277b6c80b3a618e71856c5ed66e7953d7bd262be8cdbbe5ea. “Predictors of Diabetic Foot and Leg Ulcers in a Developing Country with a Rapid Increase in the Prevalence of Diabetes Mellitus” (10.1371/journal.pone.0080856).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0080856) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vibrotactile masking [redraft]: The packet does not explicitly define vibrotactile masking as “vibration-based touch feedback is interfered with or obscured”; it only lists a “playing with vibrotactile masking” condition without describing what that masking does.; The packet shows vibrotactile masking as an experimental condition in a violin evaluation task, but it does not define it as vibration-based touch feedback being interfered with or obscured.; The packet supports that the vibrotactile masking condition was used in the violin evaluation experiment to investigate the role of vibrotactile/tactile feedback in evaluations, but the definition’s first sentence goes beyond what is stated in the provided text.; The stated purpose that it was used to examine how tactile information affects perception and evaluation is only partially supported; the packet says the study investigated auditory and tactile modalities and that vibrotactile feedback was important, but it does not define the masking condition in those terms. New packet required. Source: [Wollman Indiana; Fritz Claudia; Poitevineau Jacques; McAdams Stephen. Investigating the Role of Auditory and Tactile Modalities in Violin Quality Evaluation. 2014; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0112552; article XML SHA-256 47d72110612e2e7b6d3291fe3debccc0b21b4c1a56944440e3616567c8e2ba5e. “Investigating the Role of Auditory and Tactile Modalities in Violin Quality Evaluation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0112552).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112552) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vicarious [redraft]: The definition’s “learning” field is not supported by the packet: the packet describes sport spectatorship, emotions, and behavioral responses/intention (distance, repair, punishment), without framing the term within learning processes.; The example about shame from group misconduct is supported, but the broader wording goes beyond the packet’s scope and makes an unsupported generalization.; The packet does not explicitly define “vicarious” as “felt indirectly through another person or group rather than from one’s own actions”; it only discusses “vicarious shame” experienced by spectators when witnessing in-group misconduct.; The packet supports the specific phrase “vicarious shame” in sport spectatorship, not a general definition of “vicarious” as an indirect feeling across psychology contexts.; The supplied field is learning, but the source text is about spectators’ shame and behavioral responses, not learning or learning theory. New packet required. Source: [Ren Lei; Ma Hong; Zong Xiaoli. When spectators feel ashamed: vicarious shame and behavioral responses to in-group misconduct. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834709; article XML SHA-256 e7c0a135ceb14421710d84e47e67765e9c688e09d61e2b287911723724cdd0ea. “When spectators feel ashamed: vicarious shame and behavioral responses to in-group misconduct” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834709).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1834709) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- video conferencing [redraft]: The definition should stick to what the source actually says; the packet describes practical benefits and psychological costs, including education, work, and social interactions continuing, but it does not independently support a general dictionary-style definition with live audiovisual meeting language.; The definition states that video conferencing is “using live video and audio,” but the supplied packet does not explicitly describe video conferencing in those terms (it only discusses “video conferencing technology” and its psychological effects).; The opening gloss adds unsupported specifics: the packet supports online meetings and video-conferencing use, but not the claim that it is specifically a way of meeting online using live video and audio. New packet required. Source: [Hills Paul D; Clavin Mackenzie V Q; Tufft Miles R A; Gobel Matthias S; Richardson Daniel C. Video meeting signals: Experimental evidence for a technique to improve the experience of video conferencing. 2022; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0270399; article XML SHA-256 3a877861267a065f9a52baf3c3ce82cce34eaf8cee266fe67be60f194b2d5971. “Video meeting signals: Experimental evidence for a technique to improve the experience of video conferencing” (10.1371/journal.pone.0270399).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270399) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vigor [redraft]: It also presents a relational claim about vigor being maintained alongside muscle coordination and emotional calm, but the packet supports that relationship for valine, not for vigor itself.; The definition adds a gloss (“mental vitality or energy”) that is not explicitly defined in the packet; the packet only says valine “maintains mental vigor, muscle coordination, and emotional calm.”; The packet is about valine, not the term vigor, so the requested sense is not supported by the source record.; The packet never explicitly defines “vigor” as “mental vitality or energy”; it only uses the phrase “mental vigor” in relation to valine, without stating what the term means.; The “energy” aspect in the definition is not directly tied to the meaning of “vigor” in the packet; the packet separately mentions that valine supplements are used for “energy.” New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Valine” (C29604).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- virtual reality [redraft]: The packet does not state that VR is “used in stress research to provoke and measure responses,” nor does it explicitly support the characterization that settings are “both standardized and realistic.”; The packet excerpt does not support the claim that virtual reality is a “computer-generated environment.”; The packet supports VR stress paradigms, not a general definition of virtual reality as a computer-generated environment, so the opening claim is broader than the source.; While the packet mentions “VR-based stress paradigms” used to “induce stress in controlled yet ecologically valid settings,” it does not explicitly support “used to create controlled situations that still resemble real-life experience.”; “Provoke and measure responses” is only indirectly supported by the source’s description of inducing stress and examining response systems; the definition adds a stronger, more general purpose than the packet states. New packet required. Source: [Singeap-Tiron Mara S; Onita Cristiana Amalia; Matei Daniela Viorelia; Dobrin Petru Romeo; Gotca Ioan; Radeanu Mihaela-Alina; Petrescu-Miron Diana I; Mocanu Veronica. Virtual reality-based stress paradigms and early adversity: a scoping review of mechanisms and stress-response systems. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1881373; article XML SHA-256 91b4803c5bef77e9c0f60880ca923b88229d440af55f895db66336b6d6009d55. “Virtual reality-based stress paradigms and early adversity: a scoping review of mechanisms and stress-response systems” (10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1881373).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1881373) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- virtual team [redraft]: The definition is a bit broader than the source sense, which is specifically about regarding referees/reviews as collaborators when revising a manuscript.; The packet does not explicitly say the people are “not physically present”; that wording goes beyond the source.; The packet does not support defining a “virtual team” as an “informal, not physically present group of people.” It only uses “virtual team of collaborators” as a metaphorical framing for treating referees/reviews as collaborators.; The packet supports the idea of treating referees as collaborators and using reviews/critiques to improve the paper, but the specific “not physically present group” characterization is not substantiated by the provided text.; The packet supports treating referees as collaborators or a “virtual team,” but it does not support the added claim that this is an “informal” group. New packet required. Source: [PLOS: Ten Simple Rules for Writing Research Papers. 2014-01-30; DOI 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003453. “Ten Simple Rules for Writing Research Papers” (b73df5f1d0f65d4b2e62).](https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003453) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- virtue [redraft]: Hedged 'in this context'; second sentence describes the packet rather than defining virtue. New packet required. Source: [Palacios Julia; Gordon Lauren; Messias Erick. The virtue of temperance: a neurobiological perspective. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1674301; article XML SHA-256 9058adbdd85682fc1bb4b0eff27d4d8c4b871b4041d9ddb8fbb8df2fbb1866e9. “The virtue of temperance: a neurobiological perspective” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1674301).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1674301) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- viscus [redraft]: The definition’s first sentence (“A viscus is an internal organ”) is not supported by the packet text.; The packet content is about firearm injury epidemiology, not mental health, so the provided “field: mental health” context is unsupported.; The packet only uses the phrase “hollow viscus gastrointestinal injuries” in describing injury patterns; it does not explicitly define “viscus” as an “internal organ,” so the first sentence’s general definition is not supported.; The requested field is mental health, but the packet is a trauma/medical article, not a psychology or counselling source.; The second sentence adds an explanatory gloss (“injury to a hollow organ in the digestive system”) that is not stated explicitly in the packet—only the term “hollow viscus gastrointestinal injuries” appears without a direct definition.; The second sentence narrows the term to a hollow organ in the digestive system; the packet only shows the phrase “hollow viscus gastrointestinal injuries” and does not define viscus or establish that sense as the intended entry sense. New packet required. Source: [Alkhoury Hala; Hallak Mira; Shakshir Mohammad; Maqboul Iyad; Jaber Mohammad; Shawahna Ramzi. Firearm injuries in a conflict affected region: A multicenter study of epidemiological trends, injury patterns, management, and outcomes in the West Bank of Palestine. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0358566; article XML SHA-256 c549ad82dffd42ba221c6656ff6bc8a2c127b9396e4991cc90e9ddbec972a0ea. “Firearm injuries in a conflict affected region: A multicenter study of epidemiological trends, injury patterns, management, and outcomes in the West Bank of Palestine” (10.1371/journal.pone.0358566).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358566) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- visiting nurse [redraft]: General headword redefined as psychiatric visiting nurse with 'in this context' hedge. New packet required. Source: [Yasuma Naonori; Sato Sayaka; Yamaguchi Sosei; Matsunaga Asami; Shiozawa Takuma; Tachimori Hisateru; Watanabe Kazuhiro; Imamura Kotaro; Nishi Daisuke; Fujii Chiyo; Kawakami Norito. Effects of brief family psychoeducation on family caregiver burden of people with schizophrenia provided by psychiatric visiting nurses: a cluster randomised controlled trial. 2024; DOI 10.1186/s12888-024-05884-z; article XML SHA-256 8e643c6283469f8f63018b3a7fd2bee20314f440722205c623a73bdbfe69e56f. “Effects of brief family psychoeducation on family caregiver burden of people with schizophrenia provided by psychiatric visiting nurses: a cluster randomised controlled trial” (10.1186/s12888-024-05884-z).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05884-z) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Vistaril [redraft]: The definition uses "antihistamine" and brain H1-receptor activity, which are supportable, but the unsupported brand-name claim makes the overall entry fail the source check.; The packet describes hydroxyzine pamoate (including its H1-receptor antagonist actions and related properties) but does not explicitly state that “Vistaril” is a brand name for hydroxyzine pamoate.; The packet supports hydroxyzine pamoate as the pamoate salt form of hydroxyzine, but it does not support the claim that Vistaril is a brand name for it. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Hydroxyzine Pamoate” (C47560).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- visual analogue scale [redraft]: The definition claims it measures “subjective symptoms or experiences.” The packet supports “subjective characteristics or symptoms,” but does not mention “experiences.”; The definition says it “works by asking the person to mark a position along a continuous line.” The packet only states it relies on a continuum of possible result values between two fixed end-points; it does not explicitly describe the method as “mark a position” or as a “line.”; The description of how it works by ‘asking the person to mark a position along a continuous line’ is not stated in the packet; the packet only says it relies on a continuum of possible values between two fixed end-points.; The packet supports a psychometric response scale for assessing subjective characteristics or symptoms, but it does not explicitly support the broader claim that it measures subjective ‘experiences.’ New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Visual Analog Scale” (C121547).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- visual association cortex [redraft]: The definition claims the region was “treated as part of the brain involved in processing visually related information during memory retrieval,” but the packet only reports that temporo-occipital visual association cortex ROI activity was examined during a visual encoding and retrieval task, without explicitly stating that the study’s framing “treated” it as a component of visually related processing during retrieval.; The definition goes beyond the packet by implying a specific neural role/mechanism that the study explicitly says it does not establish.; The packet supports that temporo-occipital visual association cortex activity was examined in a visual encoding/retrieval task, but it does not support the broader functional claim that this region was treated as part of the brain involved in processing visually related information during memory retrieval. New packet required. Source: [Tojo Yoshiko. Preferred J-pop music and visual memory retrieval: an exploratory pilot fMRI study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1775292; article XML SHA-256 36353ff7b0480bf30ccff148c12865329c01231b81e8b2b5f88e1a7716080cd2. “Preferred J-pop music and visual memory retrieval: an exploratory pilot fMRI study” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1775292).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1775292) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- visual capture [redraft]: The broader explanatory clause about studying environmental features and human emotion goes beyond the packet’s wording and is not directly supported as a definition of the term.; The definition states that “Visual capture is the recording of visual scenes,” but the packet only describes “panoramic visual capture” as part of an integrated framework and does not explicitly define it as “recording of visual scenes.”; The definition’s framing as “part of a framework for examining emotional changes across a continuous landscape” is broadly supported (linear landscapes; emotional fluctuations), but the additional explanatory phrasing about “features of an environment shape human perception and emotion” is only partially supported and not tied directly to what “visual capture” specifically is.; The packet supports that panoramic visual capture is one component of an integrated framework, but it does not define visual capture itself as the recording of visual scenes or state that this recording is specifically used to study how landscape features shape human perception and emotion. New packet required. Source: [Yan Minlong; Yu Chengchao; Lin Qinlan; Huang Zhichao; Duan Yanru; Zhu Liying. Mapping emotional patterns in linear recreational landscapes: Spatial structure, positive-negative co-occurrence patterns, and nonlinear drivers. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0356187; article XML SHA-256 47bc703387737ddb3687e98b9e59071a57f38773fe4868c31ee9bc83f0af35da. “Mapping emotional patterns in linear recreational landscapes: Spatial structure, positive-negative co-occurrence patterns, and nonlinear drivers” (10.1371/journal.pone.0356187).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0356187) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- visual cliff [redraft]: The definition claims the task is used “to examine how an animal responds” to the drop-off; this “animal response to apparent drop-off” framing is not supported anywhere in the provided text.; The packet does not describe what a “visual cliff” task involves (e.g., an apparent drop-off, a 3D scene, or how the animal responds to it). It only labels a “passive (visual cliff)” condition without procedural or apparatus details.; The packet supports passive versus active depth-related tasks and V1 neuronal activity, but it does not explicitly support the contrast "rather than making an active depth judgment" as stated here.; The packet supports that a visual cliff is a passive depth-related task, but it does not support the added description of an apparent drop-off in a three-dimensional scene.; While the packet supports that the study compared “passive (visual cliff)” with “active (depth discrimination)” and investigated neuronal activity related to depth processing, the first sentence contains unsupported specifics. New packet required. Source: [Dong Nuo; Tan Yuping; Wang Yuyuan; Chen Yumin; Xu Haibing. Characterization of depth perception information inferred from neuronal activity in primary visual cortex. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329788; article XML SHA-256 a00862d1a0436d1c0e88d528b1e2f27b0fb03c62a3de37224ebd1b6b57ef97bf. “Characterization of depth perception information inferred from neuronal activity in primary visual cortex” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329788).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329788) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- visual closure [redraft]: The definition’s phrasing that visual closure “refers to part of how a person processes visual information” is not explicitly stated in the packet; the packet reports impairment in visual processing and includes a “visual closure” task, but does not define the construct in those general terms.; The packet does not support the phrase that visual closure is “commonly assessed” (it only describes that visual closure was assessed using non-verbal visual tasks in this study).; The packet supports visual closure as a non-verbal visual task/ability, but not that it is “commonly assessed” with nonverbal tasks.; The remainder about “weaknesses … contributing independently of phonological skills to reading fluency difficulties … developmental dyslexia” is broadly supported (visual processing was impaired, and phonological and visual abilities contributed independently to reading fluency), but the unsupported/general parts above prevent a pass.; The rest of the definition is broadly supported, but this unsupported generalization makes the definition fail the source-only check. New packet required. Source: [Germano Giseli D.; Reilhac Caroline; Capellini Simone A.; Valdois Sylviane. The phonological and visual basis of developmental dyslexia in Brazilian Portuguese reading children. 2014; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01169; article XML SHA-256 3aae0406a5afba8dbd84fd1fe790e469afac09bedc03654cbc512971f86f4c69. “The phonological and visual basis of developmental dyslexia in Brazilian Portuguese reading children” (10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01169).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01169) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- visual cycle [redraft]: The clause “so the system can be used again” is not explicitly stated or directly supported; the packet only says energy-requiring enzyme-catalyzed reactions convert 11-trans-retinal back to the cis form.; The definition is more expansive than the packet and turns a descriptor entry for a molecule into a definition of the entire visual cycle.; The definition says the shape change “starts visual signaling”; the packet says the shape change “trigger[s] the visual process,” but does not explicitly support the term “visual signaling.”; The definition states that “retinal” is “the light-sensitive part of rhodopsin”; the packet describes 11-cis-retinal as the prosthetic group of rhodopsin and the active component of the visual cycle, but does not explicitly call it “the light-sensitive part.”; The opening claim that the visual cycle is the light-driven process in vision is not directly supported by the packet; the packet only states that visible light converts 11-cis-retinal to 11-trans-retinal as part of rhodopsin’s response.; The packet describes retinal/retinaldehyde as the active component of the visual cycle, not the visual cycle itself, so the definition uses the wrong sense of the term. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Retinaldehyde” (D012172).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D012172) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- visual discrimination [redraft]: The definition also states that, in the supplied source, it refers to distinguishing between familiar and unfamiliar human faces based on sight alone; while this specific interpretation is supported by the packet’s visual preference test, the definition as a whole includes the unsupported broad generalization.; The definition’s first sentence makes a broad, general claim (“the ability to tell visually presented stimuli apart”), but the packet only provides evidence for discrimination specifically between familiar and unfamiliar human faces in cows; it does not support the general statement for visual discrimination as a whole.; The first sentence gives a general dictionary-style definition that is not stated in the source packet and is broader than the study-specific usage provided there.; The packet supports only the study context: cows visually discriminated between familiar and unfamiliar human faces in videos; it does not by itself establish the broader general definition of the term. New packet required. Source: [Amichaud Océane; Lemarchand Julie; Cornilleau Fabien; Jardat Plotine; Ferreira Vitor H B; Calandreau Ludovic; Lansade Léa. Cows visually discriminate and cross-modally recognise familiar and unfamiliar human faces in videos. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0329529; article XML SHA-256 0d1ce1cfcbfcba19d01e08b0dab9f770dd648bb7301dd95d915bfed42c728cdb. “Cows visually discriminate and cross-modally recognise familiar and unfamiliar human faces in videos” (10.1371/journal.pone.0329529).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329529) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- visual learning [redraft]: Because the term’s requested meaning is not explicitly supported in the packet, the definition includes an unsupported characterization beyond what the packet directly provides.; The definition adds a substantive explanatory gloss that is not stated in the source packet.; The definition’s first sentence states that “visual learning” is a learning way/preference that “relies on visual information or mental imagery,” but the packet only mentions constructs like “visual imagery vividness” and “visual learning preference” without defining visual learning in those terms.; The packet supports that visual learning preference did not predict summative exam performance, but it does not define visual learning as a learning style that relies on visual information or mental imagery. New packet required. Source: [Xing Zitian; Nicholas Andrea. Vividness of visual imagery is associated with perceived clarity of recall but not with accuracy during exams. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1867712; article XML SHA-256 dee16badeacbb432306eef1ff5914c8cdf44c65853ec00ac0209a354761897fc. “Vividness of visual imagery is associated with perceived clarity of recall but not with accuracy during exams” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1867712).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1867712) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- visual memory span [redraft]: The definition adds a functional explanation of the construct that goes beyond the source text rather than staying strictly within the packet-supported wording.; The definition claims “Visual memory span is a measure of working memory… based on how much visual information a person can hold in mind for brief use,” but the provided packet only states that the tasks measured “working memory (i.e., Visual Memory Span)” and does not define how it measures working memory or what “visual information” retention entails.; The definition is more than one to three concise sentences when accounting for its two claims (mechanism plus usage) beyond what the packet explicitly provides.; The definition states that “In this source, it is used as a task representing working memory performance.” While the packet does support that Visual Memory Span is used as a working-memory task, the rest of the definition includes additional specifics not supported by the packet.; The packet supports that Visual Memory Span is a task used to measure working memory, but it does not state that it measures how much visual information a person can hold in mind for brief use. New packet required. Source: [Huijgen Barbara C. H.; Leemhuis Sander; Kok Niels M.; Verburgh Lot; Oosterlaan Jaap; Elferink-Gemser Marije T.; Visscher Chris. Cognitive Functions in Elite and Sub-Elite Youth Soccer Players Aged 13 to 17 Years. 2015; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0144580; article XML SHA-256 8a7fcf8d7708dad90e7ead448bbbffb8dedacbcaf97daf4707698e867f61e949. “Cognitive Functions in Elite and Sub-Elite Youth Soccer Players Aged 13 to 17 Years” (10.1371/journal.pone.0144580).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0144580) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- visual organization test [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the source by presenting a general characterization of the test’s function that is not stated in the packet.; The first sentence claims that a “visual organization test” is a “visuospatial assessment task” examining “how a person organizes and interprets visual information.” This is not stated or supported anywhere in the provided packet.; The packet specifically describes use of an “nTMS-implemented version of the Hooper Visual Organization Test (HVOT)” during mapping; it does not support the broader, generic characterization of “visual organization test” as such an assessment task.; The packet supports that an nTMS-implemented version of the Hooper Visual Organization Test was used for hemispheric mapping to identify cortical areas in the visuospatial network, but it does not support the added claim that the test is used to examine how a person organizes and interprets visual information.; While the second sentence’s general idea about an nTMS-based HVOT used for brain mapping is supported (nTMS-implemented HVOT used to identify cortical areas in the visuospatial network), the definition as a whole is not defensible due to the unsupported first sentence. New packet required. Source: [Raffa Giovanni; Quattropani Maria Catena; Marzano Giuseppina; Curcio Antonello; Rizzo Vincenzo; Sebestyén Gabriella; Tamás Viktória; Büki András; Germanò Antonino. Mapping and Preserving the Visuospatial Network by repetitive nTMS and DTI Tractography in Patients With Right Parietal Lobe Tumors. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fonc.2021.677172; article XML SHA-256 8b74d7ae7492543b154c246c652a0a1f1038fe715d96922a825a89ef48c8499a. “Mapping and Preserving the Visuospatial Network by repetitive nTMS and DTI Tractography in Patients With Right Parietal Lobe Tumors” (10.3389/fonc.2021.677172).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2021.677172) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- visual persistence [redraft]: The claim that, “In this study context, it supports pattern recognition by integrating multiple frames of sparse visual dots over time,” is only partially supported: the packet mentions “pattern recognition by visual persistence” and “spatiotemporal integration of multiple frames of sparse dots,” but it does not explicitly connect this to the specific “integrating … over time” phrasing or provide a direct definition of the term.; The definition’s core explanation of “visual persistence” as a “brief continuation of a visual impression after a stimulus changes or disappears” is not stated or supported anywhere in the provided packet text.; The packet does not define “visual persistence” as allowing “information from successive moments to combine.”; The packet does not explicitly define visual persistence as the brief continuation of a visual impression after a stimulus changes or disappears; that wording is not supported by the source text.; The packet’s only explicit support is that “Pattern recognition by visual persistence with spatiotemporal integration of multiple frames of sparse dots is a feasible approach,” which does not substantiate the broader general description or the mechanism wording used in the definition.; The statement that visual persistence lets information from successive moments combine is only loosely related to the paper’s mention of spatiotemporal integration and is not established as a definition of the term in the packet.; The study-specific claim about integrating multiple frames of sparse visual dots is supported only as an experimental finding/context, not as a general definition of visual persistence. New packet required. Source: [Tsai Yueh-Chun; Wu José Jiun-Shian; Lin Po-Kang; Lin Bo-Jyun; Wang Pin-Shiou; Liu Ching-Hsiang; Wu Chung-Yu; Chiao Chuan-Chin. Spatiotemporal integration of visual stimuli and its relevance to the use of a divisional power supply scheme for retinal prosthesis. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0228861; article XML SHA-256 135ed6e03a96b965e9f9351b152075dba17b3c06fb1cc44cb8c1fafbb070733c. “Spatiotemporal integration of visual stimuli and its relevance to the use of a divisional power supply scheme for retinal prosthesis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0228861).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228861) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- visual preference paradigm [redraft]: The definition’s support for the source study is partial: the packet describes a paradigm with FACES vs. CARS and measures of infants’ looking time plus suck patterning, but it does not justify the general procedural inference claim (“preference is inferred from how long”).; The packet does not explicitly state that a “visual preference paradigm” is a method where preference is inferred from how long a person looks at each stimulus.; The packet does not support the claim that this paradigm is “often used with infants.”; The packet shows infants looked longer at faces than cars, but it does not explicitly support the general definition that preference is inferred from looking time across different visual stimuli.; The packet supports this as a study procedure with infants, but not the broader claim that a visual preference paradigm is generally or often used with infants. New packet required. Source: [Zimmerman Emily; DeSousa Courtney. Social visual stimuli increase infants suck response: A preliminary study. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0207230; article XML SHA-256 3652fbaa69067419c024639a8d97f1871d610a859e9a273c845e90e91b5748eb. “Social visual stimuli increase infants suck response: A preliminary study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0207230).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207230) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- visual projection [redraft]: Term is an area name in packet only; receiving/processing role is unsupported and sense is forced. New packet required. Source: [Abramov Israel; Gordon James; Feldman Olga; Chavarga Alla. Sex & vision I: Spatio-temporal resolution. 2012; DOI 10.1186/2042-6410-3-20; article XML SHA-256 cd430cb0f704027fda7c826c62925ea5ee367c32b1c0ed82295b5001bee6d379. “Sex & vision I: Spatio-temporal resolution” (10.1186/2042-6410-3-20).](https://doi.org/10.1186/2042-6410-3-20) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- visual recognition [redraft]: The definition slightly overgeneralizes the packet’s findings beyond the studied stimulus set and task, which were two-character Chinese words/pseudowords under horizontal/vertical and canonical/jumbled conditions.; The definition’s first sentence gives a general description (“identifying written forms through sight”) that is not explicitly stated in the provided packet.; The opening general definition (“the process of identifying written forms through sight”) is not supported by the packet; the source only discusses visual recognition in the specific context of two-character Chinese compound words.; The rest of the definition is more specific to the packet (dual-route mechanism for recognizing two-character Chinese compound words under horizontal/vertical presentation and canonical/jumbled order) and is supported, but the unsupported general first sentence means the overall definition cannot be accepted as supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Hu Axu; Liu Shu; Gu Feng. Dual-route processing of horizontally and vertically jumbled Chinese words: evidence from ND250 and LAN. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873297; article XML SHA-256 f09c7cc94cd08e33e3ffee7b161b1ce92aee7d604bb139a393304d8439cd0ebc. “Dual-route processing of horizontally and vertically jumbled Chinese words: evidence from ND250 and LAN” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873297).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1873297) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- visualization [redraft]: Psychology sense (mental imagery) ignored; defined narrowly as biological imaging from packet. New packet required. Source: [Aleogho Binta Maria; Yokosawa Rikuou; Noma Kentaro. Neuropeptide visualization using split GFP in live C. elegans. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355191; article XML SHA-256 4abfb76cbafacb64334e7d286dcc44fb0e3f58b810bb5bcede7f3ee8e7ebd263. “Neuropeptide visualization using split GFP in live C. elegans” (10.1371/journal.pone.0355191).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355191) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vital functions [redraft]: The definition goes beyond the supplied source by presenting a general biological definition rather than a source-grounded description of the term.; The definition includes “including growth, metabolism, and reproduction,” which is supported, but the additional framing about being “needed for life” and “normal bodily regulation” is not supported by the packet.; The packet does not define “vital functions” as “essential body processes needed for life and normal bodily regulation”; it only states that adenohypophyseal hormones regulate “vital functions such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction.”; The packet supports that growth, metabolism, and reproduction are vital functions regulated by adenohypophyseal hormones, but it does not support the broader definitional claim that vital functions are essential body processes needed for life and normal bodily regulation. New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Pituitary Gland, Anterior” (D010903).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D010903) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- vital statistics [redraft]: The definition claims that vital statistics are “official population records” and “track major life events” (e.g., births and deaths), but the packet only states that the study used “birth and mortality data from the Vital Statistics” without explicitly describing them as official population records or as tracking major life events in general.; The packet shows Vital Statistics were a source of birth and mortality data in Japan, but it does not support the broader definitional claim that they are official population records used to track major life events.; The second sentence adds context about studying infant mortality that is supported only for this study, but it should not be presented as part of the general meaning of the term.; The specific phrase that “they provided birth and mortality data for studying infant mortality” is supported by the packet, but the earlier general characterization (official records/major life events) is not directly supported. New packet required. Source: [Okui Tasuku. Association between infant mortality and parental educational level: An analysis of data from Vital Statistics and Census in Japan. 2023; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0286530; article XML SHA-256 02e9725171029d9a6b3b231295ded3a299d21b9f47d93bd7df7334ec99cee256. “Association between infant mortality and parental educational level: An analysis of data from Vital Statistics and Census in Japan” (10.1371/journal.pone.0286530).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0286530) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vitamin deficiency [redraft]: "Inherited deficiency" is too strong as phrased for the packet’s wording: it says "inborn vitamin deficiency" and most often due to biallelic MMACHC mutations, which is not the same as defining vitamin deficiency itself as inherited.; The packet describes an *inborn cobalamin disorder* (a specific vitamin B12-related condition), not “vitamin deficiency” in general; the definition generalizes the packet’s description to the broader term.; The packet supports a specific inborn cobalamin disorder (vitamin B12 deficiency), not the general term "vitamin deficiency" as such; the definition overgeneralizes a narrow example to the whole term. New packet required. Source: [Dehaene Harmonie; Praz Viviane; Lhôte Philippe; Lopes Maykel; Herr Winship. THAP11 F80L cobalamin disorder-associated mutation reveals normal and pathogenic THAP11 functions in gene expression and cell proliferation. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0224646; article XML SHA-256 1cc9486ab11df03991aea6b271cf1f39327718b4fb74f961b1979e3a08f5c11f. “THAP11 F80L cobalamin disorder-associated mutation reveals normal and pathogenic THAP11 functions in gene expression and cell proliferation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0224646).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224646) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vitreous hemorrhage [redraft]: 'Gel-like material' is an added fact not in the packet. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Vitreous Hemorrhage” (C50469).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vocal cords [redraft]: The definition overstates the packet by presenting the vocal cords as the specific landmark used for tube positioning without noting that the study measures the vocal cords-to-carina distance to calculate safe cuff and tip margins; the packet supports a procedural measurement context, not a general definitional claim about the term.; The provided definition is entirely about airway anatomy and nasotracheal intubation technique (medical procedures/positioning), which is not meaningfully within the specified field of “mental health.”; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: this is an airway/anesthesia context, not a mental health term definition. New packet required. Source: [Kim Hye Jin; Roh Yunho; Yun Soon Young; Park Wyun Kon; Kim Ha Yan; Lee Min Ho; Kim Hyun Joo. Comparison of the selection of nasotracheal tube diameter based on the patient’s sex or size of the nasal airway: A prospective observational study. 2021; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0248296; article XML SHA-256 d6da8b3a33f279885544006136ccb4e9764647cd1fcf15efedd938d9ab9731bb. “Comparison of the selection of nasotracheal tube diameter based on the patient’s sex or size of the nasal airway: A prospective observational study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0248296).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248296) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- voice [redraft]: General headword 'voice' redefined narrowly as tone of voice with hedge. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Autism Spectrum Disorder. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 79ec4251e9cdc3e82ee94b02bff7b0d0bc25fa910edb696f382cecf3bfa43548. “Autism Spectrum Disorder” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/autism-spectrum-disorder).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/autism-spectrum-disorder) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- volition [redraft]: Headword volition redefined as work volition; second sentence is commentary on the packet. New packet required. Source: [Hai Lu; Wang Yang; Shu Man; Zhang Mengxiao; Wang Yijiao. Effect of family support and work resources in the relationship of economic constraints and work volition: Evidence from China. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0310374; article XML SHA-256 c682e9c36319569b9be31a66d1981b5f9b8e0a4f7f9e5000e41466a4eaa72334. “Effect of family support and work resources in the relationship of economic constraints and work volition: Evidence from China” (10.1371/journal.pone.0310374).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0310374) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- voluntary muscle [redraft]: Well-known term (skeletal muscle) redefined as effort-driven activity with hedge. New packet required. Source: [Salomoni Sauro; Tucker Kylie; Hug François; McPhee Megan; Hodges Paul. Reduced Maximal Force during Acute Anterior Knee Pain Is Associated with Deficits in Voluntary Muscle Activation. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0161487; article XML SHA-256 0961082990e9239bc65aac649bf8d0093179559610dcbc796b909f4c5a546f1e. “Reduced Maximal Force during Acute Anterior Knee Pain Is Associated with Deficits in Voluntary Muscle Activation” (10.1371/journal.pone.0161487).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161487) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- voluntary turnover [redraft]: The healthcare impact is supported only in a nursing/healthcare-facility context; the wording broadens this to workers generally and to healthcare settings more broadly than the source states.; The packet does not define voluntary turnover as employees leaving by their own choice, so the opening definitional claim is unsupported from the supplied source alone.; The packet does not state or support the definition’s core sense: that voluntary turnover is turnover that happens “by employees’ own choice.”; While the packet supports negative consequences of turnover (e.g., impact on nurses’ well-being, patient care quality, and healthcare expenditures) and calls voluntary turnover a serious problem, those points do not establish the specific definitional element about choice. New packet required. Source: [Dapilah Emmanuel; Druye Andrews Adjei. Investigating workplace bullying (WPB), intention to quit and depression among nurses in the Upper West Region of Ghana. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0305026; article XML SHA-256 a4fd0efd354f819557dff0051ef24a2c918b4fc736729d00091f97d839000fb1. “Investigating workplace bullying (WPB), intention to quit and depression among nurses in the Upper West Region of Ghana” (10.1371/journal.pone.0305026).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305026) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- volunteerism [redraft]: The definition adds a broader explanatory claim about cultural factors that goes beyond the packet’s wording, which only says cultural factors have received less attention and are often narrowly defined.; The definition adds “while varying across different groups” and links this to “better individual well-being” and “stronger communities,” but the packet only frames these as associations without specifying the scope of evidence; the exact phrasing about outcomes is only partially supported.; The definition’s second sentence states that volunteerism is “shaped by socioeconomic and cultural factors.” The packet only says most existing research has focused on socioeconomic factors and that cultural factors have received less attention; it does not support the stronger causal/shape claim as written.; The packet does not directly define “volunteerism” as “participation in volunteering activities,” so even the first sentence’s wording is not explicitly supported by the supplied text.; The source says participation rates differ across groups and that socioeconomic factors have been studied; it does not state that volunteerism is generally “shaped by socioeconomic and cultural factors.”; The source supports that volunteerism in midlife and later life is linked to improved well-being and stronger communities, but it does not directly define volunteerism as “participation in volunteering activities.” New packet required. Source: [Lai Patrick Ho Lam; White-Saul Briana; Su Chin-Yi; Cao Qiuchang (Katy). Cultural factors in mid- and later life volunteerism in the United States: A scoping review protocol. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0347681; article XML SHA-256 d971fe42cbb5d7f47a90f95d9660a3d98d158957b2b53c00ac5766086df88b6c. “Cultural factors in mid- and later life volunteerism in the United States: A scoping review protocol” (10.1371/journal.pone.0347681).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347681) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vomeronasal system [redraft]: The definition claims the vomeronasal system is a general chemosensory pathway for detecting “socially relevant odor signals,” but the packet only mentions chemosensory signals from unfamiliar males in the context of pregnancy block; it does not describe “socially relevant odor signals” as the system’s role.; The field is not well supported here: the source is about olfactory/neural signaling in mice, not a cognition concept in the usual psychology/counselling sense.; The packet supports pre-implantation pregnancy block and selective gating of male chemosensory information, but it does not support the more general phrasing about "mate-related signals" being selectively suppressed as a defining function of the system.; The packet supports the vomeronasal system as part of a female-mouse pregnancy-block pathway, but not the broad gloss that it is a general chemosensory pathway for detecting socially relevant odor signals.; The remaining claims about female mice are supported in the packet (pre-implantation pregnancy block mediated by the vomeronasal system; selective inhibition of the mate’s pregnancy-blocking chemosignals at the level of the accessory olfactory bulb). New packet required. Source: [Matthews Gillian A.; Patel Ronak; Walsh Alison; Davies Owain; Martínez-Ricós Joana; Brennan Peter A.. Mating Increases Neuronal Tyrosine Hydroxylase Expression and Selectively Gates Transmission of Male Chemosensory Information in Female Mice. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0069943; article XML SHA-256 aa9b3eacce02d1da3f9a21fc7244f6e039d86907a35572747b53bd6fbaf94b11. “Mating Increases Neuronal Tyrosine Hydroxylase Expression and Selectively Gates Transmission of Male Chemosensory Information in Female Mice” (10.1371/journal.pone.0069943).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069943) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vomiting center [redraft]: The packet does not directly define the vomiting center as a brain area involved in producing vomiting; it only says that thiethylperazine decreases stimulation of the vomiting center in the brain.; The packet does not explicitly define the “vomiting center” as a “brain area involved in producing vomiting”; it only states that thiethylperazine decreases “stimulation of the vomiting center.”; The statement that it is stimulated by signals from the medullary chemoreceptor trigger zone is not given as a definition in the packet and is only indirectly implied by the drug mechanism described there.; While the packet mentions the “medullary chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ)” and that thiethylperazine decreases stimulation of the vomiting center via blocking D2 receptors in the CTZ, it does not explicitly describe the vomiting center as being “stimulated by signals” from the CTZ. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Thiethylperazine Maleate” (C29497).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- vowel [redraft]: The definition includes “resonance patterns” and “speaking time,” but the packet only specifies quantification via measures such as formant frequencies, vowel-space area, duration, and variability; resonance patterns and speaking time are not supported by the provided text.; The definition’s phrasing about “a general diagnostic marker for all ASD” is not directly stated in the packet; the packet instead says findings do not support a single uniform acoustic profile across ASD and that vowel-acoustic measures are candidate tools rather than universal biomarkers across ASD. While related, the specific “diagnostic marker” wording is not explicitly supported.; The packet supports vowel-acoustic measures for subgroup characterization, monitoring, and rehabilitation planning, but not a diagnostic marker; the definition adds a diagnosis-oriented claim that is not supported as written.; The source discusses measures of vowel production (formants, vowel-space area, duration, variability), not a dictionary sense of the term "vowel" itself, so the requested sense is not cleanly matched. New packet required. Source: [Chen Yu; Chen Dongfan. Vowel acoustic parameters in speech assessment and rehabilitation of minimally verbal and speech-motor-impaired autistic children: a narrative review. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2026.1752706; article XML SHA-256 7cd23245267e9641a223f0558e963f38feaf36031529b895fb95af10a3dfb8da. “Vowel acoustic parameters in speech assessment and rehabilitation of minimally verbal and speech-motor-impaired autistic children: a narrative review” (10.3389/fnhum.2026.1752706).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2026.1752706) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Vyvanse [redraft]: Brand-name link to lisdexamfetamine is not in the packet; added fact. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Lisdexamfetamine Dimesylate” (C76628).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Wada test [redraft]: The claims about being used in people with epilepsy to determine language and memory lateralization and to estimate postoperative risk are only supported for IPP in this article, not for the Wada test as stated.; The definition presents current clinical use as settled fact, but the packet provides only a study-level description rather than source-supported consensus on the test.; The packet is about intracarotid propofol procedure (IPP) and only says it is similar to the Wada test; it does not directly define the Wada test itself.; The packet text discusses an intracarotid propofol procedure (IPP) and only describes it as “similar to Wada Test”; it does not directly define the Wada test itself or state that the Wada test is used in epilepsy patients for language/memory mapping in general terms.; The “estimate the risk of problems after epilepsy surgery” claim is also made specifically about IPP (“helps to predict who might be at risk for postoperative … deficits”); the packet does not explicitly attribute this risk-estimation use to the Wada test.; The “functional mapping method to help identify lateralization” part is stated for IPP (“offers a functional mapping approach”), not explicitly for the Wada test. New packet required. Source: [Trujillo-Pozo Isabel; Martín-Monzón Isabel; Rodríguez-Romero Rafael. Brain lateralization and neural plasticity for musical and cognitive abilities in an epileptic musician. 2013; DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00829; article XML SHA-256 f57db0a6c61d8793deab57464926e22ff789ff59d68c6d660d2e7a9212ac6a2c. “Brain lateralization and neural plasticity for musical and cognitive abilities in an epileptic musician” (10.3389/fnhum.2013.00829).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00829) ([CC-BY-3.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/))

- warm-up [redraft]: Second sentence describes the study protocol and findings rather than the term. New packet required. Source: [Taghidoust Chahardeh Somayeh; Hosseini Seyyed Hossein; Shamsi Majelan Ali. Acute effects of three warm-up protocols on drop jump biomechanics in elite Taekwondo athletes: An IMU-based analysis. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0351884; article XML SHA-256 d19be29b521e1d2758997783f81918174f34bd236082c3ff27a47fcf9108246d. “Acute effects of three warm-up protocols on drop jump biomechanics in elite Taekwondo athletes: An IMU-based analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0351884).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0351884) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- watershed infarction [redraft]: The definition claims it “has recognized types and subtypes,” which is only indirectly supported; the packet says differences among “different types and subtypes” exist but does not establish that these are definitively “recognized” as types/subtypes in a definitional sense.; The definition states that watershed infarction is “a type of cerebral infarction,” but the provided packet text does not explicitly support that characterization.; The packet supports only the idea that whether different types/subtypes differ in underlying disease process is controversial; it does not provide support for the other substantive parts of the definition (e.g., being a cerebral infarction type).; The packet supports that cerebral watershed infarction has different types and subtypes and that differences in pathogenesis among them are controversial, but it does not support the added claim that these are "recognized" types and subtypes.; The wording also goes beyond the packet by presenting this as a settled definition of watershed infarction being a type of cerebral infarction rather than a limited statement drawn from the source text. New packet required. Source: [Li Yue; Li Man; Zhang Xiaoyu; Yang Shuna; Fan Huimin; Qin Wei; Yang Lei; Yuan Junliang; Hu Wenli. Clinical features and the degree of cerebrovascular stenosis in different types and subtypes of cerebral watershed infarction. 2017; DOI 10.1186/s12883-017-0947-6; article XML SHA-256 c7eda44e9480d4b3e8abbee85955c52fe76367f0b001f772e2129cc012ea1424. “Clinical features and the degree of cerebrovascular stenosis in different types and subtypes of cerebral watershed infarction” (10.1186/s12883-017-0947-6).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-017-0947-6) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- watershed zone [redraft]: Well-known border-zone sense replaced by narrow ECMO sense from packet. New packet required. Source: [Mazzoli Marilena; Gasparotti Emanuele; Vignali Emanuele; Haxhiademi Dorela; Celi Simona. Impact of aortic morphology on VA-ECMO performance: a combined statistical shape modeling and CFD approach. 2025; DOI 10.3389/fbioe.2025.1620897; article XML SHA-256 4dd7c0c09be5c1bed813585d39ab7bb1da0c22a92a2a5d892dbc65e24c6f6b39. “Impact of aortic morphology on VA-ECMO performance: a combined statistical shape modeling and CFD approach” (10.3389/fbioe.2025.1620897).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2025.1620897) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- wavelength [redraft]: General headword redefined as EEG alpha measure with 'in this context' hedge. New packet required. Source: [Zhao Lifang; Zhang Beibei; Zhang Ying; Jiang Nan; Wei Yan; Hao Lijun; Zhang Meiyun. The phase average wavelength of alpha rhythm in EEG signals of patients with Parkinson’s disease combined with cognitive impairment. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0344786; article XML SHA-256 9abb3469b9f08396137950dad90f906f740634b689d89e205d3f0c8142d928c9. “The phase average wavelength of alpha rhythm in EEG signals of patients with Parkinson’s disease combined with cognitive impairment” (10.1371/journal.pone.0344786).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0344786) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- WBIS [redraft]: The packet supports that WBIS-M is the Modified Weight Bias Internalization Scale and that it is a 10-item measure, but it does not explicitly state that the scale “applies negative weight-related stereotypes to themselves.” The packet instead describes internalized weight stigma as “self-stigmatization, leading to self-devaluation,” without specifying “negative weight-related stereotypes.”; The packet supports the Modified Weight Bias Internalization Scale (WBIS-M), but the definition identifies WBIS without the -M; that acronym/sense mismatch is not established by the source.; The phrase “WBIS usually refers to” is not supported by the packet, which only mentions “Modified Weight Bias Internalization Scale (WBIS-M)” in the context of an adaptation/validation study.; The source supports validity/reliability and associations with body dissatisfaction, restrictive/compensatory behaviors, food/weight concerns, binge eating severity, and self-esteem, but it does not support the broader wording about ‘eating-related difficulties’ or ‘poorer body image’ as a general definition of WBIS rather than findings from one study. New packet required. Source: [Sozza Paula Victoria; Penelo Eva; Laus Maria Fernanda; Sánchez-Carracedo David; Almeida Sebastião Sousa; Braga Costa Telma Maria. Adaptation and validation of the modified weight bias internalization scale (WBIS-M) in Brazilian adults. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0328176; article XML SHA-256 26046096c843963f372b8f34f8cede739e1ab74c4e27eece7ae2b8640733026e. “Adaptation and validation of the modified weight bias internalization scale (WBIS-M) in Brazilian adults” (10.1371/journal.pone.0328176).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328176) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Weber–Fechner law [redraft]: The definition adds a general characterization of the Weber–Fechner law as a rule about how responses to sound changes are represented, but the packet only says that temporal representation of echoic memory is non-linear and that the law holds for automatic cortical responses within a suprathreshold range; it does not supply the broader definition.; The definition’s first sentence makes a general claim that Weber–Fechner law is a non-linear rule about “responses to changes in sound” being represented “rather than increasing in a simple one-to-one way,” but the packet only states that “Weber-Fechner law holds” for a specific phenomenon (“automatic cortical response to sound changes within a suprathreshold range”) and does not explicitly support the broader one-to-one comparison.; The definition’s second sentence adds “echoic memory” and “within a suprathreshold range”; while the packet does reference echoic memory and explicitly mentions the suprathreshold range in connection with the Weber–Fechner law application, the overall definition still contains the unsupported generalization from the first sentence.; The phrase “rather than increasing in a simple one-to-one way” is an unsupported elaboration not stated in the source. New packet required. Source: [Inui Koji; Urakawa Tomokazu; Yamashiro Koya; Otsuru Naofumi; Nishihara Makoto; Takeshima Yasuyuki; Keceli Sumru; Kakigi Ryusuke. Non-linear laws of echoic memory and auditory change detection in humans. 2010; DOI 10.1186/1471-2202-11-80; article XML SHA-256 9d9e2d00664de058116896c506fc84f740ec3f2914d00d0676bf4a2056ba0961. “Non-linear laws of echoic memory and auditory change detection in humans” (10.1186/1471-2202-11-80).](https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-11-80) ([CC-BY-2.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/))

- Weber’s law [redraft]: The definition’s claim that Weber’s law is about discrimination depending on “their relative, not absolute, difference” is not explicitly stated in the packet text provided; the packet only mentions that the “Weber fraction remains constant” (and that very high magnitudes can show better-than-predicted performance) without using the relative-vs-absolute phrasing.; The field/cognitive framing is defensible, but the definition should not add unsupported explanatory wording beyond what the source states.; The packet supports the limited-range/near-miss caveat, but it does not explicitly support the definition’s core claim that discrimination depends on relative rather than absolute difference or that the needed proportion stays constant across stimulus magnitudes. New packet required. Source: [Nachev Vladislav; Stich Kai Petra; Winter York. Weber’s Law, the Magnitude Effect and Discrimination of Sugar Concentrations in Nectar-Feeding Animals. 2013; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0074144; article XML SHA-256 e3c62a04e94c7558b8bd5aba505eff455d4e3772ae006a0c4fd3748157b0343b. “Weber’s Law, the Magnitude Effect and Discrimination of Sugar Concentrations in Nectar-Feeding Animals” (10.1371/journal.pone.0074144).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0074144) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Wellbutrin [redraft]: The definition claims that “Wellbutrin is a brand name for bupropion hydrochloride,” but the provided packet text describes bupropion hydrochloride itself and does not explicitly state that Wellbutrin is a brand name.; The packet supports bupropion hydrochloride and its antidepressant/smoking-cessation/sexual-desire-related actions, but it does not state that Wellbutrin is a brand name for bupropion hydrochloride. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Bupropion Hydrochloride” (C1317).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Werner syndrome [redraft]: Second sentence recites mouse-liver ER-stress study findings rather than defining the term. New packet required. Source: [Aumailley Lucie; Roux-Dalvai Florence; Kelly Isabelle; Droit Arnaud; Lebel Michel. Vitamin C alters the amount of specific endoplasmic reticulum associated proteins involved in lipid metabolism in the liver of mice synthesizing a nonfunctional Werner syndrome (Wrn) mutant protein. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0193170; article XML SHA-256 e2be167cfe7139994128dcfa09efaedfcb02092f714390e942b7bcf3352cad3c. “Vitamin C alters the amount of specific endoplasmic reticulum associated proteins involved in lipid metabolism in the liver of mice synthesizing a nonfunctional Werner syndrome (Wrn) mutant protein” (10.1371/journal.pone.0193170).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193170) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- whisker barrel [redraft]: Because the first sentence adds structural/functional characterization (“functional unit…corresponds to whisker input…forms part of the whisker-to-cortex sensory map”) that is not directly supported by the provided packet text, the definition contains unsupported claims.; The definition adds an unsupported claim that a whisker barrel is a “functional unit” in the barrel cortex; the packet only refers to a “whisker-barrel map” and “whisker-barrel function,” not a unit definition.; The packet mentions a “functional whisker-barrel map,” “sharpens,” and “neighboring barrel,” but it does not explicitly state that a “whisker barrel” corresponds to whisker input or that it is a defined “functional unit” associated with whisker input.; The second sentence is interpretive and more specific than the packet’s wording, which only says the map/function is sharpened and maintained by lateral inhibition; it does not define whisker-barrel function as the precision of cortical organization.; “Corresponds to whisker input” and “forms part of the whisker-to-cortex sensory map” go beyond what the packet explicitly supports; the packet discusses sharpening of the whisker-barrel map in the barrel cortex, not a general definition of input correspondence. New packet required. Source: [Nakajima Waki; Jitsuki Susumu; Sano Akane; Takahashi Takuya. Sustained Enhancement of Lateral Inhibitory Circuit Maintains Cross Modal Cortical Reorganization. 2016; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0149068; article XML SHA-256 123361ca6da15fcdf3ada843b02510c9dd6864aefb52d5198427d596f81a2231. “Sustained Enhancement of Lateral Inhibitory Circuit Maintains Cross Modal Cortical Reorganization” (10.1371/journal.pone.0149068).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0149068) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- white light [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported claim that white light is a “standard imaging format”; the source only says the study used white light and narrowband imaging data.; The definition claims “White light … is presented as a standard imaging format”; the packet only states that the study used “white light and narrowband imaging data” and compares them in AI models, but it does not explicitly describe white light as “standard.”; The field specified is “cognition,” but the packet content describes medical imaging/AI detection of esophageal tumors, not cognitive processes.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: the term here refers to an endoscopic imaging modality in a medical article, not a cognition concept. New packet required. Source: [Baik Young Seo; Lee Hannah; Kim Young Jae; Chung Jun-Won; Kim Kwang Gi. Early detection of esophageal cancer: Evaluating AI algorithms with multi-institutional narrowband and white-light imaging data. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0321092; article XML SHA-256 8b576c185b14baca2bc77edc0d86e85ccfac350b356e6dd9d1a563d7e012bc95. “Early detection of esophageal cancer: Evaluating AI algorithms with multi-institutional narrowband and white-light imaging data” (10.1371/journal.pone.0321092).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0321092) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- wife beating [redraft]: The claim that wife beating is a form of violence against women within intimate partner violence is not stated in the packet and goes beyond the supplied text.; The definition’s claim that “wife beating” is “discussed as a form of violence against women within intimate partner violence” is only partially supported by the packet’s general framing of violence against women/IPV and the study’s focus on partner violence; the packet does not clearly connect “wife beating” specifically to IPV in an explicit definitional way.; The packet does not define wife beating as violence by a husband against his wife; it only mentions a study of the “perception of wife-beating.”; The packet text only states that the study examined “perception of wife-beating” alongside measures of intimate partner violence; it does not explicitly define “wife beating” as violence by a husband against his wife (the husband/wife directionality is not directly stated). New packet required. Source: [Srivastava Shobhit; Kumar Pradeep; Muhammad T.; Govindu Manideep; Ali Waad. Dowry demand, perception of wife-beating, decision making power and associated partner violence among married adolescent girls: A cross-sectional analytical study in India. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0312341; article XML SHA-256 8561dcc80c848ec1d3a21eaf058b0bb8312af7f85f9ac2b55d117a1448033b04. “Dowry demand, perception of wife-beating, decision making power and associated partner violence among married adolescent girls: A cross-sectional analytical study in India” (10.1371/journal.pone.0312341).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0312341) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- will to live [redraft]: Only the packet-supported part is that (in Schopenhauer’s pessimistic morality) the “self-annihilation of the will to live” involves the destruction of consciousness, along with that which gives birth to consciousness. The packet does not support the additional claim that the “will to live” means a drive or tendency toward living underlying consciousness.; The packet supports Schopenhauer’s claim that the self-annihilation of the will to live destroys consciousness, but it does not explicitly define the term as a “drive or tendency toward living” or say that it “underlies consciousness.”; The phrase “underlying consciousness” overstates the source’s wording, which says only that consciousness is destroyed along with “that which gives birth to consciousness.” New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Asceticism” (Asceticism (in ethics and philosophy)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/A5defs.htm#Asceticism (in ethics and philosophy)) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- win–stay, lose–shift strategy [redraft]: Because the definition includes an unsupported characterization of outcome valence (favorable vs. unfavorable), the definition as a whole cannot be considered defensibly supported by the packet.; The definition leans on the conventional win–stay/lose–shift meaning rather than the wording actually present in the source packet, so the requested sense is only partially supported by the supplied text.; The packet does not describe the defining contingency “repeat a choice after a favorable result and change it after an unfavorable result,” so that substantive part of the definition is unsupported.; The packet only explicitly supports that the strategy can “take into account…one’s partner’s previous action” and “one’s own previous action,” but it does not provide the favorable/unfavorable win/lose behavior rule requested by the definition.; The packet supports that the strategy uses both a partner’s previous action and one’s own previous action, but it does not explicitly support the added claim that the next choice depends on a previous outcome or that the person repeats after a favorable result and shifts after an unfavorable result. New packet required. Source: [Horita Yutaka. Greater effects of mutual cooperation and defection on subsequent cooperation in direct reciprocity games than generalized reciprocity games: Behavioral experiments and analysis using multilevel models. 2020; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0242607; article XML SHA-256 8a8ff917e245963f672b8aab53eb5e7553cee5422a48bf44dc56c8735dafd3a4. “Greater effects of mutual cooperation and defection on subsequent cooperation in direct reciprocity games than generalized reciprocity games: Behavioral experiments and analysis using multilevel models” (10.1371/journal.pone.0242607).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242607) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- withdrawal reflex [redraft]: The packet supports a diagnostic assessment related to a withdrawal response, not the reflex itself; the definition shifts the sense from 'assessment of an involuntary response' to the response/reflex. ; The supplied packet characterizes “withdrawal reflex” as an **assessment** (“An assessment of an involuntary response…”; semantic type: “Diagnostic Procedure”), while the provided field is **cognition**, which is not supported by the packet.; The term is placed in the cognition field, but the packet describes a Diagnostic Procedure ('Nociceptive Reflex Assessment'), so the field/sense pairing is not well supported. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Nociceptive Reflex Assessment” (C226163).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- word of mouth [redraft]: 'Word of mouth' means spoken communication; defining it as instruction narrows the headword via 'in this context'. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Catechetical Method (in education)” (Catechetical Method (in education)).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C1defs.htm#Catechetical Method (in education)) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- word-recognition skills [redraft]: The definition adds an explanatory characterization that is not stated in the packet and is therefore unsupported.; The first sentence contains general explanatory wording that is not supported by the packet text supplied.; The packet does not define “word-recognition skills” or describe them as “reading-related abilities involved in identifying words.”; The packet supports that word recognition skills were studied in young children alongside pre-reading skills, but it does not define word-recognition skills as reading-related abilities for identifying words.; The provided definition’s framing (“aspect of early academic learning studied alongside pre-reading skills in young children”) is only partially supported: the packet mentions studying “early pre-reading and word recognition skills in children,” but does not clearly present “word-recognition skills” as “an aspect of early academic learning” or specify how the term is characterized beyond being an outcome/target. New packet required. Source: [Gejl Anne Kær; Malling Anne Sofie Bøgh; Damsgaard Linn; Veber-Nielsen Anne-Mette; Wienecke Jacob. Motor-enriched learning for improving pre-reading and word recognition skills in preschool children aged 5–6 years – study protocol for the PLAYMORE randomized controlled trial. 2021; DOI 10.1186/s12887-020-02430-0; article XML SHA-256 a874c0888449ddbe3270fd75dba08e7fd7a4dc92434c2a6162db1238f8f9a2cd. “Motor-enriched learning for improving pre-reading and word recognition skills in preschool children aged 5–6 years – study protocol for the PLAYMORE randomized controlled trial” (10.1186/s12887-020-02430-0).](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-020-02430-0) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- work motivation [redraft]: The definition’s specific framing of work motivation as including “staying engaged in their work” is not directly supported as a definition in the provided text (only an association with engagement is stated).; The packet does not define “work motivation” as “the drive or willingness a person has” and does not explicitly state that motivation is “to stay engaged”; it only says lecturers’ work motivation is “critical to their engagement in teaching [and] academic research.”; The packet supports that lecturers’ work motivation is linked to engagement in teaching, research, and institutional development, but it does not define work motivation as a person’s general “drive or willingness” to do job activities.; The university duties listed in the definition are broadly supported, but the definition adds an unsupported general sense of sustained engagement that is not explicitly defined in the packet.; While the listed university duties (teaching, research, academic advising, curriculum development, and service to the institution) are supported in the packet, the definitional wording in the first sentence is not fully supported by the packet. New packet required. Source: [Zhao Xiangge; Wider Walton; Zhang Xinxin; Fauzi Muhammad Ashraf; Wong Chee Hoo; Jiang Leilei; Udang Lester Naces. Triggering Chinese lecturers’ intrinsic work motivation by value-based leadership and growth mindset: Generation difference by using multigroup analysis. 2024; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0297791; article XML SHA-256 c476484e3c79e3a1307fb6bfd589a3dc6c1979a236c4310f61b0c78fa5984b60. “Triggering Chinese lecturers’ intrinsic work motivation by value-based leadership and growth mindset: Generation difference by using multigroup analysis” (10.1371/journal.pone.0297791).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0297791) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- work [redraft]: The definition generalizes from ADHD to “mental health symptoms” overall; the source packet only discusses ADHD symptoms.; The packet does not mention “manages responsibilities at work,” so that wording is not supported by the provided text.; The packet supports interference with “school or work performance,” but not the broader claim that work means a person’s general “job-related functioning or performance in daily life.”; The packet supports that symptoms can interfere with “work performance” as part of daily life, but it does not define “work” as “a person’s job-related functioning,” so the definition’s first clause is not directly supported. New packet required. Source: [National Institute of Mental Health. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know. HTML publication snapshot 2026-10-18; SHA-256 0b516be887dc405542437e91764765e37c105ae98c1d697b1789447654440453. “Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know” (https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-what-you-need-to-know).](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-what-you-need-to-know) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nimh.nih.gov/site-info/policies))

- workflow integration [redraft]: The definition frames “workflow integration” as evaluating AI beyond “prediction accuracy,” but the packet broadly contrasts study priorities (including “workflow integration”) without stating that workflow integration specifically means evaluation beyond prediction accuracy.; The definition slightly overgeneralizes beyond the source by framing the concept as a general fit with “real-world practice” rather than the article’s specific point about perioperative AI evaluation within clinical workflows and deployment-grade requirements.; The definition’s wording about “how well it works within everyday clinical processes” and “supports human decision-making” is only indirectly related; the packet discusses evaluating perioperative AI as an intervention and includes requirements like “human-in-the-loop design,” but it does not clearly define workflow integration in those terms.; The field is not well supported by the packet: the source is about perioperative clinical AI and workflow integration, not a psychology/learning sense of the term.; The packet does not provide an explicit definition of “workflow integration” as an “extent to which a tool or system fits into real-world practice” or as enabling “routine decisions and actions.” New packet required. Source: [Elmaleh Yoann; Guessous Karim; Delvaux Bernard Victor. Precision perioperative AI: from signals, images, and records to applications in anesthesia-a narrative mini-review proposing an operational framework. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fmed.2026.1811197; article XML SHA-256 dd31788dd643dc88fdc6b2baca884a4b8266c7239e98f122a6a1b6811898e2a5. “Precision perioperative AI: from signals, images, and records to applications in anesthesia-a narrative mini-review proposing an operational framework” (10.3389/fmed.2026.1811197).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2026.1811197) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- working backward [redraft]: Headword is a general heuristic; definition smuggles Ward's one quoted phrase onto it via 'in this historical usage'. New packet required. Source: [Baldwin Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 1901. 1901 New York Macmillan original; archive index checked 2026-10-18. “Continuum” (Continuum).](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/defs/C4defs.htm#Continuum) ([public-domain-US](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Baldwin/Dictionary/))

- Working Memory Index [redraft]: The claim that it can be used to compare relative strengths and weaknesses in cognitive functioning across individuals or groups is broader than what the packet supports; the article says the study compared cognitive profiles and index scores in men with ASD and ADHD, not that this is the general purpose or validated use of the index.; The packet does not define Working Memory Index as a WAIS index score that represents working memory within an individual’s overall cognitive profile; it only reports that the study compared WAIS index scores, including Working Memory Index, between groups.; The packet does not define “Working Memory Index” as an index that “represents working memory as part of a person’s overall cognitive profile.” It only states that the study compared “Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale index scores” including the Working Memory Index.; The packet does not support the claim that the Working Memory Index “can be used to compare relative strengths and weaknesses in cognitive functioning across individuals or groups.” The text only reports group comparisons in this specific study context (ASD vs ADHD men) without establishing a general use statement. New packet required. Source: [Doi Hirokazu; Nakamura Yoshifumi; Nakai Ayaka; Kanai Chieko; Ohta Haruhisa. Comparison of cognitive ability and its distribution between men with autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0345522; article XML SHA-256 e1922ad8ddbbaffa46e9fe8712eb2c00918173ce6656c1e5fa1bf21367a18161. “Comparison of cognitive ability and its distribution between men with autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder” (10.1371/journal.pone.0345522).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0345522) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- work–rest cycle [redraft]: The definition adds explanatory detail that is not stated in the source, so the requested sense is not fully supported by the packet.; The packet does not explicitly define “work–rest cycle” as “the pattern of time spent working and taking breaks during a job,” so that substantive part of the definition is unsupported.; The packet supports that work–rest cycle is an ergonomic factor/intervention related to reducing musculoskeletal risk, but it does not define it as the pattern of time spent working and taking breaks during a job. New packet required. Source: [Hossain Mohammad Didar; Aftab Afzal; Al Imam Mahmudul Hassan; Mahmud Ilias; Chowdhury Imran Ahmed; Kabir Razin Iqbal; Sarker Malabika. Prevalence of work related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) and ergonomic risk assessment among readymade garment workers of Bangladesh: A cross sectional study. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0200122; article XML SHA-256 978012fc8003d34a5666030a322f86580c6c29433fa218cf2888a4125ae40f36. “Prevalence of work related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) and ergonomic risk assessment among readymade garment workers of Bangladesh: A cross sectional study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0200122).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200122) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- workspace [redraft]: General headword redefined as co-working shared space via 'in this context' hedge. New packet required. Source: [Pei Caixia. Psychological contract reconstruction in co-working modes and its impact on organizational commitment: an empirical study. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1677068; article XML SHA-256 a69d993886a22d8aa795b809f81c8b3f779c27652702d6c44a39ddbcd334c835. “Psychological contract reconstruction in co-working modes and its impact on organizational commitment: an empirical study” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1677068).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1677068) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- writing disorder [redraft]: The DSM-5 part of the definition (“grouped within… specific learning disorder… rather than treated as a separate diagnosis”) is supported by the packet’s statement that DSM-5 integrates the various types (including writing disorder) into one single LD category.; The claim that “some classification systems still regard it as a distinct type” is broadly supported by the packet’s statement that ICD-11 adheres to discrete categories, but this does not repair the unsupported “difficulties in written language” wording.; The packet does not explicitly state that “writing disorder… involve[s] difficulties in written language.” It only describes writing disorder as one of the types of specific learning disorders, without defining the nature of the writing-related difficulty in the text provided.; The packet supports that writing disorder is a type of learning disorder and that DSM-5 groups it within a single specific learning disorder category, with ICD-11 still treating LDs as discrete categories. However, it does not explicitly support the added claim that it involves difficulties in written language. New packet required. Source: [Brandenburg Janin; Huschka Sina S.; Visser Linda; Hasselhorn Marcus. Are Different Types of Learning Disorder Associated With Distinct Cognitive Functioning Profiles?. 2021; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.725374; article XML SHA-256 60db64306a8bc96dc3e8158496383f6cb43b110f5b80b65e23d81fee50c438c6. “Are Different Types of Learning Disorder Associated With Distinct Cognitive Functioning Profiles?” (10.3389/fpsyg.2021.725374).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.725374) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- writing test [redraft]: The claim that it “focuses on how capable a person is of modifying and developing writing performance, not just on a single static score” goes beyond the packet; the source mentions learning potential and cognitive modifiability, but not this contrast with a static score or the specific wording about developing writing performance.; The definition’s claim that the test focuses “not just on a single static score” is not explicitly supported in the provided packet text (the packet mentions a learning-potential goal and cognitive modifiability, but does not mention static versus non-static scoring).; The packet supports a computerized and dynamic writing test (TIDE) designed to examine adolescents’ learning potential in narrative writing, but it does not support the broader generic definition of a “writing test” as such. New packet required. Source: [Gurgel Léia G.; de Oliveira Mônica M. C.; Joly Maria C. R. A.; Reppold Caroline T.. Learning Potential in Narrative Writing: Measuring the Psychometric Properties of an Assessment Tool. 2017; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00719; article XML SHA-256 81b2bac2c2403326206d2ac697a348e67eb7928a5612494965e4f9dcd6f2f1d1. “Learning Potential in Narrative Writing: Measuring the Psychometric Properties of an Assessment Tool” (10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00719).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00719) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- xeno- [redraft]: Because the first substantive sentence about the prefix meaning is unsupported by the provided text, the overall definition is not fully supported.; The definition narrows the source to transplantation of organs from gene-edited pigs into humans, which is a specific application in the article rather than the meaning of the prefix itself.; The packet does not define the prefix “xeno-” in general terms (e.g., as meaning “from a different species”); it only uses the term “xenotransplantation.”; The packet supports that xenotransplantation refers to organ transplants from gene-edited pigs into recipients, but the definition’s claim that this is specifically “in this source, it refers to xenotransplantation” is not directly evidenced as a definition of the prefix itself.; The packet supports xenotransplantation, not a standalone definition of the prefix xeno-. New packet required. Source: [Ata Baris; Montgomery Robert A; Ozyoruk Yucel Naz; Parent Brendan; Schold Jesse D. A data-driven analysis of patient selection for xenotransplant human clinical trials. 2025; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0335767; article XML SHA-256 1b3de03b8c6ab12ee7176f5fa34ed26dd6fd74557537f7d985c15bae1715286e. “A data-driven analysis of patient selection for xenotransplant human clinical trials” (10.1371/journal.pone.0335767).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0335767) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- xerophthalmia [redraft]: The definition is otherwise close to the source text, but the field mismatch is substantive for this dictionary entry.; The requested field is not defensible from the packet: xerophthalmia is a medical eye condition, and the packet does not support presenting it as a mental health term.; The term and definition describe an ophthalmologic/medical eye-surface condition (dryness due to tear/conjunctival deficiency), which is not supported as a mental-health construct within the provided packet (packet does not indicate any mental-health context). New packet required. Source: [U.S. National Library of Medicine. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), 2026 descriptor edition. “Xerophthalmia” (D014985).](https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014985) ([public-domain-US-government](https://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/download/terms_and_conditions_mesh.html))

- y-axis [redraft]: General headword narrowed to body-midline reflection line via 'in this context'; not the normal sense. New packet required. Source: [Heirani Moghaddam Sarvenaz; Cressman Erin Krista; Manson Gerome Aleandro. Implicit processes do not contribute to learning to reach in small mirror reversed visuomotor environments. 2026; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0333564; article XML SHA-256 bbd2c3fef6b2e4a2ace293a3b0df29c639e13f476898d6db3662f949e1efe6b8. “Implicit processes do not contribute to learning to reach in small mirror reversed visuomotor environments” (10.1371/journal.pone.0333564).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333564) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- youth culture [redraft]: The definition adds an unsupported general gloss (“the social world of young people, including shared influences that affect how they think and behave”) that is not stated in the packet.; The packet does not define “youth culture” as the “social world of young people” or claim it involves “shared influences that affect how they think and behave,” so that substantive part of the definition is unsupported.; The packet supports only that social media is a pervasive force in youth culture shaping body perception and dietary habits; it does not support using that as a full definition of the term itself.; While the packet states that social media is a “pervasive force in youth culture” shaping “body perception and dietary habits,” the definition adds additional general framing (“including shared influences…”) not supported by the provided text. New packet required. Source: [Yu Wei; Cui Liwen; Liu Changli; Wang Jian; Li Jianye; Lipowski Mariusz. Social media use and disordered eating in young adults: the protective and risk pathways of physical activity and body image. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1699756; article XML SHA-256 16ff29c9acf9186cf38b968fc23e4201aabaa81194b838a31a263937cc21b2fd. “Social media use and disordered eating in young adults: the protective and risk pathways of physical activity and body image” (10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1699756).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1699756) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Zeitgeist [redraft]: The added claim that it refers here to a shared cultural influence shaping what people in trance or altered states express goes beyond the passage; the text only says James wonders whether sub-conscious selves may be susceptible to a stratum of the Zeitgeist, not that this is established or that it explains trance content.; The definition’s first claim (“general spirit or prevailing outlook of a particular time”) is not explicitly supported by the packet text; the packet uses “Zeitgeist” without giving a definition for the term.; The packet does not provide enough basis to support the specific characterization of the term as “prevailing outlook” for a “particular time,” beyond its use in the spiritualist/trance discussion.; The packet only uses “Zeitgeist” once in a speculative phrase (“a certain stratum of the Zeitgeist”) and does not support the broad dictionary gloss “general spirit or prevailing outlook of a particular time.”; The second sentence’s clarification (“shared cultural influence… shape what people in trance or altered states express”) is only partially supported: the packet says secondary selves get inspiration from a “stratum of the _Zeitgeist_,” but it does not explicitly frame this as a “shared cultural influence” nor connect it directly and clearly to “what people in trance… express.” New packet required. Source: [William James, Principles of Psychology, volume 1. 1890 original; Gutenberg ebook 57628; snapshot required. “William James, The Principles of Psychology, volume 1, 1890” (fca72454f1995c69b072).](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628.txt.utf-8) ([public-domain-US](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57628))

- zero-sum game [redraft]: Defines the belief measured by the BZSG scale, not the headword 'zero-sum game' itself. New packet required. Source: [Różycka-Tran Joanna; Alessandri Guido; Jurek Paweł; Olech Michał. A test of construct isomorphism of the Belief in a Zero-Sum Game scale: A multilevel 43-nation study. 2018; DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0203196; article XML SHA-256 3490a6853801e5a50a7636031b18eaabefdbf3ba9487a75a1a1a1aeffee28e5a. “A test of construct isomorphism of the Belief in a Zero-Sum Game scale: A multilevel 43-nation study” (10.1371/journal.pone.0203196).](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203196) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- zone of proximal development [redraft]: The definition is more expansive than the supplied source and blends in dynamic assessment language that is not itself the definition of the zone of proximal development.; The definition’s contrast—“guided help rather than independent performance alone”—is not supported anywhere in the packet text.; The packet states that dynamic assessment “evaluates learners' developmental potential through mediated support within the zone of proximal development (ZPD),” but it does not define ZPD as “the range in which a learner’s growth can be evaluated and supported.”; The packet supports ZPD as a Vygotskian concept tied to mediated support and developmental potential, but it does not explicitly define it as a range in which growth is evaluated or as something contrasted with independent performance alone.; While the packet mentions “mediated support,” it does not explicitly link ZPD to “assistance or scaffolding” in the way the definition phrases it (i.e., that developmental potential becomes visible specifically when assistance/scaffolding is provided).; “Assistance or scaffolding” and “becomes visible” go beyond the packet’s wording; the packet only says developmental potential is evaluated through mediated support within the ZPD. New packet required. Source: [Ding Chaofeng; Li Xiaoyan. A mixed-methods study on the interplay between AI-assisted dynamic assessment, reading comprehension, and psychological adaptivity. 2026; DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798029; article XML SHA-256 74b4d1f659645cada98d2414da4ef924f97c4ce1d1b2537019541cdb2d17b354. “A mixed-methods study on the interplay between AI-assisted dynamic assessment, reading comprehension, and psychological adaptivity” (10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798029).](https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1798029) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))

- Zyprexa [redraft]: Packet never mentions Zyprexa; brand-name identification is an added fact. New packet required. Source: [NCI Thesaurus. Flat export snapshot 2026-10-18. “Olanzapine” (C47639).](https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/NCI_Thesaurus/Thesaurus.FLAT.zip) ([CC-BY-4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/))